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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: A Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life - -Author: British Museum - -Release Date: May 16, 2016 [EBook #52081] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Lesley Halamek, Stephen Rowland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE. - - _SECOND EDITION._ - -[Illustration: - - _Frontispiece._ TERRACOTTA BOATS FROM AMATHUS (p. 34). -] - - - - - BRITISH MUSEUM. - - DEPARTMENT OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. - - - A GUIDE - - TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING - - GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE. - - _SECOND EDITION._ - - - WITH A FRONTISPIECE AND TWO HUNDRED AND - SIXTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS. - - LONDON: - - - PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES. - - 1920. - - - - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, - DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, - AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1. - - - - -ERRATA. - - -P. 121, l.17. _For_ =339= _read_ =339*= - -Pp. 143, 144, 145. _For_ =421-426= _read_ =421*-426*= - -P. 216 near foot. _For_ =655= _read_ =655*= - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In this Exhibition an attempt has been made to bring together a number -of miscellaneous antiquities which formed a part of the collections of -the Department, in such a method as illustrates the purpose for -which they were intended, rather than their artistic quality, their -material, or their place in the evolution of craft or design. - -Such a series falls naturally into groups, and it has been found -convenient to treat these groups in accordance with a general scheme, -the illustration of the public and private life of the Greeks and -Romans. - -The materials forming the basis of this scheme are, primarily, objects -which already formed part of the Museum collections: for this reason -it has not been possible always to preserve that proportion in the -relation of the sections to the whole which would have been studied -if the objects had been selected for acquisition with this purpose -in view. Further, it is necessary to warn visitors that they must not -expect to find the subject in any sense exhaustively treated here: -the complete illustration of every detail of ancient life would be -impossible for any museum as at present constituted. All that can here -be done is to shape the available material into a system which may at -least present a fairly intelligible, if limited, view of ancient -life. Several new acquisitions, made since the appearance of the first -edition of this Guide, have strengthened the exhibition in directions -in which it was deficient, and it is hoped that this process will be -continued. Meanwhile, some of the gaps have been filled by means of -casts and reproductions of objects belonging to other categories in -this Museum, or preserved elsewhere. - -The preparation of the first edition of this Guide (1908) was -entrusted to different members of the Departmental Staff. Mr. Yeames -prepared a great deal of the necessary preliminary work: Mr. -Walters wrote the sections on Athletics, the Circus, Gladiators, and -Agriculture: Mr. Forsdyke those on Coins, Arms and Armour, Dress -and the Toilet. The remaining sections were mainly the work of Mr. -Marshall. - -In the present edition the section on Arms and Armour has been -re-written by Mr. Forsdyke, and the remainder has been mainly revised -by myself. The proofs have been read by Mr. Walters and Mr. Forsdyke. - - A. H. SMITH. - - BRITISH MUSEUM, - _March, 1920._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - -_The references in brackets are to the numbers of the Figures._ - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - - I. POLITICAL INSCRIPTIONS AND SLAVERY 1 - - Treaties, etc. (1); Proxenia Decrees (2-3); - Dikasts' Tickets and Ostraka (4-6); - Votive Arms (7-8); Military Diploma (9_a_, 9_b_); - Corn Largesse (10); Slaves (11). - - - II. COINS 14 - - Greek Coins (12); Roman Coins (13-15). - - - III. DRAMA 25 - - Greek Comedy (16); Roman Plays (17-18); Actors - and Masks (19-22). - - - IV. SHIPPING 33 - - Greek Shipping (Frontispiece and 23-26); Roman - Shipping (27-28). - - - V. RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION 39 - - Implements and Methods of Worship. Votive - Altars (29); Sacrifices and Apparatus (30-31); - Prayer; Theoxenia (32); Augury; Shrines (33-34). - - Votive Offerings (35-45). - - Superstition and Magic. Magical Inscriptions; - Bronze Hand (46). - - - VI. ATHLETICS 58 - - Pugilism (47); Sports of the Pentathlon (48-51); - Boxing Gloves (52); Prize Vase (53). - - - VII. GLADIATORS AND THE ARENA 64 - - Types of Gladiator (54-58); Helmet (59); Tesserae - (60); Animal Contests (61). - - - VIII. CHARIOT-RACING AND THE CIRCUS 70 - - Chariots in the Circus, and Charioteers (62-65). - - - IX. ARMS AND ARMOUR 74 - - Early Armour (66); Helmets (67-79); Cuirasses - (80-85); Greaves, etc. (86-89); Shields (90); - Standards (91-93). - - Early Weapons. Mycenaean Swords and Daggers - (94-96); Mycenaean Spears and Arrows (97-98); - Early Italian Swords and Spears (99-100); Greek - Swords (101-105); Greek and Roman Spears (106-108); - Roman Swords (109); Sling-shot and Arrowheads - (110-111); Calthrop (112). - - - X. HOUSE AND FURNITURE 109 - - General Furniture. Couch (113). - - Lighting. Lampstands (114-115); Lamps (116-119); - Candlesticks and Lanterns (120-123). - - The Kitchen. Implements. Fish Plate (124). - - The Bath. Strigils (125-126); Water Supply. - Pumps (127-128); Heating. Shapes of Vases. - - - XI. DRESS AND TOILET 122 - - Greek Female Dress (129-133); Greek Male Dress - (134-138); Roman Dress (139-140); Footwear (141-2); - Fibulae (143-158). - - Jewellery. Bracelets (159); Earrings (160); - Bullae, Necklaces, Studs, Pins (161-163). - - Toilet. Combs (164); Toilet Boxes (165); - Mirrors; Razors (166-168); Miscellanea (169-170). - - - XII. DOMESTIC ARTS 142 - - Spinning and Weaving (171-177); Sewing Implements - (178-182); Cutlery (183); Locks and Keys - (184-190); Seals (191). - - - XIII. TRADE 158 - - Shops (192-193). - - - XIV. WEIGHTS AND SCALES 159 - - Greek Weights (194-195); Roman Weights; - Scales and Steelyards (196-200). - - - XV. TOOLS, BUILDING AND SCULPTURE 166 - - Tools (201); Building Materials (202-203). - - - XVI. HORSES AND CHARIOTS 169 - - Chariots and Carts (204-205); Horse Trappings - (206-208). - - - XVII. AGRICULTURE 174 - - Ploughs (209); Wine Making (210); Olive Harvest - (211-212); Goat-herd, etc. (213). - - - XVIII. INDUSTRIAL ARTS 180 - - Metal-working (214-215); Pottery (216-222); - Gems and Pastes; Wood-working; Lathe-work. - - - XIX. MEDICINE AND SURGERY 185 - - Greek and Roman Medicine (223-226). - - - XX. MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS 191 - - Measures (227); Compasses (228); Stamps (229). - - - XXI. INFANCY. TOYS 193 - - Infants (230-231); Dolls, etc. (232-234); Tops (235). - - - XXII. EDUCATION, WITH WRITING AND PAINTING 197 - - Reading and Writing Lessons (236-238); Arithmetic; - Writing Materials (239-241); Painting. - - - XXIII. GAMES 203 - - Knucklebones (242-243); Dice (244); Ivory - Pieces (245). - - - XXIV. MARRIAGE 207 - - Greek Marriage (246-249); Roman Marriage - (250-251). - - - XXV. MUSIC AND DANCING 213 - - Musical Instruments. Kithara and Lyre (252-253); - Flutes and Cymbals (254); Dancing (255). - - - XXVI. DOMESTIC AND PET ANIMALS; FLOWERS 218 - - Performing Animals (256); Flowers. - - - XXVII. METHODS OF BURIAL 220 - - Greek Burials (257-258); Italian Burials. Hut - Urns (259); Canopic Urn (260); Funeral Masks - (261); Etruscan Urn (262); Roman Burials and - Funeral Urns (263); Roman Grave Relief (264). - - - - -GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE - - -The exhibition is arranged in the central rectangle of what was -formerly the Etruscan Saloon; it includes Wall-Cases =25-64=, -=94-119=, and Table-Cases =E-K=. The subject naturally divides itself -into the two chief headings of public and domestic institutions, and -each of these occupies one half of the room. On the West side are -grouped the sections relating mainly to Public Life, on the East those -of Private Life: of the former, the section illustrating the monetary -system of the ancients and its development naturally leads up to -the Department of Coins and Medals. For the general scheme of the -exhibition, reference should be made to the Table of Contents. - - NOTE.--_The references at the end of each section correspond - to the numbers of the objects in this Guide. These numbers, - which are placed near the objects in the Cases, are - distinguished by being in red upon a white ground. Numbers - attached to the objects (such as B 77 on a vase) refer to - the British Museum Catalogues, which should be consulted for - fuller details than can be given in the Guide._ - - - - -I.--POLITICAL INSCRIPTIONS AND SLAVERY. - -(Table-Case K.) - - -A section of Table-Case K contains a series of inscriptions which -illustrate various sides of Greek and Roman political life. - -It must be borne in mind that the Greek state was generally of very -small dimensions. As a rule all life was centred within a city, which -had but a moderate extent of outlying country. Aristotle describes the -perfect city or state (the words are interchangeable) as the union -of several villages, supplying all that is necessary for independent -life.[1] Greece, though small in area, was thus divided up into a -large number of states, whose interests were constantly in conflict. -It thus came about that it was provided with systems of treaties, -arbitrations, and consular representation such as marked a fully -developed international system. - -=Treaties.=--The bronze tablet No. =1= dates probably from the -second half of the sixth century B.C., at a time when the Eleians and -Heraeans of Arcadia were still dwelling in villages, and were not yet -united each into a single city. It is written in the Aeolic dialect of -Elis, and records a treaty between the two peoples named. There was to -be a close alliance between them in respect of all matters of common -interest, whether of peace or war. Any breach of the treaty, or any -damage to the inscription recording the treaty, would involve a fine -of a talent of silver to be paid by the offender to Olympian Zeus, -the supreme Greek deity. The tablet was brought from Olympia by Sir -William Gell in 1813. - -No. =2= is a cast of a similar treaty between the communities of the -Anaiti and Matapii, for a fifty years' friendship. In case of a breach -of the treaty the priests at Olympia have arbitrators' powers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--TREATY OF CHALEION AND OEANTHEIA. (NO. 3.)] - -No. =3= (fig. 1) is a bronze tablet, with a ring at one end for -suspension, recording a treaty made between the cities of Chaleion and -Oeantheia on the Gulf of Corinth. It is in the Lokrian dialect, and -can be dated to about 440 B.C. The main object of the treaty was -to regulate the practice of reprisals between the citizens of the -respective towns, and, in particular, to prevent injury to foreign -merchants visiting either port. There are also provisions for ensuring -a fair trial to aliens. The tablet was found at Oeantheia (Galaxidi), -and was formerly in the Woodhouse collection. - -=Colonization.=--This was a feature of peculiar importance in Greek -life. In the course of the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. numerous -colonists had left their homes on the mainland of Greece or on the -coast of Asia Minor, and had settled principally in Southern Italy -and Sicily, or round the shores of the Black Sea. The reasons for -such emigration were sometimes political, but more often commercial. -Between the mother-city and the colony relations of an intimate -character were almost invariably maintained. Representatives from -either city attended the more important festivals held in the other -town, and the daughter-city not infrequently sought the advice of the -mother-city in times of difficulty and danger. The inscription on the -bronze tablet No. =4= illustrates the way in which colonists left one -Greek state to settle in another comparatively near at hand, and -also shows the relations existing between the colonists and the -mother-state. At a date probably previous to 455 B.C. colonists from -the Opuntian or Eastern Lokrians (inhabiting a district lying opposite -to the island of Euboea) left their homes to settle in Naupaktos, a -town situated on the narrowest part of the Gulf of Corinth, in the -territory of the Western Lokrians. The question arose as to how far -the colonists were to remain in connection with the mother-country. -The tablet shows that the settlers had the privilege of enjoying full -social and religious rights on revisiting their native city, although -during their absence they were exempt from paying taxes to it. -Under certain conditions they might resume their residence in the -mother-state without fee, and they also had a right to inherit -property left by a near relative in that state. Other provisions deal -with judicial arrangements affecting the new settlers. - -=Proxenia.=--Just as modern states appoint consuls in foreign -countries in order that the interests of their citizens abroad may be -protected, so the various Greek cities appointed their representatives -in different foreign states. These representatives were chosen from -the citizens of the town in which they acted, and their appointment -was regarded as a special honour, carrying with it substantial -privileges. The main functions of the _proxeni_ were those of -dispensing hospitality to travellers and assisting them in cases of -difficulty, and of receiving ambassadors arriving from the state which -they represented. They were also expected generally to further that -state's commercial interests. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--GRANT OF _proxenia_ TO DIONYSIOS (NO. 5). Ht. -12-7/8 in.] - -Two bronze tablets recording decrees of _proxenia_, passed by the -people of Corcyra, are here exhibited. No. =5= (fig. 2), probably of -the end of the fourth century B.C., records the grant of _proxenia_ -to Dionysios, son of Phrynichos, an Athenian.[2] It mentions the date, -the appointment, and the right of possessing land and house property -in Corcyra, the last evidently a reward granted to the _proxenos_ -for his services. No. =6= (fig. 3), of about 200 B.C., is a grant of -_proxenia_ to Pausanias, son of Attalos, a citizen of Ambrakia.[3] -He is accorded the usual honours, and the Treasurer is directed to -provide the money for the engraving of the decree on bronze. Both -these tablets were found in Corfu, the modern name of the ancient -Corcyra. The persons appointed acted, of course, in Athens and -Ambrakia respectively. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--GRANT OF _proxenia_ TO PAUSANIAS (NO. 6). Ht. -8-7/8 in.] - -=Law-courts at Athens.=--One of the most striking features of -democratic Athens was its elaborate machinery for the administration -of justice. The system of popular control began in the fifth century -B.C., and reached its full development in the fourth. For petty -offences the various magistrates had the power of inflicting a small -fine, but graver charges were usually decided by a jury court. Those -who composed these jury courts were called _dikastae_. They were -chosen at first up to the number of six thousand from the entire body -of citizens over thirty years of age, but later on apparently any -citizen over thirty years of age was a qualified juryman. From the -time of Perikles each juryman received three obols (about 5d.) a -day for his services. The whole body of jurymen was divided into ten -sections, each of which was distinguished by one of the first ten -letters of the Greek alphabet (A to K). Each dikast received a ticket -([Greek: pinakion]), at first of bronze, but in Aristotle's day of -boxwood, inscribed with his name, his parish, and the number of his -section. In Aristotle's day the father's name was always given as -well.[4] Four of these dikasts' tickets (in bronze) are exhibited in -this case, together with a fragment of a fifth. Upwards of eighty are -known, all apparently belonging to the fourth century B.C. The tickets -shown are: - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--TICKET OF THUKYDIDES (NO. 10). L. 4-1/4 in.] - -No. =7=, which belonged to Deinias of Halae, of the third section -([Greek: G]). The ticket is stamped with the Athenian symbol of an owl -within an olive wreath, two owls with one head, and a Gorgoneion. - -No. =8=, belonging to Archilochos of Phaleron, of the fifth section -([Greek: E]). - -No. =9=, belonging to Aristophon, son of Aristodemos, of Kothokidae. -His was the third section ([Greek: G]). - -No. =10=, the ticket of Thukydides of Upper Lamptrae (fig. 4). He -belonged to the sixth section ([Greek: Z]). The ticket bears the -symbols of an owl within an olive wreath, and a Gorgoneion. - -The lowest fragment is part of a ticket belonging to Philochares of -Acharnae of the fifth section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--INSCRIBED POTSHERDS (OSTRAKA) AT ATHENS (NO. -11).] - -=Ostracism.=--This was a peculiar device adopted by Greek city-states -for getting temporary relief from the influence of prominent citizens, -whose presence was for the time being considered undesirable. At -Athens ostracism was introduced by the statesman Kleisthenes about 508 -B.C. The method of effecting it was as follows. The popular assembly -(Ekklesia) first decided whether they desired that ostracism should -be carried out. If they considered it expedient, they met and recorded -their vote. The name of the person they most wished to get rid of -was written on a potsherd (ostrakon), and if six thousand votes were -recorded against any one name, that man had to go into banishment for -ten years. In Case K is a coloured illustration (No. =11=) of three -ostraka found at Athens (fig. 5). The names written on the sherds are -well known in Greek history. _Themistokles_ (fig. 5_a_), of the deme -Phrearri, was the creator of Athenian sea-power. In consequence of -this ostracism (ca. 471 B.C.) he died an exile at Magnesia on -the Maeander. _Megakles_ (fig. 5_b_) of the deme Alopeke, son of -Hippokrates and uncle of Perikles, was ostracised in 487 B.C. as -"a friend of the tyrants." In the next year, 486 B.C., was banished -_Xanthippos_ (fig. 5_c_), son of Arriphron and father of Perikles, -on the ground of undue prominence. The Museum collection contains no -ostraka of historic importance, but the potsherd inscribed by one Teos -(No. =12=) gives an idea of the actual object (fig. 6). - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--POTSHERD OF TEOS (NO. 12).] - -=Dedications for Victory.=--The dedication in a temple of a part of -the spoils of victory was not merely a religious observance. It was -also the formal entering of a claim to victory. The Etruscan helmet -(No. =13=) dedicated at Olympia by Hieron of Syracuse, is an example -(fig. 7). It was found at Olympia in 1817, and was presented to the -Museum by King George the Fourth. On the side is a votive inscription: - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--ETRUSCAN HELMET DEDICATED AT OLYMPIA BY HIERON -AND THE SYRACUSANS (NO. 13). 1:4.] - -[Greek: Hiarôn ho Deinomeneos kai toi Syrakosioi tô Di Tyran' apo -Kymas]--"_Hieron son of Deinomenes and the Syracusans offer to Zeus -Etruscan spoils from Kyme_." Hieron was tyrant of Syracuse from 478 to -467 B.C., in succession to his brother Gelon, and was one of the most -prominent figures of the age. Gelon had nobly upheld the supremacy of -the Greeks in the west by destroying a Carthaginian host at Himera, in -the same year and, as the tale went, on the same day as the battle -of Salamis. Hieron added to the brilliance of the Sicilian court, and -signalised his naval power in the great repulse of the Etruscans. The -ancient city of Kyme, near Naples, the earliest Greek colony in the -west, was hard pressed by the neighbouring barbarians and by the -civilised and powerful state of Etruria. The Greeks appealed for -help to Hieron, and he sent them a fleet of warships, which beat the -Etruscans in sight of the citadel of Kyme, and broke their sea-power -for ever (474 B.C.). From the arms and treasure taken in the battle -Hieron made the customary offering in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, -and this helmet with its eloquent inscription was part of the -dedicated spoil. - -For other votive helmets see below, p. 76. - -The votive spear-head, No. =14=, dedicated by an unknown Theodoros to -(Zeus) Basileus, about 500 B.C., was probably found at Olympia. The -occasion of the dedication is unknown, but it nearly resembles No. -=15= (cast), which was dedicated at Olympia by the Methanians as -spoil from the Lacedaemonians.[5] The original is at Berlin. Several -spear-heads of this type have been found. They do not seem to be -effective for use in battle, and they are therefore supposed to -have been specially made for dedicatory purposes. It has also been -suggested that they are spear-butts, but this does not seem probable. - -[Illustration: [Greek: Theodôros anethêke Basilei.] - -FIG. 8.--SPEAR-HEAD DEDICATED BY THEODOROS TO (ZEUS) BASILEUS. (NO. -14). 1:3.] - -=Emblem of Office.=--The bronze caduceus (No. =17=), (familiar as the -emblem of the herald Mercury), is inscribed "I belong to the people -of Longene," and was apparently the staff of the public herald of that -town. It was found in a tomb in Sicily, and is of the fifth century -B.C. The device is in the form of a staff, surmounted by a pair of -intertwined serpents. - -=Roman military Life.=--This is illustrated by two of the Latin -inscriptions here shown. The oblong bronze tablet No. =18= (figs. -9_a_ and 9_b_) is part of a Roman _diploma_, a document recording -privileges in respect of citizenship and rights of marriage granted to -a veteran soldier. The _diploma_ derived its name from the fact that -it was composed of two tablets hinged together. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9_a_.--FRAGMENT OF A BRONZE _diploma_ (NO. 18). -Ht. 5-1/2 in.] - -We have in the present instance only the left side of one of the -tablets. The right side, which had two holes for the metal rings -attaching it to the other tablet, has been broken away. The -inscription[6] is a copy of one originally engraved on bronze and set -up on the wall behind the temple of Augustus _ad Minervam_ at Rome. It -is headed with the names of M. Julius Philippus, the Emperor, and of -his son, who had the title of Caesar. This is followed by the grant -of full matrimonial rights to the soldiers of ten cohorts and by the -date, equivalent to Jan. 7th, 246 A.D. Next comes the name of the -individual soldier to whom this copy of the original inscription was -given, one Neb. Tullius, a veteran of the fifth praetorian cohort -of Philip at Aelia Mursa in Pannonia. The grant of full matrimonial -privileges was a considerable one, for it meant that the veteran's -wife and children gained the privileges of Roman citizens, if, as was -often the case, the wife was not possessed of citizen rights at the -time of marriage. The two holes in the middle of the tablet were used -for the wire thread, which was passed round the tablets three times -according to the usual official custom, and had the seals of seven -witnesses affixed to it. Fig. 9_b_ is a restoration showing the -original form of the document opened, the exterior of the two tablets -being seen. This _diploma_ was found in Piedmont. Parts of similar -documents will be seen exhibited in the Room of Roman Britain. - -Near the _diploma_ is a small bronze ticket (No. =19=), inscribed on -either side. One side bears the name of Ti(berius) Claudius Priscus, -the other records that he belonged to the fourth praetorian cohort and -the _centuria Paterni_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9_b_.--THE ABOVE _diploma_ RESTORED.] - -=Corn Largesses.=--From the end of the second century B.C. it had -become a regular feature of Roman policy to supply the populace of the -city with corn either gratis or at an artificially cheap rate. After -the fall of the Republic the Emperors carried still further the policy -of free distributions (_congiaria_ or _liberalitates_). It has been -reckoned that the annual cost of their largesses averaged £90,000 -from Julius Caesar to Claudius, and £300,000 from Nero to Septimius -Severus. Persius, who wrote in the time of Nero, notes with a sneer -that it was one of the privileges of the meanest Roman citizen to -exchange his ticket for a portion of musty flour. This policy of -the Emperors is illustrated by the inscribed corn-ticket (_tessera -frumentaria_) shown in this Case (No. =20=; fig. 10). It is inscribed -on one side, _Ant(onini) Aug(usti) Lib(eralitas) II._, i.e., the -second special largess of Antoninus, perhaps Antoninus Pius, who -reigned from 138-161 A.D. On the other side appears _fru(mentatio) -LXI._, i.e. the sixty-first monthly corn distribution, dating -doubtless from the accession of Antoninus. The letters were originally -inlaid with silver, as is shown by the remains of that metal in the -numerals. The sepulchral inscription mentioned on p. 224 should be -studied in connection with this corn-ticket. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BRONZE CORN-TICKET (NO. 20). 1:1.] - -=Official Emblem.=--The relief in Case =99= shows the _Fasces_ (that -is, the axes and the rods tied in a bundle) which were carried by the -lictors before the higher Roman magistrates. - -=Slavery.=--The circular bronze badge (No. =21=) shows the Roman -method of dealing with runaway slaves after the softening influence -of Christianity had begun to make itself felt. In earlier times the -runaway slave had been punished with the cruel penalty of branding. -Apparently from the time of Constantine onwards an inscribed badge was -substituted, authorising the summary arrest of the slave if he were -caught out of bounds. The inscription on the badge exhibited runs: -"Hold me, lest I escape, and take me back to my master Viventius on -the estate of Callistus." - -Two other objects may perhaps be brought into connection with slavery. -The scourge (No. =22=), with its lash loaded with bronze beads, was -frequently used for the punishment of slaves. It is the _horribile -flagellum_ of Horace. A scourge very similar to the present is seen on -a relief in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, representing a high-priest -of Kybele, whose devotees were in the habit of scourging themselves -in the service of the goddess.[7] The pair of iron fetters (No. -=23=), found in 1813 in a cave behind the Pnyx at Athens, bear a -close resemblance to those worn by a _bestiarius_ or beast-fighter -represented on a relief from Ephesus exhibited in Case 110, (_Cat. of -Sculpt._, II., No. 1286). - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--SLAVE BADGE (NO. 21). 3:5.] - -Two small bronzes (No. =24=) show dwarf slaves undergoing the -punishment of the cangue, in which neck and wrists are fixed in a -board. - - (1) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 264; Hicks and Hill, _Greek Hist. - Inscr._, No. 9; (2) Roberts, _Gr. Epigraphy_, No. 297; (3) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 263; _B.M. Inscr._, 953; (4) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 262; _B.M. Inscr._, 954; (5) _Cat. of Bronzes_, - 333; (6) _ibid._, 334; (7) to (10) _ibid._, 329-332; Hicks and - Hill, 151; _I.G._, II., 886, 901, 885, 908b; (11) _Jahrbuch d. - Arch. Inst._, II., p. 161; (12) _B.S. Athens Ann._, V. pl. 5, - fig. 112; (13) _B.M. Inscr._, 1155; _Cat. of Bronzes_, 250; - (14) _B.M. Inscr._, 948A; _Journ. of Hellen. Stud._, II., - p. 77; (15) Roberts, _Gr. Epigraphy_, No. 286; (17) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 319; _I.G._ XIV., 594; cf. _Hermes_, III., p. 298 - ff.; (18) _Eph. Epigraph._, IV., p. 185; _C.I.L._, III., - Suppl. i., p. 2000. On the _diplomata_ generally, see Smith, - _Dict. of Ant._, and Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. of Ant._, - s.v.; (19) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 901; _C.I.L._, XV., 7166; - Hübner, _Exempla_, No. 915; (20) _Cat. of Bronzes_, - 3016; _C.I.L._, XV., 7201; _Klio_, Beiheft III., p. 21; - _Philologus_, XXIX., p. 17; (21) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 902; - _C.I.L._, XV., 7193. - - - [Footnote 1: _Pol._ i. 1, 8.] - - [Footnote 2: [Greek: - - Prytanis Stratôn. | meis Psydreus, hamera te | tarta epi deka; - prostatas | Gnathios Sôkrateus; | proxenon poei ha halia | - Dionysion Phrynichou | Athênaion auton kai | ekgonous. didôti - de kai | gas kai oikias empasin. | tan de proxenian grapsan | - tas eis chalkon anthemen | ei ka proboulois kai prodikois dokêi - kalôs echein. - - Dionysion | Phrynichou | Athênaion.] - ] - - [Footnote 3: [Greek: - - Edoxe ta halia, proxe|non eimen Pausanian At|talou Ambrakiôtan | - tas polios tôn Korkyrai|ôn auton kai engonous; | eimen de autois - kai ta | alla timia, hosa kai [tois] | allois proxenois [kai] | - euergetais geg(ra)|ptai. | tan de proxeni|an proboulous kai - pro|dikous grapsantas eis | chalkôma anathemen, | ton de - tamian domen | to genomenon analô|ma. - - Pausanian Attalou | Ambrakiôtan.] - ] - - [Footnote 4: [Greek: Ath. Pol. 63: echei d' hekastos dikastês - pinakion pyxinon, epigegrammenon to onoma to heautou patrothen - kai tou dêmou kai gramma hen tôn stoicheiôn mechri tou k.]] - - [Footnote 5: [Greek: Methanioi apo Lakedaimoniôn.]] - - [Footnote 6: - Imp. Cae(sar) M. Iulius Phili[ppus Pius] - Fel(ix) Aug(ustus), pont(ifex) max(imus), trib(unicia) - p[ot(estate) III, cos., p.p. et] - M. Iulius Philippus nobil[issim(us) Caes(ar)] - nomina militum, qui milit[averunt in] - cohortibus pretoris Phil[ippianis de-] - cem I. II. III. IIII. V. VI. VII. VIII. VII[II. X. piis vin-] - dicibus, qui pii et fortiter [militia fun-] - cti sunt, ius tribuimus con[ubii dumta-] - xat cum singulis et primi[s uxoribus], - ut etiam si peregrini iur[is feminas] - in matrimon(io) suo iunxe[rint, proinde - liberos toll(ant), acxi (for _ac si_) ex duob(us) c[ivibus Ro-] - manis natos. a. d. VII. [idus Ian.] - C. Bruttio Presente et C. Al(b)[- - - - - cos.] - Coh(ors) V pr(aetoria) Philip[pian(a) p(ia) v(index).] - Neb. Tullio Neb. f. M(a) - - - - - - - - - Ael(ia) Murs[a]. - Descript(um) et recognit(um) ex ta[bula aerea], - que fix(a) est Romae in muro [pos(t) templum] - divi Aug(usti) ad Mine[rvam]. - - ] - - [Footnote 7: Baumeister, _Denkmäler_, II., p. 801, fig. 867.] - - - - -II.--COINS. - -(Table-Case K.) - - -The coins which are selected to represent the Greek and Roman -currencies extend over a period of just one thousand years, in the -course of which the coinage went through all the developments and -anticipated all the varieties of type and fabric which it has since -experienced, while in artistic merit it reached an excellence which -will probably never be surpassed. The Greek coinage, moreover, has the -great interest of being that upon which all later coinages have been -modelled--for the Chinese money, which originated about the same time, -and apparently independently, may be left out of account. - -=Greek Coins.=--The character and provenance of the earliest coins -agree with the best ancient tradition of their origin, in so far as -it associates them with Asia Minor, although it is more probable -that they were invented by the Greek cities of the coast than by -the Lydians, to whom they have been credited in accordance with the -Herodotean tradition.[8] The most primitive pieces are found in Asia -Minor, and their metal is a natural mixture of gold and silver, called -electrum, which occurs in the mountains of Lydia, and was brought down -to the sea in the sands of the great rivers, the golden Hermus and its -tributary the Pactolus. The cities which the Greeks had planted on the -Asiatic shores grew in the seventh century B.C. to a high degree of -wealth, by reason of their position on a rich coastland, where they -were intermediary in the trade of east and west. There were great -bankers in these Ionian cities who had large stores of treasure; their -gold and silver would be kept in bars or ingots of definite weight -stamped with the device, in place of the written signature, of the -banker. From thus marking large ingots with his own signature, it -would be a short step for the banker to do the same with smaller -denominations of the same weights, so producing a private coinage for -his own convenience in calculation, which would come to have a limited -acceptance in the quarters where his credit was good. Such pieces -are probably to be recognised in the nondescript coins of which the -electrum stater is an example (No. =24=; fig. 12_a_); this is scored -on one side with parallel scratches and stamped on the other with -three deep punch-marks. There are many pieces in existence which have -even less design than this, although their weights conform to definite -coin-standards. We may perhaps regard this example as a private coin, -one of the last of its kind, which immediately preceded the adoption -of coinage by the state. The invention of coinage lies really in this -innovation, which, however obvious it may seem to us now, was then -of deep political significance. When once a state currency was -instituted, the private coinage fell out of use, for no individual -banker could compete with the guarantee of the state, and the state -would not tolerate imitation of its own types. We may therefore take -it that the successive stages in the "invention" of coinage were -somewhat as follows: first, the occasional practice of stamping -certain weights of metal with marks by which they could be identified; -this probably continued in private use for a long period before it was -adopted by a state; and finally the adoption all over the Greek world -of a series of state coinages. - -The example, once set, was quickly followed by the more important -Greek cities, until by the middle of the sixth century the art of -coinage had travelled from Ionia across the mainland of Greece to -the colonies in Italy and Sicily. Owing to the peculiar political -conditions of Greece, where every town held a separate and independent -sovereignty, each state was jealous to assert its autonomy on its -coins, with the result that the Greek coinage presents an enormous -variety of types, held together, however, as the money of one people -by the uniformity of their general character and of the art in which -they are expressed. - -We may now proceed to consider a few representative coins, which in -the midst of innumerable local issues were important enough by -their purity of weight and metal, or by their abundance, or by the -commercial reputation of their issuing states, to predominate in -the Greek world as a sort of international currency and standard of -exchange. - -The earliest electrum stater of Ionia is interesting on account of its -fabric only, for it has no type. It is a bean-shaped lump of metal, -one side of which has been stamped with a flat die marked with -parallel scratches, the other with three punches, which have left -deep impressions (No. =24=; fig. 12_a_). The pieces which immediately -followed, such as the silver money of Aegina (No. =25=; fig. 12_d_), -have a real type on the obverse, while the punch-mark on the reverse -is more regular, and is often ornamented with some design of a special -character, though it does not contain a type until later. - -With the introduction of coinage into European Greece, a change was -made in the metal of the currency, for gold and electrum, which were -plentiful in Asia, were not common in Greece proper, and a silver -coinage was there the rule until Philip of Macedon took possession of -the Thracian gold mines. The few gold issues before his time were due -to exceptional circumstances; thus the gold coinage of Athens (No. -=26=) was occasioned by great financial stress, when treasure was -melted down to supply the currency. There was, however, no lack of -gold money in Greece, for after the first electrum issues came the -fine gold staters of Croesus, in the early sixth century (No. =27=; -fig. 12_b_), and, on his overthrow by Cyrus, an international gold -coinage was still available in the enormous issues of the Persian -darics (No. =28=; fig. 12_c_), which were in common use all over -the ancient world until the Macedonian gold replaced them. A few -subsidiary electrum coinages survived in Asia, the most famous being -the Kyzikene staters (No. =29=; fig. 12_m_), which were a standard -exchange in the Aegean and Black Sea regions. A peculiarity of this -coinage is that the distinctive type of the town, the tunny, is -relegated to a secondary place, while the main type is a constantly -changing design. In the piece illustrated the subject is taken from a -group of the Athenian tyrannicides, Harmodios and Aristogeiton, which -stood in the market place of their native city. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--GREEK COINS. 1:1.] - -Another important currency, used especially in western Greece, the -"colts" of Corinth, took its type from the local myth that the winged -horse Pegasos was captured by Bellerophon at the fountain Peirene, -which flowed from the acropolis of the town (No. =30=; fig. 12_e_). -The original punch-mark on the reverse was soon replaced by the -helmeted head of Athena, who also had a part in the Pegasos myth, and -these two types were constant as long as the Corinthian state existed. -The money which enjoyed the fairest reputation was that of Athens, -which, at the time of the Athenian empire, superseded the issues of -the subject cities and became the standard currency in the Aegean -Sea. It penetrated into the far East, and there are extant examples of -native imitations from India and Arabia. The wide circulation of these -staters among barbarous peoples was the cause of their peculiar -style; for not only were the types of Athena's head and her owl and -olive-branch unaltered from the first sixth-century design, but the -execution was an imitation of the primitive manner, the stiffness of -archaic art being reproduced in an affected archaism. As the money of -Athens was the foremost in the Greek world, it is useful to note the -extraordinary number of denominations which were struck in silver at -its most flourishing period, the fifth century B.C. A large, but still -not complete, series is exhibited here (No. =31=). It consists of the -_Decadrachm_ (10 drachmae, fig. 12_f_), an early and rare coin, the -_Tetradrachm_ (4 drachmae, fig. 12_g_), which was the famous Athenian -stater or standard piece, the _Didrachm_ (2 drachmae), the _Drachm_ -(fig. 12_h_), the unit of weight, which contained six obols, the -_Triobol_ (3 obols), the _Diobol_ (2 obols), the _Obol_ (fig. -12_i_), the _Tritemorion_ (3/4 obol), the _Hemiobol_ (1/2 obol), the -_Trihemitetartemorion_ (3/8 obol), and the _Tetartemorion_ (1/4 -obol, fig. 12_k_), the half of the last piece being equivalent to the -largest bronze coin, the _Chalkous_ (No. =32=). - -With the Athenian series is the bronze core of an ancient imitation of -a silver stater, of which the silver plating has perished (No. =33=). -False coining was punished with extreme penalties even in those early -days: in an extant monetary convention between Mytilene and Phocaea, -of the fourth century B.C., the crime of adulterating the money is -threatened with death.[9] - -On the conquest of Athens by Macedon, at the end of the fourth century -B.C., the autonomous Athenian coinage was largely superseded by the -Macedonian regal issues, and did not recover its position until late -in the next century. It was renewed in a different form, with none of -the old archaism, of which the occasion was past. The coins of the new -style exemplify the thin flat fabric of the period, and although the -types of Athena and the owl are preserved, their arrangement is much -more complicated. The new head of Athena is a copy from the colossal -ivory and gold statue which Pheidias made, and on the reverse of the -coins the owl and olive spray are accompanied by many new devices, of -which the most remarkable are the names, symbols, and monograms of -the monetary magistrates; eminent personages sometimes figure in -this place. On the coins exhibited (No. =34=; fig. 12_l_) one of the -officials is Antiochos, who was afterwards Epiphanes, king of Syria. - -In the interval between the old and new coinages, when the Athenian -money was scanty, the currency was supplied by the regal issues of the -Macedonian kings and their successors. Under Philip II. and his son -Alexander the Great, the Macedonian monarchy extended its dominion -by conquest, not only over the isolated Greek cities, but over the -ancient empire of Persia. The opportunity was thus provided for a -universal coinage, and it was realised in the gold and silver -issues of Philip and Alexander (Nos. =35=, =36=; fig. 12_n-q_). The -acquisition of the Thracian gold-mines gave Philip the means for an -abundant coinage of gold, the first considerable Greek issue of the -kind, which contributed in no small measure to his political success. -The style of these coins of Philip is not different from that of other -Greek money, except that they are inscribed with a personal name--of -Philip--instead of the name of a whole people, and the types, a -horse and jockey and a two-horse chariot, are also personal, as they -commemorate the racing successes of the king. The fine heads on the -obverse, however, are still divine, that of Zeus appearing on the -silver and the young Apollo on the gold, for the idea of representing -a living personage on a coin was still distant. Of this money the -gold especially was struck in enormous quantities, and the types were -imitated more and more crudely, as time went on, in Gaul and Britain. -(_See_ the series shown in the Room of Roman Britain.) The coinage of -Alexander was even more widely spread. His types were more orthodox -than those of Philip: the head of Athena and a Victory on the gold, -and the head of young Herakles, wrapped in the lion-skin, with a -figure of Zeus enthroned, on the silver staters, although in the head -of Herakles there is some suggestion of the features of Alexander. -These coins were struck all over the world which Alexander conquered, -and lasted after his death as the money of his successors and of -independent cities, in some cases even for two centuries; but the -kings who divided his great empire modified the type by introducing -real portraits of Alexander, as a deified hero, and later of -themselves, as living deities, so that the representation of a -ruler's head on coins, which is still practised to-day, began with -quasi-religious Greek coin-types. The regularity of the Greek coinage -which Alexander established was only temporary, and his influence was -fast disappearing when the subjection of the world by the Romans in -the first century B.C. merged all provincial issues in the complete -uniformity of the Imperial mint. - -=Roman Coins.=--As gold in the Asiatic coastlands and silver in -European Greece, so in Italy the native medium of exchange was bronze. -In the earliest times the raw metal was circulated in broken knobs of -indefinite weight (_aes rude_), which required in all transactions the -use of scales. The rude metal was afterwards superseded by cast ingots -of an oblong shape, which bore a device to indicate their purpose as -money (_aes signatum_). Yet the weights were still irregular, and -no mark of value accompanied the types, so that the pieces were not -strictly coins. A survival of this primitive currency is seen in the -large ingot which has on one side a tripod and on the other an anchor -(No. =37=; fig. 13). This piece itself belongs to a later period, when -the lighter coined money was already in use. The special purpose for -which this and similar pieces were intended is quite uncertain. The -first coinage of Rome was less massive than this, but being entirely -of bronze, was still inconveniently large and cumbrous (_aes grave_). -The Roman of the fourth century B.C., when he found it necessary to -transport any considerable sum, took his money about with him in a -waggon.[10] The use of bronze for a token currency, as in Greece, was -not possible without a superior coinage of gold or silver to secure -its value. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--AES SIGNATUM (NO. 37). 1:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--AES GRAVE (NO. 38). AS, SEMIS, QUADRANS, AND -UNCIA. 1:2.] - -A typical series of the Roman heavy bronze money is exhibited (No. -=38=; fig. 14) The system is based on the pound of twelve ounces, and -the denominations of the various pieces are distinguished by the -heads or obverse types, and by the marks of value which they bear. The -series consists of the _As_, or pound (+I+), the half, _Semis_ (+S+), -the third, _Triens_, of four ounces (····), the quarter, _Quadrans_, -of three ounces (···), the sixth, _Sextans_, of two ounces (··), and -the _Uncia_, or ounce, the lower unit (·) (_cf._ p. 160). Each of -these is further differentiated by the obverse head. The _as_ has the -double head of Janus, the god of beginnings, whose coin opened the -series of money, as his month begins the year. The _semis_ has the -head of Jupiter, wearing a laurel wreath; the _triens_, Minerva armed; -the _quadrans_, Hercules in the lion-skin; the _sextans_, Mercury, the -messenger, with wings in his cap; and the _uncia_, a head of Bellona, -the goddess of battle. All the reverses have a common type, the prow -of a ship. This device may mark the date of the introduction of the -Roman coinage, which coincided with Rome's first essays on the sea, -in the middle of the fourth century before Christ. It remained as the -reverse type of the bronze money all through the Republic, and even -in later times, when a coin was tossed, the cry was "heads" or -"ships."[11] - -The heavy bronze coinage of the city of Rome was only one among -many similar currencies of the central Italian states. As the Romans -conquered the neighbouring territories, where there existed local -weight-systems, which, in the interests of commerce, it was well -to preserve, instead of imposing their own money, they inaugurated -subordinate issues at the dependent mints. On this principle it was -natural that when the march of Roman conquest came upon the peoples of -South Italy, where a silver currency had been long ago introduced by -the Greek colonists, a local issue for those parts was instituted as -a subsidiary coinage. To this class of Roman money belongs the silver -stater or didrachm with Campanian types (the head of Mars and the -bust of a horse) which was struck by the Romans--as the legend -+ROMANO+(_rum_) shews--in Capua for the use of the Campanian district -(No. =39=; fig. 15_a_). With the extension of power and territory the -old bronze pieces were inadequate, and in the year 268 B.C. a silver -coinage was begun at Rome itself. At the same time the Campanian mint -was closed, and the heavy bronze coins, being subordinated to -the silver unit, were issued as token-money in a reduced and more -convenient size. - -The first Roman silver coinage bears the types of the goddess Roma, -wearing a winged helmet, and on the reverse the patron deities of -trade and commerce, Castor and Pollux, the Heavenly Twins or Dioscuri -(No. =40=; fig. 15_b-d_). They are armed with spears and ride on -horseback, with their stars above their heads. These types occur on -all three denominations of the earliest silver, the _Denarius_ (marked -+X+), which was worth 10 _asses_; its half, the _Quinarius_ (+V+); and -the _Sestertius_ (+IIS+) of 2-1/2 _asses_, which became the unit in -reckoning accounts. The two smallest silver pieces were not always -struck; but the _denarius_, with the reduced copper for small -denominations, remained in use during the period of the Republic -at Rome and long into the Empire. Although both series had a great -variety of types, the fabric and general appearance were unaltered. - -With the change to the Empire, reform in all directions was begun, and -the coinage was set on a new basis. Gold was introduced to meet the -needs of the metropolis of the world, and two new coins, the _Aureus_ -and its half, were struck in this metal. They were modelled on the -silver pieces. The standard silver coin was still the _denarius_, -and the only change which it experienced was in type. The head of the -emperor took the place of those of deities, with a superscription, -which was the forerunner of modern coin-legends. It consisted of -the name and titles of the emperor, often with the date of striking, -arranged in a circle round the edge of the coin. The minting of gold -and silver was assumed by the emperor, but the lower denominations -were left to the senate, whose authority is expressed on each piece by -the letters +S·C+ (_Senatus Consulto_, "by decree of the Senate"). The -senatorial series consisted of the _Sestertius_, the equivalent of the -smallest silver coin, now valued at 4 _asses_ instead of the original -2-1/2; the _Dupondius_, of 2 _asses_; the _As_, and fractions of the -_as_, _Semis_ and _Quadrans_, which are of less frequent occurrence. -These coins sometimes differed as to the metal used, the _as_ and -_semis_ being of copper, and the _dupondius_ and _sestertius_ of -brass; or in the style of the emperor's head; or, as in the case of -the coins exhibited, the _as_ is marked +I+ and the _dupondius_ +II+ -(fig. 15_h_ and _i_). Usually, however, the two pieces are confused, -and are loosely termed by collectors "second brass," the sesterce -being "first brass," and all denominations lower than the _as_ "third -brass." The reverse types were very numerous, and, with the exception -of the mark +S·C+ on the senatorial issues, none of them was peculiar -to any denomination. The series which is selected here to illustrate -the Imperial coinage is of the reign of Nero (54-68 A.D.); all the -pieces, therefore, bear the image and superscription of that Caesar, -and their reverses have complimentary references to the emperor and -his family, or topical allusions to current events (No. =41=; fig. -15_e-l_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--ROMAN COINS. 1:1.] - -Nero was the first emperor to reduce the weight of the _denarius_, and -from his time the degeneration was rapid. A series of seven pieces, -from Tiberius to Probus (14-281 A.D.), illustrates the debasement of -the metal, which is apparent to the eye (No. =42=). By the time of -Gordianus Pius (238-244 A.D.) no trace of silver is visible, and the -coin of Probus here exhibited is plainly copper. Yet these pieces -represent the only silver money which was then coined. - -Many of the coins which have come down to us have been preserved by -the care or avarice of their former owners, who hid their wealth for -security and were unable to recover it. Portions of two such hoards -are shown at the end of the case. One consists of Athenian staters of -the late fifth century B.C. (No. =43=), which were found in the Greek -settlement of Naukratis, and the other is a large collection of late -Roman coins of the fifth century A.D. (No. =44=). These were buried -in another Egyptian town, Hawara, in the egg-shaped jug which is shown -with them. At Pompeii, a city which was overwhelmed by the volcano in -the midst of its daily life, money, like all other things, has been -found ready to hand and actually in use. There is in this Case all -that the fire has left of a Pompeian money-box, and among the coins -which it contains is a brass sesterce of Nero, whose reign ended -eleven years before the catastrophe. Shreds of a net purse are also -visible in the box (No. =45=). - -=Special uses of Coins.=--A silver stater of Sikyon (No. =46=), is -marked by an inscription punctured by the dedicator--_To Artemis in -Lakedaemon_. A religious character attaches also to the bronze coin of -Laodikeia in Phrygia, which is pierced and suspended from a wire loop -for wearing as a charm against sickness, by virtue of the figures -which it bears of Asklepios and Hygieia, the deities of health (No. -=47=). - -A curious coin, struck for a special religious purpose, is the copper -piece of Nemausus (Nîmes, in the South of France), which is made in -the shape of a ham for dedication to the deity of the local fountain -(No. =48=). The offering was probably originally paid in kind. - -=Ancient false Coins.=--With the exception of the Italian heavy -copper, which was cast, nearly all ancient coins were struck in dies, -and most of the false pieces which have survived are defective in the -quality of the metal, while the fabric is good. In the later Roman -Empire, when all the standard money was of base metal, the surface was -so bad that the coins could easily be counterfeited by casting, and -great numbers of the clay moulds used by forgers or by the monetary -authorities date from this period. Among the large collection here -exhibited (No. =49=) there are some unbroken moulds, and some with the -run metal still adhering. Base metal was detected by the use of the -touch-stone, and pieces of doubtful weight were tested by the balance. -An ivory folding balance is shown (No. =49*=). The long arm is made -just too light to counterpoise a good denarius--the test being that if -the coin were heavy enough it would fall off the plate at the end. - - For Greek and Roman coins in general, see Hill, _Handbook of - Greek and Roman Coins_ (with the Bibliography there given); - G. Macdonald, _Coin Types_ (Glasgow, 1905); Head, _Historia - Numorum_ (2nd ed. 1911.) - - - [Footnote 8: i. 94.] - - [Footnote 9: Michel, _Recueil des inscr. grecques_, No. 8.] - - [Footnote 10: Livy, iv. 60.] - - [Footnote 11: Macr. _Sat._ i. 7, 22. pueri denarios in - sublime iactantes capita aut navia exclamant.] - - - - -III.--DRAMA. - -(Table-Case K and Glass Shade above.) - - -The antiquities illustrating the ancient drama are placed in one half -of Table-Case K, and under the glass shade standing above it. - -=Greek Drama.=--This was in its origin essentially religious, and -retained up to the decline of tragedy at the end of the fifth century -B.C. the character of a religious ceremony. Thus tragedy gradually -developed out of the rude dances in honour of the wine-god Dionysos, -which were performed at country vintage festivals. The name tragedy -means "goat-song," and is probably to be associated with the sacrifice -of the goat, the enemy of the vines. - -The dramatic part of a tragedy was at first confined to a dialogue -between a single actor and the leader of the chorus, with long musical -interludes, but the number of actors was gradually increased, with -the result that more stress was laid on the dramatic action. Aeschylos -introduced a second actor, Sophokles a third, and Euripides, the last -of the great tragedians, reduced the lyrical element of the play to -comparatively insignificant proportions. - -Comedy underwent a development not unlike that of tragedy. It also -had its origin in the coarse buffoonery common at the rustic festivals -which celebrated the vintage. Introduced into Athens from the -neighbouring Megara early in the sixth century B.C., it did not -receive recognition from the state until the middle of the fifth -century. The comedy of the closing years of that century is -inseparably connected with the name of Aristophanes, who combined -merciless political satire with exquisite poetry. - -In the fourth century B.C. a great change came over comedy at Athens. -The later plays of Aristophanes mark the beginning of the comedy of -manners, which took the place of the old political comedy. The master -of this new comedy was Menander. Through Roman translations and -adaptations of Menander and his fellow poets by Plautus and Terence, -comes the comedy of Molière and modern Europe. - -The theatre, in which these ancient plays were performed, was of slow -development. The grassy slopes of a hill, bordering on a circular -dancing-place (_orchestra_), satisfied the earliest audiences. Later -on, a definite place was set apart for theatrical performances, and a -wooden structure erected for the actors. It was not until the fourth -century that permanent stone seats were laid down in the Theatre of -Dionysos at Athens, although performances had been given there for -more than a century. - -=Roman Drama.=--The drama at first met with a determined opposition -from Romans of the old school as a new-fangled thing from Greece. The -taste of the people, also, was not inclined to favour so cultured an -amusement as the drama. The Romans preferred to see a fight between -men or beasts rather than to listen to a play, and on one occasion, -when listening to a play of Terence, they rushed pell-mell from the -theatre, because a rumour arose that a combat of gladiators was going -to take place.[12] - -The more important Roman comedies were adapted from the New Comedy of -the Greeks. These adaptations are familiar to us from the surviving -plays of Plautus (254-184 B.C.) and Terence (ca. 185-159 B.C.). Actors -at Rome had long to be content with temporary wooden structures, which -were pulled down when the performances were over. A permanent theatre -was not erected in Rome till 55 B.C. - -The objects illustrating the ancient drama can conveniently be divided -into (_a_) representations of scenes from plays, and (_b_) figures of -actors and masks. - -(_a_) =Scenes from Plays.=--The vase (No. =50=) placed under the glass -shade is valuable as an illustration of the beginnings of Athenian -drama. It is a plate of Athenian fabric of the sixth century B.C., -with designs which probably represent the sacrifice made to Athena at -the Panathenaic games, and two scenes relating to dramatic contests. -The first of these scenes shows a tragic chorus with the goat, which -was the prize of victory. The second shows a comic chorus, in which a -man seated at the back of a mule-car appears to be making jests at the -expense of another man who follows. This "jesting from a car" became a -regular phrase to express ribald joking.[13] None of the men who took -part in these contests is distinguished by any peculiarity of costume. -Another early vase, however (No. =51=), gives a lively picture of two -actors dressed up as birds. Before them stands a flute-player. -Though this vase is many years earlier in date than the _Birds_ of -Aristophanes (414 B.C.), yet it may serve to give us some idea of the -appearance of the chorus in that play. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SCENE FROM A MOCK-TRAGEDY. COMBAT BETWEEN -ARES AND HEPHAESTOS BEFORE HERA (NO. 52).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--MARRIAGE SCENE FROM A ROMAN-COMEDY (NO. 54). -2:3.] - -The two large vases illustrate Greek dramatic performances of a -considerably later date. They give us scenes from _phlyakes_, a class -of burlesques which were in vogue in the Greek cities of Southern -Italy, especially at Tarentum, at the end of the fourth and the -beginning of the third century B.C. They are associated with the name -of Rhinthon, a Syracusan poet. These plays dealt in the wildest spirit -of farce with subjects drawn from Greek mythology and legend, as well -as with scenes from daily life. One of the vases (No. =52=; fig. -16) shows a contest upon the stage, between actors representing Ares -([Greek: Eneualios]) and Hephaestos ([Greek: Daidalos]) fighting in -the presence of Hera. The grotesque mask, the padded figures, and the -general air of exaggeration are indicative of the character of these -plays, which earned for them the title of mock-tragedies ([Greek: -hilarotragôdiai]). The other vase (No. =53=) is a parody of the myth -of Cheiron cured by Apollo. The blind Centaur, whose equine body -is represented pantomime-fashion by a second actor pushing behind, -ascends the steps leading up to the stage, where stands the slave -Xanthias. Behind is the Centaur's pupil Achilles, and looking on from -a cave are two grotesquely ugly nymphs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--SCENE FROM A ROMAN TRAGEDY. HERCULES -DISPUTING WITH MARS (NO. 55). 1:1.] - -Case K contains two interesting representations of Roman comedy and -tragedy respectively. The oblong lamp (No. =54=; fig. 17) gives a -scene from a comedy, not improbably the mock-marriage scene from the -fourth act of the _Casina_ of Plautus. The steps leading up to the -door of the house divide the actors into two groups. On the left -is the bridegroom (Olympio?) with his mule, in preparation for his -departure into the country. On the right comes the marriage procession -approaching a woman (Pardalisca?) who stands by the steps. First walks -a Silenus, carrying a Cupid on his shoulders; next comes the bride, -carried aloft by a man, in order that she may be lifted over the -threshold in conformity with the usual Roman marriage rite (see below, -p. 212). Behind is an altar in the courtyard of the house. A Cupid -waits at the door to receive the bride. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--IVORY STATUETTE OF A TRAGIC ACTOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF COMIC ACTOR -(MONEY-LENDER?) (NO. 60). Ht. 7-7/8 in.] - -The Gallo-Roman medallion (No. =55=; fig. 18) is from a vase. It gives -a picture of a Roman tragedy. On a high stage sits Jupiter enthroned, -with Victory and Minerva on his right and left hand respectively. -Before the stage stand Hercules and Mars, disputing. Hercules has -slain Cycnus, the son of Mars, and the irate father stands exclaiming: -"Be assured that I am come as the avenger of my son." To which -Hercules replies: "Unconquered valour can ne'er be terrified."[14] The -characters speak in iambic verse. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF COMIC ACTOR (SLAVE?) -(NO. 61). Ht. 8-1/2 in.] - -(_b_) =Figures of actors and masks.=--In tragedy the actors probably -wore a dress differing from that of the spectators only in a certain -richness of material and colour, and in an adherence to the fashion -of an earlier period. Two features, however, distinguished them in -appearance from ordinary men, the buskin ([Greek: kothornos]) or -high-soled boot, and the tragic mask. The use of the former (which -increased in height as time went on) was due to a desire to enhance -the wearer's dignity by raising him somewhat above the common -height of men. The wearing of the mask was brought about chiefly -by tradition, partly by the great size of ancient theatres, which -rendered some easily recognized type of face a practical necessity. -The tragic mask (fig. 22 below, right) was usually surmounted by a -high projection over the forehead, called the _onkos_, on which the -hair was raised to a height varying with the social position of the -character. The mask illustrated (No. =56=) is of ivory and finely -worked. It is a mask such as would have been worn by some king in -tragedy, an Agamemnon or a Kreon. The general appearance of a tragic -actor is finely brought before us by an ivory statuette (not in the -Museum) which was found near Rieti, a place about 35 miles N.E. of -Rome (fig. 19). The elaborately embroidered robe is coloured blue, and -the _onkos_, mask, and buskins are clearly seen. (_Mon. dell' Inst._ -xi. pl. 13.) - -[Illustration: FIG 22.--COMIC, SATYRIC, AND TRAGIC MASKS (NOS. 65, 66, -56). Ca. 5:8.] - -The figures of actors and the comic masks exhibited under the glass -shade and in Table-Case K bring before us the different characters -prominent in Athenian comedy of the fourth and third centuries B.C., -and in the Roman comedy derived from it. It was a comedy of everyday -life, in which the same well-known types were constantly reappearing. -Such were the parasite (No. =57=), who bears all the marks of a -fondness for good living, and carries a flask and a ham; the glutton -(Nos. =58= and =59=), distinguished by his large padded stomach; -the money-lender (No. =60=), with his acute and cunning expression, -grasping his purse tightly by his side with both hands, and partially -concealing it beneath his cloak (fig. 20). The adventures of the -slave and his punishments were a favourite theme with poets of the -new comedy. No. =61= (fig. 21) may represent the trusted elderly slave -aghast at the misdoings of his young master. A still greater favourite -is the runaway slave who seeks refuge from his irate master in the -protection of the altar. The bronze statuette (No. =62=), and the -terracotta (No. =63=) show him seated on the altar, and in No. =64= -his hands are tied behind him. A typical comic mask (No. =65=) is -illustrated above (fig. 22, left), characterised by its exaggerated -features, especially the wide open mouth, the snub nose and thick -bushy eyebrows. The satyric play, which of the three kinds of Greek -drama kept nearest in spirit to the early Dionysiac village revel, -is illustrated by the satyric masks (No. =66=; fig. 22, centre), with -their high upstanding hair and semi-bestial features, as well as -by the masks of the bald-headed Seilenos, the constant companion of -Dionysos in his revels. - -Most of the examples of masks shown in the case are merely -representations. A few such as No. =67= with pierced eye and -mouth-holes, and of life size, may have been intended for use. Two -heads of actors from marble reliefs (Nos. =68=, =69=) show to what -extent the face of the actor could be seen, within the apertures of -the mask. - - (50) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 80; _Journ. Hell. Stud._, I., - pl. 7; (51) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 509; _Journ. Hell. Stud._, - II., pl. 14; (52) _Cat. of Vases_, IV., F 269; cf. Heydemann - in _Jahrb. d. arch. Inst._, I. (1886), p. 260 ff.; (53) - _Cat. of Vases_, IV., F 151; (54) _Cat. of Lamps_, 446; Cf. - Froehner, _Hoffman Sale Cat._, 1886, p. 38, No. 127; (55) - _Cat. of Roman Pottery_, M 121; _Gazette Arch._, 1877, p. 66, - pl. 12. - - On the ancient theatre generally, see Haigh, _The Attic - Theatre_, edn. 3, where references to literature will be - found. For Masks, see Daremberg and Saglio, Dict., _s.v._ - Persona. - - - [Footnote 12: _Hecyra_, _prolog._, 30 ff.] - - [Footnote 13: Cf. Dem., _de Cor._, 122: [Greek: - kai boas rhêta kai arrêta onomazôn, hôsper ex hamaxês].] - - [Footnote 14: - - Adesse ultorem nati m[e] credas mei. - [Invic]ta virtus nusqua(m) terreri potest. - ] - - - - -IV.--SHIPPING. - -(Wall-Cases 94-97.) - - -As early as the eighth century before Christ the Greeks possessed -powerful war-vessels propelled by numerous oarsmen. These appear on -vases of that date, as for example on a large bowl of Boeotian fabric -(described below in connection with chariots, p. 169), which shows -such a ship with its double line of rowers and a man at the stern -managing the big steering-oars. The crew of this vessel seems to have -numbered some forty men.[15] A more finished representation of early -Greek ships is seen on a cup (No. =70=) of the end of the sixth -century B.C. (figs. 23, 24), where the contrasted builds of the war -galley and the merchantman are clearly indicated. The war galley has -two rows of eleven and twelve oars respectively. The merchantman has -no rowers, but is entirely dependent on its sail. It has a high-built -hull, suited for holding cargo. In each we see the steersman at -the stern with his two steering-oars. Beside him is the ladder for -embarking and disembarking. A terracotta model ship from Cyprus (No. -=71=; fig. 25) of about this period shows the socket for the mast and -the high poop for the steersman, with the remains of an iron oar. This -vessel is doubtless intended for a merchantman. The numerous small -terracotta boats (No. =72=) found with this merchant vessel at Amathus -give a good idea of the fishing boats of the time (Case 94; see -frontispiece). These boats are also interesting as reminding us of the -legend that Kinyras, king of Cyprus, promised Menelaos to send fifty -ships to help the Greeks against Troy. He sent but one, carrying -forty-nine others of terracotta, manned by terracotta figures. After -the taking of Troy, Agamemnon is said to have made it his first -business to punish Kinyras for his trickery. It would seem that the -story must have been based on knowledge of the fact that terracotta -boats were a product of Amathus. It is hard to suppose that it is -merely a coincidence. The small model war-galley (No. =73=) from -Corinth, containing warriors armed with circular shields, is -interesting from the place of its discovery, for Corinth was -traditionally an early shipbuilding centre, and triremes are said to -have been first built at that city.[16] - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--EARLY GREEK WARSHIP (NO. 70).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--EARLY GREEK MERCHANT-SHIP (NO. 70).] - -The use of triremes (ships with triple arrangement of oars) did not -become common among the Greeks till the earlier part of the fifth -century B.C. This was the typical Greek warship of the period of the -Peloponnesian war, and the arrangement of the rowers in it has given -rise to much controversy. The crew (according to one view) consisted -of two hundred rowers, sixty-two on the highest tier ([Greek: -thranitai]), fifty-four on the middle ([Greek: zygitai]), and -fifty-four on the lowest ([Greek: thalamitai]), as well as thirty who -were apparently stationed on the highest deck ([Greek: perineô]). The -best ancient representation of the rowers in a trireme is that given -on a relief in Athens, of which a cast is shown here (No. =74=; Case -94). The upper oars pass over the gunwale, the second and third lines -(if these are oars) through port-holes. In the trireme the ram was -of the greatest importance, and much attention was devoted to -strengthening it. An excellent illustration of the prow of a trireme -is to be seen in the terracotta vase from Vulci (No. =75=; fig. 26). -Here are an upper and a lower ram, each armed with three teeth; the -curved ornament above the ram has been broken away. The projections on -either side of the handles of the vase, decorated with a woman's head, -would serve as a protection to the oars. The eye on the side is a -prominent decoration in Greek ships. It is seen on the ship painted -on the vase B 508 in Case 95 (No. =76=), from which the diver is -preparing to jump, and has survived even to the present day, for eyes -are still found painted on the bows of Mediterranean fishing boats. -The eyes are often supposed to be a defence against the evil eye, but -the exact position they occupy on each side of the prow is suggested -by the almost inevitable analogy between the prow of a vessel and the -head of an animal. Roman ships did not differ very materially from -Greek ships, but a special class of swift ships with two banks of -oars was adopted from Liburnian pirates who inhabited the islands off -Illyria, and these ships were called Liburnian galleys. A figure-head -in bronze from a Roman ship, found in the sea off Actium, is shown in -Case 96 (No. =77=). It represents Minerva, and probably belonged to -some ship sunk in the great battle between Octavian and Antony in 31 -B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--TERRACOTTA MODEL OF MERCHANT-SHIP (NO. 71). -L. 12 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--VASE IN THE FORM OF A PROW OF A TRIREME (NO. -75). L. 8 in.] - -A fragment of a relief from a sarcophagus shows a Roman trireme, with -a figure of a swan in relief on the prow (No. =78=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--ROMAN SHIP ENTERING A HARBOUR (NO. 79). Diam. -4 in.] - -Some lamps placed in Cases 96, 97 give interesting pictures of Roman -harbours. In one (No. =79=; fig. 27), a ship is seen entering the -harbour, which is indicated by a light-house on the left. Of the crew -of six, one is seated high on the stern, blowing a trumpet to announce -the ship's approach; before him is the steersman, and next come three -men furling the sail. The man in the bows is preparing to let down -the anchor. Another lamp (No. =80=; fig. 28) shows a harbour with -buildings on the quay. A fisherman in a small boat holds a rod and -line in his right hand, and a fish which he has just caught in his -left. Before him is a man on shore just about to cast a net into the -water. In the third lamp (No. =81=) Cupid is seen in a boat, hauling -in his net from the water. - -A marble laver (No. =82=), originally decorated with a relief of -Asklepios, Hygieia and Telesphoros, has been subsequently sculptured -with votive dedications for a fair voyage. On the left, Poseidon -stands on a ship, with a suppliant before him, on the right is a ship -running before the wind. The inscriptions invoke good voyages for -Theodoulos and Pedius Psycharios. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--ROMAN FISHERMEN IN A HARBOUR (NO. 80). Diam. -3-5/8 in.] - - (70) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 436; Daremberg and Saglio, fig. - 5282; (71) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 112, fig. 164, No. 12; - (72) _ibid._; (74) _Cat. of Sculpture_, III., 2701; (75) _Cat. - of Terracottas_, D 201; (76) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 508; (77) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 830; Torr, _Ancient Ships_, pl. 8, 41; (78) - Daremberg and Saglio, fig. 5277; (79) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1140; - (80) _Cat. of Lamps_, 527; (81) _Cat. of Lamps_, 634. - - On ancient ships generally, see Torr, _Ancient Ships_, and - art. _Navis_ in Daremberg and Saglio; W. W. Tarn in _Journ. - Hell. Stud._, XXV., pp. 137, 204 ff.; A. B. Cook in _Camb. - Comp. to Gk. Stud._, 3 ed., p. 567 ff. - - - [Footnote 15: _Journ. Hell. Stud._, XIX., pl. 8.] - - [Footnote 16: Thuc., i. 13.] - - - - -V.--RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION. - -(Wall-Cases 98-106.) - - -The wide subjects of Religion and Superstition are naturally -represented in a fragmentary way in the few cases devoted to them -in this collection. They are roughly classified in the following -description, into groups, viz.:-- - - (1) Implements and methods of worship. - (2) Votive offerings. - (3) Superstition and Magic. - - -=Implements and methods of worship.= - -_Altars, etc._--The larger altars (and sepulchral chests of altar -form) will be found in the sculpture galleries. Here we have (No. -=83=) a small altar, from Dodona, inscribed as belonging to all the -gods,[17] and various model altars, probably used in some cases for -the burning of incense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--ALTAR DEDICATED FOR THE SAFE RETURN OF -SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS AND HIS FAMILY (NO. =84=). Ht. 2 ft. 7 in.] - -An interesting example (No. =84=) of the practice of dedicating altars -to members of Roman Imperial houses is furnished by the inscription -(fig. 29) in the lower part of Case 98. It formed the front of a -marble altar, and is dedicated to the Imperial Fortune by a freedman -named Antonius, who was in charge of the "Department of Petitions," -for the safe return of the Emperor Septimius Severus, his wife -Julia Domna, and his sons Caracalla and Geta. But so far as Geta was -concerned, the Imperial Fortune was not propitious. He was murdered by -his brother Caracalla, and his name was erased from this, as from all -other inscriptions throughout the Roman Empire, by Caracalla's edict. -The date of the inscription is about 200 A.D. - -In Case 102 is an altar (No. =85=) dedicated to the Bona Dea -of Anneanum (a town in Etruria) by C. Tullius Hesper and Tullia -Restituta. The Bona Dea was a goddess specially invoked by women. -Hence we may suppose that it was Tullia Restituta more particularly -who showed her thankfulness by this dedication. - -In Case 98 are two examples (Nos. =86=, =87=) of a combined lamp and -altar, for use in domestic shrines, probably of late Roman date.[18] -In one of these the basin for libations is supported on a pine-cone. -Akin to these is the small limestone cone and altar from the -Cyrenaica. - -No. =88= (fig. 30) is a bronze representing an attendant leading a -pig to sacrifice. The pig (as well as the sheep and the bull) was a -favourite sacrificial animal among the Romans. At the lustral ceremony -of the _suovetaurilia_, the bull, sheep, and pig were driven round -the farmer's fields to keep them free from blight and disease. Certain -deities, notably Persephone and the Bona Dea, had swine as their -special victims. In Case 105 will be seen a terracotta votive pig (No. -=89=) found in the precinct of Demeter and Persephone at Knidos. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--ATTENDANT DRIVING PIG TO SACRIFICE (NO. 88). -Ht. 4 in.] - -In Case 98 is an elaborate model in terracotta of a temple laver from -Cyprus (No. =90=). In Case 100 is a terracotta model of a sacred table -(No. =91=, fig. 31), set with a service of vessels for the sanctuary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--TABLE WITH SERVICE OF VESSELS (NO. 91). 2:3.] - -_Bronze Implements._--A series of early Italic bronze implements (No. -=92=), may have been used in sacrifice. Those with the curved claws -were probably used for taking boiled meats out of a caldron. They -remind us of the five-pronged sacrificial forks mentioned in Homer, -and of the custom of the Jewish priests' servants as described in the -Book of Samuel: "The priest's servant came, while the flesh was in -seething, with a fleshhook of three teeth in his hand; and he struck -it into the pan, or kettle, or caldron, or pot; all that the fleshhook -brought up the priest took therewith."[19] On the right are three -bronze gridirons. These, like the fleshhooks, originally had wooden -handles inserted into their sockets. The meat was spitted upon hooks, -which only remain in one instance. - -A series of implements terminating in a hand bent at the knuckles (No. -=93=), and a pair of tongs on wheels (No. =94=), are probably meant -for manipulating embers. - -_Miscellaneous._--A small silver model of a temple key is shown in -Case 100. The small alabaster statuette of a goddess with turreted -crown (No. =95=) is of special interest from the fact that her mouth -and breasts are pierced, evidently with the object of allowing some -fluid, such as milk or wine, to flow from them for the edification of -her votaries. A jar (No. =96=) contained perhaps the honey syrup, used -in Egypt for feeding the sacred crocodiles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE DIOSCURI COMING TO THE THEOXENIA (NO. -98).] - -_Religious Rites._--_Prayer._--The fifth century kylix (No. =97=) -shows the gesture of the raised right hand, often used in prayer. The -young athlete, whose oil-flask hangs behind him, is probably praying -before the altar. That athletes entered upon their tasks with extreme -seriousness is clear from the oath taken by them before the image of -Zeus in the Council House at Olympia, when they swore upon the cut -pieces of a boar that they would be guilty of no foul play. In the -Greek view athletics and religion were very closely connected. - -_The Lectisternium_, or Theoxenia, was the ceremony in which a banquet -was set, and the gods were invited to attend. It is illustrated by the -drawing of a lekythos (No. =98=) from Kameiros in Rhodes (about 500 -B.C.), which represents the two gods Castor and Pollux descending -from heaven on horseback to take part in the festival of the Theoxenia -(fig. 32). This feast, indicated by the couch on which they were to -recline, was given in honour of the twin gods. Such a festival well -illustrates the perfectly human interests which the Greeks attributed -to their deities. - -Compare with this vase the cast (No. =99=) of a relief in the Louvre, -from Larissa. A man and his wife, the dedicators of the relief, are -represented as having set out a couch, a banquet of cakes, and an -altar. The Twins descend, heralded by Victory. Beside the relief is -a fragment of a lamp (No. =100=) incised with a dedication to the -Dioscuri, that is, to Castor and Pollux. Here also is the inscribed -base (No. =101=) of a statuette dedicated to the Dioscuri by Euarchos -(sixth century B.C.). - -_Augury._--Passing now to Italic religious ceremonies, we may notice -the archaic bronze statuette of an augur (No. =102=), whose function -it was to draw omens from the aspect of the heavens or the flight -and cries of birds. He wears a cloak drawn veil-wise over his head, -a common religious garb, and in his right hand holds the _lituus_ -or curved wand used for the ceremonial dividing of the heavens into -quarters. In connection with this statuette mention should be made of -an early Greek inscription (No. =103=) in the bottom of Cases 95-96. -It was found at Ephesus, and is probably of about the same period as -the statuette, the sixth century B.C. It gives rules for drawing lucky -or unlucky omens from the flight of birds. The principal signs are the -flight from right to left or _vice versa_, and the raising or lowering -of the bird's wing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--APHRODITE WITHIN A SHRINE (NO. 104). Ht. -2-1/2 in.] - -_Shrines._--In Cases 100, 101 a series of terracotta shrines is -exhibited. They were doubtless for household use, employed in much the -same way as modern images of the Madonna. No. =104= (fig. 33), from -the early Greek settlement of Naukratis, in the Nile Delta, shows -Aphrodite within a shrine supported by figures of the Egyptian god -Bes, a characteristic combination of Greek and Egyptian elements. No. -=105=, from Amathus, in Cyprus, is also semi-Egyptian in character, -and shows a deity surmounted by a winged solar disk. Another shrine -from Naukratis (No. =106=) contains the sacred Apis-bull of the -Egyptians. No. =107= is an example of a shrine containing a baetylic -image, that is, a stone worshipped as sacred. A cone resembling the -one here shown was worshipped in the temple of Aphrodite at Paphos in -Cyprus. In front, a small lead model shrine (No. =108=) of later date, -from Sardinia, represents Aphrodite just risen from the sea-foam and -wringing out her hair. The circular shrine (No. =109=; fig. 34) is of -Roman date, from Eretria in Euboea. Its form and more especially the -indication of overlapping scale-plates on the roof remind us strongly -of the famous temple of Vesta at Rome. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--TERRACOTTA MODEL SHRINE (NO. 109). Ht. 4 in.] - -In Case 101 is a bronze tablet with an iron chain and staple (No. -=110=). The tablet, apparently of about 200 B.C., is inscribed on both -sides, and seems to give a list of statues of deities, some, such as -Vezkei, peculiar to the Samnites, others, such as Ceres and Hermes, -of widely spread worship. It is a most important monument of the Oscan -dialect, a language spoken by the early Italic tribes whose chief -centre was the mountainous country above Campania. It was found at -Agnone (Bovianum Vetus) in the Samnite territory. - - -=Votive Offerings.= - -A votive offering is a present made to a deity, in order to secure -some favour for the future, to avert anger for a past offence, or to -express gratitude for a favour received. This last purpose includes -offerings made in fulfilment of a vow, the vow being a kind of -contract between the individual and the god. This comes out most -clearly in the Roman expression _voti reus_--"condemned to pay a -vow"--applied to those whose prayer had been granted, and who now had -to fulfil their promise made in time of stress and difficulty. Votive -offerings cover the whole field of life, and may include persons, -lands, buildings, or objects specially appropriate either to the god -or to the person who makes the dedication. - -Very frequently the vow was made by some person stricken with disease, -and it is to such a cause that we owe the numerous votive offerings -representing some part of the human body. - -The constant streams of these offerings made the ancient temples -depositories of all kinds of objects, ranging from jewels of great -price and high artistic merit to the roughest terracotta figure. In -the Gold Ornament Room (Case 19) is a magnificent gold pin of the -Ptolemaic period inscribed with a dedication to Aphrodite of Paphos, -showing that the offering was the result of a vow made by Eubule, -the wife of Aratos, and one Tamisa. Overcrowding led to periodical -clearances of objects of the least intrinsic value. To prevent things -dedicated returning to the uses of common life, they were frequently -broken and thrown into heaps. This accounts for the masses of -_débris_, consisting chiefly of terracottas and vases, which have been -found within the precincts of great sanctuaries. - -The vast accumulations of treasure in the various temples naturally -demanded careful cataloguing, labelling and supervision on the part -of the temple officials (see examples of marble labels from the -sacred enclosure of Demeter at Cnidos). From time to time elaborate -inventories were drawn up, and (after the manner of ancient documents) -inscribed on stone. Such inventories have been discovered in large -numbers at Delos, Athens, and elsewhere. An example is shown in the -lower part of Case 97, being an inventory (No. =111=) of various -garments dedicated to Artemis Brauronia, who had a shrine upon the -acropolis of Athens. We know that it was the custom of women after -childbirth to dedicate garments to Artemis, and in particular to -Artemis Brauronia. That the garments were often anything but new is -shown by the fact that several are described as "in rags." A typical -extract from the inscription may be given: "A purple dress, with -variegated chequer pattern. Dedicated by Thyaene and Malthake." The -entries range in date from 350 to 344 B.C. - -The principal objects here exhibited as illustrating the ancient -custom of dedication may now be mentioned. In Wall-Case 96 is an -inscription of the fifth century B.C. (No. =112=) found in the ruins -of the temple of Poseidon on Cape Taenaron in Lakonia. It records -the dedication by one Theares of a slave named Kleogenes to the -temple-service of Poseidon. The names of an _ephoros_, probably an -official of the temple, and of a witness are added. In some cases the -dedication of a slave to a god is equivalent to enfranchisement. - -Among votive offerings specially appropriate to the god, we have -already mentioned the reliefs dedicated for a good voyage (No. =82=) -and the Theoxenia relief (No. =99=). The pedestal (No. =112*=), -with an inscription that it was restored "whether sacred to god or -goddess," is a parallel to the altar inscribed with a dedication "to -an unknown god," which caught the eye of St. Paul when he was viewing -the antiquities of Athens. - -In the bottom of Case 102 is the base of a statuette (No. =113=; fig. -35) found at Curium in Cyprus. It bears an inscription, written both -in Greek and in the native Cypriote syllabic characters: "Ellooikos, -the son of Poteisis, dedicated this as a vow to Demeter and the Maid." -The inscription is of the fourth century B.C., and is of special -interest on account of its bilingual character. Two other large -objects in marble of a votive character are exhibited in the bottom of -Cases 103 and 104 respectively. The chest-like stool (No. =114=) was -offered by a priestess named Philis to Persephone, the basket (No. -=115=) by one Xeno to Demeter and Persephone. The basket is dedicated -with peculiar fitness to the goddesses of corn and fruit, for it was -in such woven baskets that the ears of corn were ingathered, while the -chest is also closely associated with Demeter and Persephone, who are -frequently represented seated on it. Both of these last objects were -found by Sir Charles Newton in the precinct of Demeter at Knidos in -Asia Minor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--BASE WITH DEDICATION TO DEMETER AND -PERSEPHONE (NO. 113).] - -We now turn to the votive offerings personal to the donor, and we -find that not infrequently, where the object itself is perishable, or -otherwise unsuitable as an offering, a sculptured representation takes -its place. - -Two curious examples of such dedicatory tablets (Nos. =116=, =117=) -are seen in the casts placed in the upper and lower parts respectively -of Case 101. The originals, from Slavochori, probably the site of -the ancient Amyklae near Sparta, are in the Hall of Inscriptions. -The first was dedicated by Anthusa, daughter of Damaenetos, a [Greek: -hypostatria] or under-tirewoman in the service of a temple, possibly -that of Dionysos, for we know that this god had a temple near Amyklae, -which none but women might enter. On the relief is a series of -objects connected with the toilet, such as a mirror, a comb, a box -of cosmetics, a case containing a sponge, a pair of slippers, etc. -Possibly the dedicator was in charge of objects of this nature. The -other relief, from the same place, was dedicated by a priestess named -Claudia Ageta, daughter of Antipater, and shows a very similar series -of objects. Both these reliefs are of Imperial date. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--TERRACOTTA MODEL OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS (NO. -122). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--SCULPTURED LOCKS OF HAIR DEDICATED TO -POSEIDON (NO. 123). Ht. 13-1/2 in.] - -A similar substitution of a representation for the object is found -in the series of offerings which commemorate recovery from disease -or bodily injury. The upper part of Cases 103-106 contains a set of -marble reliefs (No. =118=) found at the foot of the Pnyx at Athens, -the rocky semicircular meeting-place of the Athenian people. They are -dedicated by women--Eutychis, Isias, Olympias, and others--to Zeus the -Highest, and have representations of various parts of the human body, -such as eyes, breasts, arms, etc. These reliefs, which are of Roman -date, are clearly thank-offerings for recovery from disease. There -must have been a regular trade in these models, for Clement of -Alexandria, writing about 200 A.D., talks of "those who manufacture -ears and eyes of precious wood and dedicate them to the gods, setting -them up in their temples."[20] No. =119=, from a shrine of Asklepios -in Melos, is a relief representing a left leg, dedicated, as the -inscription shows, by way of thank-offering to the deities of healing, -Asklepios and Hygieia. Next it is a small relief from Cyrene -(No. =120=), showing a right ear. There are several other objects here -exhibited which were probably offered by grateful votaries in return -for healing mercies. Such are the bronze ticket with a bronze leg -suspended from it (No. =121=), inscribed with the name of the donor -Caledus, and two arms with a chain for suspension. In Cases 105 and -106 a whole series of terracotta votive hands, feet, eyes, breasts, -etc., doubtless represents the thank-offerings of the poorer classes. -With these is a curious terracotta model (No =122=; fig. 36) of the -lungs (A), heart (B), liver (C), kidneys (D), spleen (E), and other -internal organs of the human body. Though primarily of a votive -character, it is of considerable interest to the student of ancient -anatomy. A votive relief of rather different character is placed on -the upper shelf. It represents two plaited locks of hair dedicated -(as the inscription records) by Philombrotos and Aphthonetos, sons of -Deinomachos, to Poseidon, god of the sea (No. =123=; fig. 37). It -was a common custom in Greece to dedicate hair at important crises of -life, particularly to deities connected with water. Achilles, on the -death of Patroklos, shore off for him the hair he was growing long as -an offering to the river Spercheios.[21] - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--BRONZE VOTIVE HARE (NO. 124). L. 2-3/4 in.] - -Other objects illustrating the frequency and variety of Greek and -Roman dedications may best be described in approximately chronological -order. Two objects, which are more fully dealt with in other sections, -may here be mentioned. In the sixth century B.C. the athlete Exoidas -dedicated to the Dioscuri, patrons of athletic exercise, the -bronze diskos (fig. 50; No. =157=) with which he had conquered "the -high-souled" Kephallenians in athletic contest. The helmet, dedicated -by Hieron after his naval victory off Kyme, has been already described -(p. 8). Other votive helmets are shown in Cases 114-5. For the votive -spearheads (?) see p. 9. The huntsman, no less than the athlete -and the warrior, felt that the gods took an intimate part in his -successes. This is illustrated by the inscribed bronze model of a hare -in Case 103, with its head thrown back in the death agony (No. =124=; -fig. 38). The Ionic letters, of about 480 B.C., read: "Hephaestion -dedicated me to Apollo of Priene."[22] This offering reminds us of -another exhibited in the left-hand wall-case in the Greek Ante-Room -downstairs. A small limestone statuette, found on the site of the -Greek settlement of Naukratis in Egypt, represents a young huntsman -with two boars and two hares slung over his shoulders. It is inscribed -"A dedication by Kallias"--probably to Aphrodite, since it was found -within her precinct (_Cat. of Sculpt._, I., 118). - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--TABLET, WITH DEDICATION BY LOPHIOS (NO. 125). -1:2.] - -Other interesting Greek dedications of an early date are the bronze -tablet (Case 105: No. =125=; fig. 39) found in Corfu, with an -inscription showing it to be an offering by one Lophios[23]; the -silver ingot (No. =126=) dedicated to Zeus Lykaeos (Zeus "the -wolf-god") by Trygon; and the elaborate axe-head (No. =127=; fig. 40), -found in Calabria, which bears an inscription recording that it was -vowed to Hera of the Plain by Kyniskos, a "cook," as a tenth of his -earnings (sixth century B.C.).[24] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--BRONZE VOTIVE AXE-HEAD (NO. 127). Ht. 6-1/2 -in.] - -The two bronze bulls (Nos. =128= and =129=) are offerings made by -Greeks to an Egyptian deity. They were dedicated by Greeks named -respectively Sokydes and Theodoros, and represent the sacred bull -Apis, worshipped at Memphis in Egypt as an incarnation of the god -Ptah. The offering of Sokydes is here illustrated (Fig. 41).[25] -Notice the elaborate saddle-cloth, and the wings of the Egyptian -scarabaeus and hawk engraved on the bull's back. The date of these -bronzes is the late sixth or early fifth century B.C. The Greeks must -have become acquainted with the worship of Apis in the seventh century -B.C., when they served King Psammetichos I. as mercenaries. That -monarch was a fervent worshipper of the god, and built a great temple -for him at Memphis. Herodotus[26] mentions the courts where the bull -was kept, and says that the Greeks called him "Epaphos." The bull -dedicated by Sokydes was found in the Nile Delta, that dedicated by -Theodoros at Athens. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--BRONZE VOTIVE BULL (NO. 128). Ht. 4 in.] - -The two bronze wheels in Case 103 each bear a votive inscription. The -earlier (No. =130=), said to have been found near Argos, was perhaps -an offering to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux, the divine patrons of -athletic contests) by Eudamos, a victor in a chariot race. The other -(No. =131=; fig. 42) comes from the temple of the Kabeiri at Thebes, -and is dedicated by Xenon and Pyrrhippa to Kabeiros and the Child. -The bronze bell (No. =132=, fig. 43) is from the same temple, and -was likewise offered by one Pyrrhias to Kabeiros and the Child. The -Kabeiri were deities of a mystic and subterranean character, who -at Thebes apparently became closely connected with Dionysos, the -wine-god. That a large element of burlesque entered into their worship -can be seen from the vases discovered on the site of their shrine -(Second Vase Room, B 77 and 78). - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--BRONZE WHEEL DEDICATED TO KABEIROS AND THE -CHILD (NO. 131). Diam. 3-7/8 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--BRONZE BELL DEDICATED TO KABEIROS AND THE -CHILD (NO. 132). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SILVER PLAQUE DEDICATED TO JUPITER DOLICHENUS -(NO. 133). Ht. 9-1/2 in.] - -Near this tablet are several Roman dedications. Three curious -silver-gilt plaques, probably of the second century after Christ -(Nos. =133-135=), found at Heddernheim, near Frankfurt-on-Main, -were dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus. At first merely a local god, -originating in the town of Doliche in Commagene, near the Euphrates, -he later acquired considerable popularity throughout the Roman Empire, -and his worship was carried far and wide by the Roman legionaries, who -were largely instrumental in conveying these Oriental worships to the -West. The silver tablet illustrated (No. =133=; fig. 44) shows Jupiter -Dolichenus in a shrine, holding thunderbolt and sceptre, with the -eagle at his feet. The inscription, written in somewhat defective -Latin,[27] runs: "To Jupiter, best and greatest, of Doliche, where -iron has its birth. Dedicated by Flavius Fidelis and Q. Julius -Posstimus by command of the god on behalf of themselves and their -families." As often in late Latin inscriptions, E is written ||. -Another tablet (very fragmentary) shows the god in trappings of -war, holding double-axe and thunderbolt, and standing on a bull (No. -=135=). He is being crowned by Victory. The presence of mines in -North Syria will account for the recurring phrase, "Where iron has its -birth." A series of similar dedications to Mars and Vulcan, which were -found at Barkway in Hertfordshire, is exhibited in the Room of Roman -Britain. Examples are shown in Case 104 of a third series (No. =136=, -fig. 45), part of a great hoard found at Bala Hissar (Pessinus) -in Galatia. These have figures of Helios, Selene, and Mithras. The -last-named deity was the Persian god of light. He did not thoroughly -win his way into the Roman world until the second century after -Christ. But, once established, he proved himself of far-reaching -power. Mithraism had in its ritual many points of resemblance to that -of Christianity, and in the third and fourth centuries after Christ -proved a most formidable rival to the spread of Christian doctrines. A -memorial of Mithras is seen in the large bronze tablet (No. =137=) -in Case 105. Its top is decorated with knife and libation-bowl. The -inscription, of about the third century after Christ, tells us that it -was dedicated to Sextus Pompeius Maximus by priests of Mithras. He had -held offices in the Mithraic priesthood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SILVER PLAQUES DEDICATED TO MITHRAS (NO. -136). 1:3.] - -There are several small bronze tablets in Case 105 with dedicatory or -religious inscriptions. Among them may be mentioned No. =138=, offered -to Juno by a freedman named Q. Valerius Minander, and No. =139=, an -oval bronze seal with a design representing the Emperor Philip -(244-9 A.D.; mentioned above, p. 10, in connection with the bronze -_diploma_), his wife Otacilia, and their son Philip. The inscription -shows that the seal belonged to the religious society of the Breisean -Mystae, who apparently sealed on behalf of the city of Smyrna, where -was a synod of the Mystae of the Breisean Dionysos. No. =140= is the -result of a vow made by Hedone, the maid-servant of M. Crassus, to -Feronia, a goddess closely connected with freedmen and freedwomen.[28] -Her temple at Terracina, on the west coast of Italy, was specially -associated with the manumission of slaves. It is likely, therefore, -that Hedone's vow had something to do with her manumission. -Dedications were made for safe journeys by land or by sea. In No. -=141=, dedicated by P. Blattius Creticus to Jupiter Poeninus, whose -sanctuary was at the summit of the Great St. Bernard Pass, we have one -of a number of offerings by travellers encountering the dangers of the -Alps. In No. =142= we have a votive offering in the shape of a bronze -plate, made to the _Lares_ or gods of the house by Q. Carminius -Optatus. The Lares are represented in art as youthful male figures, -holding a _cornucopia_ or horn of plenty, and a plate (_patera_) [see -Case 52 of the Bronze Room, and No. =143=]. The offering of a plate -was peculiarly appropriate, for with the _Penates_ these gods were -supposed to ensure the food-supply of the family. - -In Case 106 note the series of lead figurines (modelled on both -sides). They represent warriors with helmet, cuirass, shield, sword, -and greaves. These figurines (No. =144=), probably of the seventh to -sixth centuries B.C., were found at Amelia (Ameria) in Umbria. It -is probable that they are of a votive character, though it has been -suggested that they are the prototypes of the modern tin soldier. Very -similar figurines have been discovered near Sparta, on the site of -the Menelaon, and more recently on the site of the temple of Artemis -Orthia by members of the British School at Athens. - -=Superstition and Magic.=--As the simple faith in the gods decayed -in the Greek and Roman worlds, compensation was largely sought in the -dark rites of superstition and magic. The antiquities in Cases -105, 106, indicate some of the forms which such superstition took. -Prominent among them was the practice of writing down curses on lead -or talc with a view to the injury of those against whom the writer -conceived that he had a grudge. These tablets were called in Latin -_defixiones_, because they were supposed to fix down, as it were, the -hated enemy. The imprecations written on them usually run in formulae, -and the gods implored to work the ruin are naturally those of the -nether regions. In later times especially, all manner of obscure and -barbarous demons are introduced. The examples of these tablets here -exhibited probably belong to the last three centuries before Christ. -They come from various quarters--Knidos, Ephesus, Curium in Cyprus, -Kyme in S. Italy, and Athens. Those found by Sir Charles Newton at -Knidos may be taken as typical. In one case a certain Antigone, in -order to clear herself from the charge of having attempted to poison -Asklepiades, invokes curses upon herself if the accusation be true. -In another, Artemeis devotes to Demeter, Persephone, and all the gods -associated with Demeter, the person who withholds garments entrusted -to him. These tablets (No. =145=) appear to have been nailed to the -walls of the sacred precinct of Demeter, where they were found. In the -case of a tablet from Athens, the iron nail, which fastened it to the -wall is still preserved. - -Nails themselves were highly esteemed as instruments of magic. Ovid, -for instance, says that Medea (the typical witch) made waxen effigies -of absent foes, and then drove nails into the vital parts.[29] -Examples of magical nails are seen in the series of bronze nails (No. -=146=) covered with cabalistic inscriptions and signs, and sometimes -showing a strange mixture of Judaism and Paganism, as when Solomon and -Artemis are invoked together. They may be attributed to the Gnostics, -a sect which arose in the second century after Christ. Their claim was -that, by a combination of various religious beliefs, they arrived at -the only true knowledge of divine things. The magic nail has in one -case (No. =147=) been used to fasten a bronze lamp, decorated with a -head of Medusa, into a socket. - -On the shelf above will be noticed a number of bronze hands (No. -=148=; fig. 46). They are right hands, represented with the thumb -and first two fingers raised. On them are numerous magic symbols in -relief, such as the snake, the lizard, and the tortoise. The hand -illustrated (fig. 46) is covered with such signs, prominent among -which are the serpent with the cock's comb, the pine-cone, the frog, -and the winged caduceus. One of the hands bears the inscription -"Zougaras dedicated me to Sabazius in fulfilment of a vow"; another -"Aristokles, a superintendent, to Zeus Sabazius." Sabazius was a -Phrygian and Thracian deity, whose worship was widely spread in the -Roman world. There can be no doubt that these hands were intended to -avert the evil eye. Sometimes the hands have instruments connected -with the ecstatic worships of the East depicted upon them, such as -the Phrygian flutes, the cymbals, or the sistrum. Case 106 contains -several specimens of the last-named instrument. It was composed of -a handle and loop-shaped metal frame, across which passed several -movable metal rods. When the sistrum was shaken the curved ends of -the rods came into violent contact with the sides of the frame and -produced a metallic clang. The sistrum was used by the Egyptians in -their religious rites, and particularly in the worship of Isis. With -the introduction of that worship into Italy in the first century B.C., -the Romans became familiar with it. Apuleius, a writer of the second -century after Christ, mentions silver and gold sistra, as well as -bronze. A silver example is here shown (No. =149=). The decoration is -often elaborate, a favourite ornament for the top being the group -of the wolf suckling Romulus and Remus, or the recumbent figure of a -panther. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--BRONZE MAGIC HAND (NO. 148). Ht. 5-3/4 in.] - -To the same class of amulets as the votive hands must be assigned the -terracotta model of a mirror, covered over with numerous objects of -magical virtue (No. =150=). Several of these are well-known attributes -of deities, _e.g._ the thunderbolt, the trident, the club, the -crescent, and the caduceus. The object of these amulets seems to have -been to propitiate the deities whose symbols are represented on them. - - =Implements and methods of Worship.=--(83) _B.M. Inscr._, - 955; (84) _C.I.L._, VI., 180; (85) _C.I.L._, VI., 30689; _Mus. - Marbles_, X., pl. 53, fig. 1; (86-87) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1407, - 1408; (91) Cf. Mazois, _Pompei_, III., p. 22; Daremberg and - Saglio, fig. 5; (92) Helbig, _Homerisches Epos_, 2nd ed., p. - 353; (95) _Athen. Mittheilungen_, xxvi, p. 325; (96) _Class. - Rev._, II., p. 297; (97) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 114; (98) - _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 633; (99) _Guide to the Casts_, 327; - (100) _Cat. of Lamps_, 159; (101) _B.M. Inscr._, 1033; (102) - _Forman Sale Cat._, 1899, No. 55, pl. 2.; (103) _B.M. Inscr._, - 678; (105) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 112; (106) _Cat. of - Terracottas_, C 614; (107) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 113; - (110) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 888. - - =Votive Offerings.=--(111) _B.M. Inscr._, 34; (112) _B.M. - Inscr._, 139; (113) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 64; (114) - _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1311; (115) _Cat. of Sculpture_, - II., 1312; (116-120) _Cat. of Sculpture_, I., 799-812; (121) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 891; (123) _Cat. of Sculpture_, I., 798; - (124) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 237; (125) _B.M. Inscr._, 165; _Cat. - of Bronzes_, 261; (126) _B.M. Inscr._, 1102; (127) _ibid._, - 1094; (128) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 3208; (130) _ibid._, 253; (131) - _B.M. Inscr._, 958; (132) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 318; (133-135) - _Bonner Jahrb._, CVII (1901), p. 61 ff., pls. 6, 7; (137) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 904; (138) _ibid._, 899; (139) _ibid._, - 887; (140) _ibid._, 897; (141) _ibid._, 895; (142) _ibid._, - 906; (144) Cf. Tod and Wace, _Sparta Mus. Cat._, p. 228; - _B.S.A._, XII., p. 322 ff. - - On votive offerings generally, cf. Rouse, _Greek Votive - Offerings_, passim. - - =Superstition and Magic.=--(145) Newton, _Discoveries at - Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchidae_, p. 719 ff. On these - _defixiones_ generally, see Audollent, _Defixionum Tabellae_, - Paris, 1904; (146) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 3191-3194; cf. Daremberg - and Saglio, _Dict. des Ant._, s.v. _Clavus_; (148) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 874-876; cf. _Arch.-ep. Mitt._, II., p. 44 ff.; - (150) _Cat. of Terracottas_, E 129; _Journ. Hell. Stud._, - VII., p. 44 ff. - - For Greek religion, see Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study - of Greek Religion_; for Roman, Warde Fowler, _The Roman - Festivals_. - - - [Footnote 17: [Greek: Hiaros pantôn theôn hode bômos.]] - - [Footnote 18: Similar objects have been found in the - Catacombs. Cf. Seroux d'Agincourt, _Sammlung d. Denkmaeler - d. Sculptur_, pl. viii., fig 27.] - - [Footnote 19: Cf. [Greek: obelos trikôlios] as the measure of a - sacrificial perquisite, in the inscriptions of Cos. Paton & - Hicks, _Inscrr. of Cos_, No. 37, l. 53; No. 40_b_, l. 14.] - - [Footnote 20: _Strom._, v. 566.] - - [Footnote 21: _Il._ xxiii. 141 f.: [Greek: - - stas apaneuthe pyrês xanthên apekeirato chaitên, - tên rha Spercheiô potamô trephe têlethoôsan.] - ] - - [Footnote 22: [Greek: - - Tô Apollôni tô Priêlêi m' anethêken Hêphaistiôn.]] - - [Footnote 23: [Greek: Lophios m'anethêke.]] - - [Footnote 24: [Greek: - - Tas Hêras hiaros | emi tas en pedi|ôi Qunisqo|s me anethê|ke - hôrtamo|s wergôn | dekatan.]] - - [Footnote 25: Inscribed: [Greek: - - Tô Panepi m' anestase Sôkydês].] - - [Footnote 26: ii. 153.] - - [Footnote 27: - - I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo) Dolicheno, u|bi ferrum nascit|ur, - Flavius Fidelis et Q. Iulius Posstim|us ex imperio ipsi|us - pro se et suos (_sic_).] - - [Footnote 28: Cf. Livy, xxii. 1, 18: ... ut libertinae et ipsae, - unde Feroniae donum daretur, pecuniam pro facultatibus suis - conferrent.] - - [Footnote 29: Ov., _Her._ vi. 91 f.] - - - - -VI.--ATHLETICS. - -(Wall-Cases 107-108.) - - -Athletic and pugilistic contests were already developed on Greek soil -before the Homeric Age. Thus we have a steatite vase from Crete (_see_ -Cast in First Vase Room) with boxers in all positions. A pair of -boxers (of about 1100 B.C.) from a vase found at Enkomi in Cyprus is -shown in fig. 47 (No. =151=). In the Homeric poems athletic contests -frequently occur, but only as isolated and unorganized events, without -rules or system. It was only at a much later date that the games were -organized on lines corresponding to those of modern sport. At Olympia, -the great festivals were said, according to tradition, to have begun -in 776 B.C., and it was from that year that the Greeks calculated -their dates, reckoning by the periodical return of the meeting every -fourth year. - -The events at the games which may specially be called athletic were -six in number: the _pentathlon_ (or "five contests") was a competition -made up of the jump, the foot-race, throwing the _diskos_, throwing -the javelin, and wrestling.[30] The pentathlon was decided by a -system of "heats," and the victor enjoyed a great reputation as an -exceptional "all-round" man. The _pankration_ was a combination -of wrestling and boxing, which tended to develop the type of heavy -professional athletes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--BOXERS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN PERIOD (NO. -151).] - -The victorious athlete was held in high honour by his native city. The -prize at the games was indeed of no value--at Olympia it was a crown -of wild olive--but on his return home the victor entered the city in -triumph, feasts were held and odes were sung in his honour, he was -maintained for the remainder of his life, and his statue was set up in -the place where his victory had been won. - -We will first deal with the events of the _pentathlon_ in order:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--STONE JUMPING-WEIGHT (NO. 154*). L. 11-1/2 -in.] - -_The Jump._--For the ancient jumping contests the competitors used -jumping-weights (_halteres_). Their use is shown on the vase, E 499 -(No. =152=). One youth is about to leap, another stands waiting, and -the trainer holds a short switch. On the vase E 561 (No. =153=) a -youth is also on the point of leaping. Examples of the jumping-weights -are shown. The pair in lead (No. =154=) are of a type which is seen -not infrequently on Greek vases, consisting of blocks of lead widened -at each end. The weight for the left hand, which is completely -preserved, weighs 2 lb. 5 oz. (_cf._ also fig. 52). With this pair -may be compared the cast of a single stone jumping-weight (No. =154*=) -found at Olympia and now at Berlin (fig. 48). It differs from the pair -just described, and resembles the type described by Pausanias,[31] who -travelled through Greece in the second century of our era, as forming -half of an elongated and irregular sphere. It probably dates from -about 500 B.C. Another type is represented by a remarkable but -cumbrous example in limestone, from Kameiros in Rhodes, a long -cylindrical instrument with deep grooves for the thumb and fingers, to -give a firm hold (No. =155=; fig. 49). - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--STONE JUMPING-WEIGHT (NO. 155). L. 7-1/2 in.] - -_The Foot Race._--A somewhat conventional foot race of armed hoplites -is shown on the vase B 143. This is a Panathenaic amphora, that is, -one of the two-handled vases, won, as the inscription on the other -side states, at the games at Athens. They always bear on one side a -figure of the patron goddess Athena, on the other a representation of -the contest in which they were won. Many examples may be seen in the -Second and Fourth Vase Rooms. - -_Throwing the Diskos._--This was one of the oldest and most popular -contests at the great festivals. It was already known in Homeric -times, and we read of Odysseus using a disc of stone, and of one -of iron hurled at the funeral games in honour of Patroklos; but all -existing examples are in bronze except a lead disc at Berlin which -cannot have been used in athletics. The diskos was used, not like the -modern quoit, with the object of hitting a mark, but with a view to -throwing as far as possible, as in the modern contest of putting the -weight. - -Existing discs vary considerably in size and weight, and were -doubtless made to suit various degrees of strength, like modern -dumb-bells or Indian clubs. The plain bronze example in this Case (No. -=156=) weighs as much as 8 lb. 13 oz. The small disc (No. =157=; fig. -50), which was dedicated by Exoidas to the Dioscuri after a victory -over his Kephallenian competitors[32] (cf. above, p. 49), weighs only -2 lb. 12 oz. The weight used at modern athletic sports weighs 16 lb. -and has been put 48 ft. 2 in. - -Diskos-throwing reached its greatest popularity in the sixth and fifth -centuries, and it is to the middle of this period that the remarkable -votive disc here shown (No. =158=; fig. 51) may be assigned. It is -engraved with finely-incised designs, representing on one side -an athlete with jumping-weights; on the other, another holding a -hurling-spear[33] in both hands. This disc weighs rather more than 4 -lb. The method of handling the disc will be readily understood from -the bronze figure and representations on vases exhibited in this Case; -they should be compared with the copies of the famous Diskobolos of -Myron in the second Graeco-Roman Room and the Gallery of Casts. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--DISKOS OF EXOIDAS (NO. 157). Diam. 6-3/8 in.] - -_Javelin-Throwing and Wrestling._--These sports are frequently shown -on the Panathenaic vases already described (p. 60). Other games of a -varied character also occur, and we find such contests as tilting from -horseback at a suspended shield, the torch-race, and races in full -armour depicted. A specimen (B 134 in the Second Vase Room) shows four -athletes engaged in four out of the five contests of the _pentathlon_ -(cf. also B 361 (No. =159=) in this Case). - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--ENGRAVED BRONZE DISKOS (NO. 158). Diam. 8-1/4 -in.] - -_Boxing_, one of the most ancient contests (see above, fig. 47), was -long practised at the games with gloves of ox-hide, which was torn -into long strips and bound round the hand. Such wrappings, like modern -boxing-gloves, were intended rather to protect the wearer than to -injure his opponent. At a later date, probably in the fourth century -B.C., a more dangerous glove was introduced, in the form of a pad -of thick leather bound over the fingers. This new form must have -inflicted severe wounds; it is apparently used by the two African -boxers in terracotta seen in this Case (No. =160=). But in the decline -of the Roman Empire, when the brutality of the spectators had to be -satisfied at all costs, a still more cruel glove was invented, which -had a heavy addition in metal, and must have been an appalling weapon. -See the fragment in terracotta (No. =161=, fig. 52). A cast from a -terracotta relief (No. =162=) shows a statue of a victorious boxer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--LATER BOXING-GLOVE (NO. 161). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: [Greek: Epi tois Onomastou tou Pheidileô athlois -ethethên.] - -FIG. 53.--PRIZE VASE FROM THE GAMES OF ONOMASTOS (NO. 163). 1:6.] - -The other objects in this case are less directly connected with -athletics; the most noteworthy is a large bronze caldron (No. =163=, -fig. 53), of about the sixth century B.C., which was found at Kyme, in -South Italy, and was given as a prize at games held in that district. -It is inscribed: "I was a prize at the games of Onomastos." He -was doubtless a wealthy citizen at whose expense the contests were -arranged, a form of public service very common in Greek cities. A -piece of corrugated tile (No. =164=) comes from the floor of the -palaestra (wrestling place) at Olympia. - - (151) _Cat. of Vases_, I., 2, No. C 334; (153) cf. Jüthner, - _Ant. Turngeräthe_, p. 3 ff.; (154) Furtwängler, _Olympia_, - IV., (_Die Bronzen_), p. 180; (156) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2691; - (157) _ibid._, 3207; _B.M. Inscr._, 952; (158) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 248; (160) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 84, 85; - (162) _ibid._, D 632; (163) _I.G._, xiv. 862; (164) Adler, - _Olympia_, II. (_Baudenkmaeler_) p. 115. - - On Greek athletics generally, see _Greek Athletic Festivals_, - by E. N. Gardiner. - - - [Footnote 30: Summed up by Simonides (cf. Bergk, No. 153) - [Greek: - enika - halma, podôkeiên, diskon, akonta, palên]. - ] - - [Footnote 31: v. 26, 3.] - - [Footnote 32: [Greek: - - Echsoida(s) m' anethêke Diwos Qouroin megaloio: - chalkeon hôi nikase Kephalanas megathymous.] - ] - - [Footnote 33: The lines on this side appear to have been worn - down and re-cut, but the restorer has misunderstood the spear, - and left it as a single fine line.] - - - - -VII.--GLADIATORS AND THE ARENA. - -(Wall-Case 109.) - - -Gladiatorial combats were not native to Rome, but had long been known -in Etruria as an adjunct to funeral ceremonies, and were probably -introduced thence into Rome by way of Campania, where the amphitheatre -of Pompeii is the oldest in existence. The first show of gladiators at -Rome took place in 264 B.C., but only three pairs of combatants were -engaged in it. In course of time the number of gladiators increased, -and such contests were given with greater frequency, although they -remained a mere accompaniment of funeral ceremonies until 105 B.C., in -which year they were for the first time offered as official amusements -to the people. During the empire, gladiatorial shows were organised -on a vast scale, and amphitheatres were built in all the provinces. -It was inevitable that the influence of Christianity should make such -exhibitions impossible. But it was not till nearly a century after the -Emperor Constantine had recognised Christianity as a state religion, -that Honorius put an end to the exhibition of gladiators in Rome (404 -A.D.). - -The serious combats in the Roman arena were announced by a procession -and a preliminary fight with the weapons used in practice. This mock -struggle excited the men, and made them ready for the terrible trial -of skill which followed. Lots were drawn, and the combatants arranged -in pairs, but sometimes _mêlées_ were planned, in which large numbers -were engaged. It was possible for a man to draw a bye, and so to -fight only with the winner of a previous round; probably, however, a -gladiator seldom fought more than two fights in a single day. - -A fight might end in three ways: (1) the better gladiator might kill -his adversary in the heat of the fray; (2) the vanquished gladiator -might lay down his arms and raise his left hand as a sign of defeat -and a prayer for mercy. See lamp, No. =165= (fig. 54). It rested -officially with the giver of the spectacle to grant or refuse the -defeated man's request, but the matter was really decided by the -spectators, who expressed their desire that he should be spared by -shouting for his discharge, waving a piece of cloth in the air, or -raising the left hand. The opposite decision was expressed by pointing -the thumb downwards and shouting "slay" (_jugula_). (3) If two men -fought on equal terms and displayed great courage, they might both -be discharged before the combat reached a definite result (_stantes -missi_). The victor, when finally discharged from service in the -arena, was presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), similar to those -used in practice, as a sign that he had fought his last serious fight. -Horace alludes to this in his _Epistles_, when asking Maecenas if he -may retire from his service. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--FIGHT BETWEEN "SAMNITE" GLADIATORS (NO. 165). -Diam. 3-3/4 in.] - -Gladiators were divided into classes according to their equipment -and mode of fighting. The following were the most important:--(1) The -_Samnite_ (figs. 54, 55). He wore a helmet with high crest, one or -sometimes two greaves, and a guard on the right arm. He also had an -oblong shield. The equipment is well shown in the bronze statuette -(No. =166=, fig. 55), lately acquired from the Gréau and Weber -collections. (2) The _retiarius_ or net-thrower (No. =167=, fig. 56), -who carried a trident, a dagger, and a large net in which he tried to -envelop his adversary. The net-thrower was matched against a gladiator -called a _secutor_, who was armed like the Samnite, and perhaps -received his name because he was the follower (_secutor_) of his -lightly-armed foe. (3) The _Thrax_ (Thracian), armed with the -Thracian curved dagger, a small shield, and a helmet. He fought the -_hoplomachus_, another variety of Samnite. (4) The _mirmillo_, the -origin of whose name and nature of whose equipment are not certainly -known. He was opposed to the net-thrower, and later to the Thracian. -Among other classes of less importance may be mentioned the mounted -gladiators (_equites_), who appear on the left of fig. 57 (a Pompeian -relief).[34] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A "SAMNITE" GLADIATOR -(NO. 166).] - -A curious marble relief from Halikarnassos (No. =168=; fig. 58) gives -a vivid picture of an unusual form of gladiatorial combat, between two -women. They are armed like the _Samnites_, but without helmets, and -the fight seems to take place on a sort of platform on either side -of which the head of a spectator is visible. Their names are given -as Amazon and Achillia, and above their heads is inscribed in Greek -"discharged," [Greek: apelythêsan]. It is known that women fought in -the arena under the Empire[35]; but under Septimius Severus (193-211) -so much scandal was caused by a specially furious combat of a large -number of female gladiators that such exhibitions were forbidden.[36] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--RETIARIUS (NO. 167). Diam. 3-5/8 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--POMPEIAN RELIEF, REPRESENTING COMBATS OF -GLADIATORS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--COMBAT OF WOMEN GLADIATORS (NO. 168). Width 2 -ft. 7 in.] - -The objects exhibited in illustration of gladiatorial shows are -numerous and varied, though not artistically remarkable. The subject -was especially popular with the smaller craftsmen, the makers of -bronze statuettes and the potters of Italy and Gaul, who produced -terracotta lamps and vases for a large but uncritical public. A -selection of some dozen lamps (No. =169=) is here given illustrating -different stages of the combat, or single gladiators; one is simply -ornamented with specimens of gladiatorial armour (helmets, greaves, -shields, and daggers). - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--GLADIATOR'S HELMET.] - -No complete example of a gladiator's helmet is shown in the Case, but -the bronze visor (No. =170=), a small bronze model (No. =171=), and -a model in glazed pottery (No. =172=) suffice to give an idea of the -usual type. The illustration (fig. 59) of a helmet at Pompeii shows -the arrangement of the visors. The cast (No. =173=) is from a relief -from Ephesus (the original is in the Sculpture Galleries) which -shows combats and corn-waggons (see Case 50) the _panem et circenses_ -demanded by the Roman populace. - -Some interest attaches to the series of ivory tickets (_tesserae_), -which are inscribed with the names of gladiators, and are valuable as -being dated by the names of the consuls in office (No. =174=). They -range from the beginning of the first century B.C. to the time of -Domitian (81-96 A.D.); those shown in the Case extend from 85 B.C. to -32 A.D. The usual formula of the inscription gives (1) the gladiator's -name, (2) the name of his master, (3) the letters +SP+ and the date -of the day and month, (4) the consuls of the year. The meaning of the -letters +SP+ is disputed, but the most likely explanation is that they -stand for _spectavit_, "became a spectator," with reference to the -honourable discharge of the recipient. Several examples are known -in which the word is thus written in full. The ticket of which an -illustration is given in fig. 60 bears the inscription, "Cocero the -gladiator of Fafinius became a spectator on the 5th of October in the -Consulship of Lucius Cinna and Gnaeus Papirius" (85 B.C.). - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--GLADIATOR'S DISCHARGE TICKET (NO. 174). L. -1-3/4 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--MAN AND BEAR (NO. 177).] - -The contests in the arena were not limited to those between -gladiators. Combats of animals, and of men with animals enjoyed equal -popularity. In the latter case the men might be hunters (_venatores_), -lightly armed, and able to escape by agility and skill. They might -also be criminals or martyrs (who were counted as criminals) exposed -to wild beasts without hope of resistance or escape. Two terracotta -reliefs (Nos. =175=, =175*=) are shown in this Case, of about the -time of Augustus, which, though fragmentary, evidently relate to -exhibitions of this kind. A better and more complete example is the -sculptured relief from Ephesus (No. =176=) with four panels, in each -of which is a man in combat with a lion, probably successive stages -in a single event. A lamp (No. =177=; fig. 61) shows a man and a bear, -separated by a kind of turnstile, called a _cochlea_. - - See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Gladiator_, and - _Venatio_. - - (165) _Cat. of Lamps_, 663; (166) _Gréau Cat._, 264; (167) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 976; (168) _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1117; - (173) _ibid._, II., 1285; (174) for a recent theory that - the tesserae are records of an _incubatio_ at a medicinal - sanctuary (cf. p. 185) see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - _Tessera_ p. 136; (175) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 624; (175*) - _ibid._, D 655; (176) _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1286; (177) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 1068. - - - [Footnote 34: _Mus. Borb._, XV., pl. 30.] - - [Footnote 35: Cf. Tac., _Ann._ xv. 32; Suet., _Dom._ 4.] - - [Footnote 36: Dio Cass., lxxv. 16.] - - - - -VIII.--CHARIOT-RACING AND THE CIRCUS. - -(Wall-Case 110.) - - -Chariot-racing was one of the oldest of Greek sports, and is -described in the _Iliad_ as one of the contests held at the funeral -of Patroklos. At that time the two-horse war-chariot was used in the -race, and a special type of racing-car does not seem to have existed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--ROMAN RACING-CHARIOT TURNING THE POST (NO. -179). L. 16 in.] - -The introduction of chariot-races in the great athletic contests was a -concession to the wealthy inhabitants of prosperous cities. To enter a -chariot with a team of four horses, which was now the usual number for -the great race at Olympia, demanded almost as large a proportionate -expenditure as to run a horse for the Derby to-day. Rich men in Greece -Proper found rivals in the tyrants of Sicily and Cyrene, who -ruled over cities with large revenues and districts providing good -opportunities for successful horse-breeding. - -At Olympia four-horse chariots raced for the first time in 680 B.C., -chariots with two horses not until 408. Between those dates a race -for horsemen was started, and won on the first occasion by a native of -Thessaly, which, owing to its rich plains, was celebrated in antiquity -for a magnificent breed of horses. A winner in the horse-race is -depicted on the vase No. =178= (exhibited in Case 107), about to -receive a wreath and a tripod as his prizes, while a herald proclaims: -"The horse of Dysneiketos wins." - -The race of four-horse chariots was, perhaps, the greatest event in -the Olympian Games, and certainly the most exciting to the spectators, -as accidents were frequent, especially at the turn. Consummate skill -was necessary to double the post as close and as fast as possible. -Readers of Sophokles' _Electra_ will remember the account given by the -messenger of the alleged death of Orestes in a collision of chariots -turning the post.[37] - -The Romans probably derived their custom of chariot-racing from the -Greeks, as also the plan which, with some alterations in detail, -they adopted for their _circus_. In the early days of Rome the marshy -valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills was the place chosen -for the games, and remained so through the succeeding centuries, -during which the course was gradually surrounded with an immense -building; this in the fourth century after Christ held not far short -of 180,000 people. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--IVORY STATUETTE OF A CHARIOTEER (NO. 180). -5:8.] - -In the later Roman Empire the charioteers were hired by factions, -which were distinguished by different colours, and excited violent -enthusiasm among all classes of Roman society. The passion survived -the introduction of Christianity, and was perhaps even more violent at -Constantinople than at Rome; it was said that the inhabitants of the -new capital of the Empire divided their interests between a passion -for chariot-racing and theological discussion. Successful -charioteers were transferred from one faction to another like modern -football-players. Records exist of the number of victories gained by -famous whips, and of the proportion won under the different colours. - -The costume of the charioteer was always distinct. In Greece he wore -a long robe girt at the waist, which is well seen on the bronze -statue from Delphi,[38] and on the chariot-racing reliefs from the -Mausoleum.[39] At Rome his dress was peculiar, and is illustrated by -the terracotta relief (No. =179=; fig. 62) and other objects in this -Case, notably the small ivory statuette (No. =180=; fig. 63). It -consisted of a close-fitting cap, and a shirt fastened round the -waist. Characteristic thongs called _fasciae_ were wound round the -ribs. The thongs of the reins were also wound about the body. A knife -was stuck in the belt so that the reins might be quickly cut in the -event of an accident. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--LAMP SHOWING CHARIOT-RACE IN CIRCUS (NO. -181). Diam. 3-3/4 in.] - -A sort of bird's-eye view of the whole circus, with a race in -progress, is given on the lamp No. =181= (fig. 64), on which we see on -one side the _carceres_ or barriers with folding-doors from which the -chariots started; on the other a stand with rows of spectators, while -in the lower part of the design is the _spina_, or central rib of the -circus, crowded with various structures. Not less instructive is the -scene on the terracotta relief (No. =179=), though only one chariot -is there represented (fig. 62, above). Two lamps (Nos. =182=, =183=) -illustrate respectively the return of a victorious horse (fig. 65) -and a victorious four-horse chariot. The former is accompanied by men -bearing palm-branches and a tablet probably inscribed with the name of -the successful competitor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--VICTORIOUS HORSE (NO. 182). 3-3/5 in.] - -The cast No. =184= is taken from a mould in the Terracotta Room (No. -E 79) for the central panel of a large lamp. Its chief figure is a -successful charioteer, crowned with a bulky wreath. - - (178) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 144; (179) _Cat. of - Terracottas_, D 627; (181) _Cat. of Lamps_, 626; (182) - _ibid._, 788; (183) _ibid._, 671; (184) _ibid._, 1398. - - For the circus in general see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - - Two interesting sarcophagus reliefs, with scenes in the - circus, are shown in the Roman Gallery (_Cat. of Sculpture_, - III., 2318, 2319). - - - [Footnote 37: _El._ 680 ff.] - - [Footnote 38: _Cat. of Casts_, No. 94.] - - [Footnote 39: _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., Nos. 1036, 1037.] - - - - -IX.