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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..625a119 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52085 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52085) diff --git a/old/52085-0.txt b/old/52085-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7ca911e..0000000 --- a/old/52085-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6004 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Half Hours With the Lower Animals, by -Charles Frederick Holder - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Half Hours With the Lower Animals - Protozoans, Sponges, Corals, Shells, Insects, and Crustaceans - -Author: Charles Frederick Holder - -Release Date: May 16, 2016 [EBook #52085] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HALF HOURS WITH THE LOWER ANIMALS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Christopher Wright and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - HALF HOURS WITH - THE LOWER ANIMALS - - PROTOZOANS, SPONGES, CORALS, SHELLS - INSECTS, AND CRUSTACEANS - - BY - - CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER - - AUTHOR OF "ELEMENTS OF ZOÖLOGY," "STORIES OF ANIMAL LIFE," - "LIFE OF LOUIS AGASSIZ," ETC. - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK á … CINCINNATI á … CHICAGO - AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY - CHARLES F. HOLDER. - - ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. - - LOWER ANIMALS. - - W. P. 2 - - - - -PREFACE - - -At the present day education is not complete without definite courses -of nature study. We are living in an age of strenuous business life -and activity, where the best equipped students along the various -lines secure the best positions. Time was when zoölogy, botany, and -kindred nature studies were classed with music and the so-called dead -languages, and were taken up as incidentals or were employed in "mind -training"; but to-day there are a thousand branches of trade and -commerce which require knowledge that can be obtained only through -nature study. - -It is not necessary that the student, unless he intends to be a -teacher of science or a professional naturalist, should be able to -pass examinations in the abstruse classification of animals or delve -into difficult anatomical studies. What the average student needs is a -broad and general idea of animal life, its great divisions, and notably -the relationship of the lower animals to man in an economic sense, the -geographical distribution of animals, etc. It is vastly more important -for the coming lumber merchant to know the relationship which forests -bear to the water supply, and to have a general idea of forestry and -the trees which make forests, than to be able to recite a long formula -of classification or analysis, of value only to the advanced student or -specialist. The future merchant who is to deal in alpaca, leather, dye, -skins, hair, bone products, shell, pearl, lac, animal food products, -ivory, whalebone, guano, feathers, and countless other articles derived -from animals is but poorly equipped for the struggle for business -supremacy if he is not prepared by nature study, nature readings, and -other practical instruction along these lines. - -It is believed to-day by those who have given the subject the closest -attention that the initial move of the teacher should be to call the -attention of the child to the beauties of nature, the works of the -Infinite, and thus early inculcate a habit of observation. The toys of -the kindergarten should be fruits, flowers, shrubs, trees, pebbles, and -vistas of mountains, hills, lakes, and streams, and nature study in -some form should be continuous in school life. - -In the following readings the story of lower animal life has been -presented on broad lines, divested of technicality, and at almost -every step supplemented by forceful and explanatory illustrations as -ocular aids to the reader. The subject has been divested of dry detail, -and I have introduced notes and incidents, the results of personal -observation and investigation in various lands and seas, and have given -attention to the often neglected fauna of the Pacific coast as well as -that of other regions. - -While the volume is a supplementary reader, the matter is so arranged -that it can be used by the teacher as a text-book, and the pupil -who undertakes the various "half-hour readings" of this series -will have covered in the main the ground of the ordinary text-book -for intermediate grades in the form of readings. In a word, I -have endeavored to make this volume a popular combined review and -supplemental reader on the lower forms of animal life from the AmÅ“ba -to the insects inclusive, and the series to follow will present the -entire subject of animal life or zoölogy, voluminously illustrated, on -a similar plan. - - CHARLES F. HOLDER. - - PASADENA, CALIFORNIA. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. INHABITANTS OF A DROP OF WATER 7 - - II. THE SPONGES 18 - - III. THE JELLYFISHES 26 - - IV. THE SEA ANEMONES 38 - - V. THE CORALS 44 - - VI. THE STONE LILIES 56 - - VII. THE STARS OF THE SEA 60 - - VIII. OCEAN HEDGEHOGS 65 - - IX. THE SEA CUCUMBERS 70 - - X. THE WORMS 73 - - XI. THE TWO-VALVED SHELLS 89 - - XII. THE UNIVALVES 103 - - XIII. THE CUTTLEFISHES 117 - - XIV. THE CRUSTACEANS 128 - - XV. FROM BARNACLES TO LOBSTERS 134 - - XVI. THE CRABS 145 - - XVII. LUMINOUS CRABS 156 - - XVIII. THE INSECTS 159 - - XIX. LOWER FORMS OF INSECTS 164 - - XX. THE SPIDERS 168 - - XXI. SOME SIX-LEGGED INSECTS 178 - - XXII. SOME MIMICS 186 - - XXIII. THE GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS 190 - - XXIV. THE BEETLES 195 - - XXV. THE BUGS 199 - - XXVI. FLIES AND MOSQUITOES 204 - - XXVII. THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 212 - - XXVIII. THE ANTS 222 - - XXIX. THE BEES AND WASPS 228 - - INDEX 233 - - - - -HALF HOURS WITH - -THE LOWER ANIMALS - -PROTOZOANS, SPONGES, CORALS, SHELLS, INSECTS, AND CRUSTACEANS - - - - -I. INHABITANTS OF A DROP OF WATER - - -The most unobserving stroller through the forest or by the seashore can -not fail to be impressed by the abundance and variety of animal life; -yet the forms visible to the naked eye really constitute but a fraction -of the vast horde which makes up what we call life. - -In the year 1901 a strange phenomenon appeared off the coast of -southern California. The ocean assumed a reddish muddy hue which was -traced for four hundred miles up the coast and from one to twenty miles -offshore; hence, at a conservative estimate, the reddish color occupied -a space of ten thousand square miles. At night it assumed a greenish -light, and when the wind rose and formed whitecaps, each became a blaze -of light, and the ocean as far as the eye could reach was converted -into a mass of seeming flame. The sands of the beach gave out flashes -of light when touched; the footsteps of dog or man on the sands left -an imprint of vivid light, and figures made on the sands with a finger -or stick stood out in lines of light. Ten thousand square miles of -phosphorescent light; ten thousand square miles of living beings, each -so minute that it was almost if not quite invisible to the human eye. -Who could estimate the individuals in one square mile, one square foot, -or even a drop of this reddish water? This illustrates the fact that -the greater number of the earth's population are unseen, even though -not invisible to the unaided eye. - -These minute animals are as interesting as the larger forms. Equipped -with a microscope, we are prepared to explore the regions in which they -live and observe their habits. A favorite hunting ground for this small -game is some long-standing water in which plants have been growing. -Placing some of this, with the green scraping of the glass, on the -slide, we shall soon make out, moving mysteriously along, something -which resembles the white of an egg, an atom of slime or jelly. Now it -stops and throws out parts of itself which seem to fuse together again; -now it is long, now short and compact, again circular. You almost -believe it is a mere atom of slime, yet it is an animal which eats -and lives its life cycle in a drop of water, one of the lowest of all -animals. - -It is called AmÅ“ba (Fig. 1), and although it is hardly a hundredth of -an inch in diameter, yet if we devote some time to it we shall find -that it is a very remarkable animal. Thus if it wishes to move in -any given direction, a portion of the body becomes a seeming leg and -protrudes in that direction, the rest of the body following, drawn -along in some mysterious manner. If it wishes to eat, it is not obliged -to twist around to bring the food or victims opposite the mouth, as -a mouth forms there and then; the AmÅ“ba merely glides around it and -covers it up. - -We may even notice a difference in the parts. Thus the center calls to -mind ground glass; it is blurred or granular, while around the edges -is a little border which is transparent, like ordinary window glass. -So the AmÅ“ba is a minute mass of jelly inclosed in a layer a little -clearer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_AmÅ“ba proteus_, with the pseudopodia (false -feet) protruded, enlarged 200 diameters (after Leidy): _n_, nucleus; -_c_, contractile vesicle; _v_, one of the larger food-vacuoles; _en_, -the granular endosarc; _ec_, the transparent ectosarc; _a_, cell of -an Alga taken in as food (other cells of the same Alga are obliquely -shaded).] - -Floating in the granular portion is seen a minute round body called the -nucleus, clearer than the fluid in which it rests, and not far away -another clear, circular body, which from time to time contracts or -sometimes disappears in a marvelous fashion, but always returns. This -is called the contracting vesicle, and here our discoveries end, so far -as organs and structure are concerned, as these are nearly all that -have been found; yet the AmÅ“ba eats, doubtless sleeps, and grows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--AmÅ“ba eating: _Pv_, contracting vesicle.] - -We may watch it at its dinner. When a victim is found, an animal -smaller than itself, out shoots a little cape or extension from the -clear rim, creeping slowly up the side of the animal; and if we watch -very closely, we shall see the thicker portion of the AmÅ“ba, that which -calls to mind ground glass, running or flowing into it. Then another -false foot, as it is called, slowly creeps out on the opposite side and -joins its companion, more of the ground-glass matter slides or pours -into this, filling it out, and, presto! the two arms merge one into the -other. The victim has been swallowed and is now being digested (Fig. 2, -_d_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--AmÅ“ba separating.] - -That this minute atom has its likes and dislikes is evident, for if the -food is too large, or not to its taste, it retracts, or even draws away -from it after it has swallowed it. The shells of its victim, if it has -them, are rejected in a manner equally simple; the AmÅ“ba flows away -from them. Jar it with a needle point and it contracts, showing that it -can be irritated. At times the body is seen to divide and two AmÅ“bæ are -formed (Fig. 3), each of which has a separate existence from then on. -Such is one of the lowest of all animals. It is made up of but a single -cell. All the members of the other great branches of the animal kingdom -and the higher plants are made up of many cells; hence we see that the -AmÅ“ba is the simplest and lowest of all animals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Ciliated Infusoria_: _A_, Bursaria; _B_, -Nyctotherus; _C_, Amphileptus; _D_, Ceratium; _E_, Monosiga; _f_, -flagellum; _n_, nucleus; _c_, contractile vesicle.] - -In looking into our drop of water our attention has perhaps been -distracted by other animals. In point of fact, it is very difficult -to keep the eye on this mass of slime in its slow movements, for -about it, over it, and constantly bumping into it are countless other -forms whose motions convey the impression that life to them is very -active. The most numerous are little objects (Fig. 4) resembling hats -or bells, which go rushing along, bumping aimlessly into all others, -and always in a hurry. Around the edge of the bell or hat are numerous -hairs (cilia) which are really locomotive organs by which the little -animals whirl themselves along. Near them we see numbers of similar -objects, each one forming the cup of a seeming flower, each having a -long stem. These are Bell Animalcules (Fig. 5) or Vorticellæ, among the -most beautiful and graceful of all the minute animals, but much higher -in the scale of life, as they have a permanent mouth and form. Among -them, swimming rapidly, comes a giant by contrast, the ParamÅ“cium (Fig. -6) or Slipper Animalcule, so called from its resemblance to a slipper. -It, too, is a higher form than AmÅ“ba, as it has a permanent shape; yet -in other ways it is as simple as AmÅ“ba. The ParamÅ“cium has a marvelous -array of oars which cover its body. Under the glass they look like -eyelashes or whips, and by their rapid movements they drive the animal -along. On the side is the mouth opening, into which the animal fans -minute animals, and they can be seen swept along by the irresistible -current, caught by the mouth if desirable, or tossed off if not to the -taste of the wonderful living slipper. After glancing at the drop of -water for a few moments the observer is convinced that here is a world -in itself, with a population growing, increasing, developing, devouring -its prey, and in such multitudes that the mind can not grasp the -figures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_A_, Stentor; _B_, Vaginicola; _C_, group of -Vorticellæ; _D_, bud of Vorticella.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ParamÅ“cium: _e_, mouth; _v_, contracting -vacuoles.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Nummulites.] - -If the reader visits Egypt and climbs the pyramids, he will be -impressed by these the greatest works of mankind. If a small portion of -the stone from which they are constructed is placed under the glass, it -will be found in many instances made up almost entirely of beautiful -shells (Fig. 7). These are the shells of an amÅ“ba-like animal known -as a Nummulite, which lived millions of years ago, and whose fossil -remains formed the stone from which the early Egyptians in turn built -the great piles or monuments of their kings. Man is powerful, but in -this instance one of the most insignificant of animals made his work -possible. These shells are of great beauty and variety (Fig. 8). Many -are perforated, and through the minute holes are seen the false feet -of the AmÅ“ba reaching out for food. They illustrate the boundless -resources of nature, and suggest that the very lowest of creatures -are not too insignificant to be dressed in most beautiful garbs, as -all these forms vie with one another in the delicacy of their designs -(Fig. 9) and the grace of their shapes. Some of these shelled forms are -giants two inches across. All these minute shells perform a marvelous -work in building up the crust of the earth, forming the bottom of deep -seas and the platforms of coral reefs. The chalk cliffs of England are -composed of shells of unestimated millions (Fig. 10), which were once -dropped upon the bottom of a deep sea and piled upward until some were -crushed into a shapeless mass of lime, others retained their shapes -(Fig. 11); and all, by some convulsion, were afterward lifted high into -the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Flint-shelled Radiolarian.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Flint-shelled Polycystina.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Foraminifera from Atlantic ooze.] - -The entire ocean is as thickly populated with these atoms as the drop -of fresh water. The shelled forms are as constantly dying, the shells -falling or sinking in a continual rain of shells upon the bottom, -piling up eternally. Who shall estimate their countless numbers? It -is believed that these minute shells are as abundant down to a depth -of six hundred feet as they are at the surface. There are more than -sixteen tons of limy shells floating in the uppermost one hundred -fathoms of every square mile of the ocean. These facts convey an idea -of one way in which the earth is growing--increasing in size but not -in weight, as these delicate creatures merely secrete the carbonate of -lime which forms their shells. They take it from the surrounding water -of which it has been a part. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Section of English chalk cliff. Highly -magnified. Bottom of an ancient sea.] - -It would be of great interest to learn exactly how these humble -creatures take lime from the water and produce shells of such -marvelous beauty: to learn why one is of lime and others, like the -Radiolarians, are of silica; why some live at the surface and are free -swimmers, while others creep about in the ooze. When the deep-sea -explorers first began to dredge, they found over vast areas a peculiar -mud or ooze, and investigation showed that it was formed almost -entirely of the shells of a certain minute shell maker, from which it -was named the Globigerina ooze. Finding these vast banks or beds of mud -at this depth is suggestive that the deepest seas may yet be filled -by the dropping of this invisible rain; but as the average depth of -the ocean is nearly if not quite three miles, many centuries must pass -before this will be accomplished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Noctiluca. Highly magnified.] - -The marvelous phosphorescent light previously described came from a -minute armored form known as Peridinium, but even this is exceeded by -the glories of a little monad called Noctiluca (Fig. 12). It is a giant -of the tribe, and is visible to the naked eye, being almost as large as -the head of a pin, and resembling a currant in shape. It has a single -hairlike organ or lash, supposed to be a locomotive organ, by which it -whirls itself through the water. Of all the light givers of the sea -this is the most common, some of its species being found in every sea, -and where they are, it is necessary only to splash the water to cause -a blaze of light to follow. A French naturalist placed on record the -fact that so brilliant was the light occasioned by this minute organism -in African waters that he read by their light standing on a beach -where a heavy surf came pounding in upon the sand. The light of this -little creature is remarkable not only for its vividness but for its -many different tints. Now it is a fitful vivid green, again the water -is a blaze of yellow light, or orange. At such times, when a ship is -plowing along, the light is so brilliant that the sails and rigging are -brilliantly illumined, casting weird shadows. - -Some Noctilucæ emit a clear blue light, but when the same animal is -disturbed it appears white with green and blue flashes of great beauty -and intensity--a telling illustration of the boundless, and marvelous, -resources of nature. Many interesting experiments have been tried with -these dainty light givers. A tube fifteen millimeters in diameter was -filled with them, and by shaking this novel lamp a printed page was -read a foot distant; yet when a delicate thermometer was thrust into -the fiery mass, the mercury was not affected in the slightest, showing -that here was that wonder of wonders--vivid light without heat--a -secret which man has vainly endeavored to wrest from nature. The vast -number of these minute creatures can be realized when it is said that -the ship _Magenta_ sailed nearly five hundred miles among swarms of -Noctilucæ, which gave splendid displays of phosphorescent light at -night. Sometimes the light emitted was milky white; again it was green, -or blue, the different species possessing different colors. - - - - -II. THE SPONGES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Living sponges.] - -Almost every day, for several years, I devoted one or more hours to the -pastime of floating or drifting over a part of the great coral reef -which constitutes the most westward portion of Florida where it reaches -out in the direction of Yucatan. The islands composing the group are -the Tortugas Keys, and are just above water; indeed some disappeared -when a particularly heavy hurricane came, and in the center of the -island upon which I lived, the water at very high tide appeared above -the surface. - -Among the commonest objects seen on the reef were huge vases (Fig. -13). They were found in water from a foot to fifteen feet or more in -depth, and were attached so strongly to the bottom that it required -considerable strength to lift them up. Some were three feet high, and -I have often dived down to them and for a few seconds sat upon them -as a jest for the edification of my companions in the boat above. A -common name for them on the reef was "Neptune's Seats." The seats were -sponges, and their collection on the Florida reef has for many years -constituted an important industry, vessels being fitted out from Key -West and other places for this purpose. This industry is also followed -in the Mediterranean Sea, where the finest sponges known are found. To -take them, men go out in small boats, and in shallow water bring them -up with hooks. In the greater depths a water box is used, a box with a -glass bottom, which placed over the water makes everything visible, and -by this the sponger secures the sponge. Other collectors, especially -those of Syria, dive for them and wrench them from the bottom, then -ascend to the surface with the load. There are many different kinds -of sponges, those commonly used being divided into grades, from -the delicate face sponge to the coarse specimens used for washing -carriages. Then there are hundreds of kinds of sponges which have no -value but to form veritable mimic forest growths at the bottom of the -sea (Fig. 14). Some grow upon stones or sea mud and are brilliantly -colored; others again are like glass, and all represent one of the -lowest forms of animal life, yet one of the most beautiful, and one -that is very useful. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A sponge (_Ascetta primordialis_): I. _o_, -exhalent opening; _p_, inhalent pores; _g_, ova. Starlike spicules are -seen on the outside. II. Section showing pores (_p_), with cilia of the -cells extending into them. III. Cell showing lash, or cilium. IV. Same, -with lash retracted. V. Embryo of _Ascetta mirabilis_. VI. Section of -embryo.] - -In handling a sponge the most indifferent person has not failed to -observe two peculiarities, one that the sponge is soft, another that -it is filled with holes, small and large, and has a marvelous faculty -of retaining water, in which property lies its value to man. Now if we -take a sponge and cut down through it, making a section, we shall find -that these holes are nothing more or less than doors or mouths which -lead into the interior of the sponge. If we are so fortunate as to -have a live sponge to study, we shall see that water is being forced -through all the small pores and out into the larger ones; and if we -could examine the water, we should see that the water which passed -in, is laden with living creatures which have been described in a -previous chapter, while the water which is discharged contains little -or no living matter. The reader will have suspected what this in-going -and out-coming is. It is the operation of eating on the part of the -sponge, which, while it looks very much like a plant and appears to be -growing from the ground, is an animal, or a community of many cells--a -many-celled animal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Flint spicules highly magnified.] - -In our section of a sponge we may follow the winding channels which -connect one part of the sponge with the other, and we see that the body -is a mass of fibers made up of curious and beautifully shaped objects -called spicules (Fig. 15). The spicules are the bones of sponges, the -hard portion, the framework. In the sponge we find here and there -little oval rooms, and in these are packed, side by side, minute -objects with tails (Fig. 16). Each little cell has its tail upon the -outside, which is really a whip or lash, used for capturing passing -food. In these rooms the cells congregate and are fed by the constant -onward flow of water laden with food. The food is in the shape of -minute animals and plants which these little whips catch as they pass -by. The whips have another purpose; their constant motion serves to -force the water along through the canals, carrying air as well as food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Parts of a sponge (_Grantia_): _B_, cross -section showing pores leading into tubes _C´_; _C_, enlarged tube; _D_, -cells magnified.] - -Some of the sponges have very singular shapes. One is called the finger -sponge, and often takes the form of a hand. Others are very long and -slender (Fig. 17). Some are perfectly round; others creep over stones -and form a brilliant red matting, a charming object in the water. - -The great vase or seat sponges are often the habitations of animals of -various kinds--shrimps, crabs, and fishes. After a hurricane I have -found a windrow of them on the beaches. When the sponge is taken from -the water it is fleshy and seems covered with a reddish colored mass of -jelly, or it is black, brown, or yellow, as the case may be. The sponge -of commerce is the skeleton, the mass of living spicules after all the -animal matter has been removed and the framework, elastic and soft, -thoroughly bleached. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Sponges: _A_, Axinella; _B_, Sycandra.] - -The variety in shape, color, and size in sponges is remarkable and can -not be appreciated until a collection of these lowly animals is seen -with the individuals side by side. In such a collection one sponge, -shown in Figure 18, will attract the observer for its remarkable -beauty; indeed few would consider it anything but a beautiful glass -vase. Some years ago one was brought to England from the South Pacific -and sold for several hundred dollars. It was believed to be the work of -some skilled native artist in glass. But finally some one discovered -that the natives did not make them, but hooked them up from the -bottom of the ocean, when they had no resemblance to the glass vases -of commerce sold for enormous sums under the title of Venus's flower -basket. When first brought up the vase was dark and covered with mud; -then it was found that it was a sponge, and that the so-called glass -was merely the interior, the framework over which was drawn the ugly -exterior animal matter. It is needless to say that the enormous price -of the Venus's flower basket dropped, and it can now be bought for a -few cents. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Skeleton of a sponge.] - -No more beautiful object can be imagined than this sponge, known as -the Euplectella. It has great wisps of glasslike matter at the bottom, -which anchor it in the sand or mud, and the framework appears to rise -upward in whirls, the surface being made up of squares or basket work, -so artificial that it is difficult to believe that it is not of human -make. This vase has a top to it. It is perforated with squares, and -is often a prison for various small animals, as crabs, which have -passed into the interior when very small and which are now too large to -escape, only their claws or feelers being seen protruding through the -little portholes. - -The sponges in their habits show a variety of tastes. Many grow in the -mud, the majority upon rocks. On the New England shores there is one -of a yellowish hue which lives in the sand. It is very light, and the -pores are so fine that the sand does not enter them. After a storm on -Cape Cod thousands are found on the beaches, blown far inshore. Black -and pure white sponges are found in fresh water as well as in salt. -They increase by depositing eggs. In one stage of their development the -young (Fig. 14, V.) are free-swimming animals. - - - - -III. THE JELLYFISHES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A jellyfish (_Pelagia_).] - -Among the most beautiful and fragile of all animals are the singular -forms which we call jellyfishes (Fig. 19). They are so delicate that -we can not lift them, and in many instances they have ninety-five per -cent of water in their composition. They would almost seem to be purely -ornamental did we not know that they fill an important niche in the -hall of nature, constituting almost the sole food of many whales. - -The jellyfishes are found in all waters, salt and even fresh. They -may be seen floating near or at the surface, often in vast numbers. -Sometimes they are found deep in the heart of the upper part of the -ocean, often in such quantities that the water appears to be filled -with their graceful shapes. - -In the Santa Catalina Channel a beautiful lavender-hued form is common, -the water being alive with them at times, and I have seen specimens -with tentacles streaming behind them an estimated length of twenty -feet, the entire animal appearing like a huge comet in the blue sky of -the ocean. Mrs. Agassiz describes a jellyfish called Cyanea which was -six feet across its disk and which had tentacles over one hundred feet -in length. Specimens have been seen in East Indian waters which were -much larger, having an estimated weight of several tons. An English -naturalist describes one which stranded in India and gave out so vivid -a light at night that the natives were afraid to approach it; yet large -as was this monster, a few hours in the sun caused it to disappear or -literally evaporate, water forming so large a part of its make-up. - -In appearance the jellies resemble umbrellas, dinner plates, or -inverted bowls, from which depend streamers or tentacles of various -kinds and shapes, often richly colored, especially the very minute -forms. The mouth is in the center, the eyes are around the edge of -the disk, while the huge tentacles, which can be lifted or lowered as -fancy dictates, are so many fishing lines by which this jelly finds -its food. I have often watched them floating near the surface, the -delicate vermilion-tinted tentacles floating gracefully about, and -serving as so many tempting baits. Should a sardine or other small fish -venture to attack this tempting lure, we can almost imagine it struck -by an electric shock, as it rolls over dead. The secret is very easily -discovered. Lift the tentacles with the hand and a burning sensation -will be experienced, in some cases very painful. The tentacles of the -jellyfish are armed with stings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Lassos or weapons of a jellyfish.] - -The weapons are known as lassos (Fig. 20). Under the microscope the -tentacles appear to be filled with little cells or oblong objects, -which when examined are found to be capsules (_C_) resembling long -glasslike bodies in which is coiled a thread. This latter is a -miniature javelin, and when the tentacle of a jellyfish is seized by a -fish or an enemy, tens of thousands of these cells literally explode -(_D_) and the javelin springs out like a Jack-in-the-box (_A_) and -penetrates the intruder. With many jellyfishes the effect of this -bombardment is a stinging sensation. It paralyzes small fishes which, -when benumbed, are lifted up by the tentacles and eaten. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Jellyfish and young (_Aurelia_).] - -The jellies develop in various ways. In Figure 21 we see a common and -very beautiful form resting on the rocks. Near by are various little -plantlike creatures, the young jellies, which undergo a remarkable -series of changes in their growth from the egg to the adult form. -Minute eggs are deposited in the autumn, which drop into the crevices -of the rocks and soon change to pear-shaped objects which attach -themselves to the bottom. Each little jelly pear (Fig. 22) divides -after a while until it looks like a pile of platters one upon the -other. The upper one dies, and the rest break away, each becoming a -separate jellyfish, which ultimately grows to be a giant. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The development of a jellyfish.] - -The story of the growth and development of these little jellies is one -of the most marvelous pages in the history of nature. In some forms -the father and son are entirely different, and it is only the father -and grandson that resemble each other. Not only this, the father is -a seeming plant, while the son is a free-swimming jellyfish of great -beauty. The seeming plant is in reality a hydroid community. The -buds are immature jellyfishes which finally break away and assume -the typical jellylike form, free swimmers bearing not the slightest -resemblance to the parent. This jelly deposits eggs which attach -themselves to the bottom and become not jellies but the shrublike -form. Hence it is the parent and its grandchildren that bear a close -resemblance to one another. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A large jellyfish (_Cyanea_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Flowerlike jellyfish (_Lucernaria_).] - -No conception of the beauties of the jellyfish can be formed from -pictures, or from the stranded "sunfishes" found along the shore at -low tide. In the water they move along or swim by the slow pumping or -rising and falling of the umbrella or disk, and are of all the colors -of the rainbow. Some, like the dark, lavender-splashed specimens, can -be seen from a long distance, while others are almost invisible, in -fact, are like glass or crystal, and interpose no obstacle to other -forms beyond. The ocean is filled with them; their chaste shapes -presenting one of the most beautiful spectacles to be observed in the -ocean as they drift about. Some are merely great disks towing behind -them enormous masses of pink fluted jelly, as in Figure 23; others are -simple flowerlike forms (Fig. 24). - -If these graceful forms are beautiful during the day, what shall -we say of them at night, when they blaze and glow with marvelous -phosphorescent lights of yellow, green, and gold. Gazing into the -ocean these great jellies appear like comets moving through the clear -atmosphere of the sea. The Cyanea is pale blue. One jelly, called -Melicerta, emits a pale golden radiance, and Rhizostoma (Fig. 25) gives -out a fixed steely blue light. It would be difficult to find one out of -all this marvelous procession of living gems that does not emit a light -more or less peculiarly its own. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Jellyfish (_Rhizostoma_).] - -If this phosphorescence is fascinating as we are drifting over the -scene and the light givers are not alarmed, how much more dazzling is -the display when the sea is beaten into foam. In a certain cave on the -coast of Santa Catalina Island, California, the sea rushes in and, -striking the rocks, rises like a wave of fire and bathes the entire -interior with liquid light which slowly falls in gleaming rivulets to -the sea. - -But the most magnificent display is seen at Point Firmin Light during a -storm. Here stands a lofty rock pillar which has breasted the sea for -ages. At low tide, when a storm sea strikes the ledge, the spray rises -to an altitude of three hundred feet, and spreading as it rises, fairly -fills the air with a gigantic mass of silvery light, that on a dark -night presents an appalling spectacle as it drops, changing its shape -continually. On such nights the line of breakers changes into silvery -flame, while the roar resembles a cannonade, fairly shaking the earth. -In the breakers the jelly light givers are breaking up and adding -fuel to the seeming flame. Some, as Pelagia, are luminous over their -entire surface; in others, the light is confined to certain parts, -which are either fixed or flashing lights. How vivid this light is may -be imagined when it is said that a single jellyfish, Aurelia, when -squeezed into a glass of milk, has produced a light by which a letter -was read. - -This peculiar phosphorescence is not their only interesting feature. -Nearly all the jellies afford protection to fishes, crabs, and various -small animals. As I drifted over the waters of the Gulf of Mexico -almost every large jelly that I examined had one or more little fishes -of the mackerel family up among its lobes or tentacles. As they always -resembled the tentacles in tint or color, a delicate pink, they found -protection amid the death-dealing darts. The most remarkable example of -this strange companionship of dangerous jellies and delicate fishes is -found in the Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war (Fig. 26), one of the -most beautiful of all the animals that make up the group to which the -jellyfishes belong. Physalia is a bubble tinted with purple hues, four -or five inches long--a fairy ship of pearly tints. On its upper portion -is a sail which can be raised and lowered, while from the lower part -depends a mass of beautiful blue or purple tentacles which sometimes -are nearly one hundred feet in length. During the summer of 1902 I -found them on the outer islands of the Texan coast in great numbers, -stranded on the sands, while scores of others sailed on through the -pass into the quiet waters of Aransas Bay. Among the islands of the -Tortugas group I often saw them dotting the calm waters, the sunlight -on their delicate tints presenting beautiful combinations of colors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--The Physalia.] - -It may appear strange that one of the most resplendent of animals -should be the most dangerous, yet such is the case. The attractive -tentacles which drag behind the Physalia are deadly to almost every -fish. I have found a hawkbill turtle weighing twenty pounds caught -and benumbed by one; and fishes which touch the seeming worms roll -over dead, as though stunned by an electric shock. In swimming around -one of the keys of the reef I unwittingly passed over the train of -one, and if I had been alone, I doubt if I could have reached the -shore, so terrible was the burning pain. A year afterward my flesh -had the appearance of having been tattooed in fanciful designs. Yet -despite the deadly nature of this maze of traps and lures, a little -fish lives up among them, and what is more remarkable, is the exact -color of the tentacles, a rich blue. So exact is this resemblance that -it is very difficult to see the little attendants, but if you lift -the dainty man-of-war by its sail, they rush about greatly alarmed by -their exposed condition. I have been told that the Physalia eats these -attendant courtiers, but in hundreds of specimens which I examined -I never saw the little fish in the toils. They swam about among the -death-dealing tentacles with the greatest freedom. The secret of the -poison lies in the lasso cells of the tentacles, as in the case of the -jellyfish, but in this instance they are much more poisonous. Along -the southern beaches, where the Physalia is common, their stranded -hulks form after storms a windrow of mimic balloons which explode like -torpedoes beneath the feet, as one strolls along the sands. - -No branch of the animal kingdom contains more beautiful and radiant -forms than that which includes the Portuguese man-of-war. They are the -fairy crafts of the sea, graceful, seemingly formed of water in some -instances, and nearly all so delicate that they usually drop to pieces -when captured. I have kept all for a brief time in confinement, but few -survived more than a few hours. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Velella.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--_A_, Praya; _n´n´_, mouths; _ss_, swimming -bells. _B_, single polypite (_p_), enlarged.] - -In a tank at Santa Catalina Island I had at one time, besides a -Portuguese man-of-war, the delicate Velella, a raft of sheeny silver -which floated on the surface, having a silvery sail (Fig. 27), beneath -which hung short tentacles of a brilliant hue. More beautiful than -these were the "swimming bells"--strings of beautiful pink and crystal -bells attached to a central cord (Fig. 28). One of these, Praya, -three or four feet long, was a veritable string of little pumps, each -of which pumped water very rapidly, urging the entire animal along. -Each little cup seemed carved in glass and colored by some artist, -so perfect were the tints, so delicate was the design. Many of these -forms could be seen in the ocean only by fitful glances, so delicate -were they. Most beautiful of all these prisoners in the tank was one -called Physophora, or by the Italian fishermen, Boguetti. It had a -central stem like the glass of a thermometer, the bulb being uppermost -and filled with a gas that was almost exact in its resemblance to -mercury. When the bulb was full the animal floated at the surface. I -have watched the animal force the gas down by repeated restrictions of -the tube until it could descend beneath the surface with ease. On the -sides of the central pillar were numbers of beautifully tinted pumps, -the locomotive organs. Underneath was a mass of lacelike tentacles, -richly tinted, purple and vermilion, so Physophora was one of the most -gorgeous objects to be imagined. A unique feature of this animal was -its rapid movements. When it so desired it dashed around the tank with -great velocity, in strange contrast to the labored movements of other -jellylike forms, or the utter and complete helplessness of Physalia, -Velella, or Porpita. These latter were ships at the mercy of every -breeze, the Physalia alone being able to anchor itself on a lea shore, -but always beaten in by the heavy surf. - - - - -IV. THE SEA ANEMONES - - -In the last century many of the animals of the ocean were considered -plants, and the sea anemones, which appear to open and shut like -flowers, were described and painted in verse and prose as the flowers -in the gardens of the sea. The sea anemone, common in almost every -rocky pool, and found everywhere from the rocks bare at low tide to -the greater depths, certainly has a very flowerlike appearance, some -of them resembling a flower without a stem. Petals branch out on every -side. Some are large, some small, and as though to carry out the idea -the anemones are of all possible shapes and colors. Some are vivid red, -others blue, some almost white, others spotted black and white, brown -and barred. Almost every color is seen. Some are tall and slender, five -or six inches high; others are flat. Some live in exposed places, as -the luminous form attached to the shell of a hermit crab in Figure 29. -Others bury themselves in the sand or hide beneath large jellyfishes, -displaying the most remarkable tastes and fancies. Little wonder that -the ancients believed that they were flowers. But touch one, and -presto! it appears to draw within itself, and becomes a mere mound -in place of the gorgeous creature which spread its splendors to the -current. - -The sea anemone is a highly organized animal several degrees above the -jellyfishes in the scale of life, yet a very humble creature after all. -They are tubular in shape, and are attached to the rocks by a sucking -disk which clings so tightly that it is only with great difficulty they -are forced off. Yet they have the power of moving, and slowly, very -slowly, drag themselves along. Some move perhaps three or four inches -a day; but this would be a long journey for many anemones, and the -greatest number are fixed for life and live in crevices in the rocks. -The only one I ever saw actually moving was traveling slowly across the -glass of a tank. As it moved small pieces of the disk appeared to be -torn off and left behind, each of which grew into a perfect sea anemone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Sea anemones--one in the upper right hand -corner is a luminous form on a hermit crab.] - -On the upper portion around the rim are the tentacles, armed with the -same kind of ammunition (Fig. 30) found in the jellyfish, namely, -lassos. In the center is the mouth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Lasso or dart of a sea anemone.] - -We may imagine the anemone feeding, and we may easily see what occurs. -The anemone displays its beautiful flowerlike face; it is spread out, -waiting for prey. A shrimp comes swimming along, and innocently drops -upon the beautiful flower. The moment it touches the attractive arms it -is pierced by the lassos, and unless very vigorous is soon involved. -The arms are thrown over it, the body shrinks, grows perceptibly -smaller, the shrimp is pressed against the mouth, and finally ingulfed, -and the once gorgeous anemone resembles (Fig. 31) a mere mound, a form -which it may retain until the food is digested. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--A sea anemone closed.] - -The structure of this interesting animal may be observed by glancing -at Figure 32. The stomach is placed in the center of the animal, and -is held in position by a number of partitions that are attached to -the side of the anemone. These form little rooms in the body of the -anemone, arranged about the stomach, but not opening into it. Each -room has two windows leading into the room beyond, hence all are -connected, and at the bottom all are connected with the stomach. -Each room connects upward with a tentacle, which is hollow. When the -animal is swallowing, the food passes down and is floated in water -through the various rooms, the hard portions being rejected at the -mouth. The animal has a current of water circulating through it almost -continually, and it is water which, filling them, makes the tentacles -stand upright and firm. Between the bases of the tentacles are the -eyes. When the animal closes up, it forces the water out of its mouth -and is able to shrink to a small and inconspicuous object. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Section of an anemone: _c_, tentacles; _g_, -little rooms; _d_, mouth; _g´_, opening between rooms; _a_, sucking -deck or foot; _e_, stomach.] - -Lowly as are the sea anemones, they often display an amount of -intelligence that few would give them credit for. On the Florida -Reef was a large lagoon, its bottom pure sand, and so light that the -slightest dark object was easily observed. In the sand, buried several -inches deep, lived a large anemone, whose normal hue was a dark brown, -but when expanded was almost the exact color of the sand; not only -this, its tentacles were covered with bits of sand. In a word, the -anemone had disguised itself so that large and threatening fishes would -not see it, as they swam along in search of food. The habit of placing -bits of shells and sand on the tentacles is a common one. I have -noticed it in a sand-living form on the California coast. As the tide -went out and left the anemones dry, they were invariably covered with -sand which adhered to the tentacles as though it had been gummed. To -accomplish this protection from the hot rays of the sun, the anemone -had picked up the atoms of sand with its tentacles and distributed them -over its surface. As there were thousands of pieces, the amount of work -may be imagined. - -Anemones are found in many strange places. One, as we have seen, rides -about upon the back of a hermit crab; another is so often found on the -top of an ordinary crab that it is evidently a habit of the anemone. -The anemone thus travels about with its host and shares its food. In -the Indian Ocean a German naturalist found on every crab of a certain -kind, which he caught, a sea anemone fastened upon the inside of the -large biting claw. Thinking it accidental, he caught a number of crabs, -but nearly all had the small anemone, which was so placed that when the -crab raised its claw to its mouth to eat and tear its food, the sea -anemone was in a position to obtain a full share of the food. Still -thinking that this must be an accident, the naturalist placed a large -number of the crabs bearing the sea anemones in a tank and removed the -anemones with a knife, placing them in the water. The following day -when they were examined every crab had its attendant again upon its -claw. Again the experiment was tried, and again the crabs collected -their curious attendants. The naturalist now cut one of the animals -into several pieces, and even then the crabs attempted to collect them. - -The anemones deposit eggs in vast numbers, which change into strange, -free-swimming animals that finally settle upon the bottom and soon grow -into the adult forms. They have another method of developing. Singular -little "buds" appear on the sides and base of the adult, which soon -resemble the parent. The anemone is very long-lived; specimens have -been kept for nearly a century. They also have a marvelous faculty -for renewing themselves if injured. If one is divided, sometimes two -anemones will be the result, recalling their distant cousin the little -hydra, which when turned inside out receives its food and eats as -though nothing had happened. No amount of mutilating appears to affect -its various portions, as each soon develops into a perfect hydra. - -The sea anemone is a common form of the aquarium. It is easily secured -by those living near the ocean, forming a most interesting pet, taking -food from the hand, and soon proving itself possessed of a remarkable -appetite. The anemones are among the great purifiers of the ocean, -devouring a vast amount of dead matter which might pollute the water, -and continually pumping the water through their systems, sifting out -the animal life, dead or alive. Aside from this, the anemones are -chiefly useful as beautifiers of the ocean. In the Mediterranean Sea -they are sometimes eaten by the Italians and French. Certain fishes and -crustaceans prey upon them. - - - - -V. THE CORALS - - -The real gardens of the sea, the "Gulfs enchanted where the siren -sings and coral reefs lie bare," are in the tropics, where the great -coral reefs extend for miles in countless shapes, forming branches, -heads, fans, and many forms which never fail to delight the eye of the -observer. For many years I lived upon a coral key or island in the -center of a coral reef. The key was half a mile in circuit, and was -made up of coral sand, or sand composed of ground coral and shells. It -was just above the surface, so near that almost anywhere salt water -could be found a few feet below; yet in this sandy soil cocoanuts, -bananas, and other tropical plants grew in profusion. A grove of bay -cedars and mangroves added to its attractiveness and gave it the name -of Garden Key. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Branch coral (reef builder), showing polyps -expanded and withdrawn.] - -The history of this reef is easily told. Ages ago there was no reef. -There was no island, but perhaps a submarine plateau, a long distance -below the surface. It gradually grew by the dropping of the minute -shells described on page 15. After many ages it attained an altitude -which brought its summit within one hundred or two hundred feet of the -surface. Now its growth became more rapid as a new factor came upon the -scene. The reef-building corals do not, as a rule, thrive or grow in -water deeper than two hundred feet, and nearly all prefer water very -much shallower. So, as soon as the submarine hill entered this zone, -the eggs and young of the various reef-building corals (Figs. 33, 37) -obtained a foothold, and the growth was ever upward, countless forms -aiding in it. The lower portion was continually dying, the animals -occupying only the upper story, so that a cap of stone was being formed -on the top of the hill which after many years reached the surface. -The sea now broke up the tips of the branch coral. They became ground -up. A curious seaweed which secreted lime appeared, and this and the -ground coral and shells formed a muddy flat which, aided by various -objects that float upon the ocean, constituted a miniature island. Now -something which resembled a cigar, one end downward, came floating -along. If we could have examined it, curious little rootlets would have -been seen growing from the lower portion. This stranded on the island, -and the little cigar proved to be the seed of the mangrove tree; its -roots grew and caught in the mud, and soon a tree appeared growing on -the new-born island. Its roots presented a base, about which sand and -mud rapidly accumulated, and so the key or island grew until it became -the Garden Key of to-day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Mushroom coral; a single polyp (_Ctenactis_), -one fourth natural size.] - -Such is the history of an ordinary coral island, built up, not by -corals alone, but by countless animals. Even to-day some writers -describe this coral animal as an "insect," but it is an entirely -different animal, being a polyp, so closely related to the anemones -that very few can distinguish between them. For the purpose of -examination we may consider a coral animal as a sea anemone possessing -the faculty of taking lime from the sea water and secreting it in the -little rooms which we have found existing in the anemones (Fig. 32), -there forming a little platform, then partitions or cells, as the case -may be. In Figure 33 is shown a section of branch coral. The starlike -spots are the polyps with their tentacles outspread as in feeding. They -may be considered so many anemones, each resting in a little cell, -and all connected by a common brown or olive-hued tissue. This is a -many-celled coral, while that shown in Figure 34 is an example of a -single-celled coral, a huge anemone with a framework of lime. These -single-celled corals are often found in very deep water. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--A single polyp coral (_Caryophyllia_).] - -In the vicinity of Garden Key on the Florida Reef there are six or -seven keys, each almost surrounded by a deep-blue channel. On the -east a long fringing reef is forming which some day may form an atoll -(Fig. 36). In this lagoon are acres of beautiful branch coral, rising -two or three feet from the bottom in a mass of points almost bare at -low tide, and at the very lowest tides becoming exposed and dying. At -certain places on the edges of channels are vast heads of coral (Fig. -37), some being four feet high and six or seven feet across. Many of -these are hollowed out into great vases and filled with beautiful sea -fans, the Gorgonias, in yellow, lavender, and brown, while in and out -swim fishes of beautiful colors. The surface of these heads is often -dotted with objects which resemble flowers of gorgeous hues, red, blue, -white, and spotted. At the slightest alarm or jar these disappear, -showing themselves merely worms, which have bored into the coral, the -flowerlike petals being the breathing organs. Along the sides of the -channels the groves of branch coral (Fig. 33) dip down, and thirty feet -below the surface the growth is much more vigorous, the branches often -being three or even four feet in length, and resembling the antlers of -the elk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--An atoll.] - -Wishing to see how deep the coral descended, I had a boat held on the -edge of the channel, and taking a heavy stone in my hands allowed -myself to sink. The stone carried me down rapidly for perhaps twenty -feet, until the water was perceptibly colder and the light very dim, -yet as far below me as I could see, the almost perpendicular wall of -coral extended, being in all probability sixty feet in height and -almost vertical. As I swam upward not four feet from the jagged points, -I could plainly see the beautiful coral with parrot fishes garbed in -brilliant tints, poising among the great branches. - -The coral on this reef grows or flourishes more or less in communities. -The great heads are found in groups, the branch coral in plantations, -if the word can be used, in the center of the lagoon and on the edge of -the deep channels. On a shallow point, growing among seaweeds, I found -small heads five or six inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Coral head, with many polyps (_Astræa_).] - -In the surf, where it piled in upon the reef, grew a beautiful form -known as leaf coral, spreading out like the horns of the moose in great -leaflike shapes. This crept near the ground, and was surrounded by its -cousins, the Gorgonias, in lavender and yellow. The whole presented -a beautiful appearance when seen from above through a water glass or -glass-bottomed boat. - -In most of these corals the branches were covered with the small cells -of the coral animal, made up of thousands of individual polyps. Others -again had very minute cells, yet the entire head might weigh a thousand -pounds. Another large head is called brain coral, as the animals are -arranged in deep trenches or convolutions. In the star coral (Astræa, -Fig. 37) the polyps resemble stars and are much larger than those on -other corals. - -Occasionally I have found a branch of coral on which there was, -perhaps, a bunch of eight cells, each half an inch across, the group -resembling a bunch of flowers. These were generally in the deeper -parts of the lagoon, where the water was fifteen or more feet deep, -and therefore out of reach of the coral tongs. I would, therefore, -dive down for it, the coral being distinctly visible in these clear -and limpid waters. This rose coral, as we called it, was the work of -a few polyps. Another kind was very delicate, the polyps being almost -invisible. It was called pepper coral, as when tasted it burned the -tongue violently. Still another, which grew in heads a foot or two -across, had a peculiar habit of floating when free of animal matter. -Large heads, when tossed from the beach where they had drifted, went -sailing away like boats. - -Still another coral has cells at short intervals up the branch; another -is cup-shaped with a single polyp. One of the most remarkable corals -(Fig. 38) has the cells of the polyps arranged after the fashion of -a pipe organ, from which the coral takes its name, while the polyp -itself, when expanded, resembles a daisy. Formerly corals were -supposed to be confined to the warm waters of the tropics, but this is -true only of the reef builders, which require a temperature not lower -than 63°, and are rarely, if ever, found at a greater depth than about -180 feet. Single polyp corals, like Fungia, are found at great depths -in the ocean, and certain corals grow in the Santa Catalina Channel on -the Pacific coast. In the Atlantic, as far north as Long Island Sound, -where the water is often icy cold, is found the beautiful Astrangia, a -coral in which the polyps are pure white and about five one-hundredths -of an inch in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Organ-pipe coral (_Tubipora_): _A_, cell -tubes; _B_, polyp expanded.] - -In a general way we have passed in review some of the typical corals, -and may now glance at their manner of growth. If we cut one of the -cells of a coral across, we shall have a figure similar to that shown -in Figure 39. The white radiating partitions are coral, the black -spaces are rooms, which correspond to the little apartments in the -anemone. The coral develops by eggs and by budding, just as in the case -of its cousin, the anemone. The eggs, after enjoying a free-swimming -life for a while, settle upon the bottom and begin to secrete lime. -They do not build up a house as the mythical "coral insect" is -described as doing, but secrete it much as any animal secretes its -bones or shell. As the water flows through the animal it is enabled to -secrete the lime dissolved in the water. If we could watch every step -of the growing process, we should first see a little platform of lime -attached to the stone or object upon which the young coral animal has -dropped, then a little edge or rim which increases in size daily. Out -from this rim shoot the partitions, as shown in Figure 39. It will -be observed that they do not meet and join, but leave a place in the -center for the stomach. Finally, the cell is completely formed, and -we have a perfect cup of lime, a coral cell in which is ensconced the -anemonelike coral polyp. Its color is an olive brown, and when the -polyp is expanded its little tentacles resemble the petals of a flower. -With these it catches food, which it eats in very much the same way as -do the anemones. If this cup is a branch coral, soon a bud appears -upon the side, and a new cup or cell takes shape. Then another is -added, and we see the coral enlarging, branching out either by budding -or simply dividing until a large branch is the result. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Sections of a coral cell.] - -This growth is much more rapid than is generally supposed. The brain -coral has been known to grow an inch or double its size in a year, -and branch corals grow six or eight inches in this time. The corals -and reefs form the great girders of the globe. The one off Australia -is over a thousand miles in length, and all over the world are found -fossil reefs. Thus in the Helderberg Mountains of New York I have -followed and traced a coral reef, quite as wonderful in its way as -that now growing and reaching out in Florida. By some upheaving of the -earth's surface it has been pushed up into the air, a monument telling -of the wonderful changes in nature and of the time when the waters of -New York were as warm as those of Florida. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Surface of sea fan, enlarged.] - -Side by side with the corals and among the most beautiful objects of -these submarine gardens, we find objects which resemble plumes and -fans (Fig. 41). These are called Gorgonias, and are cousins of the -corals. They resemble fans made up of a fine network or reticulated -surface (Fig. 40). They are richly colored yellow, brown, and lavender, -those of the latter color being particularly beautiful. When there -is a surf they can be seen waving and bending gracefully, like the -limbs of a tree in a gale. One of the best known of this group is the -red coral of commerce, found in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian -Ocean. When alive, the coral base or branch is covered with a crust or -skin in which the animals live, connected one with another. The polyp -stands very high and is white. The crust itself, the solid lime base, -is formed of a number of minute parallel tubes. This coral is dredged -by collectors in the deep water and is scraped and polished until the -beautiful red color, so highly prized for jewelry, is brought out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Sea fan (_Gorgonia_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Sea pen.] - -Closely allied to the corals are the sea pens (Fig. 42) which are -common in almost all waters, and among the most beautiful forms. They -are communities of polyps. In the sea pen the polyps are arranged along -the branches so that a fluffy fan or an ostrich plume is imitated. I -have taken these animals from deep water when they measured perhaps -five inches in length; but an hour later when placed in a tank the -insignificant animal had expanded until it was five times as large, and -beautiful beyond description in its garb of delicate pink. At night it -was a blaze of light which flashed from branch to branch, from polyp to -polyp. When irritated in a perfectly dark room this specimen created so -brilliant a phosphorescent light that I could almost read large print -by it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Veretillum, a wonderful light giver.] - -In the deep sea lives a giant form, the Umbellularia, four or five feet -high; and there are many more, all of which add to the lights of the -deep sea. Near allies of these attractive forms are the comb bearers, -free-swimming, jellylike forms of great beauty and grace. I have kept -the radiant Pleurobrachia in a tank where I observed its wonders and -beauties. The one known as Veretillum (Fig. 43) is very beautiful and a -marvelous light giver. - - - - -VI. THE STONE LILIES - - -A number of years ago I took a number of walking trips over that -section of New York state known as the Catskill Mountain region. The -start was made at the mouth of Catskill Creek, which was followed up -into the mountains until we came to a peculiar light, slate-colored -rock. This rock, where the stream had washed the earth away, was dotted -with little disks (Fig. 44), which being harder than the rock itself -had been weathering, and stood out in high relief. A mile or two from -the river the rocks were covered with these disks, in fact, seemed to -be made up of them. Some were large, some small, as if millions of -pipestems had been cut into sections and scattered about. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Sections of fossil crinoid stems, Catskill -Creek.] - -These disks told an interesting story. We read by them that ages ago -the region now covered by farms and summer resorts was the bottom of -a shallow, tropical sea. We could go further and describe even the -appearance of the bottom of that sea, and what grew and lived there. -Scattered about on the rock were myriads of shells, corals, teeth, fish -bones, and a variety of objects, all the remains of animals which once -lived in this ancient ocean. - -We find that the little disks fit together, and collecting them, pile -them up, forming a stem a foot or more long. Among them we find one -which is attached to a rootlike object, and this is placed at the -bottom. Near by we find a flowerlike or budlike form (Fig 45), which -may well serve as the flower of this stem, and so we add it and produce -a striking resemblance to the crinoid shown in Figure 46. This is an -interesting and beautiful animal which was one of the commonest forms -of the ancient seas. It grew in groves and masses, as we may see by the -vast numbers strewn in the old ocean bed; and when they died, they were -scattered here and there and hardened into the old bed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Fossil crinoid.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A living crinoid (_Pentacrinus_).] - -The crinoids resemble lilies so closely that they are called stone -lilies. They are animals, however, related to the starfishes. They -have a long stem, with rootlike branches to support it, and are capped -with what appears like an inverted starfish, and is literally a -starfish perched upon a stem. Fossil crinoids have long been known, -and beautiful specimens may be seen in all our museums, but the fact -that they still live upon the globe is a modern discovery. It is said -that Agassiz stated that he expected to find them alive off the coast -of Cuba, and when a deep locality was dredged, up came the living -crinoids, or forms almost identical with them. Since then they have -been dredged in great numbers by all the great deep-sea explorers. Some -have long stems, some short. On one, the Comatula, when it is full -grown, the crinoid leaves its stalk, and lives a free, roving life -after the fashion of many starfishes. - -The crinoid, with its long slender stem, its branching tendrils, its -flowerlike top, is one of the most graceful of all animals, as might -be imagined from the drawing. Examine the crinoid as closely as one -may, it still resembles a stone lily, and only its slow movements, -contracting and folding, suggest life. Nevertheless, it is a very -complicated animal. It consists of a central body, protected by -numerous plates, as seen in Figure 46. From the edges extend five, or -often more, branches or arms, and from them in turn branch other arms, -so that the top resembles a feather or brush, from which they are -called feather stars. In the center of the stars is a mouth, food being -caught by the many branching tentacles. The history of the development -of crinoids is very interesting. They pass through several curious -stages in the course of growth from infancy to old age, and some of -the shapes are so curious that no one, not familiar with them, would -suspect that here was a growing crinoid. - - - - -VII. THE STARS OF THE SEA - - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Basket starfish.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Lower surface of starfish (_Goniaster_), -showing suckerlike feet; a slow mover.] - -Beneath almost every rock along the New England coast, and under the -branch coral in the tropics, we may find a typical star-shaped animal, -and by dredging offshore, thousands are brought up, even from very -deep water, showing that the stars of the sea are almost as plentiful -as they appear in the sky above. These starfishes are of all shapes, -kinds, and colors. Some are a foot or more across, huge, domed -fellows with rough backs, showing little if any signs of life (Fig. -48); others have five long legs and a small body (Fig. 49). Others, -again, are perfectly round and have many rays, while some have few -rays which are round, like the body of a snake, and which they whip -and slash about, displaying great activity. Once in reaching beneath -a coral branch to find a certain shell which I knew lived there, my -hand grasped something which felt like a ball of snakes, each of -which closed about it, producing a most disagreeable sensation. I -drew it out and found it was one of the starfishes, common on many -shores as the basket starfish (Fig. 47). As I lifted it up it was a -veritable mass of coiling arms, a Medusa's head of the sea, coiling and -uncoiling. It was merely a starfish in which each arm branches in two -parts, each branching out into two again with the result pictured, a -confused mass of arms. As I lifted my capture above water and it felt -the air it began to shed its arms, so that it fairly rained pieces of -starfish, and before I reached the boat, but a few feet away, all that -remained was the body. My starfish had almost committed suicide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A deep-water starfish (_Ophiocoma_), a rapid -mover.] - -The starfishes are found everywhere in the tropics. Every bunch of -coral contains scores of them. Many resemble spiders, and are a vivid -red hue, others are bronze or brick red, while still others are barred -or spotted, as in Figure 50. They are all interesting creatures, -especially our common Eastern starfish, which is found in little caves -at low tide, clinging to the walls. It is not very attractive in -appearance, and apparently not disconcerted by being left by the tide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A brittle starfish.] - -If we take a common starfish and turn it upon its back, we observe that -the lower portion is covered with short tentacles, each having a little -sucker on the end. These are the feet of the starfish, by which it -walks or moves. In the center of the body is the mouth leading into the -stomach which reaches into each ray. The eyes are at the tip of each -ray. On the back of the star we find a little red disk with a rough -surface. This is really a sieve for straining the water which pours in -through a little canal encircling the mouth and leading off into each -arm, carrying water to each one of the myriads of feet. - -The feet move independently, and the starfish walks much faster than -would be imagined. This can be illustrated by the sudden appearance of -the starfish, in Long Island Sound. One night when the oyster men left -the beds no starfishes were seen. The following day they were there in -such vast quantities that it was estimated they covered the entire bed, -two or three deep, and tens of thousands of dollars were lost by the -destruction of the oysters. - -How an oyster can be opened by a soft, helpless starfish would seem a -mystery; but it is a very easy matter. The starfish drags itself over -the shell and places its mouth at the end, extending its long arms -downward, literally swallowing part of the shell. It is supposed to -eject some secretion into the shell that causes it to open. - - - - -VIII. OCEAN HEDGEHOGS - -(_The Echini_) - - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Sea urchins burrowing in the rocks.] - -On the Florida Reef and off the rocky shores of California one of -the most conspicuous among the rock-living animals is the black, -long-spined Echinus. In the water it looks like a huge pincushion -(Fig. 51) filled with black pins, points outward, and every crack -and crevice is filled with them. When found on the beach, despoiled -of their spines, they resemble bleached shells, and are then known in -Florida as sea eggs (Fig. 52). The long black spines are continually -moving up and down, and constitute the armament of the sea urchin, and -an effective one to all except very large fishes, as some rays, which -have pavementlike teeth fitted particularly for such not especially -dainty morsels. The spines emit a bluish secretion which is left in the -wounds made by them, and is more or less poisonous. This common sea -urchin is a type of hundreds found in almost all seas from very shallow -water to the abysmal regions of the ocean. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sea urchin without its spines.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Short-spined sea urchin, showing the biting -teeth.] - -Some sea urchins have short spines (Fig. 53) and are almost pure white; -some are flat like the sand dollars, the spines feeling like sandpaper, -so short and fine are they. The latter are small, and appear to be -covered with waving filaments. Many have spines like needles; in others -the latter are blunt, clublike organs. Many other strange variations -are seen in an exhibition of the various kinds in some museums. None -are more remarkable than those having five holes through them like -Chinese money (Fig. 54). - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Flat sea urchin, "sand dollar."] - -The urchins are very closely allied to the starfishes, especially in -structure. They have the same kind of feet, and among the spines is -seen a singular handlike organ common to the starfishes. It has three -fingers (Fig. 55) and a short stem, and is constantly in motion, its -office appearing to be to clean the body. Foreign objects are taken up -by this peculiar hand and passed on from one to the other until they -are finally dropped off. Here is the same madreporic plate or sieve, -and the structure of the Echinus (Fig. 56) is very similar to that -of the starfish. The former has a long set of jaws, hence is a biter -and nipper, while the starfish is a sucker. The shell of the Echinus -is really a beautiful object when divested of the spines and bleached -in the sun, appearing as pure white as coral after bleaching. It is -made up of about six hundred hard, limy plates arranged in double -rows, which contain about thirty-seven hundred pores through which the -feet protrude. Despite this marvelous supply of feet, or organs of -locomotion, the Echinus is a very slow walker. The spines number four -thousand or more, and each one works on the ball-and-socket plan, is -hollow, and moves readily in all directions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Handlike organ of sea urchins and starfishes.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Structure of the Echinus: _a_, mouth; _o_, -anus; _c_, stomach; _f_, madreporic plate; _d_, intestine; _p_, -ambulacra; _v_, heart; _z_, spines.] - -The sea urchin is produced from eggs. The young pass through some -remarkable changes before they assume the adult form. In one of these -changes they appear as free-swimming animals (Fig. 57), and resemble -anything but the perfectly developed Echinus. Some of the sea urchins -of deep water, as the Hermiaster and others, carry their young in -pouches, the spines being folded over them to hold them in place. They -rarely move from the crevice on the rock which they select. They can be -found in the same place for months together, and have a limited power -of wearing out the rock. How the Echinus grows inclosed in so hard a -shell might be a puzzle did we not know that the shell is covered with -a skin, each plate being literally surrounded by it. This skin secretes -lime, taking it from the water and depositing it on the edges of all -the plates, so that the animal grows rapidly and symmetrically. The -Echini are the scavengers of the ocean, and they aid in maintaining the -clearness and purity of the water. In some countries certain kinds are -eaten, and one species is valuable for its spines, which are used as -slate pencils. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Young sea urchin.] - - - - -IX. THE SEA CUCUMBERS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Sea cucumber, showing its breathing organs.] - -Once, when poling my boat over the great coral reef of the outer -Florida Keys I came upon a little plot of seaweed in shallow water -which was so covered with huge sea cucumbers (Fig. 58) that it would -have been an easy matter to fill the boat. They were from six to twelve -inches in length, two or three inches across, and bore a striking -resemblance to actual cucumbers. In color they were brown, and when -lifted from the water they slowly moved or twisted, sending out a -stream of water. They might have been made of leather, so far as any -evidence of life was concerned, and were so tough that a spear thrust -into one had to be cut away, so tenacious was the hide of this singular -sluglike animal. Taking a large one from the bottom, I placed it in a -glass jar standing on the deck of my boat, whereupon a very singular -occurrence took place. When the air began to be exhausted in the water -of the glass, out from the sea cucumber came a long, slender fish, so -ghostly and ethereal that when it died, as it did almost immediately, -I placed it upon a piece of newspaper and read print through its body. -The fish was known as Fierasfer, and it lived in the long intestine of -the sea cucumber. Since then the fish has been closely studied in the -Naples Aquarium, where it had the same habit, and where the attendant -naturalists saw the fish come out, and return tail first. - -The great sea cucumber of Florida may be taken as a type of all the -group which differ mainly in size, color, and shape. Some are very -short and have a decided flat lower surface; others are long, fragile, -and easily broken; and many are brilliant in color. Nearly all are -famous for their singular and often beautiful breathing organs which -protrude from the mouth and bear the most remarkable resemblance to -plants. In many specimens of the Atlantic Pentacta (Fig. 58), kept in -an aquarium, this resemblance was very marked, as the animals at once -buried themselves in the sand from which beautiful plants seemingly -grew, being merely the breathing organs of the wily mimic. These organs -vary much in size and beauty. In some species they are very elaborate, -in others they are simple, flowerlike objects. The greatest variation -is found in them. In one which I observed the tentacles resembled small -toadstools. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Anchorlike spicules of Synapta.] - -Many of the sea cucumbers, or holothurians, are very sensitive, and -when captured will often cast off their various organs. This does not -indicate the death of the animal, as they are soon replaced. A singular -trait of the long glasslike Synapta is that of cutting itself in two -when starved. At first an end of the animal is dropped, then another -piece, and this is continued until nothing but the mouth remains, -everything having seemingly been sacrificed to save this portion. If -food is now supplied, this animal will soon recover and assume its -normal condition. - -Synapta has no feet, their place seemingly being taken by peculiar -limy spicules, shaped like anchors (Fig. 59), which are deeply buried -in the skin. In its structure the sea cucumber resembles its cousins -the starfishes and sea urchins, and standing on end, may be compared -to an elongated sea urchin. Nothing can be more uninviting than these -animals, and when dried the flesh has the consistency of leather. Yet -the sea cucumber is highly regarded by the Chinese as a delicacy, and -the Malays have a large fleet engaged in the business of gathering -and preparing them. The animals are collected and dried, then smoked -and packed in bales and sent to China. They may be found in any of -the markets of these people, in San Francisco and New York. About the -Pacific island of Santa Catalina they are very commonly seen through -the bottom of the glass-bottomed boats, lying in the seaweed and -imitating it in color. - - - - -X. THE WORMS - - -Few groups of animals differ so much in general appearance as the -worms. Some resemble miniature snakes; others are flat, some are like -needles, one lives in a cell; another stays in the tissue of some -animal, while certain others infest the soil. Almost everywhere, on -land and in the sea, under nearly all conditions, we shall find these -remarkable creatures, which may be briefly described as animals having -a head, tail, and upper and lower surfaces, and made up of a great many -rings, or segments. In them we find an approach to the higher animals. -Thus they have a heart, with red or green blood, breathing organs, -though many breathe through the body walls, and a nervous system -consisting of a minute brain in the upper portion of the small head. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Development of a planarian worm.] - -All the worms deposit eggs, and nearly all are remarkable for the -wonderful changes through which they pass before they attain maturity. -This is well illustrated in a planarian worm (Fig. 60), which seems -to require the presence of another animal to enable it to complete -its development. The little creature which breaks from the egg (A) -is a free-swimming creature surrounded by cilia or hairlike swimming -organs. By these it moves through the water, and with strange instinct -searches for some animal, generally a snail, which it enters. There it -becomes surrounded by a sack and produces a little creature called the -nurse (_b_), which soon grows to resemble the tadpolelike creature (C), -which is filled with small egglike or germlike objects (_a_). It now -changes into a wormlike creature (D), in which the germs have assumed -the shape of worms (_a_), and soon breaks forth as a little form with a -tadpolelike tail (E)--a remarkable performance. But the end is not yet; -another animal is necessary to complete the change. Swimming about, -the little creature is swallowed by some animal in drinking, and finds -its way to the liver, where it lives, the tail being lost. The animal -now changes into a perfect flukeworm (F), which finally leaves the -animal or host and lays eggs in the water; these pass through the same -wonderful transformation. The flukeworms (Fig. 61) are disagreeable -flat creatures, not often seen, the marine forms attaining large size. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--A flukeworm.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Thorn-headed worm.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Supposed horsehair worm (_Gordius_): _A_, -adult; _B_, young (larva).] - -Many of the worms are parasites living upon other animals. The -thorn-headed worm (Fig. 62) is an example. Who has not heard the -story of the living horsehair? Almost every country newspaper has -told the story, that some farmer after washing his horses had found -several hairs taken from the horse's tail which "were alive," and to -prove the story the farmer produces the "living horsehair" which is a -remarkable imitation of the long hair of a horse's tail. But the hair -is a well-known worm (Fig. 63) called Gordius aquaticus. It is almost -exactly like a horse's hair, two or three feet in length, and found -coiled up in ponds or snugly tucked away in the interior of a beetle -or grasshopper which it has seized upon as a host. The deadly Trichina -spiralis belongs to this group (Fig. 64). If the vinegar bottle is -examined, in what is popularly called the "mother" at the bottom, still -another member of the family will be found. This is a minute round worm -almost invisible to the naked eye. It is very active and disagreeable -to contemplate, living in the sour, fiery liquid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Trichina spiralis_: a deadly worm from pork.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--The rotifer.] - -In this group are many dangerous worms, as the guinea worm of -remarkable length. While nearly all worms are disagreeable creatures, -a few are very beautiful. Such are the rotifers or wheel animalcules -(Fig. 65). These are the smallest and most active of the tribe of -worms. To be found they must be sought in a drop of standing water, and -as they are rarely ever over one thirty-sixth of an inch in length, a -microscope is necessary. Among the throng of wonderful creatures one -will be seen seemingly rolling over and over like a barrel, a minute -whirling Dervish of the water. The rotifers assume a variety of -shapes. One is a typical worm, another darts along by the aid of two -circlets of cilia which vibrate so rapidly that the illusion of rolling -is produced. No more wonderful creatures than these little worms are -known, and they well repay the study required to know them well. Some -of them are fixed and unable to swim, and many of the stories of -spontaneous generation are due to the faculty these minute rotifers -(often but three one hundredths of an inch in length) have of enduring -almost any amount of drying. Thus if a pond is dried up by the sun, -the rotifers seem to be able to lie dormant for a long time, and when -a rain falls in the locality for the first time in years, the pool -is at once peopled with rotifers which awaken from their long sleep. -When it is known that Ehrenberg, the German naturalist, found that a -certain species produced sixteen million young in less than two weeks, -it is easy to understand how quickly a new pond might become rapidly -equipped with a large population. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Polyzoans: 1, colony in plant form; 2, 3, -cells of the worms magnified.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Polyzoan, magnified.] - -It is a singular fact that myriads of worms are seen daily, but are -not known as such. These are the minute and beautiful Polyzoans (Fig. -66). They are marine animals, grow in colonies, and look like delicate -seaweeds. They are often called moss animals. At the seashore we shall -find the rocks and particularly the broad fronds of kelp near shore -often encrusted with a delicate, beautiful tracery of pure white. In -California I have found the kelp leaves at the surface covered with -it, having the appearance of being coated with silver. Beneath the -glass it develops into a beautiful tracery filled with cells. When -magnified these cells are seen to resemble Figure 67, each one having -its worm, which seems to blossom like a flower. These worms are minute -imitators of corals, as they form a corallike structure, the worms -having the faculty of secreting lime, as do the corals, yet they are -much higher in the scale of life. One of the common seaweeds of the -seashore is the sea mat or Flustra. No one would suspect it of being -other than a beautiful marine plant with large leaves or branches, and -many a collection of "seaweed," preserved through many years, contains -the Flustra arranged among the real "plants" of the sea. But Flustra -is merely a colony of worms. The minute spots seen upon it when -enlarged beneath a microscope resemble so many cells of carbonate of -lime secreted by the worms of the community or colony. Another species -of Flustra is shown in Figure 68, and a part of the skeleton of the -colony or of each cell is the peculiar bird's head which has a beak. -This beak, even after the death of the worm, is seen to open and shut, -snapping continually, much quicker than the little pincerlike objects -we have seen in the sea urchins. The use of the so-called bird's head -is not well understood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Bird's-head Flustra: 1, Flustra mat, showing -cells; 2, diagram of a single worm (_Polypide_); 3, bird's-head -process.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Sea mat: 1, sea mat, natural size; 2, 3, -section of the animal much enlarged.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Lingula.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Lamp shells, showing gills.] - -This Flustra (Fig. 69) is very beautiful, forming a delicate little -plantlike form about an inch and a half in size. But the crowning -glory of these worms, as shown in the figure, is the circular crown -of tentacles by which food is grasped as it passes by. Any one who -has collected fossils in what is known as the Trenton limestone is -familiar with the little fossil shell called Lingula, of which two -thousand species are known. Curiously enough this little shell has -come down to us to-day, and in Figure 70 we see the living Lingula of -our waters with its long stem by which it fastens itself in the sand. -Lingula resembles a small clam shell, has two perfect shells, and -probably holds a place in many collections as a shell; yet Lingula is -a worm which secretes a two-valved, unhinged shell, that is an almost -perfect imitation of a bivalve mollusk. In the Santa Catalina Channel, -California, from water six hundred feet in depth, I have dredged shells -resembling those in Figure 71. They hung upon rocks in clusters, and -were very striking in their rich colors of yellow, red, etc. In shape -these Terebratulas, also common among the fossil shells, resemble -ancient Roman lamps, and hence are called lamp shells. They too are -worms, however, and many more shell makers called brachiopods. The -"wick," a muscular stalk or byssus, becomes firmly attached to some -object at the bottom. But in the instance of the little Lingula the -stalk or anchor rope merely passes between the curious shells. If the -latter are opened, we find a singular bridge or limy framework which is -intended to support the soft parts of the bridge, a very conspicuous -feature of which are what are called arms, long, ribbonlike, fringed -processes (_a_) which are coiled up in the shell and serve as breathing -organs and to obtain food as well. They can be extended some distance -from the shells. The curious frame upon which they rest is well shown -in Figure 72. It is on record that during the Sikh rebellion an entire -English regiment was put to flight by a force of worms. The troops -were marching through a forest when land leeches began to fall from -every branch and leaf, dropping in such vast numbers that the men were -almost crazed by the vicious bloodsuckers; hence they broke and ran for -clear ground, where they could rid themselves of the terrible pests. -Semper, the naturalist, states that he was driven from the forests of -Luzon by these leeches, which fell upon him like dew. The ordinary -leech of commerce (Fig. 73) belongs to this group. It has a sucking -mouth, which bears three teeth. It was once much used by physicians for -bleeding purposes, in fact, the animal derives its name from the fact -that medical men in England were formerly called leeches. The leech -had a high commercial value, over seven million being used in London -in a single year, valued at ten dollars a thousand. Leech raising is a -regular business in Russia, Bohemia, and Hungary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Brachiopod, showing supporting loop.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--The leech of commerce: _a_, anterior sucker; -_b_, posterior sucker; _d_, stomach; _s_, glands of the skin.] - -The best known of all worms, perhaps, because all boys are fond of -fishing, is the angleworm or earthworm (Fig. 74), which can be found -where the earth is rich and moist. This worm is really a beautiful -object, being highly iridescent, flashing a thousand hues in the -sunlight to which it has a decided objection, as the heat soon dries -it up. The ringed or segmented arrangement is easily observed as it -moves along. By this marvelous arrangement a worm can either stretch -itself out to an inordinate length, or telescope itself until it can -hardly be recognized as a worm. There are several interesting features -about earthworms which ordinarily escape the notice of even the angler. -One is its feet, which differ from those of any other animal. They are -very minute, and are bristles, each segment or ring being supplied with -four. Another peculiarity of the earthworm is that instead of hunting -out food in the earth it swallows the earth as it meets it, allowing -the animal matter to be absorbed within. It then casts up the earth, -which are the little mounds of mold found in the grass or turf every -morning. This habit has made the worm a valuable aid to the farmer in -preparing the soil, filling it with tunnels and constantly bringing new -earth to the surface and turning it over. The amount of earth moved -in this way was made a special study by Charles Darwin. In the year -1842 he spread a field with broken chalk, and after twenty-nine years -examined it and found that the chalk in that time had been buried seven -inches by the worms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Earthworm: _c_, egg; _d_, young escaping from -egg.] - -This gives us some idea of how important a factor these humble -creatures are, working mainly at night, in burying the works of man. -It is evident that in two or three centuries portions of buildings -could be concealed. In England numbers of ancient Roman villas have -been discovered, beautiful floors and foundations of ancient buildings -which have been lost to sight by being covered by these night workers. -To give an adequate idea of the work they accomplish, Darwin says -that the amount of vegetable mold brought to the surface in a single -year amounts to ten tons to a single acre. They rarely descend below -six feet, and Darwin estimated that in favorable localities there are -100,000 in every acre. In New Zealand 348,480 have been found in a very -rich acre. The worms eat the earth, and drag leaves and soft twigs into -their holes at night. They plant seeds and bury stones. Some of the -casts of giant worms of India are a foot in length. They live entirely -beneath the ground, lining their burrows with very soft fine earth, -which appears to be powdered for the purpose. All their operations are -carried on at night, when they come to the surface and eject the casts. -They have a habit of lying near the surface at the entrance of their -burrows, a fact which the birds have discovered, robins and mocking -birds particularly being very clever in hunting them out. - -One of the most remarkable features of these worms is their -phosphorescence, which I have found is more brilliant than that emitted -by any other animal. Crossing an orange grove in southern California -one dark and rainy night in January, I stumbled over a clod of earth, -and if I had kicked a mass of live coals, the result could not have -been more marked, as flashes of vivid light darted in every direction -with the earth, caused by several earthworms which had exuded so -much phosphorescent matter that it had pervaded the entire mass of -surrounding soil. The phenomenon on a small scale can often be seen in -southern California, especially in winter, when the ground is moist and -wet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Marine worm (_Cirratulus_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--A marine worm (_Nereis_).] - -Probably the most beautiful of all worms are those of the sea, the -marine forms found everywhere from the mud banks to the long fronds -of kelp washed by the foaming sea. Perhaps the most gorgeous creature -taken from deep water is Aphrodite, several inches long, an inch -across, and about the size of a mouse. The worms are provided with an -array of iridescent bristles, so beautiful as to appear artificial, -blazing with golden lights. Some of these worms are covered with -strange and brilliantly colored streamers, as Cirratulus (Fig. 75). -Others are long and slender, as Nereis (Fig. 76), a very common form -alongshore. It is sought after by fishes with good appetites, and often -caught, despite the fact that it has four eyes, four hundred paddles, -and fierce jaws for seizing prey. Nereis lives in the sand in a tunnel. -It has a habit of coming out at night and swimming abroad, when, -creating a blaze of light, it becomes a very conspicuous object and is -quickly caught by some wandering fish. These worms are among the most -brilliant of all light givers; not alone for the intensity of light, -but for its variety in tint and color. The most remarkable light givers -are Polynoë, Syllis, Chætopterus, and Polycirrus. The first-mentioned -emits a green light at the attachment of each scale. In the second the -feet are light givers and emit a blue light. In the third the light -blazes on the back at the tenth joint alone. The last is a worm of -fire, the strange, little understood light blazing over its entire -surface, a vivid blue. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--A tube-secreting worm.] - -I was once sitting on the shore of Avalon Bay in southern California -when, in the darkest corner in the shadow of a high cliff, I saw, two -hundred feet away, what appeared like candle lights floating upon the -surface. Rowing a boat to the lights, I found that each one came from -a spot of phosphorescence floating on the surface. When it moved, as -it often did, phosphorescence streamed away in its wake. When taken -in my hand the latter became bathed with the light which ran from -the invisible animal. I succeeded in capturing one entire light, but -could not make out the animal. Soon I noticed lights upon the bottom -in water five feet deep. They appeared to be as large as saucers, but -grew rapidly in size until they were as large as dinner plates, then -the yellow light gradually diminished until it was not larger than -a hazelnut, and came wriggling upward in a zigzag of fire, finally -reaching the surface and resting, as one of the peculiar lights I had -seen so far away. I captured several, and in the morning found that -my light giver was a minute sea worm not half an inch in length. When -discovered, the little animal was leaving its burrow or cave in the -sand for a nightly swim at the surface. - -Many of the most beautiful of the marine worms are cell builders (Fig. -77). In some the worms secrete a tube of carbonate of lime. In others -the den is made of bits of sand. I found on the Florida Reef many -remarkable examples of the latter. The nest or tube was built among -the seaweed, several inches above the bottom, and would naturally be a -conspicuous object; but here the intelligence of the little creature -is seen, for it covers the outside of the column with the plates of a -lime-secreting seaweed, which look like shingles, and mounts upon the -upper portion of the column a green bit of seaweed. This is glued to -the tube and so arranged that it falls over the entrance and closes it, -thus serving the purpose of a door and making the tube mimic a bit of -sea grass. The worm lifts the grass door when it comes out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--A group of tube-secreting worms (_Serpulæ_).] - -One of the most familiar forms is Serpula (Fig. 78), whose tubes wind -in and out in every direction. No garden of pansies gives a greater -variety of tints than did a mass of these radiant creatures that I -found on a floating spar in the Pacific at Avalon Bay. But touch these -"flowers" or jar them and they disappear like magic, leaving a hole -closed by a little door, which is formed by a part of the worm that -thus defies all intruders. - - - - -XI. THE TWO-VALVED SHELLS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--The oyster: _A_, muscle; _B_, mantle; _C_, -gills; _D_, labial palpi; _E_, hinge; _F_, mouth; _G_, liver and -stomach; _H_, heart.] - -The beautiful objects which we know as shells, and which form ornaments -in many a home far distant from the sea, are the coverings of a group -of animals called mollusks. They are found in all seas, many upon -land, and in fresh-water streams, and are among the most attractive of -all natural objects, so much so that many persons devote their entire -lives to their collection, and many others much time to the study of -their habits. It is rare to find a new shell, so well have these shell -hunters searched the waters of the world. Such collections, especially -if complete, are very valuable, and many of the great museums have paid -thousands of dollars for them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Anatomy of snail: _a_, mouth; _b_, foot; _c_, -anus; _d_, lung; _e_, stomach; _f_, intestine; _g_, liver; _h_, heart; -_i_, aorta; _j_, gastric artery; _k_, foot artery; _o_, lung and heart -artery.] - -The mollusks or shells present a striking contrast to the worms. They -have no joints, are soft, seemingly without form, and are very helpless -creatures. The body is enveloped in a muscular coat or mantle, as -shown in the oyster (Fig. 79). They have a nervous system, and a heart -(_H_) which pumps colorless blood. Some have a foot for locomotion and -eyes more or less well developed. The oyster represents a large group -which have two shells, called bivalves. In Figure 80 we see the animal -portion of the common snail, which illustrates another group with but -one shell. These are called univalves. To the bivalves belong the -shells best known, the oysters, clams, scallops, pectens, pearl oyster, -razor shell, and many others, of which the oyster is the most familiar. -The mantle, the soft, delicate lining, is the shell maker, and not -only forms it, but repairs damages to it, piling up layer after layer -of pearly matter called nacre. As there is a mantle on each side, two -values are secreted. The sharp portion of the oyster is called the -beak. Here the growth of the shell begins, and here are the marvelous -valves which fit with such accuracy. These complicated parts are easily -seen in the clam (Fig. 81). The hinge is joined by teeth (_c_, _d_, -_d_,) which fit into cavities on the opposite valve, while the valves -are held together by a perfect hinge, a horny ligament (_h_) that tends -to open the shell or throw the valves apart. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Bivalve shells: _a_, beak; _k_, base; _b_, -_b_, hinges; _c_, _d_, _d_, teeth; _n_, ligament; _e_, _e_, adductor -muscles; _l_, lines of growth; _f_, pallial line.] - -In the interior of all shells are seen certain scars; in others a -purple mark. These marks (_e_, _e_,) indicate the location of a strong -muscle by which the clam or oyster closes its shells and keeps them -closed with such rigidity. In opening oysters the man severs this -muscle and the shell opens, forced apart by its ligament. This explains -why most shells found on the beach are wide open. The curious columnar -objects in rows are the gills or breathing organs of the oyster, and -are covered with little oars (Fig. 82), or cilia, which move to and -fro, continually sweeping the currents of water along, bearing oxygen -and food. The former is taken up by the gills to purify the blood, and -the latter is swept into the mouth located near the lungs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Cilia or oars of a mollusk, highly magnified.] - -There is great variety in the hearts of shells. In the oyster (Fig. 79) -it is composed of one auricle and one ventricle; but in other shells -the heart may be three-chambered, or there may be two distinct hearts, -each having two chambers. The eyes of the shells are very minute and -are situated along the mantle. Those of the pecten are very beautiful -and are distinctly visible, resembling gems or emeralds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--A clam: _f_, foot; _m_, mantle; _s_, siphon.] - -The clams (Fig. 83) differ from the oysters in having a pronounced foot -(_f_) which protrudes from the large end of the shell; and with it the -animal digs its burrow. It also hears indirectly by its foot, as its -ears are in this organ, little transparent sacs containing a clear -fluid in which floats a glassy globule. The clam also has a siphon -(_s_), which in the common clam is very long. It has a black head or -tip and the clam may rest some distance down in its hole and take -in water through its siphon, which is double-barreled. One opening -(_in._) receives water containing food and oxygen; the other (_ex._) -expels the water. In strolling along the sands at low tide one often -sees a spurt of water shoot out of a hole, and may assume that a clam -has been alarmed and has retracted its siphon so suddenly that it has -shot a stream of water above the surface. The shells increase by eggs, -the oyster depositing a vast number, which at first are curious little -free-swimming objects (Fig. 84) paddling by the aid of cilia or whips, -but soon attaching themselves to the bottom and taking the oyster form. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Free-swimming young of a bivalve.] - -The oyster is perhaps the most valuable bivalve to man, being a -favorite article of food, for which $1,500,000 is paid annually in New -York alone. Thousands of men find employment collecting them in various -parts of the world. In this country the most valuable oyster beds are -in the vicinity of New York, at the mouth of the Shrewsbury River, in -the Chesapeake Bay, and at various points alongshore to Florida, where -there are large banks at the mouths of the rivers. In watching the -excavation of a cellar at the town of Mayport at the mouth of the St. -John River I saw oyster shells thrown up as deep as the men went. The -town is built on an ancient oyster bed. Among the old shells numerous -pieces of pottery have been found, showing that the early natives -frequented the spot. The living oyster bed here to-day is some distance -out in the stream. When sailing up a small river in Maine some years -ago, I found, about ten miles from its mouth, a mound of oyster shells -thirty or forty feet high. The river appeared to have cut the bed in -two, and out of the top of the mound, which was of solid shells, grew -a tree which must have been a century old. I believe there are no -oysters on the Maine coast to-day, and the great pile was accumulated -ages ago when Maine had oyster beds and the Indians carried the oysters -ten miles up the river to this spot which must have been the site of -an ancient Indian town or city. The pearl oyster is another valuable -shell (Fig. 85). It is common in warmer waters. Near La Paz in the Gulf -of California is a famous fishery, which is owned by the government -and farmed out. In Ceylon it is estimated that 17,000,000 oysters are -destroyed to obtain $80,000 worth of pearls. The shells are also very -valuable, being made into buttons and various other objects. Liverpool -is the great receiving port for these, and many tons are used annually. -In diving for pearls the Ceylonese, who are able to remain beneath the -water several minutes, place as many shells as possible in a basket -and then ascend, leaving the crew to haul the basket up. In Lower -California many divers of to-day go down in armor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Pearl oysters.] - -Pearls are generally valued according to their symmetry and color. Some -are perfect, and when of large size bring vast sums. One of the shahs -of Persia owned a necklace in which the pearls were perfect and as -large as hazelnuts. The pearl is the result of the oyster's attempts to -protect itself from injury. If we should take one of these beautiful -pearl oysters and with a gimlet bore a hole through the shell from the -outside and replace it in the water, we should find, months after, if -the oyster was examined, that it had, by using its mantle, secreted a -large amount of pearly nacre over the wound, not only filling up the -hole, but heaping the pearly secretion over it until a projection a -quarter of an inch high was the result, resembling a pearl attached -to the shell. This is the way imperfect pearls are formed; they are -the attempts on the part of the oyster to prevent injury to itself. -Occasionally some foreign body, like a grain of sand, will enter -the shell. Its sharp edges will cut the soft flesh of the delicate -creature, which immediately covers it with pearly nacre. The larger it -grows the more the oyster notices it among its folds, and the more it -instinctively covers it with pearl. In this way the pearls grow. - -The seed pearls are those in which some impurity has been covered but -a few times, while the very large pearls are those which have been -bathed in nacre time and again. If a large pearl is cut in halves, the -various layers can be counted, the sections recalling the interior of -an onion. The skillful native fakirs of the East take advantage of -this industry of the pearl oyster to introduce metal beads and figures -of the Buddha into shells, which are then marked. The objects finally -become covered, when they are removed from the shells and sold to the -unsuspecting natives as "miracles." - -One of the interesting shells of the seashore is the Pinna. I have -found the shores of the outside islands of Texas scattered with them. -They are also called fan shells, and are attached to the bottom by a -peculiar cable, or byssus, formed of a silklike substance which has -been woven. Gloves and hose of pinna silk may be seen in the British -Museum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Pectens swimming.] - -The pectens are common forms famous for the beautiful gemlike eyes -seen along the edge of their mantles. I once kept a number of these -shells in an aquarium, and they were a source of much amusement, from -their habit of dancing (Fig. 86). Generally they lay in the sand in the -bottom of the tank with their valves open an inch or more, their bright -eyes gleaming. Without any warning, one would open and close its valves -with great rapidity, which would cause the shell to take convulsive -and bounding hops. Then another shell would follow, and soon all the -pectens were leaping up and down in a most extraordinary dance. The -pecten changes its position or travels, not by pushing itself along, -but by a sudden and spasmodic hop, clearing a foot or more. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Mussel climbing: _B_, cables; _F_, foot.] - -The locomotion of shells itself is a fascinating subject. An -interesting instance is observed in the common mussel. This shell has a -remarkable foot, a pointed, fleshy organ which can be protruded. With -this organ the mussel bores holes in the sand, jerks itself along, or -clears the surface with a bound. But its most remarkable service is -in aiding the mussel to climb. In the foot, near its base, is a gland -which secretes a peculiar substance, which when exposed to the water -hardens and resembles silk. The resemblance is so perfect that the -"silk" has been woven into various articles, and an attempt was made in -France to raise mussels for this purpose. When the animal desires to -climb, it reaches out its foot as high as it can (Fig. 87), and presses -it upon the pile or rock, whereupon a delicate cord, one of the cables -of its byssus, is seen. Again the foot is extended, again a cable is -attached, the entire operation calling to mind the action of a spider. -Each step raises the mussel a little higher, and as it moves on, the -cables that would hold it back are broken off, and the mussel at length -reaches the position it desires. - -The fresh-water mussels found in the Ohio and other rivers and streams -are pearl producers. Very valuable gems have been taken from them in -various states, and the fresh-water pearl fishery of the United States -is of considerable importance. A fresh-water pearl found in New Jersey -was valued at $2000, and one taken from a stream in Scotland brought -$50,000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Giant clam.] - -The vast number of shells and the varieties of each kind can hardly be -realized by those who have not examined a well-equipped collection. -Over four thousand species of the mussel are known, and hundreds of -species of almost every shell exist in various streams and seas. The -shells range from minute specimens hardly visible to giants weighing -several hundred pounds, one of the latter being the huge clam, Tridacna -(Fig. 88), found in the equatorial Pacific. There are several species, -and in the largest each valve weighs about two hundred and fifty -pounds. The animal itself weighs thirty pounds, and affords a meal to -forty or fifty men. The shell, by means of its foot, buries itself -in the soft rock of the regions in which it lives. With its valves -partly open it resembles a huge sea anemone; but it closes them at the -slightest alarm. Large fishes, and even natives, it is said, have been -trapped by this giant, whose jawlike valves, with three huge teeth, -grip the fin of a fish or the foot of an unfortunate wader with a -vicelike grasp. The byssus or anchor of this huge shell is so thick and -tenacious that it is severed only with great difficulty and labor. The -shells are valuable as ornaments, large numbers being sent to various -countries for this purpose. The giant never moves, and in this respect -is a sharp contrast to the little donax, so common on our various -shores and in France, which leaps along the muddy flats by convulsive -movements of its fleshy foot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Razor clam.] - -The common razor clam, of which sixty or more species are known, by -means of its foot (Fig. 89) digs a deep burrow which is filled with -water even at low tide. The shell is often found at the entrance, but -at the slightest alarm it dashes deep down into its den, to be caught -only by persistent digging. - -The odd shapes assumed by many bivalves is well illustrated in the -hammer oyster (Fig. 90) and the pholas. The latter illustrates the -power of the most insignificant animals, as by means of its foot this -little shell burrows into the hardest granite. It is invariably found -there and imprisoned; for when it reaches the interior of a stone, it -grows and enlarges, leaving but a small opening for the siphons. It is -supposed by some that the pholas possesses some secretions by which -it dissolves the stone, and by others that it wears away the rock by -using its shell as a file. In any event the shell is known to contain -aragonite, a very hard substance. In the pillar of the temple of -Serapis, Italy, the holes made by this shell are seen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Hammer oyster.] - -Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the pholas is its power as a -light giver. It emits a delicate blue light, dead or alive. One placed -in a glass of milk has been used as a lamp, illuminating the faces near -it. Another placed in honey retained its phosphorescence for over a -year. The little pholas is found all over the world, more than eighty -different species being known. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Teredo, a boring shell.] - -The teredo or shipworm (Fig. 91) is called a worm because it secretes -a limy shell, but it is really a bivalve shell open at both ends, a -shell which with one exception causes more destruction than all other -marine animals combined. Instinctively it bores into wood, forming an -irregular tunnel and lining it with a delicate coating of carbonate of -lime. Some years ago I visited on the outer Florida Reef, an old wreck -which was newly buried in the sand and partly exposed at low tide. The -timbers of the vessel looked strong and able to stand many a storm, yet -with a blow of my hand I broke through the planking. The interior was -completely honeycombed by the teredo, so that it was a maze of tubes. -At this place the life of a pile of yellow pine was a year and a half; -in other words, after being exposed to the teredo for this length of -time, it was useless. On the Pacific, at Avalon Bay, the piles last -about two years, being rapidly destroyed, even though soaked in various -poisonous fluids and coated with tar. Many thousands of dollars have -been expended in experiments with devices to outwit the teredo, but -without avail, and they are the greatest menace to navigation and piers -to-day, making their way into hulls, despite the copper sheathing. In -the mud banks of the waters of Sumatra, teredos are found which attain -a length of six feet, with tubes four inches in diameter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Mactra: _a_, foot; _b_, _c_, siphons.] - -The shells are famous for their beauty, the polished valves and their -marvelous tints presenting attractive combinations. The common mactra -(Fig. 92), the cockle (Fig. 93) with its deep radiations, the gorgeous -pectens of the South, the splendid pearl-bearing shells, all tell a -wonderful story of the resources of nature, and emphasize the fact that -the smallest and most inconspicuous animals vie with the larger forms -in beauty of shape and color. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Cockle.] - - - - -XII. THE UNIVALVES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Group of shells: 1, Cymbium; 2, Cerithium; 3, -Voluta; 4, Cardium; 5, Phorus; 6, Murex; 7, Vermetus; 8, Trochus; 9, -Pholas; 10, Turritella.] - -The shells which have been noticed in the preceding chapter belonged -literally to the stay-at-homes of the family. They rarely wander far, -and many, as we have seen, never leave the place which the young shell -first selected as its home. What are known as the univalves, the -mollusks with one shell, or perhaps no shell at all, are the reverse -of this, being in many instances travelers, wandering here and there. -This suggests that they have more highly organized locomotive organs. -Those shown on the upper part of Figure 94 are univalves, and if we -make a section of a univalve (Fig. 95), we see that the shell is -much more complicated than in the previous forms. The univalve has a -shell-secreting mantle and organs resembling those of the bivalves, -only differently placed. This marvelous mantle performs some singular -feats, judging from the spines found on many shells. To make these, -the mantle must have been thrown outward and upward, forming a tube in -which the spine was secreted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Section of a univalve.] - -In the univalves a distinct head is seen (Fig. 98) with tentacles -and prominent eyes. The foot is now elaborated into a huge sucking, -clinging, disklike organ. In the whelk it is as long as the shell, -the latter being perched high above it, presenting a remarkable -spectacle as it moves along the sandy floor of the ocean. On the head -are two tentacles, feelers or sense organs, and sometimes the eyes -are mounted on tall stalks, that the shell may have a wide range of -vision. A siphon, such as we have seen in the clam, is present and -extended upward and forward. It protrudes from a canal formed in the -shell for the purpose, and is often very long. If the whelk (Fig. 99) -is disturbed, it suddenly withdraws its body, including the enormous -colored foot; and if the shell is picked up, the entrance is found -securely closed by a horny door called the operculum, which is attached -to the foot (Fig. 99). This door takes many shapes. In the beautiful -conch it is saber-shaped, and is used to dig into the sand, or, as a -lever, to force the conch along by a series of jerks. In other shells -it is apparently made of porcelain, hard and highly polished. It is -well known as the "eye stone" of popular fancy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Tongue and teeth of a univalve: _A_, portion -of tongue of Velutina; _B_, portion of tongue of whelk; _C_, head and -tongue of limpet; _D_, portion of same enlarged.] - -Many of the univalves are flesh eaters, preying upon others of their -kind. They have a remarkable tongue (Fig. 96) for the purpose, in fact, -the teeth are upon the tongue in sawlike rows. The tongue, which is -called the lingual ribbon, is ribbon shaped, long and slender, and -is really a soft, pliable saw with which the animal bores into the -hardest shells of the helpless clams. In strolling alongshore a large -majority of the "dead" clam shells found bleaching in the sun, where -they have been washed by the sea, will be seen to contain a circular -hole of perfect symmetry (Fig. 97). This has been made by the boring, -sawlike tongue of a univalve, which, after gaining an entrance into the -tightly locked shell, deliberately sucked it out. It is interesting to -note the location of this hole, which is invariably over the softest -and plumpest part of the victim, near the lungs, showing that the -cannibalistic univalve is very clever in its mode of attack. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Clam shell bored by a univalve.] - -While the oyster deposits vast quantities of eggs, which float out -into the water to be destroyed by other animals, many of the univalves -protect their eggs in remarkable cases. I have often found on the -Florida Reef strings (Fig. 98) of singular objects which resembled -sections of a yellowish cylinder connected by a little cord. Each -section is an egg case, or capsule, and contains many shells, the -entire chain being two or three feet in length. This becomes tangled in -the coral or seaweed, and holds the young shells, all of which escape -through a little door in each section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Egg case of a conch.] - -Other shells, as the whelk (Fig. 99), deposit their egg cases in -heaps or mounds. They are soft and spongelike, and are often mistaken -for sponges when divested of their shells and cast ashore. Perhaps -the best-known egg case is that of the common Natica, which forms a -singular object called the "sand collar" (Fig. 100). The animal molds -this collar out of fine sand with its foot, and deposits its eggs in -the interior, all being cemented or glued together in a solid mass. -We shall find that certain birds deposit their eggs in the nests of -others, so saving the wearying process of hatching. A certain shell, -called Nassa, has a similar habit. At times it deposits its eggs on the -collar nest of the Natica. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--The whelk: _A_, living shell; _B_, empty -shell; _C_, egg case.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Egg case of the Natica.] - -Among the myriads of shells which we may select to illustrate the -various interesting types, shapes, and kinds, are the Chitons (Fig. -101). Their shells are made up of many plates resembling the plates -of a hawkbill turtle. Many live in holes in the rocks, and all have -a very large, sucking, disklike foot which clings to the rocks with -great tenacity. Resembling them somewhat are the limpets. These are -interesting and beautiful shells, especially when polished, forming -attractive domes marvelously tinted and colored. Some are called -keyhole limpets (Fig. 102), from the fact that they have a keyhole-like -opening in the top. They range in size from very minute forms to giants -a foot in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--The Chiton and its free-swimming young. I. -Adult, showing plates. II. Chiton dissected: _o_, mouth; _g_, nervous -ring; _ao_, great artery from the heart, aorta; _c_, ventricle; -_c´_, an auricle; _br_, left branchiæ; _od_, oviducts. III, IV, V. -Development of free-swimming young.] - -Among the most beautiful of all shells, and at the same time the most -common in tropic and semitropic seas, are the abalones. They are also -called ear shells. They have an enormous foot that covers the entire -lower surface, being a remarkably powerful organ. Instances have been -known where Chinese abalone hunters have tried to pry off the shell -from a rock with their hands, and have had their fingers caught and -held as though by a vice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Keyhole limpet.] - -The Haliotis is very common on the shores of the southern Californian -islands. In some localities every rock is covered with them, and in -places where the black abalone is common, I have found them piled one -upon the other. There are two hundred species living. Every tint, -color, or tone known in the scale of color, or its combinations, is -flashed from these marvelous shells, which, if rare, would be counted -among the most beautiful of all natural productions. On the Californian -coast they are collected in large numbers, and when polished are -converted into buttons and a thousand and one other objects. The meat, -which is of excellent quality, is sold in large quantities to the -Chinese. Thousands of the shells are bought by tourists, the outside -being richly polished. From the ancient graves or Indian mounds of the -Californian islands I have taken quantities, especially the large kind -known as the red abalone, showing that they were used by the ancient -inhabitants. In all of these islands heaps and piles of abalones are -found far from the water. By stopping up the holes in the shell with -asphaltum, which drifts ashore here, the natives had an excellent dish, -or bailer. They cut the shell into earrings and ornaments of many -kinds, and most of their fishhooks were evolved from this beautiful -shell, which also supplied a large proportion of their food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Great conch (_Strombus_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Queen conch (_Cassis_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Cypræa.] - -On the Florida Reef the great conchs (Fig. 103) are very common. They -live on the sandy floor of the lagoons, hitching themselves slowly -along by their long-pointed, saberlike operculums. This is the conch -of commerce, in which appears the most delicate of all pink colors, -and which is the source of the rare pink pearls. In the same locality, -but in deeper water, is found the Queen conch (Fig. 104), which is -cut into medallions and cameos. The beautiful Cypræa (Fig. 105), of -which many varieties are known, are called micramocks in Florida, and -cowries elsewhere. Their luster and natural polish often excite wonder, -for they commonly live concealed in the rough portions of dead coral -branches, where they would easily become scratched. The cowry, however, -is protected by a remarkable mantle which covers the entire shell, -thus keeping its pianolike surface as smooth as a mirror. Many cowries -are beautifully striped; some are spotted with dark spots on a white -background; some are yellow; others are red or old gold, every tint and -color seemingly being employed by nature in painting these gems of the -sea. Few other shells have been so universally esteemed by all nations. -Among certain African tribes they are used as money, and not many years -ago collections of cowries were made with all the ardor that actuated -the tulip collectors, thousands of dollars being paid for single -shells, as the orange cowry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Cone shell (_Conus_).] - -The cone shells (Fig. 106) represent a beautiful group, spotted like -leopards, striped like the tiger, black, red, yellow. Some shells -are very pointed, like the augur shell (Fig. 107). Some have an -extraordinarily long projection for the siphon, as the spindle shell -(Fig. 108). In some the opening is very small, as the cone shells, -while in others it is immense, and protected by a large, doorlike -operculum. The Bulimas is a famous nest builder. Bulla is interesting -from the lightness and delicacy of the shell and its rich neutral -browns. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Augur shell (_Terebra_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Spindle shell (_Fusus_).] - -Among the very familiar shells are the land snails (Fig. 109), common -in every garden and raised and sold in France and Italy as table -delicacies. Closely allied to them are the slugs, which bear upon -their backs, beneath the skin, a delicate, scale-like shell. On the -island of San Clemente, fifty miles off the coast of California, I -found an extensive sandy plain which was so thickly strewn with the -white, bleached snail shells that I could hardly step without crushing -several. The verdure had died, and the snails were doubtless killed by -the direct rays of the sun. - -These interesting animals are called pulmonates because they breathe -air directly. - -The slugs (Fig. 110) have many peculiar characteristics. If the -long tentacles on the short eye stalk are destroyed, the snail will -reproduce them. In winter the snails descend into the ground, or hide -themselves away, literally sealing themselves in their shells by -closing the door firmly, and there hibernate until spring, neither -eating nor drinking, and hardly breathing during this time; if placed -in a cold storage box, they will remain several years in this state. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--A snail crawling.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Slugs and snails.] - -Some of the snails of Africa are six inches across, and the eggs are an -inch in length. Semper found a little snail in the Philippines, which -when caught by the foot or "tail" throws it off as a lizard jerks off -its tail. This is not a great hardship, as the tail is soon renewed. In -a collection of shells which came from France some years ago I found -several snails of different colors which were joined one to the other. -The collector had cut the top from an empty brown snail and placed a -living snail with a yellow shell upon it, tying the two together. The -snail, supposing that its shell had been broken, immediately began to -repair the wound, and closed up the breach with its shell-secreting -mantle, so that the two shells became one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--A sea slug (_Dendronotus_).] - -In floating on the borders of the Sargasso Sea, the vast sea of weeds -in the South Atlantic, I found numbers of a beautiful sea slug (Fig. -111) which so resembled the weeds in shape and color, a rich olive -green, that it was almost impossible to distinguish it, except when -very close to the surface. They have attractive names, as Doris, -Tritonia, Æolis, and Aplysia, and are among the wonders of the great -belts of kelp which surround the continent. I once found a slug at -Santa Catalina which was a vivid, almost iridescent purple; another was -yellow; but the most interesting was Aplysia, a giant two feet long, -which I kept in an aquarium. It weighed nearly eight pounds, could -lengthen itself out to a distance of nearly three feet, or contract -into a dark, olive-hued ball, scarcely six inches across. It took sea -lettuce from my hand, eating with avidity, and when disturbed emitted a -purple ink which filled the water and hid the monster "sea hare" from -view. It laid its eggs on the sides of the tank in long chains, but if -not well fed, exhibited a decided cannibalistic tendency, devouring its -own progeny. This animal had an enormous foot by which it crept rapidly -along, and it invariably protected itself by imitating the color of the -bottom upon which it rested. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--_Onchidium_, a sea slug with eyes on its -back.] - -One of the most interesting slugs is the Onchidium (Fig. 112). -According to the naturalist Semper, it has upon its back numerous eyes, -which enable it to see from above. It is a mud-loving form, common in -our new provinces, the Philippines, where the heat is intense and the -water warm. One of the land slugs, Limax noctiluca, emits light; and -the eggs of another, Arion, have been noticed to be luminous for nearly -two weeks after being deposited. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--_A_, _B_, _C_, pteropods; _D_, young of -Cleodora, all highly magnified.] - -Nearly all these shells are slow-moving animals, but there are others, -the pteropods (Fig. 113), which are swimmers. The veritable fairy -craft of the sea, they are housed in shells of dainty structure and -moving by singular winglike fins, which give them the name of ocean -butterflies. They have the property of phosphorescence to a remarkable -degree. Cleodora (Fig. 113, _D_) emits a soft light which gleams -through the delicate shell like a light in a lantern. In swimming it -moves its fins up and down very much like a butterfly, so that they -touch at the top. As delicate and dainty as this little creature is, -it has a marvelous arrangement for seizing prey, each tentacle having -about three thousand transparent cylinders, each of which contains -twenty stalked suckers. As there are six tentacles on each sucker, -Cleodora can grasp its prey with three hundred thousand hands. Equally -dainty in its way is the sea snail, Ianthina, a violet shell of great -delicacy, whose foot develops a raft which resembles a mass of soap -bubbles, so the violet snail floats upon the surface of tropical and -semi-tropical seas. I have seen the shores of the keys of the Florida -Reef lined with an undulating ribbon of these shells after a storm. -When touched they emit a rich violet ink which lasts a long time as -a stain. A small species of Ianthina is found in the winter on the -southern Californian shores, and beneath the attractive float will be -found the eggs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--1, _Dentalium entalis_, natural size; 2, -shell magnified, and broken to show animal within; 3, animal projecting -from the shell; 4, animal from below, magnified; 6, same from above; 5, -same, showing internal structure.] - - - - -XIII. THE CUTTLEFISHES - - -In the great libraries of the country will be found books dating back -to the last two centuries, many of which contain cuts and descriptions -of frightful animals resembling huge spiders, called krakens, or -devilfishes. They are represented climbing over ships, and hauling them -down. One is described as so huge that the crew of a vessel landed upon -it, not discovering that it was not an island until they had built a -fire, when the supposed island, really a kraken, sank beneath them. -These are tales of romancers, but it is interesting to know that they -are based upon a slight foundation of fact. Devilfishes have been -discovered in various seas, which weighed several hundred pounds, and -whose length ranged from fifty to seventy or more feet. Such an animal -is the giant squid (Fig. 115), which is a very timid animal, and though -it might overturn a small boat, it is not likely to make the attempt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--A giant squid, fifty feet long.] - -These animals are called cephalopods because their feet are attached -to the head; in other words, they are head-footed. The typical squid -or cuttlefish has a barrel-shaped body, and a tail resembling an -arrowhead. Its head is separated from the body by a seeming neck, and -is provided with two immense eyes (Fig. 116). Projecting forward are -two long, slender arms, and eight shorter ones, which in the giant -squid are from six to ten feet in length. These are armed with peculiar -suckers (Fig. 117), each of which is extremely powerful. In a specimen -six feet long, which I kept for an hour alive in a large tank, some -idea of the strength of a squid could be obtained. It fastened its -eight arms to the tank, and with all the force I could bring to bear I -was unable to tear them off. Besides the eight short arms there are two -long ones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Squid (_Sepia_), one fifth natural size.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Suckers of a squid.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Beak or bill of a squid.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Showing parts of a squid: _T_, tentacles; -_O_, mouth; _F_, siphon; _In_, intestine; _I_, ink bag; _B_, gills; -_H_, heart; _K_, blood vessel; _C_, lobes of tail.] - -In a specimen of the giant squid which I handled and measured, the long -arms were about thirty feet in length. The ends were enlarged with -paddlelike organs, and bore a group of suckers. The object of the long -arms is to serve as graspers. They are kept near the body, coiled up, -and can be shot out with remarkable velocity, grasping a fish like two -hands with gigantic arms. They haul the prey to the short arms, when -hundreds of sucking disks hold the victim that is now pressed to the -remarkable mouth. This lies between the base of the arms, and in color -and appearance is almost exactly like the beak of a parrot, with the -exception that the under bill fits over the upper (Fig. 118). These -bills almost invariably nip the struggling fish over the vertebra or -back bone, severing it at once, and ending the struggle. The tongue -of the squid is a ribbon with teeth upon it. Such an armament alone -is sufficient to attract attention to the animal, but it has still -another feature which adds to its interest as a weird and disagreeable -creature. The squid has a siphon which terminates in a tube, opening -beneath the head. Into this an ink bag opens (Fig. 119). In swimming, -the squid rarely if ever rests upon the bottom, but takes in water -around the edge of the mantle and ejects it with more or less force -from the siphon, and thus the squid is driven along, tail foremost. -When alarmed its movements are very rapid. If in danger, the squid -pours an inky secretion, which is the sepia of commerce, into the -siphon, and the secretion is swept out into the water in a cloud which -spreads rapidly, to the confusion of any following enemy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Cuttlefish bone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Eggs of the squid.] - -The squid has a shell, but it is very small, and internal. It is called -the pen, and that of some species is the cuttlefish bone of commerce -(Fig. 120). In specimens six or seven feet long, taken at Santa -Catalina, California, the pen was fifteen inches long and glasslike--a -perfect pen in shape. Such is this peculiar creature, and if we add -that it can change its color from very dark brown to almost white, -adapting it to the color of the bottom over which it rests, we can form -some idea of one of the strangest of all animals. They deposit eggs in -clusters. - -The squids range in size from gigantic specimens seventy or more feet -in length to the minute Cranchia, which is luminous at times. Some have -no tails, some only the suggestion of a tail, some have very pointed -ones, some very broad ones. In specimens of the little Cranchia which -I observed the head was very small and the body long in proportion. -One form appears to have side winglike fins. The large squids live in -the deep sea, and most of the specimens known have been taken from the -deep fjords of Newfoundland, which appears to be a favorite locality -for them. They doubtless live everywhere in the deep seas, as they are -almost invariably found in the stomach of the sperm whale, evidently -constituting a favorite food of this giant-toothed whale. - -The squids live mainly upon fishes, and are very skillful in taking -them, poising like a cat, near the bottom, creeping upon a school of -sardines,--all the time simulating the color of the bottom, and almost -invisible but for their large, dark eyes standing out,--then suddenly -darting tail first into the school, flinging the long arms at the -flying fishes, and almost always catching one, which is dragged up to -the parrotlike bill and dismembered. In the six and seven foot squids -taken at Santa Catalina the stomachs were filled with seaweed, showing -that at least some of these animals are vegetarians. - -On all tropical shores is found a beautiful coiled shell, the Spirula, -with little pearly septa dividing it. I have seen a windrow of these -shells a mile long, but never found the animal and shell together, so -easily are they disconnected. It is the smallest and the most beautiful -of all the cephalopods. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Octopus or devilfish.] - -The familiar devilfish or octopus (Fig. 122) is another form, a bottom -lover, found among the rocks, rarely attempting to swim. It has a -round, baglike body, often covered with soft, fleshy spines; two -fiery green eyes, which always seem to emit a baneful light; eight -sucker-lined arms, which can be thrown in any direction, and the beak -and ink bag noticed in the squid, but no pen or shell. The octopus -lives in dens or crevices in the rocks, and ranges in size from -specimens a foot or two across to giants with arms having a radial -spread of nearly thirty feet (Fig. 123). These large individuals are -found along the Pacific coast from California to Alaska, and when -caught generally make a desperate struggle for liberty and display a -vast amount of strength. I once kept a number in a tank, which were -two or three feet across, and when they had grasped firmly it was -almost impossible to wrench them from the glass. They differed much in -temper. Some would apparently play with my hand, tapping it with their -tentacles, or gripping it gently. Others would crouch like miniature -tigers, quivering with rage, and with green eyes shining, would spring -upon it and attempt to smother it with their arms--a most disagreeable -sensation, especially when it was almost impossible to remove the -hand from the uncanny grasp without lacerating their flesh. One large -octopus in this family, when it obtained a grip, would hold my hand -firmly; hence I concluded that a specimen thirty feet across, similar -to those represented by casts in the Yale and National Museums, might -easily overcome a man. Yet the octopus is a very timid animal in the -open water. I rarely caught them either in Florida or California, -unless they were cornered, and they never attempted to bite. But I -seized one in the coral, and it wound about my arm so tightly that -I was obliged to wrench away twenty or more pounds of branch coral, -before I could release it without laceration. When attacked the -octopus changes color with great rapidity from black to gray, and when -enraged it often has the appearance of a leopard. Then it hurls a cloud -of ink into the water, and endeavors to slink away under this cover, -gliding through crevices that would seem entirely too small to admit so -large an animal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Giant octopus, radial spread twenty-two feet.] - -The octopus swims when forced to do so, using a weblike membrane -which is seen to connect the base of the eight arms or by forcing -water from its siphon. These arms, when extended, give the octopus a -faint resemblance to an umbrella without a handle, and with very long -supports. The octopus preys upon very small animals, particularly -crabs. I have lain among the bowlders on the shores of the Californian -islands and watched the octopus hunting. They selected the flood tide -and crept near the shore, moving along slowly, on the watch for a -species of Grapsus very common here, a land crab which occasionally -enters the water. The crabs crept down to the water's edge, and often -entered, and in this moment of incaution were pounced upon by the -disagreeable creature so well named the devilfish. Sometimes they were -caught at the very edge; a long, livid tentacle would come shooting out -of the water like a flame and seize the victim. Despite its struggles, -it was soon hauled in, the octopus immediately covering it with its -umbrellalike bag, doubtless bringing its nippers into play. I have seen -an octopus dash out of water two or three feet and scramble up the dry -rocks with remarkable speed after an escaping crab. At these times the -octopus can be caught by seizing it quickly, but some experience is -required before one can grasp a large octopus and retain the hold, so -disagreeable is the sensation of the snakelike tentacles winding about -hand and arm. The very appearance of the octopus is like a horrible -dream, and so intensely repulsive is the animal that in an actual test -not one person in fifty who passed a tank containing an octopus with -arms a foot long and a hideous striped body, could be induced to touch -the animal, though assured that it was absolutely harmless and would -merely squeeze the hand. - -While the devilfish is the type of all that is hideous and repulsive -in nature, it has a near relative, the paper nautilus, which is a very -dainty and beautiful creature. It appears to be an octopus which lives -in a shell. The argonaut, as it is called, has eight short arms, the -upper pair being largely developed at their tips, forming fanlike or -saillike organs. It was formerly believed that these were really sails, -held aloft to catch the breeze to blow the fairy argonaut along. So -fixed in the public mind was this erroneous belief that illustrations -in various works otherwise correct, display the argonaut in this -incorrect position. The animal is the female, which, to protect and -carry its eggs, is provided with a dainty shell which it secretes, but -is not attached to, and would lose were it not for the two large-ended -tentacles with which it grasps the beak of the shell (Fig. 124). These -arms also bear the shell-making and repairing glands. The argonaut can -crawl upon the rocks at the bottom, swim through the water, forced -along by its siphon stream, or float calmly at the surface. About nine -species are known; generally in some tropical waters. Every year a few -are found stranded upon Santa Catalina Island, California. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Argonaut in natural position, arms holding -the shell.] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 125, 126.--Sections of an ammonite.] - -In many of the fossil deposits are found gigantic shells resembling the -wheels of a cart, and enormously heavy. These are ammonites (Figs. 125, -126), and ancestors of the nautilus (Fig. 127), another member of this -wonderful family of animals, with feet attached to their heads. It has -a shell of radiant pearl, divided, like the little Spirula, by pearly -septa or partitions, into rooms or chambers (_C_) all of which surround -a small tube (_s_) called the siphuncle. This contains a long, fleshy -pedicel, hence the nautilus is attached to its shell and can not leave -it. The shell chambers are filled with gas, and the animal has the -power to change its specific gravity, to float or rise. The nautilus -forces itself along by a current from its siphon, and in a general way -resembles others of the group. It has no ink bag, and its eye is not -the striking object seen in the other forms. It is merely an elevation -bearing a minute hole which leads into the globe of the eye, which -during the life of the nautilus is filled with water. According to -Doctor Hensen, in place of a refracting lens and a cornea, the animal -has an arrangement for forming an image on the principle of a pin-hole -camera. We might imagine the nautilus easy to capture; but it is very -timid and rarely caught. Instead of eight or ten arms the nautilus has -ninety-four. The shell is a beautiful object when cleaned and polished, -being a vase of pearl of a chaste and elegant design, often copied, -and in great demand by native artisans who carve and engrave it, and -mount it in gold and silver. The nautilus, aside from its beauty, is -a most interesting animal, being the last or almost the last of its -race of fifteen hundred species, which have lived in former periods of -the earth. Only two are still alive, and these in all probability are -doomed to extinction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Pearly nautilus: _T_, tentacles; _M_, mantle; -_E_, eye; _s_, siphuncle; _S_, siphon; _C_, chambers.] - - - - -XIV. THE CRUSTACEANS - - -Among all the animals few are more interesting and whimsical than the -crabs and lobsters. They have jointed legs, feelers and claws in pairs, -living in a shell which they cast like an overcoat when they outgrow -it, and have bodies which are made up of hard, tough, limy rings or -segments (Fig. 128). The crustaceans are found in all waters, fresh and -salt, and on land. They abound in the greatest variety, and range in -size from specimens almost invisible to the naked eye to forms with a -radial spread of over twenty feet. - -During a recent visit to the outlying islands of the Texan coast, I -found these extensive regions populated by vast hordes of white or -yellowish land crabs, which paraded the beaches and climbed over the -dunes in such numbers that the eyes could not be raised without seeing -a dozen or more. They were so familiar and tame that several large -individuals had burrows by the side of the walk which led from the -hotel, and readily took bread thrown to them. - -On the keys of the Florida Reef the "spirit crabs," as they are called, -are equally common. Pretending to be asleep, I have often watched them -cautiously approaching, led by their curiosity to see what strange -object this was that had washed ashore. If I remained perfectly quiet, -they would gather in dozens, and numbers of little hermits would -crawl over me, to drop off at the slightest alarm. In the water were -countless other forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--The Norway lobster, showing jointed -structure.] - -Wherever we go, from the ocean to the interior, we shall find some -members of this interesting family. On almost any seashore we shall -find a crab or crayfish, from which some idea of the structure of -these animals can be obtained (Fig. 129). We see that there are two -distinct regions, the head portion and the tail. The first mentioned -is hard and in one general piece; the latter is made up of joints or -rings. Everything about this curious animal is jointed. Turning it over -(Fig. 130), we see that it has five legs on each side, all jointed. -The first pair are large biting claws, and in some species others are -biters. Even the eyes are upon stalks and jointed, and about them -are two sets of feelers, whips, or antennæ--one large and one small -pair--which the animal holds out before it as a blind man does a cane. -The mouth is made up of many curious organs for separating and grinding -food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Crayfish seen from the side, with that -portion of the carapace removed which covers the branchiæ, or gills. -The appendages of the left side only shown, _s_, region of stomach; -_A_, abdominal appendages; _B_, bases of the four small legs; _C_, base -of large claw; _f_, "gill-bailer," or flabellum, attached to the second -maxilliped; _e_, eye. (After Morse.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Under surface of the crayfish or fresh-water -lobster (_Astacus_): _a_, first pair of antennæ; _b_, second pair; _c_, -eyes; _e_, foot jaws; _f_, _g_, first and fifth pair of thoracic legs; -_h_, swimmerets; _i_, anus; _k_, caudal fins.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--A shrimp, showing anatomy: _s_, stomach; _l_, -liver; _i_, intestine; _h_, heart; _g_, chain of ganglia; _hg_, head -ganglia.] - -Some idea of the various internal organs of the crustaceans may be -obtained in Figure 131. The breathing organs are conspicuous, curled -up like plumes on each side of the crayfish and attached to the base -of the legs. Water enters the shell under the edge, back of the great -claws, and is swept along over them by a little organ called the gill -bailer, the gills taking up oxygen from the water, which in turn is -absorbed by the colorless blood. The brain is very small, and nerves -can be seen passing from it to the various organs. The ears are -situated at the base of the small or first antennæ, and are little -sacks on the upper side containing a thick fluid in which are floating -minute grains of sand. The tail portion is made up of a number of rings -or segments, and is provided with small swimmerets. At the extreme end -are seen five paddlelike or fanlike organs (Fig. 132), which constitute -a most important swimming organ to the lobsters and crayfishes, by -the violently flapping of which they dash away backward. In color the -crayfish is yellowish brown or greenish. When alive it presents (Fig. -133) an attractive appearance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Paddles of lobster.