--ARMS AND ARMOUR. - -(Wall-Cases 111-119, and Table-Case E.) - - -The arms and armour of the ancients are contained in Wall-Cases -111-119, and in Table-Case E. The weapons of attack date from the -beginning of the use of metal, in the prehistoric period, but all the -defensive armour belongs to the historical age. - -=Armour.=--There is not much literary evidence for the armour of -antiquity, but military subjects are very commonly represented in -works of art, and these, with the actual remains of armour, give -a good idea of the ancient panoply. The armour of the prehellenic -civilisations of Greece, as described by Homer, is a subject of -dispute, and as this collection possesses no specimen of such remnants -as have been found, there is no need here to discuss the question. It -is enough to say that the armour of the inhabitants of Greece of -the Mycenaean or Bronze Age was entirely different from that of the -Hellenic period, which began with the introduction of iron in the -place of bronze, and that the heroes of the Homeric poems, who are so -frequently portrayed in classical art, are represented in the armour -not of their own day, but of that of the artist. The earliest Greek -fashion is seen in a small bronze figure of a soldier from Dodona, -a cast of which is exhibited in Case 113 (No. =185=; fig. 66). The -original is in the Antiquarium at Berlin. Its date is about 500 B.C. -The man was striking with a spear; he carries a shield on his left -arm, and wears a metal helmet, cuirass and greaves. These three pieces -of body-armour were worn throughout classical times, being adopted -from the Greeks by the Romans. All are represented in this collection. - -=Helmet.=--The earliest type of helmet is known as Corinthian, because -it is worn by the goddess Athena in the well-known coin-type of -Corinth (fig. 12_e_). It was a complete metal casing of the head and -neck, open only in front of the eyes and mouth; the nose was protected -by a vertical strip which was left between the eyes, and the rest of -the face was covered as by a mask (fig. 66). In the earliest specimens -(No. =186=) the metal is everywhere of the same thickness, the -cheek-pieces large and clumsy, the nose-piece straight, and little -attempt is made to curve the back so as to fit the neck. Later helmets -were more gracefully designed: the nasal and cheek-pieces are shaped -and curved, the crown is distinguished from the lower part, the neck -has a natural contour, and is set off from the rest of the helmet by -a notch on each side of the bottom rim (No. =187=; fig. 67). The lines -of hair and eyebrows are often indicated in embossed and engraved -patterns (Nos. =188=, =189=; fig. 78). - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--GREEK SOLDIER. CAST OF BRONZE STATUETTE FROM -DODONA (NO. 185). 2:3.] - -It would seem that the Corinthian helmet at its best was a cumbrous -piece of armour. The ears of the wearer were covered, and the -ill-fitting shell must have sat loose upon the head, so as to be -easily displaced by a sudden turn. This and the chafing of the metal -were obviated in some degree by a lining of felt or leather, which was -sewn inside the helmet in the rows of holes along the edges. In No. -=189= the actual fastenings may be seen as well as the holes: thin -twine along the bottom rim, and rivets in the holes elsewhere. This is -an unusually well preserved helmet; the wooden peg on which the plume -was tied is still in place (fig. 78). A leathern cap was also worn, -and is seen on the coins of Corinth (fig. 12_e_), where the helmet is -represented in the position in which it was carried when the wearer -was not fighting, _i.e._, pushed back until the lower rim projected in -a peak over the forehead. This position came to be adopted in battle -also; for in the last of the Corinthian series (Nos. =190=, =191=, -fig. 68, =192=) there is not sufficient depth to the helmet to admit -of its being worn over the face in the original way, nor are the -eyeholes large enough to be of use, while in two examples these are -represented only by engraving, a traditional design which shows the -evolution of the helmet (No. =192=). Such examples are, however, not -really Greek. They come from South Italy, and belong to a late -period, when the art and manners of Greek colonists were reproduced in -barbarous form among the natives. Drawings of this helmet on Italian -vases of the third century B.C. give a date for the class. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--GREEK HELMETS OF "CORINTHIAN" AND "ISLAND" -TYPES (NOS. 187, 193). 1:5.] - -An additional value is given to three of the early helmets by -inscriptions which they bear and which help to date them. The first -(No. =188=) is a record of a dedication of Corinthian spoils to Zeus -by the Argives: [Greek: TARG[EI]OI ANETHEN TOI DIWI TON QORINTHOTHEN], -in lettering which belongs probably to the end of the sixth century -B.C.[40] The helmet was found in the bed of the river Alpheios, -near Olympia, and was doubtless dedicated in the sanctuary. A shield -bearing the first word of a similar inscription has since been found -at Olympia, and was probably part of the same offering. Another helmet -(No. =186=) has five letters, [Greek: OLYMP], scratched on the -corner of one of the cheek-pieces in characters of about 500 B.C. The -complete word was perhaps [Greek: Olympiô], "_To the Olympian Zeus_." -This is said to have been found at Dodona in Epeiros. The third is -inscribed on the front with the name of its owner, [Greek: DASIMOS -PYRRHOU], "_Dasimos son of Pyrrhos_" (No. =194=). The date of the -writing is the beginning of the fifth century. This helmet, which -comes from South Italy, differs from the Corinthian only in having -holes for the ears, but it is really the first of a new type, the -so-called Attic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--GRAECO-ITALIAN HELMET OF DEBASED CORINTHIAN -FORM (NO. 191). 1:6.] - -The evidence of inscriptions, painting and sculpture shows that the -Corinthian helmet was generally worn by the Greeks from the first -appearance of metal armour in the eighth century B.C. to the early -years of the fifth. It then became less common, but never quite -disappeared, and was used, certainly as a decorative type, by the -Romans of the Empire. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--ATTIC HELMET FROM MACEDONIA (NO. 195). Ca. -1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--ATTIC HELMET DECORATED WITH RAM'S HEADS ON -THE CHEEK-PIECES. AT NAPLES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--HEAD OF HIPPOLYTE, WITH HELMET IN THE SHAPE -OF A PHRYGIAN CAP.] - -The Attic helmet, which gets its name from its use on the coins of -Athens (fig. 12, _f-l_), appeared first in the sixth century B.C., -and in the fourth was the usual type. In shape it is lighter than the -Corinthian, and resembles a cap with appendages to protect the neck, -cheeks and nose. The ear was thus left free. The finest Attic helmet -(No. =195=, fig. 69) has been acquired recently from the British -Salonika Force. It was found with a spearhead and other objects in a -grave of about 500 B.C. in the camp of the 29th General Hospital -at Mikra Karabournou, in January, 1918, and was transferred to this -collection from the Imperial War Museum. The nasal is elegantly -modelled, eyebrows and tongues of hair over the forehead are wrought -in relief, and broad spiral bands in relief decorate and strengthen -the cheek-pieces. The cheek-pieces were often hung on hinges (No. -=197=), and were pushed up from the face when the wearer was not -fighting (fig. 81). No. =198= is a cheek-piece from Loryma in Caria, -which reproduces the form of the face beneath it. An Attic helmet -from Ruvo in Apulia (No. =196=) has fixed cheek-pieces in the shape of -rams' heads, which were completed with applied reliefs like those of a -similar helmet at Naples (fig. 70). The nose-piece was often omitted. -The forehead was well covered, and was usually marked by a triangular -frontal band, often enclosing an ornament. No. =197= has the head of -a young Satyr in relief. The Attic helmet was also adopted in Italy, -especially by the Etruscans. No. =199= (fig. 78) was found in an -Etruscan tomb at Vulci. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--ITALIAN HELMETS WITH METAL CRESTS (NOS. 205, -202). 1:6.] - -These two helmets, the Corinthian and the Attic, were so far the most -general among the Greeks as to merit the name of the classical types. -No. =193= is an intermediate form which has been assigned to the -Aegean Islands because of its occurrence in vase-paintings from the -Cyclades. This example was found in the river Alpheios, and was -no doubt originally dedicated, like several other pieces in this -collection, in the temple at Olympia. It is cut straight over the -eyes, has no nose-piece and no ear-holes (fig. 67). A peculiar feature -is a broad band with high raised edges which runs over the crown of -the head from forehead to neck. A stout pin in front of this shows -that the band was a channel in which the crest was fixed. A row of -silver studs and a silver band decorate the rim of this helmet, and -there are remains of ornaments in relief, palmettes on forehead and -at the ears, and on each cheek-piece a horseman. These were no doubt -also of silver, but the plates have come away, leaving their impress -upon the cement which used to hold them in place. The style of the -modelling belongs to the end of the sixth century B.C. Another Greek -type has the shape of a Phrygian cap, with the addition of movable -cheek-pieces, of which the hinges are partially preserved (No. =200=). -Such a helmet is often worn by Amazons, for instance by the Queen -Hippolyte on an Attic bowl of about 450 B.C., which is exhibited in -the Third Vase Room (fig. 71). It is also shewn in the cast of an -Etruscan bronze statuette which stands beside the helmet (No. =201=). -The tall oval helmet (No. =202=, fig. 72) with its barbarous pair of -horns in the shape of crests of sea-horses, is Italian, but the same -type appears on Greek monuments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--ETRUSCAN AND EARLY ITALIAN HELMETS (NOS. 207, -203). 1:5.] - -Italian helmets are more like hats, giving no protection to the face -unless cheek-pieces are added. An early form, from Ancona, is almost -hemispherical, with wide brim and two large bosses on the sides (No. -=203=, fig. 73). The bosses would stop glancing blows on the head. The -smaller knob on the front of this example may have held the crest; -if so, the corresponding knob behind has been lost. Two helmets from -Cannae are later developments of the same type (No. =204=, fig. 74). -They are decorated and stiffened with two curved bands in relief, one -on each side of the crown. The bosses and brims are broken away. The -earliest helmets of this shape belong to the seventh century B.C. Our -later specimens were probably worn in the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). -They have wrongly been called Carthaginian because of their discovery -on this battlefield, but the type is European, and has been found at -Hallstatt. The helmet with sharp pointed top also belongs to a class -which extended to France and Germany in the early Iron Age (No. =205=, -fig. 72). The arched socket for the crest is a peculiarity of this -example, which is of later date, about fourth century B.C. More -strictly of Italian origin are the heavy Etruscan helmets resembling -reversed jockey-caps, with a knob on top, a short peak covering the -wearer's neck, and attached cheek-pieces (No. =206=, fig. 75). They -are cast; nearly all other helmets are hammered work. Their date is -from the fifth to the third century B.C. The Etruscans also used an -oval helmet with ridged crown, of which the most notable example comes -from Olympia, where it was dedicated as part of the Greek spoils from -the naval battle of Kyme (B.C. 474). This helmet is described above -among the Greek Inscriptions (p. 8, fig. 7, No. =13=). Other examples -are heavier, and have a broad decorated rim (No. =207=, fig. 73). - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--ITALIAN HELMET, FROM THE BATTLEFIELD OF -CANNAE (NO. 204). 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--ETRUSCAN "JOCKEY-CAP" HELMET WITH HINGED -CHEEK-PIECES (NO. 206). 1:5.] - -There is no specimen of a Roman helmet in this collection. The -scarcity of remains of Roman armour is due to the fact that it was -mostly made of iron, which has decayed. Representations of different -shapes may be seen, in a statuette of an officer (No. =219=, fig. 85), -a small model of a trophy (No. =233=), a cast of a large marble relief -(No. =236=), and a drawing of a soldier from the Column of Trajan -(fig. 90). All these show close-fitting caps with broad chin-straps, -which also serve as cheek-pieces. They are varieties of the Attic -type. Some Roman helmets found in England are exhibited in the -Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities. One of them is -reproduced in fig. 76. It is evidently related to the much older -Etruscan "jockey-cap." The hinged cheek-pieces are wanting. It is -likely that the Romans would combine Greek and Italian patterns in -designing a uniform helmet for their own army. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--ROMAN LEGIONARY HELMET FOUND NEAR -BERKHAMPSTEAD. Ca. 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--PARADE HELMET MASKS (NOS. 209, 208).] - -A peculiar fashion of Roman helmet is represented by two bronze -vizor-masks in Case 117 (Nos. =208=, =209=, fig. 77). A complete -helmet of the same kind, exhibited in the Room of Roman Britain, was -found at Ribchester in 1796, and two other specimens, a fragmentary -iron helmet and a bronze mask, have recently been excavated at -Newstead on the Tweed. The Newstead helmet has remains of padding -still adhering, which prove that these strange helmets were actually -worn, though Arrian, writing on tactics in the second century A.D., -says that they were used for display, and not in battle. The earlier -of our examples (No. =208=, fig. 77, right), which probably belongs -to the first century A.D., is said to have been found on the face of -a skeleton in a grave at Nola in Italy in the eighteenth century. The -other (No. =209=, fig. 77, left), which has the more usual type -of features, has lately been presented to the Museum, having been -purchased at Aintab in Syria during the occupation of the country by -British troops. Both masks are pierced at eyes, nostrils and mouth, -and show traces of attachment to the helmet above the forehead. No. -=209= has remains of white metal plating on the face, the hair being -left in the colour of bronze. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--HELMETS WITH WOODEN PEG FOR PLUME AND TUBE -FOR FEATHER (NOS. 189, 199). 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--ITALIAN HELMET DECORATED WITH HORNS, WINGS -AND PLUME.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ITALIAN VASE-PAINTING, SHOWING FEATHERED -HELMET AND THE METAL CUIRASS.] - -Crests are shown on all kinds of helmets, as in the Greek, Etruscan -and Roman statuettes (figs. 66, 81, 85), and the drawings on Greek and -Italian vases (figs. 79, 86, etc.); it is not uncommon to find three -on one helmet. They had thick horsehair plumes, sometimes simply wired -to the helmet, sometimes mounted in sockets. Very few helmets show -original fittings for the crests. These must have been added by the -owners. Some helmets have holes drilled in the crown; No. =186= has -remains of wire in the holes. No. =189= has a bronze socket still -holding a wooden peg, but this is only fastened with cement, and its -rough make is not in keeping with the fine finish of this helmet (fig. -78). The flanged channel and pins of No. =193= (fig. 67) are peculiar -to that type of helmet. An Etruscan helmet of Attic shape (No. =199=, -fig. 78) had a pair of tubes to carry single feathers, only one -of which remains (_cf._ fig. 80). It was an Italian habit to wear -fantastic ornaments. The head of a horseman from a wall-painting -at Capua shows horns, wings, and a plume or feather (fig. 79). A -Corinthian helmet from Apulia has a pair of curved horns like those in -the wall-painting (No. =190=). An Attic helmet belonging to a suit of -armour which was found in a grave at Capua, and is exhibited here on -loan from H.M. Armoury in the Tower of London (No. =210=), has horns -of coiled wire (perhaps clips for feathers), and a pair of wings. -The oval bronze hat (No. =202=, fig. 72) has two crests of sea-horses -mounted as horns, with the support for a plume between them. These -accessories are detachable; they are cut out of thin sheet metal and -fit on to flat ears on the helmet. Two of the latest of the Corinthian -class (No. =191=, fig. 68) have such attachments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--ETRUSCAN BRONZE STATUETTE WITH PLATED -CUIRASS. 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--A SOLDIER PUTTING ON HIS CUIRASS.] - -=Cuirass.=--The earliest metal cuirass consisted of two bronze plates -roughly shaped to fit the body, and fastened together at the sides and -shoulders. The bottom edge was turned up so as not to cut the hips. -The Greek statuette from Dodona (No. =185=, fig. 66) shows the form. -It was contemporary with the Corinthian helmet in Greece, and was -probably discarded there for the same reason, that it was as much -a burden as a protection. In Italy it had a longer life, but in an -improved shape which is represented in Italian vase-painting (fig. -80), and is shown here in the cast of an Etruscan statuette (No. -=201=), as well as in some actual specimens from Italy (Nos. =210=, -=211=, =212=). These fit closely to the body, of which the form is -moulded in free style on the metal plates, and the bottom edge follows -the line of the waist. A fringe of leather was often attached to the -rim. The fastenings are rings for lacing, and pins in sockets which -serve either as hinges or clasps. The other cuirass was generally used -in Greece from the beginning of the fifth century B.C. An Etruscan -statuette in the Bronze Room shows every detail of the type (fig. 81). -It was made of leather plated with bronze, with shoulder-straps to -buckle down upon the breast. In scenes of the arming of soldiers, for -instance on a vase by the painter Douris, at Vienna (fig. 82), the -method of putting on this cuirass is often represented, and the -construction of the various parts is shown. The bronze plating might -be in the form of square tabs or round scales. Two fragments of such -plating are exhibited (No. =213=, fig. 83, right). The larger consists -of six plates of bronze with the lower edge scalloped, sewn with wire -on a leathern coat, and overlapping in such a way as everywhere to -present three thicknesses of metal. The leather of this example is -modern. The other is of five much smaller scales, similarly wired -together. The larger fragment is from France, the smaller from -Oxyrhynchus, in Egypt. Some pieces of heavier bronze plating, one of -them still clasping a shrivelled tongue of leather, may have served as -the long tabs which form a skirt to this cuirass. They were excavated -at Kertch in the Crimea (No. =214=, fig. 83, left). - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--BRONZE PLATING FROM CUIRASSES (NOS. 214, -213). 3:5.] - -A peculiar Italian type is represented by a triangular bronze -breastplate filled with three circles in relief (No. =215=). This -breastplate often appears on third-century vases of South Italian -fabric, and a number of such plates have been found in tombs of the -beginning of the Iron Age. It is therefore an ancient pattern, but -this example is contemporary with the vases (fig. 84). - -Another piece of native Italian fashion is the metal belt (No. =216=) -which is also represented in vase paintings of the third century B.C. -(fig. 84). It was worn with the triangular breastplate. Rows of holes -along the edges show that the belts were lined with cloth or leather. -The fastening is simple, one end hooking into the other. Many -elaborate hooks are exhibited (No. =217=). Two oval bronze plaques -(No. =218=) may have belonged to belts of different type. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--VASE PAINTINGS SHOWING ITALIAN BREASTPLATE -AND METAL BELT.] - -Remains of Roman cuirasses are as rare as of the helmets, and for the -same reason; but the general type of the armour worn by the legionary -soldier is illustrated by a small statuette (No. =219=; fig. 85). The -cuirass is of the same design as the flexible Greek type; it is made -of overlapping bands of metal, which are fastened down the front. -There are shoulder-pieces of similar construction, and straps are -brought over from the back to hold the armour in place. Underneath -is a kilt of leather or metal strips. Two other varieties of Roman -cuirass are shown in the cast of the relief representing pieces of -armour (No. =236=), and a fourth is the coat of mail, which appears -in the reliefs of the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius at Rome -(about 110 and 190 A.D. respectively). It is represented here by -fragments of two different patterns and sizes (No. =220=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER -(NO. 219). 2:3.] - -=Greaves.=--The third part of the Greek body armour is the greaves. -Metal greaves may have been worn towards the close of the Mycenaean -Age (the pair from Enkomi in Cyprus dates from about 1100 B.C.), but -their general use was due, like that of the metal cuirass, to the -adoption of the small shield, which necessitated a better covering -of the body and legs. The poet Alcaeos says that the greave was a -protection against missiles. It was a thin sheet of bronze, shaped to -fit the leg, which it clasped and held of its own elasticity. Only the -greaves from Enkomi (No. =221=) are laced with bronze wire. Warriors -putting on their greaves are often represented on the Attic vases. -Fig. 86 is from the same scene as fig. 82. An ankle-pad was worn to -keep the bottom edge from chafing. There is little difference of shape -or decoration in the existing specimens. Some reach only to the knee, -and some extend above it to cover part of the thigh (Nos. =222=, -=225=). With the exception of the pair from Enkomi, all these date -from the sixth to the third century B.C. Two of the finest (No. =223=; -fig. 87) from Ruvo in South Italy, are decorated on the knee with a -figure of a Gorgon. The tongue and eyes were made of ivory. The style -points to Ionia as the place, and the sixth century as the time of -manufacture. Rather later is the pair with incised palmettes above the -knees (No. =224=). The only other decoration is the expression of the -muscles of the leg to correspond with the similar representation -of the body on the breastplate. As in the belt and helmet, there is -usually a row of holes along the rim for the attachment of a lining. -In the Roman army the greave was worn from early times, but under the -Empire it became a mark of distinction for the centurions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--A SOLDIER PUTTING ON HIS GREAVES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--PAIR OF BRONZE GREAVES DECORATED WITH FIGURES -OF GORGONS (NO. 223). 1:6.] - -Some rare pieces of armour are arranged with the greaves. No. =226= is -a thigh-piece, of which the provenance is not known. A similar piece -was found at Olympia. Armour for the thigh is represented on some -Greek vases of the sixth century B.C., but not on later monuments, -although both Xenophon and Arrian mention it as part of the equipment -of cavalry. A guard for the upper part of the right arm, from Italy, -which is more familiar as armour of the later gladiator, dates from -the fifth or fourth century B.C. (No. =227=). It was fastened to the -shoulder of the cuirass. Another piece of different shape is mounted -with the suit of armour from Capua (No. =210=). There are three pairs -of shin-guards from Italy (No. =228=). The ankle-pieces are designed -to protect the "Achilles" tendon at the back of the foot (No. =229=; -fig. 88). These subsidiary pieces of leg-armour were probably worn -by the Italians of the fourth century B.C., when the long greave was -going out of fashion. Armour of an unusual kind is represented by the -pair of bronze shoes, which are also from Ruvo (No. =230=; fig. 89). -The metal covering is only for the top of the foot, and the toes are -on a separate plate, which is hinged at the joint. Part of a single -shoe of the same type was found at Olympia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--BRONZE ANKLE-GUARD (NO. 229). 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--BRONZE SHOES (NO. 230). 1:4.] - -=Shield.=--An essential part of the ancient panoply was the shield, -but actual remains are rare. Greek shields were probably made of wood -or leather studded or plated with metal. The prehistoric shield of -Homer's time we know was a large bull-hide, which enveloped the man -from head to foot, and was slung round his neck by a strap. Herodotus -says that this unwieldy weapon was superseded by the smaller shield, -an invention of the Carians, held on the left arm by a loop and a -cross-bar (fig. 102). The common shapes were circular and oval; more -fanciful patterns, lozenges and crescents, belonged to less civilised -neighbours of the Greeks. Leather construction is seen in the shape of -the Boeotian shield (so called from its use as the national coin-type -of Boeotia), which the Dodona soldier carries (No. =185=; fig. 66). -This is oval with a gap in the middle of each long side, a shape -produced by stretching a hide on a long frame with cross-bars at top -and bottom. Strings for tightening the leather cover are drawn inside -a shield in fig. 102. Two circular bronze shields are exhibited, both -from Italy. The large one is decorated with narrow bands of Sphinxes, -rosettes, palm- and lotus-patterns in relief, in the oriental Greek -style of the sixth century B.C. (No. =231=). The smaller (No. =232=), -which has a spiked boss and punctured geometric patterns, is probably -Italian of about the same date. Neither of these examples has the -fittings of a shield inside. They may have been made for decorative or -votive use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER FROM THE TRAJAN -COLUMN.] - -No Roman shields are represented, and none have survived entire, for -they were also made of wood and leather, and only the central boss and -the framework were of metal. The ordinary type is illustrated in the -reliefs of the Trajan Column (fig. 90), where the legionaries are -perhaps distinguished from the auxiliary soldiers by their oblong -shields. These are further differentiated by the badges of the various -legions; the illustration shows a thunderbolt. The Greeks also carried -devices on their shields, mostly figures of animals (fig. 102, a -bull's head), which would be chosen as the emblem of a man or family, -like coats of arms in mediaeval Europe. Some states also had their -badges; men of Lacedaemon, Sicyon, and Messene bore the initial -letters of the names of their towns. - -=Trophies.=--A peculiar usage of war among the Greeks, which was -afterwards practised by the Romans, was the erection of trophies of -the arms captured from a defeated enemy. Soldiers of all ages have -celebrated their achievements by the display of armour or similar -spoils which they have stripped from their opponents; but the custom -of building effigies with the empty armour, to be left for a monument -on the battlefield, as a token of victory, belonged properly to -the Greeks. Helmet, cuirass and greaves were slung in position on a -tree-trunk, and the shield and other weapons were bound to the arms -of a cross-piece. An inscription was affixed, giving an account of the -victory and the dedication of the monument to a deity, as other spoils -were dedicated in the temples. In the centre of the Wall-Cases 116-117 -two suits of armour are set up in this fashion (Nos. =210=, =211=). In -Case 111 there are a small bronze model of a Roman trophy (No. =233=), -and two lamps with designs of the same subject. One of them has a -trophy of barbarian arms, a horned helmet and oblong wooden shields, -with a man and a woman captive at the foot (No. =234=). The other is -more fanciful: a trophy is borne aloft by a Victory, who is poised -with her foot on a globe, to symbolise the subjection of the world -(No. =235=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--ROMAN LEGIONARY BADGES USED AS STANDARDS, -FROM THE TRAJAN COLUMN.] - -The Greeks had established customs in raising trophies, and these were -strictly observed. The trophy was an assertion of victory, and was -accepted by the vanquished and left inviolate by them. But it was -contrary to usage for the victors to repair it, or to make the -supports of anything more durable than wood. The native Roman practice -was to fix captured armour in the house, like trophies of the -chase. The built trophy was borrowed from the Greeks, but it was -not necessarily erected on the battlefield. At Rome there were many -trophies commemorating provincial victories, and the custom was -continued in the representations of spoils on the triumphal arches -and other monuments of the Imperial age. A marble relief of pieces -of armour from one of these monuments is reproduced in a cast (No. -=236=). The arms are mostly Roman, but the dragon-standard and loose -tunic belong to the Dacians, a barbarous people who made trouble on -the north-east frontier of the Roman Empire in the second century -after Christ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--ROMAN MANIPULAR _Vexillum_, FROM THE TRAJAN -COLUMN.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--SILVER COIN OF VALENS (364-378 A.D.) SHOWING -THE EMPEROR HOLDING THE _Labarum_, TRIUMPHANT OVER BARBARIANS.] - -=Standards.=--Military standards were not much used by the Greeks, but -in the Roman army, which was a regular institution, not a temporary -levy of citizens, they were elaborately developed. The eagle was the -standard of the legion. It was a gilt image of the bird with -spread wings, holding a thunderbolt in its claws. Marks of -military distinction bestowed upon the legion--crowns, wreaths, and -medallions--were carried on the staff which supported the eagle or on -the eagle itself (fig. 109, p. 105). Smaller standards belonged to the -companies of the legion (maniples or centuries). These were originally -banners (_vexilla_) mounted on spears, with honorary wreaths and -medallions attached to the shafts. A cast of such a standard is -exhibited (No. =237=). The cross-piece represents the bar on which -the banner was hung, the sloping and vertical members at its ends are -derived from the cords which fastened the cross-bar to the pole. The -other standards shown in fig. 91, figures of birds or animals carried -on a plain shaft, are also represented here, in the bronze boar -(No. =238=). Such standards were probably used by detachments of the -legion. The regimental emblems were chosen or bestowed for various -reasons; some legions had several badges, and the same badges are -found with several legions. The boar is known to have belonged to -the 1st (_Italica_), 2nd (_Adjutrix_), 10th (_Fretensis_) and 20th -(_Valeria Victrix_). The bronze hand (No. =239=) may have been part -of a standard, but its poor structure rather indicates votive use. An -open hand was the proper standard of the maniple, the Roman company -of two centuries, which, indeed, derived its name from this device -(_manipulus_, a handful). The Roman explanation, as recorded by Ovid -and others, was that when Romulus first organised his men by hundreds, -he gave each company a standard consisting of a handful of twigs or -grass on the point of a spear. In any case the maniple took its name -from the hand, and the hand is often represented as the standard of -the maniple; fig. 92 is taken from the Trajan Column. The cross-bar, -which originally carried the banner, and its hanging tassels are shown -in this standard, as in No. =237=, but the more important part of the -cord, which fastened the bar to the shaft, has been omitted from the -design. This fortuitous pattern of a cross was eagerly recognised by -the early Church as a military emblem of Christianity, and the famous -_labarum_, the miraculous standard which Christ gave to the Emperor -Constantine on the eve of the battle of the Milvian Bridge, was a -cavalry _vexillum_ of the Roman army with the monogram of Christ -emblazoned on its banner (fig. 93). - - The pieces of armour are described in the _Catalogue of - Bronzes_ to which reference should be made for fuller details. - The Catalogue numbers are painted on the objects. - - (185) _Bronzen aus Dodona in den Kgl. Museen zu Berlin_, p. - 13, pl. 2; (201) Friederichs, _Kleinere Kunst_, 2197; (208) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 877; Benndorf, _Ant. Gesichtshelme_, p. 15, - pl. 3; for the class see Curle, _A Roman Frontier Post and its - People_, p. 179; (221) _B.M. Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 16, - fig. 26; (236) _Cat. of Sculpture_, 2620; (237, 238, 239) - reproduced by Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. Ant._ s.v. _Signa - Militaria_. - -=Weapons.=--The weapons of offence, which are exhibited in Table-Case -E, differ from the majority of the antiquities shown in this room, -in that many of them were made at a remote period in the history of -Greece and Italy, some even dating from the beginning of the Bronze -Age, when the use of metal had not long supplanted that of stone. In -a few examples from the island of Cyprus, the metal is almost pure -copper. It is therefore not strictly accurate to call these weapons -Greek and Roman, for they were made a thousand years before those -nations began; but they come from the lands which were afterwards -inhabited by the Greeks and Romans, and are valuable as representing -the development of arms in those parts of the world, and as being the -work of the primitive races in whom the Greeks and Romans had their -origin. - -=Early Greek Bronze Age.=--The first class consists of arms which -belong to the Early Bronze Age in Greece, a period preceding the -mature and extensive civilisation to which the name of Mycenaean is -commonly applied. The general date of 3000 to 2000 B.C., which is -assigned to the weapons of this period, serves rather to indicate -their chronological relations than to give their precise age. In any -case they stand as a definite beginning of the history of arms in -Europe. In these early times the sword had not been invented, and -short daggers or spear-heads only were produced by workmen with a -still imperfect mastery of metallurgy. The most ancient form was a -short thick blade, with rivets in the base, where it was fastened -to the hilt or shaft. A more secure attachment was contrived by -prolonging the broad base of the blade into a tang, which was let -into the handle and held by a rivet through the end. But the greatest -advance was the discovery that if a rib were left up the middle of -the blade, the edges could be fined down and tapered to a sharp point -without loss of strength. In the final development the stiffening rib -and the tang were connected, so that the strongest part of the blade -was continued down into the handle. Yet in spite of progress and -improvements in design, the old patterns remained in use to the end of -the Bronze Age, and even later, so that a chronological classification -based on the forms of early Weapons is untrustworthy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--PRIMITIVE BRONZE SPEAR- AND DAGGER-BLADES, -FROM GREECE AND CYPRUS (NOS. 241-4). 1:4.] - -All the stages in the development are shown in these examples. The -most primitive types are represented by a series of blades from Cyprus -(No. =241=; fig. 94_a_), which, from material and technique, might be -placed at a very early period; but they were excavated from Mycenaean -tombs of the end of the Bronze Age. To the same island belong the -narrow blades with long tangs, which are turned round at the end in a -hook to hold the handle (No. =242=; fig. 94_b_). This type is said -to have been found in graves of 3000 B.C. It is certainly a primitive -shape, and peculiar to the pre-Mycenaean civilisation of Cyprus. -Another local variety is known in the leaf-shaped blade with a sharp -tang and two slits, one on each side of the midrib, through which -the shaft was lashed in place (No. =243=; fig. 94_c_). The pattern -is characteristic of the contemporary civilisation of the Cycladic -Islands. Two pointed blades with no tang belong to the same early -period. The smaller of the two was found at Athens (No. =244=; fig. -94_d_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--BRONZE SWORDS OF THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD (NOS. -245, 247-8). 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--BRONZE SWORDS OF LATE MYCENAEAN TYPE (NOS. -249-50). 1:4.] - -=Mycenaean swords and daggers.=--The next period was the close of the -Bronze Age in Greece, occupying the second millennium before Christ. -It has been called, from its best-known centre at Mycenae, the -Mycenaean Age. In this period, by improvement in metal-working, the -short daggers were lengthened into swords, which, towards the end of -the age, were made even a yard long, and very slender. Such weapons -were used mainly for thrusting, for they would break with a direct -blow. Homer records many such accidents on the battlefield. At the -same time the spear-head was differentiated from the dagger-blade, -being provided with a socket for the shaft. Mycenaean weapons are -represented here by swords and spear-heads found mainly at Ialysos in -Rhodes, and belonging to the end of the period. The swords are short -and heavy, and are made in one piece with the hilt. The guard is -straight in the earlier specimens, and the pommel of the hilt was a -round knob, of which the tang remains (No. =245=; fig. 95_a_). This is -the form of the well-known daggers from Mycenae, which have the blades -inlaid with designs in coloured metals, the hilts and pommels embossed -and chased in gold. Electrotype copies of the Mycenae daggers are -exhibited in the Gold Ornament Room Passage. A closer parallel to -these is a blade from Cameiros which has the rivets still in place -(No. =246=). In other swords the raised flange on the edges of the -hilt is continued to form a crescent-shaped pommel. The hollow space -was filled with an ornamental material for the grip. The rivets are -usually in place, and on a small dagger from Karpathos a great part of -the ivory mount is preserved (No. =247=; fig. 95_b_). The last form -of this hilt appears in a heavy sword, formerly in the Woodhouse -Collection (No. =248=; fig. 95_c_). The projection of flanges and -pommel is accentuated, and the ends of the guard are curled up like -horns. This type survived into the Hellenic period. Another late -Mycenaean form is seen in a long and slender sword with a broad base -to the blade, which contracts again towards the hilt (No. =249=; fig. -96_a_). At the other end of the hilt are two divergent tongues of -metal, which are better preserved in another example, of heavier -fabric, from Enkomi, in Cyprus (No. =250=; fig. 96_b_). The type is -that in which the earliest iron swords of Greece were made (No. =263=; -fig. 101_b_), and which was the prototype of the common bronze sword -of the rest of Europe. The lighter specimen (No. =249=) is from -Scutari in Albania. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--BRONZE SPEARHEADS OF THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD -(NO. 251). 1:4.] - -=Mycenaean spears and arrows.=--The spear was in Homeric times the -soldier's most important arm, a long and heavy weapon which was thrown -with great force or used for thrusting. Mycenaean spearheads are -illustrated in a series from Ialysos (No. =251=; fig. 97). They -are skilfully made to secure the greatest strength with the least -expenditure of material; in most cases the shaft runs far up into the -blade, which is narrow and springs gently from the socket, some being -wider near the point than at the base. There is considerable variety -of shape, but all are characterised by the thin blade with shallow -curves. Mycenaean arrowheads from the same site are of more primitive -design (No. =252=; fig. 98). The best are large and heavy, and -have long barbs; a tang and no socket to take the shaft. Others are -curiously flat and weak, and are plainly metal reproductions of a -stone pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--MYCENAEAN BRONZE ARROWHEADS FROM IALYSOS (NO. -252). 2:3.] - -=Italian Bronze Age.=--The Bronze Age of Italy is represented here by -daggers and spears which date from about the fifteenth to the tenth -century B.C. Italian daggers are remarkable for the use of engraved -geometrical decoration on the blades. The first class resembles the -Mycenaean weapons in the form of the hilt with edges raised for inlay -and crescent-shaped pommel, and the round base of the blade is also -similar to an early Mycenaean type. The haft of one dagger is wound -with bronze wire, another has an ivory handle bound with gold (No. -=253=; fig. 99_a_), and a third has the pommel filled with ivory (No. -254). Some of the blades were made separately, and riveted to the hilt -after the primitive fashion (No. =255=; fig. 99_b_). In that case -the hilt was split to receive the tang, and overlapped the base (No. -=256=). Some of these daggers diverge still further from the Mycenaean -in having the blade with recurving edges which is characteristic of -a cutting sword (No. =257=; fig. 99_c_). The sheaths are of peculiar -shape, being made of a thin plate of bronze with an ornament at the -end in the form of a large round knob or several discs on a peg (No. -=258=; fig. 99 _e_, _f_). They are decorated with the same linear -designs as the blades. A later variety of Italian sword, known from -the horned extremities of the pommel as the _Antennae_ type, is -represented by two specimens (No. =259=; fig. 99_d_). In the first, -the horns are simply curved projections, in the other they are -developed into large rings or spiral coils. The type is of frequent -occurrence throughout Europe, even in the north. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--EARLY ITALIAN BRONZE SWORDS AND SHEATHS (NOS. -253, 255, 257-9). 1:6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--ITALIAN BRONZE SPEARHEADS (NO. 260).] - -Italian spearheads do not suggest so much connection with -Mycenaean types. Some of them are narrow, but most have broad and -strongly-curving blades which spring sharply from the sockets (No. -=260=; fig. 100). A spearhead from Sicily is remarkable for its great -size (No. =261=): it is thirty-five inches long. - -The rest of the arms belong to the historical period. The usual -weapons of the Greeks were the spear and sword. The bow was a special -arm, which did not form part of the equipment of the ordinary soldier, -and its use, like that of the sling, was practised by men of certain -districts, who served as mercenaries to other states. The axe was -a barbarous weapon, and is generally represented in the hands of -Amazons, who brought their mode of warfare from the wilds of Scythia -(see fig. 109). - -=Greek swords.=--The earliest Greek swords in this collection date -from the tenth century B.C., when iron was fast taking the place of -bronze; but forms common in the Bronze Age were still reproduced in -iron, just as those peculiar to stone implements were for some time -preserved in bronze. This conservative tendency is noticeable in three -iron swords, of which two are from Cyprus (Nos. =262=, =263=; fig. -101_b_). They reproduce the general form of the bronze sword from -Enkomi in the same island (No. =250=; fig. 96). A short iron dagger is -similar to the common Mycenaean type (No. =264=; fig. 101_a_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--IRON SWORDS, SHOWING THE SURVIVAL OF -MYCENAEAN TYPES (NOS. 263-4). 1:4.] - -The ordinary Greek sword of the fifth century B.C. is represented by -three examples. The type appears frequently in works of art. On a vase -in the Third Vase Room (E 468; Pedestal 6) there is a drawing of the -combat of Achilles and Memnon, in which Memnon is armed with this -sword. In the sheath by his side is another, so that it is possible -to see both hilt and blade at once (fig. 102). The shape is entirely -different from that of prehistoric times. The hilt is round and the -pommel a small knob, while the guard is a plain crosspiece. The blade, -which, being made of iron, is long and thin, swells from the hilt -towards the point in the manner characteristic of the cutting sword. -All these features are visible in the examples (No. =265=; fig. -104_a_, _b_). The swelling blade is best seen in the largest specimen, -while the iron-handled fragment, which was excavated from a tomb near -the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos, shows the original form of the hilt. -The small dagger with a bone hilt and the bone end of the scabbard -forms part of a group of weapons which were found on the battlefield -of Marathon (No. =266=; fig. 103). The others are iron spearheads, -arrowheads both of bronze and iron, and leaden slingshot, two of which -are marked with a thunderbolt and the Greek name _Zoilos_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--VASE-PAINTING OF THE COMBAT BETWEEN ACHILLES -AND MEMNON, SHOWING THE CLASSICAL GREEK WEAPONS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--WEAPONS FROM THE BATTLEFIELD OF MARATHON -(NO. 266). Ca. 1:3.] - -Another common type of Greek sword is the heavy knife-like sabre with -a hilt in the shape of a bird's head (No. =267=; fig. 104_c_). Its -original appearance may be seen on the Athenian bowl already mentioned -on page 80 (fig. 105). The classical name was _machaira_. Xenophon -recommends it as a cavalry weapon, because of its heavy down-stroke. -This example comes from Spain, where many similar swords have been -found, but the origin of the type is Greek or even Oriental. The -dagger with a cylindrical bronze hilt of which the pommel is a -lynx-head, appears from the style of the decoration to be Graeco-Roman -(No. =268=). Some models in terracotta from Naukratis give the types -of the Hellenistic period (No. =269=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--GREEK IRON SWORDS (NOS. 265, 267). 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--THE _Machaira_, WITH HILT IN THE SHAPE OF A -BIRD.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--GREEK SPEARHEADS (NOS. 272-3, 275). About -1:4.] - -=Greek and Roman spears.=--Classical spears are represented by a -variety of heads both in bronze and iron. The earliest Greek type is -an iron head found with pottery of the tenth or ninth century B.C. in -a grave at Assarlik in Asia Minor (No. =271=). Those with three and -four blades are a small class, examples of which came to light at -Olympia, and suggest as a date the end of the sixth century B.C. (No. -=272=; fig. 106_a_). To the same date may belong the decoratively -modelled bronze spear from Kameiros, and another of plainer design -from the same place (No. =273=; fig. 106_b_, _c_), with two from -Olympia, and a large iron one (No. =274=) found with the fine Attic -helmet (p. 78) in Macedonia. A curious spearhead, or perhaps a butt, -from Olympia is shown among the Greek Inscriptions (p. 9, No. =14=, -fig. 8). Spearbutts are not uncommon. Some are plain tapered ferrules -(No. =279=; fig. 107), others end in two-pronged forks (Nos. =280=, -=281=; fig. 107). The bronze forks are from Egypt, the iron one -(fig. 107, bottom centre) was found on the bank of the Tiber with the -spearheads mentioned below. The unusually long iron head, which was -found in Spain with the iron _machaira_, is probably a later Greek -form (No. =275=; fig. 106_d_). This example exhibits in a high degree -the superiority of iron to bronze. Other iron spearheads are from -Italy; some are from the Tiber (No. =276=). Three specimens, one with -remains of the wooden shaft and the lashing of wire, were found near -the village of Talamone on the west coast of Italy (No. =277=; fig. -108), where in 225 B.C. the Romans won a decisive victory over the -Gauls, who had marched successfully to within a few days of Rome, and -were returning home with their plunder. Like the helmets from Kyme and -Cannae, and the arms from Marathon, these spears are relics of one -of the famous battles of antiquity. The Roman soldiers of later times -carried spears of a different kind. They had no thrusting lance, but -an extremely heavy weapon, the _pilum_, which they threw with great -effect at close quarters. The small iron heads from Licenza (No. -=278=) have much the same shape as the head of the _pilum_. They -probably belonged to light throwing-spears. The purpose of the long -head was to bend and encumber the enemy after piercing his shield or -armour. - -=Roman swords.=--The collection of swords ends in those which belong -to the Roman period. A fragment of a sword with a heavy iron blade -seems too big for the natives of Italy, and may have been used by a -Gaulish invader (No. =282=). The large sword with a flat guard and -an ivory and bronze handle (No. =283=) is perhaps a Roman _gladius_, -which was afterwards superseded in the army by a sword of Spanish -pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--BRONZE AND IRON SPEAR-BUTTS (NOS. 279-81). -Ca. 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--IRON SPEARHEADS FROM TALAMONE (NO. 277). -About 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--ROMAN LEGIONARY SWORD AND SCABBARD FOUND AT -MAINZ (NO. 284). 1:4. Reliefs, 2:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--GREEK AND CYPRIOTE BRONZE ARROWHEADS (NOS. -290, 288). 2:3.] - -The later Roman sword is excellently represented by the so-called -"Sword of Tiberius," which was found in a field at Mainz on the Rhine -(No. =284=; fig. 109). The short iron blade is of the usual type, -measuring twenty-one inches in length and two and a half in width at -the base, from whence it tapers gently to a sharp point. The scabbard -was made of wood covered with a plate of silver-gilt which is -decorated with reliefs in gilt bronze. The plates of the bands which -were hooked to the sword-belt are ornamented with wreaths of oak. At -the hilt is a group which represents the Emperor Tiberius receiving -his nephew Germanicus on the latter's return, in the year 17 A.D., -from his victorious campaigns against the Germans, in the course of -which he had recovered one of the legionary eagles which Varus had -lost. The emperor, robed as a deity, is seated on a throne, resting -his left arm on a shield which is inscribed +FELICITAS · TIBERI+--"The -Good Fortune of Tiberius"--and holding in his right hand a small -figure of Victory with wreath and palm, which he has just taken -from his returning general. Germanicus stands before him in military -attire, with his right hand stretched out. In the background is an -armed figure, and behind the emperor a winged Victory brings a shield -upon which is the legend +VIC · AVG+--"The Victory of Augustus." -The middle of the scabbard is occupied by a medallion charged with -a portrait of Tiberius, and at the point is a larger plate which is -divided into two fields. The uppermost has a representation of a Roman -eagle in a temple, and in the other is an Amazon armed with battle-axe -and lance. It might not be wrong to connect the eagle with that of -Varus; and the figure of the Amazon calls to mind the ode of Horace -(_Carm._ iv. 4) celebrating the success of Drusus, the father of -this Germanicus, against the Germans of the Danube, in which the poet -expresses surprise that those barbarians should be armed with the -Amazonian axe. Perhaps the next generation attributed this legendary -weapon also to the Germans of the Rhine, and the Amazon is an allusion -to the campaigns which the sword commemorates. From the contrast of -the elaboration of the design with the cheapness of the execution, it -would seem that the weapon is one of many copies which were turned -out for some official purpose, probably a sword of honour presented to -officers who had served with Germanicus. - -Other remains of Roman swords are less complete. There are several -fragments of scabbards, a bronze guard, two ivory pieces which may -have been pommels of the hilt or caps of the sheath, and a good -specimen of an entire hilt in bone (No. =285=). This is very similar -to the classical Greek pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--ROMAN ARROWHEADS (NO. 293). 2:3.] - -=Sling-shot and arrowheads.=--Weapons which show little difference -of form in Greek or Roman times are the sling-shot (No. =286=) and -arrowheads. Sling-shot are mostly cast in lead, but some are of bronze -and stone. The inscribed sling-bolts from Marathon have already been -mentioned, and others similarly bear inscriptions in raised letters: a -personal name, of the maker or the general or the slinger; or the name -of the state from whose army it was shot--"From the Corinthians"; or a -message to the bullet or to the enemy--"Strike hard," and "Take this." -A large bronze arrowhead from Olynthus (No. =291=) bears the name of -Philip, probably the father of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian -king against whom Demosthenes wrote his Olynthiac and Philippic -orations. - -Some of the arrowheads have already been described, the Mycenaean from -Rhodes (No. =252=; fig. 98), and those from Marathon (No. =266=; fig. -103). The large iron heads with knife-like blade and long tang are -Oriental (No. =287=); those from Marathon were no doubt used by -Persian bowmen. A similar group from Cyprus, but of bronze, shows long -square heads (No. =288=; fig. 110, top, right). A bundle of six bronze -arrowheads of broad leaf shape, found in a grave at Enkomi in Cyprus, -has rusted together as the arrows lay in the quiver, remains of which -and of the wooden shafts can still be seen (No. =289=). Greek examples -belong to two classes; they are all made of bronze. The commoner class -has sockets and blades like miniature spearheads; (No. =290=; fig. -110). Many of these have three blades; the large inscribed head from -Olynthus (No. =291=) is of this shape, but barbed. Another variety, -which always has barbs, is triangular with a central hole for the -shaft. The second class consists of heavy heads with long barbs and -tangs (No. =292=). These appear to be related to a Mycenaean form (see -fig. 98), and as they are often represented on coins of Crete, they -may perhaps be identified as the arrows of the Cretan bow. The Roman -period is represented by six iron arrowheads from Xanten (_Castra -Vetera_) on the Rhine. They show the spearhead and triangular shapes, -and are all barbed (No. =293=; fig. 111). - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--BONE CALTHROP FROM THE CRIMEA (NO. 296). -2:3.] - -Such is the regular series of classical weapons. Exceptional pieces -are the bronze double-axe (No. =294=), if this can be called a weapon, -the ridged mace-head from Rome (No. =295=), and the calthrop (No. -=296=; fig. 112), a contrivance for disabling cavalry. This singular -object, which was found at Kertch in the Crimea, is cut from a human -radius bone. - - The bronze weapons are more fully described in the _Catalogue - of Bronzes_ under the numbers painted on the objects. - - (269) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 629 ff.; (271) _Journal of - Hellenic Studies_, VIII., p. 64; (284) _Proc. Soc. Ant. - Lond._, N.S. III., p. 358; _Cat. of Bronzes_, 867; (289) - _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 17, fig. 28; (296) McPherson, - _Antiq. Kertch_, p. 101. - - - [Footnote 40: [Greek: - - Targeioi anethen tôi Diwi tôn Korinthothen.] - - - - -X.--HOUSE AND FURNITURE. - -(Wall-Cases 25-40.) - - -Cases 25-40 contain furniture, lamps and lamp-stands, cooking -utensils, objects used in connection with the bath, and objects -illustrating the methods of heating buildings and supplying them with -water. With the house itself, its plan and its appearance we are -not concerned in this work. It is enough to say that the fundamental -distinction between the ancient and modern house is that the one -looked inwards, the other looks outwards. The ancient house received -its light and air either from the open courtyard, round which it was -built, or else from a large aperture in the roof. The former was the -prevailing arrangement in Greece, the latter (in the earlier period) -that adopted in Italy. The outside of the average Greek house was -probably very destitute of architectural ornament, presenting a wide -space of blank wall broken but by few windows. - -The Roman house in its final development assumed a form closely -resembling that of the Greek house just described. At an early period -it was based on the early Italian house. This consisted merely of an -oblong chamber, with a small opening in the roof for the admission -of light and emission of smoke. This chamber was called an _atrium_, -perhaps because walls and roof were black (_ater_) with soot from the -smoke of the fire. Gradually the opening in the roof became larger. -Rain fell in the centre into a basin called the _impluvium_. The -_atrium_ lost its character as a living room, and further courts and -rooms in the Greek manner were added to it. - -We may now deal with the internal arrangements and the furniture. The -objects may be described as they concern (1) the general furniture -of the house; (2) the lighting; (3) the kitchen; (4) the bath; (5) -water supply; (6) the warming. (7) Annexed is a small type-series of -vases. - -=The Furniture of the house.=--In the nature of things, wooden -furniture rarely occurs outside Egypt, except in South Russia. Thus we -have a wooden table leg: a dog springs upward, from an acanthus leaf, -surmounting an animal's leg (No. =300=). This comes from Kertch in the -Crimea. In general, the remains of furniture shown in this section -are the metal accessories and fittings. These are for the most part of -Roman date, but Roman furniture was so largely derived from the Greek, -that they may be regarded as illustrating Greek furniture as well. - -Some remarkable examples of bolster-ends in bronze, bronze inlaid with -silver, and ivory, are shown in Cases 27, 28. They usually terminate -above in a head of a mule, or of a duck, and below in a medallion -bust. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--BRONZE COUCH (RESTORED).] - -The seat (No. =301=) is incorrectly put together. It is composed of -the parts of one or two couches which should be restored as in fig. -113. - -Below is a small bronze stool (No. =302=), without arms or back, of -a type not uncommon at Pompeii. Two tripods with expanding legs are -placed in the bottom of Cases 27-28. One of these (No. =303=) has an -arrangement similar to that of the candelabrum No. =307=, whereby it -could be heightened at will. These tripods were used as small tables. -Of a much older period is the fragment (No. =304=) from the leg of a -large bronze tripod, from Palaekastro in Crete. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--ARCHAIC LAMPSTAND AND LAMP IN TERRACOTTA -(NO. 305). Ca. 1:7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--ROMAN BRONZE LAMPSTAND. (NO. 306*). 1:4.] - -=Lighting.=--In Cases 25, and 28, 29 are placed several candelabra -used either for the support of wicks floating in an oil-bath or for -lamps, or torches. Those stands which have come down to us are chiefly -of bronze, but the cheaper ones in ancient times were made of -wood. Martial, in an epigram, warns the possessor of such a wooden -candelabrum to take care that the whole stand does not turn into one -blazing candle.[41] A primitive example of lamp and candelabrum shaft -combined is shown in No. =305=, (fig. 114), from Cameiros (about -seventh century B.C.). A female figure, of columnar form, supports -a lamp with three nozzles. The Etruscan candelabra and many of the -candelabra found at Herculaneum and Pompeii consist of a base in the -form of three legs or paws, very commonly those of lions, a tall stem, -and a circular support or spreading arms for the lamps at the top. -The stem may be fluted, or may be knotted like a stem of a plant, or -divided like a reed. In Roman times another variety is also common, -composed of a massive base with three or more spreading arms, from -which lamps were suspended. Such a stand (No. =306=) is seen on the -upper shelf of Cases 29-30. A point which may be specially noted -in regard to some of the bronze stands of the Roman period is the -decoration of the shaft, which often takes the form of a climbing -animal. That shown in fig. 115 (No. =306*=) has a panther, a cock, and -a bearded serpent on the shaft. An ingenious expanding Roman bronze -lampstand (No. =307=) from the Hamilton Collection should be noticed -in the lower part of Case 29. The central rod attached to the circular -lamp-support can be raised at will, and secured in place by means of -a bronze pin passed through one of the pairs of holes pierced in the -side rods. - -The lamps themselves (in Cases 31 and 32) are of terracotta, bronze -and marble. The greater number are of the Roman period. One of the -earliest is a primitive lamp (No. =308=; fig. 116) of the prehistoric -period known as Mycenaean, and was found in the course of the Museum -excavations at Enkomi in Cyprus. It was thrust, by its spike, into the -masonry joints of a built tomb, and must have had a wick floating in -the oil, or supported at the spout. The essential parts of a lamp in -the developed form are (1) the well for the oil, formed by the body -of the lamp and fed from an opening above; in the bronze lamps this -opening is covered by means of a lid, sometimes hinged, sometimes -secured by a chain, as in No. =309=, fig. 117; (2) the nozzle for -the insertion of the wick. The nozzle generally takes the form of -a projecting spout, but the arrangement varies very considerably in -different lamps, and a single lamp is often furnished with several -nozzles. The lamps might either be simply placed on a candelabrum or -else suspended from it. Several of the bronze lamps have chains for -the latter purpose (No. =309=; fig. 117). A peculiar bronze hook, of -which there are several examples in these cases, was sometimes used in -the Roman period for hanging up the lamps; in the example illustrated -(No. =310=; fig. 118) it is seen hinged to the lamp in such a way that -the lamp could be suspended, supported from the ground, or carried in -any way desired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--BRONZE LAMP FROM ENKOMI (NO. 308).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117--ROMAN BRONZE HANGING-LAMP (NO. 309). Ca. -1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--ROMAN BRONZE LAMP WITH HOOK FOR SUSPENSION -(NO. 310). Ca. 1:3.] - -The numerous Graeco-Roman bronze lamps in these cases show a great -variety of form. Heads of Seilenos, Pan, negroes, etc., appear side by -side with a fir-cone, a foot, a duck, a snail, or a wolf. The handles -often terminate in an animal's head, _e.g._, that of a horse, a dog, a -lion, or a swan (cf. fig. 117). A fine example, with a tragic mask on -the handle (No. =311=; fig. 119) was found at Rome in 1912. But the -choicest example of a bronze lamp will be found in the Bronze Room -(Case B). It is a double lamp for suspension, and was found in the -Roman Baths at Paris. A silver lamp with Heracles strangling the -serpents, on a boat-shaped cradle (No. =312=), is shown in Case 29. -The cheaper terracotta lamps are freely decorated with designs taken -from daily life or mythology. Numerous specimens of these lamps will -be seen in Table-Case B in the Fourth Vase Room. A very elaborate -example (No. =313=) in the form of a ship is seen here in the bottom -of Case 30. The twenty-three holes for wicks and filling should be -noted. The lamp fillers, as may be seen from the bronze specimen -exhibited, closely resembled the lamps themselves (No. =314=). - -Candlesticks are rare. In the Etruscan candelabra (Nos. =315=, =316=; -Bronze Room Cases 57-60) projecting spikes seem to be intended for -piercing candles, as shown by a tomb painting at Orvieto (fig. 120; -see Bronze Room, Case 60). Two candlesticks of modern type (which -rarely occurs) are shown in Case 30 (No. =317=; fig. 121). - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--ROMAN BRONZE LAMP. TRAGIC MASK (NO. 311).] - -Besides lamps and candles, lanterns were also largely in use, -especially for outdoor purposes. Such a portable Roman lantern (in -Case 32) is here illustrated (No. =318=; fig. 122). It is cylindrical -in shape and has a hemispherical cover, which could be raised from -the body of the lantern. The latter was enclosed with plates of some -transparent material such as horn, bladder, or linen. That talc was -also used is shown by the fact that several of the lanterns in the -Museum at Naples have their walls made of this material. Just below -the lantern is a small bronze statuette, which has formed the body of -a knife (No. =319=). A grotesque figure is walking with a lantern in -his right hand, and a basket slung over his shoulders. It was found at -Behnesa, in Egypt, and probably represents a bird-catcher returning in -the evening with his spoils. The lantern carried by him very closely -resembles the one described above. - -Cheaper forms of perforated clay lanterns are also exhibited (No. -=320=; fig. 123). - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--ETRUSCAN CANDLE HOLDER, FROM A TOMB FRESCO.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--BRONZE CANDLESTICK FROM SYRIA (NO. 317).] - -=The Kitchen.=--Cases 33-36 contain cooking implements and remains of -ancient fruit and grain. The vessels give a good idea of the furniture -of a Pompeian kitchen, although there is no example of the more -elaborate contrivances for preparing hot drinks and keeping food warm, -such as have been found at Pompeii, and may be seen in the Museum at -Naples. - -The kitchen implements arranged in these cases do not differ -materially from those in modern use, except that they are made -of bronze, and frequently have some graceful and appropriate -ornamentation. One or two of the objects call for special remark. On -the second shelf from the bottom of Case 34 is an implement with -a long handle and a rectangular pan furnished with six circular -depressions (No. =321=). A circular pan with twenty-eight such -depressions was found at Pompeii, and is now at Naples. These pans -were probably used either for baking cakes or frying eggs. - -In Case 36, on the same shelf as the pan for baking cakes, is a bronze -frying-pan (No. =322=), with a spout at one corner. Instead of -butter, fat, or dripping, the Romans, like the inhabitants of southern -countries at the present day, were accustomed to use oil in frying. -The shelf above the pans is occupied with ladles, dippers, and -other implements. The handles of the ladles usually terminate in a -beautifully modelled head of an animal, such as that of a duck, swan, -or dog. One wine dipper (No. =323=) is hinged so as to fold for the -pocket. On the next shelf above are two painted plates of about the -beginning of the third century B.C. They belong to a well marked class -(cf. Fourth Vase Room, Cases 26-7) of plates of Campanian fabric, -distinguished by the fish and other marine creatures painted upon -them. It is probable that they were intended for the serving of fish. -Of the two examples shown in this case one (No. =324=) is decorated -with a sea-perch, a sargus (a fish peculiar to the Mediterranean), and -a torpedo, the other (No. =325=; fig. 124) with a red mullet, a bass, -a sargus, and a cuttlefish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--BRONZE LANTERN (NO. 318). 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--EARTHENWARE LANTERN (NO. 320).] - -The strainers (No. =326=), with perforated designs, on the right of -Case 36, were used for clearing wine and other liquids. In Cases 36, -37 are bronze moulds for shaping food in the form of shells. - -Some remains of ancient walnuts, grain, and fragments of calcined -bread from Pompeii, and a black cup from Rhodes, containing eggs, are -shown in the middle shelf of Case 35. - -The process of bread-making is illustrated by the terracottas shown in -this case. One (No. =327=) from Kameiros in Rhodes represents a woman -kneading dough on a board placed in a circular trough resting on -three legs. Another (No. =328=), of much rougher workmanship, shows a -bearded man engaged in a like occupation. A third (No. =329=) shows -a woman kneading in front of the oven. A small terracotta model of an -oven shows two cakes baking (No. =330=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--FISH-PLATE (NO. 325). Diam. 8-3/4 in.] - -In antiquity knives and forks were little used at table, fingers -being mainly employed. Only one three-pronged fork (No. =331=) is -here shown. Spoons, however, were common, and a considerable number -of ancient spoons (No. =332=) are exhibited in Case 36. The series of -large ivory spoons with elaborately ornamented handles belong to an -early period, a similar one coming from the Polledrara tomb at Vulci -in Etruria, of the seventh century B.C. The small spoons in bronze or -ivory, with round head and handle running to a point, were probably -used for the eating of eggs and the extraction of snails from their -shells. Snails were a favourite dish with the Romans, and the spoon -got its name (_cochleare_) from being employed in this way.[42] - -In the lower part of Case 36 are examples of pestles and mortars (No. -=333=). The pestle usually takes the form of a bent thumb, or of a leg -and foot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--ATHLETE USING STRIGIL.] - -In early times cooking was done either in the courtyard of the -house or in the principal living-room. Pompeian houses are, however, -generally provided with separate kitchens, small rooms opening off the -court of the peristyle. The hearth is a simple rectangular structure -of masonry, sometimes furnished with projecting supports for holding -vessels over the fire. Much, however, of the warming and working was -done over small braziers, such as are shown on a small scale, and by -a model, in the lower part of Case 36. The terracotta braziers are of -characteristic form, with three internal projecting knobs to support -the cooking vessel. These are generally ornamented with masks of -Hephaestos, Satyrs, or the like (No. =334=). Compare examples in the -Terracotta Room (_Cat. of Terracottas_, p. xix., C 863 ff). See also -in Case 36 a terracotta food warmer, from Olbia, in the form of a -shrine (No. =335=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.--BRONZE STRIGILS AND OIL-FLASK (NO. 337). Ca. -2:7.] - -=The Bath.=--Certain implements shown in Case 37 illustrate the -routine of the bath, which occupied a large place in the life both -of the Greeks and Romans. Celsus, who wrote on the art of medicine -probably early in the first century after Christ, recommended the -bather first to go into the moderately heated room (_tepidarium_), and -perspire slightly, then to anoint himself and to pass into the hot air -room. After perspiring there he was to pour hot, warm, and cold water -alternately over his head, then to scrape himself with the strigil, -and finally to anoint himself--the last probably a precaution against -taking cold. This description will enable us to understand the use -of the implements carried by bathers. Of these the strigil is most -important. It was a curved piece of metal, usually bronze, but -sometimes iron, employed by athletes for removing dust and oil -after exercise, and by bathers for scraping away sweat and dirt. The -accompanying figure (fig. 125), drawn from a Greek vase of the fifth -century B.C., shows an athlete resting after exercise, and about to -use the strigil. Some times a strigil, oil-flask, and sponge are seen -on vases, suspended from the wall of the _palaestra_ where youths are -exercising. In Case 37 a small lekythos (No. =336=) shows an athlete -with a strigil, and an impression from a gem illustrates the method of -using that implement. The strigils here seen range in date from about -the sixth century B.C. to the third century A.D. Many of them are -inscribed with the name of their owners, and some have small figures, -_e.g._, a man dancing or a horse galloping, stamped upon them. Two -strigils which deserve special mention are the silver one found in -the sarcophagus of the Etruscan lady, Seianti Hanunia (second century -B.C.), and exhibited with that sarcophagus in the Terracotta Room, and -the beautiful bronze ornamental strigil in the Bronze Room (Pedestal -3), with the handle in the form of a girl herself using the strigil. -A complete bather's outfit of Roman date (No. =337=), found near -Düsseldorf, includes two bronze strigils and an oil-flask attached by -rings to a handle (fig. 126), and several glass vases for use in the -toilet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--SECTION OF ROMAN BRONZE PUMP FROM BOLSENA -(NO. 338). 1:5.] - -=Water Supply.=--A few objects in Cases 38-39 illustrate the methods -of water-supply among the Romans, which are characterised by their -completeness and excellence. The remains of two Roman double-action -pumps in bronze from Bolsena in Etruria (Nos. =338=, =339=; figs. 127, -128) are of special interest. These are constructed on a principle -invented by Ktesibios of Alexandria, who probably lived in the third -century B.C. They were worked by alternating plungers, raised and -lowered by a rocking-beam. The first illustration (fig. 127) shows -the less advanced but more complete pump in section, and explains the -method, of working. The bottoms of the cylinders (A) were connected -by pipes with the reservoir, and are furnished with flap-valves -(B), opening upwards. When the plunger (C) was raised, a vacuum -was created, and the water lifted the valve and rushed in. When the -plunger was raised to its highest point the valve fell again and -retained the water; when the plunger descended it forced the water -from the cylinder into the central discharge pipe through another -flap-valve (D) at the end of the horizontal pipe. BD in the figure -shows the structure of the flap-valves, which the Greeks called -[Greek: assaria] ("pennies") from their likeness to coins. F is -a complete plunger of the same type as those used in the pump -illustrated, but not belonging to it. Only two-thirds of the second -pump (No. =339=) survive, but the missing part (marked off in the -diagram by a dotted line) is supplied in the section (fig. 128). In -this example the more advanced spindle valve takes the place of the -flap valves, and the two valves side by side open into a central domed -chamber, in place of the simple central cylinder of No. =338=. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--SECTION OF SECOND ROMAN BRONZE PUMP, FROM -BOLSENA (NO. 339).] - -There are here several jets and spouts for the emission of water, one -(No. =339=) in the form of a pine-cone, pierced with small holes for -sending out a spray, others in the form of dolphins (No. =340=) and -the fore-part of a horse (No. =341=). The bronze stop-cocks seen in -Case 39 were used for controlling the flow of water from the cisterns -to the various parts of the house. They were inserted in the lead -water-pipes, portions of which still adhere to them. Their arrangement -is excellently illustrated by those discovered at the Roman villa at -Boscoreale, near Pompeii (see _Mon. Ant._ vii., p. 454, fig. 45_a_). -See also a gargoyle in the form of a lion for rain water (No. =342=), -and a bronze grating from the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos (No. =343=) -for draining it away. Various lead supply pipes and clay drain pipes -are shown in case 39. - -=Heating.=--In early times houses were heated by means of a large open -hearth placed in the middle of the principal room, whence the smoke -escaped as it might, through the door, or between the roof beams. Next -followed the use of portable braziers in bronze, such as have been -found in Etruscan tombs from the seventh century B.C. (cf. Italic -Room, Cases B, C). The small braziers used for cooking, etc., in the -Hellenistic period have been mentioned above, p. 118. A system of -heating by hot air was introduced by the Romans, but was used chiefly -for the warming of baths. For the general heating of houses such an -arrangement was, until about the third century A.D. exceptional, and -Seneca, writing in the first century A.D. regards it as an enervating -luxury. Several examples of Roman terracotta flue-tiles (No. =344=) -for the transmission of hot air are seen in the bottom of Cases 39, -40. - -=Shapes of Vases.=--Case 40 contains a small type-series of the -leading shapes of Greek vases, intended to teach the names current in -archaeology (No. =345=). - - (300) Cf. _Ant. du Bosph. Cimm._, pl. 81, where a restoration - of a table with a leg of this kind is shown; (301) The - couch in fig. 113 is after the restoration of a couch from - Boscoreale, given in _Arch. Anzeiger_, 1900, p. 178; (304) - Cf. Furtwaengler, _Olympia, IV._, (_Die Bronzen_), pls. 28, 34; - (305) _Cat. of Lamps_, 137; (308) _ibid._, 1; (309) _ibid._, - 66; (310) _ibid._, 97; (312) _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, - XXVIII., pl. 33; (313) _Cat. of Lamps_, 390; (314) _ibid._, - 1437; (318) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1435; (320) _ibid._, 1511; (323) - _Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 148, No. 4; (324, 325) _Cat. - of Vases_, IV., F 259 and F 267; (338-339) _Cat. of Bronzes_, - 2573-4; (343) Newton, _Hist. Disc._, II., p. 143. - - On the Greek house generally, see Daremberg and Saglio s.v. - _Domus_ and B. C. Rider, _The Greek House_. On the Roman - house, see Daremberg and Saglio, _loc. cit._, and Mau-Kelsey, - _Pompeii_. - - - [Footnote 41: Martial, xiv. 44: - - Esse vides lignum; serves nisi lumina, fiet - De candelabro magna lucerna tibi. - ] - - [Footnote 42: Cf. Martial, xiv. 121: - - Sum cochleis habilis, sed nec minus utilis ovis: - Numquid scis potius cur cochleare vocer? - ] - - - - -XI.--DRESS AND TOILET. - -(Table-Case F.) - - -The objects connected with the toilet in Case F are those accessories -in metal and other materials that have been preserved. The actual -fashion of the dress of the Greeks and Romans can be best studied -elsewhere--in the Vase Rooms, the Room of Terracottas, and the -Sculpture Galleries. A few words only need be said here as to the -principal varieties of costume. - -=Greek Female Dress.=--The very singular and modern-looking dress of -the Minoan ladies may be seen in the facsimiles of Cretan statuettes -and carvings in the First Vase Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE -DORIAN _Chiton_.] - -The earliest dress of women which is represented in the art of -historical Greece is that which was known as the Dorian _chiton_, or -tunic. It was an oblong sheet of woollen cloth, measuring rather more -than the height of the wearer, and about twice the span of her arms. -This blanket was folded as shown in the annexed diagram (fig. 129). -The tunic then fell into position about the figure, leaving the arms -bare, as in the illustration, which is taken from a toilet-box (E 772) -in the Third Vase Room (fig. 130). The dress in its simplest form was -now complete, but as one side of it was open, a girdle was usually -worn to keep the edges together. At Sparta, where Dorian manners -were preserved in their primitive severity, the side remained open. -Elsewhere it was partially or completely sewn up. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE DORIAN _Chiton_.] - -About the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Ionian chiton was -introduced into Greece from Asia Minor, and became the ordinary -undergarment of women, in Italy as well as Greece, throughout the -classical period. It was in effect a loosely-fitting dress with wide -sleeves, girt at the waist. Being of fine linen instead of wool, a -mantle or wrap was worn over it to make up for the thinness of the -cloth. This construction is plainly shown in a drawing on the inside -of a cup (E 44) by the potter Euphronios, which represents a woman -busy with the knot of her girdle (fig. 131). The material was soft -and heavy, yet thin and transparent enough to reveal the form of the -figure beneath it. It is only in a dressing scene, such as this, -that the Ionian chiton is represented alone. Otherwise a mantle -(_himation_) was worn in addition. These mantles were of various -shapes and sizes, though always rectangular, and their arrangement did -not follow any fixed rule. Distinct fashions, however, in the wearing -of the over-mantle can be remarked at certain periods. Thus, when -the Ionian dress first came into use at Athens, an extraordinary -elaboration was cultivated, the folds being arranged with such -precision as to suggest that the garment is not a rectangular wrap, -but a made-up shawl artificially pressed and gathered. This style -of dress is best known from a large series of statues which were -discovered in excavations on the Acropolis of Athens. They are relics -of the city which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C., and -give an accurate date for the prevalence of the fashion. The type is -represented in a statuette in the Bronze Room (fig. 132): the lady -stands in an attitude of archaic severity, and holds up with her -left hand the skirt of the soft Ionian chiton which is underneath the -shawl. - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE IONIAN _Chiton_.] - -The outer garment was afterwards larger than this, as well as more -simply arranged. Often the whole figure was wrapped in the mantle, -which was also drawn over the mouth and the back of the head. This -heavy style was favoured in the fourth and third centuries B.C., and -constantly appears in the most numerous products of that period, the -terracotta statuettes from Tanagra and elsewhere. Fig. 133 is from -one of these, and others in the Terracotta Room show very clearly the -beautiful and varied draperies of the himation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--GREEK BRONZE STATUETTE, ILLUSTRATING AN -EARLY FASHION OF WOMEN'S DRESS. 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF A LADY OF THE -HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 1:2.] - -=Greek Male Dress.=--A dress worn in early times was a tunic falling -to the feet, with or without the mantle. It continued in use as -a ceremonial and festal attire of elderly men, minstrels and -charioteers. It is illustrated in a drawing of Peleus by the -vase-painter Amasis (?) (fig. 134), in which the soft texture of the -long white Ionian chiton is indicated by wavy lines, and the heavy -mantle hangs stiffly across the shoulders. Subsequently the long tunic -was discarded, and either a short form of the same garment, which had -been in use before for outdoor exercise, was adopted in its place, or -the outer cloak was worn alone. The short tunic was worn as before -by men engaged in active pursuits, and by boys, workmen and slaves. -A common fashion of wearing it was to fasten the shoulder on one side -only, so that the right arm and breast were free for violent movement. -A series of statuettes in the Bronze Room represents the blacksmith -god Hephaestos in this working garb (fig. 135). The ordinary costume -of the citizen was the himation or a mantle of smaller size. With this -the right shoulder was usually left free, as with the tunic; it is the -common dress of men on the red-figure Athenian vases (see the Third -Vase Room), from one of which (E 61) the illustration is taken -(fig. 136). Men of leisure or high rank affected a more elaborate -arrangement of the himation, by which the whole body was enveloped and -the free movement of the hands impeded. The statue of Sophokles in -the Lateran Museum at Rome is a good example of the care which a -cultivated man of the fifth century bestowed upon the adjustment of -this garment (fig. 137). - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--PELEUS WEARING THE IONIAN _Chiton_.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF HEPHAESTOS, WEARING THE -SHORT _Chiton_. 2:5.] - -Other mantles were of various sizes and were distinguished by many -names. The _chlamys_ was the smallest, and differed from the rest -also in shape, though its scheme was still rectangular. It was rather -longer in proportion to its width, and was clasped round the neck by -a brooch. Its origin was in Thessaly, where it was the cape of the -native horsemen, and it continued to be used for this purpose in the -rest of Greece. Young men wore it, especially when riding, and it was -a light and convenient dress for travellers. A young horseman on a cup -by the painter Euphronios (fig. 138) has a gaily embroidered chlamys -hung evenly across his shoulders, and underneath is seen the skirt of -the short chiton. - -=Roman Dress.=--The dress of Roman women was the same as that of the -Greeks of the Hellenistic period, who are vividly portrayed in the -terracotta statuettes (fig. 133). Their undergarment was the Ionian -chiton, now called _tunica_, of which two were sometimes worn -together, and the overmantle was the Greek himation, by its Roman -name, _palla_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--MAN WEARING THE _Himation_. (From a vase of -Hieron.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--STATUE OF SOPHOKLES WEARING THE _Himation_.] - -For men there was also a tunic similar to that worn by the Greeks; -but in place of the himation the Roman _toga_ was worn, a garment of -entirely different shape. In the relief of a cutler's shop, which -is exhibited in Case 41, the shopman wears the tunic without a belt, -while the customer, who has just come in from the street, wears the -toga as well (fig. 193). In that of the forge, in Case 48, both the -smiths have the tunic alone, with but the right shoulders unfastened -and the skirts girt up to the knee in Greek fashion (fig. 192; compare -fig. 135). Yet the Roman tunic seems already to have departed from the -Greek pattern in having sleeves, though only to the elbows. Sleeved -tunics were not unknown to the Greeks, whose slaves are often -represented in this dress; but it was a foreign habit, and as such -avoided. - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--A HORSEMAN WEARING THE _Chlamys_.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SHAPE OF THE TOGA.] - -The shape of the toga was roughly semicircular, the straight edge -being about six yards long and the width in the middle about two -yards, as in the diagram (fig. 139). The simplest mode of putting it -on was to place one end on the left shoulder, with the straight edge -nearest the centre of the body and the point almost touching the -ground. The left hand would be just covered by the curved edge. The -rest was then passed behind the back, over or under the right arm, -and over the left shoulder again, so that the point hung almost to the -ground behind. This was also a method of wearing the Greek himation, -and it is difficult to distinguish the two garments when so arranged; -but a close examination will discover the sharp point and the curved -edge in the case of the toga. At the end of the Republic and under the -Empire, to which period most of the monuments belong, more elaborate -fashions were developed, as in fig. 140, from a statuette in the -Bronze Room. - -We turn to the accessories of the dress and the toilet in Table Case -F. - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A ROMAN WEARING TUNIC -AND TOGA. 1:2.] - -=Greek and Roman Footwear.=--The general distinction was that the -Greeks wore both sandals, and also boots or shoes. The Romans wore the -boot, the _calceus_, but disapproved of the sandal. Part of Cicero's -charge against Verres was that he wore sandals, as well as other Greek -dress. - -The objects shown in Case F are either actual shoes and sandals -or representations of them from works of art, such as fragments of -statues; or applications of the device of a foot to the decoration of -such things as vases, lamps, tripod-feet, etc. - -The extant specimens include a Roman leather shoe (No. =344=) of cut -leather work, found in London; slippers from Antinoe in Egypt (No. -=345=), with coloured and cut leather work; a pair of cork soles -from Egypt (No. =346=), the edges of which were formerly gilt. A -well-preserved pair of soles is exhibited (No. =347=). They are made -of wood, divided at the instep, and plated with bronze, held in place -by iron nails. These appear to be of Etruscan origin, as several -examples have been found at Vulci (_Mus. Etr. Vat., I._, pl. 57, fig. -7). The sandal in its simplest form, as in the vase B 587 (No. =348=), -consists of a sole attached to the foot by thongs passing between -the great and second toes, and round the heel. The arrangement of -the thongs gradually became more elaborate, with the result that the -uncomfortable separation of the toes could be avoided. In the case of -the foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. =349=; fig. 141) there is -no toe-thong, but only a reminiscence of the ornament from which it -formerly started. An undershoe or sock now became possible, and the -shoe and laced sandal in combination (cf. the statue of Mausolos, -about 350 B.C.) became highly elaborate. See also the cast of a relief -in the Third Graeco-Roman Room (No. =350=) and the feet in marble and -bronze. In effect, the result was not greatly different from the Roman -military boot (_caliga_) bound up the leg with thongs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--FOOT OF THE HERMES OF OLYMPIA (NO. 349). -1:9.