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Fresh-water crayfish.] - -The crustaceans deposit eggs which they carry about with them attached -to the swimmerets, and resembling minute bunches of grapes. When first -hatched (Fig. 134) the young crustaceans are totally unlike the parent -in appearance, passing through several stages before they reach the -adult form. When the crustacean grows too large for its shell, what are -known as casting hairs appear on the inner side, which push the shell -upward. - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Stages of development in a crab.] - -I have watched this process in the California sea crayfish, and it is -generally accomplished at night. The flesh of the animal appears to -become very watery and soft at this time. Finally the animal bursts the -shell and by a slow and convulsive effort drags the flesh from claws, -eyes, swimmerets, and antennæ, and escapes through the upper portion -of the division between the head and tail, and presto! we have two -animals; one flabby and very nervous, the other the deserted shell, -yet seemingly alive. The crayfish is very helpless now, and secretes -itself for several days until the new skin hardens, when it appears in -a freshly colored coat of yellow and black. - - - - -XV. FROM BARNACLES TO LOBSTERS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--Goose barnacles.] - -In strolling along the shore one may often find pieces of wood washed -in by the combing waves, which are covered with white and blue-tinted -objects, resembling dates (Fig. 135). They have long, fleshy stems, -and appear to have a number of plates or shells, and are by many -considered shells. Other floating matter will be found covered with -small white objects (Fig. 136), and many of the rocks alongshore are so -completely encrusted by them that the surface of the rock is concealed. -On the backs of whales are found similar objects, often three inches -across and two inches high. These are barnacles, cousins of the crabs, -which secrete multivalve shells and are anchored to various floating -or submerged objects. They are crustaceans which are attached to the -bottom by their antennæ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--The barnacle: _A_, from above; _B_, section -from the side.] - -If the shell of a barnacle is carefully observed, fluffy, feathery -objects may be seen coming out with regular motion. These are the -feet of the crustacean, which in the barnacles are modified into food -catchers, grasping at the minute animals contained in the water. -What are called goose barnacles have long stems, and the old writers -considered them young geese which grew on trees and finally fell into -the water. I have found a goose barnacle in the mouth of a large -sunfish, so placed that the barnacle swung clear of the curious teeth -of the fish. They are also found on the feathers of penguins in the -South Pacific. Every floating timber or wreck at sea is covered with -the curious, long-stemmed creatures. The barnacles deposit eggs, and -the young are at first free swimming, but soon acquire a shell, seek -the bottom, or some floating object, and become fixtures for life. - -Many of the crustaceans are so small that but few persons ever see -them. Such is Cyclops (Fig. 137), a minute creature seen distinctly -only under a microscope, yet swimming in fresh water and readily -recognized by its egg pouches, one on either side of the tail. The eggs -hatch out into singular little objects, having very little resemblance -to the parent. The Cyclops and others are very tenacious of life. When -pools and streams dry up and remain so for months, they lie dormant, -coming to life again with the return of the water. Many of this group -are parasites upon fishes, as the Lernæidæ (Fig. 138), which appear -like streamers on the sides of carp and other fishes. These parasites, -deeply embedded, live upon the fish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Water fleas: 1, Cyclops, showing egg pouches; -2, Cypris; 3, Daphnia.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--A parasite of a fresh-water fish (_Cyprinæ_): -1, larva, as it leaves the egg; 2, larva, more advanced; 3, adult -female, showing the egg sacs. (Nordmann.)] - -Some of these minute crustaceans are almost exact in their resemblance -to shells, as Estheria which has a bivalve shell. But perhaps the most -remarkable creature is Artemis, the brine shrimp (Fig. 139), which -lives in brine that would be deadly to almost any other animal. A -strange experiment has been made with this little creature; thus if -the brine is very strong its form resembles _a_, but if the brine is -diluted, it changes to _b_, a very different animal, so different that -it has been given another name. Many shrimps seem to prefer extreme -cold. The Apus (Fig. 140), withstands freezing, and hatches readily in -the icy water of the far north. This little creature has forty-seven -segments and one hundred and twenty legs. The fairy shrimp is a dainty -and beautiful crustacean with a marvelous array of leaflike feet which -also serve as breathing organs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Brine shrimps: _a_, Branchipus; _b_, Artemis.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--Apus.] - -In the summer, while strolling alongshore, one may find that every -piece of seaweed or rock when turned over affords concealment to -myriads of "sand fleas" which belong to a group of crustaceans having -fourteen feet. The sand fleas, true to their name, are remarkable -jumpers, darting in all directions and looking very much like an -ordinary flea (Fig. 141). They are valuable scavengers, eating all -kinds of refuse matter. They have the most bizarre shapes, and many, as -Arcturus, resemble twigs or pieces of seaweed, extremely difficult to -see and doubtless owe their immunity from attack to this cause. This -Arcturus (Fig. 142) is not only a remarkable mimic, but carries its -young upon its back. Idotea is a common form about piers, while the -little Gammarus may be caught with almost every haul of a very fine -net. At times one known as Podocerus builds a singular nest for its -better security, and one of the giants of the tribe has eyes so huge -that they are made up of facets and entirely cover the head. - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Sand flea (_Talitrus_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--_Arcturus longicornis_, enlarged.] - -One of these crustaceans, Limnoria, is among the most destructive of -all animals to the work of man. On the Pacific coast they vie with -the teredo, and on the coast of southern California are the chief -aggressors, the life of a prepared pile being less than two years. The -little creatures completely perforate it, so that the wood literally -falls in pieces, being so closely filled with circular borings that the -entire interior of the pile seems to have disappeared. - -One of the most beautiful of all the crustaceans, in my estimation, is -the mantis shrimp, or Squilla (Fig. 143), which I have kept alive. It -is found in deep and shallow water, and is a most remarkable creature -both in shape and color. Its head is ornamented with beautifully tinted -antennæ, vivid blues, greens, and yellows predominating. Its claws -are sharp pointed, and deadly weapons when used against its prey. The -finlets are richly tinted and in such rapid motion that they appear -to be a mass of revolving wheels, so that the Squilla resembles some -strange product of the imagination rather than a living animal. Its -young are even more remarkable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Mantis shrimp (_Squilla_).] - -One of the best-known groups of crustaceans is represented by those -with ten feet, of which the common lobster (Fig. 144) is a familiar -example. In this instance the first pair of legs are developed into -enormous biting claws; yet when the lobster sheds its skin all the -flesh in the large claws is drawn through the very small joint. The -lobster is a product of the colder waters of the North Atlantic, not -being known on the Pacific slope, although attempts have been made to -introduce it there. South of Long Island Sound it is very rare, and -despite the stringent laws for its preservation, is rapidly being -exterminated. Lobsters are caught in traps, called lobster pots, which -are lowered into the kelp and seaweed. Twenty years ago the annual -catch for the state of Maine was nearly fifteen million pounds, valued -at $250,000. It is far less to-day. The lobster sometimes attains a -weight of fifty pounds; but specimens weighing four or five pounds are -now rare, due to overcatching, and the destruction of the undersized -young. The color of the animal when alive is a dark green. The familiar -red hue is the result of cooking. The eggs of the lobster are laid in -March, and are masses of green spheres which are carried about by the -female attached to her swimmerets. - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Common lobster.] - -In southern waters and on the Pacific coast, the place of the lobster -is taken by the crayfish, or spiny lobster (Fig. 145). The resemblance -to the lobster is almost exact with this exception: instead of large -biting claws, the latter are but slightly larger than the ordinary -claws, ending with a sharp point, while the antennæ or feelers are -enlarged to an extraordinary degree, becoming highly serrated and -defensive organs in every sense. The Florida crayfish is a rich reddish -yellow, mottled color, while the California form is a greenish yellow. -On the Florida Reef almost every coral branch or coral head hides a -crayfish, the whips being seen waving to and fro. This is their day -retreat, but at night they wander forth to feed in the luxuriant -pastures of Algæ, or seaweeds, of various kinds found in the lagoons. -By going out early in the morning, before sunrise, I have often -surprised the crayfishes, the bottom being covered with them, massive -fellows weighing eight or ten pounds. They are not so delicate in -flavor as the lobster, but are very valuable as bait. The lobster and -the Pacific crayfish are both canned, the industry being an important -one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Crayfish or spiny lobster.] - -The prawns (Fig. 146) and shrimps are well known and valuable members -of this group, swarming in the same waters, and among the most graceful -of the tribe. Many are absolutely transparent, the large black eyes -alone being seen. The chameleon shrimp is noted for its rapid changes -of color, green, brown, and reddish hues following each other over its -crystallike body. In the deeper waters marvelous shrimps have been -found, nearly all a dazzling red. Some of the East Indian shrimps are -giants two feet in length. In England horses are employed to catch -shrimps. A large dragnet is set in shallow water to which the horse is -fastened, the fisherman, mounted, driving the animal over the shallow -flats, hauling the nets inshore. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--_A_, prawn; _B_, claw enlarged.] - -One of the most interesting of these ten-footed crustaceans is -the blind crayfish of Mammoth Cave. It is found also in various -subterranean streams of the country. The eyestalk of these little -creatures is all that remains to tell the story of what was once -an eye, and they live and thrive in perfect darkness. The ordinary -crayfish of Western streams has a peculiar habit of burrowing, which -at times has occasioned great damage in undermining dikes and dams. -I once came upon a remarkable crayfish community in Indiana. There -had been a flood the day previous, and every log in the neighborhood -and the piers of the bridge were covered with crayfish which, in this -locality at least, appeared to be endeavoring to escape from too much -water. On all sides, some yards from the creek and high above it, the -ground was raised into small heaps six or eight inches across, each, as -I discovered, being the home of a crayfish, and as far as the eye could -see on the prairie were these mounds and heaps, suggestive of the vast -numbers of these little animals in this vicinity. - - - - -XVI. THE CRABS - - -Of all the crustaceans, the crabs are the most singular and certainly -the most intelligent. Rapid in movement, good swimmers, alert, garbed -in extraordinary colors, often in stolen homes, they attract attention -at once and are the harlequins and clowns of the animal kingdom. The -crabs are distinguished from the rest of the group principally by their -very short tails. Their bodies are round, elongated, or oval. They are -found almost everywhere, from the deep sea, where they occupy shells -and sometimes drag about a luminous sea anemone, to every beach. It is -in or near the tropics that the most remarkable crabs are seen. - -During a visit to the islands off the coast of Texas, I once found a -remarkable crab community. The islands were flat sand banks just above -the surface, blown and washed up by the sea, with here and there sand -dunes and shrubs, and again vast stretches of sand inhabited only by -crabs. The latter were all of one kind, a pale gray, so mimicking the -sand in color that it was almost impossible to distinguish one from -the other. There were legions of them, the sand in places being fairly -riddled with their burrows, into which they darted with inconceivable -rapidity. As I walked along the sands they ran ahead in rapidly -increasing numbers, then divided and were so quick of foot that it was -impossible to run them down. This vast army of crabs was the sanitary -corps of the island, devouring every dead fish that came ashore and -other animal matter of all kinds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--A land crab (_Gecarcinus_).] - -At Garden Key, Florida, these crabs were found in swarms, rarely -entering the water except when driven, and never venturing far from -the reach of the highest waves at high tide. They had long, stalked -eyes, which seem to follow every movement, and were very comical and -interesting creatures to watch and study. On the keys covered with -bay cedars were other land crabs (Fig. 147), colored rich red and -purple. These crabs lived among the cactuses and bay cedar bushes. -When climbing on the former their resemblance in shape and color to -the purple fruit was remarkable, and if the crab remained quiet, it -was almost impossible to distinguish it. In these bushes a tern, the -noddy, had built its rude brush nest, and the young bird and the food -brought it by the parents were the objects of marked attention on the -part of not only the purple-backed crab but a hungry, starving horde -of hermit crabs which climbed the tree and snatched the bits of fish -from the young birds, despite the presence of their mother. By crawling -beneath the thick brush in heat which was almost suffocating, I watched -numbers of these foraging expeditions on the part of the crabs, and I -think it possible that some of the larger crabs finally carried off the -young birds. This was not an impossible feat, as Professor Mosely, of -the _Challenger_ deep-sea dredging expedition, observed the same crab -or a very near relative, carry off young birds at St. Paul's Rocks. -At Ascension he saw the doughty land crabs stealing young rabbits, -dragging them from their holes by main force and devouring them. This -crab with gorgeous colors was not very fleet of foot, and when I rose -up suddenly in the cactus by a nest they would draw in their legs and -cling to a branch, mimicking ripe fruit. The hermits would do the same, -and fall to the ground in a shower. - -An interesting crab found here is known as Grapsus, also a predatory -creature with unequaled courage, preying upon every living thing that -it can attack with safety. It is richly colored red and white; its legs -are long; it is a racer along the sands, impossible to capture. On the -West African coast these crabs, or a near relative, are very large, and -so swift that they have been used in sport, horsemen following them at -full speed as game. - -The ordinary crab of the Eastern shore is highly valued, and vast -numbers are shipped from Fort Monroe in Virginia to the northern -cities. The trade in "soft shells" is even more important. The latter -are caught in various ways. An old colored man of my acquaintance -used to tread for them on the mud flats with his bare feet; but he -confessed that it was a disagreeable business, as sometimes he stepped -on "hard shells" by mistake and was badly bitten. - -The English edible crab is of large size and always in demand, -resembling the edible crab of the Pacific, which is also very large and -greatly esteemed. - -That these crabs have a strong homing sense, or an affection for -certain localities, was demonstrated some years ago. Two crab fishermen -were following their occupation from the same boat, and each as he -caught a crab cut upon its swimming claw a private mark so that they -could be claimed by the rightful owners at the end of the day. The boat -was overtaken by a storm and the crabs were tipped overboard five miles -from where they were caught and lost. The following week the two men -again began to fish in the original spot, and to their amazement began -to catch the marked crabs, which had returned five miles alongshore to -the locality of their choice. - -The so-called green crab (Fig. 148) is an attractive and active -creature, one that can easily be observed. Its quaint stalked eyes, -which turn this way and that, and which can be stowed away in little -depressions, and its singular method of walking, are very interesting -features. When a crab walks on land it is usually endwise, and when it -wishes to change its course it is not obliged to turn about but moves -its legs in the opposite direction. It can also move directly ahead. -These movements are all performed by six legs, which are pointed, the -trail of this crab on the sand resembling pin marks on the hard beach. -The two front claws are for tearing food and for general defense, while -the last pair, widened out at the end in some, are paddles by which -the crab swims when it ventures off the bottom. - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--The green crab.] - -At times the crabs appear to migrate. I have seen the bottom of a -bay on the Virginian coast so covered that it was impossible to wade -without stepping upon a crab. In the island of Jamaica certain land -crabs march to the sea to deposit their eggs, at which time they appear -more or less indifferent to danger, and move on, despite the attacks of -birds and various animals, including man. - -The crabs known as fiddlers (Fig. 149) are common up and down the -Atlantic coast, especially in the warmer portions. A most interesting -colony lived north of Fernandina, Florida. Some years ago a plank walk -led across their domain, and one could stand and watch their ludicrous -maneuvers. The fiddler is not over an inch in length. It is of a dark -ivory hue, and its eyes are perched on long stalks, so that it can -bury itself in the mud and thrust its eyes upward, and thus in perfect -safety observe everything that is going on. The right claw of this crab -is half as long again as its entire body--a colossal weapon framed for -an animal five or ten times its size. Indeed, it is so large as to be -almost useless, for a large amount of strength is required to operate -so gigantic an implement. To emphasize the undue size of this claw, -the left one is a dwarf, being too small to act as a defensive weapon. -How so small a crab can use so strange a pair of weapons was a puzzle, -until by watching them, I discovered that the crab uses its large claw -as a bogy, brandishing it fiercely, which gives it a very ferocious -appearance. The movement of the claw back and forth is called fiddling, -hence the name of the crab, which appears to be constantly fiddling. -Where hundreds are seen, all fiddling and menacing one another at the -same time, the sight is laughable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Fiddler crab.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Spider crab.] - -Once while lifting branch coral into my boat on a coral reef, several -crabs fell from the olive-hued mass, and like spiders in shape and -form, made their way slowly along. Each one was covered with a growth -of seaweed. I took a brush and scoured them, producing veritable -spider crabs (Fig. 150). The body was pear-shaped; the claws were long -and covered with sharp points. These crabs were placed in a tank, -and almost immediately began to replace the seaweed which had been -rubbed off, evidently being much annoyed at the cleaning process. -In redecorating themselves they broke off small bits of seaweed from -a branch, placed the broken portion against the mouth, evidently to -attach some glutinous matter or animal mucilage, then raising it -with an overhand movement, they attached it to the back. This was -continually repeated until within a few hours the back of each crab was -changed from a smooth surface to a miniature garden. As many times as -the seaweed was removed, so many times was it replaced. - -The spider crabs range from the beautiful scarlet creatures found in -the coral to the giant Macrocheira of Japan, which in large specimens -has a spread of legs of twenty feet, some measuring twenty-two feet -between the two large biting claws, each of which is ten and a half -feet long. This huge crab is very slender, and is slow of movement, its -body resembling a rough rock. - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--Crabs that form galls on corals: _a_, -_Cryptochirus_ (male); _b_, _Coralliodytes_ (female); _c_, -_Hapalocarcinus marsupialis_ (female), that carries its young in a sac -or marsupium.] - -Crabs select singular places for homes. One lives in the sea cucumber; -others live in corals, which appear to grow over them, forming a gall -(Fig. 151). The little oyster crab found in bivalves is a familiar -form. But perhaps the most remarkable home for a crab was the bowl of -an old tobacco pipe in which a crab I once owned ensconced itself. -This was a hermit crab (Fig. 152). The hermits differ from other -crabs in having a long, but soft and totally unprotected tail or -abdomen, to preserve which they enter empty shells and drag them about -wherever they go. The hermits occur in great variety, and there are -marine hermits and land hermits. On the Florida Reef they are found -in myriads; every shell alongshore conceals a baby hermit; and almost -every nook or cranny affords concealment for a score of them, their red -and blue claws forming an attractive contrast to the shell. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Hermit crab.] - -The hermit referred to was first found in a pearly shell and placed in -the office, but finally it outgrew this and deserted it for the pipe -which some workmen had left on the floor. Every day this old pipe would -be clanked and dragged about the room, and once in a while the crab -would drag it up a table leg, so reaching the tablecloth and then the -table top, where it drank out of a saucer left for the purpose. Later a -marine hermit was found in a pipe bowl, proudly dragging the grotesque -house about. Anything of this kind would be used by the hermits. One -was found in the opening of a spool; and this would roll over and over, -carrying the hermit with it. Another took possession of a reed. Among -deep-sea sponges the hermits are seen occupying holes in the sponges. - -A community of hermits is a laughable sight. They are very pugilistic, -and are always fighting. When a hermit outgrows its shell and begins -to feel uncomfortable it endeavors to turn out some comrade that has a -larger shell, and in the battle arms and claws are often lost. This, -however, is not serious, as they grow again. When the hermit finds an -empty shell it thrusts in its claws and antennæ, probing it in every -direction to see that it is not occupied. When satisfied, it jerks -itself out of its own shell, and with the greatest rapidity whisks -its soft unprotected body into the new house, where, if it fits, it -remains. The shell, when large, is not carried, but dragged about, and -when the crab is alarmed or startled it darts backward into the shell, -where its large claw and the others constitute almost as good a door as -the real operculum of shells. The largest hermits are the marine forms, -which enter the large conch shells and drag them about. These hermits -are a brilliant red in color. Their claws are very rough. - -Closely related to the hermit crabs is the famous cocoanut crab or -Birgos of the Spice Islands. This crab is so strong and powerful that, -as Professor Van Beneden states, one clinging to a tree, seized a small -goat and lifted it from the ground by the ears. The Birgos resembles a -huge hermit crab, but has no artificial shell, the soft abdomen being -protected by a shell of its own. This large land crab lives mainly -on cocoanuts, which it secures by climbing the trees and biting off -the stems. Descending, the crab will take the nut and with remarkable -discrimination hold it with one claw and with the other tear off the -husk, always at the end containing the "eyes." This stripping process, -impossible to man without some implement, is remarkable in itself, and -tells the story of the muscular strength of the crab. When the "eyes" -of the nut are exposed, the crab seizes it by inserting its claws in -the holes, and hammers the shell until it is broken. The crabs live at -the base of the trees and line their dens with the husk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Horseshoe crab: _A_, upper side; _B_, lower -side.] - -In ancient times crablike creatures existed, eight or nine feet in -length. These are represented to-day by the quaint horseshoe or king -crabs (Fig. 153). They are found in shallow water in Northern waters, -and resemble a horseshoe with a long, sharp spike or spine--the tail of -this strange animal. - - - - -XVII. LUMINOUS CRABS - - -One of the interesting experiences of Nordenskiöld in the Arctic Ocean -was wading through the sludge, as the soft snow water along the beach -is called, and seeing each footprint turn into a mass of light, caused -by the phosphorescence of a small crustacean called Metridia. The light -was bluish white, of great intensity, and although at times the cold -was so severe that mercury would freeze, yet everywhere this marvelous -light blazed. Even drops and splashes of the water seemed to be molten -metal, but were merely alive with this minute light giver resembling -Cyclops. In the Pacific, especially in summer, the exhibition of what -might be called "crab light" is marvelous, and this is often true in -the Atlantic. The light following the splash of an oar, the spray -hurled aside by the cut water, the foaming water around a propeller, -and the strange shifting specter which follows the rudder, are caused -more or less by minute crustaceans which have the faculty of emitting -light without heat. - -Along the beach beneath seaweed, we shall find Gammarus, a long, very -small, but mighty jumper, that at night emits a red light. Many of -the near relatives of this little creature are phosphorescent, and -perhaps the most beautiful of all is one named Idotea phosphorea. It -is a yellowish spotted little creature found in pools alongshore. It -darts about among the weed, and would rarely, if ever, be noticed -during the day; but at night the entire animal seems permeated with -a golden light which marks it in vivid lines against the dark bottom, -and flashes and miniature meteors indicate it as it dashes across the -little pool, its ocean world. - -The most beautiful of all crustaceans is the one known as Sapphirina. I -have seen the ocean filled with them; some red, others blue or yellow, -purple or green, all known gems being imitated by these matchless -gems of the sea, which in daylight vie with the most brilliant -iridescence in producing wonderful displays. No more beautiful scene -can be imagined than that embracing these living gems, standing out in -brilliant tints against the deep blue of the ocean. These gems also -have the gift of phosphorescence and at night appear in a new guise. - -One of the singular long-legged spider crabs of the deep sea, -Colossendeis, is said to be phosphorescent. Giglioli, the Italian -naturalist, describes a crab which gives a golden purple light, the -latter appearing from the thorax. The little shrimp, Mysis, which -carries its young in a pouch, from which it is called the opossum -shrimp, is not phosphorescent, but its young in what is called the -zoëa stage are luminous. The odd-shaped little creature, which is the -mantis shrimp in one of its stages, is brilliantly luminous, not over -its entire body, but in the eyestalks. Some of the deep-sea crabs have -luminous eyes, strange monsters wandering in the abysmal regions of the -deep sea. - -While most of these crabs have the light in only one place, one -discovered by Sir Joseph Banks was luminous over its entire surface. -Exactly what the luminous matter is, is not known, but in some -instances it can be scraped off and will render the hands luminous -when rubbed upon them. According to A. M. Norman, naturalist of the -_Porcupine_ expedition, the crustacean Ethusa, found at a depth of -eighteen hundred feet, is blind, its eyestalk being spiny, and the -eye replaced by a smooth, round termination which is supposed to be a -light-emitting organ. Aristeus has phosphorescent eyes, which blaze -with the yellow fire of a cat's eye, and this is true of many other -crustaceans. Some have luminous backs; others have fiery bands upon the -legs, while almost every portion of the body of some species is the -seat of this wonderful light. That the lights are of some use there can -be little doubt. In one little creature Dr. Gunther found a brilliant -light stationed between its eyes, which certainly was a light to -illumine its way in the deep, dark bed of the ocean. - - - - -XVIII. THE INSECTS - - -Among the best-known and attractive members of the lower animal -kingdom are the insects, represented by the gorgeous butterflies, -the iridescent beetles, the fierce spiders, and many others. The -crustaceans may almost be called the insects of the ocean, as in -general appearance they closely resemble these animals; but the real -insects are higher forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Parts of a typical insect.] - -The skeleton (Fig. 154) of an insect is divided into three distinct -parts instead of two. The head is distinct from the body, as in the -crabs, and the skeleton, like that of the crabs, is external, and -formed of a horny substance called chitin. As in the crabs, the body -is made up of rings, or segments: four in the head generally, three -in the thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. It is interesting to -glance at the various parts of insects, and later on, in reading about -the many species, to note the many different purposes to which each is -adapted. - -The mouth is a very complicated organ in the crabs, and equally so -in the insects. It is generally separated into four distinct parts: -the upper lip, labrum, the jaws, or mandibles, a second pair of jaws -smaller than the above, and the lower lip or jaws, labium. These are -formed into sucking organs in the mosquito, biting organs in the ant, -and tremendous graspers in the centipede, all displaying the most -remarkable variety. - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Head of the grasshopper.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Eyes of a fly.] - -The eyes of insects are wonderful organs, being both simple and -compound. In the grasshopper (Fig. 155) the two are easily seen, the -compound eye being the larger. The fly has a remarkable compound eye -(Fig. 156), and in the center of the two eyes are three simple ones. -The compound eye in the fly is made up of vast numbers of six-sided -eyes crowded together, appearing under a glass like a honeycomb; yet -each of these facets is a complete eye. In a sectional view of the eye -of a beetle (Fig. 157) we can see the nerve that reaches every one. -In using the eyes hundreds of images of the same object must reach the -brain of the insect, yet the image of but one is seen. - -Attached to the head of insects are various sense organs, feelers, or -antennæ, which are very ornamental, as in the beetles. The central -portion of the skeleton bears the wings. In the beetle the wing covers -are formed of hard chitin. When its wings are not in use this insect -stores them away in covers provided for the purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Sectional view of the eye of a beetle.] - -The third or last part of the skeleton, the abdomen, often bears a -weapon of defense, as a sting or a drill for boring holes in trees, -or machines for making silk, as in the spiders. Here also we find a -remarkable variety of tails, ranging from that of the dragon fly to the -long tail of the scorpion with its dangerous sting or dagger. - -The feet of insects would make an interesting chapter alone, ranging -from the curious, sucking, padded foot of the fly (Fig. 158) to the -claws of others. The anatomy of insects is more or less complicated. -The method of breathing is particularly interesting. It is very natural -to imagine all animals breathing by the mouth or nostrils, but insects -breathe by a singular system of air tubes (Fig 159), or tracheæ, some -having lungs as well. The air tubes are wound with threads upon the -inside. This preserves their shape and keeps them open. If we examine -a grasshopper (Fig. 160), we shall see along the sides openings, which -under a powerful microscope resemble eyelike organs (Fig. 161). These -are air holes, windows, or spiracles, which lead to the air tubes, and -by minute thread-lined tubes reach all over the body. To obtain air, or -to breathe, the bee keeps its abdomen continually in motion, forcing -air through the body, carrying oxygen to the blood tissues. - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Foot of a fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Breathing tubes of an insect.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Grasshopper, showing spiracles, _s_.] - -The insects, with some exceptions, deposit eggs, and the young pass -through many strange changes, or metamorphoses, before the full-grown -form is attained. The eggs of beetles hatch into larvæ (Fig. 162), -which may live weeks or months or even years in the ground. The eggs of -other insects, as moths, may become caterpillars, which finally spin a -cocoon, as in the case of the silkworm, and from this cell-like room -appears the perfect moth. These changes, so infinite in their variety, -are among the most interesting features of insect life, and are never -failing sources of wonder and amazement on the part of those who devote -time to the study. - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Breathing hole or spiracle, highly magnified.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Larvæ of insects.] - - - - -XIX. LOWER FORMS OF INSECTS - - -In the previous chapter we have by the aid of illustrations glanced -at the structure of insects, and noted some of the features which -distinguished them from the crabs. Now we may take up some of the more -important and interesting groups and observe how Nature has adapted -them to their peculiar surroundings, and for the various offices they -fill in the world. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--The Peripatus.] - -In examining the various families of insects it is interesting to -note that many produce certain results or accomplish certain ends in -totally different ways. The highly organized spider by drawing silk -from the spinning machines at the tip of its abdomen builds a web so -strong that it sometimes captures birds. I recently found a living -humming bird hard and fast in a web at the corner of my house, and -released it just in time to save it from the spider. In the very -lowest groups of insects we find the Peripatus (Fig. 163), which spins -a weblike structure from glands in its mouth, ejecting the secretion -at the insect it wishes to catch. This appears to crystallize in the -air and hold the victim despite its struggles. The Peripatus, found -in Africa and Central America, resembles a large caterpillar, having -a long, soft, cylindrical body with many pairs of feet, sometimes -sixty-six; the latter are soft and armed with claws. It is remarkable -for the possession of many legs, but is outdone in this respect by -the millipeds, as some (Fig. 164) have as many as two hundred. These -insects, when placed upon their backs, present an extraordinary -appearance, clawing the air; yet they are among the slowest of walkers. -They live in the ground, are harmless, feed on vegetable matter, and -deposit their eggs in the earth, which hatch out little creatures at -first resembling crickets. - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--A milliped.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--A centiped.] - -The centipeds, on the other hand (Fig. 165), are animal feeders, and -those found in the tropics are formidable creatures from six to ten -inches in length, supplied with many claws and terrible fangs. They -live a life of rapine and destruction, and the appearance of a large -specimen almost a foot in length, dashing along with great rapidity -by the aid of its fifteen or twenty pairs of feet, is sufficient -to demoralize the stroller through the dark glades of the tropical -forests. They have two pairs of foot jaws (Fig. 166) which grasp an -enemy with wonderful tenacity. The second pair is perforated, and from -it pours a poison dangerous to man in some tropical species and fatal -to small animals. Several of these hideous creatures are luminous at -times. Many centipeds have long antennæ. The eyes are very small, and -in groups. The ordinary centiped of the North is harmless, despite the -tales related of its ferocity. - -Among the very small, though destructive insects, are the mites, found -in cheese and sugar; they are parasitic in cattle and various other -animals. In California certain forms (Fig. 167) cling to the bushes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Under surface of head of centiped, showing -poison fangs.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--A mite.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--The scorpion.] - -In remarkable contrast to the round-bodied mites are the scorpions -(Fig. 168), in which the tail is sometimes two inches in length -and armed with a sharp, daggerlike sting, provided with a poison -apparatus. The scorpions of the largest size are often found in the -tropics in the same locality with centipeds, under board piles and in -dark places, coming out at night to prey upon small insects, which -they seize with their crablike claws and tear apart. If the insect -struggles violently, the scorpion raises its tail over its back and -pierces it with its dagger, paralyzing it. In striking at other enemies -the scorpion whirls about, keeping its tail toward them, repeatedly -striking down and using its jointed tail with marvelous ingenuity. -A few years ago these scorpions were common on the Florida Reef and -were frequently killed in my own house at night. The pain resulting -from the sting was about as disagreeable as that occasioned by a wasp. -These scorpions were about three inches in length, but in Ceylon -very much larger ones have been seen, and known to catch birds. The -young scorpions are born alive and cling to the mother. The little -book scorpion, the large whip scorpion, and the daddy longlegs, or -harvestman, a harmless and sociable insect, are related to the true -scorpions. - - - - -XX. THE SPIDERS - - -A little insect half as large as a grain of corn, finds itself -on a limb high above ground and is desirous of reaching another, -five feet away. It is not a jumper, at least it could not hope to -cover this distance; neither has it wings. But it has a marvelous -silk-manufacturing apparatus, known as spinnerets (Fig. 169), and -elevating its abdomen it reels off a thread which the wind carries -across the chasm where it lodges. Across the single cord the spider -runs, the act being suggestive of the intelligence of these insects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--Spinnerets of a spider.] - -The common garden spider (Fig. 170), which may illustrate the group, is -seen to differ very materially from the scorpion. The abdomen is not -ringed or made up of segments, but is large and plump, and connected -with the thorax by a delicate cord or pedicel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--Garden spider, upper and lower surface.] - -The spiders, as we have seen, have a spinning arrangement by which -they form beautiful webs or nets to capture prey. By this silken cord -they can lower themselves from great heights. The single thread which -supports them is made up of a number of minute threads (Fig. 171). The -webs are formed in endless variety and with all the skill of a bridge -maker, being guyed, supported, and braced in a manner which, if the -work of man, would be said to be the result of endless study. They are -perfect in their arrangement, and each web is a study in geometry, yet -the spider builds it with the greatest rapidity, never hesitating in -the making or repairing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--Structure of a spider's web.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--Spider and its web or trap.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--Highly magnified poison fang of spider.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--Biting mandibles of a spider.] - -By my door is a huge spider similar to the one shown in Figure 172. -It has a beautiful web which covers a space two feet square, but the -spider rarely occupies it. Near by it has a covering formed of a leaf -of a fern which it has pulled down each side and fastened, forming a -little room just the size of its body. Wondering how the spider would -discover a victim caught in the web, I examined it carefully, and -then placed a grasshopper in the web. Instantly the spider noted the -disturbance, having what to all intents and purposes was a private -telephone line. This was a single guy line leading from the center -of the web to its retreat, where one of the spider's claws rested -upon it, holding it, so that the slightest swaying of the web lifted -its foot. When an insect became entangled, the spider darted at it, -and by skillful manipulation of its hind pair of legs reeled off its -silken cord and attached it to the victim at every point, in a short -time literally binding it in a roll. If it was likely to escape, the -spider would bite it, using its poison fang (Fig. 173), which paralyzed -it. The biting mandibles (Fig. 174) are terrible weapons, from which -there is no escape. The inner jaws (Fig. 175) are equally sharp and -effective. The eyes of the spider are very brilliant, and in a bright -light can be seen to gleam and glisten like points of steel or fire. -They are minute dots, seen just above the mandibles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--Jaws of a spider.] - -The male and female spiders often present a very different appearance, -the male being smaller. The spiders deposit eggs which are inclosed in -silken balls or nests of various kinds, in which they remain until the -young are hatched. Some are concealed in the web; others are placed -underground; and some are perched upon a stalk resembling a plant. - -There appears to be no limit to the uses to which the marvelous silk of -spiders is put. Some spiders form balloons with which they sail away -through the air. I have seen scores of these aëronauts in the air at -one time. Another form constructs a raft of leaves bound together with -silk. Some build nets for small game, as gnats. The silken cord made by -others is so tough that it can be used as thread. - -By partly destroying a web and suspending a black cloth behind the -locality, the operations of the spider in building and repairing can be -plainly seen. It is well to place the spinnerets beneath a microscope, -under which they appear to be made up of many points. Touch one of -these and a glutinous secretion adheres, which when stretched is seen -to be silk, and each point provides a separate thread which joins with -the others, producing one cable. The spinnerets are to some extent -movable. They can be turned to the right or left, and wherever they -touch, the silk remains glued fast. This explains why the spider moves -and works so quickly and accomplishes so much. The amount of silk -secreted is astonishing, and some idea of it can be obtained by walking -over the country in spring, early in the morning. On the slopes of the -Sierra Madre, in the San Gabriel Valley, I have seen the surface of the -ground for a great distance covered with webs which caught the rays of -the sun as it rose, presenting a most beautiful appearance. This fabric -covered hundreds of acres in a fairy maze of web, so many traps for -unwary small fry of the insect world. With a small stick I have wound a -large amount of silk from the spinnerets of a spider, there apparently -being no diminution of the supply. Professor Burt Wilder wound from -the large spider known as Nephila plumipes several miles of silk. Some -spiders have long, slender legs and are rapid runners. Others, as -Salticus, are very deliberate, but powerful leapers, jumping upon their -prey like a cat. Perhaps the most remarkable leaping spider is one from -Australia, called the flying Attus, having singular flaps or winglike -extensions upon its sides. One of the spiders not only runs over the -surface of the water readily, but spends a part of its time under the -surface, carrying down a bubble of air for its supply of oxygen, the -bubble acting as a diving bell. - -The spiders are very solicitous of their young, placing every safeguard -about them, and resenting any attack by a fierce rush. Several large -spiders (Fig. 176) carry their young upon their backs. The little -spiders are rubbed or scraped off when they become too great a burden. -The spiders are natural hunters and trappers, and a volume could be -written on their methods and adventures in running down prey. Once as -I was crawling through the almost stifling brush of one of the Florida -Keys I came to a little opening about five feet wide, across which was -a large, conspicuous, and powerful web. In the center of this web clung -a huge and most remarkable spider, colored a vivid yellow and black. I -watched it for a few moments while resting, and then touched the web, -whereupon the spider began to swing, by raising and depressing its -body, increasing its speed rapidly, until I could with difficulty see -it. A moment later it disappeared almost entirely before my eyes. For -half a minute the spider kept up this motion, then it slowly came to a -standstill, having demonstrated that it could easily disappear from any -bird enemy without running away. I have seen the daddy longlegs perform -the same feat in California. - -[Illustration: FIG. 176.--Spider with young upon its back.] - -The spiders which build webs, from plain geometrical traps to conelike -affairs, are interesting; but the trapdoor spiders and those which -dig burrows are among the wonderful artisans and engineers of the -insect world. One of the most perfect doors, in hinge, fit, beauty -of interior, finish, and quality of its outward defense is built by a -spider (Fig. 177). In the illustration, the den and its trapdoor is -shown, and in Figure 178 a sectional view of the same is seen; but the -door is never found open, the spring or hinge being so devised as to -remain closed. I have found many of these dens in southern California -sometimes a foot or more in length. The spider is not the large one -shown in the cut, which is a tarantula, but is very much smaller, -though a large spider. The genera, Cteniza and Nemesia, are best known -for their cunning and skill as builders. The California spider begins -its den when very small, and I have found many the size of goose -quills, with door complete, in the vicinity of a large den. - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--Tarantulas (_Mygale_) and the opening of a -trapdoor den of another spider (_Cteniza_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--Section of a den of trapdoor spider.] - -In forming the burrow the spider carries out the clay bit by bit, and -when it reaches a point below the surface it begins to line the sides -with a silken tapestry. The door is an upper extension of this lining. -It is round, about the size of a silver quarter, or a little larger, -and is formed of silk so woven and interwoven that it becomes a pad -of seeming satin, which by continued manipulation is made to fit with -marvelous perfection. The spring or hinge is so adjusted that the door -always closes, and with a snap. The exterior of the door is covered -with clay, and is made to simulate the surroundings so exactly that -only the sharpest eye, and one skilled in the work, can distinguish -it. In some of the European spiders of this kind the door is carefully -covered with moss and plants. The work of building is done at night. -The spiders feed at night, and in returning to the burrow they can lift -the lid instantly, dart in, and turn about to seize the cushion or pad -of the door with their fangs, and hold it so tightly by bracing back -that some little strength is needed to force it. I have often lifted -the door with the blade of my knife and seen the spider rush up and -seize it. In all the doors little round holes can be seen where the -mandibles or fangs hold. The spider can be caught by pouring water -into the burrow and forcing it out. In the island of Timos there is a -trapdoor spider which does not hunt, but combines the methods of other -spiders. It comes out at night, fastens back its door by a thread, -then builds a web near by and waits for its victims to become entangled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--A chimney-building spider.] - -The largest spiders are called tarantulas, though the term is applied -to some forms not so large. They are hideous creatures, and are very -common in southern California. They are five or six inches across the -legs, and the body in some forms is as large as a small mouse, and is -covered with reddish hair. They form deep burrows, but not trapdoors, -the entrance being open or covered by a web. They are supposed to be -very poisonous. Mygale Hentzii is the name of the common American -species found in the southwest (Fig. 177). They hunt at night for -grasshoppers, crickets, and other small game, and can often be seen -lumbering along over the roads at sunrise, returning from a hunt. -Sometimes these huge spiders migrate in a body, such a movement having -been observed in southern California. - -A South American species has been known to attack and capture small -birds, though this may be considered rather the exception than the -rule, their food consisting of large insects and small lizards. Of all -the spiders, the Tarantula turricula (Fig. 179) is the most remarkable, -as it not only makes a deep burrow, but erects above it a chimneylike -structure with all the skill of a human workman. Indeed, the structure, -in neatness and perfection of design, is far superior to many of the -chimneys seen among the poorer classes of some countries. The spider -lays the miniature timbers across with the precision and exactness of a -skilled carpenter and after the manner of human log-cabin builders. The -female carries her young upon her back, as shown in the illustration. - - - - -XXI. SOME SIX-LEGGED INSECTS - - -One of the great divisions into which the insects are divided relates -to their possession of six legs (Fig. 180). This includes a marvelous -array of creatures. Among them we find the singular little glacier flea -(Fig. 181) and the springtail, a prodigious jumper (Fig. 182). The -latter is found in damp places, and when touched will release a forked -spring which is held in place by a hook, and this sends the insect -flying into the air like an acrobat. These humble little creatures -present a strange contrast to the lace-winged insects which are among -the most beautiful of the tribe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--A six-legged insect.] - -The May flies (Fig. 183) are well known for the wonderful exhibitions -they sometimes make, the air being filled with them, a joyous, -beautiful throng, destined to live but a few hours. In South America -they occur in such vast numbers that they are collected and used -as guano. The young pass through a strange change, having little -resemblance to the parent, and live in the water, where they breathe by -means of several plumelike gills. - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--Glacier flea.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182.--Springtail.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--May fly.] - -Among all the insects of the field and swamp none are more familiar -than the dragon fly (Fig. 184), which children were once led to believe -had a vicious habit of sewing up the eyes and mouth of any one; hence -the name "darning needle." These insects are often beautiful, with -their rich wings of glistening lace, four in number, their bodies -gleaming in tints of bronze, blue, and black. The abdomen is long and -slender, like a needle; the head is prominent and armed with powerful -jaws; the eyes are large and compound, with several single eyes as -well. Some dragon flies are very small. Others are large, as those of -the Malay Archipelago, where the natives trap them and use them for -food. The dragon flies are hunters, preying upon other insects which -they capture on the wing, and large forms have been seen taking very -young fishes from the water, swooping down upon them like hawks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--Dragon fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--Larvæ of a dragon fly.] - -The development of the dragon fly is interesting from the fact that the -young lives a long period in the water. The eggs are deposited in the -water, hatching out into curiously shaped creatures (Fig. 185), which -are among the most ferocious of all the water insects. They pass two -years in this form, preying upon other animals and even small fishes. -The larva has a proboscis which ordinarily folds over the face and is -called the mask (_B_), but when an insect approaches, this strange -appliance with powerful jaws or hooks is shot out (_A_) with dire -results. After the two years have passed the pupa, as it is called, -climbs up a stem, leaves the water and casts its skin, appearing as a -full-grown dragon fly ready for a life of rapine on land. - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--Ant lion, adult and larva.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 187.--Section of trap of an ant lion.] - -In many insects the habits of the young are much more interesting -than those of the adults. Not far from my home, in the Arroyo Seco, -which leads down from the Sierra Madre, are great deposits or beds of -fine sand which I find often covered with little pits (Fig. 186). If -a section is made (Fig. 187), it is found to be a perfect bowl almost -half an inch in depth, as though a top had been pressed into the sand -and taken out. If sand is rolled into the pit, something appears -quickly at the bottom and mysteriously tosses it out; and if an ant -topples over the edge and rolls down the sides, out comes a fierce -pair of jaws and seizes it. If the ant escapes, the unknown creature, -still concealed, hurls sand at it, endeavoring to bring it down, often -with success. This singular creature is the larva or immature young of -the ant lion--itself an attractive, large, lace-winged creature (Fig. -188), resembling a dragon fly. It lays its eggs in dry places. The -young are wingless, big-jawed creatures, which for two years live the -life of a trapper, each forming a pit and concealing itself beneath the -sand at the bottom, the huge jaws being in the center. Ants are the -game of this lion, and as they run along they often topple over the -sides which, like those of a toboggan, are very slippery. Down the ant -goes, its descent being accelerated by the lion which places sand upon -its back, and bombards the unfortunate, so adding to its confusion that -it rolls down and is seized by the jaws of the lion. At the end of the -two years the lion surrounds itself with a ball of sand and silk, and -in three weeks appears as the perfect insect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--Perfect form of ant lion.] - -Unless one is familiar with the eggs of the aphis lion (Fig. 189) he -will never find them. They resemble minute plants growing on long -stems, fastened to a leaf. These hatch out and become little creatures -resembling the ant lion, with huge jaws. - -But the most extraordinary changes and series of different individuals -are found among the so-called white ants, which are really not ants at -all, but among the most destructive of all known insects. The first -white travelers in Africa reported the discovery of gigantic ant -hills, some of which were twelve feet in height (Fig. 190) and one -hundred feet in circumference. Equally large mounds have been found -in Australia, large areas of country being dotted with these striking -landmarks, among the most remarkable of all animal structures. These -mounds are often as hard as rock, and hunters have sometimes escaped -from the charges of wild animals by climbing upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--Aphis lion, larva and eggs.] - -They are the work of the so-called white ants. A section made through -one of them, as seen in the illustration, shows the singular home of a -remarkable community. There are really four kinds of "ants" here, all -representing a different phase in the growth of the insect, and all -performing a certain work. They are the female, the male, the worker, -and the soldier; and there is a winged king. In their lives these -insects have many features which resemble those of man. They have a -king and queen, which at first have wings; later they lose their wings -and the queen grows until she is thousands of times larger than the -workers, and is kept in a special chamber in the center of the pile. -Here she is attended by the workers, small ants, who carry out the eggs -which are laid by millions and placed in nurseries or small cemented -cells, designed for the purpose. Sometimes the queen lays as many as -eight thousand eggs a day. An army of workers carries them off, builds -new nurseries, and adds to the heap. If an enemy appears, the soldiers -rush out. These have large heads and enormous jaws, and are well fitted -by nature for the work they have to perform. - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--Hills of the white ant.] - -The cunning and intelligence of white ants are well displayed in their -attacks upon houses. Having decided to enter a house, they begin to -tunnel some distance away, and finally reach the corner post or some -timber that enters the ground. With remarkable speed the workers enter -this, hollowing it out, until it is nothing but a shell. They eat to -the very surface, leaving only a faint ghost of a partition, and what -appears to be a solid block is really so thin that a finger can be -thrust through it. So clever are these little ant miners that they have -been known to come up through the floor directly beneath the leg of a -chair, and burrow and eat up through it, so completely devastating it -that when the owner moved it the small hole in the floor appeared and -the chair fell in pieces. - -In the Isle of France a new building was ruined by these insects in -a few months; and at Colombo a large house suddenly fell in over the -heads of the occupants, the beams being crushed like egg shells. The -work they accomplished in this way would hardly be credited were it not -for the substantiated statements collected by the authorities in the -countries where they are mostly found. - -The so-called caddis worms (Fig. 191) are merely the larvæ of the -caddis fly which incloses itself in a case that is often decorated in -a singular way. The cases of a number of the worms placed together -display a striking variety of designs. Some roll up leaves; others spin -a silken thread from the mouth and bind pieces of leaves together, -attaching other pieces to it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--Caddis worm and case.] - - - - -XXII. SOME MIMICS - - -All insects have a continual struggle for life. They constitute the -food of many birds, and very few of the young escape these watchful -creatures and attain mature life. - -To enable the insects to escape, nature has given many a strange -protective garb, which is called mimicry or a protective resemblance. -Sometimes it is color, an insect mimicking a leaf in color; or again, -the insect imitates a twig or leaf in shape, and so escapes attention. -We find examples of this in many families, but particularly among -the insects now under consideration. The mantis (Fig. 192) belongs -to a group in which the insects resemble twigs in shape and color, -and nothing could be more striking than these strange, slow-moving -creatures. They have an uncanny, weird appearance, and look as though -they might have been originally of wood. I have seen them in the -tropics passing slowly along a limb, lifting one leg at a time, moving -it with all the halting deliberation of an automaton; but when the -mantis perceived me, it stopped just as it was, the foot that was in -the air remaining as though it had been frozen in the act. Some are a -vivid green, and in them the resemblance to twigs is very striking. -I once encouraged a number to live in my preserves, where I watched -and studied and often fed them. They would take a fly from my hand by -a very rapid movement of the cruel, fore hands or claws, which were -toothed. When food was scarce the insects would devour one another -in the most deliberate fashion, then assume the quaint, supplicating -position with claws up, from which the insect is called the praying -mantis. My specimens deposited their eggs in a curious case about an -inch long, resembling a trilobite, which they attached to the fence and -colored the exact hue of the latter. The fence was not painted, and -varied in color, yet the nests always agreed more or less exactly with -the shade or tint of the plank or base to which it was attached. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--The mantis.] - -In South America is found a huge mantis so powerful that it captures -birds by grasping them in its terrible claws. The insect is described -by Burmeister as crouching on the limb, imitating it so closely that -the bird approaches it without fear. In Java a beautiful pink mantis -is so perfect in its mimicry of a pink orchid that insects alight upon -it and are caught. A Philippine Island mantis is remarkable for its -resemblance to a dried and withered leaf. - -The chief characteristic of this insect is its cool, deliberate -ferocity--devouring its mate with indifference, lunching calmly upon -its young, while they are dining among themselves. When fighting they -have the characteristics of the bulldog, with many times its endurance. -A mantis will continue a combat even when part of its body is cut away. -I have seen one deprived of all its legs cling to a limb with one claw -and continue to reach for its foe with the other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--Walking stick.] - -Closely allied to the mantis, and even more remarkable as mimics, -are the walking sticks (Phasma) (Fig. 193). I have kept them alive, -and often have been unable to see them when I knew they were -directly beneath my eyes, so remarkable is the mimicry. They have -no biting claws, merely long antennæ, a long, sticklike body, and -straight-jointed, sticklike legs. Some are green. The most remarkable -are those which seem to imitate dead wood. I have seen a walking stick -that was a perfect imitation of a moss or lichen-covered twig, the body -and legs of the insect being covered with peculiar growths. The largest -walking stick I have seen was twelve inches in length, and one of the -most perfect imitations of a green twig that could be imagined. This -was from the Malay country, where they grow to a length of fourteen -inches. They stretch out upon long tendrils, extending the limbs or -holding them up, the _poseurs_ of the insect world. - -The walking leaves (Phyllium) (Fig. 194) are clever mimics, resembling -leaves. Even the veins and midrib of the leaf are imitated, and -the insect, when crouching on a limb, is a virtual leaf, so far as -appearance goes, the disguise being absolutely perfect. Some resemble -green leaves; others dried and withered specimens. Even the legs of -these insects are supplied with a singular growth. Most of these -strange mimics are found clinging to trees; but one common in Brazil -spends most of the time during the day under water in streams, where -it clings to the pebbles. In Nicaragua there are several species that -resemble leaves in all stages of decay. The movements of some of these -insects resemble those of leaves. I saw one in the Sierra Madre range -come down from a tall sycamore, and supposed it a leaf, as it dropped -slowly, zigzagging down. I should not have discovered the mistake had -not my dog recognized it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--Walking leaf.] - - - - -XXIII. THE GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS - - -These forms may be considered the musicians of the insect world. None -of the insects can produce vocal sounds, that is, they have no voice, -but they have certain appliances which enable them to produce sounds -which can be heard a long distance. On hot days in summer is heard the -constant and shrill zee-zeeing of the locust, while countless varieties -lend their aid in producing a volume of sound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--A grasshopper.] - -The "instruments" in the locust are (Fig. 196) minute teeth, arranged -along the thighs; these are rubbed against the fore wings, producing -the remarkable sounds. The locusts are commonly called grasshoppers. -They have two pairs of net-veined wings, and hind legs adapted for -leaping, by which they send themselves sprawling through the air, -almost invariably using this method of escape instead of unfolding -their delicate wings. All are mimics. The common ground locust -resembles the dusty road and the dried foliage which it affects. -Others, which live on plants, are a vivid green. Some which I find in -my garden resemble closely the tender shoots of the passion vine, upon -which they feed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--Musical instruments of the locust: _a_, leg; -_b_, _c_, teeth, enlarged.] - -The locusts (Acridiidæ) have short antennæ, large glassy eyes, and ears -at the base of the abdomen. The female is provided with an appliance -called the ovipositor, four sharp points with which the grasshopper -digs holes in the ground; later these are used as a guide or funnel for -introducing the eggs into the burrow. The mouth is supplied with parts -adapted to biting. When a grasshopper (Fig. 195) is caught it exudes a -peculiar fluid resembling molasses, a secretion of the salivary glands. -The eggs are deposited in masses from sixty to one hundred. The young -resemble the parent, but at first have no wings. The grasshopper in -making its metamorphosis, or change from one stage to another, casts -its skin in a manner calling to mind the crabs; in a word, it molts -several times (Fig. 197). In accomplishing this, it often climbs a -spear of grass and there shuffles out of its old skin and jumps away, -leaving the hollow skin clinging to the grass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--A grasshopper and young at different stages: -_A_, larva; _B_, pupa; _C_, adult.] - -At times they appear in vast numbers, and in clouds rise into the air, -so that from a distance they might be taken for smoke or a tornado. -This cloud is made up of starving locusts which devastate the countries -they infest. They alight upon a wheat field, and an hour later hundreds -of acres appear as though a fire had swept over the ground. Every -spear of grass, every leaf, has been devoured by this insatiate throng, -which can not be destroyed or even checked. In Africa swarms have been -swept by the wind out over the ocean, to be washed in in such vast -numbers that they formed a line fifty miles long and three or four feet -high alongshore, creating an odor which drove people from that region. -Jægar, the naturalist, rode through a swarm in Russia for four hundred -miles where they were two feet deep. The entire country was devastated -by this band of locusts, and tens of thousands of human beings were -threatened with starvation. The government troops were ordered to the -place and warfare declared against the locusts, the soldiers being -armed with shovels instead of guns. A line of thirty thousand men moved -slowly forward, covering the insects with earth or digging them under, -while in various localities huge fires were built to burn the ground -and destroy the eggs. Despite this, thirty thousand people starved to -death, the direct result of their raids. Almost every portion of the -world away from the poles has been threatened by these raiders. There -are many references in the Bible to these insects, and their ravages -have been carried on from the earliest times known to man. In America -the Rocky Mountain locust is the most destructive, and many of the -Western states have been ravaged by them. - - "Onward they came, a dark, continuous cloud of congregated myriads, - numberless. - The rushing of whose wings was as the sound of a broad river, - headlong in its course. - Plunged from a mountain summit, or the roar of a wild ocean, as the - autumn storm, - Shattering its billows on a shore of rocks." - --SOUTHEY. - -Some years ago a flock settled in Colorado Springs, the streets and -roofs being covered with them, so that they were swept and shoveled -about like snow. Some American swarms have been traced for several -hundred miles, and settling on railroads, have stopped the trains by -making the tracks slippery. Alighting in a cornfield the rustling sound -of their depredation can be heard for some distance; and when they -rise, a fire might have swept over the fields, so far as appearances -go. The swarm, a black, portentous cloud, sweeps on, flying at a rate -of thirty miles an hour to reach some new field, where they dig burrows -with their curious ovipositors, and deposit their eggs by millions. -Then they move on, leaving an unborn swarm to develop and later -constitute another army to spread devastation abroad in the land. - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--Crickets.] - -The crickets (Fig. 198) are familiar forms with cylindrical bodies and -large heads placed vertically, the ovipositor often being as large -as the entire body. The female often deposits three hundred eggs in -the ground. The note of the cricket is produced by the male, and is -a decidedly musical chirp, varying in the different kinds. The close -observer may easily find the cave house of the little singer that is -often seen sitting at the entrance, singing, not at the top of its -voice, but with the full force of its wings, the sound being produced -by using the fore wings, as bows and the hind wings as fiddles, and -sawing with great rapidity. - -The crickets are found in the greatest variety. Some live in the -ground, others affect houses, and in the tropics beautiful tree -crickets are found. The snowy tree cricket has a peculiar note, -_te-reat, te-reat, te-reat_. The broad-winged tree cricket has a call -which resembles a dog whistle. Another has a piping note resembling the -thrilling musical sound made by rubbing the edge of a glass with one's -finger. The singular cave cricket is wingless, and has antennæ several -times the length of its body. The Western cricket does great damage -to the crops of the farmer, and when bands are seen marching over the -country, ditches are often dug into which the crickets plunge, where, -in default of food, they begin to devour one another. The cry of this -cricket is harsh and disagreeable, the "musical instrument" being on -the dorsum or back of the shield which seems to cover the fore part of -its back. The curious mole cricket, which burrows underground and is -provided with enormous jaws, is a menace to the gardener. In the outer -Florida Keys I found that it was almost impossible to rear plants, so -plentiful and ravenous were these fierce root eaters. - - - - -XXIV. THE BEETLES - - -The beetles (Fig. 199) are insects having their fore wings thickened -to constitute sheaths or covers for the lower pair, used in flight. -Their mouths are adapted for biting, and they pass through a complete -metamorphosis. There are about ninety thousand species, ranging from -minute creatures to huge, lumbering goliaths. When walking the beetle -presents a trim appearance, enveloped in a gleaming armor of the -highest polish, and often ablaze with metallic tints, but when it flies -the elytra, or wing covers, are thrown up, and a pair of soft, silken -wings flutter out, stiffen, and bear the beetle away. - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--A typical beetle (_Cotalpa_): _A_, imago; -_B_, larva.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 200.--Head of a beetle.] - -The head of the beetle is small and adapted for biting (Fig. 200); the -digestive apparatus is simple. The most noticeable feature of many -are the antennæ (Fig. 201), which often are very long and ornamental. -The eyes are compound. The legs are strong and powerful. The beetles -spend little time in flying, many being flesh eaters and continually -searching for game under refuse and in dark places. They lay eggs which -are deposited in the ground, or in special cavities made in wood, which -hatch into larvæ (Fig. 202). In the tiger beetle the larvæ resemble -white worms. In the rose beetle they look like grubs. These in time -change to helpless pupæ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--Antennæ of beetles.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--Beetle and young: _A_, tiger beetle; _B_, -larva of same, enlarged; _C_, water beetle.] - -The June bug, the beetle which dashes into rooms, blindly charging -lights of all kinds, is a familiar example. Its larva is white and -very destructive. On my lawn in California the Bermuda grass often -turns white, and sections a foot square can be lifted, having been cut -off from the roots by this destructive larva of the June bug, which -during this stage of its existence lives underground, eating roots and -plants of various kinds. For two years this beetle (Fig. 203) lives a -subterranean, marauding life, growing and shedding its skin. It is -often considered a complete animal, but at the end of this period it -changes into what is called the pupa stage, which does not move; the -pupæ are white, soft, helpless creatures which are found around the -roots of rose bushes in great number, and which are so appreciated by -mocking birds that they and the blackbirds invariably follow me about -the garden when I am overturning the soil with the trowel. Finally the -pupa changes into the perfect insect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--June bug, showing wings and wing covers.] - -The larvæ of some of the spring beetles remain in the "grub" stage five -years, and are known as wire worms, doing a vast amount of damage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--Bark-boring beetle.] - -The girdler beetle bores holes in tender limbs of the hickory, then -systematically girdles the limb below the eggs, so that by the time -the young hatch they have soft, dead wood to feed upon. The bark borer -(Fig. 204) penetrates the bark of trees, and cuts winding tunnels here -and there, in which are placed its eggs. Among the most attractive of -the beetles are the carnivorous sexton beetles. They find dead bodies -with all the skill of a vulture, burrow beneath them and deposit their -eggs within the body, where the young feed. The work these beetles -accomplish in destroying animals and even burying them renders them -valuable scavengers. Among the destructive beetles are the buffalo bugs -(Fig. 205), which have been introduced from Europe; the larva of these -is a strange, fuzzy little creature (_a_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--Buffalo bug and various stages of young.] - -The weevils (Fig. 206) are the bane of the dweller in the tropics. -They infest bread, cake, and flour and meal of every kind. Perhaps -the most dreaded by the Northern farmer is the potato bug (Fig. 207), -which plays havoc with potatoes, often ruining the entire crop, the -vines being covered by the soft and disagreeable larva, more like a -worm than anything else. The diving beetle is an interesting insect, -being a flier and a swimmer. Its hind legs are fringed and adapted for -swimming. On the fore limb is a sucker, or several, by which the beetle -can attach itself to any object. The larva is a ferocious creature, -armed with a pair of fierce jaws, with which it attacks small fishes, -frogs, tadpoles, and game very much larger than itself. - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--The weevil.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--Potato bug, eggs and young.] - - - - -XXV. THE BUGS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--Chinch bug, egg and various stages of the -young.] - -The bugs are easily recognized. They have the mouth parts arranged as -a sucking beak or proboscis. The chinch bug (Fig. 208), the squash bug -(Fig. 209), the seventeen-year cicada, or locust (Fig. 210), and the -bean aphis (Fig. 211) are well-known examples. They represent a group -dreaded for many reasons; many are parasites on man and beast, while -many others destroy crops of various kinds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--Squash bug.] - -In nearly all fresh-water ponds and pools curious flat, long-legged -creatures (Fig. 212) are seen darting over the surface, being perfectly -at home. They are water boatmen, and one species (Fig. 213) is found -far out at sea. - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--Cicada.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--Bean aphis.