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A NEGRO SLAVE CLEANING A -BOOT (NO. 355). 1:2.] - -A simpler boot or shoe of modern pattern was also in use. In its -plainest forms it represents the Roman boot (_calceus_). Several -examples (No. =351=) are shown in this case. See also a vase (No. -=352=) in the form of a modern lace-boot. The nails on the sole are -arranged so as to impress _alpha_ and _omega_, and the mystic symbol -of the _swastika_ on the ground. A delicate gold model of a boot (No. -=353=) has [Illustration] [Greek: patou] "walk!" (?) on the sole. A -shoe has been found in Egypt, impressing at every step the invitation -[Greek: AKOLOUTHEI] ("follow!") The shoemaker at work in his workshop -is seen in the fifth century kylix (E 86; No. =354=). He is in the act -of cutting the leather with the semicircular knife of the form still -in use. - -In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the bronze statuette (No. -=355=; fig. 142) of a kneeling negro slave cleaning a boot. - - On Greek Dress, cf. Lady Evans, _Greek Dress_; E. B. Abrahams, - _Greek Dress_; on Roman, Heuzey in _Rev. de l'art ancien et - moderne_, 1897; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pallium_, _Peplos_, - _Toga_. On shoes and sandals, see _ibid._, _Calceus_, _Caliga_, - _Solea_. - -=Fibulae.=--Although the straight pin (cf. p. 137) was used for -fastening the dress, fibulae--that is, brooches on the safety-pin -principle--were most commonly worn. This method of fastening was of -early origin, and its use can be traced in all parts of Europe, but, -curiously enough, it seems to have been unknown in Egypt and the East. -The fibula experienced in the first centuries of its existence and in -the hands of different peoples so many variations and developments -of form, that these can be classified in distinct types, and their -presence in tombs and other deposits affords valuable evidence of the -date and origin of the objects with which they occur. - -The reader who wishes to pursue the study of the fibula with more -detail is referred to drawers 1-8 in Case D of the Bronze Room, and -to the collections in the Iron Age Room. In this case of toilet -accessories only a few of the typical forms are shown. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--FIBULA OF THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD (NO. 356). -1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--GREEK FIBULA WITH GEOMETRIC DECORATION (NO. -357). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--EARLY GREEK FIBULA (NO. 358). 1:2.] - -The simplest form of fibula is represented here by examples excavated -at Enkomi in Cyprus, which belong to the end of the Bronze Age, before -1000 B.C. (No. =356=; fig. 143). Starting from this primitive form, -the history of the fibula is one of progressive development and -elaboration. It must be observed in the first place that the whole -class of fibulae may be divided into two great groups--viz., an older -group, in which the coiled spring is unilateral, that is, a plain -spiral, between the bow and the pin; and a younger group, in which the -spring is bilateral, that is a symmetrically disposed double coil, on -each side of the pin. We deal first with the =Unilateral group=. In -Greek regions the development of the form, fig. 143, was mainly a -development of the catchplate in a vertical plane--that is in the -plane of the bow of the fibula. This plate, often with incised -patterns (Fig. 144; No. =357=) was a characteristic of the period of -geometric art in Greece. Two very large examples are shown above Case -D in the Bronze Room. The plainly curved bows may have some further -ornament, such as beads strung on them (No. =358=; fig. 145) or -imitation bead patterns, or a figure of a standing bird (No. =359=; -fig. 146). All these examples come from the island of Rhodes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--EARLY GREEK FIBULA (NO. 359). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--FIBULA FROM CYPRUS (NO. 360). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--ITALIAN FIBULA (NO. 361). 1:2.] - -Some from Cyprus are quite distinct, and seem to have no connection -with the others (No. =360=; fig. 147). In the classical period the -fibula was little used in Greece, in consequence of modifications in -dress which rendered such fastenings unnecessary. - -In Italy, on the other hand, the fibula flourished exceedingly. The -plain wire original, such as that given above (fig. 143) was soon -elaborated. In the catch-plate it developed either horizontally, that -is, by a beating out of the plate in a plane at right angles to that -of the bow (No. =361=; fig. 148) or longitudinally, by the elongation -of the catch-plate as in Nos. =362-3= (figs. 149-150). At the same -time developments were taking place in the bow. It became larger (fig. -149), and then was hollowed out to save weight and material (fig. -150), and assumed forms known as leech-shaped and boat-shaped--and -these threw out lateral knobs and ornaments (fig. 150), often of great -elaboration. Alternatively, the bow makes a second convolution (fig. -148), and may be adorned with horn-like pairs of projections (No. -=364=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--ITALIAN FIBULA OF LEECH SHAPE (NO. 362). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--ITALIAN FIBULA (NO. 363). 1:2.] - -An independent form is chiefly found at Hallstatt, in cemeteries of -the early European Iron Age. In this, two, or perhaps four, spiral -coils make the whole decoration of the brooch (No. =365=, fig. 151). - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--FIBULA OF _Hallstatt_ TYPE (NO. 365). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--FIBULA OF _La Tène_ TYPE (NO. 366). 1:2.] - -=The Bilateral form.=--The fibulae with the spring coiled on each side -of the central bow came into use about 400 B.C., in the late Iron Age -civilization, called the La Tène period, from the site on the Lake of -Neufchatel, where the richest finds have been made. Together with the -introduction of the double spring, there is a continued elongation -of the catch-plate, which is turned up as in No. =366= (fig. 152) and -attached to the bow as in No. =367= (fig. 153). Later its structural -origin is forgotten, and it becomes a solid framework (No. =368=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--FIBULA OF _La Tène_ PERIOD (NO. 367).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--FIBULA FROM BELOW SHOWING THE BILATERAL -SPRING (NO. 369).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--ROMAN FIBULA OF CROSS-BOW SHAPE (NO. 370). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--ROMAN FIBULA (NO. 371). 1:2.] - -The fibula of the Roman Empire was more like a brooch than a -safety-pin, if a distinction can be drawn between the two. The bow -became broad and heavy, while the pin was often made separately and -attached by a hinge. But it shows a strong connection with the La Tène -types, especially in the double coil of the spring, which was often -protected by a sheath (No. =369=; fig. 154). Even when the spring went -out of use, the fibula retained this cross-bow shape (No. =370=; fig. -155). The elaborate bronze brooch in the form of a ribbed band passing -through a ring (No. =371=; fig. 156) is stamped underneath with the -name of the maker (+VLATI+), in the manner of the Roman pottery. -Enamel or metal inlay was liberally applied in the decoration of the -later brooches. A large collection with great variety of shapes is -exhibited. The effect of the bright colours is best seen in the big -round pieces which were popular in the third and fourth centuries A.D. -(No. =373=; fig. 157). Animal forms were also common at this time, and -were similarly decorated with inlay (No. =374=; fig. 158). These -types were widely spread over the western provinces of the Empire, and -continued in use among the nations who succeeded to the Roman power. - -Somewhat akin to the fibulae are the strap buckles, which appear -to have come into use at a late period only. A group, nearly of the -modern form, is exhibited (No. =374*=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--LATE ROMAN ENAMELLED FIBULA (NO. 373). 1:1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--LATE ROMAN ENAMELLED FIBULA (NO. 374). 1:1.] - -=Jewellery and Ornaments.=--Jewellery in gold and silver can be best -studied in the Room of Gold Ornaments. The examples shown here are -chosen as types of the forms, rather than as choice pieces. - -=Bracelets.=--A favourite form of bracelet or armlet was modelled -in imitation of a snake coiled round the arm or wrist. See the small -silver bracelet of about the fourth to third century B.C., inscribed -with the names of its owner Kletis (No. =375=; fig. 159). The same -design is also used for finger-rings (No. =376=). Snake-coils of a -large size were also worn on the legs, as shown by a small terracotta -torso from Ephesus, which has this ornament on the thigh (No. =377=). -This torso also has a chain of beads passing over the shoulders and -crossing between the breasts. Such an arrangement is common on figures -in vases of the fourth to third century B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--BRACELET OF KLETIS (NO. 375).] - -=Finger-rings.=--The rings are generally set with an engraved gem -or bezel; some have revolving scarabs which are pierced through -the middle (No. =378=), another has a gold intaglio portrait of the -Empress Faustina (No. =379=), while an enormous bronze ring has the -design cut in the bezel itself, a double head of Hermes and a Seilenos -(No. =380=). These examples are in bronze and of poor workmanship, but -they serve to illustrate the general style of ancient rings. A great -number in gold and silver, arranged in order of date, are exhibited in -the Room of Gold Ornaments, where the subject can be more adequately -studied. The intaglio designs were for use in sealing, which was -more commonly practised by the ancients than it is now. Others have a -purely decorative purpose, and were worn in profusion. The bronze -hand (No. =381=) has rings on the upper joints of the fingers, -in accordance with a common fashion of the Roman Imperial period. -Fragments of bronze and terracotta also show the fashions of wear. -The Greeks of an early period did not usually wear ornamental rings, -although signets were in constant use, and it was not until the fourth -century B.C. that rings were worn for display. In Rome there were -class restrictions on the use of the gold ring, but these were -lessened as time went on, until in the late Empire they practically -disappeared. Betrothal rings were customary among the Romans, but in -Greece there is no record of their use. A gold betrothal ring is shown -in Case 53 (No. =639=). - -=Earrings.=--The bronze earrings are from the site of the temple of -Artemis at Ephesus, and are earlier than the sixth century B.C. (fig. -160). Two types are represented; the swelling hoop of wire, which hung -like a liquid drop (No. =382=) and the heavy coil, which was suspended -from a ring (No. =383=). For a very great variety of earrings, see the -collection in the Room of Gold Ornaments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--GREEK BRONZE EARRINGS OF EARLY DATE, FROM -EPHESUS (NOS. 382-3). 3:4.] - -=Bullae.=--The flat bronze pendants (No. =384=), with a circular -receptacle in the middle, are _bullae_. These are ornaments of -Etruscan origin, introduced early into Rome. They were designed to -contain amulets and charms, and were worn principally by freeborn -Roman boys, and occasionally by domestic animals. - -=Necklaces.=--The necklaces here exhibited (No. =385=) consist -of beads of painted terracotta and glass. See also the imitation -jewellery in terracotta, in the Terracotta Room, Table Case C. -Those of more precious materials are in the Gold Ornament Room. Some -fragments of terracotta show the Cypriote fashion of wearing numerous -necklaces together (No. =386=). - -=Studs, etc.=--Links and studs of Roman times (No. =387=) bear -a striking resemblance to the modern articles, as does a coiled -hook-and-eye which dates actually from the Bronze Age Period (No. -=388=). A peculiar fastening is seen in the double hooks which -probably served to loop together the two sides of a shawl or cloak -(No. =389=). They are probably of Roman date, and come in some -instances from the province of Gaul. - -=Pins.=--Some of the pins may have been used equally well to fasten -the clothing or to adorn the hair; but others were evidently designed -to serve only one of these purposes. Those in carved ivory are plainly -hair-pins (No. =390=; fig. 161). The roughly worked busts of Roman -ladies of the Empire indicate the period to which the series belongs. -The little statuette is intended to represent Aphrodite wringing the -water out of her hair, after rising from the sea. A fine gold pin -similarly modelled is exhibited in the Gold Ornament Room (Case K; -No. 3034). The ivory hand, which holds a cone and is encircled by a -serpent, has some magical significance, like the bronze votive-hands -in Case 106 (p. 57). - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--ROMAN IVORY HAIR-PINS (NO. 390). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--BRONZE AND SILVER PINS, OF MYCENAEAN AND -GREEK PERIODS (NOS. 391-6). 1:2.] - -The metal pins are less elaborate. The simplest shape was straight and -headless, a direct copy of the natural thorn which first suggested the -idea. A very primitive head is seen on the small bronze pin which is -bent round at the top (No. =391=; fig. 162_a_). It was found in the -island of Kalymnos, and belongs to the pre-Mycenaean age, say 2000 -B.C. A silver pin is similarly bent, but as it has a head as well, -is not so early (No. =392=; fig. 162_b_). Another prehistoric type is -represented by several bronze pins which were excavated from tombs of -the late Mycenaean age at Enkomi in Cyprus (No. =393=; fig. 162_c_). -These are pierced with eyes in which chains were fastened to secure -the pins to the dress or to each other. Three pins crowned by large -ivory knobs come from the same site and belong to the same period (No. -=394=; fig. 162_d_). The bronze pin with a head made of several discs -is Greek of the sixth century B.C., as it appears in the paintings -of the François Vase at Florence, which is an Attic work of that date -(No. =395=; figs. 162_e_, 163). Another classical type is the silver -pin with a moulded head (No. =396=; fig. 162_f_). Others of less -remarkable designs cannot be definitely dated. - -=Toilet.=--In the most personal aspects of life and manners there is -least room for change, for in the course of ages it is not man that -has altered, but his surroundings; and the study of such intimate -details reveals a close similarity between the ancient and the modern -worlds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--A WOMAN IN THE DORIAN _Chiton_, SHOWING THE -PIN ON SHOULDER.] - -=Combs.=--To begin with the more necessary implements, the combs go -back to a high antiquity. An ivory comb from Enkomi in Cyprus dates -from the Mycenaean age (No. =397=; fig. 164). It is of simpler form -than later combs, having only one row of teeth. The others are of the -Greek and Roman periods, and are made both of wood and bone. The usual -pattern is that of a modern tooth-comb, with a row of teeth on each -side of the body--one coarse and one fine. There are wooden examples -from Kertch, in South Russia (No. =398=). More elaborate is the ivory -piece, which is decorated with reliefs, a Gryphon and a lion on -one side and two cranes at a fountain on the other (No. =399=. The -original is in the case of Ivories, L). Another of good Roman period -is carved by an amateur hand with an inscription, doubtless in -compliment to the lady to whom it belonged (No. =400=; fig. 164). The -legend reads +MODESTINA·V·H·E·E+--the four letters at the end being -perhaps abbreviated epithets of the fair Modestina, _V(irgo) -H(onesta) E(t) E(gregia)_. A different type appears in the triangular -pocket-comb, which fits into a protecting case (No. =401=; fig. 164). -This belongs to the end of the Roman Empire, the fourth century A.D., -and may already show the influence of barbarian art. Similar combs -were brought to England by the Danes, and some of them which have been -found at York and elsewhere are exhibited in the British and Mediaeval -Department. - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--IVORY COMBS, OF THE MYCENAEAN AND ROMAN -PERIODS (NOS. 397, 400, 401). 1:3.] - -With the combs is a brush of vegetable bristles from an Egyptian -rubbish heap of a late period of the empire (No. =402=). - -=Toilet Boxes.=--Other relics of the dressing-table are the -toilet-boxes and scent-bottles. There is a Greek toilet-box from -Naukratis still coloured by the rouge which it contained (No. =403=); -and another has a carved wooden lid in the shape of a woman's head of -great beauty (No. =404=). A leaden box was found in a Greek tomb at -Halikarnassos (No. =405=). Another was given by Kratylos of Aegina -to Eulimine. The inscription, the modern turn of which is perhaps not -free from suspicion, describes it as a "slight token of respect from -a certain small Aeginetan" (No. =406=; fig. 165).[43] Other boxes of -bronze and ivory date from the Roman period. Most of the wooden -boxes are carved in fantastic or frivolous shapes: a swimming duck, -a crouching boar, and a shoe (Nos. =407=, =408=, =409=). These are -divided into compartments for the various powders, and some blocks of -paint are still preserved. For liquid ointments there are an alabaster -box (No. =410=) and three bottles of the same material and remains -of a leather bottle with its cork (No. =411=). An Etruscan bronze -_cista_, which stands on three human feet, contains a set of movable -tubes, each for a different unguent (No. =412=). The lid of this -receptacle was crowned by the small bronze statuette which stands -beside it. Besides cosmetics for the complexion, the toilet-boxes -may have held tooth-powders, for which there are many receipts in the -works of ancient writers on medicine. - -=Mirrors.=--For mirrors the ancients were at a disadvantage. The use -of glass was known, but was not common, and the ordinary reflecting -medium was a sheet of burnished metal. There are, however, two genuine -looking-glasses--one in a leaden frame, from Olbia (No. =413=), and -the other set, with several fragments, in a plaster slab, from Gheyta, -in Egypt (No. =414=). The glass was probably backed with foil, and it -is remarkable that the reflectors are convex, so that the image must -have been distorted. A similar surface is attempted on the square -sheet of metal, which is glazed with a vitreous enamel (No. =415=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--TOILET BOX OF EULIMINE (NO. 406).] - -The more usual metal mirrors have two principal forms: a circular -reflector, mounted on a handle like the modern hand-glass, which is -represented by a specimen in silver from Naukratis (No. =416=), and -a similar disc enclosed in a folding box (No. =417=). Both these -varieties were often decorated with engraving. See No. =417=, a mirror -from Hermione, with an engraved design of Aphrodite and Eros. In -the Bronze Room there are large collections of all types. A small -pocket-mirror in this Case has on one side of the bronze box a head -of Nero, and on the other the god Dionysos standing by a vine (No. -=418=). The disc is silver-plated, like most of these examples. Two -similar boxes have been turned out of large brass coins of Nero (No. -=419=). A fragment of a silvered mirror from Amathus in Cyprus has -a palm-tree engraved on its face (No. =420=). Though the design -indicates that this side is the front, yet the reflector was the -convex back, and thus, in a spirit quite foreign to Greek art, the -purpose of the thing was subordinated to its decoration. - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--BRONZE RAZOR OF PRIMITIVE SHAPE (NO. 421). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--BRONZE RAZOR FROM ATHENS (NO. 422). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--BRONZE RAZOR FROM SARDINIA (NO. 423). 3:5.] - -=Razors.=--The razor is another toilet instrument which existed in the -earliest times. No prehistoric specimens are in this collection, but -a primitive shape is represented by two circular blades with -stirrup-like handles (No. =421=, fig. 166). Others are of square spade -shape, with a twisted loop handle and a hole in the blade. One of -these is from Athens (No. =422=; fig. 167). A third type is shown in -three razors of Phoenician origin (from Sardinia and Carthage), with -long hatchet blades (No. =423=; fig. 168). These are ornamented with -engraving and have handles in the shape of swan's heads. All are made -of bronze, and were no doubt capable of taking an edge so keen as to -render them far more efficacious than their present appearance would -suggest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--BRONZE NAIL-FILE (NO. 424). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--SILVER EAR-PICK (NO. 425). 3:5.] - -=Miscellaneous Toilet Implements.=--Next to the razors are placed -various tools of which the functions are easily understood. There are -several nail-files with a roughened surface, and a smooth notch -for polishing (No. =424=; fig. 169). Two of these are combined with -ear-picks, which were in general use at Rome. They have a minute bowl -at the end of a slender arm. A very elegant ear-pick, which has a -leaf-shaped scraper at the other end, is made of silver (No. =425=; -fig. 170). Others end in a sharp point, which may have been used -either for a tooth-pick or in emergency for a _stilus_ pen (cf. p. -199). Another ear-pick is combined with a pair of tweezers and some -other tools now lost (No. =426=). The tweezers were used for plucking -out such hairs as Roman fashion deemed unsightly. - - For _Fibulae_, see _Catalogue of Bronzes_, and _Guide to - Antiquities of Early Iron Age_ (Dept. of B. & M. Antiqs.); - (375) _Cat. of Jewellery_, 2775; (406) _B.M. Inscr._, 947; - (420) _Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 149. - - - [Footnote 43: [Greek: Smikrou tinos Aiginêtou endees eimi - endeigma latreias.]] - - - - -XII.--DOMESTIC ARTS. - -(Table-Case G.) - - -In this Table Case, under the general heading of "The Domestic Arts," -objects are exhibited connected with the house industries of spinning, -weaving, and sewing, together with various groups of objects connected -with home life, such as locks and keys, seals, knives, etc. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--WOMAN SPINNING (NO. 421). Ht. of Vase 8-3/4 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--WOMAN SPINNING (NO. 422). Ht. of Vase 4-1/2 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--SPINDLES AND WHORLS, SHUTTLE AND LOOMWEIGHT. -2:5.] - -=Spinning and Weaving.=--(_a_) _Preparation of yarn._--The process of -spinning is clearly seen in the accompanying drawings from Greek -vases of the fourth and fifth centuries exhibited in this Case (Nos. -=421-2=; figs. 171-2). In each, a woman is holding up in her left hand -the distaff, a rod which is thrust through a bunch of unspun wool. -With the fingers of her right hand she is twisting fibres drawn from -the wool. The yarn is attached below to the top of the spindle, a rod -of wood or metal with a disc (whorl) near the bottom to assist the -rotation. When some quantity of yarn had been twisted it was wound -round the body of the spindle and hitched into a hook at its upper -end (see figs. 171, 173), to prevent it from unwinding. The twisting -process was then recommenced. An impressive description of the ancient -spindle is given by Plato in the vision of Er at the end of the -_Republic_,[44] where he likens the axis of the universe to the shaft -of a spindle suspended by a hook of adamant, and the revolving starry -heavens to a whorl made up of eight concentric rims, fitting one into -the other like boxes. Two bronze spindles (No. =423=) are seen in -the Case and are illustrated on either side of fig. 173. In the same -figure are shown four ivory whorls from spindles (No. =424=). Before -the wool was placed upon the distaff it appears to have been rubbed, -with a view to the separation of the fibres, upon an instrument known -as the _epinetron_ or _onos_. This was semi-cylindrical in form and -was placed upon the knee. Several examples in terracotta had long been -known, and were explained with little plausibility as covering-tiles. -One, however, was found with a painted design which first gave the -clue to its real use (Fig. 174). One of these _epinetra_ B 96 (No. -=425=) is exhibited in this Case, together with a fragment of a -second. Other examples are to be seen in the Second Vase Room (Cases -24 and 25), and one of these is illustrated here (No. =426=; fig. -175). A miniature example was found with the girl doll seated in a -chair, exhibited in Table-Case J with the other dolls (p. 195, fig. -234, below). - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--WOMAN WITH _Epinetron_ ON KNEE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--EPINETRON OR SPINNING INSTRUMENT (NO. 426). -L. 14-1/2 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 176.--PENELOPE AT THE LOOM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--LOOM WEIGHT (NO. 428). 2:3.] - -(_b_) _The Loom._--The only kind of loom in use in Greek and Roman -times was probably the upright loom. A good idea of its form is -obtained from the illustration (fig. 176), taken from a Greek -vase-painting[45] of the fifth century B.C., representing Penelope -seated beside the loom, with one of the suitors or Telemachos before -her. The primary part of the loom is the wooden frame (_jugum_) -resembling two posts with a cross-bar. Near the top is a roller, about -which the threads of the warp and the finished cloth are wound. The -threads of the warp hang downwards, strained by weights attached -to their ends. The row of nine rods fitted into sockets in the top -framework is probably for holding the balls of different coloured wool -used in the weaving. Coloured patterns are woven towards each selvedge -of the fabric. The band of winged figures must be regarded as a piece -of embroidery. (For tapestry weaving see below.) The two horizontal -rods lower down are the _canons_, which effect the alternation of the -threads of the warp. It may be noted that the threads are alternately -long and short at the lower end, so that the _canon_ would be inserted -correctly with great ease. The loom weights, which hang at the bottom, -closely resemble in form the sets (No. =427=) of pyramidal terracotta -and lead weights in this Case. The terracotta discs (figs. 173 and -177), which are pierced with two holes and sometimes have a stamped -design, are also probably loom-weights. No. =428= (fig. 177) has a -design of two dolphins plunging into the sea; No. =429= (fig. 173) is -stamped with a name--Kleodamos. As a loom weight was needed for every -thread of a warp, it is not surprising that they are found in great -numbers. Possibly the small bronze object (No. =430=) seen at the -bottom of fig. 173 may be an ancient shuttle, for passing the thread -of the woof to and fro in a horizontal direction, alternately before -and behind the threads of the warp. Afterwards they were driven close -together by the batten ([Greek: spathê]), a possible example of which -is the toothed bone object seen in this Case (No. =431=). - -Various specimens of ancient cloth are shown here. A piece from the -Crimea (No. =432=), with pretty geometric patterns in black on a -light ground, and a large fragment from an Egyptian tomb (No. =433=), -inscribed in paint "Diogenes, who was a patcher in his lifetime,"[46] -may be specially mentioned. - -The art of tapestry weaving was highly developed during the later -Roman Empire, especially in Egypt. See a fragment from Antinoe, fourth -to fifth centuries A.D. (No. =434=). The art of embroidery, that is, -of working with a needle on an already woven fabric, was practised -from very early times. See the small vase with a woman seated working -on a four-sided embroidery frame, supported on her lap (No. =435=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--BRONZE THIMBLE (NO. 436). 2:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--IRON SCISSORS FROM PRIENE (NO. 437). 2:3.] - -The objects illustrating ancient sewing, etc., speak pretty well for -themselves. Such are the bronze thimble (No. =436=; fig. 178), the -iron scissors (No. =437=; fig. 179), and the series of pins, needles, -bodkins, netting needles, etc. (figs. 180, 181). The needles and -pins are arranged in the Case according to their supposed order of -development, starting from the thorn or bone fragment with a hole -pierced in it. The Roman bronze needle-case from France (No. =438=; -fig. 182) is worthy of note. Similar cases were used by Roman surgeons -for their instruments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--NEEDLES, ETC. 2:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182--BRONZE NEEDLE-CASE (NO. 438). 2:3] - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--NETTING-NEEDLES. 2:5.] - - (421) _Cat. of Vases_, III., D 13; (433) Petrie, _Hawara_, pl. - viii., 2; (435) _Journ. of Hellen. Stud._, xxxi., p. 15; - cf. Blümner, _Technologie_, 2nd ed., pp. 220, 221; (438) Cf. - Deneffe, _La trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain_, pl. 2. - - On the ancient loom, see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - _Textrinum_; Blümner, _Technologie_, I., 2nd. ed., p. 135 ff. - -=Cutlery.=--At the east end of Table-Case G will be seen a series of -Greek and Roman knives, ranging from the long Mycenaean hunting knife -from Ialysos in Rhodes (No. =438=) to the numerous Roman pocket-knives -with bronze handles, frequently in the form of animals (No. =439=). -The iron blade has often rusted away, as will be seen from the -illustration (fig. 183), which gives a selection of these knives. -(_a_) represents a handle in the form of a panther catching a deer, -(_b_) one in the form of a ram's head, with a leg projecting below to -assist the grip, (_e_) a hound catching a hare. The iron blades are -still preserved in the case of (_c_) and (_d_). The first, from Nîmes, -has a bronze handle ending in a woman's head; (_d_) has a handle of -the same material in the form of a hound catching a hare. - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--ROMAN KNIVES AND KNIFE-HANDLES (NO. 439). -Ca. 1:2.] - -For two reliefs of a cutler's forge and a cutler's shop, see below, -pages 156, 157. - -=Locks and Keys.=--The earliest and simplest form of door fastening -used by the Greeks seems to have consisted of a bar of wood set behind -the door, and made to slide into a hole or staple in the sidepost. An -advance on this arrangement was soon made, when the bar was pulled -to by a strap from the outside, and could be opened again from the -outside by means of a key passed through a hole in the door, and -adapted to lift up the pegs which held the bar fast in position. This -is the type of lock mentioned in the _Odyssey_,[47] where Penelope -releases the strap from the hook to which it was fastened, puts in the -key, and lifts the pegs, "striking them fairly." The key for such a -lock will probably have resembled No. =440=, marked _a_ in fig. 186 -below, the working of which is shown in the sketch (fig. 184).[48] -It was passed narrow-wise through the central slot, then turned, and -drawn back so as to lift up the pegs fitted in grooves in the side -slots. The bar below would thus be freed and could be drawn to and -fro by the strap. This type of lock is still sometimes used in the -East.[49] - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--HOMERIC LOCK (RESTORED).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--ROMAN LOCK, WITH RESTORATIONS SHOWING -ORIGINAL MECHANISM AND USE OF KEY (NO. 441). 3:7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--ROMAN KEYS. 2:3.] - -The majority of Roman locks, though of a more complicated structure, -are made on the same principle, as may be seen from the ancient lock -No. =441= (probably from Pompeii) here exhibited, together with model -lock of the same type (No. =442=) and a diagram showing its original -arrangement (fig. 185_a-d_). Here the bolt has been shot through -the end link of a chain, part of which remains (fig. 185_c_). It is -secured by pins, the ends of which fit into a series of perforations -in the bolt and are kept down by a spring. The bolt was released by a -key fitted with teeth corresponding to the perforations (fig. 185_d_). -The key lifted the pins out of the holes and took their place. The -bolt was then drawn aside, as the key was moved along the horizontal -slot. On account of the double movement, first vertical and then -horizontal, the keyhole is in the shape |¯. Several bolts, keys -(_e.g._ No. =442=; fig. 186_c_), and door plates for locks of this -type are exhibited in this Case. Three keys from Syria are shown (No. -=443=) fitted into the wards of the actual bolts for which they were -made. Notice the projections on the ring of key _c_, which were used -for shooting a supplementary bolt, a common device in Roman locks. - -The modern type of lock, in which the key works on a pivot and moves -the bolt backwards and forwards by a rotatory movement, after passing -through a series of wards, was also known to the Romans. This is -proved by the existence of several Roman keys solely adapted to a -lock of this character (_e.g._, No. =444=; fig. 186_d_). Such keys are -frequently found combined with finger-rings, a convenient method of -lessening the danger of loss. We may conclude that this type of key -was a favourite one for use with small padlocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 187. ROMAN PADLOCK, WITH KEY RUSTED IN IT (NO. -445). Ca. 1:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--ROMAN PADLOCKS (NOS. 446, 447). 1:1.] - -Padlocks of Roman date are common. In this Case three of a barrel form -are shown. One (No. =445=; fig. 187) has the key still rusted in -it. The padlock has traces of a chain attachment at one end, and was -probably kept hanging to a doorpost, while the bolt was shot into the -end link of a chain attached to the door. Two other Roman padlocks -illustrated (fig. 188) are more ornamental in character. One (No. -=446=) is in the form of a circular box with hinged handle, the free -end of which was fastened by pin-bolts within the box. There is also -a secret catch underneath. The other padlock (No. =447=) is furnished -with a chain attached to one side of it. The last link of the free end -was fastened inside the box, the lid of which was closed with a secret -catch. The head on the cover is that of a Sphinx, a hint that the -riddle of opening was not easy to solve. A hole in the floor of -the box makes it probable that it was fastened to the object to be -secured. - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--BRONZE STRONG-BOX, WITH COVER SEEN ON INNER -SIDE. _c_ AND _d_ EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF THE BOLT (NO. 450). 1:2.] - -Other objects deserving mention are the keys for raising latches (No. -=448=; fig. 186_b_), and the combined ward and pin keys (No. =449=; -fig. 186_e_), and also the very interesting Graeco-Roman bronze -strong-box from Tarentum (No. =450=; fig. 189). The box (_a_) has -a sliding lid (_b_), originally furnished on the inside with four -separate fastenings. Two are horizontal bolts shot home by turning -toothed discs from the outside; the third is the catch seen at the -end, which was held fast in the slot by a pin-bolt (_c_). This bolt -was moved by a disc on the outside of the cover, and was itself locked -by the turning of another disc behind it; it could only be drawn back -when the slot in that disc was brought into line with the bolt, as -indicated in design _d_ of the figure. The small catch on the right at -the end of the box fell into position automatically when the cover was -closed, and could only be unfastened by turning the box on its side. -The outside of the lid shows four similar circles, over which were the -revolving or sliding discs now lost (fig. 190). - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--COVER OF ABOVE STRONG-BOX (OUTER SIDE). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--SEALS AND SEAL-LOCKS (NOS. 452-4). 1:1.] - -=Seals.=--These were closely connected with locks in ancient life, and -often in fact took their place. Aristophanes makes the women complain -that not only did their husbands carry the patent Laconian key, -but that they also (at the instigation of Euripides) carried very -complicated "worm-eaten" seals,[50] not likely to be forged. Several -objects in this Case illustrate the use of seals. When a man wished to -secure an object he tied it up with string and put a lump of clay over -the knot, impressing the clay with his signet. Such impressions are -seen on several baked lumps of clay here exhibited. One large lump -(No. =451=) has no fewer than eight Roman seal impressions (several -from the same seal), while the knot of the cord remains embedded in -the clay underneath. This Case also contains examples (No. =452=) of -Roman seal-locks (one in wood and several in ivory). The wooden lock, -found in Egypt, is shown in fig. 191_a_, where its probable use is -indicated. The lock was suspended from the door-jamb on a pivot -passed through the small hole seen at the left end. The loop or staple -attached to the door was then inserted in the groove, and the movable -cover slid through it, as shown in the figure. The clay or wax was -next pressed into the hole behind the lid, and sealed with a signet -(as in fig. 191_b_, top view). The door could then not be opened -unless the seal or the lock was broken. Such a lock would be very -useful to prevent the often-mentioned pilfering by slaves.[51] Another -interesting class of objects is that of the seal-boxes (No. =453=). -They are small bronze boxes with hinged lids, and resemble in form -a pear-shaped or circular lamp. Each box has a small slot cut out on -either side, and three or four holes pierced in its floor. The cover -not infrequently has a design in relief (such as might be impressed -from a seal), _e.g._, a frog (fig. 191_d_). The illustration (fig. -191_e_) shows a suggested method of using them. The box is fastened by -studs (passed through the holes in its floor) to the lid of the object -to be secured. The string is inserted in a staple on the front of it -and tied in a knot, which is placed in the seal-box and held fast by -wax stamped with a seal. The projecting stud-heads would assist the -natural tenacity of the wax, so that it would be impossible to remove -the string without breaking the seal. Other arrangements are, of -course, possible. For instance, the staple might not be used, and -string might instead be tied round the object to be secured. The -ends would be brought into the seal-box by two of the holes, there be -secured by the sealed knot, and would leave it by two other holes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--ROMAN CUTLER'S FORGE (NO. 457). Ht. 18-3/4 -in.] - -Another form of seal was that consisting of two lead discs connected -by a loop (No. =454=). The discs were pressed together and stamped on -the outer surfaces with a design (as in fig. 191_c_). In this way the -loop was securely attached to the object to be protected. Probably -these seals were attached to merchandise by manufacturers or customs -officials, just in the same way as lead seals are used in our own -time. Their use appears to have been confined almost, if not entirely, -to Sicily. - -A variety of labels in lead, bronze, and ivory is shown in this Case. -They generally have a hole for attachment, and bear the name and -initials of their owner. The bronze label (No. =455=), to which a -portion of the iron object to which it was attached still adheres, has -the name of the owner, C. Junius Hermetus, inscribed upon it. A second -label has the name of another member of the family, Decius Junius -Hermetus (No. =456=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--ROMAN CUTLER'S SHOP (NO. 458). Ht. 19-1/2 -in.] - -Seals were applied by the use of signet rings of gold, silver, or -bronze with the impression of the seal cut in the metal or on a gem -set in the bezel (see p. 136). The engraved ring was usually employed -for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing of a letter or -document, and the device of the seal was more or less ornamental. For -the somewhat allied group of bronze tablets, used for marking objects, -rather than securing them, see p. 192. - - (441) On ancient locks, see Diels, _Parmenides_, p. 117 ff.; - Fink, _Der Verschluss bei den Griechen u. Römern_; Daremberg - and Saglio, s.v. _Sera_; (453) Cf. _Num. Chron._, 1897, p. - 293 ff.; (454) Cf. _Annali dell' Inst._, 1864, p. 343 ff., and - _Mon. dell' Inst._, VIII., pl. xi. - - - [Footnote 44: 616 C, D.] - - [Footnote 45: _Mon. d. Inst._, ix. pl. 42.] - - [Footnote 46: [Greek: Diogenês êpêtês men ôn hote ezê ...]] - - [Footnote 47: xxi. 46 ff.; [Greek: - - autik' ar' hê g' himanta thoôs apelyse korônês, - en de klêid' hêke, thyreôn d' anekopten ochêas, - anta tityskomenê.] - ] - - [Footnote 48: After Jacobi, _Das Römerkastell Saalburg_, - p. 469, fig. 74, 1, 2 (modified).] - - [Footnote 49: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, IX., - p. 190 ff.] - - [Footnote 50: Ar., _Thesm._ 421 ff.] - - [Footnote 51: Cf. Plin., _H.N._ xxxiii. 26: nunc cibi quoque - ac potus anulo vindicantur a rapina.] - - - - -XIII-XVIII.--TRADE AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. - -(Wall-Cases 41-53, Table Case H.) - - - - -XIII.--TRADE. - - -The part of the collection now to be described deals generally -with commerce and the industrial arts. We have already seen the -bird-catcher (p. 115), the baker (p. 117), and the shoemaker at work -(p. 130). - -In the corners of Cases 41 and 48 are casts of reliefs from the -gravestone of L. Cornelius Atimetus, a Roman cutler of the first -century A.D. One relief (No. =457=; fig. 192) shows the cutler's -workshop, with two men working at some object placed on an anvil in -front of a furnace. One man holds the object with the tongs, the other -hammers it into shape. Above them hang a knife, sickle, tongs, etc. -Behind on the left is the bellows. The other relief (No. =458=; fig. -193) represents the cutler's shop, with numerous knives and sickles -hanging in an open cupboard. The cutler on the right, who wears the -tunic only, is showing a knife to a customer on the left, who wears -the toga, as a mark of dignity. - -In Case 41 is a cast of a relief of a pork-butcher's shop, in the -Dresden Museum (No. =459=). On the left, the butcher's wife, seated -in a high chair, is busy with a set of tablets, for the accounts. The -butcher is jointing a side of bacon on a massive block. Portions -of bacon hang on hooks. Behind the butcher is a spare chopper and -a steelyard, at present hung out of the way. The details of the -steelyard such as the weight, the alternative hook for suspension, and -the scalepan are shown (see below p. 161). - - - - -XIV.--WEIGHTS AND SCALES. - -(Wall-Cases 41-44.) - - -=Greek Weights.=--In Case B of the First Vase Room will be seen the -plaster model of a large stone object of triangular form, pierced -towards the apex with a hole.[52] It has the design of an octopus on -either side, and may with some probability be regarded as a standard -hanging weight (64 pounds). This object was found by Sir A. Evans at -Knossos in Crete, in the "Palace of Minos," and may be dated roughly -at 2000 B.C. A set of very early weights of the Mycenaean period from -Cyprus is in Case 41, consisting of haematite objects in the form of -sling bolts (No. =460=), passing in a series of gradations from large -to small. No definite system can, however, be deduced from these -weights. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--LEAD AND BRONZE WEIGHTS. 2:3.] - -The Greek weights of the historic period here shown are mainly of two -leading standards, known as the Aeginetan and the Solonian or Attic. -The standard weight of the Aeginetan system was the heavy mina of -9,722 grains (about 1-2/5 lb. avoirdupois). The Solonian (Euboic) mina -weighed normally 6,737 grains (nearly 1 lb. avoirdupois), but there -was a special heavy mina in use which weighed exactly double the -normal. This last was the original mina introduced by Solon, which -gradually gave way to the light mina of half its weight. Weights -of the Aeginetan and Solonian systems are here exhibited. Through -incompleteness or inaccuracy they often show considerable variation -from the norm. The mina was subdivided into 100 drachmae, and the -drachma into 6 obols. Certain stamped devices distinguish these -Attic weights, viz., the astragalos or knuckle-bone, the amphora, the -tortoise, the dolphin, and the crescent. Fig. 194 shows three weights -of the later Solonian standard: (_a_) a mina in lead stamped with a -dolphin and inscribed [Greek: MNA] (7,010 grs.) (No. =461=); (_b_) a -half mina in lead (3,399 grs.) with the device of a tortoise and the -inscription [Greek: DÊMO] (= [Greek: dêmou]), "of the people," (No. -=462=); and (_c_) a bronze weight of 4 drachmae (283 grs.) stamped -with an amphora and the word [Greek: TESSARES] (No. =463=). Sometimes -a half tortoise occurs, as in No. =464=, a quarter mina, or a half -amphora, as on No. =465=, a one-third mina. Various other standards -are represented in this Case, _e.g._ that of Kyzikos in Asia Minor, -but these need not be particularly described. A noteworthy weight is -the bronze one (No. =466=), in the form of a series of rising steps, -inscribed on the top [Greek: DIOS]. This probably is a temple-weight, -very likely used to weigh votive objects. Weights of a similar type -have been found at Olympia. The peculiar series of stone weights (No. -=467=) decorated with female breasts was found in the precincts of the -temple of Demeter at Knidos, and may be regarded as temple-weights, -probably made as a votive offering. They do not seem to correspond to -any known standard. - -Some weights are marked as standards. A lead weight of 10,863 grains, -with a design of two cornucopias (No. =468=) is inscribed [Greek: -Etous dls' dêmosia mna], _i.e._, "In the year 234 a public (or -standard) mina." The date is probably by the Seleucid era, and -equivalent to 78 B.C. Another example is the large square weight from -Herakleia in Bithynia, with a head of Herakles in relief (No. =469=; -fig. 195). It is inscribed "To the divine Augusti and the people" -([Greek: theois Sebastois kai tô damô]) on the rim in front, and on -the sides with the names of the aediles P. Clodius Rufus and Tertius -Vacilius (weight 41,494 grs., nearly 6 lb. avoirdupois). - -We have instances of weights of artistic form in these Cases. The -hanging weights from steelyards in particular (No. =470=; fig. 195) -are often in the form of a head or bust. - -=Roman Weights.=--The standard was here the _libra_ or pound, which -weighed 5,050 grains (being ·721 of the pound avoirdupois, which is -equal to 7,000 grains), and was subdivided into 12 _unciae_ or ounces, -the ounce again being divided into 24 _scripula_ or scruples. The -Roman weights are here grouped according to multiples or divisions of -the pound, and generally have their values marked upon them in dotted -characters. Thus the pound is marked +I+, the half pound +S+(_emis_), -and so on. The series, beginning at the bottom of Case 51, runs 10, -5, 4, 3, 2, 1-1/2, and 1 pounds. Fractions of the pound are 1/2lb. -(semis) = 6 oz; 1/3lb. (triens) = 4 oz.; 1/4lb. (quadrans) = 3 oz.; -1/6lb. (sextans) = 2 oz.; and one ounce. Fractions of the ounce are -1/2oz. = 12 scruples; 1/3oz. = 8 scruples; 1/4oz. = 6 scruples; 1/8oz. -= 3 scruples; 1/12oz. = 2 scruples; and one scruple. Some of the -numerous dark stone weights have inscriptions, showing that they had -been certified by proper authority. Thus one _libra_ (No. =472=) is -inscribed: "On the authority of Q. Junius Rusticus, city-prefect" [167 -A.D.]. In Sicily and Magna Graecia a weight called a _litra_ was used -instead of the Roman pound, weighing rather less than the _libra_. A -set of _litra_ weights in bronze, of late Imperial date, is shown -in Case 41 (No. =473=). An ounce weight (marked [Illustration] in -silver, and weighing 389 grains), belonging to this series, is seen in -fig. 194 above. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--BRONZE WEIGHTS OF ARTISTIC FORM (NO. 400, -etc.). 4:7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--ROMAN BRONZE STEELYARD (NO. 475). L. 12-3/4 -in.] - -=Weighing Instruments.=--Of these there are two chief varieties, the -simple balance (_libra_), and the steelyard (_statera_). In the former -weight is set against, weight, at equal distances from the point of -suspension. In the latter the object to be weighed, suspended from -the short arm of the lever, is set against a small weight in an -appropriate position on the long arm. The Greeks seem to have used -the former only; the Romans used both. The use of the balance is -illustrated by the Greek vase with the design of Hermes weighing the -souls of Achilles and Memnon, and by the Roman lamp showing a stork -weighing an elephant and a mouse (No. =474=). The steelyard was widely -used in the Roman world. Owing to its portability, it was doubtless -much employed by hawkers and street-sellers, as at the present day. -We have also seen it above (p. 158) in the pork-butcher's shop (No. -=459=). Out of the several steelyards exhibited here, one example, -from Catania in Sicily (No. =475=; fig. 196), may be described in -detail. It consists of a bronze rod of square section, divided -into two unequal portions. The shorter portion has (_a_) two hooks -suspended from chains attached to the end of the rod by a movable -collar working in a groove (the object to be weighed was of course -attached to these hooks); (_b_) three hooks, placed at intervals -of about 3/4, 1-1/2, and 3 in. respectively from the collar, and -suspended from small movable rings. These hooks are in different -planes, corresponding to three of the four edges in the longer portion -of the bar. The bar is graduated on three of its four faces, viz., -on the first with nine divisions, each subdivided into twelfths. This -scale was used when the steelyard was suspended by the hook nearest -the graduated bar (as in the fig.). Objects weighing up to nine Roman -pounds could thus be weighed by moving a sliding weight along the -bar. The figure V will be seen at the fifth pound, the half pounds are -marked by three dots, and the twelfths correspond to the _unciae_. The -second face begins with VI and goes up to twenty-three pounds. It was -used when the steelyard was suspended by the middle hook. The third -face starts with XXII pounds, and goes up to fifty-nine pounds. In the -second and third scales, multiples of five and ten pounds are marked -by the figures V and X. Fifty pounds is indicated by the letter -[Greek: N] +N+, which has that numerical value in the Greek notation. -This third scale was used in conjunction with the hook nearest the -collar. The sliding weight (now lost) must have weighed about 17,000 -grs. (2-3/7 lb. avoirdupois). All the other steelyards here shown work -on this principle, though many have only two graduated scales and two -suspending hooks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--STEELYARD FROM SMYRNA (NO. 476).] - -Fig. 197 shows a highly ornate example of a steelyard (No. =476=), -lately acquired from the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The weight is in the -form of a bust of Silenus. The larger hooks are designed as heads of -serpents, and the smaller hooks as heads of eagles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--ROMAN BRONZE BALANCES (NOS. 477, 480). Ca. -1:4.] - -The steelyard principle was also applied by the Romans to balances, -with a view to avoiding the use of numerous small weights. An example -is No. =477= (fig. 198), where one half of the bronze arm is graduated -with twelve divisions corresponding to scruples (1/24 of an ounce). -The sliding weight would thus be used to determine weights of less -than half an ounce. The bar of another balance (No. =478=) had 24 such -divisions for determining any weight below the ounce. A saucepan -from Pompeii (No. =479=) in the Naples Museum has the same principle -applied to its handle, for weighing the liquid contents. An -interesting little balance (No. =480=; fig. 198) may be mentioned -here. At one end is a fixed weight in the form of a head (of the -Sun-god?). This balance was adapted to test the weight of an object -weighing about 69 grains, perhaps a Roman coin such as the _denarius_ -or _solidus_. - -In the lower part of Cases 43, 44 it will be noted that the arm of a -steelyard and one of the arms of a balance are shown, with a bronze -fitting (No. =481=; fig. 199) designed to check the amplitude of the -oscillations. A corresponding piece may be seen on a railway platform -weighing machine. This piece was long misinterpreted as a standard, -etc., but its real intention is made certain by reliefs at Treves -(fig. 200) and Capua. - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--CHECK FOR STEELYARD (NO. 481).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 200.--A STEELYARD IN USE.] - - (457, 458) Amelung, _Sculpt. d. Vat._, pl. 30, p. 275 ff.; - (459) _Arch. Anzeiger_, IV., p. 102; (460) _Excavations in - Cyprus_, pl. xi., 368, etc. On Greek and Roman weights see - Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pondus_; _Cambridge Companion - to Greek_ and _to Latin Studies_; (466) Cf. _Olympia, - V. (Inschriften)_, p. 801 ff.; (467) Newton, _Disc. at - Halicarnassus_, II., pp. 387 and 804; (469) _Mon. dell' - Inst._, 1855, pl. 1; (472) _C.I.L._, XIII., 10030 (10); (474) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 595; (481) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2909. For - Treves relief (fig. 200) cf. Hettner, _Illustr. Führer_, p. - 6; for Capua relief, cf. _Jahreshefte d. Oesterr. Arch. Inst., - XVI., Beibl._, p. 10; for the standing balance, see also - Stuart and Revett, IV., p. 15. - - - [Footnote 52: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, VII., - p. 42, fig. 7.] - - - - -XV.--TOOLS, BUILDING, AND SCULPTURE. - -(Wall-Cases 45-48.) - - -=Tools.=--These are exhibited in Cases 45-46. The objects for the most -part speak for themselves, but attention may be called to one or two -of the most interesting. Such is the Roman bronze set-square (No. -=482=; fig. 201), furnished with a base to enable it to stand. Its -outer edges would be used by masons or carpenters to determine angles -of 90° and 45° respectively. The inner angle of 90° would be useful -for testing the true position of objects set at right angles to -one another, such as the sides of a box, etc. The simplest type of -set-square, that formed by two edges at right angles to one another, -is seen in No. =483=. Notice the set of bronze plummets (No. =484=), -which were suspended from strings. The one illustrated (fig. 201) has -_Bassi_, "belonging to Bassus," inscribed on it in punctured letters. -Two other inscribed tools are of interest. The one is the sickle-like -iron blade from, perhaps, a gardener's knife, with the inscription, -"Durra made me" (No. =485=), the other a finely made Greek bronze -chisel, bearing the name of Apollodoros (No. =486=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--ROMAN SET-SQUARE AND PLUMMET (NOS. 482, -484). 1:4.] - -=Building materials and Sculptures.=--Cases 45-48 contain objects -illustrating the materials and methods of Greek and Roman builders and -sculptors. There are several Greek tiles dated by the impression of a -magistrate's name, _e.g._, "Under Aeschyliskos," "Under Apollodoros," -the latter (No. =487=) bearing traces of the feet of a dog which has -run across the tile before it was dry. - -The characteristic stamps on the Roman bricks of the Empire were -impressed by wooden blocks in which the legend was engraved direct -with a broad lettering, tending to exaggeration in the 3rd century and -later. The beginning of the inscription is marked by a small raised -circle, and the information given includes the name of the estate -(often imperial) from which the clay comes, the name of the potter and -his kiln, and sometimes the date by the consulship, though all these -pieces of information do not necessarily occur on the same tile. As -typical examples may be given: No. =488=, here illustrated (fig. -202), bearing the device of a pine-cone between two branches, and the -inscription _ex fig(linis) M. Herenni Pollionis dol(iare) L. Sessi -Successi_, "From the pottery of M. Herennius Pollio; baked by L. -Sessus Successus"; and No. =489=, with the device of Victory, and the -inscription: "Brick from the Publinian pottery (made with clay from) -the estate of Aemilia Severa." A large number of the estates from -which the clay came were, it should be noted, owned by women. - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--ROMAN STAMPED TILE (NO. 488). Ca. 1:3.] - -No. =490= is an example of a dated brick--_Imp. Antonino II (= iterum) -et Br(u)ttio Co(n)s(ulibus)_ _i.e._, 139 A.D. The stamp was first -engraved by error with the name of Balbinus, consul of 137 A.D., and -afterwards corrected by re-engraving +RTTIO+ on +ALBIN+. No. =491= -refers to the _portus_, _i.e._, the depot of Licinius. - -Many of the bronze accessories of building are shown here, such as two -pairs of bronze door-knockers from Syria (No. =492=). - -The bronze dowels (No. =493=) were employed for fastening together -stone sections, such as the drums of columns. They are often in the -form of truncated cones placed base to base, the thickest part being -thus in the position where the strain was greatest (fig. 203_a_). -Other dowels from the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos are in the form -of bronze cylinders in collars of bronze, rigidly fixed by three -key-pieces. The cylinders were set in the great stone which closed the -entrance of the Mausoleum, and were intended to drop half their length -into the corresponding sockets in the lower sill of the entrance (Nos. -=494-495=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--BRONZE DOWEL AND DOOR-PIVOT (NOS. 493, 496). -1:2.] - -A series of bronze coverings (No. =496=) for the pivots of doors -reminds us of the fact that in ancient times most of the doors worked -on a different principle from our own. The bronze-covered pivots (fig. -203_b_), rigidly fixed to the door by a key-piece, turned in bronze -sockets(_c_) fitted into the lintel or threshold. This arrangement -explains the allusions to the grating of doors met with in ancient -writers.[53] Hinges of the modern type were, however, well known. -Examples are to be seen in Cases 47, 48, among them a hinge with the -fragments of the wood, to which it was originally attached, still -adhering (No. =497=). - -Towards the end of the Republic and under the Empire the Romans -devoted much attention to the adornment of their buildings, public and -private. For this purpose marbles of every variety were imported from -all parts of the world, while an elaborate system of wall-painting was -also developed. Mamurra, an officer of Julius Caesar, is said to have -been the first to veneer the walls of his house with marble. A few -selected examples from the Tolley collection of polished specimens of -the materials used in ancient Rome are here exhibited (No. =498=). The -whole collection comprises some 700 specimens, so that we cannot be -surprised that Pliny declines to enumerate the varieties known in -his day, on account of the vastness of their number.[54] The simpler -building materials used at Rome were, besides the tiles or bricks -already mentioned, the hard limestone rock known as travertine and the -volcanic tufa and peperino. A specimen of the last is shown here. - -The place of hanging pictures in ancient houses was largely taken by -fresco wall-paintings, several fragments of which are here shown. -The floors of the houses were not covered with carpets, but were -frequently decorated with mosaics, which might range from simple -geometric patterns in black and white (as in many of the specimens -here seen) to elaborate pictorial designs. The construction of these -pavements, out of small stone cubes (_tesserae_) set in cement, is -clearly seen in the examples exhibited. Genuine mosaic was sometimes -imitated in painted plaster. One or two such fragments can be seen in -the Case. - -As examples of the processes of sculpture, note a half-finished -figure of a seated Sphinx (No. =499=); and a cast (No. =500=) of -a half-finished figure of Hermes, from a private collection. The -sculptor has made free use of the drill for the roughing out of the -figure, and at the same time has brought the exposed parts to a high -degree of finish. A piece of bead and reel moulding (No. =501=) is -also unfinished. - - (=484=) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v., _Perpendiculum_. - - (=488=) For the stamped Roman bricks see, _Cat. of - Terracottas_, E 148-153. For _C.I.L._ reff., see _ibid._ (but E - 151 = _C.I.L._ xv. 214). - - (=494=, =495=) Newton, _Disc. at Halicarnassus_, II (1) p. 97; - _Cat. of Sculpture_, II, 990, 991. - - (=498=) Cf. Pullen, _Handbook of Ancient Roman Marbles_. - - - [Footnote 53: Virgil, _Ciris_, 222: - - Marmoreo aeratus stridens in limine cardo. - ] - - [Footnote 54: _H.N._ xxxvi. 54.] - - - - -XVI.--HORSES AND CHARIOTS. - -(Wall-Cases 49-51.) - - -=Chariots and Carts.=--The war-chariot plays a conspicuous part in -the Homeric poems, and the horse and chariot are there so closely -identified that we find the phrase "he leapt from his horses" used -as equivalent to "he leapt from his chariot." After the Homeric age, -however, the use of the chariot in war died out in Greece and it -thenceforward appears most conspicuously in the great Greek games, -where it was used for racing purposes. A very early example of this -racing chariot may be seen on a Boeotian bowl of the eighth century -(on the top of Case D, First Vase Room).[55] Here are depicted two -chariots with a high open framework at front and back, each drawn -(apparently) by a single horse, and driven by a man clothed in a long -robe distinctive of the Greek charioteer. There is little doubt that -in reality the chariots are meant to be drawn by two horses, and that -the deceptive appearance is due to the limitations of the artist. -On Greek monuments of a later date than this vase, the light racing -chariot is constantly represented. Some primitive chariots in -terracotta and stone from Cyprus are also shown in Case 50. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--ROMAN RACING CHARIOT (NO. 502). L. 10-1/2 -in.] - -Roman chariots are represented by a good bronze model (No. =502=; fig. -204) found in the Tiber. This is a racing car, drawn at full speed by -two horses, one of which is now lost. It corresponds closely to the -cars used for racing in the circus, such as may be seen in Case 110. -At the end of the pole (appearing just behind the horse's mane) is -a decoration in the form of a ram's head, an ornament of the same -character as the four bronze objects placed with the horse-muzzles in -the upper part of Case 51 (No. =503=). These have decorations in the -form of the bust of a Satyr blowing a horn, and busts of a boy, an -Amazon, and a Cupid respectively. In the lowest parts of Cases 50 and -51 are various bronze decorations, which have no doubt belonged to -axle-boxes and other parts of a chariot, but their exact arrangement -is not clear. - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--ROMAN CAR FOR CARRYING IMAGES TO THE CIRCUS -(NO. 506). L. 2 ft. 10-1/2 in.] - -Another form of Roman car is illustrated by the fine hanging bronze -lamp representing the Moon-goddess (Luna), drawn in her chariot by a -pair of bulls (No. =504=). The lamp was for three wicks, two on the -outer sides of the bulls, and one at the back of Luna's head. The -goddess is represented on coins of the second and third century after -Christ in a similar bull-car.[56] A terracotta (No. =505=) is in the -form of a four-wheeled hooded waggon, probably a travelling car of the -type called [Greek: apênê] by the Greeks and _raeda_ by the Romans. -In the top of Case 49 is a marble relief (No. =506=; fig. 205) -representing a covered two-wheeled cart drawn by four horses. The -sides of the cart are decorated with reliefs, depicting Jupiter and -the two Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux. Probably the car is a _tensa_, -used to convey images of the gods to and from the circus on the -occasion of the games, and for other religious purposes. The relief -formed part of a sarcophagus of about the third century after Christ. - -=Horse-trappings.=--Case 50 contains two interesting sets of bronze -harness of an early date from Italy, probably of the eighth century -B.C. (No. =507=). They are mounted upon leather, and placed on models -of horses' heads; the sidepieces of the bits are themselves in the -form of horses. Of much later date, perhaps of the fifth or fourth -century B.C., is the Greek bit from Achaea (No. =508=; fig. 206). It -is remarkable for its severe character, but was certainly not out of -the ordinary, for a bit of precisely similar character is described -by Xenophon in his treatise on horsemanship (early fourth century -B.C.).[57] He says there were two varieties of this type of bit, the -mild and the severe. In the present example we may probably recognise -the severe variety, which had "the 'wheels' heavy and small and the -'hedgehogs' sharp, in order that the horse when he got it into his -mouth might be distressed by its roughness and give up resisting." -The "wheels" are clearly the central discs for pressing on the tongue, -while the prickly cylinders at the sides were aptly termed "hedgehogs" -by the Greeks. In this same Case there are also examples of the milder -Roman bit, one in iron and another in lead, perhaps intended for -votive use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--GREEK BIT (NO. 508). Width, ca. 9 in.] - -Case 51 contains three examples of muzzles for horses (No. =509=), -nearly complete, with a fragment of a fourth. These muzzles are in -bronze, but we can hardly expect that this was the usual material. -Probably the bronze examples were reserved for state occasions or -else only used by the very wealthy. The muzzles depicted on vases -seem rather to be of some pliant material--leather, for example. It is -probable that all the bronze examples in this Case belong to the Greek -period, though the one here illustrated (fig. 207) has been assigned -to as late a date as the fourth century after Christ. The muzzle was -only used when the horse was being rubbed down or led, not when he -was ridden or driven. Xenophon[58] observes that "the groom must -understand how to put the muzzle on the horse, when he takes him out -to rub him or to roll him. And, indeed, wherever he takes him without -a bridle, he ought to muzzle him." The muzzles must have been fastened -to the horse's head by straps attached to the rings seen on each side -of them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--BRONZE HORSE-MUZZLE (NO. 509). Ht. ca. 9 -in.] - -It has been a subject of controversy whether Greek and Roman horses -were shod. There is no mention of horse-shoes in Greek literature, -and it seems improbable that they were used by the Greeks. Xenophon -advises the use of a specially constructed stone floor for hardening -the horse's hoofs,[59] but in spite of such precautions, it is not -surprising to hear that the Athenian cavalry horses sometimes went -lame as a result of continuous work on hard ground.[60] Horse-shoes -are occasionally (though rarely) spoken of in Roman literature. Their -use seems to have been quite exceptional as when Nero, for instance, -had his mules shod with silver.[61] In the lower part of Case 51 will -be seen a series of iron shoes of the Roman period (No. =510=; fig. -208), for the most part found in the south of France. It is impossible -to believe that these were ever used as ordinary horse-shoes. The -most plausible theory is that they were "hobbles," put on the feet of -horses and other quadrupeds to prevent them straying. The upper part -of this same Case contains sets of spurs (No. =511=), most of them -probably Roman. The arrangement for attaching the spurs to the heel -varies. Two have loops formed by the head and neck of swans, three -have discs or knobs, while another has holes for laces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--IRON HOBBLE (NO. 510). 1:4.] - - (=502=) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2695; (=503=) _ibid._, 2696 ff.; - (=504=) _ibid._, 2520; (=505=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C - 612; (=506=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2310; (=507=) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 357; (=508=) Cf. Pernice, _Griech. Pferdegeschirr_, - pll. ii. and iii. (56th _Winckelmannsfestprogramm_); (=509=) - _ibid._, pl. i. and pp. 6-16; (=510=) Cf. _Rev. Arch._, 1900 - (36), p. 296 ff; Smith, _Dict. of Ant._^3, s.v. _Solea_. - - - [Footnote 55: See _Journal of Hell. Stud._, xix., pl. 8.] - - [Footnote 56: _E.g._, on _B.M. Coins of Ionia_, - pl. xx. 7 (Coin of Magnesia: Gordianus Pius).] - - [Footnote 57: Xen., _De re eq._ x. 6: [Greek: prôton men - toinyn chrê ou meion duoin chalinoin kektêsthai; toutôn - de estô ho men leios, tous trochous eumegetheis echôn, ho de - heteros tous men trochous kai bareis kai tapeinous, tous d' - echinous oxeis, hina hopotan men touton labê, aschallôn tê - trachytêti dia touto aphiê].] - - [Footnote 58: _De re eq._ v. 3.] - - [Footnote 59: Xen., _op. cit._, iv. 3.] - - [Footnote 60: Thuc., vii. 27, 5.] - - [Footnote 61: Suet., _Ner._ 30.] - - - - -XVII.--AGRICULTURE. - -(Wall-Case 52.) - - -Farming, the rearing of live stock, the cultivation of corn, vines and -olives were practised by the earliest civilisations of the Aegean, and -of Greece. - -The use of the plough was also known at that distant period. In this -Case are shown three bronze ploughshares (No. =512=), which belong -to the Mycenaean Age, and were found in Cyprus. A plough in its most -primitive form was merely the trunk of a tree which served as the -pole, with two branches on opposite sides, one forming the share, -the other the handle. This was the plough in one piece spoken of by -Hesiod. The Mycenaean ploughshare belongs to a later development, when -the plough is made up of several parts, the "joined plough" of Homer -and Hesiod. Such is the plough seen in the very primitive bronze group -(No. =513=), where it is in the act of being turned at the end of the -furrow. To effect the turning the two oxen are pulling the yoke in -opposite directions. A black-figured vase of the sixth century, here -exhibited (No. =514=), shows the later plough in a simple form, which -has changed but little for many centuries, as may still be observed in -the East. The different parts can be seen more clearly from a bronze -votive plough of the third century B.C. at Florence (fig. 209). It is -made up of (1) a horizontal share-beam, to which is fastened the iron -share, (2) a pole, at the end of which is the yoke, (3) the vertical -handle. This type of plough is exactly described by Virgil in the -_Georgics_.[62] - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--BRONZE VOTIVE PLOUGH.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--WINE BEING DECOCTED (NO. 518). L. 1 ft. 9 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--MEN GATHERING OLIVES (NO. 521). Ca. 1:2.] - -The ploughman was followed by the sower, who is represented on the -vase mentioned above (No. =514=) with a basket from which he scatters -the seed in the furrow. At harvest-time a sickle was used to cut the -grain, of which instrument two iron specimens are shown in the -Case, from Lycia in Asia Minor (No. =515=). Winnowing the grain was -accomplished either by means of a shovel or a basket of peculiar shape -([Greek: liknon], _vannus_); on a terracotta relief in the Museum (D -525, Case 75, Terracotta Room Annexe) the infant Dionysos is being -rocked in one of these objects instead of a cradle, by a Satyr and a -Nymph. - -Of fruit crops the vine and the olive were by far the most important -in the Greek and Roman world, and great attention was paid to their -cultivation. The operations involved in the manufacture of both -wine and oil find many illustrations among ancient works of art. The -gathering of grapes is illustrated by a Roman terracotta relief (No. -=516=) exhibited in the Case, where a Satyr is picking grapes from -a vine. Another relief of the same class (No. =517=) depicts the -treading out of the grapes in the wine-press, also by Satyrs, two of -whom are balancing themselves by holding a ring between them while -they tread the grapes in an oblong trough to the tune of flutes. An -elderly Satyr brings up fresh supplies in a basket. The massive bronze -rings commonly known as "athletes' rings" may have been used at the -wine-press (No. =517*=). - -The must or new wine was partly used for drinking as soon as ready, -partly decocted into a sort of jelly (_defrutum_), and partly stowed -in cellars in large casks or jars (_dolia_); in the latter case -after being fermented for nine days it was covered up and sealed. The -commoner kinds were drunk direct from the _dolia_, the finer sorts -drawn off into amphorae and stored up. On the marble reliefs here -given (No. =518=; fig. 210) we have a representation of the conversion -of the must into _defrutum_: two men are attending to a caldron -placed over a fire, while a third is pouring wine from an amphora into -another caldron, and a fourth is waiting to fill a jug from the same. -In the lowest part of the Case is exhibited the upper part of an -amphora with long neck and two handles (whence the frequent term -_diota_), as an example of those used for the storage of wine. The -terracotta figure of a man carrying a wineskin and one of these -_diotae_ (No. =519=), and a Roman lamp depicting slaves carrying casks -of wine, should also be noted (No. =520=). - -The cultivation of the olive is well illustrated by a black-figured -vase of the sixth century B.C. (No. =521=; fig. 211), showing a -primitive method of gathering the fruit: a youth has climbed to the -top of the tree, and he and two men are beating the branches with -sticks to bring the fruit down, while another youth collects it in a -vessel. This method is expressly condemned by Varro, an early Roman -writer on agriculture.[63] - -In order to extract the oil from the pulp of the fruit, it was -necessary to use a press of some kind, such as we see on the -terracotta relief here exhibited (No. =522=; fig. 212), of the first -century B.C. Here the press consists of flat stones between which -layers of olives are placed; to the uppermost stone is fastened a -long pole, which serves as a lever, and is being worked by two Satyrs; -round the press a rope is wound many times. Compare the large vase in -the Hall of Inscriptions (_Cat. of Sculpture_, 2502). - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--SATYRS AT OIL-PRESS (NO. 522). Ht. 7 in.] - -The remaining objects in this Case are mostly illustrative of men or -beasts of burden engaged in agricultural and kindred occupations, such -as the goat-herd depicted on a Roman lamp, to whom the name of Titurus -is applied, with reference to Virgil's first Eclogue (No. =523=; fig. -213). The bronze figure of a donkey (No. =524=) with panniers recalls -the ornament of Trimalchio's dinner-table described by Petronius, and -may have served a similar purpose. Model panniers, and terracottas -of a donkey and a camel with the panniers laden with rural produce, -should also be noted. Several model carts from Amathus, in terracotta, -are either flat-bottomed, for general use, or in vase-shape, for the -transport of wine or other liquids (No. =525=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--GOATHERD WITH FLOCK (NO. 523). Diam. 3-3/4 -in.] - - (=512=) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 15, 1477; (=516=, - =517=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 542, D 544; (=518=) _Cat. of - Sculpture_, III., 2212; (=520=) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1142; (=521=) - _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 226; (=522=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D - 550. Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Torcular_; (=523=) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 661; (=524=) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - _Clitellae_; (=525=) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 112. - - - [Footnote 62: i. 169 ff.; Cf. Gow, _Journ. of Hellenic - Studies_, xxxiv., p. 249.] - - [Footnote 63: Varro, _Res Rust._ i. 55: de oliveto - oleam ... legere oportet potius quam quatere.] - - - - -XVIII.--INDUSTRIAL ARTS. - -(Table-Case H.) - - -In Table Case H we have objects illustrating the craft of the metal -worker, the potter, the turner, and the woodworker. - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--LIMESTONE HALF-MOULD, WITH CAST FROM SAME -(NO. 531). Ht. 4-1/2 in.] - -Towards one end of the case are objects illustrating the processes of -metal work. A Greek vase of the sixth century B.C. depicts a man in -the act of thrusting a mass of metal into a blazing furnace. -Anvil, tongs, and hammers are visible (No. =526=). Beside it is a -reproduction of a Vase in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, showing an -armourer at work on a helmet (No. =527=). Two limestone moulds of a -very early period are for casting primitive implements (No. =528=). -Note also a mould (No. =529=) for a metal weight of a type similar to -that with the head of Herakles in Case 41. The mould shows a female -head with a cornucopia before it, apparently a personification of -Profit ([Greek: Kerdos]), whose name appears above the head. Another -mould (No. =530=) is intended for a series of lead weights of values -[Greek: a'] to [Greek: ê'], that is, 1 to 8. (Compare a similar set in -Case 42.) It should be observed that the moulds seen here are, for -the most part, only half-moulds, or in some cases even less. A -corresponding half-mould had to be placed in position before casting -could be effected. This is well shown by a limestone half-mould from -Rome (No. =531=; fig. 214) for casting lead counters, with designs -representing Victory, Fortune, and Athena. Here can be seen the -channels by which the molten metal was introduced, and the holes for -the studs joining the two half-moulds together. In one of these a lead -stud still remains. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--PART OF MOULD FOR A RING OF THE SHAPE -INDICATED (NO. 532).] - -The steatite mould for a ring of the Mycenaean period (No. =532=; Fig. -215) required a counterpart piece, and a third piece at the bottom to -complete it. Some of the steatite moulds which have no channels for -the molten metal, were probably used for the production of ornaments -by pressing and rubbing thin foil into the forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--GREEK POTTER AT WORK (NO. 533). Ht. 4-1/2 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--POTTER'S WHEEL IN TERRACOTTA (NO. 534). -Diam. 9-3/4 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--GREEK POTTER ATTACHING HANDLE TO VASE (NO. -535).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--POTTER'S KILN (NO. 536).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--CLAY LAMPS SPOILED IN BAKING (NO. 538). Ca. -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--STAMPS FOR MAKING MOULDS FOR VASES IN RELIEF -(NO. 545).] - -=The Potter.=--At the end of the case are exhibits connected with -potters and pottery. Here is seen the limestone figure of a Greek -potter from Cyprus (No. =533=; fig. 216), seated and modelling clay on -the wheel. He reminds us of Homer's description of the potter's action -when he compares the whirling motion of dancers to the revolving of a -potter's wheel--"a motion exceeding light, as when a potter sits and -makes trial of a wheel fitted to his hands, to see whether it will -run."[64] Immediately behind is a potter's wheel in terracotta -(No. =534=; fig. 217), which has in the centre a depression for the -insertion of the pivot on which it turned. It was found on a primitive -site at Gournià in Crete. As the clay spun round on the wheel the -potter moulded it into shape inside and outside with his hands. The -foot, the handles, and the neck of the vase were moulded separately -as a rule and attached afterwards to the body. A design on a sixth -century Greek vase here exhibited (No. =535=; fig. 218), depicts a -Greek potter in the act of attaching a handle to a cup which rests -upon a wheel. When the vase or other object had been modelled in clay, -it then had to be fired. For this purpose a kiln was required, such -as one (probably Roman) excavated at Shoeburyness, a model of which is -here exhibited (No. =536=). It consists of a barrel-shaped chamber, -at about half the height of which is a horizontal table on a conical -support, with eight round openings pierced in its circumference to -allow the heat to penetrate above. Fuel was introduced below through a -small fire-chamber constructed at the side (fig. 219). The packing of -the objects to be fired required considerable care. For this purpose -the so-called "cockspurs" (No. =537=) were used for the larger pieces. -But sometimes there were failures, such as the two batches of Roman -lamps seen in this Case, which have become fused together in the -baking (No. =538=; fig. 220). If it survived the risks of manufacture, -the pot often needed repair when in use, and several examples are -shown of rivets, large and small, employed for this purpose (No. -=539=). The cover of a toilet-box (No. =540=) shows the method of -painting employed in the Greek red-figured vases; here the grotesque -head has been outlined in black, but the background has not been -filled in with black in the usual way. Two terracotta heads with -projecting stumps (No. =541=) show the manner in which the terracotta -figurines were built up of several parts. The heads were inserted into -holes in the trunks, and were then fastened in position with clay. An -unfinished clay relief (No. =542=) of a man with his dog, shows the -first process in the production of modelled relief, such as those in -the Room of Terracottas, Case 8. - -A mould (No. =543=) for making a bowl of the ware called Arretine from -its place of manufacture, Arretium in Central Italy, is shown, with a -cast from the mould beside it. An impression is also shown of the -mark of M. Perennius, the most noted of the Arretine potters, in -combination with his slave Bargates (No. =544=). Near the mould are -stamps, one with a design of a slave heating some fluid in a caldron, -and others of a bear and lion (No. =545=; fig. 221). These stamps were -used for producing the designs in the moulds, being impressed in the -clay while it was soft. Several specimens of these moulds and bowls, -which are of about the first century B.C., will be seen in Cases 39-40 -of the Fourth Vase Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--MOULD FOR LOWER PART OF CLAY LAMP (NO. 546). -L. 4-1/4 in.] - -The moulds for parts of Roman lamps, show the way in which these -objects were produced. The clay was pressed into the lower mould (such -as No. =546=; fig. 222) and also into a corresponding upper mould -(compare No. =547=), and then the two halves were joined together and -ready for baking. - - (=526=) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 507; (=528=) _Excavations in - Cyprus_, p. 26, fig. 50; (=531=) Cf. _Bull. della Comm. Arch._ - xxxiii. (1905), p. 146 ff; (=532=) _Cat. of Jewellery,_ No. - 609; (=533=) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 93, fig. 145; (=535=) - _Cat. of Vases_ II., B 432; (=536=) _Proc. of Soc. of Ant._, - Ser. II., xvi., p. 40; (=542=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 376. - pl. 20; (=545=) _Cat. of Roman Pottery_, M 82, 83; (=546=) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 1401. - -=Gems and Pastes.=--In the next division of Case H are objects -illustrating the processes of producing Gems and Pastes. These include -a series of scarabs, scarabaeoids, and other beads at various -stages of manufacture (No. =548=); a series of clay moulds for -Graeco-Egyptian porcelain scarabs from Naukratis (No. =549=) and a -fine specimen of a paste cameo head of Silenos (No. =550=). Here also -are examples of stone socket-handles for a bow-drill (No. =551=). In -this and the next compartment several pieces of work are incised with -designs intended to be filled in with inlay (No. =552=). See also -a series of fragments of an acanthus pattern in ivory, evidently -intended to be inlaid. A piece of rock crystal is carved with ears -of corn in intaglio, gilded (No. =553=). See also examples of enamel -work, of the period of the Roman empire, on studs, seal boxes, etc. -(cf. p. 135, 155). - -=Woodworking, etc.=--An interesting wooden box of Roman date is -derived from Panticapaeum, in the Crimea (No. =554=). This has two -sliding lids, above and below respectively, each furnished with two -catches. The interior was divided by a horizontal partition, and was -again subdivided into numerous small divisions. An inlaid pattern -decorates the border of the box. Another box of simpler construction -(No. =555=) was found in a grave in Bulgaria. Various specimens of -fretwork in jet and ivory are shown, and two pieces of an egg and -tongue moulding, carved in wood, and coloured with scarlet and -gilding, from a sarcophagus, also found at Panticapaeum (No. =555*=). - -=The Lathe.=--In the next division are examples of work finished on -the lathe, in a variety of materials, as marble, alabaster, coloured -stones, crystal, bronze, ivory, bone, and wood; also a rough piece of -alabaster from Cyprus, derived from a lathe mandrel. - - - [Footnote 64: _Il._ xviii. 600 ff.] - - - - -XIX.--MEDICINE AND SURGERY. - -(Table-Case H.) - - -=Greek Medicine.=--From the earliest times, as indicated by passages -in the Homeric poems, the Greeks practised simple forms of surgery in -such matters as the treatment of the wounded.[65] In the historic -age of Greece we find temple or wonder-working medicine, practised in -temples of Asklepios, especially at Epidaurus; and at the same time a -school of medicine, of the Asklepiadae, seated in the island of Kos. - -A lively account of temple-healing is given in the _Plutus_ of -Aristophanes, where the slave Karion relates the experiences of his -master and himself when passing the night in the temple.[66] Examples -of the votive offerings deposited in the temples by those who had -been made whole have been mentioned in the section on Religion and -Superstition, p. 47 ff., and are to be seen in Cases 103-106. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--GREEK SURGEON AT WORK (NO. 556).] - -The more serious side of Greek medicine is inseparably connected with -the name of Hippokrates (born 460 B.C.), though the Koan school had -existed some time before his birth. The Asklepiadae were originally -members of a single clan, but the admission of persons from outside -soon made the clan into a medical school. The famous Hippokratean -oath, imposed upon members of the Koan school, shows the standard set -up before the medical profession: "I will conduct the treatment of the -sick for their advantage, to the best of my ability and judgment, -and I will abstain from all evil and all injustice. I will administer -poison to none, if asked to do so, nor will I ever make such a -suggestion. I will pass my life and exercise my art in innocence and -purity." In Greece there were both public and private physicians. -There were further dispensaries, or perhaps more accurately surgeries, -called [Greek: iatreia]. These were furnished with the necessary -surgical and medical appliances. The scene from a fifth century -vase-painting (No. =556=; fig. 223)[67] depicts a young surgeon at -work in an [Greek: iatreion]. He is operating on a patient's arm -(perhaps bleeding him), while another man, also wounded in the arm, -sits before him. A dwarf slave is ushering other patients into the -surgery, where bleeding-cups are seen hanging on the wall. Patients -also went to the [Greek: iatreia] to get draughts of medicine.