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--Water boatmen.] - -In passing in review the various insects the peculiar transformations -through which they pass are noticed; some long, some short, some -partial, and many complete. In the cicada, or seventeen-year locust, or -harvest fly, we have an instance of one of the strangest examples of -slow development known. The cicada is a wedge-shaped insect having some -resemblance to a huge fly. At the base of the abdomen is a drumlike -organ by which it makes a shrill "zeeing" sound which, when thousands -are joined in concert, produces a remarkable sound audible for a long -distance. I have heard it half a mile with the wind, and by following -it up found a grove filled with insects producing a roar of sounds, -while, clinging to the trees and branches, were thousands of empty -skins from which the cicadas had escaped. The cicada deposits three or -four hundred eggs in holes on the twigs or bark of the oak. They hatch -very promptly in six weeks or so, and we might conclude that the young -cicadas would soon appear. But seventeen long years of life underground -are now required before the pupa crawls upward, molts, and appears as -an adult cicada. It has spent all these years as an almost helpless -creature, resembling the mole cricket, subsisting by sucking the juices -from the roots of plants, waiting for the ending of its imprisonment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--Halobates, a bug that goes to sea.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--Young leaf hopper and its bubbles.] - -On many plants the stroller through the garden will observe bits of -white froth, like soap suds, and few persons, were they not in the -secret, would believe that the froth is an especially devised medium -for the little leaf hopper (Fig. 214). The adult insect is a curious -little creature found among the grasses in spring. The young require -moisture to enable them to attain their full development, and when -hatched they climb up stalks of grass and pierce them with their -beaklike proboscis and gorge themselves with the juices. The insect now -exudes a foamy secretion which bubbles up about it, in time entirely -surrounding itself in a mass of moisture. The insect converts this -into air globules by pushing its tail above the mass (_a_) and seizing -air in its claspers, which it passes beneath it to the spiracle or -breathing pore. In this way it breathes and also fills the section -about it with air. There the animal passes the time until it is -ready to change, when it escapes and becomes a perfect leaf hopper. -The famous cochineal insects (Fig. 215) belong to this group. They -are minute creatures which live upon certain cacti in the tropics. -When collected they form the celebrated dye. Another form produces a -valuable wax. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--Cochineal insect.] - -Who has not found his rose bushes swarming with minute green bodies, -the Aphidæ? Brush them off at night and in a few hours as many more -are seen, due to the marvelous rapidity of their increase. The eggs -are laid in the autumn, and hatch in the early spring, the young -then appearing as wingless little creatures which in turn produce not -eggs but winged or wingless Aphidæ (Fig. 216). These appear in such -numbers and so quickly that in a single summer a pair of plant lice -will produce one quintillion of young ones. Can we wonder that it is -difficult to keep the rose bushes free from such a swarm? The story -of the development of these insects is but merely touched upon, but -it is among the most remarkable of all the strange and unexplainable -transformations we find in animal life. - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--Aphis.] - -Here we may glance at the countless scaly insects which infest fruit -of various kinds. The black, red, and cottony scale are common in -California, and have to be fought with all the cunning and intelligence -that man can invoke. In 1886 the orange groves of southern California -were almost ruined by the cottony scale. I have seen trees that looked -as though the limbs were covered with snow. But an enemy of the scale, -a little spotted lady bug, was imported from Australia, and in a few -months the scale had disappeared. The black and red scale and several -others are pests which devastate the groves, stopping the growth of the -trees and operating against the fruit grower, who is obliged to spray -the trees with poisonous washes to destroy them. - - - - -XXVI. FLIES AND MOSQUITOES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--A fly, natural size and magnified.] - -The flies and mosquitoes are among the greatest pests and dangers -to man. Both are conveyers of disease, and the former, as an agent -of destruction, deposits its eggs in meat of all kinds, making it -impossible to keep meat in some countries. On the other hand, it should -be remembered that the flies are valuable scavengers, hastening the -destruction of dead matter which might contaminate the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--Tongue of a fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--Eyes of a fly.] - -The flies (Fig. 217) are two-winged insects with mouth parts adapted -for lapping (Fig. 218) or sucking. Under the microscope these organs -often appear to be composed of needlelike bristles, forming a proboscis -protected by a scabbard or sheath. In some flies this weapon is many -times as long as the body. The head is well separated from the body, -and movable. The eyes are compound and simple, made up of many facets -(Fig 219). The wings are gauze-like, often beautiful, and when the fly -is in motion, they move in a figure eight, making, it is estimated, -19,800 revolutions a minute. The feet (Fig. 220) enable it to cling -to the smoothest surfaces with ease. The little pads are extremely -irritating at times when the fly walks over the flesh, tapping here -and there with its soft tongue, in which all parts except the labium -are rudimentary. The latter has a broad tip for licking or lapping. -The flies breathe by spiracles, and are among the most active of all -insects, and the bravest, attacking man and beast, and refusing to be -driven off, despite the most active and spirited defense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--Foot of a fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--Flesh fly, eggs and young in various stages -of development.] - -The development of the house fly is a familiar process. The eggs of the -flesh fly, as an example (Fig. 221), are small, white objects which -hatch into maggots. These change gradually, finally becoming pupæ, then -assuming the adult form. The bluebottle fly (Fig. 222) is one of the -best known. The house fly is found in greatest numbers near stables, -as there, in the piles of refuse, the eggs are deposited, hatching in -twenty-four hours. The young appear as fleshy, soft, footless worms or -maggots, which are ravenous, and live upon the most fÅ“tid matter for -two weeks, when they change into a pupa, a barrel-shaped, cocoonlike -form. For two weeks this remains motionless, when out of it breaks the -perfect house fly, soon to deposit its eggs and help to produce the -tens of millions of flies which swarm wherever human beings are found. - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--Bluebottle fly and young.] - -Among the many species of flies some are bloodsuckers, as the horse -flies. The robber flies are the hawks of the race, carrying off other -insects, even large dragon flies. The many species of horse flies -attack horses and cattle, and the animals are often driven to a frenzy -by their approach. An entire herd will recognize the approach of these -insects and stampede. Many of the flies deposit their eggs upon the -hairs or nostrils of horses. Flies exist in countless varieties, from -harmless creatures to some in Africa which are deadly to cattle and -horses; from the ordinary fly whose larva lives in cheese to others -which thrive in alcohol and wine. In California the larva of one -species is found in Lake Mono, where no other animal can live. Hundreds -of bushels of them are sometimes washed upon the beaches, constituting -a favorite food for the Indians. - -The warfare declared against mosquitoes in America, suggested by Dr. -Howard, has attracted widespread attention to these insects, which have -rendered many localities absolutely uninhabitable. A Florida physician -informed me that in a certain locality horses had been killed by these -insatiate bloodsuckers, which are now known to be the carriers of -the germs of yellow fever. Over almost every pond or pool in summer -they may be seen in countless numbers, filling the air with their -disagreeable music. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--Proboscis of a mosquito.] - -The proboscis, or sucking weapon, of the mosquito (Fig. 223) is an -innocent-appearing object when closed; but when the sheath is open it -displays a series of scimeter and sawtooth daggers (Fig. 224), which -fully explains the torture of the mosquito bite or that of the gnat -which crawls up one's sleeve (Fig. 225). In all these extraordinary -weapons we find the same organs, the labium, labrum, and others, but -with greater or less development, according to the nature of the insect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--Proboscis of a mosquito open.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--Biting organs of a gnat.] - -It is the female mosquito which occasions all the trouble and renders -mankind miserable in some of the otherwise most delightful resorts. On -the Florida Keys I always had a mosquito bar overhead, not merely over -the bed but suspended from the ceiling in midday. Even then these pests -would force their way through the meshes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--Development of the mosquito.] - -The development of the mosquito is interesting (Fig. 226). The eggs are -deposited as a boat-shaped mass on the surface of the water, where they -drift about for several days. The larvæ appear as wigglers floating -in the water, tail upward, and breathing through a tube at the tip -of the abdomen which is projected above the water for the purpose. -After a while the head grows larger, and several changes ensue. Then -the pupa finally appears. This rises to the surface, and out bursts a -full-fledged mosquito which, like a man in a canoe, balances itself -while its wings dry. A few hours before it was entirely dependent -upon the water and swimming in it, but now it appears to be fearful -of overturning the frail craft and falling in where it would surely -drown. If all goes well, it soon tries its wings and goes buzzing away. -The devastation caused by the armed and bewhiskered mosquito is not -generally known. Doubtless thousands have lost their lives from this -unsuspected cause. - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--The gnat (_Culex_) and its development from -the egg: _A_, egg; _B_, larva; _C_, pupa; _D_, adult.] - -The common gnat (Fig. 227) has habits similar to those of the mosquito. -They are often seen floating in the air in great swarms or bands, -rising and forming as though in some mystic dance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--The flea and its development.] - -Closely allied to these forms are the fleas (Fig. 228), which are at -once interesting and irritating. They are wingless, and have two simple -eyes. The larva resembles a small caterpillar. It attains its growth -in twelve days, then enters a small cocoon, which it weaves. There -it remains for sixteen days, when it breaks forth a full-grown flea. -Of all insects the fleas are the most amenable to instruction. Some -years ago a flea circus was one of the attractions of New York, where, -by looking through a magnifying glass, one could see fleas dragging -chariots with other fleas dressed as cavaliers sitting on the seats. -Many other seemingly impossible feats were exhibited. - - - - -XXVII. THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS - - -Of all the insects the butterflies (Fig. 229) are the most beautiful. -Nature has arrayed them in coats of many colors. Every tint and every -possible shade of color, including metallic, is found among them. In -some of the South American forests they are of gigantic size, a blaze -of iridescent blue, as though formed of the most delicate flakes of -that beautiful mineral labradorite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--A butterfly.] - -The butterflies add to the beauty of nature. Among the trees they -congregate, forming dashes of color, red, blue, green, and golden -yellow. They vie with the flowers in their splendors; besides being -ornamental they accomplish a great work in carrying pollen from flower -to flower and from plant to plant. They have small heads (Fig. 230), -short antennæ, and four beautiful wings which are covered with minute -scales. Each of the latter when examined under a microscope becomes a -resplendent object, glistening like the plate of some gorgeous armor. -The mouth parts are adapted for sucking, and are coiled up when not in -use (Fig. 231). They consist of two tubular or hollow threads. - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--Head of a moth.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--Mouth parts of a butterfly.] - -The ordinary caterpillar is the larva of the butterfly. The eggs -are deposited on leaves and various places, and soon hatch into -caterpillars (Fig. 232). These lead a predatory life for some time, -doing a vast amount of damage, almost every plant having its peculiar -pest. Some affect one tree, some another. The famous elm trees of many -of the New England cities have more than once been threatened by these -larvæ. They shed their coats several times. The caterpillar finally -merges into the chrysalis, from which it escapes as the perfect insect. -All of these changes can easily be observed by keeping a caterpillar -under continuous observation. The butterflies have well-developed legs, -but they rarely use them for locomotion, preferring to fly from flower -to flower. The tortoise-shell butterfly is a familiar form (Fig. 233), -its marvelous colors resembling this shell. Some have an under covering -of pure silver. Another conspicuous form is the white butterfly (Fig. -234), which, as its name suggests, is pure white, with several black -spots. - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--Butterfly and young.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--Tortoise-shell butterfly.] - -When the butterfly is at rest its wings are held aloft, and many are so -colored that in this position the wing resembles a leaf and the animal -escapes observation. A marvelous example of this protective mimicry is -observed in the East Indian butterfly, Kallima (Fig. 235). The wings -have a little projection which resembles a stem from which a dark mark -resembling a midrib extends. When the butterfly alights, this seeming -stem, as shown in the illustration, appears to join to the branch, -and the resemblance to a leaf is so perfect that the most careful -observer is often deceived. Other butterflies observed by Wallace -mimicked dry oak leaves and dead leaves of various kinds. All the spots -and colors of decay were imitated in their wings. Other Indian forms -resemble fungus, and utterly disappear as they alight upon it. No -more attractive butterfly is seen than the finely marked Vanessa, the -peacock butterfly (Fig. 236), which has beautiful peacock marks upon -its wings in vivid blue. - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--White butterfly and young.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--A butterfly which resembles a leaf.] - -In southern California, almost every spring, there is a migration of -butterflies from the south northward along the Sierra Madre. I have -watched them for hours, numbers being seen over a given spot every -moment. By writing to postmasters and other persons in different -sections, I found that the migrating band was two hundred miles long -and from ten to twenty miles wide. Doubtless this was but a fraction -of its actual extent, it being made up, in reality, of millions of -yellow butterflies. Darwin saw such a migration in South America. Their -pathway was several miles in width, they filled the air like a yellow -cloud, and were several hours passing a given point. Vessels out at sea -have met with similar flocks blown away from the shore. - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--Peacock butterfly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--Silkworm moth.] - -The butterflies are included in the Lepidoptera, and are the day-flying -forms. There are many other insects equally beautiful, in more subdued -tints, which are night flyers. These are the moths (Fig. 237), which -are slow of flight, ponderous, and have extraordinary tongues for -sucking the juices from the flowers. They can be distinguished from -the butterflies by their feathered antennæ. One of the best known for -its ravages is the dwarf moth, the worm of which plays such havoc among -woolens. The cankerworm moth is equally a pest among valuable shade -trees. Another familiar form is the hawk moth (Fig. 238), which so -resembles a humming bird in appearance and motion that it is almost -impossible to distinguish between the two, the moth being one of the -most active, poising over flowers and inserting its enormous tongue to -secure the sweets there concealed. A showy moth is the huge Attacus, -its larva being especially large and voracious. - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--Hawk moth, a rapid flyer.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--Death's-head moth.] - -The moths display as great a variety in their shapes, colors, and sizes -as the butterflies. The death's-head moth (Fig. 239) is perhaps as -startling as any, bearing on its back a well-defined figure of a skull. -The most valuable moth to man is the silkworm moth, the wings of which -have a spread of six inches and are a brilliant ochre yellow, fawn, -or mouse color, marked with striking peacock-like eyes. They deposit -eggs, but the development of the caterpillar is somewhat different from -that of the butterfly larva. The latter passes its pupa stage as an -unprotected chrysalis attached to some object by the tail (Fig. 240), -but the caterpillar of the moth secretes silk from a gland in its head, -and with this forms about itself a cocoon. This is unwound by machinery -and woven into the valuable silk of commerce. The silk industry brings -to the weavers of the United States alone an annual sum amounting to -about $30,000,000. The silkworm can easily be kept and all its changes -watched, and many persons are interested in rearing the worms. The time -required by the worm to form its silk cocoon varies with the locality. -Thus in France it will complete it in four days, while in England forty -or more days are necessary. About two hundred cocoons weigh a pound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--Pupa of butterfly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--Basketlike cocoon of a South American moth.] - -Silkworm moths are ravenous eaters, living principally on mulberry -leaves. They show much intelligence in forming their cocoons. Thus a -South American moth (Fig. 241) forms a basketlike structure which it -suspends from some limb. The cradle swings in the wind like a seed pod, -more than anything else, and would never be suspected as inclosing -a living creature. Many of the moths, by some remarkable instinct, -deposit their eggs where the young will find an immediate supply of -food. This care for their young is the cause of a vast amount of -damage among fruit trees. The fruit moth, as an example, deposits its -eggs in fruit; the caterpillar penetrates it and devours the interior, -thousands of bushels of apples being destroyed yearly in this way, not -to speak of other fruits. - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--Tent moth, caterpillar and cocoon.] - -One of the best known of the moths is the tent moth (Fig. 242), the -larva of which forms a tentlike web for its protection in the trees it -affects. A richly tinted flyer is known as the goat moth (Fig. 243), -the caterpillar being a large and beautiful creature. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--Goat moth.] - - - - -XXVIII. THE ANTS - - -If the question should be propounded which next to man is the most -intelligent of animals, the reply might be, the ants; for after a -careful study of all the ways and habits of these small insects, it -will be very evident that the lives of many are conducted with more -method than the lowest human lives. - -The ants belong to the great group called Hymenoptera--insects with -membranelike wings, including the gall flies, bees, and wasps. - -Ants are found everywhere. Long lines are seen marching along, some -coming, some going, in countless multitudes. Yet drop a strange ant -into this highway and it is at once discovered and in danger. If water -is poured into a nest of ants, the inhabitants come rushing out. Some -come to fight, and others bear in their mouths the young (Fig. 244), -countless thousands, to a place of safety. - -The ant is a trim, vigorous individual, fleet of foot, tireless, never -weary, brave, industrious, a type of the worker. The head is large. -The eyes are compound, with three single eyes. The antennæ are long, -slender organs by which ants appear to recognize friends or foes, and -possibly talk with them in some way. Certainly when two ants meet, a -very strange interchange of courtesies with the antennæ is performed. -The males and females are winged, and there is a third kind without -wings, called workers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--Ants removing their young to a place of -safety.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--Tunnels of ants.] - -Ants live in vast communities of from one hundred thousand to five -hundred thousand or more. They excavate the soil and gravel, descend -into the ground, and tunnel it in every direction (Fig. 245). In -certain places they store food, in others eggs. The affairs of their -vast underground city are carried on with a marvelous method. Although -the ants have wings, these are soon cast away. At certain times the -winged males and females swarm out of the nest and fly away, forming -other communities. The males soon die; the females rid themselves of -their wings, and thereafter remain in their new nests. The entire work -of the community falls upon the so-called workers. They make the nest, -repair it, do the fighting when necessary, move the immature young or -eggs, shut up the nest at night, and open it in the morning. The eggs -are minute, and as soon as laid are taken by the workers, or nurses, -as they are also called, and carried to favorable places, where they -are carefully watched. They are shifted about and occasionally for some -reason brought above ground. The larvæ, when they hatch (Fig. 246), -appear as little worms, or grubs, which would starve if they were not -constantly fed by the nurses. If it is too cold, these babies are taken -up into the sunshine, or placed in some hall near the surface where -the sun's rays can reach them. Finally they change to the pupa stage -and are covered by a web. They are still cared for with the greatest -solicitude by the nurses, which stand by when they finally hatch out -and aid them in their entrance into the world. Nurses in every sense -of the word, their care at this time is one of the most remarkable -exhibitions of human traits in a lower animal known. Many other human -traits find their prototype among these minute animals. They care for -the young, the sick, and the wounded; they go to war, capture their -foes, make slaves of them, and force them to work. They keep certain -insects for the pleasant odor they afford and others for the secretions -they emit, the latter action resembling keeping and milking cows. -Ants build remarkable houses arranged in rooms for various purposes; -they plant gardens to raise certain crops; they introduce plants that -will provide certain food; they retard the growth of seeds in their -granaries; build vast underground or covered roads to escape the heat; -they make bridges to cross streams; and in numerous other ways they -demonstrate their remarkable intelligence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--Egg and larvæ of the ant.] - -The extent of the homes of ants is astonishing when we bear in mind -the size of the insect. Some often extend many feet underground, and -their tunnels have been traced beneath the broad Paraiba River of South -America. - -Many different species of ants are known, all interesting for their -singular ways of living. The foraging or slave-making ants of Africa -go to war against other ants. Such foraging trips are carried on with -remarkable discipline, and the warriors may be seen returning, a -triumphant army, bearing the eggs and larvæ of the enemy, which they -nurse and bring up as slaves. These slave makers are large and powerful -Ecitons, the dominant race of the ants. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--Honey ants.] - -Among the slave-making ants the owners often become so dependent upon -the slaves that they are almost helpless, and would starve were it -not for these dependents. The so-called honey ants of Texas exhibit -some remarkable traits in the manner of their lives (Fig. 247). These -ants, which I have observed in the Garden of the Gods, Colorado, select -certain individuals as storehouses and supply them with honey until the -abdomen is expanded to many times its size, resembling a bottle. The -ants when filled are placed in a compartment made for the purpose, and -there hung to the wall, animated honey jars, which are taken down and -made to give up their sweets as occasion demands. These honey balls are -considered a delicacy in Mexico, and are served as dessert. - -Among the ants, those of Texas known as the agricultural ants are -remarkable for their intelligence. They are farmers, laying out places -which they cultivate with a certain plant, which is especially to their -taste, just as farmers plant corn. - - - - -XXIX. THE BEES AND WASPS - - -In almost every flower bed in the garden we shall find the bees, -examples of tireless energy, storing up honey for their young in such -vast quantities that the surplus forms a valuable food supply for man -as well. The nests of bees are systematically robbed of their stores, -and for this purpose the insects are supplied with artificial nests or -hives, in which they deposit their honey, entirely for the benefit of -mankind. Here we see a singular limitation placed upon intelligence. -The intelligence of bees is wonderful and amazing. Many of their acts -and works suggest those of human beings, yet when the time comes for -thinking after the fashion of men, the bees are lacking. They go on -storing honey in artificial hives without being able to bridge the -mental chasm and perceive that they are being robbed and made to work -as virtual slaves. Hence we assume that the intelligence of bees is not -on the same plane as that of human beings. They appear to be acting -upon a strong instinct which impels them to perform acts which seem -intelligent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--The head of a bee.] - -The head of the bee bears two remarkable compound eyes, with three -simple ones between them. The antennæ are short. The mouth parts -(Fig. 248) are complicated, and adapted for sucking up the honey or -sweets of flowers or the juices of fruits. In California, the bees eat -fruit as well as honey, and even flesh or meat, in very dry seasons, -when flowers are scarce. The abdomen of the bee (Fig. 249) is supplied -with a sawlike stinger or dart (Fig. 250) which inflicts a painful and -poisonous wound. In general appearance the ordinary honeybee resembles -an ant with wings; but the bee is hairy, it has a sting, and the legs -of the worker are provided with "honey baskets," which carry pollen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--Bees: _a_, queen; _b_, drone; _c_, worker.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--Sting of a bee.] - -Bees are of several kinds, queens, workers, and drones, there being a -division of labor. The queen is the largest, the drone is the smallest, -and it has no sting. The history of the bee and its development is -one of the most wonderful chapters in the whole story of animal -life. Glancing at the interior of a hive we see that the bees have -constructed a series of hexagonal cells. To learn how they have -accomplished this, we may follow a bee in its flight. This may be one -or two miles from the hive, yet so perfect is the knowledge of the bee -of direction, that it is rarely lost. Reaching a flower it sucks out -the honey, which it swallows. It then takes pollen, the dust from the -stamen of the flowers, and stows it away in little baskets attached -to the legs. It also takes a waxlike substance called propolis from -buds of various trees, which it packs with the pollen in the baskets. -Arriving at the nest, the bee, with countless others, engages in the -construction of the cells, which are of various sizes. The material for -building up the cells is wax, which is secreted by the bees, appearing -in little flakes under the abdomen, from which it is taken by the legs -of the bee. This is the material from which the comb is made, while -the propolis is employed as a cement to attach the cells together, and -for various minor purposes. Think of thousands of workers bringing in -this material, working in the dark, yet never making a mistake. The bee -finally ejects the honey which it has swallowed, placing it in certain -cells, where it is sealed up and remains until it is needed as food. -The pollen is also placed in cells. - -A single community of bees may consist of two hundred thousand -individuals. In the hive there is a single queen, which often lays from -fifteen hundred to two thousand eggs a day, and if we could follow her, -we should find that she lays the eggs in different cells, and in cells -of different sizes. In the first are eggs which develop into workers, -and in the second are larger eggs which will produce males, called -drones. The little eggs soon hatch into white grubs which are carefully -fed by the workers with digested honey and pollen. Finally the young -larvæ almost fill the cells and then stop eating. The workers cover -them in, and each spins for itself a silken cocoon, in which it remains -until it breaks out in the form of a perfect bee. - -The workers build certain large cells on the side of the comb, which -are called queen cells, and the larvæ which appear in them are fed with -some peculiar food which produces queens. The workers watch each of -these cells with great care, gnawing the wax away on top so that they -can observe the progress of development. Finally a small hole is made, -through which the proboscis of the young queen protrudes, and in this -way it is fed for several days, during which it utters a low, piping -noise. The queens attack each other on sight, and previous to the -appearance of a young queen the old one, with thousands of followers, -makes her escape, or swarms. Then the workers liberate a young queen, -and if there are others, there are repeated swarms, each queen leaving -with a multitude of followers, till the hive has but one queen. There -are in the community now a number of drones, and as they appear to -be an expensive and worthless burden to carry during the winter, the -workers attack and kill them, throwing them out of the hive. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--Carpenter bee.] - -Among the many kinds of bees the carpenters (Fig. 251) are famous, -boring tunnels into solid wood for the reception of their young; half -an inch a day being accomplished by these little carpenters. The -bumblebee, one of the largest, forms its nest in the ground (Fig. 252). - -[Illustration: FIG. 252.--Bumblebee and nest.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 253.--Wasp and young.] - -The wasps (Fig. 253) live in societies of males, females, and workers. -The paperlike nests are familiar objects in the woods, resembling great -bags of paper which when opened are seen to be filled with cells. Many -nests are of beautiful shapes, resembling candelabra, while the cells -of the common mud dauber (Fig. 254) call to mind the adobe houses of -the Mexicans and Indians of the Southwest. The mud cells of a South -American wasp resemble bottles (Fig. 255). Many of the large wasps -are fierce and vindictive, and nearly all resent an attack upon their -homes. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Abalone, 109. - - Æolis, 114. - - Aeronaut, 179. - - Agassiz, Louis, 27. - - AmÅ“ba, 8, 10. - - Anemone, 38, 43. - - Angle worm, 82. - - Animalcules, 76. - - Ant, 223. - - Antennæ, 96. - - Ant lion, 181. - - Aphis, 202. - - Aphrodite, 85. - - Aplysia, 114. - - Apus, 137. - - Aragonite, 29. - - Arcturus, 178. - - Argonaut, 125. - - Arion, 115. - - Aristeus, 158. - - Ascension Is., 147. - - Astræa, 49. - - Atlantic, 51. - - Atoll, 48. - - Attacus, 218. - - Attus, 172. - - Aurelia, 29. - - Auricle, 92. - - Avalon, 86. - - Avalon, Phosphorescence at, 86, 101. - - - B - - Banks, Sir J., 157. - - Barnacle, 104. - - Barnacle, Goose, 134. - - Bean aphis, 200. - - Bee, 228. - - Beetles, 195. - - Beetles, Boring, 197. - - Bell Animalcule, 12. - - Bivalve, 91. - - Blind crustacean, 143. - - Bluebottle fly, 206. - - Book scorpion, 166. - - Brachiopoda, 81. - - Branchipus, 137. - - Brine shrimp, 137. - - Buffalo bug, 198. - - Bugs, 199. - - Bulimus, 112. - - Bumble bee, 223. - - Burgos crab, 154. - - Butterflies, 212. - - Byssus, 99. - - - C - - Caddis worm, 185. - - Cardium, 103. - - Carpenter bee, 231. - - Caryophyllia, 47. - - Cassis, 110. - - Caterpillar, 164. - - Caves, Santa Catalina, 32. - - Centipede, 165. - - Cerithium, 103. - - Chætopterus, 86. - - Challenger, 147. - - Chamæleon, 143. - - Chinch bug, 198. - - Chiton, 101. - - Cicada, 200. - - Cilia, 11. - - Clam, Giant, 98. - - Cleodora, 116. - - Cochineal, 202. - - Cockle, 102. - - Cocoanut crab, 155. - - Colossendeis, 157. - - Conch, 106, 110. - - Cone, 110. - - Conus, 110. - - Coral, 44, 51, 53. - - Coral insect, 52. - - Cottony scale, 203. - - Cowry, 110. - - Crab, 42, 124, 156. - - Cranchia, 127. - - Crayfish, 130, 144. - - Crickets, 165, 191. - - Crinoid, 56. - - Crustacean, 128. - - Ctenactis, 46. - - Cteniza, 174. - - Cuttlefish, 117. - - Cyanea, 27. - - Cyclops, 135. - - Cypræa, 110. - - Cyprinæ, 136. - - - D - - Daddy longlegs, 167. - - Darwin, 83. - - Decorative crab, 151. - - Dendronotus, 114. - - Dentalium, 116. - - Devilfish, 117. - - Doris, 114. - - Dragon fly, 180. - - - E - - Echinus, 65. - - Eciton, 226. - - Edible crab, 148. - - Eolis, see Æolis. - - Erenberg, 77. - - - F - - Fiddler crab, 149. - - Fierasfer, 71. - - Firmin, Point, 32. - - Firmin, Point, Phosphorescence at, 32. - - Firmin, Point, Waves at, 32. - - Flea, 211. - - Florida, 71. - - Flustra, 78. - - Fly, 204. - - Flying spider, 172. - - Foraminifera, 15. - - Fresh-water pearl, 98. - - Fungia, 51. - - Fusus, 111. - - - G - - Gall crab, 152. - - Gammarus, 138. - - Garden Key, 44. - - Garden of the Gods, 227. - - Gecarcinus, 146. - - Giant clam, 98. - - Giant octopus, 123. - - Giant squid, 114, 118. - - Glacier flea, 178. - - Glass-bottom boat, 50. - - Glass sponge, 23. - - Gnat, 210. - - Goat moth, 221. - - Goniaster, 61. - - Gordius, 75. - - Gorgonia, 49, 53. - - Grapsus, 124, 147. - - Grasshopper, 190. - - Green crab, 149. - - Gulf of Mexico, 33. - - Gunther, 158. - - - H - - Haliotis, 109. - - Halobates, 201. - - Helderberg, 53. - - Hermit crab, 152. - - Hibernation, 112. - - Holothurian, 72. - - Honey ant, 227. - - Horseshoe crab, 155. - - Howard, Dr., 207. - - Hymenoptera, 222. - - - I - - Ianthina, 116. - - Insects, 159, 190. - Anatomy of, 159. - Larvæ of, 159. - Music of, 190. - Parts of, 159. - Spiracles of, 159. - - - J - - Jægar, 192. - On locusts, 192. - - Japanese crab, 152. - - Jellyfishes, 26-35. - Beauties of, 27. - Development of, 29. - Young of, 29. - - June bugs, 197. - - - K - - Kallima, 215. - - - L - - Labium, 206. - - Labrum, 208. - - Lake Mono, 207. - - Lamp shell, 80. - - Land crab, 149, 150. - - Larva, 163. - - Lasso, 28. - - Leaf hopper, 201. - - Leech, 82. - - Lepidoptera, 217. - - Lernæans, 136. - - Limax, 115. - - Lime, 50. - - Limnoria, 138. - - Limpet, 105, 108. - - Lingula, 80. - - Lobster, 132, 140. - - Locust, 190. - - Lucernaria, 30. - - Luminous crab, 157. - - - M - - Macrocheira, 152. - - Mactra, 101. - - Malay, 72. - - Mammoth Cave, 143. - - Mantis, 186. - - May fly, 178. - - Melicerta, 32. - - Metridia, 156. - - Mimicry, 186. - - Mimicry of insects, 187. - - Mite, 166. - - Mole cricket, 201. - - Moseley, Dr., 147. - - Mosquito, 208. - Development of, 209. - - Moth, 221. - - Mushroom coral, 46. - - Mussel, 97. - - Mygale, 176. - - - N - - Nassa, 107. - - Natica, 106. - - National Museum, 122. - - Nemesia, 174. - - Nereis, 86. - - Noctiluca, 16. - - Noctiluca, phosphorescence, 16. - - Norway lobster, 129. - - Nummulites, 13. - - - O - - Ocean, 15. - Lime in, 15. - - Octopus, 122. - - Onchidium, 155. - Eyes of, 155. - - Ophiocoma, 62. - - Oyster crab, 152. - - - P - - Paper nautilus, 125. - - ParamÅ“cium, 12. - - Pearl, 94. - - Pelagia, 35. - - Pentacrinus, 56. - - Pentacta, 71. - - Peripatus, 164. - - Philippines, 113. - - Phorus, 103. - - Phosphorescence, 7, 84, 156. - - Phyllium, 189. - - Physalia, 33. - - Physophora, 36. - - Planarian, 73. - - Pleurobranchia, 53. - - Polycirrus, 86. - - Polyp, 46. - - Polyzoan, 77. - - Pompilius, 223. - - Porpita, 37. - - Potato bug, 198. - - Prawns, 142. - - Praya, 36. - - Pteropod, 115. - - - R - - Radiolarian, 14. - - Razor clam, 99. - - Reef, 53. - - Rhizostoma, 32. - - Rotifer, 76. - - - S - - San Clemente, 112. - - Sand collar, 106. - - Sand dollar, 67. - - Sand flea, 138. - - Santa Catalina, 32, 50, 109. - - Sapphirina, 167. - - Scale insects, 203. - - Scorpion, 160. - - Sea anemone, 38, 43. - - Sea cucumber, 70, 71. - - Sea pen, 54. - - Sea slug, 114. - - Semper, Dr., 82. - - Sepia, 118. - - Serpulæ, 88. - - Shrimps, 131. - - Sierra Madre, 172. - - Silk worm, 219. - - Siphon, 92. - - Snail, 90. - - Soft-shelled crab, 147. - - Southern California, 7. - - Spicules, 21, 72. - - Spider, 168. - - Spider crab, 151. - - Spirit crab, 128. - - Sponges, 18. - - Squash bug, 199. - - Squid, 114, 120, 121. - - Squilla, 139. - - Starfish, 60, 64. - - Stings, 229, 233. - - Stone lilies, 56. - - St. Paul's Rocks, 147. - - Sucker, 122. - - Syllis, 86. - - Synapta, 72. - - - T - - Taltritus, 138. - - Tarantula, 174. - - Terebratula, 80. - - Teredo, 100. - - Tiger beetle, 196. - - Timos, 175. - - Trichina, 75, 76. - - Tritonia, 114. - - Trochus, 103. - - Turritella, 103. - - - U - - Univalve, 104. - - Urchin, 65, 69. - - - V - - Velella, 35. - - - W - - Walking stick, 188. - - Wasp, 167. - - Water boatman, 200. - - Water flea, 136. - - Web, 169. - - White ant, 184. - - - - -ELEMENTARY NATURE STUDY - - - Abbott's A Boy on a Farm 45 cents - -Two stories by Jacob Abbott, revised, and in new and attractive form. -They are admirably suited for young readers. The illustrations are -numerous and pleasing. - - Bartlett's Animals at Home 45 cents - -The object of these stories is to arouse the interest of children in -certain representative individual animals, and by so doing to awaken a -love for Natural History in general. The illustrations are attractive -and true to life. - - Bradish's Stories of Country Life 40 cents - -These recollections of a childhood spent on a northwestern farm aim to -emphasize the attractiveness of life in the country, and to add to its -charm by awakening an intelligent interest in its many activities. - - Dana's Plants and Their Children 65 cents - -A series of easy lessons on the wonders of Plant Life, as entertaining -for children as stories. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Half Hours With the Lower Animals - Protozoans, Sponges, Corals, Shells, Insects, and Crustaceans - -Author: Charles Frederick Holder - -Release Date: May 16, 2016 [EBook #52085] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HALF HOURS WITH THE LOWER ANIMALS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Christopher Wright and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='transnote pleasehide'> - <p class="ph3">Transcriber's Note:</p> - <p class="center">Images surrounded by dashed blue lines are thumbnails for larger format images. Click a thumbnail to load the larger image.</p> -</div> - -<div class="break-before"> - <h1>HALF HOURS WITH<br /> - THE LOWER ANIMALS</h1> - - <p class="ph3"> - PROTOZOANS, SPONGES, CORALS, SHELLS<br /> - INSECTS, AND CRUSTACEANS</p> - - <p class="ph3">BY</p> - - <h2 class="nobreak">CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER</h2> - - <p class="ph4">AUTHOR OF "ELEMENTS OF ZOÖLOGY," "STORIES OF ANIMAL LIFE," - "LIFE OF LOUIS AGASSIZ," ETC.</p> - - - <div class="figtitle"> - <img src="images/title-emblem.jpg" alt="Publisher Emblem" /> - </div> - - <p class="ph4">NEW YORK á … CINCINNATI á … CHICAGO</p> - <p class="ph3">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="copyright"> - <p class="ph4 smcap">Copyright, 1905, by</p> - <p class="ph3">CHARLES F. HOLDER.</p> - - - <p class="ph4 smcap">Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.</p> - <hr class="tb" /> - - <p class="ph4">LOWER ANIMALS.</p> - <p class="ph4">W. P. 2</p> - - <hr class="chap" /> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> -<h2>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>At the present day education is not complete without -definite courses of nature study. We are living in an age -of strenuous business life and activity, where the best -equipped students along the various lines secure the best -positions. Time was when zoölogy, botany, and kindred -nature studies were classed with music and the so-called -dead languages, and were taken up as incidentals or were -employed in "mind training"; but to-day there are a -thousand branches of trade and commerce which require -knowledge that can be obtained only through nature -study.</p> - -<p>It is not necessary that the student, unless he intends -to be a teacher of science or a professional naturalist, -should be able to pass examinations in the abstruse classification -of animals or delve into difficult anatomical -studies. What the average student needs is a broad and -general idea of animal life, its great divisions, and notably -the relationship of the lower animals to man in an economic -sense, the geographical distribution of animals, etc. -It is vastly more important for the coming lumber merchant -to know the relationship which forests bear to the -water supply, and to have a general idea of forestry and -the trees which make forests, than to be able to recite a -long formula of classification or analysis, of value only to -the advanced student or specialist. The future merchant -who is to deal in alpaca, leather, dye, skins, hair, bone -products, shell, pearl, lac, animal food products, ivory, -whalebone, guano, feathers, and countless other articles -derived from animals is but poorly equipped for the strug<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>gle -for business supremacy if he is not prepared by nature -study, nature readings, and other practical instruction -along these lines.</p> - -<p>It is believed to-day by those who have given the subject -the closest attention that the initial move of the -teacher should be to call the attention of the child to the -beauties of nature, the works of the Infinite, and thus -early inculcate a habit of observation. The toys of the -kindergarten should be fruits, flowers, shrubs, trees, pebbles, -and vistas of mountains, hills, lakes, and streams, -and nature study in some form should be continuous in -school life.</p> - -<p>In the following readings the story of lower animal life -has been presented on broad lines, divested of technicality, -and at almost every step supplemented by forceful and -explanatory illustrations as ocular aids to the reader. The -subject has been divested of dry detail, and I have introduced -notes and incidents, the results of personal observation -and investigation in various lands and seas, and -have given attention to the often neglected fauna of the -Pacific coast as well as that of other regions.</p> - -<p>While the volume is a supplementary reader, the matter -is so arranged that it can be used by the teacher as a text-book, -and the pupil who undertakes the various "half-hour -readings" of this series will have covered in the -main the ground of the ordinary text-book for intermediate -grades in the form of readings. In a word, I have endeavored -to make this volume a popular combined review -and supplemental reader on the lower forms of animal life -from the AmÅ“ba to the insects inclusive, and the series -to follow will present the entire subject of animal life or -zoölogy, voluminously illustrated, on a similar plan.</p> - -<p class="right"> -CHARLES F. HOLDER. -</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pasadena, California.</span></p></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> - <h2>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="toc" summary="Contents"> - <tr> - <td class="rom">CHAPTER</td> - <td class="cht"> </td> - <td class="pag">PAGE</td> - </tr> - - - <tr> - <td class="rom">I.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Inhabitants of a Drop of Water</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">II.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Sponges</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">III.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Jellyfishes</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">IV.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Sea Anemones</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">V.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Corals</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">VI.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Stone Lilies</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">VII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Stars of the Sea</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">VIII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Ocean Hedgehogs</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">IX.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Sea Cucumbers</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">X.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Worms</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XI.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Two-valved Shells</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Univalves</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XIII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Cuttlefishes</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XIV.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Crustaceans</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XV.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">From Barnacles to Lobsters</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XVI.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Crabs</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XVII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Luminous Crabs</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XVIII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Insects</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XIX.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Lower Forms of Insects</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XX.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Spiders</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXI.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Some Six-legged Insects</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Some Mimics</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXIII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Grasshoppers and Locusts</span> - <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXIV.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Beetles</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXV.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Bugs</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXVI.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Flies and Mosquitoes</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXVII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Butterflies and Moths</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXVIII.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Ants</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom">XXIX.</td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">The Bees and Wasps</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="rom"> </td> - <td class="cht"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td> - </tr> - -</table> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="mt4 mb4"> -<p class="ph2">HALF HOURS WITH</p> - -<p class="ph1">THE LOWER ANIMALS</p> - -<p class="ph3">PROTOZOANS, SPONGES, CORALS, SHELLS, INSECTS, -AND CRUSTACEANS</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>I. INHABITANTS OF A DROP OF WATER</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The most unobserving stroller through the forest or by -the seashore can not fail to be impressed by the abundance -and variety of animal life; yet the forms visible to -the naked eye really constitute but a fraction of the vast -horde which makes up what we call life.</p> - -<p>In the year 1901 a strange phenomenon appeared off -the coast of southern California. The ocean assumed a -reddish muddy hue which was traced for four hundred -miles up the coast and from one to twenty miles offshore; -hence, at a conservative estimate, the reddish color -occupied a space of ten thousand square miles. At night -it assumed a greenish light, and when the wind rose -and formed whitecaps, each became a blaze of light, and -the ocean as far as the eye could reach was converted into -a mass of seeming flame. The sands of the beach gave -out flashes of light when touched; the footsteps of dog or -man on the sands left an imprint of vivid light, and figures -made on the sands with a finger or stick stood out in -lines of light. Ten thousand square miles of phospho<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>rescent -light; ten thousand square miles of living beings, -each so minute that it was almost if not quite invisible -to the human eye. Who could estimate the individuals -in one square mile, one square foot, or even a drop of -this reddish water? This illustrates the fact that the -greater number of the earth's population are unseen, even -though not invisible to the unaided eye.</p> - -<p>These minute animals are as interesting as the larger -forms. Equipped with a microscope, we are prepared to -explore the regions in which they live and observe their -habits. A favorite hunting ground for this small game is -some long-standing water in which plants have been growing. -Placing some of this, with the green scraping of the -glass, on the slide, we shall soon make out, moving mysteriously -along, something which resembles the white of -an egg, an atom of slime or jelly. Now it stops and -throws out parts of itself which seem to fuse together -again; now it is long, now short and compact, again circular. -You almost believe it is a mere atom of slime, yet -it is an animal which eats and lives its life cycle in a drop -of water, one of the lowest of all animals.</p> - -<p>It is called AmÅ“ba (Fig. 1), and although it is hardly a -hundredth of an inch in diameter, yet if we devote some -time to it we shall find that it is a very remarkable animal. -Thus if it wishes to move in any given direction, a portion -of the body becomes a seeming leg and protrudes in that -direction, the rest of the body following, drawn along in -some mysterious manner. If it wishes to eat, it is not -obliged to twist around to bring the food or victims -opposite the mouth, as a mouth forms there and then; -the AmÅ“ba merely glides around it and covers it up.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> - -<p>We may even notice a difference in the parts. Thus -the center calls to mind ground glass; it is blurred or -granular, while around the edges is a little border which is -transparent, like ordinary window glass. So the AmÅ“ba -is a minute mass of jelly inclosed in a layer a little clearer.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - - <a href="images/i_009.jpg" name ="i_009.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_009-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">AmÅ“ba proteus</i>, with the pseudopodia (false feet) protruded, enlarged - 200 diameters (after Leidy): <em>n</em>, nucleus; <em>c</em>, contractile vesicle; <em>v</em>, one of the - larger food-vacuoles; <em>en</em>, the granular endosarc; <em>ec</em>, the transparent ectosarc; <em>a</em>, - cell of an Alga taken in as food (other cells of the same Alga are obliquely shaded).] - </p> -</div> - -<p>Floating in the granular portion is seen a minute round -body called the nucleus, clearer than the fluid in which it -rests, and not far away another clear, circular body, which -from time to time contracts or sometimes disappears in a -marvelous fashion, but always returns. This is called the -contracting vesicle, and here our discoveries end, so far as -organs and structure are concerned, as these are nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -all that have been found; yet the AmÅ“ba eats, doubtless -sleeps, and grows.</p> - -<div id="Fig_2" class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_010a.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—AmÅ“ba eating: - <em>Pv</em>, contracting vesicle.] - </p> -</div> - -<p>We may watch it at its dinner. When a victim is found, -an animal smaller than itself, out shoots a little cape or -extension from the clear rim, creeping slowly up the side -of the animal; and if we watch very -closely, we shall see the thicker -portion of the AmÅ“ba, that which -calls to mind ground glass, running -or flowing into it. Then another -false foot, as it is called, slowly -creeps out on the opposite side and -joins its companion, more of the -ground-glass matter slides or pours into this, filling it -out, and, presto! the two arms merge one into the other. -The victim has been swallowed and is now being digested -<a href="#Fig_2">(Fig. 2, <em>d</em>)</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_010b.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—AmÅ“ba - separating.] - </p> -</div> - -<p>That this minute atom has its likes and dislikes is evident, -for if the food is too large, or not to its taste, it -retracts, or even draws away from it after it has swallowed -it. The shells of its victim, if it has them, -are rejected in a manner equally simple; -the AmÅ“ba flows away from them. Jar it -with a needle point and it contracts, showing -that it can be irritated. At times the -body is seen to divide and two AmÅ“bæ are -formed (Fig. 3), each of which has a separate -existence from then on. Such is one -of the lowest of all animals. It is made -up of but a single cell. All the members of the other -great branches of the animal kingdom and the higher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -plants are made up of many cells; hence we see that the -AmÅ“ba is the simplest and lowest of all animals.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_011.jpg" name="i_011.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_011-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ciliated Infusoria</i>: <em>A</em>, Bursaria; <em>B</em>, Nyctotherus; <em>C</em>, Amphileptus; <em>D</em>, - Ceratium; <em>E</em>, Monosiga; <em>f</em>, flagellum; <em>n</em>, nucleus; <em>c</em>, contractile vesicle. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In looking into our drop of water our attention has perhaps -been distracted by other animals. In point of fact, -it is very difficult to keep the eye on this mass of slime in -its slow movements, for about it, over it, and constantly -bumping into it are countless other forms whose motions -convey the impression that life to them is very active. -The most numerous are little objects (Fig. 4) resembling -hats or bells, which go rushing along, bumping aimlessly -into all others, and always in a hurry. Around the edge -of the bell or hat are numerous hairs (cilia) which are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -really locomotive organs by which the little animals whirl -themselves along. Near them we see numbers of similar -objects, each one forming the cup of a seeming flower, -each having a long stem. These are Bell Animalcules -(Fig. 5) or Vorticellæ, among the most beautiful and -graceful of all the minute animals, but much higher in the -scale of life, as they have a permanent mouth and form. -Among them, swimming rapidly, comes a giant by contrast, -the ParamÅ“cium (Fig. 6) or Slipper Animalcule, so -called from its resemblance to a slipper. It, too, is a -higher form than AmÅ“ba, as it has a permanent shape; -yet in other ways it is as simple as AmÅ“ba. The ParamÅ“cium -has a marvelous array of oars which cover its -body. Under the glass they look like eyelashes or whips, -and by their rapid movements they drive the animal along. -On the side is the mouth opening, into which the animal -fans minute animals, and they can be seen swept along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -by the irresistible current, caught by the mouth if desirable, -or tossed off if not to the taste -of the wonderful living slipper. -After glancing at the drop of -water for a few moments the -observer is convinced that here -is a world in itself, with a population -growing, increasing, developing, -devouring its prey, and in -such multitudes that the mind -can not grasp the figures.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_012.jpg" name="i_012.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_012-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—<em>A</em>, Stentor; <em>B</em>, Vaginicola; <em>C</em>, group of Vorticellæ; <em>D</em>, bud of Vorticella. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_013a.jpg" name="i_013a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_013a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—ParamÅ“cium: <em>e</em>, -mouth; <em>v</em>, contracting vacuoles. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_013b.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Nummulites.</p> -</div> - -<p>If the reader visits Egypt and -climbs the pyramids, he will be -impressed by these the greatest -works of mankind. If a small -portion of the stone from which -they are constructed is placed -under the glass, it will be found -in many instances made up almost -entirely of beautiful shells (Fig. 7). -These are the shells of an amÅ“ba-like -animal known as a Nummulite, which lived millions -of years ago, and whose fossil -remains formed the stone -from which the early Egyptians -in turn built the great -piles or monuments of their -kings. Man is powerful, but -in this instance one of the -most insignificant of animals -made his work possible. These shells are of great beauty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -and variety (Fig. 8). Many are perforated, and through -the minute holes are seen the -false feet of the AmÅ“ba reaching -out for food. They illustrate -the boundless resources -of nature, and suggest that -the very lowest of creatures -are not too insignificant to -be dressed in most beautiful -garbs, as all these forms vie -with one another in the delicacy -of their designs (Fig. 9) -and the grace of their shapes. -Some of these shelled forms are giants two inches across. -All these minute shells perform a marvelous work in building -up the crust of the earth, forming the bottom of deep -seas and the platforms of coral reefs. The chalk cliffs of -England are composed of shells of unestimated millions -(Fig. 10), which were once dropped upon the bottom of a -deep sea and piled upward until some were crushed into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -a shapeless mass of lime, others retained their shapes -(Fig. 11); and all, by some convulsion, were afterward -lifted high into the air.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_014a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Flint-shelled Radiolarian.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_014b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Flint-shelled Polycystina.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_015a.jpg" name="i_015a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_015a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Foraminifera from -Atlantic ooze. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The entire ocean is as thickly populated with these -atoms as the drop of fresh water. The shelled forms are -as constantly dying, the shells falling or sinking in a continual -rain of shells upon the bottom, piling up eternally. -Who shall estimate their countless numbers? It is -believed that these minute shells are as abundant down -to a depth of six hundred feet as they are at the surface. -There are more than sixteen tons of limy shells floating in -the uppermost one hundred fathoms of every square mile -of the ocean. These facts convey an idea of one way in -which the earth is growing—increasing in size but not in -weight, as these delicate creatures merely secrete the -carbonate of lime which forms their shells. They take it -from the surrounding water of which it has been a part.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_015b.jpg" name="i_015b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_015b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Section of English chalk -cliff. Highly magnified. Bottom of an ancient sea. - </p> -</div> - -<p>It would be of great interest to learn exactly how these -humble creatures take lime from the water and produce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -shells of such marvelous beauty: to learn why one is of -lime and others, like the Radiolarians, are of silica; why -some live at the surface and are free swimmers, while -others creep about in the ooze. When the deep-sea -explorers first began to dredge, they found over vast areas -a peculiar mud or ooze, and investigation showed that it -was formed almost entirely of the shells of a certain -minute shell maker, from which it was named the Globigerina -ooze. Finding these vast banks or beds of mud at -this depth is suggestive that the deepest seas may yet be -filled by the dropping of this invisible rain; but as the -average depth of the ocean is nearly if not quite three -miles, many centuries must pass before this will be accomplished.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_016.jpg" name="i_016.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_016-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Noctiluca. Highly magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The marvelous phosphorescent -light previously -described came -from a minute armored -form known as Peridinium, -but even this is -exceeded by the glories -of a little monad called -Noctiluca (Fig. 12). It -is a giant of the tribe, -and is visible to the -naked eye, being almost -as large as the head of -a pin, and resembling a currant in shape. It has a single -hairlike organ or lash, supposed to be a locomotive organ, -by which it whirls itself through the water. Of all the -light givers of the sea this is the most common, some of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -its species being found in every sea, and where they are, -it is necessary only to splash the water to cause a blaze of -light to follow. A French naturalist placed on record the -fact that so brilliant was the light occasioned by this -minute organism in African waters that he read by their -light standing on a beach where a heavy surf came pounding -in upon the sand. The light of this little creature is -remarkable not only for its vividness but for its many different -tints. Now it is a fitful vivid green, again the water -is a blaze of yellow light, or orange. At such times, when -a ship is plowing along, the light is so brilliant that the sails -and rigging are brilliantly illumined, casting weird shadows.</p> - -<p>Some Noctilucæ emit a clear blue light, but when the -same animal is disturbed it appears white with green and -blue flashes of great beauty and intensity—a telling -illustration of the boundless, and marvelous, resources of -nature. Many interesting experiments have been tried -with these dainty light givers. A tube fifteen millimeters -in diameter was filled with them, and by shaking this novel -lamp a printed page was read a foot distant; yet when a -delicate thermometer was thrust into the fiery mass, the -mercury was not affected in the slightest, showing that -here was that wonder of wonders—vivid light without -heat—a secret which man has vainly endeavored to wrest -from nature. The vast number of these minute creatures -can be realized when it is said that the ship <cite>Magenta</cite> -sailed nearly five hundred miles among swarms of Noctilucæ, -which gave splendid displays of phosphorescent light at -night. Sometimes the light emitted was milky white; -again it was green, or blue, the different species possessing -different colors.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>II. THE SPONGES</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_018.jpg" name="i_018.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_018-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Living sponges. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Almost every day, for several years, I devoted -one or more hours to the pastime of floating or -drifting over a part of the great coral reef -which constitutes the most westward portion -of Florida where it reaches out in the direction -of Yucatan. The islands composing the -group are the Tortugas Keys, and are just -above water; indeed some disappeared -when a particularly heavy hurricane came, -and in the center of the island upon which -I lived, the water at very high tide appeared -above the surface.</p> - -<p>Among the commonest objects -seen on the reef were -huge vases (Fig. 13).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -They were found in water from a foot to fifteen feet or -more in depth, and were attached so strongly to the -bottom that it required considerable strength to lift -them up. Some were three feet high, and I have often -dived down to them and for a few seconds sat upon -them as a jest for the edification of my companions in -the boat above. A common name for them on the reef -was "Neptune's Seats." The seats were sponges, and -their collection on the Florida reef has for many years -constituted an important industry, vessels being fitted -out from Key West and other places for this purpose. -This industry is also followed in the Mediterranean -Sea, where the finest sponges known are found. To -take them, men go out in small boats, and in shallow -water bring them up with hooks. In the greater depths -a water box is used, a box with a glass bottom, which -placed over the water makes everything visible, and by -this the sponger secures the sponge. Other collectors, -especially those of Syria, dive for them and wrench -them from the bottom, then ascend to the surface with -the load. There are many different kinds of sponges, -those commonly used being divided into grades, from -the delicate face sponge to the coarse specimens used -for washing carriages. Then there are hundreds of kinds -of sponges which have no value but to form veritable -mimic forest growths at the bottom of the sea (Fig. 14). -Some grow upon stones or sea mud and are brilliantly -colored; others again are like glass, and all represent -one of the lowest forms of animal life, yet one of the -most beautiful, and one that is very useful.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_020.jpg" name="i_020.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_020-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—A sponge (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ascetta primordialis</i>): I. <em>o</em>, exhalent opening; <em>p</em>, inhalent -pores; <em>g</em>, ova. Starlike spicules are seen on the outside. II. Section showing -pores (<em>p</em>), with cilia of the cells extending into them. III. Cell showing lash, or -cilium. IV. Same, with lash retracted. V. Embryo of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ascetta mirabilis</i>. VI. -Section of embryo. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In handling a sponge the most indifferent person has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -not failed to observe two peculiarities, one that the -sponge is soft, another that it is filled with holes, small<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -and large, and has a marvelous faculty of retaining water, -in which property lies its value to man. Now if we take -a sponge and cut down through it, making a section, we -shall find that these holes are nothing more or less than -doors or mouths which lead into the interior of the -sponge. If we are so fortunate as to have a live sponge -to study, we shall see that water is being forced through -all the small pores and out into the larger ones; and if -we could examine the water, we should see that the -water which passed in, is laden with living creatures -which have been described in a previous chapter, while -the water which is discharged contains little or no -living matter. The reader will have suspected what -this in-going and out-coming is. It is the operation -of eating on the part of the sponge, which, while it -looks very much like a plant and appears to be growing -from the ground, is an animal, or a community of -many cells—a many-celled animal.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_021.jpg" name="i_021.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_021-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Flint spicules highly magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In our section of a -sponge we may follow -the winding channels -which connect one part -of the sponge with the -other, and we see that -the body is a mass of -fibers made up of curious -and beautifully -shaped objects called -spicules (Fig. 15). The -spicules are the bones -of sponges, the hard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -portion, the framework. In the sponge we find here and -there little oval rooms, and in these are packed, side by -side, minute objects with tails (Fig. 16). Each little cell -has its tail upon the outside, -which is really a whip or lash, -used for capturing passing food. -In these rooms the cells congregate -and are fed by the constant -onward flow of water laden with -food. The food is in the shape -of minute animals and plants -which these little whips catch -as they pass by. The whips -have another purpose; their constant -motion serves to force -the water along through the -canals, carrying air as well as -food.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_022.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Parts of a sponge -(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Grantia</i>): <em>B</em>, cross section showing -pores leading into tubes <em>C´</em>; -<em>C</em>, enlarged tube; <em>D</em>, cells magnified.</p> -</div> - -<p>Some of the sponges have very singular shapes. One -is called the finger sponge, and often takes the form of a -hand. Others are very long and slender (Fig. 17). -Some are perfectly round; others creep over stones and -form a brilliant red matting, a charming object in the -water.</p> - -<p>The great vase or seat sponges are often the habitations -of animals of various kinds—shrimps, crabs, and fishes. -After a hurricane I have found a windrow of them on the -beaches. When the sponge is taken from the water it is -fleshy and seems covered with a reddish colored mass of -jelly, or it is black, brown, or yellow, as the case may be. -The sponge of commerce is the skeleton, the mass of living<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -spicules after all the animal matter has been removed and -the framework, elastic and soft, thoroughly bleached.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_023.jpg" name="i_023.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_023-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Sponges: <em>A</em>, Axinella; <em>B</em>, Sycandra. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The variety in -shape, color, and -size in sponges is -remarkable and -can not be appreciated -until a collection -of these -lowly animals is -seen with the individuals -side by -side. In such a -collection one -sponge, shown in -Figure 18, will -attract the observer -for its remarkable -beauty; -indeed few would -consider it anything -but a beautiful glass vase. Some years ago one -was brought to England from the South Pacific and sold -for several hundred dollars. It was believed to be the -work of some skilled native artist in glass. But finally -some one discovered that the natives did not make them, -but hooked them up from the bottom of the ocean, when -they had no resemblance to the glass vases of commerce -sold for enormous sums under the title of Venus's flower -basket. When first brought up the vase was dark and -covered with mud; then it was found that it was a sponge,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -and that the so-called -glass was -merely the interior, -the framework over -which was drawn -the ugly exterior -animal matter. It -is needless to say -that the enormous -price of the Venus's -flower basket -dropped, and it can -now be bought for -a few cents.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_024.jpg" name="i_024.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_024-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Skeleton of a sponge. - </p> -</div> - -<p>No more beautiful -object can be -imagined than this -sponge, known as -the Euplectella. It -has great wisps of -glasslike matter at -the bottom, which -anchor it in the -sand or mud, and -the framework appears -to rise upward -in whirls, the -surface being made -up of squares or -basket work, so -artificial that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -difficult to believe that it is not of human make. This -vase has a top to it. It is perforated with squares, and -is often a prison for various small animals, as crabs, which -have passed into the interior when very small and which -are now too large to escape, only their claws or feelers -being seen protruding through the little portholes.</p> - -<p>The sponges in their habits show a variety of tastes. -Many grow in the mud, the majority upon rocks. On the -New England shores there is one of a yellowish hue which -lives in the sand. It is very light, and the pores are so fine -that the sand does not enter them. After a storm on Cape -Cod thousands are found on the beaches, blown far inshore. -Black and pure white sponges are found in fresh water as -well as in salt. They increase by depositing eggs. In one -stage of their development the young (Fig. 14, V.) are free-swimming -animals.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>III. THE JELLYFISHES</h2> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_026.jpg" name="i_026.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_026-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—A jellyfish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pelagia</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>Among the most beautiful and fragile of all animals are -the singular forms which we call jellyfishes (Fig. 19).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -They are so delicate that we can not lift them, and in many -instances they have ninety-five per cent of water in their -composition. They would almost seem to be purely -ornamental did we not know that they fill an important -niche in the hall of nature, constituting almost the sole -food of many whales.</p> - -<p>The jellyfishes are found in all waters, salt and even -fresh. They may be seen floating near or at the surface, -often in vast numbers. Sometimes they are found deep -in the heart of the upper part of the ocean, often in such -quantities that the water appears to be filled with their -graceful shapes.</p> - -<p>In the Santa Catalina Channel a beautiful lavender-hued -form is common, the water being alive with them at times, -and I have seen specimens with tentacles streaming behind -them an estimated length of twenty feet, the entire animal -appearing like a huge comet in the blue sky of the ocean. -Mrs. Agassiz describes a jellyfish called Cyanea which was -six feet across its disk and which had tentacles over one -hundred feet in length. Specimens have been seen in -East Indian waters which were much larger, having an -estimated weight of several tons. An English naturalist -describes one which stranded in India and gave out so -vivid a light at night that the natives were afraid to -approach it; yet large as was this monster, a few hours in -the sun caused it to disappear or literally evaporate, water -forming so large a part of its make-up.</p> - -<p>In appearance the jellies resemble umbrellas, dinner -plates, or inverted bowls, from which depend streamers or -tentacles of various kinds and shapes, often richly colored, -especially the very minute forms. The mouth is in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -center, the eyes are around the edge of the disk, while -the huge tentacles, which can be lifted or lowered as fancy -dictates, are so many fishing lines by which this jelly finds -its food. I have often watched them floating near the surface, -the delicate vermilion-tinted tentacles floating gracefully -about, and serving as so many tempting baits. Should -a sardine or other small fish venture to attack this tempting -lure, we can almost imagine it struck by an electric -shock, as it rolls over dead. The secret is very easily -discovered. Lift the tentacles with the hand and a burning -sensation will be experienced, in some cases very painful. -The tentacles of the jellyfish are armed with stings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Lassos or weapons of a jellyfish.</p> -</div> - -<p>The weapons are known as lassos (Fig. 20). Under -the microscope the tentacles appear to be filled with little -cells or oblong objects, which when examined are found to -be capsules (<em>C</em>) resembling long glasslike bodies in which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -coiled a thread. This latter is a miniature javelin, and -when the tentacle of a jellyfish is seized by a fish or an -enemy, tens of thousands of these cells literally explode -(<em>D</em>) and the javelin springs out like a Jack-in-the-box -(<em>A</em>) and penetrates the intruder. With many jellyfishes -the effect of this bombardment is a stinging sensation. It -paralyzes small fishes which, when benumbed, are lifted up -by the tentacles and eaten.</p> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_029.jpg" name="i_026-thumb.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_029-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Jellyfish and young (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aurelia</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>The jellies develop in various ways. In Figure 21 we -see a common and very beautiful form resting on the -rocks. Near by are various little plantlike creatures, the -young jellies, which undergo a remarkable series of -changes in their growth from the egg to the adult form. -Minute eggs are deposited in the autumn, which drop into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -the crevices of the rocks and soon change to pear-shaped -objects which attach themselves to the bottom. Each little -jelly pear (Fig. 22) divides after a while until it looks like -a pile of platters one upon the other. The upper one dies, -and the rest break away, each becoming a separate jellyfish, -which ultimately grows to be a giant.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_030.jpg" name="i_030.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_030-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—The development of a jellyfish. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The story of the growth and development of these -little jellies is one of the most marvelous pages in the -history of nature. In some forms the father and son are -entirely different, and it is only the father and grandson -that resemble each other. Not only this, the father is a -seeming plant, while the son is a free-swimming jellyfish -of great beauty. The seeming plant is in reality a -hydroid community. The buds are immature jellyfishes -which finally break away and assume the typical jellylike -form, free swimmers bearing not the slightest resemblance -to the parent. This jelly deposits eggs which attach -themselves to the bottom and become not jellies but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -shrublike form. Hence it is the parent and its grandchildren -that bear a close resemblance to one another.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_031a.jpg" name="i_031a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_031a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—A large jellyfish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyanea</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_031b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Flowerlike jellyfish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lucernaria</i>).</p> -</div> - -<p>No conception of the beauties of the jellyfish can be -formed from pictures, or from the stranded "sunfishes" -found along the shore at low tide. In the water they -move along or swim by -the slow pumping or -rising and falling of the -umbrella or disk, and -are of all the colors of -the rainbow. Some, -like the dark, lavender-splashed -specimens, -can be seen from a -long distance, while -others are almost invisible, -in fact, are like -glass or crystal, and -interpose no obstacle -to other forms beyond. -The ocean is filled with -them; their chaste -shapes presenting one -of the most beautiful -spectacles to be observed in the ocean as they drift about. -Some are merely great -disks towing behind them -enormous masses of pink -fluted jelly, as in Figure -23; others are simple -flowerlike forms (Fig. 24).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> - -<p>If these graceful forms are beautiful during the day, -what shall we say of them at night, when they blaze and -glow with marvelous phosphorescent -lights of yellow, green, and gold. -Gazing into the ocean these great -jellies appear like comets moving -through the clear atmosphere of the -sea. The Cyanea is pale blue. One -jelly, called Melicerta, emits a pale -golden radiance, and Rhizostoma (Fig. -25) gives out a fixed steely blue light. -It would be difficult to find one out of -all this marvelous procession of living -gems that does not emit a light more -or less peculiarly its own.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_032.jpg" name="i_032.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_032-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Jellyfish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhizostoma</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>If this phosphorescence is fascinating -as we are drifting over the scene -and the light givers are not alarmed, -how much more dazzling is the display when the sea is -beaten into foam. In a certain cave on the coast of -Santa Catalina Island, California, the sea rushes in and, -striking the rocks, rises like a wave of fire and bathes -the entire interior with liquid light which slowly falls in -gleaming rivulets to the sea.</p> - -<p>But the most magnificent display is seen at Point -Firmin Light during a storm. Here stands a lofty rock -pillar which has breasted the sea for ages. At low tide, -when a storm sea strikes the ledge, the spray rises to an -altitude of three hundred feet, and spreading as it rises, -fairly fills the air with a gigantic mass of silvery light, -that on a dark night presents an appalling spectacle as it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -drops, changing its shape continually. On such nights -the line of breakers changes into silvery flame, while the -roar resembles a cannonade, fairly shaking the earth. In -the breakers the jelly light givers are breaking up and -adding fuel to the seeming flame. Some, as Pelagia, -are luminous over their entire surface; in others, the -light is confined to certain parts, which are either fixed or -flashing lights. How vivid this light is may be imagined -when it is said that a single jellyfish, Aurelia, when -squeezed into a glass of milk, has produced a light by -which a letter was read.</p> - -<p>This peculiar phosphorescence is not their only interesting -feature. Nearly all the jellies afford protection to -fishes, crabs, and various small animals. As I drifted over -the waters of the Gulf of Mexico almost every large jelly -that I examined had one or more little fishes of the mackerel -family up among its lobes or tentacles. As they -always resembled the tentacles in tint or color, a delicate -pink, they found protection amid the death-dealing darts. -The most remarkable example of this strange companionship -of dangerous jellies and delicate fishes is found in the -Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war (Fig. 26), one of the -most beautiful of all the animals that make up the group -to which the jellyfishes belong. Physalia is a bubble tinted -with purple hues, four or five inches long—a fairy ship -of pearly tints. On its upper portion is a sail which can -be raised and lowered, while from the lower part depends -a mass of beautiful blue or purple tentacles which sometimes -are nearly one hundred feet in length. During the -summer of 1902 I found them on the outer islands of the -Texan coast in great numbers, stranded on the sands, while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -scores of others -sailed on through -the pass into the -quiet waters of -Aransas Bay. -Among the islands -of the Tortugas -group I -often saw them -dotting the calm -waters, the sunlight -on their -delicate tints presenting beautiful combinations -of colors.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_034.jpg" name="i_034.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_034-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—The Physalia. - </p> -</div> - -<p>It may appear strange that one of the most -resplendent of animals should be the most dangerous, -yet such is the case. The attractive -tentacles which drag behind the Physalia are -deadly to almost every fish. I have found a -hawkbill turtle weighing twenty pounds caught -and benumbed by one; and fishes which touch -the seeming worms roll over dead, as though -stunned by an electric shock. In swimming around one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -of the keys of the reef I unwittingly passed over the -train of one, and if I had been alone, I doubt if I could -have reached the shore, so terrible was the burning -pain. A year afterward my flesh had the appearance -of having been tattooed in fanciful designs. Yet despite -the deadly nature of this maze of traps and lures, a -little fish lives up among them, and what is more remarkable, -is the exact color of the tentacles, a rich blue. So -exact is this resemblance that it is very difficult to see -the little attendants, but if you lift the dainty man-of-war -by its sail, they rush about greatly alarmed by their exposed -condition. I have been told that the Physalia eats -these attendant courtiers, but in hundreds of specimens -which I examined I never saw the little fish in the toils. -They swam about among the death-dealing tentacles with -the greatest freedom. The secret of the poison lies in the -lasso cells of the tentacles, as in the case of the jellyfish, -but in this instance they are much more poisonous. Along -the southern beaches, where the Physalia is common, -their stranded hulks form after storms a windrow of mimic -balloons which explode like torpedoes beneath the feet, as -one strolls along the sands.</p> - -<p>No branch of the animal kingdom contains more beautiful -and radiant forms than that which includes the Portuguese -man-of-war. They are the fairy crafts of the sea, -graceful, seemingly formed of water in some instances, and -nearly all so delicate that they usually drop to pieces when -captured. I have kept all for a brief time in confinement, -but few survived more than a few hours.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_036a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Velella.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_036b.jpg" name="i_036b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_036b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—<em>A</em>, Praya; <em>n´n´</em>, mouths; <em>ss</em>, swimming -bells. <em>B</em>, single polypite (<em>p</em>), enlarged. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In a tank at Santa Catalina Island I had at one time, -besides a Portuguese man-of-war, the delicate Velella, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -raft of sheeny silver which floated on the surface, having a -silvery sail (Fig. 27), beneath -which hung short tentacles of -a brilliant hue. More beautiful -than these were the "swimming -bells"—strings of beautiful -pink and crystal bells attached -to a central cord (Fig. 28). -One of these, Praya, three or four feet long, was a veritable -string of little pumps, each of which pumped water -very rapidly, urging -the entire animal -along. Each -little cup seemed -carved in glass and -colored by some -artist, so perfect -were the tints, so -delicate was the -design. Many of -these forms could -be seen in the -ocean only by fitful -glances, so delicate -were they. Most -beautiful of all -these prisoners in -the tank was one -called Physophora, or by the Italian fishermen, Boguetti. -It had a central stem like the glass of a thermometer, the -bulb being uppermost and filled with a gas that was almost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -exact in its resemblance to mercury. When the bulb -was full the animal floated at the surface. I have -watched the animal force the gas down by repeated -restrictions of the tube until it could descend beneath the -surface with ease. On the sides of the central pillar were -numbers of beautifully tinted pumps, the locomotive organs. -Underneath was a mass of lacelike tentacles, richly tinted, -purple and vermilion, so Physophora was one of the most -gorgeous objects to be imagined. A unique feature of this -animal was its rapid movements. When it so desired it -dashed around the tank with great velocity, in strange -contrast to the labored movements of other jellylike forms, -or the utter and complete helplessness of Physalia, Velella, -or Porpita. These latter were ships at the mercy of every -breeze, the Physalia alone being able to anchor itself on a -lea shore, but always beaten in by the heavy surf.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>IV. THE SEA ANEMONES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the last century many of the animals of the ocean -were considered plants, and the sea anemones, which -appear to open and shut like flowers, were described and -painted in verse and prose as the flowers in the gardens of -the sea. The sea anemone, common in almost every rocky -pool, and found everywhere from the rocks bare at low -tide to the greater depths, certainly has a very flowerlike -appearance, some of them resembling a flower without a -stem. Petals branch out on every side. Some are large, -some small, and as though to carry out the idea the anemones -are of all possible shapes and colors. Some are vivid -red, others blue, some almost white, others spotted black -and white, brown and barred. Almost every color is seen. -Some are tall and slender, five or six inches high; others -are flat. Some live in exposed places, as the luminous -form attached to the shell of a hermit crab in Figure 29. -Others bury themselves in the sand or hide beneath large -jellyfishes, displaying the most remarkable tastes and fancies. -Little wonder that the ancients believed that they -were flowers. But touch one, and presto! it appears to -draw within itself, and becomes a mere mound in place of -the gorgeous creature which spread its splendors to the -current.</p> - -<p>The sea anemone is a highly organized animal several -degrees above the jellyfishes in the scale of life, yet a -very humble creature after all. They are tubular in shape,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -and are attached to the rocks by a sucking disk which -clings so tightly that it is only with great difficulty they -are forced off. Yet they have the power of moving, and -slowly, very slowly, drag themselves along. Some move -perhaps three or four inches a day; but this would be a -long journey for many anemones, and the greatest number -are fixed for life and live in crevices in the rocks. The -only one I ever saw actually moving was traveling slowly -across the glass of a tank. As it moved small pieces of -the disk appeared to be torn off and left behind, each of -which grew into a perfect sea anemone.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_039.jpg" name="i_039.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_039-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Sea anemones—one in the upper right hand corner is a luminous -form on a hermit crab. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> - -<p>On the upper portion around the rim are the tentacles, -armed with the same kind of ammunition (Fig. 30) found -in the jellyfish, namely, lassos. In the center -is the mouth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_040a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Lasso or dart of a sea anemone.</p> -</div> - -<p>We may imagine the anemone feeding, and we -may easily see what occurs. The anemone -displays its beautiful flowerlike face; it is spread -out, waiting for prey. A shrimp comes swimming -along, and innocently drops upon the -beautiful flower. The moment it touches the -attractive arms it is pierced by the lassos, and -unless very vigorous is soon involved. The arms -are thrown over it, the body shrinks, grows perceptibly -smaller, the shrimp is pressed against -the mouth, and finally ingulfed, and the once -gorgeous anemone resembles (Fig. 31) a mere -mound, a -form which it may -retain until the food -is digested.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_040b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—A sea anemone closed.</p> -</div> - -<p>The structure of -this interesting animal -may be observed -by glancing at Figure -32. The stomach is placed in the center of the -animal, and is held in position by a number of partitions -that are attached to the side of the anemone. These -form little rooms in the body of the anemone, arranged -about the stomach, but not opening into it. Each room -has two windows leading into the room beyond, hence -all are connected, and at the bottom all are connected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> -with the stomach. Each room connects upward with a -tentacle, which is hollow. When the animal is swallowing, -the food passes -down and is floated -in water through the -various rooms, the -hard portions being -rejected at the mouth. -The animal has a -current of water circulating -through it -almost continually, -and it is water which, -filling them, makes -the tentacles stand -upright and firm. -Between the bases of -the tentacles are the eyes. When the animal closes up, -it forces the water out of its mouth and is able to shrink -to a small and inconspicuous object.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_041.jpg" name="i_041.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_041-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Section of an anemone: <em>c</em>, tentacles; -<em>g</em>, little rooms; <em>d</em>, mouth; <em>g´</em>, opening between -rooms; <em>a</em>, sucking deck or foot; <em>e</em>, stomach. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Lowly as are the sea anemones, they often display an -amount of intelligence that few would give them credit for. -On the Florida Reef was a large lagoon, its bottom pure -sand, and so light that the slightest dark object was easily -observed. In the sand, buried several inches deep, lived -a large anemone, whose normal hue was a dark brown, -but when expanded was almost the exact color of the sand; -not only this, its tentacles were covered with bits of sand. -In a word, the anemone had disguised itself so that large -and threatening fishes would not see it, as they swam -along in search of food. The habit of placing bits of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -shells and sand on the tentacles is a common one. I have -noticed it in a sand-living form on the California coast. -As the tide went out and left the anemones dry, they were -invariably covered with sand which adhered to the tentacles -as though it had been gummed. To accomplish this protection -from the hot rays of the sun, the anemone had -picked up the atoms of sand with its tentacles and distributed -them over its surface. As there were thousands -of pieces, the amount of work may be imagined.</p> - -<p>Anemones are found in many strange places. One, as -we have seen, rides about upon the back of a hermit crab; -another is so often found on the top of an ordinary crab -that it is evidently a habit of the anemone. The anemone -thus travels about with its host and shares its food. In -the Indian Ocean a German naturalist found on every crab -of a certain kind, which he caught, a sea anemone fastened -upon the inside of the large biting claw. Thinking it -accidental, he caught a number of crabs, but nearly all had -the small anemone, which was so placed that when the -crab raised its claw to its mouth to eat and tear its food, -the sea anemone was in a position to obtain a full share -of the food. Still thinking that this must be an accident, -the naturalist placed a large number of the crabs -bearing the sea anemones in a tank and removed the -anemones with a knife, placing them in the water. The -following day when they were examined every crab had its -attendant again upon its claw. Again the experiment was -tried, and again the crabs collected their curious attendants. -The naturalist now cut one of the animals into -several pieces, and even then the crabs attempted to -collect them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> - -<p>The anemones deposit eggs in vast numbers, which -change into strange, free-swimming animals that finally -settle upon the bottom and soon grow into the adult -forms. They have another method of developing. Singular -little "buds" appear on the sides and base of the -adult, which soon resemble the parent. The anemone is -very long-lived; specimens have been kept for nearly a -century. They also have a marvelous faculty for renewing -themselves if injured. If one is divided, sometimes two -anemones will be the result, recalling their distant cousin -the little hydra, which when turned inside out receives its -food and eats as though nothing had happened. No -amount of mutilating appears to affect its various portions, -as each soon develops into a perfect hydra.</p> - -<p>The sea anemone is a common form of the aquarium. -It is easily secured by those living near the ocean, forming -a most interesting pet, taking food from the hand, and soon -proving itself possessed of a remarkable appetite. The -anemones are among the great purifiers of the ocean, -devouring a vast amount of dead matter which might -pollute the water, and continually pumping the water -through their systems, sifting out the animal life, dead or -alive. Aside from this, the anemones are chiefly useful as -beautifiers of the ocean. In the Mediterranean Sea they -are sometimes eaten by the Italians and French. Certain -fishes and crustaceans prey upon them.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>V. THE CORALS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The real gardens of the sea, the "Gulfs enchanted -where the siren sings and coral reefs lie bare," are in -the tropics, where the great coral reefs extend for miles -in countless shapes, forming branches, heads, fans, and -many forms which never fail to delight the eye of the -observer. For many years I lived upon a coral key or -island in the center of a coral reef. The key was half a -mile in circuit, and was made up of coral sand, or sand -composed of ground coral and shells. It was just above -the surface, so near that almost anywhere salt water could -be found a few feet below; yet in this sandy soil cocoanuts, -bananas, and other tropical plants grew in profusion. -A grove of bay cedars and mangroves added to its attractiveness -and gave it the name of Garden Key.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_045.jpg" name="i_045.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_045-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Branch coral (reef builder), showing polyps expanded and withdrawn. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The history of this reef is easily told. Ages ago there -was no reef. There was no island, but perhaps a submarine -plateau, a long distance below the surface. It -gradually grew by the dropping of the minute shells -described on page 15. After many ages it attained -an altitude which brought its summit within one hundred -or two hundred feet of the surface. Now its growth became -more rapid as a new factor came upon the scene. The -reef-building corals do not, as a rule, thrive or grow in -water deeper than two hundred feet, and nearly all prefer -water very much shallower. So, as soon as the submarine -hill entered this zone, the eggs and young of the various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -reef-building corals (Figs. 33, 37) obtained a foothold, -and the growth was ever upward, countless forms aiding -in it. The lower portion was continually dying, the -animals occupying only the upper story, so that a cap of -stone was being formed on the top of the hill which after -many years reached the surface. The sea now broke up -the tips of the branch coral. They became ground up. -A curious seaweed which secreted lime appeared, and this -and the ground coral and shells formed a muddy flat -which, aided by various objects that float upon the ocean, -constituted a miniature island. Now something which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> -resembled a cigar, one end downward, came floating -along. If we could have examined it, curious little rootlets -would have been seen growing from the lower portion. -This stranded on the island, and the little cigar -proved to be the seed of the mangrove tree; its roots -grew and caught in the mud, and soon a tree appeared -growing on the new-born island. Its roots presented a -base, about which sand and mud rapidly accumulated, and -so the key or island grew until it became the Garden Key -of to-day.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_046.jpg" name="i_046.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_046-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Mushroom coral; a single polyp (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ctenactis</i>), one fourth natural size. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Such is the history of an ordinary coral island, built up, -not by corals alone, but by countless animals. Even to-day -some writers describe this coral animal as an "insect," but -it is an entirely different animal, being a polyp, so closely -related to the anemones that very few can distinguish -between them. For the purpose of examination we may -consider a coral animal as a sea anemone possessing the -faculty of taking lime from the sea water and secreting it -in the little rooms which we have found existing in the -anemones (Fig. 32), there forming a little platform, then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> -partitions or cells, as the case may be. In Figure 33 is -shown a section of branch coral. The starlike spots are -the polyps with -their tentacles outspread -as in feeding. -They may be -considered so -many anemones, -each resting in a -little cell, and all -connected by a -common brown or -olive-hued tissue. -This is a many-celled -coral, while -that shown in Figure -34 is an example -of a single-celled coral, a huge anemone with a framework -of lime. These single-celled corals are often found -in very deep water.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_047.jpg" name="i_047.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_047-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—A single polyp coral (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Caryophyllia</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>In the vicinity of Garden Key on the Florida Reef there -are six or seven keys, each almost surrounded by a deep-blue -channel. On the east a long fringing reef is forming -which some day may form an atoll (Fig. 36). In this -lagoon are acres of beautiful branch coral, rising two or -three feet from the bottom in a mass of points almost bare -at low tide, and at the very lowest tides becoming exposed -and dying. At certain places on the edges of channels -are vast heads of coral (Fig. 37), some being four feet high -and six or seven feet across. Many of these are hollowed -out into great vases and filled with beautiful sea fans, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> -Gorgonias, in yellow, lavender, and brown, while in and -out swim fishes of beautiful colors. The surface of these -heads is often dotted with objects which resemble flowers -of gorgeous hues, red, blue, white, and spotted. At the -slightest alarm or jar these disappear, showing themselves -merely worms, which have bored into the coral, the flowerlike -petals being the breathing organs. Along the sides -of the channels the groves of branch coral (Fig. 33) dip -down, and thirty feet below the surface the growth is -much more vigorous, the branches often being three or -even four feet in length, and resembling the antlers of the -elk.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_048.jpg" name="i_048.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_048-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—An atoll. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Wishing to see how deep the coral descended, I had a -boat held on the edge of the channel, and taking a heavy -stone in my hands allowed myself to sink. The stone -carried me down rapidly for perhaps twenty feet, until the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -water was perceptibly colder and the light very dim, yet -as far below me as I could see, the almost perpendicular -wall of coral extended, being in all probability sixty feet -in height and almost vertical. As I swam upward not -four feet from the jagged points, I could plainly see the -beautiful coral with parrot fishes garbed in brilliant tints, -poising among the great branches.</p> - -<p>The coral on this reef grows or flourishes more or less -in communities. The great heads are found in groups, -the branch coral in plantations, if the word can be used, -in the center of the lagoon and on the edge of the deep -channels. On a shallow point, growing among seaweeds, -I found small heads five or six inches long.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_049.jpg" name="i_049.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_049-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Coral head, with many polyps (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Astræa</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>In the surf, where it piled in upon the reef, grew a -beautiful form known as leaf coral, spreading out like -the horns of the moose in great leaflike shapes. This -crept near the ground, and was surrounded by its cousins, -the Gorgonias, in lavender and yellow. The whole pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>sented -a beautiful appearance when seen from above -through a water glass or glass-bottomed boat.</p> - -<p>In most of these corals the branches were covered with -the small cells of the coral animal, made up of thousands -of individual polyps. Others again had very minute cells, -yet the entire head might weigh a thousand pounds. -Another large head is called brain coral, as the animals -are arranged in deep trenches or convolutions. In the -star coral (Astræa, Fig. 37) the polyps resemble stars and -are much larger than those on other corals.</p> - -<p>Occasionally I have found a branch of coral on which -there was, perhaps, a bunch of eight cells, each half an -inch across, the group resembling a bunch of flowers. -These were generally in the deeper parts of the lagoon, -where the water was fifteen or more feet deep, and therefore -out of reach of the coral tongs. I would, therefore, -dive down for it, the coral being distinctly visible in these -clear and limpid waters. This rose coral, as we called it, -was the work of a few polyps. Another kind was very -delicate, the polyps being almost invisible. It was called -pepper coral, as when tasted it burned the tongue violently. -Still another, which grew in heads a foot or two -across, had a peculiar habit of floating when free of animal -matter. Large heads, when tossed from the beach -where they had drifted, went sailing away like boats.</p> - -<p>Still another coral has cells at short intervals up the -branch; another is cup-shaped with a single polyp. One -of the most remarkable corals (Fig. 38) has the cells of -the polyps arranged after the fashion of a pipe organ, -from which the coral takes its name, while the polyp -itself, when expanded, resembles a daisy. Formerly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -corals were supposed to be confined to the warm waters -of the tropics, but this is true only of the reef builders, -which require a temperature not lower than 63°, and are -rarely, if ever, found at a greater depth than about 180 -feet. Single polyp corals, like Fungia, are found at great -depths in the ocean, and certain corals grow in the Santa -Catalina Channel on the Pacific coast. In the Atlantic, -as far north as Long Island Sound, where the water is -often icy cold, is found the beautiful Astrangia, a coral -in which the polyps are pure white and about five one-hundredths -of an inch in length.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_051.jpg" name="i_051.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_051-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Organ-pipe coral (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tubipora</i>): <em>A</em>, cell tubes; <em>B</em>, polyp expanded. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In a general way we have passed in review some of the -typical corals, and may now glance at their manner of -growth. If we cut one of the cells of a coral across, we -shall have a figure similar to that shown in Figure 39. -The white radiating partitions are coral, the black spaces -are rooms, which correspond to the little apartments in -the anemone. The coral develops by eggs and by budding, -just as in the case of its cousin, the anemone. The -eggs, after enjoying a free-swimming life for a while,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -settle upon the bottom and begin to secrete lime. They -do not build up a house as the mythical "coral insect" is -described as doing, but secrete it much as any animal -secretes its bones or shell. As the water flows through -the animal it is enabled to secrete the lime dissolved in the -water. If we could watch every step of the growing process, -we should first see a little platform of lime attached -to the stone or object upon which the young coral animal -has dropped, then a little edge or rim which increases in -size daily. Out from this rim shoot the partitions, as -shown in Figure 39. It will be observed that they do not -meet and join, but leave a place in the center for the -stomach. Finally, the cell is completely formed, and we -have a perfect cup of lime, a coral cell in which is ensconced -the anemonelike coral polyp. Its color is an olive -brown, and when the polyp is expanded its little tentacles -resemble the petals of a flower. With these it catches -food, which it eats in very much the same way as do -the anemones. If this cup is a branch coral, soon a bud<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -appears upon the side, and a new cup or cell takes shape. -Then another is added, and we see the coral enlarging, -branching out either by budding or simply dividing until -a large branch is the result.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—Sections of a coral cell.</p> -</div> - -<p>This growth is much more rapid than is generally -supposed. The brain coral has been known to grow an -inch or double its size in a year, and branch corals grow -six or eight inches in this time. The corals and reefs -form the great girders of the globe. The one off Australia -is over a thousand miles in length, and all over -the world are found fossil reefs. Thus in the Helderberg -Mountains of New York I have followed and traced a -coral reef, quite as wonderful in its way as that now growing -and reaching out in Florida. By some upheaving of -the earth's surface it has been pushed up into the air, a -monument telling of the wonderful changes in nature and -of the time when the waters of New York were as warm -as those of Florida.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>—Surface of sea fan, -enlarged.</p> -</div> - -<p>Side by side with the corals and among the most beautiful -objects of these submarine gardens, we find objects -which resemble plumes and fans -(Fig. 41). These are called Gorgonias, -and are cousins of the -corals. They resemble fans made -up of a fine network or reticulated -surface (Fig. 40). They are richly -colored yellow, brown, and lavender, -those of the latter color being -particularly beautiful. When -there is a surf they can be seen -waving and bending gracefully, like the limbs of a tree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> -in a gale. One of -the best known of -this group is the -red coral of commerce, -found in the -Mediterranean Sea -and the Indian -Ocean. When -alive, the coral -base or branch is -covered with a -crust or skin in -which the animals -live, connected one with another. The polyp stands very -high and is white. The crust itself, the solid lime base, -is formed of a number of minute -parallel tubes. This coral is dredged -by collectors in the deep water and -is scraped and polished until the -beautiful red color, so highly prized -for jewelry, is brought out.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_054a.jpg" name="i_054a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_054a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>—Sea fan (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gorgonia</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_054b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>—Sea pen.</p> -</div> - -<p>Closely allied to the corals are the -sea pens (Fig. 42) which are common -in almost all waters, and among -the most beautiful forms. They are -communities of polyps. In the sea -pen the polyps are arranged along -the branches so that a fluffy fan or -an ostrich plume is imitated. I have -taken these animals from deep water -when they measured perhaps five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> -inches in length; but an hour later when placed in a -tank the insignificant animal had expanded until it was -five times as large, and beautiful beyond description in -its garb of delicate pink. At night it was a blaze of light -which flashed from branch to -branch, from polyp to polyp. -When irritated in a perfectly -dark room this specimen created -so brilliant a phosphorescent -light that I could almost read -large print by it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>—Veretillum, a wonderful -light giver.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the deep sea lives a giant -form, the Umbellularia, four or -five feet high; and there are -many more, all of which add to -the lights of the deep sea. Near -allies of these attractive forms -are the comb bearers, free-swimming, -jellylike forms of -great beauty and grace. I have -kept the radiant Pleurobrachia in a tank where I observed -its wonders and beauties. The one known as Veretillum -(Fig. 43) is very beautiful and a marvelous light giver.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>VI. THE STONE LILIES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>A number of years ago I took a number of walking -trips over that section of New York state known as the -Catskill Mountain region. The start was made at the -mouth of Catskill Creek, -which was followed up -into the mountains until -we came to a peculiar -light, slate-colored rock. -This rock, where the -stream had washed the -earth away, was dotted -with little disks (Fig. -44), which being harder -than the rock itself had -been weathering, and -stood out in high relief. -A mile or two from the -river the rocks were -covered with these disks, -in fact, seemed to be -made up of them. -Some were large, some -small, as if millions of pipestems had been cut into -sections and scattered about.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_056.jpg" name="i_056.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_056-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>—Sections of fossil crinoid stems, Catskill Creek. - </p> -</div> - -<p>These disks told an interesting story. We read by -them that ages ago the region now covered by farms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -and summer resorts was the bottom of a shallow, tropical -sea. We could go further and describe even the appearance -of the bottom of that sea, and what grew and lived -there. Scattered about on the rock were myriads of shells, -corals, teeth, fish bones, and a variety of objects, all the -remains of animals which once lived in this ancient -ocean.</p> - -<p>We find that the little disks fit together, and collecting -them, pile them up, forming a stem a foot or more long. -Among them we find one which -is attached to a rootlike object, -and this is placed at the bottom. -Near by we find a flowerlike or -budlike form (Fig 45), which -may well serve as the flower of -this stem, and so we add it and -produce a striking resemblance -to the crinoid shown in Figure -46. This is an interesting and -beautiful animal which was one -of the commonest forms of the -ancient seas. It grew in groves -and masses, as we may see by the -vast numbers strewn in the old ocean bed; and when they -died, they were scattered here and there and hardened -into the old bed.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_057.jpg" name="i_057.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_057-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>—Fossil crinoid. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_058.jpg" name="i_058.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_058-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>—A living crinoid (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pentacrinus</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>The crinoids resemble lilies so closely that they are -called stone lilies. They are animals, however, related to -the starfishes. They have a long stem, with rootlike -branches to support it, and are capped with what appears -like an inverted starfish, and is literally a starfish perched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -upon a stem. Fossil -crinoids have -long been known, -and beautiful specimens -may be seen -in all our museums, -but the fact that -they still live upon -the globe is a -modern discovery. -It is said that -Agassiz stated that -he expected to find -them alive off the -coast of Cuba, and -when a deep locality -was dredged, -up came the living -crinoids, or forms -almost identical -with them. Since -then they have -been dredged in -great numbers by -all the great deep-sea -explorers. -Some have long -stems, some short. -On one, the Comatula, -when it is full -grown, the crinoid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -leaves its stalk, and lives a free, roving life after the fashion -of many starfishes.</p> - -<p>The crinoid, with its long slender stem, its branching -tendrils, its flowerlike top, is one of the most graceful of -all animals, as might be imagined from the drawing. -Examine the crinoid as closely as one may, it still -resembles a stone lily, and only its slow movements, -contracting and folding, suggest life. Nevertheless, it is -a very complicated animal. It consists of a central body, -protected by numerous plates, as seen in Figure 46. From -the edges extend five, or often more, branches or arms, and -from them in turn branch other arms, so that the top resembles -a feather or brush, from which they are called -feather stars. In the center of the stars is a mouth, food -being caught by the many branching tentacles. The history -of the development of crinoids is very interesting. -They pass through several curious stages in the course of -growth from infancy to old age, and some of the shapes -are so curious that no one, not familiar with them, would -suspect that here was a growing crinoid.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>VII. THE STARS OF THE SEA</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_060.jpg" name="i_060.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_060-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>—Basket starfish. - </p> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_061.jpg" name="i_061.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_061-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>—Lower surface of starfish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Goniaster</i>), showing suckerlike feet; a slow -mover. - </p> -</div> - - -<p>Beneath almost every rock along the New England -coast, and under the branch coral in the tropics, we may -find a typical star-shaped animal, and by dredging offshore, -thousands are brought up, even from very deep -water, showing that the stars of the sea are almost as -plentiful as they appear in the sky above. These starfishes -are of all shapes, kinds, and colors. Some are a foot -or more across, huge, domed fellows with rough backs,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -showing little if any signs of life (Fig. 48); others have five -long legs and a small body (Fig. 49). Others, again, are -perfectly round and have many rays, while some have -few rays which are round, like the body of a snake, and -which they whip and slash about, displaying great activity. -Once in reaching beneath a coral branch to find a certain -shell which I knew lived there, my hand grasped something -which felt like a ball of snakes, each of which closed -about it, producing a most disagreeable sensation. I drew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> -it out and found it was one of the starfishes, common on -many shores as the basket starfish (Fig. 47). As I lifted -it up it was a veritable mass of coiling arms, a Medusa's -head of the sea, coiling and uncoiling. It was merely a -starfish in which each arm branches in two parts, each -branching out into two again with the result pictured, a -confused mass of arms. As I lifted my capture above -water and it felt the air it began to shed its arms, so that -it fairly rained pieces of starfish, and before I reached the -boat, but a few feet away, all that remained was the body. -My starfish had almost committed suicide.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_062.jpg" name="i_062.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_062-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>—A deep-water starfish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ophiocoma</i>), a rapid mover. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p> - -<p>The starfishes are found everywhere in the tropics. -Every bunch of coral contains scores of them. Many -resemble spiders, and are -a vivid red hue, others -are bronze or brick red, -while still others are -barred or spotted, as in -Figure 50. They are -all interesting creatures, -especially our common -Eastern starfish, which is -found in little caves at -low tide, clinging to the -walls. It is not very -attractive in appearance, and apparently not disconcerted -by being left by the tide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>—A brittle starfish.</p> -</div> - -<p>If we take a common starfish and turn it upon its back, -we observe that the lower portion is covered with short -tentacles, each having a little sucker on the end. These -are the feet of the starfish, by which it walks or moves. -In the center of the body is the mouth leading into the -stomach which reaches into each ray. The eyes are at -the tip of each ray. On the back of the star we find a -little red disk with a rough surface. This is really a sieve -for straining the water which pours in through a little -canal encircling the mouth and leading off into each arm, -carrying water to each one of the myriads of feet.</p> - -<p>The feet move independently, and the starfish walks -much faster than would be imagined. This can be illustrated -by the sudden appearance of the starfish, in Long -Island Sound. One night when the oyster men left the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -beds no starfishes were seen. The following day they -were there in such vast quantities that it was estimated -they covered the entire bed, two or three deep, and tens -of thousands of dollars were lost by the destruction of the -oysters.</p> - -<p>How an oyster can be opened by a soft, helpless starfish -would seem a mystery; but it is a very easy matter. -The starfish drags itself over the shell and places its -mouth at the end, extending its long arms downward, -literally swallowing part of the shell. It is supposed to -eject some secretion into the shell that causes it to open.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>VIII. OCEAN HEDGEHOGS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="ph3">(<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">The Echini</i>)</p> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_065.jpg" name="i_065.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_065-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>—Sea urchins burrowing in the rocks. - </p> -</div> - -<p>On the Florida Reef and off the rocky shores of California -one of the most conspicuous among the rock-living -animals is the black, long-spined Echinus. In the water it -looks like a huge pincushion (Fig. 51) filled with black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> -pins, points outward, and every crack and crevice is filled -with them. When -found on the beach, -despoiled of their -spines, they resemble -bleached shells, -and are then known -in Florida as sea -eggs (Fig. 52). -The long black -spines are continually -moving up and -down, and constitute -the armament of the sea urchin, and an effective -one to all except very large fishes, as some rays, which -have pavementlike -teeth fitted particularly -for such not -especially dainty -morsels. The spines -emit a bluish secretion -which is left in -the wounds made -by them, and is more -or less poisonous. -This common sea -urchin is a type of -hundreds found in -almost all seas from -very shallow water -to the abysmal regions of the ocean.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_066a.jpg" name="i_066a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_066a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>—Sea urchin without its spines. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_066b.jpg" name="i_066b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_066b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>—Short-spined sea urchin, showing the biting teeth. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> - -<p>Some sea urchins have short spines (Fig. 53) and are -almost pure white; some are flat like the sand dollars, -the spines feeling like sandpaper, so short and fine are -they. The latter are small, and appear to be covered with -waving filaments. Many have spines like needles; in others -the latter are blunt, clublike organs. Many other strange -variations are seen in an exhibition of the various kinds in -some museums. -None are more -remarkable than -those having five -holes through -them like Chinese -money -(Fig. 54).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_067.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>—Flat sea urchin, "sand dollar."</p> -</div> - - -<p>The urchins -are very closely -allied to the -starfishes, especially -in structure. -They -have the same -kind of feet, -and among the -spines is seen -a singular handlike organ common to the starfishes. It -has three fingers (Fig. 55) and a short stem, and is constantly -in motion, its office appearing to be to clean the -body. Foreign objects are taken up by this peculiar hand -and passed on from one to the other until they are finally -dropped off. Here is the same madreporic plate or sieve,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -and the structure of the Echinus (Fig. 56) is very similar -to that of the starfish. The former has a long set of jaws, -hence is a biter and nipper, while the -starfish is a sucker. The shell of the -Echinus is really a beautiful object when -divested of the spines and bleached in -the sun, appearing as pure white as coral -after bleaching. It is made up of about -six hundred hard, limy plates arranged in double rows, -which contain about thirty-seven hundred pores through -which the feet protrude. Despite this marvelous supply -of feet, or organs of locomotion, the Echinus is a very -slow walker. The spines number four thousand or more, -and each one works on the ball-and-socket plan, is hollow, -and moves readily in all directions.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_068a.jpg" name="i_068a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_068a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>—Handlike organ of sea urchins and starfishes. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_068b.jpg" name="i_068b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_068b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>—Structure of the Echinus: <em>a</em>, mouth; <em>o</em>, anus; <em>c</em>, stomach; <em>f</em>, madreporic plate; <em>d</em>, intestine; <em>p</em>, ambulacra; <em>v</em>, heart; <em>z</em>, spines. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The sea urchin is produced from eggs. The young pass -through some remarkable changes before they assume the -adult form. In one of these changes they appear as free-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>swimming -animals (Fig. 57), and resemble anything but -the perfectly developed Echinus. Some of the sea urchins -of deep water, as the Hermiaster -and others, carry their -young in pouches, the spines -being folded over them to -hold them in place. They -rarely move from the crevice -on the rock which they select. -They can be found in the -same place for months together, -and have a limited -power of wearing out the rock. -How the Echinus grows inclosed -in so hard a shell -might be a puzzle did we not -know that the shell is covered with a skin, each plate being -literally surrounded by it. This skin secretes lime, taking -it from the water and depositing it on the edges of all the -plates, so that the animal grows rapidly and symmetrically. -The Echini are the scavengers of the ocean, and they aid -in maintaining the clearness and purity of the water. In -some countries certain kinds are eaten, and one species -is valuable for its spines, which are used as slate pencils.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_069.jpg" name="i_069.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_069-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>—Young sea urchin. - </p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>IX. THE SEA CUCUMBERS</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_070.jpg" name="i_070.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_070-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>—Sea cucumber, showing its breathing organs. - </p> -</div> - - -<p>Once, when poling my boat over the great coral reef of -the outer Florida Keys I came upon a little plot of seaweed -in shallow water which was so covered with huge sea cucumbers (Fig. 58) -that it would have been an easy matter to fill the boat. They were from -six to twelve inches in length, two or three inches across, and bore a -striking resemblance to actual cucumbers. In color they were brown, and -when lifted from the water they slowly moved or twisted, sending out a -stream of water. -They might have been made of leather, so far as any evidence -of life was concerned, and were so tough that a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -spear thrust into one had to be cut away, so tenacious was -the hide of this singular sluglike animal. Taking a large -one from the bottom, I placed it in a glass jar standing on -the deck of my boat, whereupon a very singular occurrence -took place. When the air began to be exhausted in the -water of the glass, out from the sea cucumber came a long, -slender fish, so ghostly and ethereal that when it died, as -it did almost immediately, I placed it upon a piece of -newspaper and read print through its body. The fish -was known as Fierasfer, and it lived in the long intestine -of the sea cucumber. Since then the fish has been closely -studied in the Naples Aquarium, where it had the same -habit, and where the attendant naturalists saw the fish -come out, and return tail first.</p> - -<p>The great sea cucumber of Florida may be taken as a -type of all the group which differ mainly in size, color, and -shape. Some are very short and have a decided flat lower -surface; others are long, fragile, and easily broken; and -many are brilliant in color. Nearly all are famous for -their singular and often beautiful breathing organs which -protrude from the mouth and bear the most remarkable -resemblance to plants. In many specimens of the -Atlantic Pentacta (Fig. 58), kept in an aquarium, this -resemblance was very marked, as the animals at once -buried themselves in the sand from which beautiful plants -seemingly grew, being merely the breathing organs of the -wily mimic. These organs vary much in size and beauty. -In some species they are very elaborate, in others they -are simple, flowerlike objects. The greatest variation is -found in them. In one which I observed the tentacles -resembled small toadstools.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>—Anchorlike spicules of Synapta.</p> -</div> - -<p>Many of the sea cucumbers, or holothurians, are very -sensitive, and when captured will often cast off their various -organs. This does not indicate the death of the animal, -as they are soon replaced. A singular trait of the long -glasslike Synapta is that of cutting itself in two when -starved. At first an end of the animal is dropped, then -another piece, and this is continued until nothing but the -mouth remains, everything having seemingly been sacrificed -to save this portion. If food is now supplied, this -animal will soon recover and assume its normal condition.</p> - -<p>Synapta has no feet, their place seemingly being taken -by peculiar limy spicules, shaped like anchors (Fig. 59), -which are deeply buried in the skin. In its structure the -sea cucumber resembles its cousins the starfishes and sea -urchins, and standing on end, -may be compared to an elongated -sea urchin. Nothing can be -more uninviting than these animals, -and when dried the flesh -has the consistency of leather. -Yet the sea cucumber is highly -regarded by the Chinese as a -delicacy, and the Malays have a large fleet engaged in the -business of gathering and preparing them. The animals -are collected and dried, then smoked and packed in bales -and sent to China. They may be found in any of the -markets of these people, in San Francisco and New York. -About the Pacific island of Santa Catalina they are very -commonly seen through the bottom of the glass-bottomed -boats, lying in the seaweed and imitating it in -color.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>X. THE WORMS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Few groups of animals differ so much in general appearance -as the worms. Some resemble miniature snakes; -others are flat, some are like needles, one lives in a cell; -another stays in the tissue of some animal, while certain -others infest the soil. Almost everywhere, on land and in -the sea, under nearly all conditions, we shall find these -remarkable creatures, which may be briefly described as -animals having a head, tail, and upper and lower surfaces, -and made up of a great many rings, or segments. In -them we find an approach to the higher animals. Thus -they have a heart, with red or green blood, breathing -organs, though many breathe through the body walls, and -a nervous system consisting of a minute brain in the upper -portion of the small head.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_073.jpg" name="i_073.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_073-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>—Development of a planarian worm. - </p> -</div> - -<p>All the worms deposit -eggs, and nearly all are -remarkable for the wonderful -changes through -which they pass before -they attain maturity. -This is well illustrated -in a planarian worm -(Fig. 60), which seems to -require the presence of -another animal to enable -it to complete its develop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>ment. -The little creature which -breaks from the egg (<span class="smcap">A</span>) is a free-swimming -creature surrounded by -cilia or hairlike swimming organs. -By these it moves through the -water, and with strange instinct -searches for some animal, generally -a snail, which it enters. There it -becomes surrounded by a sack and -produces a little creature called the -nurse (<em>b</em>), which soon grows to -resemble the tadpolelike creature -(<span class="smcap">C</span>), which is filled with small egglike -or germlike objects (<em>a</em>). It now changes into a wormlike -creature (<span class="smcap">D</span>), in which the -germs have assumed the -shape of worms (<em>a</em>), and -soon breaks forth as a little -form with a tadpolelike tail -(<span class="smcap">E</span>)—a remarkable performance. -But the end is not -yet; another animal is -necessary to complete the -change. Swimming about, -the little creature is swallowed -by some animal in -drinking, and finds its way -to the liver, where it lives, -the tail being lost. The -animal now changes into -a perfect flukeworm (<span class="smcap">F</span>),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -which finally leaves the animal or host and lays eggs in -the water; these pass through the same wonderful transformation. -The flukeworms (Fig. 61) are disagreeable -flat creatures, not often seen, the marine forms attaining -large size.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_074a.jpg" name="i_074a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_074a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>—A flukeworm. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_074b.jpg" name="i_074b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_074b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>—Thorn-headed worm. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_075.jpg" name="i_075.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_075-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>—Supposed horsehair worm (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gordius</i>): <em>A</em>, adult; <em>B</em>, young (larva). - </p> -</div> - -<p>Many of the worms are parasites living upon other -animals. The thorn-headed worm (Fig. 62) is an example. -Who has not heard the story of the living horsehair? -Almost every country newspaper -has told the story, that some -farmer after washing his horses -had found several hairs taken -from the horse's tail which -"were alive," and to prove the -story the farmer produces the -"living horsehair" which is a -remarkable imitation of the long -hair of a horse's tail. But -the hair is a well-known worm -(Fig. 63) called Gordius aquaticus. -It is almost exactly like -a horse's hair, two or three feet -in length, and found coiled up in -ponds or snugly tucked away in -the interior of a beetle or grasshopper -which it has seized upon -as a host. The deadly Trichina spiralis belongs to this -group (Fig. 64). If the vinegar bottle is examined, in -what is popularly called the "mother" at the bottom, -still another member of the family will be found. This -is a minute round worm almost invisible to the naked<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -eye. It is very active and disagreeable to contemplate, -living in the sour, fiery liquid.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_076a.jpg" name="i_076a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_076a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Trichina spiralis</i>: a deadly worm from pork. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_076b.jpg" name="i_076b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_076b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>—The rotifer. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In this group are many dangerous worms, as the guinea -worm of remarkable length. While nearly all worms are -disagreeable creatures, a few are very beautiful. Such -are the rotifers or wheel animalcules (Fig. 65). These -are the smallest and most active of the tribe of worms. -To be found they must be sought in a drop of standing -water, and as they are rarely ever over one thirty-sixth -of an inch in length, a microscope is necessary. Among -the throng of wonderful creatures one will be seen seemingly -rolling over and over like a barrel, a minute whirling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> -Dervish of the water. The rotifers assume a variety of -shapes. One is a typical worm, another darts along by the -aid of two circlets of cilia which vibrate so rapidly that the -illusion of rolling is produced. No more wonderful creatures -than these little worms are known, and they well -repay the study required to know them well. Some of -them are fixed and unable to swim, and many of the stories -of spontaneous generation are due to the faculty these -minute rotifers (often but three one hundredths of an inch -in length) have of enduring almost any amount of drying. -Thus if a pond is dried up by the sun, the rotifers seem to -be able to lie dormant for a long time, and when a rain -falls in the locality for the first time in years, the pool is at -once peopled with rotifers which awaken from their long -sleep. When it is known that Ehrenberg, the German -naturalist, found that a certain species produced sixteen -million young in less than two weeks, it is easy to under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>stand -how quickly a new pond might become rapidly -equipped with a large population.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_077.jpg" name="i_077.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_077-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>—Polyzoans: 1, colony in plant form; 2, 3, cells of the worms magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_078.jpg" name="i_078.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_078-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Polyzoan, magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<p>It is a singular fact that myriads of worms are seen -daily, but are not known as such. These are the minute -and beautiful Polyzoans (Fig. 66). They are marine animals, -grow in colonies, and look like delicate seaweeds. They -are often called moss animals. At the seashore we -shall find the rocks and particularly the broad fronds of -kelp near shore often encrusted with a delicate, beautiful -tracery of pure white. In California I have found the -kelp leaves at the surface covered with it, having the -appearance of being coated -with silver. Beneath the glass -it develops into a beautiful -tracery filled with cells. -When magnified these cells -are seen to resemble Figure -67, each one having its -worm, which seems to blossom -like a flower. These worms -are minute imitators of corals, -as they form a corallike structure, -the worms having the -faculty of secreting lime, as -do the corals, yet they are much higher in the scale of -life. One of the common seaweeds of the seashore is the -sea mat or Flustra. No one would suspect it of being -other than a beautiful marine plant with large leaves or -branches, and many a collection of "seaweed," preserved -through many years, contains the Flustra arranged among -the real "plants" of the sea. But Flustra is merely a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -colony of worms. The minute spots seen upon it when -enlarged beneath a microscope resemble so many cells of -carbonate of lime secreted by the worms of the community -or colony. Another species of Flustra is shown in Figure -68, and a part of the skeleton of the colony or of each -cell is the peculiar bird's head which has a beak. This -beak, even after the death of the worm, is seen to open -and shut, snapping continually, much quicker than the little -pincerlike objects we have seen in the sea urchins. The -use of the so-called bird's head is not well understood.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_079.jpg" name="i_079.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_079-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Bird's-head Flustra: 1, Flustra mat, showing cells; 2, diagram of a single worm (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polypide</i>); 3, bird's-head process. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_080.jpg" name="i_080.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_080-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Sea mat: 1, sea mat, natural size; 2, 3, section of the animal much enlarged. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_081a.jpg" name="i_081a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_081a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Lingula. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_081b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Lamp shells, showing gills.</p> -</div> - - -<p>This Flustra (Fig. 69) is very beautiful, forming a delicate -little plantlike form about an inch and a half in size. -But the crowning glory of these worms, as shown in the -figure, is the circular crown of tentacles by which food -is grasped as it passes by. Any one who has collected -fossils in what is known as the Trenton limestone is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -familiar with the little fossil shell called Lingula, of which -two thousand species are known. Curiously enough this -little shell has come down to us to-day, and in Figure 70 -we see the living Lingula of our waters with its long stem -by which it fastens itself in the sand. Lingula resembles -a small clam shell, has two perfect shells, and probably -holds a place in many collections as a shell; yet Lingula -is a worm which secretes a two-valved, unhinged shell, -that is an almost perfect imitation of a bivalve mollusk. -In the Santa Catalina Channel, California, from water -six hundred feet in depth, I have dredged shells resembling -those in Figure 71. They hung upon rocks in -clusters, and were very striking in their rich colors of -yellow, red, etc. In shape these Terebratulas, also common -among the fossil shells, resemble ancient Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> -lamps, and hence are called lamp shells. They too are -worms, however, and many more shell makers -called brachiopods. The -"wick," a muscular stalk -or byssus, becomes firmly -attached to some object at -the bottom. But in the -instance of the little Lingula -the stalk or anchor rope -merely passes between the -curious shells. If the latter -are opened, we find a singular -bridge or limy framework -which is intended to -support the soft parts of the -bridge, a very conspicuous -feature of which are what are called -arms, long, ribbonlike, fringed processes -(<em>a</em>) which are coiled up in the -shell and -serve as breathing organs and -to obtain food as well. They -can be extended some distance -from the shells. The curious -frame upon which they rest -is well shown in Figure 72. -It is on record that during -the Sikh rebellion an entire -English regiment was put to -flight by a force of worms. -The troops were marching<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> -through a forest when land leeches began to fall from -every branch and leaf, dropping in such vast numbers -that the men were almost crazed by the -vicious bloodsuckers; hence they broke -and ran for clear ground, where they -could rid themselves of the terrible -pests. Semper, the naturalist, states -that he was driven from the forests of -Luzon by these leeches, which fell upon -him like dew. The ordinary leech of -commerce (Fig. 73) belongs to this -group. It has a sucking mouth, which -bears three teeth. It was once much -used by physicians for bleeding purposes, -in fact, the animal derives its -name from the fact that medical men -in England were formerly called leeches. -The leech had a high commercial value, -over seven million being used in London -in a single year, valued at ten -dollars a thousand. Leech raising is -a regular business in Russia, Bohemia, -and Hungary.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_081c.jpg" name="i_081c.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_081c-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Brachiopod, showing supporting loop. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_082.jpg" name="i_082.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_082-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—The leech of commerce: <em>a</em>, anterior sucker; <em>b</em>, posterior sucker; <em>d</em>, stomach; <em>s</em>, glands of the skin. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The best known of all worms, perhaps, -because all boys are fond of -fishing, is the angleworm or earthworm -(Fig. 74), which can be found where -the earth is rich and moist. This worm -is really a beautiful object, being highly -iridescent, flashing a thousand hues in the sunlight to -which it has a decided objection, as the heat soon dries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> -it up. The ringed or segmented arrangement is easily -observed as it moves along. By this marvelous arrangement -a worm can either stretch itself -out to an inordinate length, or telescope -itself until it can hardly be recognized -as a worm. There are several interesting -features about earthworms which -ordinarily escape the notice of even -the angler. One is its feet, which -differ from those of any other animal. -They are very minute, and are bristles, -each segment or ring being supplied -with four. Another peculiarity of the -earthworm is that instead of hunting -out food in the earth it swallows the -earth as it meets it, allowing the animal -matter to be absorbed within. It then -casts up the earth, which are the little -mounds of mold found in the grass or -turf every morning. This habit has -made the worm a valuable aid to the -farmer in preparing the soil, filling it -with tunnels and constantly bringing new earth to the surface -and turning it over. The amount of earth moved in -this way was made a special study by Charles Darwin. -In the year 1842 he spread a field with broken chalk, and -after twenty-nine years examined it and found that the -chalk in that time had been buried seven inches by the -worms.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_083.jpg" name="i_083.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_083-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Earthworm: <em>c</em>, egg; <em>d</em>, young escaping from egg. - </p> -</div> - -<p>This gives us some idea of how important a factor these -humble creatures are, working mainly at night, in burying<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -the works of man. It is evident that in two or three -centuries portions of buildings could be concealed. In -England numbers of ancient Roman villas have been -discovered, beautiful floors and foundations of ancient -buildings which have been lost to sight by being covered -by these night workers. To give an adequate idea of -the work they accomplish, Darwin says that the amount -of vegetable mold brought to the surface in a single year -amounts to ten tons to a single acre. They rarely descend -below six feet, and Darwin estimated that in favorable -localities there are 100,000 in every acre. In New -Zealand 348,480 have been found in a very rich acre. -The worms eat the earth, and drag leaves and soft twigs -into their holes at night. They plant seeds and bury -stones. Some of the casts of giant worms of India are -a foot in length. They live entirely beneath the ground, -lining their burrows with very soft fine earth, which -appears to be powdered for the purpose. All their operations -are carried on at night, when they come to the -surface and eject the casts. They have a habit of lying -near the surface at the entrance of their burrows, a fact -which the birds have discovered, robins and mocking -birds particularly being very clever in hunting them out.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable features of these worms is -their phosphorescence, which I have found is more brilliant -than that emitted by any other animal. Crossing an -orange grove in southern California one dark and rainy -night in January, I stumbled over a clod of earth, and if -I had kicked a mass of live coals, the result could not -have been more marked, as flashes of vivid light darted -in every direction with the earth, caused by several earth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>worms -which had exuded so much phosphorescent matter -that it had pervaded the entire mass of surrounding soil. -The phenomenon on a small scale can often be seen in -southern California, especially in winter, when the ground -is moist and wet.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_085.jpg" name="i_085.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_085-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Marine worm (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cirratulus</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_086.jpg" name="i_086.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_086-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—A marine worm (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nereis</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>Probably the most beautiful of all worms are those of -the sea, the marine forms found everywhere from the -mud banks to the long fronds of kelp washed by the -foaming sea. Perhaps the most gorgeous creature taken -from deep water is Aphrodite, several inches long, an inch -across, and about the size of a mouse. The worms are provided -with an array of iridescent bristles, so beautiful as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> -to appear artificial, blazing with golden lights. Some of -these worms are covered with strange and brilliantly colored -streamers, as Cirratulus (Fig. 75). Others are long and -slender, as Nereis (Fig. 76), a very common form alongshore. -It is sought after by fishes with good -appetites, and often caught, despite the fact -that it has four eyes, four hundred paddles, -and fierce jaws for seizing prey. Nereis -lives in the sand in a tunnel. It has a habit -of coming out at night and swimming abroad, -when, creating a blaze of light, it becomes -a very conspicuous object and is quickly -caught by some wandering fish. These -worms are among the most brilliant of all -light givers; not alone for the intensity of -light, but for its variety in tint and color. -The most remarkable light givers are Polynoë, -Syllis, Chætopterus, and Polycirrus. -The first-mentioned emits a green light at the -attachment of each scale. In the second -the feet are light givers and emit a blue -light. In the third the light blazes on the -back at the tenth joint alone. The last is -a worm of fire, the strange, little understood -light blazing over its entire surface, a vivid blue.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_087.jpg" name="i_087.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_087-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—A tube-secreting worm. - </p> -</div> - -<p>I was once sitting on the shore of Avalon Bay in -southern California when, in the darkest corner in the -shadow of a high cliff, I saw, two hundred feet away, -what appeared like candle lights floating upon the surface. -Rowing a boat to the lights, I found that each -one came from a spot of phosphorescence floating on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -surface. When it moved, as it often did, phosphorescence -streamed away in its wake. When taken in my hand the -latter became bathed with the light which ran from the -invisible animal. I succeeded in capturing one entire light, -but could not make out the animal. Soon I noticed lights -upon the bottom in water five feet deep. They appeared -to be as large as saucers, but grew rapidly in size until they -were as large as dinner plates, then the yellow light gradually -diminished until it was not larger than a hazelnut, and -came wriggling upward in a zigzag of fire, finally reaching -the surface and resting, as one of the peculiar lights I had -seen so far away. I captured several, and in the morning -found that my light giver was a minute sea worm not half -an inch in length. When discovered, the little animal was -leaving its burrow or cave in the sand for a nightly swim -at the surface.</p> - -<p>Many of the most beautiful of -the marine worms are cell builders -(Fig. 77). In some the worms -secrete a tube of carbonate of -lime. In others the den is made -of bits of sand. I found on the -Florida Reef many remarkable -examples of the latter. The nest -or tube was built among the seaweed, -several inches above the -bottom, and would naturally be -a conspicuous object; but here the intelligence of the -little creature is seen, for it covers the outside of the -column with the plates of a lime-secreting seaweed, which -look like shingles, and mounts upon the upper portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -of the column a green bit of seaweed. This is glued to -the tube and so arranged that it falls over the entrance -and closes it, thus serving the purpose of a door and -making the tube mimic a bit of sea grass. The worm lifts -the grass door when it comes out.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_088.jpg" name="i_088.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_088-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—A group of tube-secreting worms (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Serpulæ</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>One of the most familiar forms is Serpula (Fig. 78), -whose tubes wind in and out in every direction. No garden -of pansies gives a greater variety of tints than did a mass of -these radiant creatures that I found on a floating spar -in the Pacific at Avalon Bay. But touch these "flowers" -or jar them and they disappear like magic, leaving a -hole closed by a little door, which is formed by a part -of the worm that thus defies all intruders.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XI. THE TWO-VALVED SHELLS</h2> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_089.jpg" name="i_089.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_089-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—The oyster: <em>A</em>, muscle; <em>B</em>, mantle; <em>C</em>, gills; <em>D</em>, labial palpi; <em>E</em>, hinge; <em>F</em>, mouth; <em>G</em>, liver and stomach; <em>H</em>, heart. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The beautiful objects which we know as shells, and -which form ornaments in many a home far distant from -the sea, are the coverings of a group of animals called -mollusks. They are found in all seas, many upon land, -and in fresh-water streams, and are among the most attractive -of all natural objects, so much so that many persons -devote their entire lives to their collection, and many -others much time to the study of their habits. It is rare -to find a new shell, so well have these shell hunters -searched the waters of the world. Such collections, especially -if complete, are very valuable, and many of the -great museums have paid thousands of dollars for them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_090.jpg" name="i_090.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_090-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Anatomy of snail: <em>a</em>, mouth; <em>b</em>, foot; <em>c</em>, anus; <em>d</em>, lung; <em>e</em>, stomach; <em>f</em>, intestine; <em>g</em>, liver; <em>h</em>, heart; <em>i</em>, aorta; <em>j</em>, gastric artery; <em>k</em>, foot artery; <em>o</em>, lung and heart artery. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The mollusks or shells present a striking contrast to the -worms. They have no joints, are soft, seemingly without -form, and are very helpless creatures. The body is enveloped -in a muscular coat or mantle, as shown in the -oyster (Fig. 79). They have a nervous system, and a -heart (<em>H</em>) which pumps colorless blood. Some have a foot -for locomotion and eyes more or less well developed. The -oyster represents a large group which have two shells, -called bivalves. In Figure 80 we see the animal portion -of the common snail, which illustrates another group with -but one shell. These are called univalves. To the bivalves -belong the shells best known, the oysters, clams, -scallops, pectens, pearl oyster, razor shell, and many -others, of which the oyster is the most familiar. The -mantle, the soft, delicate lining, is the shell maker, and -not only forms it, but repairs damages to it, piling up layer -after layer of pearly matter called nacre. As there is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -mantle on each side, two values are secreted. The sharp -portion of the oyster is called the beak. Here the growth -of the shell begins, and here -are the marvelous valves -which fit with such accuracy. -These complicated parts are -easily seen in the clam (Fig. -81). The hinge is joined -by teeth (<em>c</em>, <em>d</em>, <em>d</em>,) which fit -into cavities on the opposite -valve, while the valves are -held together by a perfect -hinge, a horny ligament (<em>h</em>) -that tends to open the shell -or throw the valves apart.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_091a.jpg" name="i_091a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_091a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—Bivalve shells: <em>a</em>, beak; <em>k</em>, base; <em>b</em>, <em>b</em>, hinges; <em>c</em>, <em>d</em>, <em>d</em>, teeth; <em>n</em>, ligament; <em>e</em>, <em>e</em>, adductor muscles; <em>l</em>, lines of growth; <em>f</em>, pallial line. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In the interior of all shells -are seen certain scars; in -others a purple mark. These -marks (<em>e</em>, <em>e</em>,) indicate the location of a strong muscle by -which the clam or oyster closes its shells and keeps them -closed with such rigidity. -In opening oysters the -man severs this muscle -and the shell opens, -forced apart by its ligament. -This explains -why most shells found -on the beach are wide -open. The curious columnar -objects in rows -are the gills or breathing organs of the oyster, and are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -covered with little oars (Fig. 82), or cilia, which move to -and fro, continually sweeping the currents of water along, -bearing oxygen and food. The former is taken up by the -gills to purify the blood, and the latter is swept into the -mouth located near the lungs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_091b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Cilia or oars of a mollusk, highly magnified.</p> -</div> - -<p>There is great variety in the hearts of shells. In the -oyster (Fig. 79) it is composed of one auricle and one -ventricle; but in other shells the heart may be three-chambered, -or there may be two distinct hearts, each having -two chambers. The eyes of the shells are very minute -and are situated along the mantle. Those of the pecten -are very beautiful and are distinctly visible, resembling -gems or emeralds.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_092.jpg" name="i_092.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_092-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—A clam: <em>f</em>, foot; <em>m</em>, mantle; <em>s</em>, siphon. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The clams (Fig. 83) differ from the oysters in having -a pronounced foot (<em>f</em>) which protrudes from the large end -of the shell; and with it the animal digs its burrow. It -also hears indirectly by its foot, as its ears are in this -organ, little transparent sacs containing a clear fluid in -which floats a glassy globule. The clam also has a siphon -(<em>s</em>), which in the common clam is very long. It has a -black head or tip and the clam may rest some distance -down in its hole and take in water through its siphon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> -which is double-barreled. One opening (<em>in.</em>) receives water -containing food and oxygen; the other (<em>ex.</em>) expels the -water. In strolling along the sands at low tide one often -sees a spurt of water shoot out of a hole, and may assume -that a clam has been -alarmed and has -retracted its siphon -so suddenly that it -has shot a stream -of water above the -surface. The shells -increase by eggs, the -oyster depositing a vast number, which at first are curious -little free-swimming objects (Fig. 84) paddling by the aid -of cilia or whips, but soon attaching themselves to the -bottom and taking the oyster form.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_093.jpg" name="i_093.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_093-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>—Free-swimming young of a bivalve. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The oyster is perhaps the most valuable bivalve to man, -being a favorite article of food, for which $1,500,000 is paid -annually in New York alone. Thousands of men find -employment collecting them in various parts of the world. -In this country the most valuable oyster beds are in the -vicinity of New York, at the mouth of the Shrewsbury -River, in the Chesapeake Bay, and at various points alongshore -to Florida, where there are large banks at the mouths -of the rivers. In watching the excavation of a cellar at the -town of Mayport at the mouth of the St. John River I saw -oyster shells thrown up as deep as the men went. The -town is built on an ancient oyster bed. Among the old -shells numerous pieces of pottery have been found, showing -that the early natives frequented the spot. The living -oyster bed here to-day is some distance out in the stream.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -When sailing up a small river in Maine some years ago, -I found, about ten miles from its mouth, a mound of oyster -shells thirty or forty feet high. The river appeared to -have cut the bed in two, and out of the top of the mound, -which was of solid shells, grew a tree which must have -been a century old. I believe there are no oysters on -the Maine coast to-day, and the great pile was accumulated -ages ago when Maine had oyster beds and the Indians -carried the oysters ten miles up the river to this spot -which must have been the site of an ancient Indian town -or city. The pearl oyster is another valuable shell -(Fig. 85). It is common in warmer waters. Near La -Paz in the Gulf of California is a famous fishery, which is -owned by the government and farmed out. In Ceylon it -is estimated that 17,000,000 oysters are destroyed to obtain -$80,000 worth of pearls. The shells are also very valua<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>ble, -being made into buttons and various other objects. -Liverpool is the great receiving port for these, and many -tons are used annually. In diving for pearls the Ceylonese, -who are able to remain beneath the water several -minutes, place as many shells as possible in a basket and -then ascend, leaving the crew to haul the basket up. In -Lower California many divers of to-day go down in -armor.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_094.jpg" name="i_094.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_094-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>—Pearl oysters. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Pearls are generally valued according to their symmetry -and color. Some are perfect, and when of large size bring -vast sums. One of the shahs of Persia owned a necklace -in which the pearls were perfect and as large as hazelnuts. -The pearl is the result of the oyster's attempts to -protect itself from injury. If we should take one of these -beautiful pearl oysters and with a gimlet bore a hole -through the shell from the outside and replace it in the -water, we should find, months after, if the oyster was -examined, that it had, by using its mantle, secreted a large -amount of pearly nacre over the wound, not only filling up -the hole, but heaping the pearly secretion over it until a -projection a quarter of an inch high was the result, resembling -a pearl attached to the shell. This is the way imperfect -pearls are formed; they are the attempts on the -part of the oyster to prevent injury to itself. Occasionally -some foreign body, like a grain of sand, will enter the -shell. Its sharp edges will cut the soft flesh of the delicate -creature, which immediately covers it with pearly -nacre. The larger it grows the more the oyster notices -it among its folds, and the more it instinctively covers it -with pearl. In this way the pearls grow.</p> - -<p>The seed pearls are those in which some impurity has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> -been covered but a few times, while the very large pearls -are those which have been bathed in nacre time and again. -If a large pearl is cut in halves, the various layers can be -counted, the sections recalling the interior of an onion. -The skillful native fakirs of the East take advantage of -this industry of the pearl oyster to introduce metal beads -and figures of the Buddha into shells, which are then -marked. The objects finally become covered, when they -are removed from the shells and sold to the unsuspecting -natives as "miracles."</p> - -<p>One of the interesting shells of the seashore is the -Pinna. I have found the shores of the outside islands of -Texas scattered with them. They are also called fan -shells, and are attached to the bottom by a peculiar cable, -or byssus, formed of a silklike substance which has been -woven. Gloves and hose of pinna silk may be seen in -the British Museum.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_096.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>—Pectens swimming.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pectens are common forms famous for the beautiful -gemlike eyes seen along the edge of their mantles. I -once kept a number of these -shells in an aquarium, and -they were a source of much -amusement, from their -habit of dancing (Fig. 86). -Generally they lay in the -sand in the bottom of the -tank with their valves open -an inch or more, their bright eyes gleaming. Without -any warning, one would open and close its valves with -great rapidity, which would cause the shell to take convulsive -and bounding hops. Then another shell would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -follow, and soon all the pectens were leaping up and down -in a most extraordinary dance. The pecten changes its -position or travels, not by pushing itself along, but by a -sudden and spasmodic hop, clearing a foot or more.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_097.jpg" name="i_097.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_097-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>—Mussel climbing: <em>B</em>, cables; <em>F</em>, foot. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The locomotion of shells itself is a fascinating subject. -An interesting instance is observed in the common mussel. -This shell has a remarkable foot, a pointed, fleshy organ -which can be protruded. With this organ the mussel bores -holes in the sand, jerks itself -along, or clears the surface -with a bound. But its most -remarkable service is in aiding -the mussel to climb. In the -foot, near its base, is a gland -which secretes a peculiar substance, -which when exposed to -the water hardens and resembles -silk. The resemblance is -so perfect that the "silk" has -been woven into various articles, -and an attempt was made -in France to raise mussels for -this purpose. When the animal -desires to climb, it reaches out its foot as high as it can -(Fig. 87), and presses it upon the pile or rock, whereupon -a delicate cord, one of the cables of its byssus, is seen. -Again the foot is extended, again a cable is attached, the -entire operation calling to mind the action of a spider. -Each step raises the mussel a little higher, and as it moves -on, the cables that would hold it back are broken off, and -the mussel at length reaches the position it desires.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> - -<p>The fresh-water mussels found in the Ohio and other -rivers and streams are pearl producers. Very valuable -gems have been taken from them in various states, and the -fresh-water pearl fishery of the United States is of considerable -importance. A fresh-water pearl found in New -Jersey was valued at $2000, and one taken from a stream -in Scotland brought $50,000.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_098.jpg" name="i_098.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_098-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Giant clam. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The vast number of shells and the varieties of each kind -can hardly be realized by those who have not examined a -well-equipped collection. Over four thousand species of -the mussel are known, and hundreds of species of almost -every shell exist in various streams and seas. The shells -range from minute specimens hardly visible to giants -weighing several hundred pounds, one of the latter being -the huge clam, Tridacna (Fig. 88), found in the equatorial -Pacific. There -are several species, -and in the largest -each valve weighs -about two hundred -and fifty pounds. -The animal itself -weighs thirty -pounds, and affords -a meal to forty or -fifty men. The -shell, by means of -its foot, buries itself in the soft rock of the regions in -which it lives. With its valves partly open it resembles -a huge sea anemone; but it closes them at the slightest -alarm. Large fishes, and even natives, it is said, have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -trapped by this giant, whose jawlike valves, with three huge -teeth, grip the fin of a fish or the foot of an unfortunate -wader with a vicelike grasp. The byssus or -anchor of this huge shell is so thick and tenacious -that it is severed only with great difficulty -and labor. The shells are valuable as ornaments, -large numbers being sent to various -countries for this purpose. The giant never -moves, and in this respect is a sharp contrast -to the little donax, so common on our various -shores and in France, which leaps along the -muddy flats by convulsive movements of its -fleshy foot.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_099.jpg" name="i_099.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_099-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Razor clam. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The common razor clam, of which sixty or -more species are known, by means of its foot -(Fig. 89) digs a deep burrow which is filled -with water even at low tide. The shell is often -found at the entrance, but at the slightest -alarm it dashes deep down into its den, to be -caught only by persistent digging.</p> - -<p>The odd shapes assumed by many bivalves is well illustrated -in the hammer oyster (Fig. 90) and the pholas. -The latter illustrates the power of the most insignificant -animals, as by means of its foot this little shell burrows -into the hardest granite. It is invariably found there and -imprisoned; for when it reaches the interior of a stone, it -grows and enlarges, leaving but a small opening for the -siphons. It is supposed by some that the pholas possesses -some secretions by which it dissolves the stone, and by -others that it wears away the rock by using its shell as a -file. In any event the shell is known to contain aragonite,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> -a very hard substance. In the pillar of the temple of Serapis, -Italy, the holes made by this shell are seen.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_100a.jpg" name="i_100a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_100a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Hammer oyster. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the pholas is its -power as a light giver. It emits a delicate blue light, dead -or alive. One placed in a glass of milk has -been used as a lamp, illuminating the faces -near it. Another placed in honey retained -its phosphorescence for over a year. The -little pholas is found all over the world, more -than eighty different species being known.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_100b.jpg" name="i_100b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_100b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Teredo, a boring shell. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The teredo or shipworm (Fig. 91) is called -a worm because it secretes a limy shell, but -it is really a bivalve shell open at both ends, a shell which -with one exception causes more destruction than all other -marine animals combined. Instinctively it bores into -wood, forming an irregular tunnel and lining it with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -delicate coating of carbonate of lime. Some years ago -I visited on the outer Florida Reef, an old wreck which -was newly buried in the sand and partly exposed at low -tide. The timbers of the vessel looked strong and able -to stand many a storm, yet with a blow of my hand I -broke through the planking. The interior was completely -honeycombed by the teredo, so that it was a maze of tubes. -At this place the life of a pile of yellow pine was a year -and a half; in other words, after being exposed to the -teredo for this length of time, it was useless. On the -Pacific, at Avalon Bay, the piles last about two years, being -rapidly destroyed, even though soaked in various poisonous -fluids and coated with tar. Many thousands of dollars -have been expended in experiments with devices to outwit -the teredo, but without avail, and they are the greatest -menace to navigation and piers to-day, making their way -into hulls, despite the copper sheathing. In the mud -banks of the waters of Sumatra, teredos are found which -attain a length of six feet, with tubes four inches in -diameter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Mactra: <em>a</em>, foot; <em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, siphons.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> - -<p>The shells are famous for their beauty, the polished -valves and their marvelous tints -presenting attractive combinations. -The common mactra (Fig. 92), the -cockle (Fig. 93) with its deep -radiations, the gorgeous pectens of -the South, the splendid pearl-bearing -shells, all tell a wonderful story -of the resources of nature, and -emphasize the fact that the smallest -and most inconspicuous animals vie -with the larger forms in beauty of shape and color.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—Cockle.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XII. THE UNIVALVES</h2> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_103.jpg" name="i_103.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_103-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Group of shells: 1, Cymbium; 2, Cerithium; 3, Voluta; 4, Cardium; 5, Phorus; 6, Murex; 7, Vermetus; 8, Trochus; 9, Pholas; 10, Turritella. - </p> -</div> - - -<p>The shells which have been noticed in the preceding -chapter belonged literally to the stay-at-homes of the -family. They rarely wander far, and many, as we have -seen, never leave the place which the young shell first -selected as its home. What are known as the univalves, -the mollusks with one shell, or perhaps no shell at all, are -the reverse of this, being in many instances travelers, -wandering here and there. This suggests that they have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -more highly organized locomotive organs. Those shown -on the upper part of Figure 94 are univalves, and if we -make a section of a univalve -(Fig. 95), we see that the shell is -much more complicated than in -the previous forms. The univalve -has a shell-secreting mantle and -organs resembling those of the -bivalves, only differently placed. -This marvelous mantle performs -some singular feats, judging from -the spines found on many shells. -To make these, the mantle must -have been thrown outward and -upward, forming a tube in which -the spine was secreted.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_104.jpg" name="i_104.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_104-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—Section of a univalve. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In the univalves a distinct head -is seen (Fig. 98) with tentacles -and prominent eyes. The foot is -now elaborated into a huge sucking, clinging, disklike -organ. In the whelk it is as long as the shell, the latter -being perched high above it, presenting a remarkable -spectacle as it moves along the sandy floor of the ocean. -On the head are two tentacles, feelers or sense organs, -and sometimes the eyes are mounted on tall stalks, that -the shell may have a wide range of vision. A siphon, -such as we have seen in the clam, is present and extended -upward and forward. It protrudes from a canal formed -in the shell for the purpose, and is often very long. If -the whelk (Fig. 99) is disturbed, it suddenly withdraws -its body, including the enormous colored foot; and if the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -shell is picked up, the entrance is found securely closed -by a horny door called the operculum, which is attached -to the foot (Fig. 99). This door takes many shapes. In -the beautiful conch it is saber-shaped, and is used to dig -into the sand, or, as a lever, to force the conch along by -a series of jerks. In other shells it is apparently made -of porcelain, hard and highly polished. It is well known -as the "eye stone" -of popular fancy.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_105a.jpg" name="i_105a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_105a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—Tongue and teeth of a univalve: <em>A</em>, portion of tongue of Velutina; <em>B</em>, portion of tongue of whelk; <em>C</em>, head and tongue of limpet; <em>D</em>, portion of same enlarged. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Many of the univalves -are flesh -eaters, preying upon -others of their kind. -They have a remarkable -tongue (Fig. 96) -for the purpose, in -fact, the teeth are upon the tongue in sawlike rows. The -tongue, which is called the lingual ribbon, is ribbon shaped, -long and slender, and is really a soft, pliable saw with -which the animal bores into -the hardest shells of the helpless -clams. In strolling alongshore -a large majority of the -"dead" clam shells found -bleaching in the sun, where -they have been washed by the -sea, will be seen to contain a -circular hole of perfect symmetry -(Fig. 97). This has been made by the boring, sawlike -tongue of a univalve, which, after gaining an entrance -into the tightly locked shell, deliberately sucked it out.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> -It is interesting to note the location of this hole, which is -invariably over the softest and plumpest part of the victim, -near the lungs, showing that the cannibalistic univalve is -very clever in its mode of attack.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_105b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—Clam shell bored by a univalve.</p> -</div> - -<p>While the oyster deposits vast quantities of eggs, which -float out into the water to be destroyed by other animals, -many of the univalves protect their eggs in remarkable -cases. I have often found on the Florida Reef strings -(Fig. 98) of singular objects which resembled sections of -a yellowish cylinder connected by a little cord. Each -section is an egg case, or capsule, and contains many -shells, the entire chain being two or three feet in length. -This becomes tangled in the coral or seaweed, and holds -the young shells, all of which escape through a little door -in each section.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_106.jpg" name="i_106.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_106-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Egg case of a conch. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Other shells, as the whelk (Fig. 99), deposit their egg -cases in heaps or mounds. They are soft and spongelike, -and are often mistaken for sponges when divested of their -shells and cast ashore. Perhaps the best-known egg case -is that of the common Natica, which forms a singular -object called the "sand collar" (Fig. 100). The animal -molds this collar out of fine sand with its foot, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> -deposits its eggs in the interior, all being cemented or -glued together in a solid mass. We shall find that certain -birds deposit their eggs in the nests of others, so saving -the wearying process of hatching. -A certain shell, called Nassa, has -a similar habit. At times it deposits -its eggs on the collar nest -of the Natica.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_107a.jpg" name="i_107a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_107a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—The whelk: <em>A</em>, living shell; <em>B</em>, empty shell; <em>C</em>, egg case. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_107b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Egg case of the Natica.</p> -</div> - -<p>Among the myriads of shells -which we may select to illustrate -the various interesting types, -shapes, and kinds, are the Chitons (Fig. 101). Their -shells are made up of many plates resembling the plates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> -of a hawkbill turtle. Many live in holes in the rocks, -and all have a very large, sucking, disklike foot which -clings to the rocks with great tenacity. Resembling them -somewhat are the limpets. These are -interesting and beautiful shells, especially -when polished, forming attractive domes -marvelously tinted and colored. Some -are called keyhole limpets (Fig. 102), from -the fact that they have a keyhole-like -opening in the top. They range in size from very minute -forms to giants a foot in length.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_108a.jpg" name="i_108a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_108a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>—The Chiton and its free-swimming young. I. Adult, showing plates. - II. Chiton dissected: <em>o</em>, mouth; <em>g</em>, nervous ring; <em>ao</em>, great artery from the heart, - aorta; <em>c</em>, ventricle; <em>c´</em>, an auricle; <em>br</em>, left branchiæ; <em>od</em>, oviducts. III, IV, V. - Development of free-swimming young. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>Among the most beautiful of all shells, and at the same -time the most common in tropic and semitropic seas, are -the abalones. They are also called ear shells. They -have an enormous foot that covers the entire lower surface, -being a remarkably powerful organ. Instances have -been known where Chinese abalone hunters have tried to -pry off the shell from a rock with their hands, and have -had their fingers caught and held as though by a vice.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_108b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>—Keyhole limpet.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Haliotis is very common on the shores of the -southern Californian islands. In some localities every -rock is covered with them, and in places where the black -abalone is common, I have found them piled one upon the -other. There are two hundred species living. Every tint, -color, or tone known in the scale of color, or its combinations, -is flashed from these marvelous shells, which, if rare, -would be counted among the most beautiful of all natural -productions. On the Californian coast they are collected -in large numbers, and when polished are converted into -buttons and a thousand and one other objects. The meat, -which is of excellent quality, is sold in large quantities to -the Chinese. Thousands of the shells are bought by -tourists, the outside being richly polished. From the -ancient graves or Indian mounds of the Californian islands -I have taken quantities, especially the large kind known as -the red abalone, showing that they were used by the -ancient inhabitants. In all of these islands heaps and -piles of abalones are found far from the water. By stopping -up the holes in the shell with asphaltum, which -drifts ashore here, the natives had an excellent dish, or -bailer. They cut the shell into earrings and ornaments -of many kinds, and most of their fishhooks were evolved<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> -from this beautiful shell, which also supplied a large -proportion of their food.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_110a.jpg" name="i_110a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_110a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>—Great conch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Strombus</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_110b.jpg" name="i_110b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_110b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>—Queen conch (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cassis</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> - <img src="images/i_110c.jpg" alt="" /> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>—Cypræa.</p> -</div> - -<p>On the Florida Reef the great conchs (Fig. 103) are -very common. They live on the sandy floor of the lagoons, -hitching themselves slowly along by their long-pointed, -saberlike operculums. This is the conch of commerce, -in which appears the most delicate of all pink colors, and -which is the source of the rare pink pearls. In the same -locality, but in deeper water, is found the Queen conch -(Fig. 104), which is cut into medallions and -cameos. The beautiful Cypræa (Fig. 105), of -which many varieties are known, are called -micramocks in Florida, and cowries elsewhere. -Their luster and natural polish often excite -wonder, for they commonly live concealed in -the rough portions of dead coral branches, -where they would easily become scratched. -The cowry, however, is protected by a remarkable mantle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -which covers the entire shell, thus keeping its pianolike -surface as smooth as a mirror. Many cowries are beautifully -striped; some are spotted with dark spots on a -white background; some are yellow; others are red or -old gold, every tint and color seemingly being employed by -nature in painting these gems of the sea. Few other shells -have been so universally esteemed by all nations. Among -certain African tribes they are used as money, and not -many years ago collections of cowries were made with -all the ardor that actuated the tulip collectors, thousands -of dollars being paid for single shells, as the orange cowry.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_111a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Cone shell (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Conus</i>).</p> -</div> - -<p>The cone shells (Fig. 106) represent a beautiful -group, spotted like -leopards, striped like the -tiger, black, red, yellow. -Some shells are very pointed, like the augur shell (Fig. -107). Some have an extraordinarily long projection for -the siphon, as the spindle shell (Fig. 108). In some the -opening is very small, as the cone shells, while in others -it is immense, and protected by a large, doorlike oper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>culum. -The Bulimas is a famous nest builder. Bulla is -interesting from the lightness and delicacy of the shell -and its rich neutral browns.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_111b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Augur shell (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Terebra</i>).</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_111c.jpg" name="i_111c.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_111c-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Spindle shell (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Fusus</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>Among the very familiar shells are the land snails -(Fig. 109), common in every garden and raised and sold in -France and Italy -as table delicacies. -Closely -allied to them -are the slugs, -which bear upon -their backs, beneath -the skin, -a delicate, scale-like -shell. On -the island of San Clemente, fifty miles off the coast of -California, I found an extensive sandy plain which was -so thickly strewn with the white, bleached snail shells -that I could hardly step without crushing several. The -verdure had died, and the snails were doubtless killed by -the direct rays of the sun.</p> - -<p>These interesting animals are called pulmonates because -they breathe air directly.</p> - -<p>The slugs (Fig. 110) have many peculiar characteristics. -If the long tentacles on the short eye stalk are destroyed, -the snail will reproduce them. In winter the snails descend -into the ground, or hide themselves away, literally sealing -themselves in their shells by closing the door firmly, and -there hibernate until spring, neither eating nor drinking, -and hardly breathing during this time; if placed in a cold -storage box, they will remain several years in this state.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_112.jpg" name="i_112-thumb.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_112-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—A snail crawling.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_113.jpg" name="i_113-thumb.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_113-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—Slugs and snails.</p> -</div> - -<p>Some of the snails of Africa are six inches across, and -the eggs are an inch in length. Semper found a little -snail in the Philippines, which when caught by the foot or -"tail" throws it off as a lizard jerks off its tail. This is -not a great hardship, as the tail is soon renewed. In a -collection of shells which came from France some years -ago I found several snails of different colors which were -joined one to the other. The collector had cut the top -from an empty brown snail and placed a living snail with -a yellow shell upon it, tying the two together. The snail, -supposing that its shell had been broken, immediately -began to repair the wound, and closed up the breach with -its shell-secreting mantle, so that the two shells became -one.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_114.jpg" name="i_114-thumb.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_114-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>—A sea slug (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dendronotus</i>).</p> -</div> - -<p>In floating on the borders of the Sargasso Sea, the -vast sea of weeds in the South Atlantic, I found numbers -of a beautiful sea slug (Fig. 111) which so resembled the -weeds in shape and color, a rich olive green, that it was -almost impossible to distinguish it, except when very close -to the surface. They -have attractive names, -as Doris, Tritonia, Æolis, -and Aplysia, and are -among the wonders of the -great belts of kelp which -surround the continent. I once found a slug at Santa -Catalina which was a vivid, almost iridescent purple; -another was yellow; but the most interesting was Aplysia, -a giant two feet long, which I kept in an aquarium. -It weighed nearly eight pounds, could lengthen itself -out to a distance of nearly three feet, or contract into a -dark, olive-hued ball, scarcely six inches across. It took -sea lettuce from my hand, eating with avidity, and when -disturbed emitted a purple ink which filled the water and -hid the monster "sea hare" from view. It laid its eggs -on the sides of the tank in long chains, but if not well -fed, exhibited a decided cannibalistic tendency, devouring -its own progeny. This animal had an enormous foot by -which it crept rapidly along, and it invariably protected -itself by imitating the color of the bottom upon which it -rested.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_115a.jpg" name="i_115a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_115a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Onchidium</i>, a sea slug with eyes on its back. - </p> -</div> - -<p>One of the most interesting slugs is the Onchidium -(Fig. 112). According to the naturalist Semper, it has -upon its back numerous eyes, which enable it to see -from above. It is a mud-loving form, common in our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -new provinces, the Philippines, -where the heat is intense and -the water warm. One of the -land slugs, Limax noctiluca, -emits light; and the eggs of -another, Arion, have been -noticed to be luminous for -nearly two weeks after being -deposited.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_115b.jpg" name="i_115b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_115b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>—<em>A</em>, <em>B</em>, <em>C</em>, pteropods; <em>D</em>, young of Cleodora, all highly magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Nearly all these shells are -slow-moving animals, but there -are others, the pteropods -(Fig. 113), which are swimmers. -The veritable fairy craft of the sea, they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -housed in shells of dainty structure and moving by singular -winglike fins, which give them the name of ocean -butterflies. They have the property of phosphorescence -to a remarkable degree. Cleodora (Fig. 113, <em>D</em>) emits a soft -light which gleams through the delicate shell like a light -in a lantern. In swimming it moves its fins up and down -very much like a butterfly, so that they touch at the top. -As delicate and dainty as this little creature is, it has a -marvelous arrangement for seizing prey, each tentacle -having about three thousand transparent cylinders, each -of which contains twenty stalked suckers. As there are -six tentacles on each sucker, Cleodora can grasp its prey with -three hundred thousand hands. Equally dainty in its way -is the sea snail, Ianthina, a violet shell of great delicacy, -whose foot develops a raft which resembles a mass of -soap bubbles, so the violet snail floats upon the surface -of tropical and semi-tropical -seas. I -have seen the shores -of the keys of the -Florida Reef lined -with an undulating -ribbon of these -shells after a storm. -When touched they -emit a rich violet ink -which lasts a long -time as a stain. -A small species of Ianthina is found in the winter on the -southern Californian shores, and beneath the attractive -float will be found the eggs.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_116.jpg" name="i_116.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_116-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>—1, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Dentalium entalis</i>, natural size; 2, -shell magnified, and broken to show animal within; 3, animal projecting from the shell; 4, animal from below, magnified; -6, same from above; 5, same, showing internal structure. - </p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIII. THE CUTTLEFISHES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the great libraries of the country will be found books -dating back to the last two centuries, many of which contain -cuts and descriptions of frightful animals resembling -huge spiders, called krakens, or devilfishes. They are -represented climbing over ships, and hauling them down. -One is described as so huge that the crew of a vessel -landed upon it, not -discovering that it was -not an island until -they had built a fire, -when the supposed -island, really a kraken, -sank beneath them. -These are tales of -romancers, but it is -interesting to know that they are based upon a slight -foundation of fact. Devilfishes have been discovered in -various seas, which weighed several hundred pounds, -and whose length ranged from fifty to seventy or more -feet. Such an animal is the giant squid (Fig. 115), -which is a very timid animal, and though it might overturn -a small boat, it is not likely to make the attempt.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_117.jpg" name="i_117.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_117-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—A giant squid, fifty feet long. - </p> -</div> - -<p>These animals are called cephalopods because their feet -are attached to the head; in other words, they are head-footed. -The typical squid or cuttlefish has a barrel-shaped -body, and a tail resembling an arrowhead. Its head is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -separated from the body by a seeming neck, and is provided -with two immense eyes (Fig. 116). Projecting forward -are two long, slender arms, and eight shorter ones, -which in the giant squid are from six to ten feet in length. -These are armed with peculiar -suckers (Fig. 117), each of -which is extremely powerful. -In a specimen six feet long, -which I kept for an hour -alive in a large tank, some idea of the strength of a -squid could be obtained. It fastened its eight arms to the -tank, and with all the force I could bring to bear I was -unable to tear them off. Besides the eight short arms -there are two long ones.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_118a.jpg" name="i_118a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_118a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—Squid (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sepia</i>), one fifth natural size. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_118b.jpg" name="i_118b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_118b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—Suckers of a squid. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_119a.jpg" name="i_119a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_119a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—Beak or bill of a squid. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_119b.jpg" name="i_119b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_119b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—Showing parts -of a squid: <em>T</em>, tentacles; <em>O</em>, -mouth; <em>F</em>, siphon; <em>In</em>, intestine; -<em>I</em>, ink bag; <em>B</em>, gills; <em>H</em>, -heart; <em>K</em>, blood vessel; <em>C</em>, -lobes of tail. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In a specimen of the giant squid which I handled and -measured, the long arms were about thirty feet in length.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> -The ends were enlarged with paddlelike organs, and bore a -group of suckers. The object of the long arms is to serve -as graspers. They are kept near the body, coiled up, and -can be shot out with remarkable velocity, grasping a fish -like two hands with gigantic arms. -They haul the prey to the short -arms, when hundreds of sucking -disks hold the victim that is now -pressed to the remarkable mouth. -This lies between the base of the -arms, and in color and appearance -is almost exactly like the beak of -a parrot, with the exception that the under bill fits over -the upper (Fig. 118). These bills almost invariably nip the -struggling fish over the vertebra or back bone, severing -it at once, and ending the struggle. The tongue of the -squid is a ribbon with teeth upon it. Such an armament -alone is sufficient to attract attention to the animal, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> -it has still another feature which adds to its interest as -a weird and disagreeable creature. The squid has a -siphon which terminates in a tube, opening beneath the -head. Into this an ink bag opens (Fig. 119). In swimming, -the squid rarely if ever rests upon the bottom, but -takes in water around the edge of the mantle and ejects -it with more or less force from the siphon, and thus the -squid is driven along, tail foremost. When alarmed its -movements are very rapid. If in danger, the squid pours -an inky secretion, which is the sepia of commerce, into the -siphon, and the secretion is swept out into -the water in a cloud which spreads rapidly, -to the confusion of any following enemy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_120a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—Cuttlefish bone.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_120b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—Eggs of the squid.</p> -</div> - -<p>The squid has a shell, but it is very small, -and internal. It is called the pen, and that -of some species is the cuttlefish bone of -commerce (Fig. 120). In specimens six or -seven feet long, taken at Santa Catalina, -California, the pen -was fifteen inches -long and glasslike—a -perfect pen -in shape. Such is -this peculiar creature, and if we -add that it can change its color -from very dark brown to almost -white, adapting it to the color of -the bottom over which it rests, -we can form some idea of one -of the strangest of all animals. -They deposit eggs in clusters.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<p>The squids range in size from gigantic specimens seventy -or more feet in length to the minute Cranchia, which is -luminous at times. Some have no tails, some only the suggestion -of a tail, some have very pointed ones, some very -broad ones. In specimens of the little Cranchia which I -observed the head was very small and the body long in proportion. -One form appears to have side winglike fins. The -large squids live in the deep sea, and most of the specimens -known have been taken from the deep fjords of Newfoundland, -which appears to be a favorite locality for -them. They doubtless live everywhere in the deep seas, -as they are almost invariably found in the stomach of -the sperm whale, evidently constituting a favorite food of -this giant-toothed whale.</p> - -<p>The squids live mainly upon fishes, and are very skillful -in taking them, poising like a cat, near the bottom, creeping -upon a school of sardines,—all the time simulating the -color of the bottom, and almost invisible but for their large, -dark eyes standing out,—then suddenly darting tail first -into the school, flinging the long arms at the flying fishes, -and almost always catching one, which is dragged up to -the parrotlike bill and dismembered. In the six and seven -foot squids taken at Santa Catalina the stomachs were -filled with seaweed, showing that at least some of these -animals are vegetarians.</p> - -<p>On all tropical shores is found a beautiful coiled shell, -the Spirula, with little pearly septa dividing it. I have -seen a windrow of these shells a mile long, but never -found the animal and shell together, so easily are they -disconnected. It is the smallest and the most beautiful of -all the cephalopods.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_122.jpg" name="i_122.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_122-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—Octopus or devilfish. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The familiar devilfish or octopus (Fig. 122) is another -form, a bottom lover, found among the rocks, rarely -attempting to -swim. It has a -round, baglike -body, often covered -with soft, -fleshy spines; two -fiery green eyes, -which always -seem to emit a -baneful light; -eight sucker-lined -arms, which can -be thrown in any -direction, and the -beak and ink bag -noticed in the -squid, but no pen -or shell. The -octopus lives in -dens or crevices in the rocks, and ranges in size from -specimens a foot or two across to giants with arms -having a radial spread of nearly thirty feet (Fig. 123). -These large individuals are found along the Pacific coast -from California to Alaska, and when caught generally -make a desperate struggle for liberty and display a vast -amount of strength. I once kept a number in a tank, -which were two or three feet across, and when they -had grasped firmly it was almost impossible to wrench -them from the glass. They differed much in temper.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -Some would apparently play with my hand, tapping it with -their tentacles, or gripping it gently. Others would crouch -like miniature tigers, quivering with rage, and with green -eyes shining, would spring upon it and attempt to smother -it with their arms—a most disagreeable sensation, -especially when it was almost impossible to remove the -hand from the uncanny grasp without lacerating their flesh. -One large octopus in this family, when it obtained a grip, -would hold my hand firmly; hence I concluded that a -specimen thirty feet across, similar to those represented by -casts in the Yale and National Museums, might easily -overcome a man. Yet the octopus is a very timid animal -in the open water. I rarely caught them either in Florida -or California, unless they were cornered, and they never -attempted to bite. But I seized one in the coral, and it -wound about my arm so tightly that I was obliged to -wrench away twenty or more pounds of branch coral, before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -I could release it without laceration. When attacked the -octopus changes color with great rapidity from black to -gray, and when enraged it often has the appearance of a -leopard. Then it hurls a cloud of ink into the water, and -endeavors to slink away under this cover, gliding through -crevices that would seem entirely too small to admit so -large an animal.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_123.jpg" name="i_123.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_123-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Giant octopus, radial spread twenty-two feet. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The octopus swims when forced to do so, using a -weblike membrane which is seen to connect the base of -the eight arms or by forcing water from its siphon. -These arms, when extended, give the octopus a faint -resemblance to an umbrella without a handle, and with -very long supports. The octopus preys upon very -small animals, particularly crabs. I have lain among the -bowlders on the shores of the Californian islands and -watched the octopus hunting. They selected the flood -tide and crept near the shore, moving along slowly, on -the watch for a species of Grapsus very common here, -a land crab which occasionally enters the water. The -crabs crept down to the water's edge, and often entered, -and in this moment of incaution were pounced upon by -the disagreeable creature so well named the devilfish. -Sometimes they were caught at the very edge; a long, livid -tentacle would come shooting out of the water like a flame -and seize the victim. Despite its struggles, it was soon -hauled in, the octopus immediately covering it with its -umbrellalike bag, doubtless bringing its nippers into play. -I have seen an octopus dash out of water two or three feet -and scramble up the dry rocks with remarkable speed -after an escaping crab. At these times the octopus can -be caught by seizing it quickly, but some experience is re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>quired -before one can grasp a large octopus and retain the -hold, so disagreeable is the sensation of the snakelike tentacles -winding about hand and arm. The very appearance -of the octopus is like a horrible dream, and so intensely -repulsive is the animal that in an actual test not one person -in fifty who passed a tank containing an octopus with arms -a foot long and a hideous striped body, could be induced to -touch the animal, though assured that it was absolutely -harmless and would merely squeeze the hand.</p> - -<p>While the devilfish is the type of all that is hideous and -repulsive in nature, it has a near relative, the paper nautilus, -which is a very dainty and beautiful creature. It -appears to be an octopus which lives in a shell. The -argonaut, as it is called, has eight short arms, the upper -pair being largely developed at their tips, forming fanlike -or saillike organs. It was formerly believed that these -were really sails, held aloft to catch the breeze to blow -the fairy argonaut along. So fixed in the public mind -was this erroneous belief that illustrations in various works -otherwise correct, display the argonaut in this incorrect -position. The animal is the female, which, to protect and -carry its eggs, is provided with a dainty shell which it -secretes, but is not attached to, and would lose were it -not for the two large-ended tentacles with which it grasps -the beak of the shell (Fig. 124). These arms also bear -the shell-making and repairing glands. The argonaut can -crawl upon the rocks at the bottom, swim through the -water, forced along by its siphon stream, or float calmly -at the surface. About nine species are known; generally -in some tropical waters. Every year a few are found -stranded upon Santa Catalina Island, California.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_126a.jpg" name="i_126a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_126a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Argonaut in natural position, arms holding the shell. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_126b.jpg" name="i_126b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_126b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Figs. 125, 126.</span>—Sections of an ammonite. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In many of the fossil deposits are found gigantic shells -resembling the wheels of a cart, and enormously heavy. -These are ammonites -(Figs. 125, 126), -and ancestors of the -nautilus (Fig. 127), -another member of -this wonderful family -of animals, with feet -attached to their -heads. It has a shell -of radiant pearl, divided, -like the little -Spirula, by pearly -septa or partitions, -into rooms or chambers -(<em>C</em>) all of which -surround a small -tube (<em>s</em>) called the siphuncle. This contains a long, -fleshy pedicel, hence the nautilus is attached to its shell -and can not leave it. -The shell chambers -are filled with gas, -and the animal has -the power to change -its specific gravity, -to float or rise. The -nautilus forces itself -along by a current -from its siphon, and -in a general way re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>sembles -others of the group. It has no ink bag, and its -eye is not the striking object seen in the other forms. -It is merely an elevation -bearing a minute -hole which leads into -the globe of the eye, -which during the life -of the nautilus is filled -with water. According -to Doctor Hensen, -in place of a refracting -lens and a cornea, -the animal has an arrangement -for forming -an image on the -principle of a pin-hole -camera. We might -imagine the nautilus -easy to capture; but it is very timid and rarely caught. -Instead of eight or ten arms the nautilus has ninety-four. -The shell is a beautiful object when cleaned and polished, -being a vase of pearl of a chaste and elegant design, often -copied, and in great demand by native artisans who carve -and engrave it, and mount it in gold and silver. The -nautilus, aside from its beauty, is a most interesting animal, -being the last or almost the last of its race of fifteen -hundred species, which have lived in former periods of -the earth. Only two are still alive, and these in all probability -are doomed to extinction.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_127.jpg" name="i_127.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_127-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>—Pearly nautilus: <em>T</em>, tentacles; - <em>M</em>, mantle; <em>E</em>, eye; <em>s</em>, siphuncle; <em>S</em>, siphon; - <em>C</em>, chambers. - </p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIV. THE CRUSTACEANS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Among all the animals few are more interesting and -whimsical than the crabs and lobsters. They have jointed -legs, feelers and claws in pairs, living in a shell which they -cast like an overcoat when they outgrow it, and have bodies -which are made up of hard, tough, limy rings or segments -(Fig. 128). The crustaceans are found in all waters, fresh -and salt, and on land. They abound in the greatest variety, -and range in size from specimens almost invisible to the -naked eye to forms with a radial spread of over twenty -feet.</p> - -<p>During a recent visit to the outlying islands of the Texan -coast, I found these extensive regions populated by vast -hordes of white or yellowish land crabs, which paraded the -beaches and climbed over the dunes in such numbers that -the eyes could not be raised without seeing a dozen or -more. They were so familiar and tame that several large -individuals had burrows by the side of the walk which led -from the hotel, and readily took bread thrown to them.</p> - -<p>On the keys of the Florida Reef the "spirit crabs," as -they are called, are equally common. Pretending to be -asleep, I have often watched them cautiously approaching, -led by their curiosity to see what strange object this was -that had washed ashore. If I remained perfectly quiet, -they would gather in dozens, and numbers of little hermits -would crawl over me, to drop off at the slightest alarm. -In the water were countless other forms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_129.jpg" name="i_129.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_129-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>—The Norway lobster, showing jointed structure. - </p> -</div> - - - -<p>Wherever we go, from the ocean to the interior, we shall -find some members of this interesting family. On almost -any seashore we shall find a crab or crayfish, from which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -some idea of the structure of these animals can be obtained -(Fig. 129). We see that there are two distinct regions, the -head portion and the tail. The first mentioned is hard and -in one general piece; the latter is made up of joints or -rings. Everything about this curious animal is jointed. -Turning it over (Fig. 130), we see that it has five legs on -each side, all jointed. The first pair are large biting claws, -and in some species others are biters. Even the eyes are -upon stalks and jointed, and about them are two sets of -feelers, whips, or antennæ—one large and one small pair—which -the animal holds out before it as a blind man -does a cane. The mouth is made up of many curious -organs for separating and grinding food.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_130.jpg" name="i_130.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_130-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>—Crayfish seen from the side, with that portion of the carapace -removed which covers the branchiæ, or gills. The appendages of the left side only -shown, <em>s</em>, region of stomach; <em>A</em>, abdominal appendages; <em>B</em>, bases of the four -small legs; <em>C</em>, base of large claw; <em>f</em>, "gill-bailer," or flabellum, attached to the -second maxilliped; <em>e</em>, eye. (After Morse.) - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_131a.jpg" name="i_131a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_131a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>—Under surface of the crayfish or fresh-water -lobster (<em>Astacus</em>): <em>a</em>, first pair of antennæ; <em>b</em>, second pair; <em>c</em>, -eyes; <em>e</em>, foot jaws; <em>f</em>, <em>g</em>, first and fifth pair of thoracic legs; -<em>h</em>, swimmerets; <em>i</em>, anus; <em>k</em>, caudal fins. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_131b.jpg" name="i_131b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_131b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>—A shrimp, showing - anatomy: <em>s</em>, stomach; <em>l</em>, liver; <em>i</em>, - intestine; <em>h</em>, heart; <em>g</em>, chain of - ganglia; <em>hg</em>, head ganglia. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Some idea of the various internal organs of the crustaceans -may be obtained in Figure 131. The breathing organs -are conspicuous, curled up like plumes on each side of the -crayfish and attached to the base of the legs. Water -enters the shell under the edge, -back of the great claws, and -is swept along over them by -a little organ called the gill -bailer, the gills taking up oxygen -from the water, which in -turn is absorbed by the colorless -blood. The brain is very -small, and nerves can be seen -passing from it to the various -organs. The ears are situated at the base of the small -or first antennæ, and are little sacks on the upper side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> -containing a thick fluid in which are floating minute -grains of sand. The tail portion is made up of a number -of rings or segments, and is provided -with small swimmerets. At -the extreme end are seen five paddlelike -or fanlike organs (Fig. 132), -which constitute a most important -swimming organ to the lobsters -and crayfishes, by the violently -flapping of which they dash away backward. In color -the crayfish is yellowish brown or greenish. When alive -it presents (Fig. 133) an attractive appearance.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_132a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>—Paddles of lobster.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_132b.jpg" name="i_132b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_132b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>—Fresh-water crayfish. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The crustaceans deposit eggs which they carry about -with them attached to the swimmerets, and resembling -minute bunches of grapes. When first hatched (Fig. 134)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -the young crustaceans are totally unlike the parent in -appearance, passing through several stages before they -reach the adult form. When the crustacean grows too -large for its shell, what are known as casting hairs appear -on the inner side, which push the shell upward.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_133.jpg" name="i_133.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_133-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>—Stages of development in a crab. - </p> -</div> - -<p>I have watched this process in the California sea crayfish, -and it is generally accomplished at night. The flesh -of the animal appears to become very watery and soft at -this time. Finally the animal bursts the shell and by a -slow and convulsive effort drags the flesh from claws, eyes, -swimmerets, and antennæ, and escapes through the upper -portion of the division between the head and tail, and -presto! we have two animals; one flabby and very nervous, -the other the deserted shell, yet seemingly alive. The -crayfish is very helpless now, and secretes itself for several -days until the new skin hardens, when it appears in a -freshly colored coat of yellow and black.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XV. FROM BARNACLES TO LOBSTERS</h2> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_134.jpg" name="i_134.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_134-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>—Goose barnacles. - </p> -</div> - - -<p>In strolling along the shore one may often find pieces -of wood washed in by the combing waves, which are covered -with white and blue-tinted objects, resembling dates -(Fig. 135). They have long, fleshy stems, and appear to -have a number of plates or shells, and are by many considered -shells. Other floating matter will be found covered -with small white objects (Fig. 136), and many of the -rocks alongshore are so completely encrusted by them -that the surface of the rock is concealed. On the backs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -of whales are found similar objects, often three inches -across and two inches high. These are barnacles, cousins -of the crabs, which secrete multivalve -shells and are anchored to various -floating or submerged objects. They -are crustaceans which are attached -to the bottom by their antennæ.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_135.jpg" name="i_135.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_135-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>—The barnacle: -<em>A</em>, from above; <em>B</em>, section from the side. - </p> -</div> - -<p>If the shell of a barnacle is carefully -observed, fluffy, feathery objects -may be seen coming out with regular -motion. These are the feet of the -crustacean, which in the barnacles -are modified into food catchers, grasping -at the minute animals contained -in the water. What are called goose -barnacles have long stems, and the -old writers considered them young geese which grew on -trees and finally fell into the water. I have found a goose -barnacle in the mouth of a large sunfish, so placed that the -barnacle swung clear of the curious teeth of the fish. They -are also found on the feathers of penguins in the South -Pacific. Every floating timber or wreck at sea is covered -with the curious, long-stemmed creatures. The barnacles -deposit eggs, and the young are at first free swimming, but -soon acquire a shell, seek the bottom, or some floating object, -and become fixtures for life.</p> - -<p>Many of the crustaceans are so small that but few persons -ever see them. Such is Cyclops (Fig. 137), a minute -creature seen distinctly only under a microscope, yet -swimming in fresh water and readily recognized by its egg -pouches, one on either side of the tail. The eggs hatch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -out into singular little objects, having very little resemblance -to the parent. -The Cyclops and others -are very tenacious of life. -When pools and streams -dry up and remain so -for months, they lie -dormant, coming to life -again with the return of -the water. Many of this -group are parasites upon -fishes, as the Lernæidæ -(Fig. 138), which appear -like streamers on the -sides of carp and other -fishes. These parasites, deeply embedded, live upon the -fish.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_136a.jpg" name="i_136a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_136a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>—Water fleas: 1, Cyclops, showing -egg pouches; 2, Cypris; 3, Daphnia. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_136b.jpg" name="i_136b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_136b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>—A parasite of a fresh-water fish (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cyprinæ</i>): <br /> - 1, larva, as it leaves the egg; <br /> - 2, larva, more advanced; <br /> - 3, adult female, showing the egg sacs. (Nordmann.) - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> - -<p>Some of these minute crustaceans are almost exact -in their resemblance to shells, as Estheria which has -a bivalve shell. But perhaps the most -remarkable creature is Artemis, the -brine shrimp (Fig. 139), which lives in -brine that would be deadly to almost -any other animal. A strange experiment -has been made with this little -creature; thus if the brine is very strong -its form resembles <em>a</em>, but if the brine -is diluted, it changes to <em>b</em>, a very different -animal, so different that it has been -given another name. Many shrimps -seem to prefer extreme cold. The Apus (Fig. 140), withstands -freezing, and hatches readily in the icy water of -the far north. This little -creature has forty-seven segments -and one hundred and -twenty legs. The fairy shrimp -is a dainty and beautiful crustacean -with a marvelous array -of leaflike feet which also -serve as breathing organs.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_137a.jpg" name="i_137a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_137a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>—Brine shrimps: <em>a</em>, Branchipus; <em>b</em>, Artemis. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_137b.jpg" name="i_137b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_137b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>—Apus. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In the summer, while strolling -alongshore, one may find -that every piece of seaweed -or rock when turned over -affords concealment to myriads -of "sand fleas" which -belong to a group of crustaceans having fourteen feet. -The sand fleas, true to their name, are remarkable jumpers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -darting in all directions and looking very much like an -ordinary flea (Fig. 141). They are valuable scavengers, -eating all kinds of refuse matter. -They have the most bizarre -shapes, and many, as Arcturus, -resemble twigs or pieces of seaweed, -extremely difficult to see -and doubtless owe their immunity -from attack to this cause. This -Arcturus (Fig. 142) is not only -a remarkable mimic, but carries its young upon its back. -Idotea is a common form -about piers, while the -little Gammarus may be -caught with almost every -haul of a very fine net. -At times one known as -Podocerus builds a singular -nest for its better -security, and one of the -giants of the tribe has eyes so huge that they are made -up of facets and entirely cover the head.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_138a.jpg" name="i_138a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_138a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>—Sand flea (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Talitrus</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_138b.jpg" name="i_138b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_138b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>—<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Arcturus longicornis</i>, enlarged. - </p> -</div> - -<p>One of these crustaceans, Limnoria, is among the most -destructive of all animals to the work of man. On the -Pacific coast they vie with the teredo, and on the coast of -southern California are the chief aggressors, the life of a -prepared pile being less than two years. The little creatures -completely perforate it, so that the wood literally -falls in pieces, being so closely filled with circular borings -that the entire interior of the pile seems to have disappeared.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> - -<p>One of the most beautiful of all the crustaceans, in my -estimation, is the mantis shrimp, or Squilla (Fig. 143), -which I have kept alive. It is found in deep and shallow -water, and is a most remarkable -creature both in shape and color. -Its head is ornamented with -beautifully tinted antennæ, vivid -blues, greens, and yellows predominating. -Its claws are sharp -pointed, and deadly weapons -when used against its prey. The -finlets are richly tinted and in -such rapid motion that they -appear to be a mass of revolving -wheels, so that the Squilla resembles -some strange product of the -imagination rather than a living -animal. Its young are even more -remarkable.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_139.jpg" name="i_139.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_139-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span>—Mantis shrimp (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Squilla</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>One of the best-known groups -of crustaceans is represented by -those with ten feet, of which the -common lobster (Fig. 144) is a familiar example. In this -instance the first pair of legs are developed into enormous -biting claws; yet when the lobster sheds its skin all the -flesh in the large claws is drawn through the very small -joint. The lobster is a product of the colder waters of the -North Atlantic, not being known on the Pacific slope, -although attempts have been made to introduce it there. -South of Long Island Sound it is very rare, and despite -the stringent laws for its preservation, is rapidly being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -exterminated. Lobsters are caught in traps, called lobster -pots, which are lowered into the kelp and seaweed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -Twenty years ago the annual catch for the state of Maine -was nearly fifteen million pounds, valued at $250,000. -It is far less to-day. The lobster sometimes attains a -weight of fifty pounds; but specimens weighing four or -five pounds are now rare, due to overcatching, and the -destruction of the undersized young. The color of the -animal when alive is a dark green. The familiar red hue -is the result of cooking. The eggs of the lobster are -laid in March, and are masses of green spheres which are -carried about by the female attached to her swimmerets.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_140.jpg" name="i_140.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_140-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>—Common lobster. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In southern waters and on the Pacific coast, the place -of the lobster is taken by the crayfish, or spiny lobster -(Fig. 145). The resemblance to the lobster is almost -exact with this exception: instead of large biting claws, -the latter are but slightly larger than the ordinary claws, -ending with a sharp point, while the antennæ or feelers -are enlarged to an extraordinary degree, becoming highly -serrated and defensive organs in every sense. The -Florida crayfish is a rich reddish yellow, mottled color, -while the California form is a greenish yellow. On the -Florida Reef almost every coral branch or coral head hides -a crayfish, the whips being seen waving to and fro. -This is their day retreat, but at night they wander forth -to feed in the luxuriant pastures of Algæ, or seaweeds, of -various kinds found in the lagoons. By going out early in -the morning, before sunrise, I have often surprised the -crayfishes, the bottom being covered with them, massive -fellows weighing eight or ten pounds. They are not so -delicate in flavor as the lobster, but are very valuable as -bait. The lobster and the Pacific crayfish are both canned, -the industry being an important one.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_142.jpg" name="i_142.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_142-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>—Crayfish or spiny lobster. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The prawns (Fig. 146) and shrimps are well known and -valuable members of this group, swarming in the same -waters, and among the most graceful of the tribe. Many -are absolutely transparent, the large black eyes alone being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> -seen. The chameleon shrimp is noted for its rapid changes -of color, green, brown, and reddish hues following each -other over its crystallike body. In the deeper waters -marvelous shrimps have been found, nearly all a dazzling -red. Some of the East Indian shrimps are giants two -feet in length. In England horses are employed to catch -shrimps. A large dragnet is set in shallow water to -which the horse is fastened, the fisherman, mounted, driving -the animal over the shallow flats, hauling the nets inshore.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_143.jpg" name="i_143.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_143-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>—<em>A</em>, prawn; <em>B</em>, claw enlarged. - </p> -</div> - -<p>One of the most interesting of these ten-footed crustaceans -is the blind crayfish of Mammoth Cave. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -found also in various subterranean streams of the country. -The eyestalk of these little creatures is all that -remains to tell the story of what was once an eye, and -they live and thrive in perfect darkness. The ordinary -crayfish of Western streams has a peculiar habit of burrowing, -which at times has occasioned great damage in undermining -dikes and dams. I once came upon a remarkable -crayfish community in Indiana. There had been a flood -the day previous, and every log in the neighborhood and -the piers of the bridge were covered with crayfish which, -in this locality at least, appeared to be endeavoring to -escape from too much water. On all sides, some yards -from the creek and high above it, the ground was raised -into small heaps six or eight inches across, each, as I discovered, -being the home of a crayfish, and as far as the eye -could see on the prairie were these mounds and heaps, -suggestive of the vast numbers of these little animals in -this vicinity.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XVI. THE CRABS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Of all the crustaceans, the crabs are the most singular -and certainly the most intelligent. Rapid in movement, -good swimmers, alert, garbed in extraordinary colors, often -in stolen homes, they attract attention at once and are the -harlequins and clowns of the animal kingdom. The crabs -are distinguished from the rest of the group principally by -their very short tails. Their bodies are round, elongated, -or oval. They are found almost everywhere, from the deep -sea, where they occupy shells and sometimes drag about a -luminous sea anemone, to every beach. It is in or near -the tropics that the most remarkable crabs are seen.</p> - -<p>During a visit to the islands off the coast of Texas, I -once found a remarkable crab community. The islands -were flat sand banks just above the surface, blown and -washed up by the sea, with here and there sand dunes and -shrubs, and again vast stretches of sand inhabited only by -crabs. The latter were all of one kind, a pale gray, so -mimicking the sand in color that it was almost impossible -to distinguish one from the other. There were legions of -them, the sand in places being fairly riddled with their -burrows, into which they darted with inconceivable rapidity. -As I walked along the sands they ran ahead in -rapidly increasing numbers, then divided and were so quick -of foot that it was impossible to run them down. This -vast army of crabs was the sanitary corps of the island,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> -devouring every dead fish that came ashore and other -animal matter of all kinds.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_146.jpg" name="i_146.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_146-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>—A land crab <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gecarcinus</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p>At Garden Key, Florida, these crabs were found in -swarms, rarely entering the water except when driven, -and never venturing far from the reach of the highest -waves at high tide. They had long, stalked eyes, which -seem to follow every movement, and were very comical -and interesting creatures to watch and study. On the keys -covered with bay cedars were other land crabs (Fig. 147), -colored rich red and purple. These crabs lived among -the cactuses and bay cedar bushes. When climbing on -the former their resemblance in shape and color to the -purple fruit was remarkable, and if the crab remained -quiet, it was almost impossible to distinguish it. In these -bushes a tern, the noddy, had built its rude brush nest, -and the young bird and the food brought it by the parents -were the objects of marked attention on the part of not -only the purple-backed crab but a hungry, starving horde -of hermit crabs which climbed the tree and snatched the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> -bits of fish from the young birds, despite the presence of -their mother. By crawling beneath the thick brush in -heat which was almost suffocating, I watched numbers of -these foraging expeditions on the part of the crabs, and I -think it possible that some of the larger crabs finally -carried off the young birds. This was not an impossible -feat, as Professor Mosely, of the <cite>Challenger</cite> deep-sea -dredging expedition, observed the same crab or a very -near relative, carry off young birds at St. Paul's Rocks. -At Ascension he saw the doughty land crabs stealing -young rabbits, dragging them from their holes by main -force and devouring them. This crab with gorgeous -colors was not very fleet of foot, and when I rose up -suddenly in the cactus by a nest they would draw in -their legs and cling to a branch, mimicking ripe fruit. -The hermits would do the same, and fall to the ground -in a shower.</p> - -<p>An interesting crab found here is known as Grapsus, -also a predatory creature with unequaled courage, preying -upon every living thing that it can attack with safety. -It is richly colored red and white; its legs are long; it is a -racer along the sands, impossible to capture. On the -West African coast these crabs, or a near relative, are -very large, and so swift that they have been used in sport, -horsemen following them at full speed as game.</p> - -<p>The ordinary crab of the Eastern shore is highly valued, -and vast numbers are shipped from Fort Monroe in Virginia -to the northern cities. The trade in "soft shells" -is even more important. The latter are caught in various -ways. An old colored man of my acquaintance used to -tread for them on the mud flats with his bare feet; but he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -confessed that it was a disagreeable business, as sometimes -he stepped on "hard shells" by mistake and was badly -bitten.</p> - -<p>The English edible crab is of large size and always in -demand, resembling the edible crab of the Pacific, which is -also very large and greatly esteemed.</p> - -<p>That these crabs have a strong homing sense, or an -affection for certain localities, was demonstrated some -years ago. Two crab fishermen were following their occupation -from the same boat, and each as he caught a crab -cut upon its swimming claw a private mark so that they -could be claimed by the rightful owners at the end of the -day. The boat was overtaken by a storm and the crabs -were tipped overboard five miles from where they were -caught and lost. The following week the two men again -began to fish in the original spot, and to their amazement -began to catch the marked crabs, which had returned five -miles alongshore to the locality of their choice.</p> - -<p>The so-called green crab (Fig. 148) is an attractive and -active creature, one that can easily be observed. Its -quaint stalked eyes, which turn this way and that, and -which can be stowed away in little depressions, and its -singular method of walking, are very interesting features. -When a crab walks on land it is usually endwise, and -when it wishes to change its course it is not obliged to turn -about but moves its legs in the opposite direction. It can -also move directly ahead. These movements are all -performed by six legs, which are pointed, the trail of -this crab on the sand resembling pin marks on the hard -beach. The two front claws are for tearing food and for -general defense, while the last pair, widened out at the end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -in some, are paddles by which the crab swims when it -ventures off the bottom.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_149.jpg" name="i_149.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_149-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>—The green crab. - </p> -</div> - -<p>At times the crabs appear to migrate. I have seen the -bottom of a bay on the Virginian coast so covered that it -was impossible to wade without stepping upon a crab. In -the island of Jamaica certain land crabs march to the sea -to deposit their eggs, at which time they appear more or -less indifferent to danger, and move on, despite the attacks -of birds and various animals, including man.</p> - -<p>The crabs known as fiddlers (Fig. 149) are common up -and down the Atlantic coast, especially in the warmer -portions. A most interesting colony lived north of Fernandina, -Florida. Some years ago a plank walk led -across their domain, and one could stand and watch their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -ludicrous maneuvers. The fiddler is not over an inch in -length. It is of a dark ivory hue, and its eyes are perched -on long stalks, so that it can bury itself in the mud and -thrust its eyes upward, and thus in perfect safety observe -everything that is going on. The right claw of this crab -is half as long again as its entire body—a colossal weapon -framed for an animal five or ten times its size. Indeed, -it is so large as to be almost useless, for a large amount of -strength is required to operate so gigantic an implement. -To emphasize the undue size of this claw, the left one is a -dwarf, being too small to act as a defensive weapon. How -so small a crab can use so strange a pair of weapons was -a puzzle, until by watching them, I discovered that the -crab uses its large claw as a bogy, brandishing it fiercely, -which gives it a very ferocious appearance. The movement -of the claw back and forth is called fiddling, hence -the name of the crab, which appears to be constantly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -fiddling. Where hundreds are seen, all fiddling and menacing -one another at the same time, the sight is laughable.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_150.jpg" name="i_150.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_150-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>—Fiddler crab. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_151.jpg" name="i_151.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_151-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>—Spider crab. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Once while lifting branch coral into my boat on a coral -reef, several crabs fell from the olive-hued mass, and like -spiders in shape and form, made their way slowly along. -Each one was covered with a growth of seaweed. I -took a brush and scoured them, producing veritable -spider crabs (Fig. 150). The body was pear-shaped; -the claws were long and covered with sharp points. -These crabs were placed in a tank, and almost immediately -began to replace the seaweed which had been rubbed off, -evidently being much annoyed at the cleaning process.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -In redecorating themselves they broke off small bits -of seaweed from a branch, placed the broken portion -against the mouth, evidently to attach some glutinous matter -or animal mucilage, then raising it with an overhand -movement, they attached it to the back. This was continually -repeated until within a few hours the back of each -crab was changed from a smooth surface to a miniature -garden. As many times as the seaweed was removed, so -many times was it replaced.</p> - -<p>The spider crabs range from the beautiful scarlet creatures -found in the coral to the giant Macrocheira of Japan, -which in large specimens has a spread of legs of twenty -feet, some measuring twenty-two feet between the two -large biting claws, each of which is ten and a half feet -long. This huge crab is very slender, and is slow of movement, -its body resembling a rough rock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_152.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>—Crabs that form galls -on corals:<br /> -<em>a</em>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cryptochirus</i> (male);<br /> -<em>b</em>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Coralliodytes</i> (female);<br /> -<em>c</em>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Hapalocarcinus -marsupialis</i> (female), that carries its young in a sac or marsupium.</p> -</div> - -<p>Crabs select singular places for homes. One lives in the -sea cucumber; others live in corals, which appear to grow -over them, forming a gall -(Fig. 151). The little oyster -crab found in bivalves is -a familiar form. But perhaps -the most remarkable -home for a crab was the bowl -of an old tobacco pipe in -which a crab I once owned -ensconced itself. This was -a hermit crab (Fig. 152). -The hermits differ from other crabs in having a long, but -soft and totally unprotected tail or abdomen, to preserve -which they enter empty shells and drag them about wher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>ever -they go. The hermits occur in great variety, and -there are marine hermits and land hermits. On the -Florida Reef they are found in myriads; every shell alongshore -conceals a baby hermit; and almost every nook or -cranny affords concealment for a score of them, their red -and blue claws forming an attractive contrast to the shell.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_153.jpg" name="i_153.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_153-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>—Hermit crab. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The hermit referred to was first found in a pearly shell -and placed in the office, but finally it outgrew this and deserted -it for the pipe which some workmen had left on the -floor. Every day this old pipe would be clanked and -dragged about the room, and once in a while the crab would -drag it up a table leg, so reaching the tablecloth and then -the table top, where it drank out of a saucer left for the -purpose. Later a marine hermit was found in a pipe bowl, -proudly dragging the grotesque house about. Anything -of this kind would be used by the hermits. One was -found in the opening of a spool; and this would roll over -and over, carrying the hermit with it. Another took pos<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>session -of a reed. Among deep-sea sponges the hermits -are seen occupying holes in the sponges.</p> - -<p>A community of hermits is a laughable sight. They are -very pugilistic, and are always fighting. When a hermit -outgrows its shell and begins to feel uncomfortable it endeavors -to turn out some comrade that has a larger shell, -and in the battle arms and claws are often lost. This, however, -is not serious, as they grow again. When the hermit -finds an empty shell it thrusts in its claws and antennæ, -probing it in every direction to see that it is not occupied. -When satisfied, it jerks itself out of its own shell, and with -the greatest rapidity whisks its soft unprotected body into -the new house, where, if it fits, it remains. The shell, when -large, is not carried, but dragged about, and when the crab -is alarmed or startled it darts backward into the shell, -where its large claw and the others constitute almost as -good a door as the real operculum of shells. The largest -hermits are the marine forms, which enter the large conch -shells and drag them about. These hermits are a brilliant -red in color. Their claws are very rough.</p> - -<p>Closely related to the hermit crabs is the famous cocoanut -crab or Birgos of the Spice Islands. This crab is so -strong and powerful that, as Professor Van Beneden -states, one clinging to a tree, seized a small goat and -lifted it from the ground by the ears. The Birgos -resembles a huge hermit crab, but has no artificial shell, -the soft abdomen being protected by a shell of its own. -This large land crab lives mainly on cocoanuts, which it -secures by climbing the trees and biting off the stems. -Descending, the crab will take the nut and with remarkable -discrimination hold it with one claw and with the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> -tear off the husk, always at the end containing the "eyes." -This stripping process, impossible to man without some -implement, is remarkable in itself, and tells the story of -the muscular strength of the crab. When the "eyes" of -the nut are exposed, the crab seizes it by inserting its -claws in the holes, and hammers the shell until it is broken. -The crabs live at the base of the trees and line their dens -with the husk.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_155.jpg" name="i_155.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_155-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>—Horseshoe crab: <em>A</em>, upper side; <em>B</em>, lower side. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In ancient times crablike creatures existed, eight or nine -feet in length. These are represented to-day by the quaint -horseshoe or king crabs (Fig. 153). They are found -in shallow water in Northern waters, and resemble a horseshoe -with a long, sharp spike or spine—the tail of this -strange animal.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XVII. LUMINOUS CRABS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>One of the interesting experiences of Nordenskiöld in -the Arctic Ocean was wading through the sludge, as the -soft snow water along the beach is called, and seeing each -footprint turn into a mass of light, caused by the phosphorescence -of a small crustacean called Metridia. The -light was bluish white, of great intensity, and although at -times the cold was so severe that mercury would freeze, -yet everywhere this marvelous light blazed. Even drops -and splashes of the water seemed to be molten metal, but -were merely alive with this minute light giver resembling -Cyclops. In the Pacific, especially in summer, the exhibition -of what might be called "crab light" is marvelous, -and this is often true in the Atlantic. The light following -the splash of an oar, the spray hurled aside by the cut -water, the foaming water around a propeller, and the -strange shifting specter which follows the rudder, are -caused more or less by minute crustaceans which have the -faculty of emitting light without heat.</p> - -<p>Along the beach beneath seaweed, we shall find Gammarus, -a long, very small, but mighty jumper, that at night -emits a red light. Many of the near relatives of this little -creature are phosphorescent, and perhaps the most beautiful -of all is one named Idotea phosphorea. It is a yellowish -spotted little creature found in pools alongshore. It -darts about among the weed, and would rarely, if ever, be -noticed during the day; but at night the entire animal seems<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -permeated with a golden light which marks it in vivid lines -against the dark bottom, and flashes and miniature meteors -indicate it as it dashes across the little pool, its ocean -world.</p> - -<p>The most beautiful of all crustaceans is the one known -as Sapphirina. I have seen the ocean filled with them; -some red, others blue or yellow, purple or green, all known -gems being imitated by these matchless gems of the sea, -which in daylight vie with the most brilliant iridescence in -producing wonderful displays. No more beautiful scene -can be imagined than that embracing these living gems, -standing out in brilliant tints against the deep blue of the -ocean. These gems also have the gift of phosphorescence -and at night appear in a new guise.</p> - -<p>One of the singular long-legged spider crabs of the deep -sea, Colossendeis, is said to be phosphorescent. Giglioli, -the Italian naturalist, describes a crab which gives a -golden purple light, the latter appearing from the thorax. -The little shrimp, Mysis, which carries its young in a -pouch, from which it is called the opossum shrimp, is not -phosphorescent, but its young in what is called the zoëa -stage are luminous. The odd-shaped little creature, which -is the mantis shrimp in one of its stages, is brilliantly -luminous, not over its entire body, but in the eyestalks. -Some of the deep-sea crabs have luminous eyes, strange -monsters wandering in the abysmal regions of the deep -sea.</p> - -<p>While most of these crabs have the light in only one -place, one discovered by Sir Joseph Banks was luminous -over its entire surface. Exactly what the luminous matter -is, is not known, but in some instances it can be scraped<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -off and will render the hands luminous when rubbed upon -them. According to A. M. Norman, naturalist of the -<cite>Porcupine</cite> expedition, the crustacean Ethusa, found at -a depth of eighteen hundred feet, is blind, its eyestalk being -spiny, and the eye replaced by a smooth, round termination -which is supposed to be a light-emitting organ. Aristeus -has phosphorescent eyes, which blaze with the yellow fire -of a cat's eye, and this is true of many other crustaceans. -Some have luminous backs; others have fiery bands upon -the legs, while almost every portion of the body of some -species is the seat of this wonderful light. That the lights -are of some use there can be little doubt. In one little -creature Dr. Gunther found a brilliant light stationed between -its eyes, which certainly was a light to illumine its -way in the deep, dark bed of the ocean.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XVIII. THE INSECTS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Among the best-known and attractive members of the -lower animal kingdom are the insects, represented by the -gorgeous butterflies, the iridescent beetles, the fierce -spiders, and many others. The crustaceans may almost -be called the insects of the ocean, as in general appearance -they closely resemble these animals; but the real insects -are higher forms.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_159.jpg" name="i_159.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_159-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>—Parts of a typical insect. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The skeleton (Fig. 154) of an insect is divided into three -distinct parts instead of two. The head is distinct from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> -the body, as in the crabs, and the skeleton, like that of -the crabs, is external, and formed of a horny substance -called chitin. As in the crabs, the body is made up -of rings, or segments: four in the head generally, three -in the thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. It is -interesting to glance at the various parts of insects, and -later on, in reading about the many species, to note the -many different purposes to which each is adapted.</p> - -<p>The mouth is a very complicated organ in the crabs, and -equally so in the insects. It is generally separated into -four distinct parts: the upper lip, labrum, the jaws, or -mandibles, a second pair of jaws smaller than the above, -and the lower lip or jaws, labium. These are formed into -sucking organs in the mosquito, biting organs in the ant, -and tremendous graspers in the centipede, all displaying -the most remarkable variety.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_160a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>—Head of the grasshopper.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_160b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>—Eyes of a fly.</p> -</div> - -<p>The eyes of insects are wonderful -organs, being both simple and compound. -In the grasshopper (Fig. 155) the two are -easily seen, the compound -eye being the -larger. The fly has a -remarkable compound -eye (Fig. 156), and in -the center of the two eyes are three -simple ones. The compound eye in the -fly is made up of vast numbers of -six-sided eyes crowded together, appearing -under a glass like a honeycomb; yet each of these -facets is a complete eye. In a sectional view of the eye -of a beetle (Fig. 157) we can see the nerve that reaches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> -every one. In using the eyes hundreds of images of -the same object must -reach the brain of the -insect, yet the image -of but one is seen.</p> - -<p>Attached to the head -of insects are various -sense organs, feelers, -or antennæ, which are -very ornamental, as in -the beetles. The central -portion of the skeleton -bears the wings. -In the beetle the wing -covers are formed of -hard chitin. When -its wings are not in use this insect stores them away in -covers provided for the purpose.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_161.jpg" name="i_161.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_161-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>—Sectional view of the eye of a beetle. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The third or last part of the skeleton, the abdomen, -often bears a weapon of defense, as a sting or a drill for -boring holes in trees, or machines for making silk, as in -the spiders. Here also we find a remarkable variety of -tails, ranging from that of the dragon fly to the long -tail of the scorpion with its dangerous sting or dagger.</p> - -<p>The feet of insects would make an interesting chapter -alone, ranging from the curious, sucking, padded foot of -the fly (Fig. 158) to the claws of others. The anatomy -of insects is more or less complicated. The method of -breathing is particularly interesting. It is very natural to -imagine all animals breathing by the mouth or nostrils, -but insects breathe by a singular system of air tubes (Fig<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -159), or tracheæ, some having lungs as well. The air -tubes are wound -with threads upon -the inside. -This preserves -their shape and -keeps them -open. If we examine -a grasshopper -(Fig. -160), we shall -see along the -sides openings, -which under a -powerful microscope -resemble -eyelike organs -(Fig. 161). These are air holes, windows, -or spiracles, which lead to the air -tubes, and by minute thread-lined tubes -reach all over the body. To obtain air, -or to breathe, the bee keeps its abdomen -continually in motion, forcing air through the body, carrying -oxygen to the blood -tissues.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_162a.jpg" name="i_162a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_162a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>—Foot of a fly. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_162b.jpg" name="i_162b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_162b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>—Breathing tubes of an insect. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_162c.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>—Grasshopper, showing spiracles, <em>s</em>.</p> -</div> - -<p>The insects, with -some exceptions, deposit -eggs, and the -young pass through -many strange changes, -or metamorphoses, be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>fore -the full-grown form is attained. The eggs of beetles -hatch into larvæ (Fig. 162), which may live weeks or -months or even years in -the ground. The eggs -of other insects, as moths, -may become caterpillars, -which finally spin a cocoon, -as in the case of the silkworm, and from this cell-like -room appears the perfect moth. These changes, so -infinite in their variety, are among the most interesting -features of insect life, and are never failing sources of -wonder and amazement on the part of those who devote -time to the study.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_163a.jpg" name="i_163a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_163a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>—Breathing hole or spiracle, highly magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_163b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>—Larvæ of insects.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIX. LOWER FORMS OF INSECTS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the previous chapter we have by the aid of illustrations -glanced at the structure of insects, and noted some -of the features which distinguished them from the crabs. -Now we may take up some of the more important and -interesting groups and observe how Nature has adapted -them to their peculiar surroundings, and for the various -offices they fill in the world.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_164.jpg" name="i_164.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_164-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 163.</span>—The Peripatus. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In examining the various families of insects it is interesting -to note that many produce certain results or -accomplish certain ends in totally different ways. The -highly organized spider by drawing silk from the spinning -machines at the tip of its abdomen builds a web so strong -that it sometimes captures birds. I recently found a -living humming bird hard and fast in a web at the corner -of my house, and released it just in time to save it from -the spider. In the very lowest groups of insects we find -the Peripatus (Fig. 163), which spins a weblike structure -from glands in its mouth, ejecting the secretion at the -insect it wishes to catch. This appears to crystallize in -the air and hold the victim despite its struggles. The Pe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>ripatus, -found in Africa and Central America, resembles a -large caterpillar, having a long, soft, cylindrical body with -many pairs of feet, sometimes sixty-six; the latter are soft -and armed with claws. It is remarkable for the possession -of many legs, but is outdone in this respect by the -millipeds, as some (Fig. 164) have as many as two hundred. -These insects, when placed upon their backs, present -an extraordinary appearance, clawing the air; yet -they are among the slowest of walkers. They live in -the ground, are harmless, feed on vegetable matter, and -deposit their eggs in the earth, which hatch out little creatures -at first resembling crickets.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_165a.jpg" name="i_165a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_165a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>—A milliped. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_165b.jpg" name="i_165b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_165b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>—A centiped. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The centipeds, on the other hand (Fig. 165), are animal -feeders, and those found in the tropics are formidable -creatures from six to ten inches in length, supplied with -many claws and terrible fangs. They live a life of rapine -and destruction, and the appearance of a large specimen -almost a foot in length, dashing along with great rapidity -by the aid of its fifteen or twenty pairs of feet, is sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -to demoralize the stroller through the dark glades of the -tropical forests. They have two pairs of foot jaws (Fig. -166) which grasp an enemy with -wonderful tenacity. The second -pair is perforated, and from it pours -a poison dangerous to man in some -tropical species and fatal to small -animals. Several of these hideous -creatures are luminous at times. -Many centipeds have long antennæ. -The eyes are very small, and in -groups. The ordinary centiped of -the North is harmless, despite the tales related of its -ferocity.</p> - -<p>Among the very small, though -destructive insects, are the -mites, found in cheese and -sugar; they are parasitic in -cattle and various other animals. -In California certain -forms (Fig. 167) cling to the -bushes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_166a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>—Under surface of head of centiped, showing poison fangs.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_166b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>—A mite.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_166c.jpg" name="i_166c.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_166c-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>—The scorpion. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In remarkable contrast to the round-bodied mites are -the scorpions (Fig. -168), in which the -tail is sometimes -two inches in -length and armed -with a sharp, -daggerlike sting, -provided with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -poison apparatus. The scorpions of the largest size are -often found in the tropics in the same locality with centipeds, -under board piles and in dark places, coming out -at night to prey upon small insects, which they seize with -their crablike claws and tear apart. If the insect struggles -violently, the scorpion raises its tail over its back and -pierces it with its dagger, paralyzing it. In striking at -other enemies the scorpion whirls about, keeping its tail -toward them, repeatedly striking down and using its -jointed tail with marvelous ingenuity. A few years -ago these scorpions were common on the Florida Reef -and were frequently killed in my own house at night. -The pain resulting from the sting was about as disagreeable -as that occasioned by a wasp. These scorpions were -about three inches in length, but in Ceylon very much -larger ones have been seen, and known to catch birds. -The young scorpions are born alive and cling to the -mother. The little book scorpion, the large whip scorpion, -and the daddy longlegs, or harvestman, a harmless and -sociable insect, are related to the true scorpions.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XX. THE SPIDERS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>A little insect half as large as a grain of corn, finds -itself on a limb high above ground and is desirous of -reaching another, five feet away. It is not a jumper, at -least it could not hope to cover -this distance; neither has it wings. -But it has a marvelous silk-manufacturing -apparatus, known as -spinnerets (Fig. 169), and elevating -its abdomen it reels off a -thread which the wind carries -across the chasm where it lodges. -Across the single cord the spider runs, the act being suggestive -of the intelligence of these insects.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_168a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>—Spinnerets of a spider.</p> -</div> - -<p>The common garden spider (Fig. 170), which may illustrate -the group, is seen to differ very materially from the -scorpion. The abdomen -is not ringed or -made up of segments, -but is large and plump, -and connected with the -thorax by a delicate -cord or pedicel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_168b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>—Garden spider, upper and lower surface.</p> -</div> - -<p>The spiders, as we -have seen, have a spinning -arrangement by -which they form beauti<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>ful -webs or nets to capture prey. By this silken cord they -can lower themselves from great heights. -The single thread which supports them -is made up of a number of minute -threads (Fig. 171). The webs are -formed in endless variety and with all -the skill of a bridge maker, being -guyed, supported, and braced in a manner -which, if the work of man, would -be said to be the result of endless study. -They are perfect in their arrangement, -and each web is a study in geometry, -yet the spider builds it with the greatest -rapidity, never hesitating in the making or repairing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_169a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>—Structure of a spider's web.</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_169b.jpg" name="i_169b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_169b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>—Spider and its web or trap. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_170a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>—Highly magnified poison fang of spider.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_170b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>—Biting mandibles of a spider.</p> -</div> - -<p>By my door is a huge spider similar to the one shown in -Figure 172. It has a beautiful web which covers a space<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -two feet square, but the spider rarely occupies it. Near -by it has a covering formed of a leaf of a fern which it -has pulled down each side and fastened, forming a little -room just the size of its body. Wondering how the spider -would discover a victim caught in the web, I examined it -carefully, and then placed a grasshopper in the web. Instantly -the spider noted the disturbance, having what to -all intents and purposes was a private telephone line. -This was a single guy line leading from the center of the -web to its retreat, where one of the spider's claws rested -upon it, holding it, so that -the slightest swaying of the -web lifted its foot. When -an insect became entangled, -the spider darted at it, and by -skillful manipulation of its -hind pair of legs reeled off -its silken cord and attached -it to the victim at every point, in a short time literally -binding it in a -roll. If it was -likely to escape, -the spider would -bite it, using its -poison fang (Fig. -173), which paralyzed -it. The -biting mandibles -(Fig. 174) are -terrible weapons, from which there is no escape. The -inner jaws (Fig. 175) are equally sharp and effective.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -The eyes of the spider are very brilliant, and in a bright -light can be seen to gleam and glisten like points of steel -or fire. They are minute -dots, seen just above the -mandibles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>—Jaws of a spider.</p> -</div> - -<p>The male and female -spiders often present a very -different appearance, the -male being smaller. The spiders deposit eggs which are -inclosed in silken balls or nests of various kinds, in which -they remain until the young are hatched. Some are concealed -in the web; others are placed underground; and -some are perched upon a stalk resembling a plant.</p> - -<p>There appears to be no limit to the uses to which the -marvelous silk of spiders is put. Some spiders form balloons -with which they sail away through the air. I have -seen scores of these aëronauts in the air at one time. -Another form constructs a raft of leaves bound together -with silk. Some build nets for small game, as gnats. -The silken cord made by others is so tough that it can be -used as thread.</p> - -<p>By partly destroying a web and suspending a black -cloth behind the locality, the operations of the spider in -building and repairing can be plainly seen. It is well to -place the spinnerets beneath a microscope, under which -they appear to be made up of many points. Touch one of -these and a glutinous secretion adheres, which when -stretched is seen to be silk, and each point provides a separate -thread which joins with the others, producing one cable. -The spinnerets are to some extent movable. They can be -turned to the right or left, and wherever they touch, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -silk remains glued fast. This explains why the spider -moves and works so quickly and accomplishes so much. -The amount of silk secreted is astonishing, and some idea -of it can be obtained by walking over the country in spring, -early in the morning. On the slopes of the Sierra Madre, -in the San Gabriel Valley, I have seen the surface of the -ground for a great distance covered with webs which -caught the rays of the sun as it rose, presenting a most -beautiful appearance. This fabric covered hundreds of -acres in a fairy maze of web, so many traps for unwary -small fry of the insect world. With a small stick I have -wound a large amount of silk from the spinnerets of a -spider, there apparently being no diminution of the supply. -Professor Burt Wilder wound from the large spider known -as Nephila plumipes several miles of silk. Some spiders -have long, slender legs and are rapid runners. Others, as -Salticus, are very deliberate, but powerful leapers, jumping -upon their prey like a cat. Perhaps the most remarkable -leaping spider is one from Australia, called the flying Attus, -having singular flaps or winglike extensions upon its sides. -One of the spiders not only runs over the surface of the -water readily, but spends a part of its time under the -surface, carrying down a bubble of air for its supply of -oxygen, the bubble acting as a diving bell.</p> - -<p>The spiders are very solicitous of their young, placing -every safeguard about them, and resenting any attack by -a fierce rush. Several large spiders (Fig. 176) carry their -young upon their backs. The little spiders are rubbed or -scraped off when they become too great a burden. The -spiders are natural hunters and trappers, and a volume -could be written on their methods and adventures in run<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>ning -down prey. Once as I was crawling through the -almost stifling brush of one of the Florida Keys I came to -a little opening about five feet wide, across which was a -large, conspicuous, and powerful web. In the center of -this web clung a huge and most remarkable spider, colored -a vivid yellow and black. I watched it for a few moments -while resting, and then touched the web, whereupon the -spider began to swing, by raising and depressing its body, -increasing its speed rapidly, until I could with difficulty -see it. A moment later it disappeared almost entirely -before my eyes. For half a minute the spider kept up -this motion, then it slowly came to a standstill, having -demonstrated that it could easily disappear from any bird -enemy without running away. I have seen the daddy -longlegs perform the same feat in California.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_173.jpg" name="i_173.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_173-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 176.</span>—Spider with young upon its back. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The spiders which build webs, from plain geometrical -traps to conelike affairs, are interesting; but the trapdoor -spiders and those which dig burrows are among the wonderful -artisans and engineers of the insect world. One of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> -the most perfect doors, in hinge, fit, beauty of interior, -finish, and quality of -its outward defense is built -by a spider (Fig. 177). In -the illustration, the den and its -trapdoor is shown, and in Figure -178 a sectional view of the same -is seen; but the door is never -found open, the spring or hinge -being so devised as to remain -closed. I have found many of -these dens in southern California -sometimes a foot or more in length. -The spider is not the large one -shown in the cut, which is a tarantula, -but is very much smaller, -though a large spider. The genera, -Cteniza and Nemesia, are best -known for their cunning and skill -as builders. The California spider -begins its den when very small, -and I have found many the size of goose quills, with door -complete, in the vicinity of a large den.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_174.jpg" name="i_174.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_174-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>—Tarantulas (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mygale</i>) -and the opening of a trapdoor den of another spider (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cteniza</i>). - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_175.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>—Section of a den of trapdoor spider.</p> -</div> - -<p>In forming the burrow the spider carries out the clay bit -by bit, and when it reaches a point below the surface it begins -to line the sides with a silken tapestry. The door is an -upper extension of this lining. It is round, about the size -of a silver quarter, or a little larger, and is formed of silk -so woven and interwoven that it -becomes a pad of seeming satin, -which by continued manipulation -is made to fit with marvelous perfection. -The spring or hinge is -so adjusted that the door always -closes, and with a snap. The exterior -of the door is covered with -clay, and is made to simulate the -surroundings so exactly that only -the sharpest eye, and one skilled -in the work, can distinguish it. In some of the European -spiders of this kind the door is carefully covered with -moss and plants. The work of building is done at night. -The spiders feed at night, and in returning to the burrow -they can lift the lid instantly, dart in, and turn about -to seize the cushion or pad of the door with their fangs, -and hold it so tightly by bracing back that some little -strength is needed to force it. I have often lifted the -door with the blade of my knife and seen the spider -rush up and seize it. In all the doors little round holes -can be seen where the mandibles or fangs hold. The -spider can be caught by pouring water into the burrow -and forcing it out. In the island of Timos there is a trapdoor -spider which does not hunt, but combines the methods -of other spiders. It comes out at night, fastens back its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> -door by a thread, then builds a web near by and waits for -its victims to become entangled.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_176.jpg" name="i_176.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_176-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>—A chimney-building spider. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The largest spiders are called tarantulas, though the -term is applied to some forms not so large. They are -hideous creatures, and are very common in southern California. -They are five or six inches across the legs, and -the body in some forms is as large as a small mouse, and -is covered with reddish hair. They form deep burrows, -but not trapdoors, the entrance -being open or covered by a web. -They are supposed to be very -poisonous. Mygale Hentzii is -the name of the common American -species found in the southwest -(Fig. 177). They hunt at -night for grasshoppers, crickets, -and other small game, and can -often be seen lumbering along -over the roads at sunrise, returning -from a hunt. Sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -these huge spiders migrate in a body, such a movement -having been observed in southern California.</p> - -<p>A South American species has been known to attack -and capture small birds, though this may be considered -rather the exception than the rule, their food consisting of -large insects and small lizards. Of all the spiders, the -Tarantula turricula (Fig. 179) is the most remarkable, as -it not only makes a deep burrow, but erects above it a -chimneylike structure with all the skill of a human workman. -Indeed, the structure, in neatness and perfection of -design, is far superior to many of the chimneys seen among -the poorer classes of some countries. The spider lays the -miniature timbers across with the precision and exactness -of a skilled carpenter and after the manner of human log-cabin -builders. The female carries her young upon her -back, as shown in the illustration.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXI. SOME SIX-LEGGED INSECTS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>One of the great divisions into which the insects are -divided relates to their possession of six legs (Fig. 180). -This includes a marvelous array of creatures. Among -them we find the -singular little glacier -flea (Fig. 181) -and the springtail, a -prodigious jumper -(Fig. 182). The latter -is found in damp -places, and when -touched will release -a forked spring -which is held in -place by a hook, -and this sends the -insect flying into the -air like an acrobat. -These humble little -creatures present a -strange contrast to the lace-winged insects which are -among the most beautiful of the tribe.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_178.jpg" name="i_178.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_178-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>—A six-legged insect. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The May flies (Fig. 183) are well known for the wonderful -exhibitions they sometimes make, the air being filled -with them, a joyous, beautiful throng, destined to live but -a few hours. In South America they occur in such vast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -numbers that they are collected and used as guano. The -young pass through a strange change, having little resemblance -to the parent, and live in the water, where they -breathe by means of several plumelike gills.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_179a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>—Glacier flea.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_179c.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>—Springtail.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_179b.jpg" name="i_179b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_179b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span>—May fly. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Among all the insects of the -field and swamp none are more -familiar than the dragon fly (Fig. -184), which children were once -led to believe had a vicious habit -of sewing up the eyes and mouth -of any one; hence the name -"darning needle." These insects -are often beautiful, with their -rich wings of glistening lace, four -in number, their bodies gleaming -in tints of bronze, blue, and black. -The abdomen is long and slender, like a needle; the head -is prominent and armed with powerful jaws; the eyes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> -are large and compound, with several single eyes as well. -Some dragon flies are very small. Others are large, as -those of the Malay Archipelago, where the natives trap -them and use them for food. The dragon flies are hunters, -preying upon other insects which they capture on -the wing, and large forms have been seen taking very -young fishes from the water, swooping down upon them -like hawks.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_180a.jpg" name="i_180a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_180a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span>—Dragon fly. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_180b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 185.</span>—Larvæ of a dragon fly.</p> -</div> - -<p>The development of the -dragon fly is interesting from -the fact that the young lives a -long period in the water. The -eggs are deposited in the water, -hatching out into curiously -shaped creatures (Fig. 185),<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -which are among the most ferocious of all the water -insects. They pass two years in this form, preying upon -other animals and even small fishes. The larva has a -proboscis which ordinarily folds over the face and is -called the mask (<em>B</em>), but when an insect approaches, this -strange appliance with powerful jaws or hooks is shot out -(<em>A</em>) with dire results. After the two years have passed -the pupa, as it is called, climbs up a stem, leaves the -water and casts its skin, appearing as a full-grown dragon -fly ready for a life of rapine on land.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_181a.jpg" name="i_181a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_181a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span>—Ant lion, adult and larva. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_181b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span>—Section of trap of an ant lion.</p> -</div> - -<p>In many insects the habits of the young are much more -interesting than those of the adults. Not far from my -home, in the Arroyo -Seco, which leads -down from the Sierra -Madre, are great deposits -or beds of fine -sand which I find -often covered with -little pits (Fig. 186). -If a section is made -(Fig. 187), it is found -to be a perfect bowl -almost half an inch in depth, as though a top had been -pressed into the sand and -taken out. If sand is -rolled into the pit, something -appears quickly at -the bottom and mysteriously -tosses it out; and -if an ant topples over the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> -edge and rolls down the sides, out comes a fierce pair of -jaws and seizes it. If the ant escapes, the unknown creature, -still concealed, hurls sand at it, endeavoring to bring -it down, often with success. This singular creature is the -larva or immature -young of the -ant lion—itself -an attractive, -large, lace-winged -creature -(Fig. 188), resembling -a dragon -fly. It lays its -eggs in dry places. The young are wingless, big-jawed -creatures, which for two years live the life of a trapper, -each forming a pit and concealing itself beneath the sand -at the bottom, the huge jaws being in the center. Ants -are the game of this lion, and as they run along they -often topple over the sides which, like those of a toboggan, -are very slippery. Down the ant goes, its descent being -accelerated by the lion which places sand upon its back, -and bombards the unfortunate, so adding to its confusion -that it rolls down and is seized by the jaws of the lion. -At the end of the two years the lion surrounds itself with -a ball of sand and silk, and in three weeks appears as the -perfect insect.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_182.jpg" name="i_182.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_182-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span>—Perfect form of ant lion. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Unless one is familiar with the eggs of the aphis lion -(Fig. 189) he will never find them. They resemble minute -plants growing on long stems, fastened to a leaf. These -hatch out and become little creatures resembling the ant -lion, with huge jaws.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<p>But the most extraordinary changes and series of different -individuals are found among the so-called white ants, -which are really not ants at -all, but among the most -destructive of all known -insects. The first white -travelers in Africa reported -the discovery of gigantic -ant hills, some of which -were twelve feet in height -(Fig. 190) and one hundred -feet in circumference. -Equally large mounds have -been found in Australia, -large areas of country being -dotted with these striking landmarks, among the most -remarkable of all animal structures. These mounds are -often as hard as rock, and hunters have sometimes escaped -from the charges of wild animals by climbing upon them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_183a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span>—Aphis lion, larva and eggs.</p> -</div> - -<p>They are the work of the so-called white ants. A section -made through one of them, as seen in the illustration, -shows the singular home of a remarkable community. -There are really four kinds of "ants" here, all representing -a different phase in the growth of the insect, and all performing -a certain work. They are the female, the male, -the worker, and the soldier; and there is a winged king. -In their lives these insects have many features which -resemble those of man. They have a king and queen, -which at first have wings; later they lose their wings and -the queen grows until she is thousands of times larger -than the workers, and is kept in a special chamber in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -center of the pile. Here she is attended by the workers, -small ants, who carry out the eggs which are laid by -millions and placed in nurseries or small cemented cells, -designed for the purpose. Sometimes the queen lays as -many as eight thousand eggs a day. An army of workers -carries them off, builds new nurseries, and adds to the heap. -If an enemy appears, the soldiers rush out. These have -large heads and enormous jaws, and are well fitted by -nature for the work they have to perform.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_184.jpg" name="i_184.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_184-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span>—Hills of the white ant. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The cunning and intelligence of white ants are well dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>played -in their attacks upon houses. Having decided to -enter a house, they begin to tunnel some distance away, -and finally reach the corner post or some timber that -enters the ground. With remarkable speed the workers -enter this, hollowing it out, until it is nothing but a shell. -They eat to the very surface, leaving only a faint ghost of -a partition, and what appears to be a solid block is really -so thin that a finger can be thrust through it. So clever -are these little ant miners that they have been known to -come up through the floor directly beneath the leg of a -chair, and burrow and eat up through it, so completely -devastating it that when the owner moved it the small hole -in the floor appeared and the chair fell in pieces.</p> - -<p>In the Isle of France a new building was ruined by -these insects in a few months; and at Colombo a large -house suddenly fell in over the heads of the occupants, -the beams being crushed like egg shells. The work they -accomplished in this way would hardly be credited were it -not for the substantiated statements collected by the -authorities in the countries where they are mostly found.</p> - -<p>The so-called caddis worms -(Fig. 191) are merely the larvæ -of the caddis fly which incloses -itself in a case that is often decorated -in a singular way. The -cases of a number of the worms -placed together display a striking -variety of designs. Some roll up leaves; others spin a -silken thread from the mouth and bind pieces of leaves -together, attaching other pieces to it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_185.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span>—Caddis worm and case.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXII. SOME MIMICS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>All insects have a continual struggle for life. They -constitute the food of many birds, and very few of the -young escape these watchful creatures and attain mature -life.</p> - -<p>To enable the insects to escape, nature has given many -a strange protective garb, which is called mimicry or a -protective resemblance. Sometimes it is color, an insect -mimicking a leaf in color; or again, the insect imitates a -twig or leaf in shape, and so escapes attention. We find -examples of this in many families, but particularly among -the insects now under consideration. The mantis (Fig. -192) belongs to a group in which the insects resemble -twigs in shape and color, and nothing could be more -striking than these strange, slow-moving creatures. They -have an uncanny, weird appearance, and look as though -they might have been originally of wood. I have seen -them in the tropics passing slowly along a limb, lifting -one leg at a time, moving it with all the halting deliberation -of an automaton; but when the mantis perceived me, it -stopped just as it was, the foot that was in the air -remaining as though it had been frozen in the act. Some -are a vivid green, and in them the resemblance to twigs is -very striking. I once encouraged a number to live in -my preserves, where I watched and studied and often -fed them. They would take a fly from my hand by -a very rapid movement of the cruel, fore hands or claws,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -which were toothed. When food was scarce the insects -would devour one another in the most deliberate fashion, -then assume the quaint, supplicating position with claws -up, from which the insect is called the praying mantis. -My specimens deposited their eggs in a curious case about -an inch long, resembling a trilobite, which they attached -to the fence and colored the exact hue of the latter. The -fence was not painted, and varied in color, yet the nests -always agreed more or less exactly with the shade or tint -of the plank or base to which it was attached.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_187.jpg" name="i_187.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_187-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span>—The mantis. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p> - -<p>In South America is found a huge mantis so powerful -that it captures birds by grasping them in its terrible -claws. The insect is described by Burmeister as crouching -on the limb, imitating it so closely that the bird approaches -it without fear. In Java a beautiful pink mantis -is so perfect in its mimicry of a pink orchid that insects -alight upon it and are caught. A Philippine Island mantis -is remarkable for its resemblance to a dried and withered -leaf.</p> - -<p>The chief characteristic of this insect is its cool, deliberate -ferocity—devouring its mate with indifference, lunching -calmly upon its young, while they are dining among -themselves. When fighting they have the characteristics -of the bulldog, with many times its endurance. A mantis -will continue a combat even -when part of its body is cut -away. I have seen one deprived -of all its legs cling to -a limb with one claw and -continue to reach for its foe -with the other.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_188.jpg" name="i_188.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_188-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span>—Walking stick. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Closely allied to the mantis, -and even more remarkable -as mimics, are the walking -sticks (Phasma) (Fig. 193). -I have kept them alive, and -often have been unable to see -them when I knew they were -directly beneath my eyes, so -remarkable is the mimicry. They have no biting claws, -merely long antennæ, a long, sticklike body, and straight-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>jointed, -sticklike legs. Some are green. The most remarkable -are those which seem to imitate dead wood. I -have seen a walking stick that was a perfect imitation of a -moss or lichen-covered twig, the body and legs of the insect -being covered with peculiar growths. The largest -walking stick I have seen was twelve inches in length, and -one of the most perfect imitations of a green twig that -could be imagined. This was from the Malay country, -where they grow to a length of fourteen inches. They -stretch out upon long tendrils, extending the limbs or holding -them up, the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">poseurs</i> of the insect world.</p> - -<p>The walking leaves (Phyllium) (Fig. 194) are clever -mimics, resembling leaves. Even the veins and midrib -of the leaf are imitated, and the insect, when -crouching on a limb, is a virtual leaf, so far -as appearance goes, the disguise being absolutely -perfect. Some resemble green leaves; -others dried and withered specimens. Even -the legs of these insects are supplied with -a singular growth. Most of these strange -mimics are found clinging to trees; but one -common in Brazil spends most of the time -during the day under water in streams, -where it clings to the pebbles. In Nicaragua -there are several species that resemble -leaves in all stages of decay. The movements -of some of these insects resemble those of leaves. -I saw one in the Sierra Madre range come down from a -tall sycamore, and supposed it a leaf, as it dropped slowly, -zigzagging down. I should not have discovered the mistake -had not my dog recognized it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span>—Walking leaf.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXIII. THE GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>These forms may be considered the musicians of the -insect world. None of the insects can produce vocal -sounds, that is, they have no voice, -but they have certain appliances -which enable them to produce sounds -which can be heard a long distance. -On hot days in summer is heard the -constant and shrill zee-zeeing of the locust, while countless -varieties lend their aid in producing a volume of sound.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_190a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span>—A grasshopper.</p> -</div> - -<p>The "instruments" in the locust are (Fig. 196) minute -teeth, arranged along the thighs; these are rubbed against -the fore wings, producing the remarkable sounds. The -locusts are commonly called grasshoppers. They have -two pairs of net-veined wings, and hind legs adapted for -leaping, by which -they send themselves -sprawling -through the air, -almost invariably -using this method -of escape instead of unfolding their delicate wings. All -are mimics. The common ground locust resembles the -dusty road and the dried foliage which it affects. Others, -which live on plants, are a vivid green. Some which I -find in my garden resemble closely the tender shoots of -the passion vine, upon which they feed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_190b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span>—Musical instruments of the locust: <em>a</em>, leg; -<em>b</em>, <em>c</em>, teeth, enlarged.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> - -<p>The locusts (Acridiidæ) have short antennæ, large glassy -eyes, and ears at the base of the abdomen. The female is -provided with an appliance called the ovipositor, four sharp -points with which the grasshopper digs holes in the ground; -later these are used as -a guide or funnel for -introducing the eggs -into the burrow. The -mouth is supplied with -parts adapted to biting. -When a grasshopper -(Fig. 195) is caught it -exudes a peculiar fluid -resembling molasses, a -secretion of the salivary -glands. The eggs -are deposited in masses -from sixty to one hundred. -The young resemble the parent, but at first have no -wings. The grasshopper in making its metamorphosis, or -change from one stage to another, casts its skin in a manner -calling to mind the crabs; in a word, it molts several -times (Fig. 197). In accomplishing this, it often climbs a -spear of grass and there shuffles out of its old skin and -jumps away, leaving the hollow skin clinging to the grass.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_191.jpg" name="i_191.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_191-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span>—A grasshopper and young at different -stages: <em>A</em>, larva; <em>B</em>, pupa; <em>C</em>, adult. - </p> -</div> - -<p>At times they appear in vast numbers, and in clouds -rise into the air, so that from a distance they might be -taken for smoke or a tornado. This cloud is made up -of starving locusts which devastate the countries they -infest. They alight upon a wheat field, and an hour later -hundreds of acres appear as though a fire had swept over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -the ground. Every spear of grass, every leaf, has been -devoured by this insatiate throng, which can not be destroyed -or even checked. In Africa swarms have been -swept by the wind out over the ocean, to be washed in -in such vast numbers that they formed a line fifty miles -long and three or four feet high alongshore, creating -an odor which drove people from that region. Jægar, -the naturalist, rode through a swarm in Russia for four -hundred miles where they were two feet deep. The entire -country was devastated by this band of locusts, and tens of -thousands of human beings were threatened with starvation. -The government troops were ordered to the place -and warfare declared against the locusts, the soldiers being -armed with shovels instead of guns. A line of thirty -thousand men moved slowly forward, covering the insects -with earth or digging them under, while in various localities -huge fires were built to burn the ground and destroy -the eggs. Despite this, thirty thousand people starved to -death, the direct result of their raids. Almost every portion -of the world away from the poles has been threatened -by these raiders. There are many references in the Bible -to these insects, and their ravages have been carried on from -the earliest times known to man. In America the Rocky -Mountain locust is the most destructive, and many of the -Western states have been ravaged by them.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">"Onward they came, a dark, continuous cloud of congregated myriads, numberless.</div> - <div class="verse">The rushing of whose wings was as the sound of a broad river, headlong in its course.</div> - <div class="verse">Plunged from a mountain summit, or the roar of a wild ocean, as the autumn storm,</div> - <div class="verse">Shattering its billows on a shore of rocks."</div> - - - -<div class="right smcap">—Southey.</div> -</div></div></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> -<p>Some years ago a flock settled in Colorado Springs, the -streets and roofs being covered with them, so that they -were swept and shoveled about like snow. Some American -swarms have been traced for several hundred miles, -and settling on railroads, have stopped the trains by making -the tracks slippery. Alighting in a cornfield the -rustling sound of their depredation can be heard for some -distance; and when they rise, a fire might have swept over -the fields, so far as appearances go. The swarm, a black, -portentous cloud, sweeps on, flying at a rate of thirty -miles an hour to reach some new field, where they dig burrows -with their curious ovipositors, and deposit their eggs -by millions. Then they move on, leaving an unborn swarm -to develop and later constitute another army to spread -devastation abroad -in the land.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_193.jpg" name="i_193.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_193-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span>—Crickets. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The crickets (Fig. -198) are familiar -forms with cylindrical -bodies and large -heads placed vertically, -the ovipositor -often being as large -as the entire body. -The female often deposits -three hundred -eggs in the ground. -The note of the cricket is produced by the male, and is a -decidedly musical chirp, varying in the different kinds. -The close observer may easily find the cave house of -the little singer that is often seen sitting at the entrance,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> -singing, not at the top of its voice, but with the full -force of its wings, the sound being produced by using the -fore wings, as bows and the hind wings as fiddles, and -sawing with great rapidity.</p> - -<p>The crickets are found in the greatest variety. Some -live in the ground, others affect houses, and in the tropics -beautiful tree crickets are found. The snowy tree cricket -has a peculiar note, <em>te-reat, te-reat, te-reat</em>. The broad-winged -tree cricket has a call which resembles a dog -whistle. Another has a piping note resembling the thrilling -musical sound made by rubbing the edge of a glass -with one's finger. The singular cave cricket is wingless, -and has antennæ several times the length of its body. The -Western cricket does great damage to the crops of the -farmer, and when bands are seen marching over the country, -ditches are often dug into which the crickets plunge, -where, in default of food, they begin to devour one another. -The cry of this cricket is harsh and disagreeable, the "musical -instrument" being on the dorsum or back of the shield -which seems to cover the fore part of its back. The curious -mole cricket, which burrows underground and is provided -with enormous jaws, is a menace to the gardener. -In the outer Florida Keys I found that it was almost impossible -to rear plants, so plentiful and ravenous were these -fierce root eaters.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXIV. THE BEETLES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The beetles (Fig. 199) are insects having their fore -wings thickened to constitute sheaths or covers for the -lower pair, used in flight. Their mouths are adapted -for biting, and they -pass through a complete -metamorphosis. -There are about -ninety thousand species, -ranging from -minute creatures to -huge, lumbering goliaths. -When walking -the beetle presents -a trim appearance, -enveloped in a gleaming -armor of the highest polish, and often ablaze with -metallic tints, but when it flies the elytra, or wing covers, -are thrown up, and a pair of soft, silken wings flutter out, -stiffen, and bear the beetle away.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_195a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span>—A typical beetle (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Cotalpa</i>): <em>A</em>, imago; -<em>B</em>, larva.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_195b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span>—Head of a beetle.</p> -</div> - -<p>The head of the beetle is small and -adapted for biting (Fig. 200); the digestive -apparatus is simple. The most -noticeable feature of many are the -antennæ (Fig. 201), which often are very -long and ornamental. The eyes are -compound. The legs are strong and powerful. The beetles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -spend little time in flying, many being flesh eaters and -continually searching for game under refuse and in dark -places. They lay eggs which -are deposited in the ground, -or in special cavities made -in wood, which hatch into -larvæ (Fig. 202). In the -tiger beetle the larvæ resemble -white worms. In the -rose beetle they look like -grubs. These in time change -to helpless pupæ.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_196a.jpg" name="i_196a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_196a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span>—Antennæ of beetles. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_196b.jpg" name="i_196b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_196b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span>—Beetle and young: <em>A</em>, tiger beetle; -<em>B</em>, larva of same, enlarged; <em>C</em>, water beetle. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The June bug, the beetle -which dashes into rooms, blindly charging lights of all -kinds, is a familiar -example. Its larva -is white and very -destructive. On my -lawn in California -the Bermuda grass -often turns white, -and sections a foot -square can be lifted, -having been cut off -from the roots by -this destructive larva -of the June bug, -which during this -stage of its existence -lives underground, eating roots and plants of various -kinds. For two years this beetle (Fig. 203) lives a sub<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>terranean, -marauding life, growing and shedding its skin. -It is often considered a complete animal, but at the end -of this period it changes into -what is called the pupa stage, -which does not move; the pupæ -are white, soft, helpless creatures -which are found around -the roots of rose bushes in great -number, and which are so appreciated -by mocking birds that -they and the blackbirds invariably -follow me about the garden when I am overturning the -soil with the trowel. Finally the pupa changes into the -perfect insect.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_197a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span>—June bug, showing -wings and wing covers.</p> -</div> - -<p>The larvæ of some of the spring beetles remain in the -"grub" stage five years, and are known as wire worms, -doing a vast amount of -damage.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_197b.jpg" name="i_197b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_197b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span>—Bark-boring beetle. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The girdler beetle bores -holes in tender limbs of -the hickory, then systematically -girdles the limb -below the eggs, so that by -the time the young hatch -they have soft, dead wood -to feed upon. The bark -borer (Fig. 204) penetrates -the bark of trees, and cuts -winding tunnels here and there, in which are placed its -eggs. Among the most attractive of the beetles are the -carnivorous sexton beetles. They find dead bodies with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -all the skill of a vulture, burrow beneath them and deposit -their eggs within the body, where the young feed. The -work these beetles -accomplish in destroying -animals and even -burying them renders -them valuable scavengers. -Among the destructive -beetles are the -buffalo bugs (Fig. 205), -which have been introduced from Europe; the larva of -these is a strange, fuzzy little creature (<em>a</em>).</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_198a.jpg" name="i_198a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_198a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span>—Buffalo bug and various stages of young. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The weevils (Fig. 206) are the bane of the dweller in -the tropics. They infest bread, cake, and flour and meal -of every kind. Perhaps the most dreaded -by the Northern farmer is the potato bug -(Fig. 207), which plays havoc with potatoes, -often ruining the entire crop, the vines being -covered by the soft and -disagreeable larva, more -like a worm than anything -else. The diving beetle is -an interesting insect, being -a flier and a swimmer. Its -hind legs are fringed and adapted for -swimming. On the fore limb is a sucker, -or several, by which the beetle can attach -itself to any object. The larva is a ferocious -creature, armed with a pair of fierce jaws, with which -it attacks small fishes, frogs, tadpoles, and game very -much larger than itself.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_198c.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span>—The weevil.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_198b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span>—Potato bug, eggs and young.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXV. THE BUGS</h2> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_199a.jpg" name="i_199a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_199a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span>—Chinch bug, egg and various stages of the young. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The bugs are easily recognized. They have the mouth -parts arranged as a sucking beak or proboscis. The chinch -bug (Fig. 208), the squash bug (Fig. 209), the seventeen-year -cicada, or locust (Fig. 210), and the bean aphis (Fig. -211) are well-known examples. -They represent a group dreaded -for many reasons; many are -parasites on man and beast, while -many others destroy crops of -various kinds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_199b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span>—Squash bug.</p> -</div> - - - -<p>In nearly all fresh-water ponds -and pools curious flat, long-legged -creatures (Fig. 212) are seen darting over the surface, -being perfectly at home. They are water boatmen, -and one species (Fig. 213) is found far out at sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_200a.jpg" name="i_200a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_200a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span>—Cicada. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_200b.jpg" name="i_200b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_200b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span>—Bean aphis. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_200c.jpg" name="i_200c.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_200c-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 212.</span>—Water boatmen. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In passing in review the various insects the peculiar -transformations -through which -they pass are -noticed; some -long, some short, -some partial, and -many complete. -In the cicada, or -seventeen-year locust, or harvest fly, we have an instance -of one of the strangest examples of slow development -known. The -cicada is a -wedge-shaped -insect having -some resemblance -to a -huge fly. At -the base of the -abdomen is a -drumlike organ -by which it -makes a shrill -"zeeing" sound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -which, when thousands are joined in concert, produces -a remarkable sound audible for a long -distance. I have heard it half a mile -with the wind, and by following it up -found a grove filled with insects producing -a roar of sounds, while, clinging -to the trees and branches, were thousands -of empty skins from which the -cicadas had escaped. The cicada deposits -three or four hundred eggs in -holes on the twigs or bark of the oak. -They hatch very promptly in six weeks -or so, and we -might conclude that the young -cicadas would soon appear. But -seventeen long years of life underground -are now required before -the pupa crawls upward, molts, and -appears as an adult cicada. It has -spent all these years as an almost -helpless creature, resembling the -mole cricket, subsisting by sucking -the juices from the roots of plants, -waiting for the ending of its imprisonment.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_201a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span>—Halobates, a bug that goes to sea.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_201b.jpg" name="i_201b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_201b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span>—Young leaf hopper and its bubbles. - </p> -</div> - -<p>On many plants the stroller -through the garden will observe -bits of white froth, like soap suds, -and few persons, were they not in -the secret, would believe that the froth is an especially -devised medium for the little leaf hopper (Fig. 214). The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -adult insect is a curious little creature found among the -grasses in spring. The young require moisture to enable -them to attain their full development, and when hatched -they climb up stalks of grass and pierce them with their -beaklike proboscis and gorge themselves with the juices. -The insect now exudes -a foamy secretion -which bubbles up -about it, in time entirely -surrounding itself -in a mass of -moisture. The insect -converts this into air -globules by pushing -its tail above the mass -(<em>a</em>) and seizing air in -its claspers, which it -passes beneath it to -the spiracle or breathing -pore. In this way -it breathes and also fills the section about it with air. -There the animal passes the time until it is ready to change, -when it escapes and becomes a perfect leaf hopper. The -famous cochineal insects (Fig. 215) belong to this group. -They are minute creatures which live upon certain cacti -in the tropics. When collected they form the celebrated -dye. Another form produces a valuable wax.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_202.jpg" name="i_202.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_202-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span>—Cochineal insect. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Who has not found his rose bushes swarming with -minute green bodies, the Aphidæ? Brush them off at -night and in a few hours as many more are seen, due to -the marvelous rapidity of their increase. The eggs are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> -laid in the autumn, and hatch in the early spring, the -young then appearing as wingless little creatures which -in turn produce not eggs but winged or wingless Aphidæ -(Fig. 216). These appear in such numbers -and so quickly that in a single -summer a pair of plant lice will produce -one quintillion of young ones. Can we -wonder that it is difficult to keep the rose -bushes free from such a swarm? The story of the development -of these insects is but merely touched upon, but it -is among the most remarkable of all the strange and -unexplainable transformations we find in animal life.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span>—Aphis.</p> -</div> - -<p>Here we may glance at the countless scaly insects -which infest fruit of various kinds. The black, red, and -cottony scale are common in California, and have to be -fought with all the cunning and intelligence that man can -invoke. In 1886 the orange groves of southern California -were almost ruined by the cottony scale. I have seen -trees that looked as though the limbs were covered with -snow. But an enemy of the scale, a little spotted lady -bug, was imported from Australia, and in a few months -the scale had disappeared. The black and red scale and -several others are pests which devastate the groves, -stopping the growth of the trees and operating against -the fruit grower, who is obliged to spray the trees with -poisonous washes to destroy them.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXVI. FLIES AND MOSQUITOES</h2> -</div> - - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_204.jpg" name="i_204.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_204-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span>—A fly, natural size and magnified. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The flies and mosquitoes are among the greatest pests -and dangers to man. Both are conveyers of disease, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> -the former, as an -agent of destruction, -deposits its eggs in -meat of all kinds, -making it impossible -to keep meat in some -countries. On the -other hand, it should -be remembered that -the flies are valuable -scavengers, hastening -the destruction -of dead matter which -might contaminate -the air.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_205a.jpg" name="i_205a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_205a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span>—Tongue of a fly. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_205b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span>—Eyes of a fly.</p> -</div> - -<p>The flies (Fig. 217) -are two-winged insects -with mouth parts adapted for lapping (Fig. 218) or -sucking. Under the microscope these organs often appear -to be composed of needlelike bristles, -forming a proboscis protected by a -scabbard or sheath. In some flies this -weapon is many times as long as the -body. The head is well separated from -the body, and movable. The eyes are -compound and simple, made up of many -facets (Fig 219). The wings are gauze-like, -often beautiful, and when the fly is -in motion, they move in a figure eight, -making, it is estimated, 19,800 revolutions -a minute. The feet (Fig. 220)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -enable it to cling to the smoothest surfaces with ease. The -little pads are extremely irritating at times when the fly -walks over the flesh, tapping here -and there with its soft tongue, in -which all parts except the labium -are rudimentary. The latter has a -broad tip for licking or lapping. -The flies breathe by spiracles, and -are among the most active of all -insects, and the bravest, attacking -man and beast, and refusing to be -driven off, despite the most active -and spirited defense.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_206a.jpg" name="i_206a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_206a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span>—Foot of a fly. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_206b.jpg" name="i_206b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_206b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span>—Flesh fly, eggs and young in various stages of development. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The development of the house -fly is a familiar process. The eggs of the flesh fly, as an -example (Fig. 221), are small, white objects which hatch -into maggots. These change gradually, finally becoming -pupæ, then assuming the adult form. The bluebottle fly -(Fig. 222) is one of the best known. The house fly is -found in greatest numbers near stables, as there, in the -piles of refuse, the eggs are deposited, hatching in twenty-four -hours. The young appear as fleshy, soft, footless -worms or maggots, which are ravenous, and live upon the -most fÅ“tid matter for two weeks, when they change into -a pupa, a barrel-shaped, cocoonlike form. For two weeks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -this remains motionless, when out of it breaks the perfect -house fly, soon to deposit its eggs and help to produce -the tens of millions of flies which -swarm wherever human beings -are found.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_207.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span>—Bluebottle fly and young.</p> -</div> - -<p>Among the many species of -flies some are bloodsuckers, as -the horse flies. The robber -flies are the hawks of the race, -carrying off other insects, even -large dragon flies. The many -species of horse flies attack horses and cattle, and the -animals are often driven to a frenzy by their approach. -An entire herd will recognize the approach of these -insects and stampede. Many of the flies deposit their -eggs upon the hairs or nostrils of horses. Flies exist -in countless varieties, from harmless creatures to some -in Africa which are deadly to cattle and horses; from -the ordinary fly whose larva lives in cheese to others -which thrive in alcohol and wine. In California the larva -of one species is found in Lake Mono, where no other -animal can live. Hundreds of bushels of them are sometimes -washed upon the beaches, constituting a favorite -food for the Indians.</p> - -<p>The warfare declared against mosquitoes in America, -suggested by Dr. Howard, has attracted widespread attention -to these insects, which have rendered many localities -absolutely uninhabitable. A Florida physician informed me -that in a certain locality horses had been killed by these -insatiate bloodsuckers, which are now known to be the -carriers of the germs of yellow fever. Over almost every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -pond or pool in summer they may be seen in countless -numbers, filling the air with their disagreeable music.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_208a.jpg" name="i_208a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_208a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span>—Proboscis of a mosquito. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The proboscis, or sucking weapon, of the -mosquito (Fig. 223) is an innocent-appearing -object when closed; but when the sheath is -open it displays a series of scimeter and sawtooth -daggers (Fig. 224), which fully explains -the torture of the mosquito bite or that of -the gnat which crawls -up one's sleeve (Fig. -225). In all these extraordinary -weapons -we find the same -organs, the labium, -labrum, and others, but -with greater or less development, -according to the nature of the -insect.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_208b.jpg" name="i_208b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_208b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span>—Proboscis of a mosquito open. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_208c.jpg" name="i_208c.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_208c-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span>—Biting organs of a gnat. - </p> -</div> - -<p>It is the female mosquito which occasions all the trouble -and renders mankind miserable in some of the otherwise -most delightful resorts. On the Florida Keys I always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -had a mosquito bar overhead, not merely over the bed but -suspended from the ceiling in midday. Even then these -pests would force their way through the meshes.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_209.jpg" name="i_209.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_209-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span>—Development of the mosquito. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The development of the mosquito is interesting -(Fig. 226). The eggs are deposited as a boat-shaped -mass on the surface of the water, where they drift about -for several days. The larvæ appear as wigglers float<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>ing -in the water, tail upward, and breathing through a -tube at the tip of the abdomen which is projected above -the water for the purpose. After a while the head grows -larger, and several changes ensue. Then the pupa finally -appears. This rises to the surface, and out bursts a full-fledged -mosquito which, like a man in a canoe, balances -itself while its wings dry. A few hours before it was -entirely dependent upon the water and swimming in it, but -now it appears to be fearful of overturning the frail craft -and falling in where it would surely drown. If all goes -well, it soon tries its wings and goes buzzing away. The -devastation caused by the armed and bewhiskered mosquito -is not generally known. Doubtless thousands have -lost their lives from this unsuspected cause.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_210.jpg" name="i_210.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_210-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span>—The gnat (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Culex</i>) and its development from the egg: <em>A</em>, egg; -<em>B</em>, larva; <em>C</em>, pupa; <em>D</em>, adult. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<p>The common gnat (Fig. 227) has habits similar to those -of the mosquito. They are often seen floating in the air -in great swarms or bands, rising and forming as though in -some mystic dance.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_211.jpg" name="i_211.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_211-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span>—The flea and its development. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Closely allied to these forms are the fleas (Fig. 228), -which are at once interesting and irritating. They are -wingless, and have two simple eyes. The larva resembles -a small caterpillar. It attains its growth in twelve days, -then enters a small cocoon, which it weaves. There it -remains for sixteen days, when it breaks forth a full-grown -flea. Of all insects the fleas are the most amenable -to instruction. Some years ago a flea circus was one of -the attractions of New York, where, by looking through a -magnifying glass, one could see fleas dragging chariots -with other fleas dressed as cavaliers sitting on the seats. -Many other seemingly impossible feats were exhibited.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXVII. THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Of all the insects the butterflies (Fig. 229) are the most -beautiful. Nature has arrayed them in coats of many -colors. Every tint and every possible shade of color, including -metallic, is found among them. In some of the South -American forests they are of gigantic size, a blaze of iridescent -blue, as though formed of the most delicate flakes -of that beautiful mineral labradorite.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_212.jpg" name="i_212.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_212-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span>—A butterfly. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The butterflies add to the beauty of nature. Among -the trees they congregate, forming dashes of color, red, -blue, green, and golden yellow. They vie with the flowers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -in their splendors; besides being ornamental they accomplish -a great work in carrying pollen from flower to flower -and from plant to plant. They have small heads (Fig. -230), short antennæ, and four beautiful wings which are -covered with minute scales. Each of the latter when -examined under a microscope becomes a resplendent -object, glistening like the plate of some gorgeous armor. -The mouth parts are adapted for sucking, and are coiled -up when not in use (Fig. 231). They consist of two -tubular or hollow threads.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_213a.jpg" name="i_213a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_213a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span>—Head of a moth. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_213b.jpg" name="i_213b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_213b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span>—Mouth parts of a butterfly. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The ordinary caterpillar is the larva of the butterfly. -The eggs are deposited on leaves and various places, -and soon hatch into caterpillars (Fig. 232). These lead -a predatory life for some time, doing a vast amount -of damage, almost every plant having its peculiar pest. -Some affect one tree, some another. The famous elm trees -of many of the New England cities have more than once<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> -been threatened by these larvæ. They shed their coats -several times. The caterpillar finally merges into the -chrysalis, from -which it escapes -as the perfect -insect. All of -these changes -can easily be -observed by -keeping a caterpillar -under -continuous observation. -The -butterflies have -well-developed -legs, but they -rarely use them -for locomotion, preferring to fly from flower to flower. -The tortoise-shell -butterfly is a familiar -form (Fig. 233), its -marvelous colors resembling -this shell. -Some have an under -covering of pure -silver. Another -conspicuous form is -the white butterfly -(Fig. 234), which, -as its name suggests, is pure white, with several black -spots.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_214a.jpg" name="i_214a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_214a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span>—Butterfly and young. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_214b.jpg" name="i_214b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_214b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span>—Tortoise-shell butterfly. - </p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> - -<p>When the butterfly is at rest its wings are held aloft, and -many are so colored that in this position the wing resembles -a leaf and the animal -escapes observation. A -marvelous example of this -protective mimicry is observed -in the East Indian -butterfly, Kallima (Fig. -235). The wings have -a little projection which -resembles a stem from -which a dark mark resembling -a midrib extends. -When the butterfly -alights, this seeming -stem, as shown in the -illustration, appears to join to the branch, and the resemblance -to a leaf is so perfect that the most careful observer -is often deceived. Other butterflies observed by Wallace -mimicked dry oak leaves and dead leaves of various kinds. -All the spots and colors of decay were imitated in their -wings. Other Indian forms resemble fungus, and utterly -disappear as they alight upon it. No more attractive butterfly -is seen than the finely marked Vanessa, the peacock -butterfly (Fig. 236), which has beautiful peacock marks -upon its wings in vivid blue.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_215.jpg" name="i_215.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_215-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span>—White butterfly and young. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_216.jpg" name="i_216.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_216-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span>—A butterfly which resembles a leaf. - </p> -</div> - -<p>In southern California, almost every spring, there is a -migration of butterflies from the south northward along -the Sierra Madre. I have watched them for hours, numbers -being seen over a given spot every moment. By -writing to postmasters and other persons in different sec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>tions, -I found that the migrating band was two hundred -miles long and from ten to twenty miles wide. Doubtless -this was but a fraction of its actual extent, it being made -up, in reality, of millions of yellow butterflies. Darwin -saw such a migration in South America. Their pathway<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -was several miles in width, they filled the air like a yellow -cloud, and were -several hours passing -a given point. -Vessels out at sea -have met with similar -flocks blown -away from the -shore.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_217a.jpg" name="i_217a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_217a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span>—Peacock butterfly. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_217b.jpg" name="i_217b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_217b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span>—Silkworm moth. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The butterflies are -included in the -Lepidoptera, and -are the day-flying -forms. There are -many other insects -equally beautiful, in -more subdued tints, which are night flyers. These are -the moths (Fig. 237), which are slow of flight, ponderous, -and have extraordinary tongues for sucking the juices<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -from the flowers. They can be distinguished from the -butterflies by their feathered antennæ. One of the -best known for its ravages is the dwarf moth, the worm -of which plays such havoc among woolens. The cankerworm -moth is equally a pest among valuable shade -trees. Another familiar form is the hawk moth (Fig. 238), -which so resembles a humming bird in appearance and -motion that it is almost impossible to distinguish between -the two, the moth being one of the most active, poising over -flowers and inserting its enormous tongue to secure the -sweets there concealed. A showy moth is the huge Attacus, -its larva being especially large and voracious.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_218.jpg" name="i_218.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_218-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span>—Hawk moth, a rapid flyer. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_219.jpg" name="i_219.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_219-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span>—Death's-head moth. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The moths display as great a variety in their shapes, -colors, and sizes as the butterflies. The death's-head moth -(Fig. 239) is perhaps as startling as any, bearing on its -back a well-defined figure of a skull. The most valuable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -moth to man is the silkworm moth, the wings of which -have a spread of six inches and are a brilliant ochre yellow, -fawn, or mouse color, marked with striking peacock-like -eyes. They deposit eggs, but the development of the -caterpillar is somewhat different from that of the butterfly -larva. The latter passes its pupa stage as an unprotected -chrysalis attached to some object by the tail (Fig. 240), -but the caterpillar of the moth secretes silk from a gland -in its head, and with this forms about itself a cocoon. -This is unwound by machinery and woven into the valuable -silk of commerce. The silk industry brings to the weavers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -of the United States alone an annual sum amounting -to about $30,000,000. -The silkworm can -easily be kept and all -its changes watched, -and many persons are -interested in rearing -the worms. The time -required by the worm to form its silk -cocoon varies with the locality. Thus in -France it will complete it -in four days, while in England -forty or more days -are necessary. About two -hundred cocoons weigh a -pound.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_220a.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span>—Pupa of butterfly.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_220b.jpg" name="i_220b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_220b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span>—Basketlike cocoon of a South American moth. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Silkworm moths are -ravenous eaters, living -principally on mulberry -leaves. They show much -intelligence in forming -their cocoons. Thus a South American -moth (Fig. 241) forms a basketlike structure -which it suspends from some limb. -The cradle swings in the wind like a seed -pod, more than anything else, and would -never be suspected as inclosing a living -creature. Many of the moths, by some -remarkable instinct, deposit their eggs where the young -will find an immediate supply of food. This care for -their young is the cause of a vast amount of damage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -among fruit trees. The -fruit moth, as an example, -deposits its eggs in fruit; -the caterpillar penetrates it -and devours the interior, -thousands of bushels of -apples being destroyed -yearly in this way, not to -speak of other fruits.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_221a.jpg" name="i_221a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_221a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span>—Tent moth, caterpillar and cocoon. - </p> -</div> - -<p>One of the best known of -the moths is the tent moth -(Fig. 242), the larva of -which forms a tentlike web -for its protection in the -trees it affects. A richly tinted flyer is known as the goat -moth (Fig. 243), the caterpillar being a large and beautiful -creature.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_221b.jpg" name="i_221b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_221b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span>—Goat moth. - </p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXVIII. THE ANTS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>If the question should be propounded which next to -man is the most intelligent of animals, the reply might be, -the ants; for after a careful study of all the ways and -habits of these small insects, it will be very evident that -the lives of many are conducted with more method than -the lowest human lives.</p> - -<p>The ants belong to the great group called Hymenoptera—insects -with membranelike wings, including the gall -flies, bees, and wasps.</p> - -<p>Ants are found everywhere. Long lines are seen marching -along, some coming, some going, in countless multitudes. -Yet drop a strange ant into this highway and it is -at once discovered and in danger. If water is poured -into a nest of ants, the inhabitants come rushing out. -Some come to fight, and others bear in their mouths the -young (Fig. 244), countless thousands, to a place of safety.</p> - -<p>The ant is a trim, vigorous individual, fleet of foot, tireless, -never weary, brave, industrious, a type of the worker. -The head is large. The eyes are compound, with three -single eyes. The antennæ are long, slender organs by -which ants appear to recognize friends or foes, and possibly -talk with them in some way. Certainly when two -ants meet, a very strange interchange of courtesies with -the antennæ is performed. The males and females are -winged, and there is a third kind without wings, called -workers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_223.jpg" name="i_223.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_223-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span>—Ants removing their young to a place of safety. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_224.jpg" name="i_224.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_224-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span>—Tunnels of ants. - </p> -</div> - - -<p>Ants live in vast communities of from one hundred -thousand to five hundred thousand or more. They excavate -the soil and gravel, descend into the ground, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> -tunnel it in every direction (Fig. 245). In certain places -they store food, in others eggs. The affairs of their vast -underground city are carried on with a marvelous method. -Although the ants have wings, these are soon cast away. -At certain times the winged males and females swarm -out of the nest and fly away, forming other communities. -The males soon die; the females rid themselves of their -wings, and thereafter remain in their new nests. The -entire work of the community falls upon the so-called -workers. They make the nest, repair it, do the fighting -when necessary, move the immature young or eggs, shut -up the nest at night, and open it in the morning. The -eggs are minute, and as soon as laid are taken by the -workers, or nurses, as they are also called, and carried to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> -favorable places, where they are carefully watched. They -are shifted about and occasionally for some reason brought -above ground. The larvæ, when they hatch (Fig. 246), -appear as little -worms, or grubs, -which would starve -if they were not -constantly fed by -the nurses. If it -is too cold, these -babies are taken up -into the sunshine, or placed in some hall near the surface -where the sun's rays can reach them. Finally they -change to the pupa stage and are covered by a web. -They are still cared for with the greatest solicitude by -the nurses, which stand by when they finally hatch out -and aid them in their entrance into the world. Nurses -in every sense of the word, their care at this time is one -of the most remarkable exhibitions of human traits in a -lower animal known. Many other human traits find their -prototype among these minute animals. They care for -the young, the sick, and the wounded; they go to war, -capture their foes, make slaves of them, and force them -to work. They keep certain insects for the pleasant odor -they afford and others for the secretions they emit, the -latter action resembling keeping and milking cows. Ants -build remarkable houses arranged in rooms for various -purposes; they plant gardens to raise certain crops; they -introduce plants that will provide certain food; they -retard the growth of seeds in their granaries; build vast -underground or covered roads to escape the heat; they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> -make bridges to cross streams; and in numerous other -ways they demonstrate their remarkable intelligence.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_225.jpg" name="i_225.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_225-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span>—Egg and larvæ of the ant. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The extent of the homes of ants is astonishing when we -bear in mind the size of the insect. Some often extend -many feet underground, and their tunnels have been -traced beneath the broad Paraiba River of South -America.</p> - -<p>Many different species of ants are known, all interesting -for their singular ways of living. The foraging or slave-making -ants of Africa go to war against other ants. -Such foraging trips are carried on with remarkable discipline, -and the warriors may be seen returning, a triumphant -army, bearing the eggs and larvæ of the enemy, -which they nurse and bring up as slaves. These slave -makers are large and powerful Ecitons, the dominant -race of the ants.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_226.jpg" name="i_226.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_226-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span>—Honey ants. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Among the slave-making ants the owners often become -so dependent upon the slaves that they are almost helpless, -and would starve were it not for these dependents. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> -so-called honey ants of Texas exhibit some remarkable -traits in the manner of their lives (Fig. 247). These -ants, which I have observed in the Garden of the Gods, -Colorado, select certain individuals as storehouses and -supply them with honey until the abdomen is expanded -to many times its size, resembling a bottle. The ants -when filled are placed in a compartment made for the -purpose, and there hung to the wall, animated honey jars, -which are taken down and made to give up their sweets -as occasion demands. These honey balls are considered a -delicacy in Mexico, and are served as dessert.</p> - -<p>Among the ants, those of Texas known as the agricultural -ants are remarkable for their intelligence. They are -farmers, laying out places which they cultivate with a certain -plant, which is especially to their taste, just as farmers -plant corn.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXIX. THE BEES AND WASPS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In almost every flower bed in the garden we shall find -the bees, examples of tireless energy, storing up honey for -their young in such vast quantities that the surplus forms -a valuable food supply for man as well. The nests of -bees are systematically robbed of their stores, and for this -purpose the insects are supplied with artificial nests or -hives, in which they deposit their honey, entirely for the -benefit of mankind. Here we see a singular limitation -placed upon intelligence. The intelligence of bees is wonderful -and amazing. Many of their acts and works suggest -those of human beings, yet when the time comes for -thinking after the fashion of men, the bees are lacking. -They go on storing honey in artificial -hives without being able to bridge -the mental chasm and perceive that -they are being robbed and made to -work as virtual slaves. Hence we -assume that the intelligence of bees -is not on the same plane as that of -human beings. They appear to be -acting upon a strong instinct which -impels them to perform acts which -seem intelligent.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_228.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span>—The head of a bee.</p> -</div> - -<p>The head of the bee bears two -remarkable compound eyes, with -three simple ones between them.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> -The antennæ are short. The mouth parts (Fig. 248) are -complicated, and adapted for sucking up the honey or -sweets of flowers or -the juices of fruits. -In California, the -bees eat fruit as well -as honey, and even -flesh or meat, in very -dry seasons, when -flowers are scarce. -The abdomen of the -bee (Fig. 249) is supplied -with a sawlike -stinger or dart (Fig. -250) which inflicts a -painful and poisonous wound. In general appearance the -ordinary honeybee resembles an ant with -wings; but the bee is hairy, it has a -sting, and the legs of the worker are -provided with "honey baskets," which -carry pollen.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_229a.jpg" name="i_229a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_229a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span>—Bees: <em>a</em>, queen; <em>b</em>, drone; <em>c</em>, worker. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i_229b.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span>—Sting of a bee.</p> -</div> - -<p>Bees are of several kinds, queens, -workers, and drones, there being a division -of labor. The queen is the largest, -the drone is the smallest, and it has no -sting. The history of the bee and its -development is one of the most wonderful -chapters in the whole story of animal -life. Glancing at the interior of a hive we see that the -bees have constructed a series of hexagonal cells. To -learn how they have accomplished this, we may follow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> -a bee in its flight. This may be one or two miles from -the hive, yet so perfect is the knowledge of the bee of -direction, that it is rarely lost. Reaching a flower it -sucks out the honey, which it swallows. It then takes -pollen, the dust from the stamen of the flowers, and -stows it away in little baskets attached to the legs. It -also takes a waxlike substance called propolis from buds -of various trees, which it packs with the pollen in the -baskets. Arriving at the nest, the bee, with countless -others, engages in the construction of the cells, which -are of various sizes. The material for building up the -cells is wax, which is secreted by the bees, appearing in -little flakes under the abdomen, from which it is taken -by the legs of the bee. This is the material from which -the comb is made, while the propolis is employed as a -cement to attach the cells together, and for various minor -purposes. Think of thousands of workers bringing in this -material, working in the dark, yet never making a mistake. -The bee finally ejects the honey which it has swallowed, -placing it in certain cells, where it is sealed up and remains -until it is needed as food. The pollen is also placed in -cells.</p> - -<p>A single community of bees may consist of two hundred -thousand individuals. In the hive there is a single queen, -which often lays from fifteen hundred to two thousand -eggs a day, and if we could follow her, we should find that -she lays the eggs in different cells, and in cells of different -sizes. In the first are eggs which develop into workers, -and in the second are larger eggs which will produce males, -called drones. The little eggs soon hatch into white grubs -which are carefully fed by the workers with digested honey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> -and pollen. Finally the young larvæ almost fill the cells -and then stop eating. The workers cover them in, and -each spins for itself a silken cocoon, in which it remains -until it breaks out in the form of a perfect bee.</p> - -<p>The workers build certain large cells on the side of the -comb, which are called queen cells, and the larvæ which -appear in them are fed with some peculiar food which -produces queens. The workers watch each of these cells -with great care, gnawing the wax away on top so that they -can observe the progress of development. Finally a small -hole is made, through which the proboscis of the young -queen protrudes, and in this way it is fed for several days, -during which it utters a low, piping noise. The queens -attack each other on sight, and previous to the appearance -of a young queen the old one, with thousands of followers, -makes her escape, or swarms. Then the workers liberate -a young queen, and if there are others, there are repeated -swarms, each queen leaving -with a multitude of followers, -till the hive has but one -queen. There are in the -community now a number of -drones, and as they appear -to be an expensive and -worthless burden to carry -during the winter, the workers -attack and kill them, -throwing them out of the -hive.</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_231.jpg" name="i_231.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_231-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span>—Carpenter bee. - </p> -</div> - -<p>Among the many kinds -of bees the carpenters (Fig.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> -251) are famous, boring tunnels into solid wood for the -reception of their young; half an inch a day being accomplished -by these little -carpenters. The -bumblebee, one of -the largest, forms its -nest in the ground -(Fig. 252).</p> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_232a.jpg" name="i_232a.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_232a-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span>—Bumblebee and nest. - </p> -</div> - -<div class="figlink"> - <a href="images/i_232b.jpg" name="i_232b.jpg"> - <img src="images/i_232b-thumb.jpg" alt="" /></a> - <p class="caption"> - <span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span>—Wasp and young. - </p> -</div> - -<p>The wasps (Fig. -253) live in societies -of males, females, -and workers. The -paperlike nests are -familiar objects in -the woods, resembling great bags of paper which when -opened are seen to -be filled with cells. -Many nests are of -beautiful shapes, resembling -candelabra, -while the cells of the -common mud dauber -(Fig. 254) call to mind -the adobe houses of -the Mexicans and -Indians of the Southwest. -The mud cells -of a South American -wasp resemble bottles -(Fig. 255). Many of the large wasps are fierce and vindictive, -and nearly all resent an attack upon their homes.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>INDEX</h2> -</div> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">A</li> - -<li class="indx">Abalone, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Æolis, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aeronaut, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Agassiz, Louis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">AmÅ“ba, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anemone, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Angle worm, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animalcules, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ant, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antennæ, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ant lion, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aphis, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aphrodite, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aplysia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Apus, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aragonite, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arcturus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Argonaut, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arion, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristeus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ascension Is., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Astræa, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atlantic, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atoll, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Attacus, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Attus, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aurelia, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Auricle, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Avalon, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Avalon, Phosphorescence at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">B</li> - -<li class="indx">Banks, Sir J., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barnacle, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Barnacle, Goose, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bean aphis, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bee, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beetles, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beetles, Boring, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bell Animalcule, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bivalve, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blind crustacean, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bluebottle fly, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Book scorpion, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brachiopoda, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Branchipus, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brine shrimp, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buffalo bug, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bugs, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bulimus, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bumble bee, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Burgos crab, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Butterflies, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Byssus, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">C</li> - -<li class="indx">Caddis worm, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cardium, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carpenter bee, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caryophyllia, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cassis, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caterpillar, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caves, Santa Catalina, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Centipede, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cerithium, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chætopterus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Challenger, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chamæleon, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chinch bug, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chiton, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cicada, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cilia, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Clam, Giant, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cleodora, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cochineal, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cockle, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Cocoanut crab, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Colossendeis, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conch, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cone, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Conus, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coral, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coral insect, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cottony scale, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cowry, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crab, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cranchia, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crayfish, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crickets, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crinoid, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crustacean, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ctenactis, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cteniza, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuttlefish, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cyanea, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cyclops, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cypræa, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cyprinæ, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">D</li> - -<li class="indx">Daddy longlegs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Darwin, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Decorative crab, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dendronotus, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dentalium, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Devilfish, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Doris, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dragon fly, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">E</li> - -<li class="indx">Echinus, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eciton, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Edible crab, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eolis, see Æolis.</li> - -<li class="indx">Erenberg, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">F</li> - -<li class="indx">Fiddler crab, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fierasfer, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Firmin, Point, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Firmin, Point, Phosphorescence at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Firmin, Point, Waves at, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flea, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Florida, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flustra, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fly, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flying spider, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foraminifera, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fresh-water pearl, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fungia, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fusus, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">G</li> - -<li class="indx">Gall crab, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gammarus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garden Key, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garden of the Gods, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gecarcinus, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Giant clam, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Giant octopus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Giant squid, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glacier flea, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glass-bottom boat, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glass sponge, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gnat, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goat moth, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goniaster, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gordius, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gorgonia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grapsus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grasshopper, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Green crab, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gulf of Mexico, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gunther, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">H</li> - -<li class="indx">Haliotis, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Halobates, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Helderberg, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hermit crab, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hibernation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Holothurian, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Honey ant, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horseshoe crab, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Howard, Dr., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hymenoptera, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Ianthina, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Insects, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Anatomy of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Larvæ of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Music of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Parts of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Spiracles of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">J</li> - -<li class="indx">Jægar, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">On locusts, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Japanese crab, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jellyfishes, <a href="#Page_26">26-35</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Beauties of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Development of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Young of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">June bugs, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">K</li> - -<li class="indx">Kallima, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">L</li> - -<li class="indx">Labium, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Labrum, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lake Mono, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lamp shell, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Land crab, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Larva, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lasso, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leaf hopper, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leech, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lepidoptera, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lernæans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limax, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lime, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limnoria, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limpet, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lingula, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lobster, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Locust, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lucernaria, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luminous crab, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">M</li> - -<li class="indx">Macrocheira, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mactra, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malay, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mammoth Cave, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mantis, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">May fly, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Melicerta, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Metridia, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mimicry, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mimicry of insects, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mite, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mole cricket, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moseley, Dr., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mosquito, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Development of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moth, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mushroom coral, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mussel, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mygale, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">N</li> - -<li class="indx">Nassa, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Natica, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">National Museum, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nemesia, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nereis, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noctiluca, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Noctiluca, phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Norway lobster, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nummulites, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">O</li> - -<li class="indx">Ocean, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Lime in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Octopus, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Onchidium, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> -<li class="isub1">Eyes of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ophiocoma, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oyster crab, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">P</li> - -<li class="indx">Paper nautilus, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">ParamÅ“cium, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pearl, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pelagia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pentacrinus, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pentacta, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peripatus, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Philippines, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Phorus, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phosphorescence, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phyllium, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Physalia, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Physophora, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Planarian, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pleurobranchia, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polycirrus, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polyp, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Polyzoan, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pompilius, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porpita, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Potato bug, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prawns, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Praya, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pteropod, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">R</li> - -<li class="indx">Radiolarian, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Razor clam, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reef, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhizostoma, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rotifer, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">S</li> - -<li class="indx">San Clemente, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand collar, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand dollar, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sand flea, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Santa Catalina, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sapphirina, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scale insects, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Scorpion, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea anemone, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea cucumber, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea pen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sea slug, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Semper, Dr., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sepia, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serpulæ, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Shrimps, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sierra Madre, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Silk worm, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Siphon, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Snail, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soft-shelled crab, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Southern California, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spicules, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spider, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spider crab, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spirit crab, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sponges, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Squash bug, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Squid, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Squilla, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Starfish, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stings, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stone lilies, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">St. Paul's Rocks, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sucker, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Syllis, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Synapta, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">T</li> - -<li class="indx">Taltritus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tarantula, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Terebratula, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Teredo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tiger beetle, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Timos, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trichina, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tritonia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trochus, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turritella, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">U</li> - -<li class="indx">Univalve, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Urchin, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">V</li> - -<li class="indx">Velella, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">W</li> - -<li class="indx">Walking stick, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wasp, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water boatman, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water flea, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Web, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">White ant, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> -</ul> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3>ELEMENTARY NATURE STUDY</h3> -</div> - - -<p class="bold"> -Abbott's A Boy on a Farm 45 cents -</p> - -<p>Two stories by Jacob Abbott, revised, and in new and attractive form. -They are admirably suited for young readers. The illustrations are -numerous and pleasing.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Bartlett's Animals at Home 45 cents -</p> - -<p>The object of these stories is to arouse the interest of children in certain -representative individual animals, and by so doing to awaken a love for -Natural History in general. The illustrations are attractive and true to life.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Bradish's Stories of Country Life 40 cents -</p> - -<p>These recollections of a childhood spent on a northwestern farm aim -to emphasize the attractiveness of life in the country, and to add to -its charm by awakening an intelligent interest in its many activities.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Dana's Plants and Their Children 65 cents -</p> - -<p>A series of easy lessons on the wonders of Plant Life, as entertaining for -children as stories. These studies in nature are not only interesting -and instructive in themselves, but they teach the child to see, to think, -and to observe for himself.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Holder's Stories of Animal Life 60 cents -</p> - -<p>This book is intended to serve either as a first book on Zoölogy or -as a supplementary reader. The author has aimed to create in young -students an enthusiastic interest in Nature Study by presenting some of -the most remarkable phases of animal life.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Kelly's Short Stories of Our Shy Neighbors 50 cents -</p> - -<p>This book furnishes children with entertaining and instructive reading in -the field of Natural History. It tells about the living creatures that dwell -near us and yet are oftentimes strangers. It does this in the form of -stories, written in a pleasing and attractive style, and copiously illustrated.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Monteith's Some Useful Animals 50 cents -</p> - -<p>The subjects here treated assist both in Nature Study and in learning to -read. The moral lessons derived from the actions of animals are vivid -and engaging, and much useful and interesting information is imparted.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Needham's Outdoor Studies 40 cents -</p> - -<p>This book is suitable for pupils in the intermediate or grammar grades. -May be used as a guide for field work as well as a reader in Nature -Study, and it will pave the way for more advanced text-book study and -for laboratory work in the higher grades.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Pyle's Stories of Humble Friends 50 cents -</p> - -<p>These stories are about animals and birds familiar to the children. They -are simple in style and sympathetic in treatment. The many pictures, -drawn by the author, are vividly illustrative of the incidents described.</p> - -<p class="bold"> -Stokes's Ten Common Trees 40 cents -</p> - -<p>A series of simple nature lessons for young children, familiarly treating -and giving a few definite impressions of what trees are and how they live.</p> - - -<p class="ph3">AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3>Burnet's Zoölogy</h3> -</div> - -<p class="center">FOR</p> - -<p class="ph3">HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES</p> - -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<p class="ph4">MARGARETTA BURNET<br /> - -<span class="smaller">Teacher of Zoölogy, Woodward High School, Cincinnati, O.</span></p> - -<p class="center">Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages. Illustrated. Price, 75 cents</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>This new text-book on Zoölogy is intended for classes -in High Schools, Academies, and other Secondary Schools. -While sufficiently elementary for beginners in the study it is -full and comprehensive enough for students pursuing a -regular course in the Natural Sciences. It has been prepared -by a practical teacher, and is the direct result of school-room -experience, field observation and laboratory practice.</p> - -<p>The design of the book is to give a good general knowledge -of the subject of Zoölogy, to cultivate an interest in -nature study, and to encourage the pupil to observe and to -compare for himself and then to arrange and classify his -knowledge. Only typical or principal forms are described, -and in their description only such technical terms are used -as are necessary, and these are carefully defined.</p> - -<p>Each subject is fully illustrated, the illustrations being -selected and arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the -structure of each form.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="center"><em>Copies of Burnet's School Zoölogy will be sent prepaid to any address, -on receipt of the price, by the Publishers</em>:</p> - -<p class="ph3">American Book Company</p> - -<p class="ph4"> -New York â—† Cincinnati â—† Chicago -</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3>Birds of the United States</h3> -</div> - -<p class="ph3">A Manual for the Identification of Species East of the -Rocky Mountains</p> - -<p class="center">By <span class="smcap">Austin C. Apgar</span></p> - -<p class="center">Author of "Trees of the Northern United States," etc.</p> - -<p class="center">Cloth, 12mo, 415 pages, with numerous illustrations. Price, $2.00</p> - - -<p>The object of this book is to encourage the study of -Birds by making it a pleasant and easy task. The treatment, -while thoroughly scientific and accurate, is interesting -and popular in form and attractive to the reader or -student. It covers the following divisions and subjects:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Part I.</span> A general description of Birds and an explanation -of the technical terms used by ornithologists.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Part II.</span> Classification and description of each species -with Key.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Part III.</span> The study of Birds in the field, with Key for -their identification.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Part IV.</span> Preparation of Bird specimens.</p></div> - -<p>The descriptions of the several species have been prepared -with great care and present several advantages over -those in other books. They are short and so expressed -that they may be recalled readily while looking at the -bird. They are thus especially adapted for field use. The -illustrations were drawn especially for this work. Their -number, scientific accuracy, and careful execution add much -to the value and interest of the book. The general Key to -Land and Water Birds and a very full index make the -book convenient and serviceable both for the study and -for field work.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p class="center"><em>Apgar's Birds of the United States will be sent, prepaid, to any address -on receipt of the price by the Publishers</em>:</p> - -<p class="ph3">American Book Company</p> - -<p class="ph4"> -NEW YORK â—† CINCINNATI â—† CHICAGO -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h3>Baldwin's School Readers</h3> -</div> - -<p class="ph4">By <span class="smcap">James Baldwin</span></p> - -<p class="center">Editor of "Harper's Readers," Author of "Old Greek Stories," "Old -Stories of the East," etc.</p> - - -<p>In method and in subject matter, as well as in artistic -and mechanical execution, these new readers establish an -ideal standard, equally well adapted for city and country -schools. 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