[68] -Before the Alexandrian age it is probable that medicine was in advance -of surgery, for up to that time no scientific study of anatomy had -been attempted. Aristotle observes that the internal organs of the -human body were in his time very little known,[69] and what dissection -there was must have been practised on animals. The terracotta model -(No. =122=; fig. 36, above) of the heart, liver, lungs and kidneys -shows how vague the ancient idea as to the position of these organs -sometimes was. - -=Roman Medicine.=--Medical science for a long time made but little -progress in Rome. The Greek physician Archagathos, who began to -practise there in 219 B.C., became extremely unpopular owing to his -bold methods of surgery.[70] The Roman doctors were chiefly of Greek -nationality, and not infrequently were slaves or freedmen. Julius -Caesar encouraged foreign physicians to settle in Rome by granting -them citizenship, and under the early Empire Rome was overcrowded with -medical men, if we may believe Pliny and Martial.[71] - -The objects illustrating Greek and Roman Medicine and Surgery are -exhibited in part of Table-Case H. First in importance are the -surgical instruments, a selection of which is shown in fig. 224. -With rare exceptions these instruments are of bronze. The principal -varieties are here represented. There are several knives or -bistouries, an excellent example being the one from Myndos in Asia -Minor, with the upper part of the handle inlaid with silver (No. -=557=; fig. 224_g_). The lower part of the handle was in iron, and has -fallen away. The heavier bronze blades must have been used for various -purposes in connection with dissecting. The forceps is fairly common. -The interesting variety seen on the right of the illustration (_k_) -with its fine toothed ends (No. =558=) is probably an uvula forceps, -used for crushing the part intended to be amputated. An instrument -frequently found is the spatula or "spathomele" (No. =559=; fig. -224 _a-c_, _e_, _f_), so called from its flat broad end. This was -principally employed for mixing and spreading ointments, while the -olive-shaped ends were used as probes. Other instruments which call -for notice are the fine-toothed surgical saw (No. =560=; fig. 224_h_), -the sharp hook (No. =561=; fig. 224_d_), used for "seizing and raising -small pieces of tissue for excision, and for fixing and retracting the -edges of wounds." The bifurcated probes (No. =562=) were perhaps used -for the extraction of arrows and other weapons. A curious instrument -(No. =563=), the use of which was for long a puzzle, appears to be a -folding drill-bow and has been completed accordingly. - -More elaborate than any of these are the examples of surgical -appliances which have been found in the excavations at Pompeii, -and are now at Naples. These are represented here by a group of -electrotype reproductions, including anal and vaginal specula, and -other objects (No. =564=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--BRONZE SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS (NO. 557, etc.). -1:2.] - -The bronze cupping-vessel (No. =565=) should be noticed. Similar -vessels are seen suspended on the walls of the surgery depicted in -the vase-scene figured above (fig. 223). Burning lint or some other -lighted substance was placed in the vessel to rarify the air, and -its mouth was then applied to the part from which blood was to be -extracted. One such cupping vessel appears on the marble relief in the -Phigaleian Room, representing a physician named Jason treating a boy -with a swollen stomach (Fig. 225). Compare a similar consultation on -an engraved gem, under the immediate superintendence of Asklepios. -The bronze box (No. =566=), probably from the Cyrenaica, was almost -certainly used by a Roman physician for his drugs. It is divided into -several compartments, each furnished with a separate cover, and has -a sliding lid. Boxes of a precisely similar character have been found -with surgical instruments. Compare also the cast from Athens of a -votive relief with a fitted case of instruments (No. =567=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--MARBLE RELIEF. PHYSICIAN TREATING PATIENT. -Ht. 2 ft. 7 in.] - -A very interesting class of antiquities is furnished by the stamps of -oculists (No. =569=). These take the form of square or oblong -plates, generally of steatite or slate. On the edges are engraved -inscriptions, giving the name of the oculist, the name of his -specific, and its purpose. These salves were pounded on the stone -into a paste. They generally bear a Greek name, such as Diasmyrnes, -Crocodes, etc., indicating their composition. They appear to have been -made up into the form of sticks impressed with the engraved edge of -the stone, and put into cylindrical bronze boxes, which have from -time to time been found with Roman surgical instruments. One or two -examples of the stamps may be given: "Saffron ointment for scars -and discharges prepared by Junius Taurus after the prescription of -Paccius"[72] (fig. 226, bottom). "The anodyne of Q. Junius Taurus for -every kind of defective eyesight."[73] Puff names for the drugs, such -as "Invincible," "Inimitable," also occur. An engraved gem, from a -drug compounder's ring has a seated Athena and the legend +HEROPHILI -OPOBALSAMUM+--"Balsam of Herophilus" (No. =570=). Whether the balsam -was named in honour of the founder of scientific anatomy, or of a -more obscure oculist of the first century B.C., or of an unknown -drug-seller cannot be determined. A set of Roman lead weights, -probably used for the weighing of drugs, is here exhibited. They are -marked 1 to 10, the unit probably being the _scripulum_ of 18 grains -(No. =571=). Two small lead pots placed near the weights were used for -holding eye-salves. One from Corfu bears the letters +A T+; the other, -from Athens, has the tripod of Apollo, the god of healing, and is -inscribed "The Lykian salve from Musaeos" (No. =572=). Near these -pots are spoons with channels for melting and pouring the salves -into wounds (No. =573=). A piece of stone with corrugated surfaces -is thought to be for rolling pills (No. =574=). The ivory figure of -a dwarf afflicted with a peculiar form of spinal curvature causing -pigeon-breastedness is a work of considerable spirit, probably of the -third century A.D. (No. =574*=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--STAMP OF THE OCULIST JUNIUS TAURUS (NO. -569). 4:5.] - - (=563=) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2674; _Journ. of Hellenic Stud._ - 34, p. 116; (=567=) Svoronos, _Athen. Nationalmus._ - xlvii, 1378; (=568=) Cf. Espérandieu, _Signacula Medicorum - Oculariorum_; (=574*=) _Papers of the Brit. School at Rome_, - iv, pp. 279-282. - - See on ancient medicine and surgery generally, Daremberg - and Saglio, s.v. _Chirurgia_, _Medicus_; Milne, _Surgical - Instruments in Greek and Roman Times_; Deneffe, _Étude sur la - trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain du III^e siècle_ (found - near Paris, 1880). - - - [Footnote 65: Cf. _Il._ iv. 218; xi. 844.] - - [Footnote 66: Ar. _Plut._ 653 ff.] - - [Footnote 67: See _Mon. Piot_, XIII. (1906), pl. xiii., - p. 149 ff. From a vase in a private collection in Paris.] - - [Footnote 68: Plat., _Leg._ i. 646: [Greek: tous eis ta - iatreia autous badizontas epi pharmakoposian]. - ] - - [Footnote 69: _Hist. An._ i. 16.] - - [Footnote 70: Plin., _H.N._ xxix. 12 f.] - - [Footnote 71: Plin., _H.N._ xxix. 11: - hinc illae circa aegros miserae sententiarum concertationes, - hinc illa infelix monimenti inscriptio: turba se medicorum - periisse. Cf. Martial, v. 9.] - - [Footnote 72: _Juni Tauri crocod(es) Paccian(um) ad - cicat(rices) et reum(a)._] - - [Footnote 73: _Q. Jun(i) Tauri anodynum ad omn(em) - lippit(udinem)._] - - - - -XX.--MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--ROMAN BRONZE FOOT-RULE (NO. 578). L. 292 -mm.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--BRONZE PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES (NO. 579). L. -7-1/2 in.] - -=Measures.=--In Case H are a few examples of ancient measures and -geometrical instruments. A Greek clay cup (No. =575=), inscribed -[Greek: hêmikotylion], contains exactly half a pint. The Greek kotyle, -therefore, according to this standard, measured exactly a pint. A copy -of a well-known Roman standard gallon, the so-called Farnese Congius, -is in Case 44 (No. =576=). Nos. =577= and =578= are two Roman bronze -foot-rules, measuring respectively 294 mm. (11·6 in.) and 292 mm. -(11·5 in.). The normal Roman foot measured 296 mm., and was adopted -under Greek influence, whereas the early Italic foot had only measured -278 mm. (slightly under 11 in.). Fig. 227 (No. =578=) shows the -subdivisions of these foot rules. One side is marked by dots into -sixteenths (_digiti_); another into twelfths (_unciae_); another into -fourths (_palmi_). The foot-rule illustrated has the remains of a -catch (indicated in the fig.) for keeping it rigid, when opened. There -are several pairs of ordinary compasses and dividers, and also two -pairs of proportional (2:1) compasses (No. =579=). One of these is -figured here (fig. 228). Notice the method of tightening by means of -a wedge, with the object of keeping the compasses fixed in any -particular position. - - =Measures.=--(=575=) _Cat. of Vases_, IV, F 595; (=577=) Cf. - Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pes_; _Hermes_, XXII., p. 17 ff. - and p. 79 ff.; _Ath. Mitt._, IX. (1884), p. 198 ff. - - -=Bronze Stamps.=--The large bronze stamps shown in Case H are somewhat -akin to seals in their intention. But while the engraved ring was -usually employed for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing -of a letter or document, and the device of the seal was more or less -ornamental, the bronze tablets were used for commercial or domestic -purposes and seldom bear anything but the name of the person using -them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--ROLLING STAMP, WITH THE NAME OF ALEXANDER -(NO. 584).] - -These tablets are of various forms, but the majority are rectangular, -and bear the owner's name, like the one in this Case from Arles -(No. =580=), with the name of Q. Julius Renatus; others have merely -initials. Some are made in the form of a shoe or the sole of a foot, -and this is a shape frequently employed by the potters of the Roman -period in Italy for stamping their names on vases. Other forms to be -here observed are a leaf (No. =581=), a ship (No. =582=), and a fish -(No. =583=). The letters in most cases are in relief, producing an -impression in _intaglio_ on a soft substance such as unbaked clay. -They were probably used for the most part for stamping the plaster -stoppers of wine jars, loaves of bread and such like objects. - -An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of -Alexander (No. =584=; fig. 229). - - - - -The remainder of the guide is devoted to the personal life of the -individual from the cradle to the grave. Successive sections are -devoted to Infancy and its Amusements; to Education and School -Life--to which sections on Writing and Painting are annexed; to games, -marriages, music, dancing, pet animals; and, finally, to objects -bearing on death and burial. - - - - -XXI.--INFANCY. TOYS. - - -At the end of Case J are four terracotta models of cradles (No. -=585=) with young children in them. One is a winged Eros, and one is -swaddled. Beside the cradles are three cups (No. =586=), with spouts -shaped as mouth-pieces, which may be supposed to be for milk or pap. -Here also are two clay rattles (No. =587=), and a child's wooden -clapper (No. =588=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--CHILD IN HIGH CHAIR (NO. 590).] - -A set of small trefoil-lipped jugs (No. =589=) is painted with designs -closely connected with child life. Children are shown playing with -jugs of this type, with animals and toy carts, or other objects. It -is probable that these jugs were given to Athenian children on the -festival day of the wine god Dionysos, which went by the name of -[Greek: Choes] ("Jugs"). Note No. =590= (fig. 230), with a child -confined in a turret-shaped high chair, and No. =591= (fig. 231), with -two children with draw-carts, each holding a jug. - -=Toys.=--Children of all ages and nations bear a great resemblance to -one another; consequently, it is not surprising, though it is always -interesting, to find that Greek and Roman toys are often very similar -to those of modern times. At the corner of Case J is a series of small -reproductions of furniture, implements and the like in lead, bronze, -pottery and terracotta (No. =592=). Often no doubt, they are simply -toys, like the furniture of a doll's house. Sometimes, however, they -must be supposed to have had a more serious votive character in a -temple. In some cases, perhaps, they were of both kinds. Among the -treasures of Hera at Olympia, the traveller Pausanias saw a small -couch said to have been a plaything of Hippodameia,[74] and it was -not uncommon for children on growing up to dedicate their toys in a -temple. - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--GREEK TOY JUG (NO. 591). 1:1 and 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--GREEK TERRACOTTA DOLL (NO. 593). Ht. 5-1/8 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--OLD WOMAN ON MULE (NO. 596). 1:1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--SEATED DOLL, WITH MARRIAGE-BOWL, EPINETRON -AND SHOES (NO. 599). Ca. 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--TERRACOTTA MODEL TOPS AND DESIGN FROM -VASE-PAINTING. (NO. 600). Ht. of Model on right, 4-1/4 in.] - -The dolls that survive from Greek times were chiefly of terracotta, -and frequently furnished with movable arms and legs. It will be -noticed that most of these dolls have holes pierced in the top of -their heads for the passage of strings connected with the arms and -sometimes with the legs. These would produce a movement of the -arms and legs, and explain the term [Greek: neurospasta] ("drawn -by strings") applied to these dolls. In Xenophon's _Symposium_ a -travelling showman speaks of being kept by the profits drawn from such -puppets.[75] One, holding castanets, is illustrated here (fig. 232; -No. =593=). We get allusions in literature to these dolls and other -small terracotta figures, which show that one of their chief uses was -the amusement of children. One writer[76] speaks of "those who make -little figures of clay in the form of all kinds of animals destined -for the beguiling of little children." Such a figure is that of -the donkey with a sea-perch tied on its back (No. =594=) or the -fascinating group of the little boy on the goose (No. =595=), and the -old woman on the mule (No. =596=; fig. 233). Many of these toys bring -vividly to mind country scenes in Greece at the present day. Though -they were doubtless intended chiefly for little children, women did -not altogether disdain these terracotta toys. A Greek tombstone of -the fifth century B.C. has a relief showing a girl, quite grown up, -standing with a terracotta doll, exactly like those in this Case, in -her hands, while a young slave-girl holds the figure of a duck before -her.[77] Humbler but less breakable toys of Roman date are the wooden -horse (No. =597=) and rag doll (No. =598=) from Egypt. For the most -part these toys have been found in the tombs of children. The seated -figure of a girl (No. =599=; fig. 234), holding an ivory dove in her -hand, and surrounded by her spinning instrument for the knee (see p. -145), her shoes, and marriage-bowl, was found in a tomb near Athens, -probably of the fourth century B.C. The bowl is almost certainly the -[Greek: lebês gamikos], used by the bridal pair immediately after -marriage. It is therefore not unreasonable to conclude that the tomb -was that of a newly wedded bride. Another plaything in vogue among the -Greeks was the whipping top, an ancient model of which in terracotta -(No. =600=) is seen in the Case and is illustrated on the right of -fig. 235. On the left of the figure is another form of Greek whipping -top (of terracotta, found in the sanctuary of the Kabeiri at -Thebes), and in the centre a design from a vase, in which a woman is -represented whipping such a top. In a Greek epigram[78] the top is -mentioned as a boy's plaything, together with a ball, a rattle, and -the favourite knucklebones, and an inscription from the sanctuary -of the Kabeiri at Thebes speaks of four knucklebones, a top -([Greek: strobilos]), a whip, and a torch dedicated by a woman named -Okythoa.[79] - - (=591=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 533 ff.; Benndorf, _Griech. - u. Sicil. Vasenbilder_, p 64; (=599=) For the [Greek: lebês - gamikos], see _Ath. Mitt._, XXXII. (1907), p. 111 f.; (=600=) - See _Ath. Mitt._, XIII., p. 426 f., and _Van Branteghem - Coll._, No. 167. - - - [Footnote 74: Paus. V. 20. 1.] - - [Footnote 75: Xen., _Symp._ 55.] - - [Footnote 76: Suidas, s.v. [Greek: Koroplathoi].] - - [Footnote 77: Conze, _Att. Grabreliefs_, No. 880, - pl. clxx.] - - [Footnote 78: _Anth. Pal._ vi. 309. [Greek: - - euphêmon toi sphairan, eukrotalon te Philoklês - Hermeiê tautên pyxineên platagên, - astragalas th' hais poll' epemênato, kai ton helikton - rhombon, kourosynês paigni', anekremasen]. - ] - - [Footnote 79: _Athen. Mitt._, XIII., p. 427: [Greek: Okythoa - astragalôs pettaras, strobilon, mastiga, daida,....] - ] - - - - -XXII.--EDUCATION, WITH WRITING AND PAINTING. - -(Table-Case J.) - - -=Education.=--Case J contains several objects illustrating that part -of the Greek child's education which was connected with the arts of -reading, arithmetic and writing. A Greek terracotta of the fourth -century B.C. with Silenus holding the child Dionysos by the hand (No. -=601=), may be supposed to represent the old pedagogue, the slave -whose duty it was to take the child to school. (Scenes in a music -school are shown on the vases E 171, E 172, in cases 55-56.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--TERRACOTTA GROUPS. READING AND WRITING -LESSONS (NO. 602). Ht. 4-1/4 in. and 4-3/4 in.] - -=Reading.=--Another terracotta group of about the third century B.C. -(No. =602=, fig. 236, _right_) shows a kindly old schoolmaster seated -and teaching a boy who stands by his side to read from a roll. The -ancient book differed from our own in taking the form of a roll. The -reader would first unroll the beginning, and then, as he went on, roll -up the part he had finished, making thus a double roll, as it were, -of the part read and the part unread. See the tablet in Case 56 of -the child Avita, reading her scrolls, with her dog in attendance (No. -=603=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--SPELLING EXERCISE (NO. 605).] - -A simple Greek alphabet is inscribed on marble (No. =604=) [Greek: -...de...thiklmnxoprstuphchps]. A fragment of a syllabic reading or -spelling exercise is shown on a piece of pottery (No. =605=; fig. 237). -Each letter of the alphabet is combined with each vowel in turn, as -[Greek: ra re rê r[i ro ru rô] sa se sê si s[o su sô]] and so on. -In the case of [Greek: rê] the syllable was miswritten [Greek: re] and -corrected. A school-boy's wax tablet (No. =606=; fig. 238) shows on -its right half how syllables constitute words as [Greek: the ôn] for -[Greek: theôn]. A large wooden board with an iron handle (No. =607=) -is inscribed with lines of Homer (_Iliad_ i., 468 ff.), no doubt for -use in school. A fragment of an 'Iliac table,' (No. =608=) with a -scene from the _Iliad_ (Achilles dragging the body of Hector round -Troy, and Achilles conversing with Athena) was probably also intended -for teaching purposes. - -=Arithmetic.=--The left side of the tablet (No. =606=; fig. 238) gives -a multiplication table, from [Greek: a´ a´ a´], once one is one, to -[Greek: g´ i´ l´], thrice ten is thirty. The Greek numerals follow the -alphabet to [Greek: i´] = 10, followed by [Greek: k´] = 20, [Greek: -l´] = 30, and so on. Six is represented by the sign [Greek: stigma´ -(f´)], which occupies the place of F in the Latin alphabet, and stands -for the old digamma or vau. - -=Writing.=--The wax-coated tablet which contains the foregoing table -was the usual appliance for writing. A writing lesson is shown in -the terracotta group (No. =602=, fig. 236, _left_). The instrument -employed was a pointed implement, called by the Romans a _stilus_. An -example in ivory, here figured (No. =609=; fig. 239), was found in a -tomb of the fifth century B.C. at Eretria in Euboea. The broad flat -end was used for erasures, so that we find the Romans using the -phrase _vertere stilum_, "to turn the pen" in the sense of "to -erase." Numerous _stili_ in bronze are shown in the Case, and some -are illustrated in fig. 240. The fifth example from the top in the -illustration is in silver bound with gold wire, probably from France -and of late Roman date. These tablets were not as a rule used singly, -but strung together, so that the waxen surface was protected when the -two or more leaves were closed. The present tablet was composed of -two leaves, one of which is in the Department of Manuscripts with -a writing exercise upon it. The arrangement of several tablets in a -fashion anticipating the form of the modern book is well shown in the -relief of the pork butcher (Case 41). - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--TABLET WITH MULTIPLICATION TABLE AND READING -EXERCISE (NO. 606).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--IVORY _Stilus_ (NO. 609). 2:3.] - -For documents of a more permanent character paper was made from the -papyrus plant, whence it takes its name. It was manufactured chiefly -at Alexandria from the time of the foundation of that town in the -fourth century B.C., and pen and ink were used to write on it. A -specimen of Greek writing on papyrus is seen in the Case (No. =610=). -It is a letter of the first century after Christ, asking that a supply -of drugs of good quality--"none of your rotten stuff that won't pass -muster in Alexandria"--should be sent to the writer, Prokleios. -Later on, parchment, prepared from the skins of animals, and made -principally at Pergamon, in Asia Minor, began to rival papyrus as -writing-material. Specimens of ancient reed and bronze pens (No. -=611=) are given in the illustration above (fig. 240), and a series of -ancient inkpots is here figured (No. =612=; fig. 241). The pens, whose -split nibs have a curiously modern appearance, are all of Roman date. -The reed pens come from Behnesa, in Egypt, and one of the bronze pens -was found in the Tiber at Rome. The inkpots are also of Roman date. -The middle one of the lower row has its hinged cover still remaining, -with the inlaid vine-spray in silver round the rim. The one to the -right of it is in blue faïence, and was found in Egypt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--ROMAN PENS AND _Stili_. 1:2.] - -Writing was sometimes put directly upon wood. Such is the case with -the fragment of board from Egypt mentioned above. The lawyer's tablet -(No. =612*=), of about the fifth century A.D., which deals with loans, -etc., has the surface specially whitened for the writing and a space -for keeping the pen. Parts of the two outer leaves, which contained -between them eight inner leaves, are shown in the Case. - - (=604=) _B.M. Inscr._, 323; (=605=) _Journ. Hell. Stud._, - XXVIII. (1908), p. 123; cf. Dumont, _Inscriptions céramiques_, - p. 405 (5); (=608=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2192; (=610=) - _B.M. Papyri_, ccclvi. - - On Greek education generally, see Freeman, _Schools of - Hellas_, and the select bibliography there given. For ancient - books, cf. E. M. Thompson, _Handbook of Greek and Latin - Palaeography_. For relics of Graeco-Egyptian school-life, see - _Journ. Hell. Stud._, _loc. cit._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--ROMAN INKPOTS (NO. 612). Ca. 1:2.] - -=Painting.=--Adjoining the objects connected with writing, are -illustrations of the art of painting in Roman times. They include -a series of ancient colours, pestles and mortars, some paintings on -wood, one, painted by the encaustic process, enclosed in its ancient -wooden frame. The colours, as may be seen, were kept in a dry -condition, and had to be pounded with pestle and mortar before they -were mixed for the use of the artist. A good number of ancient colours -are shown here, the blue (silicate of copper) being particularly -prominent. The six saucers (No. =613=), found together in a tomb of -the Roman period at Hawara, Egypt, contain water-colour paints. These -are _dark red_ (oxide of iron), _yellow_ (ochre, oxide of iron), -_white_ (sulphate of lime), _pink_ (organic colour, probably madder, -in sulphate of lime), _blue_ (glass coloured by copper), _red_ (oxide -of lead). The saucers were found piled by the side of the owner's -body. Pestles and mortars for pounding the colours are shown in the -Case. A favourite form of pestle is that which resembles a bent leg or -thumb, such as the one from Rhodes (No. =614=), inscribed with what is -probably the owner's name. Near it is the terracotta figure of a dwarf -(No. =615=), seated (apparently in a violent passion) before a pestle -and mortar. We may imagine that he is a slave set to mix his master's -colours. - -The methods of painting illustrated here are two, viz., painting on -a dry ground in water-colours, and what is known as "encaustic" -painting. For the first, water-colours were used, and the ground -material was generally a thin piece of wood, whitened to receive the -colours. Egypt has furnished many examples of this kind of painting. -Among them is the portrait of a woman from the Fayum, wearing a fillet -(No. =616=). This no doubt comes from a mummy of the Roman period, -such as the one exhibited in Case 72 next the entrance to the Gold -Room Corridor, which has a similar painted portrait (in encaustic, -however) placed over the face. Other water-colour paintings of Roman -date from Egypt are shown in Case J, such as the figures of Fortune -and Venus painted in several colours on a red ground (No. =617=), -and the fragmentary figure (No. =618=), wearing a jewel of gold and -pearls, and inscribed with the name of Sarapis ([Greek: SARAPI]). The -encaustic process was that employed in the case of the framed portrait -(No. =619=), found at Hawara in Egypt. The frame is carefully made, -the sides being joined by tenons and mortises. There is a groove for a -glass covering, and the cord by which it was suspended still remains. -The portrait was painted in wax, by a process which can hardly have -been other than that called "encaustic" by Pliny.[80] The nature of -this process has been much disputed, but probably the colours were -ground in with the wax, which was fused by the heat of the sun or -artificial means, and then laid on by the brush. A stump (_cestrum_) -was also sometimes employed. Probably a box divided into compartments -was used for holding these wax-colours in their fluid state. Such a -receptacle may perhaps be recognised in the long terracotta vessel, -which has a groove in the middle for a brush (No. =620=). - - (=613=) Petrie, _Hawara_, p. 11; (=619=) _ibid._, p. 10. - - - [Footnote 80: Plin. _H.N._ xxxv. 122, 149.] - - - - -XXIII.--GAMES. - -(Table-Case J.) - - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--TWO WOMEN PLAYING AT KNUCKLEBONES.] - -Herodotus has a curious story to the effect that the Lydians invented -dice, knucklebones, balls, and other playthings to help them to pass a -time of famine, by playing and eating on alternate days.[81] Draughts -([Greek: pessoi]) are expressly excepted from his list, and were -ascribed to the fertile invention of Palamedes at the time of the -Trojan war. Games played with knucklebones (small bones forming part -of the ankle-joint in cloven-footed animals) may be described -first, since they were, as may be judged from the number of ancient -knucklebones found (No. =621= in this Case), extremely common. We are -told in the _Anthology_ of a boy who gained eighty knucklebones as a -writing-prize.[82] Among women too they were a favourite plaything. -The illustration (fig. 242), from a painting on marble found at Resina -(the ancient Herculaneum), shows two women engaged at knucklebones. -(See also the terracotta group D 161 in the Room of Terracottas, Case -32). This game was called "five-stones" ([Greek: pentelithoi]), a -name still given by children to a very similar game. The lexicographer -Pollux describes the game thus: "The knucklebones are thrown up into -the air, and an attempt is made to catch them on the back of the -hand. If you are only partially successful, you have to pick up the -knucklebones which have fallen to the ground, without letting fall -those already on the hand.... It is, above all, a woman's game."[83] -This description makes the illustration clear. Each woman has five -knucklebones, and the one whose turn it is to play has caught three -on the back of her hand; the two which are falling to the ground she -would have to pick up without shaking off those already on the hand. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--KNUCKLEBONES AND DICE (NOS. 621-3). 1:1.] - -Besides being used in various kinds of games, knucklebones were also -employed as dice. The four long faces of the knucklebone differed from -one another in form, one being convex, another concave, another nearly -flat, and the fourth sinuous and irregular. The values assigned to -these sides were: (_a_) to the flat side ([Greek: chion]), 1; (_b_) -the sinuous side ([Greek: kôon]), 6; (_c_) the concave ([Greek: -hyption]), 3; (_d_) the convex ([Greek: prênes]), 4. This is the order -in which they are shown in fig. 243, from left to right. Astragali -thus required no marks of value upon them, since their sides were -naturally distinguished. The ordinary cube-shaped dice, marked 1-6 -(No. =622=) were also widely used by the Greeks and Romans (fig. 243). -The usual arrangement of numbers was, as now, 1 opposite 6, 2 opposite -5, and 3 opposite 4,[84] but other arrangements occur. Some dice are -interesting on account of their peculiar form, _e.g._, the squatting -silver figures (No. =623=, fig. 204), which are marked with the values -1-6 on different parts of the body. A Roman bronze dice-box is shown -in fig. 244 (No. =624=). The ordinary materials of dice were ivory, -bone, or wood. Of the multifarious ways of playing with dice known to -the Greeks and Romans, the one most in vogue may be mentioned. In this -three dice were used, and the object was to throw the highest number -([Greek: pleistobolinda]). The best throw, three sixes, became -proverbial. In Aeschylos' _Agamemnon_ the watchman, when he saw the -beacon-fire blaze forth which told of Agamemnon's victorious return, -exclaimed:----"I'll count my master's fortunes fallen fair, now that -my beacon watch has thrown a triple six."[85] With astragali, on the -other hand, the best throw was 1, 3, 4, 6, and was called "the throw -of Venus." For this each bone had to present a different face.[86] The -worst throw was the "Dogs," when four aces turned up.[87] - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--BRONZE DICE-BOX (NO. 624). 4:5.] - -Dice of exceptional form are the twenty-sided one, inscribed with the -Greek letters [Greek: A] to [Greek: Y] (No. =625=), a fourteen-sided -one inscribed with Roman numerals (No. =626=), and an uninscribed -fourteen-sided crystal die from Naukratis. With these may be mentioned -the triple teetotum (No. =627=) and the four-sided triple die, one -side of which has been left plain (No. =628=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--IVORY PIECES FROM GAMES (NOS. 630-631). -2:3.] - -Of the rules governing other games, represented here by several -pieces, we are entirely ignorant. The plaster pawns (No. =629=) found -at Panticapaeum (Kertch) in the Crimea, probably belonged to some game -analogous to our draughts. An interesting set of pieces is that of -the ivory discs (No. =630=; fig. 245), which bear on their obverse a -design in relief _e.g._ two Muses and the head of the Sun-god, and on -their reverse a number, from 1 to 15, in both Greek and Latin figures, -as well as a word descriptive of the design on the obverse. Thus the -two illustrated have on their reverse - - +VI+ - [Greek: MOUSAI] - [Greek: TH] - [Greek: F] - -and - - +II+ - [Greek: HÊLIOS] - [Greek: B] - -(_i.e._, VI.--Nine ([Greek: th´]) Muses--6, and II.--Helios--2) -respectively. It seems pretty clearly established that these discs -were used as pieces in a game, which probably resembled draughts or -backgammon. Fifteen of these pieces have been found together in a -child's tomb at Panticapaeum. The game appears to have been popular -in the first and second centuries after Christ, and probably had its -origin in Alexandria. It seems likely that it bore a resemblance to -the Roman game called _duodecim scripta_ ("twelve lines"), played with -fifteen pieces on either side. The moves were determined by the throw -of the dice, as in our backgammon. Another set of pieces belonging to -a game are the label-shaped ivories (No. =631=; fig. 245), inscribed -on one side with words, often of an abusive character, such as -_male (e)st_ ("bad luck"), _fur_ ("thief"), _nugator_ ("trifler"), -_stumacose_ ("ill-tempered fellow"), etc., and on the other with -numbers. The pieces mentioned have the numbers +XXIII+, +A+, +II+, -+I+, and +II A+ respectively on their reverse sides (see fig. 245). -The whole series of numbers on these ivories runs from 1 to 25, and -includes in addition 30 and 60; it is noteworthy that the highest -numbers have inscriptions of a complimentary character, _e.g._, -_felix_ and _benigne_. The pieces may have been used in the Roman game -called "the game of soldiers" (_ludus latrunculorum_).[1] - -At the top of Cases 57-58 is an oblong marble board (No. =632=), -inscribed with six words of six letters each. It was found in a tomb -near the Porta Portese, Rome. The words are-- - - +CIRCVS PLENVS+ - +CLAMOR INGENS+ - +IANVAE TE+ ? _te(nsae)_ - -"Circus full," "Great shouting," "Doors bursting (?)." - -Each word is separated from that opposite it by a flower within a -circle. Many such stones are known, always with six words of six -letters, so that it seems clear that they were used as boards for a -game, possibly the _duodecim scripta_ already mentioned. The pieces -used were probably the so-called "contorniates," bronze discs of coin -form, with designs in relief on either side within a raised rim and -a circular depression. Two examples of these contorniates (in -electrotype) are exhibited below the stone board (No. =633=). The -pieces are of late Imperial date, of about the time of Constantine. -Many have subjects closely connected with the circus, a fact which -harmonizes well with the inscription on the board described. One of -the two exhibited has a head of Alexander and a representation of a -chariot race, the other a head of Nero and a water organ (see below, -p. 216). - - (=630=) Cf. _Röm. Mitt._, 1896, p. 238 ff.; _Rev. Arch._, 4th - Series V. (1905), p. 110 ff.; (=631=) _Röm. Mitt._, 1896, p. - 227 ff.; (=632=) Cf. _Num. Chron._ (4th Series), VI., p. 232 - ff.; _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1887, p. 118. - - On ancient toys and games generally, see Becq de Fouquières, - _Les jeux des anciens_; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Ludus_. - - - [Footnote 81: Herodot., i. 94.] - - [Footnote 82: _Anth. Pal._ vi. 308: [Greek: - - Nikêsas tous paidas, epei kala grammat' egrapsen, - Konnaros ogdôkont' astragalous elaben.] - ] - - [Footnote 83: Pollux, ix. 126 (reading [Greek: ephistatai] and - omitting [Greek: ê]).] - - [Footnote 84: Cf. _Anth. Pal._ xiv. 8: [Greek: - - hex, hen, pente, dyo, tria, tessara kybos elaunei.] - ] - - [Footnote 85: Aesch., _Agam._ 32: [Greek: - - ta despotôn gar eu pesonta thêsomai, - tris hex balousês têsde moi phryktôrias.] - ] - - [Footnote 86: Mart., xiv. 14: - - Cum steterit nullus vultu tibi talus eodem, - Munera me dices magna dedisse tibi. - ] - - [Footnote 87: Prop., iv. 8, 45 f.: - - Me quoque per talos Venerem quaerente secundos, - Semper damnosi subsiluere canes. - ] - - [Footnote 88: _Latro_ originally meant "a mercenary soldier."] - - - - -XXIV.--MARRIAGE. - -(Wall-Case 53.) - - -=Greek Marriage.=--Though neither Greek nor Roman marriage was -definitely associated with the religion of the state, it was, however, -among both peoples closely associated with religious rites of a -domestic character. Plato in his _Laws_ makes it the distinguishing -mark of the legally wedded wife that "she had come into the house with -gods and sacred marriage rites." These rites are sometimes represented -upon Greek vases, as may be seen from the objects and illustrations -placed in this Case. The ceremonies may be conveniently divided into -those concerning (_a_) the preparation of the bride; (_b_) the removal -of the bride from the house of her father to that of her husband; -(_c_) the reception at that house; and (_d_) the presents given on the -day following the marriage ([Greek: epaulia]). - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--DECKING OF A GREEK BRIDE (NO. 635).] - -(_a_) On the day before her wedding the bride not infrequently made an -offering of the playthings of her childhood to some deity, presenting -her toys to Artemis in particular. On the day before marriage, too, -water for the bridal bath was brought in procession in the special -form of tall vase called a [Greek: loutrophoros]; a small model is -seen in Case 59 (No. =634=). The vase is also seen standing on the -chest in the room of the bride here depicted (No. =635=; fig. 246). -The scene is taken from the design on a toilet box of the fifth -century B.C. (E 774), which shows the bride being adorned for her -marriage. Besides the tall amphora already mentioned, two vases called -"marriage bowls" ([Greek: lebêtes gamikoi]) are seen standing on tall -stems before the door, on the further side of which one of the bride's -friends is turning the magic wheel intended to inspire the bridegroom -with a greater longing of love. So Theocritus sings: - - "Draw to my home, O mystic wheel, - the man that I long for."[89] - -(_b_) The arrival of the husband, who comes to fetch the bride to his -home, may probably be recognised in the design on the fifth-century -vase No. =636=. It is, however, a special and sacred occasion which -is here represented. The bride, who is seated and holds a sceptre, is -probably the Basilinna, wife of the Basileus, the magistrate at Athens -who was charged with the supervision of the state-religion. She turns -back to look at the bridegroom, who is none other than the wine-god -Dionysos, holding his thyrsos or staff crowned with the pine-cone. Two -love-gods fly towards the pair with wedding gifts, while on the right -approaches a Victory holding lighted torches, which served to light -the night-procession to the bridegroom's house. The subject is -explained by a ceremony which took place at the Attic wine-festival -of the Anthesteria, celebrated annually in February and March. On the -second day of the festival there was a mystic marriage between the -wine-god Dionysos and the wife of the Basileus,[90] and it can hardly -be doubted that the present design refers to this. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--THE WEDDED PAIR DRIVING TO THE BRIDEGROOM'S -HOME (NO. 637).] - -(_c_) The actual progress of the bride to her husband's home is -depicted on the black-figured vase No. =637=, of sixth-century date -(fig. 247). The departure took place at nightfall by torch-light, and -the bride and bridegroom usually (as in the present instance) made the -journey in a mule-car, attended by a friend called the _parochos_. On -the vase (fig. 247) the bride and bridegroom are seen in front of the -mule-car, and the _parochos_ is seated behind. When the pair reached -their home, they were welcomed by the father and mother of the -bridegroom, and a procession was formed to the hearth-altar. This is -a scene depicted on No. =638=, a reproduction of a painting on a -toilet-box in the Third Vase Room (D 11, on Case F). The bridegroom -leads the bride by the hand towards the hearth-altar, by the side of -which stands the hearth-goddess Hestia, holding a sceptre and what -is probably a fig, an allusion to the figs, dates and other fruits -showered over the wedded pair as they reached the hearth, and thence -called [Greek: katachysmata] (down-pourings). Before the pair go a -boy playing on the double-flutes and two women holding torches, who -probably move round the altar, as well as another woman, who perhaps -leads the way to the bridal chamber (figs. 248 and 249). - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--TOILET-BOX WITH WEDDING PROCESSION.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--BRIDEGROOM LEADING BRIDE TO HEARTH-ALTAR. -Design on the toilet-box (No. 638).] - -(_d_) Upon the day following the marriage the relations and friends -brought presents to the house ([Greek: epaulia]).[91] The presents -consisted chiefly in objects likely to be useful to the bride, such as -vases, articles of toilet, spinning implements, etc. The subject was -a favourite one with the Greek vase-painters, probable examples being -the designs on E 188 in Case 47 and the toilet-box E 773 in Case H in -the Third Vase Room. A still better instance occurs on the restored -"marriage vase" E 810 in Case H in the same room. - -=Roman Marriage.=--Roman practice recognised various methods of lawful -marriage. The illustrations and objects shown in this Case deal only -with certain ceremonies which were common to all of them. They concern -(_a_) the betrothal; (_b_) the actual wedding rites; and (_c_) the -escorting (_deductio_) of the bride to the house of the bridegroom. - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--ROMAN WEDDING CEREMONY (NO. 641).] - -(_a_) The betrothal took the form of a solemn contract between the -fathers and guardians on either side. In all Roman contracts it -was customary that a pledge should be given, and this pledge often -consisted in a ring. It was fitting, therefore, that a ring given to -the woman by her betrothed should come to be a sign of the betrothal -contract. It is natural to identify these rings with a series of Roman -rings which have for their design two clasped right hands. An example -in gold of about the third century A.D. (No. =639=) is shown in this -Case. - -(_b_) The actual ceremony of marriage consisted in the solemn clasping -of hands (_dextrarum iunctio_), an action seen on the relief on the -sepulchral chest (No. =640=) placed in this Case. The inscription -shows that the chest was dedicated by a freedman and imperial scribe -named Vitalis to the memory of his wife Vernasia Cyclas. The ceremony -is only shown in an abbreviated form on this chest, but it appears in -more detail on a relief from a sarcophagus (No. =641=; fig. 250). The -husband and wife clasp hands, and between them stands the _pronuba_ or -matron-friend of the bride, placing a hand on the shoulder of each. -On the left of the group stands a man, perhaps the bride's father. -To left and right of this scene of everyday Roman life we have -the mythological personages whose attendance at the wedding may be -supposed to be of good augury--Mars, Victory and Fortune. The clasping -of hands was followed by a sacrifice to Jupiter, and this closed -the actual wedding ceremonies. The sacrifice is represented in the -illustration (fig. 251) taken from a Roman sarcophagus.[92] The bride, -and bridegroom stand by the burning altar, upon which the latter -pours a libation. Behind the pair stands _Juno pronuba_, the presiding -goddess of the wedding rites. On the right a bull is being led up to -sacrifice, and on the left stand Venus, Hymenaeus and the Graces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--ROMAN WEDDING SACRIFICE.] - -(_c_) When night had fallen there followed the procession, in -which the bride was escorted from her father's house to that of the -bridegroom, a procession described in one of the most splendid of the -poems of Catullus.[93] Torch-bearers and flute-players led the way, -and the wedding train was accompanied by a crowd, the boys in -which chanted rude jesting verses and petitioned the bridegroom for -nuts.[94] When the doorway of the house was reached, the bridegroom -carefully lifted the bride over the threshold, that there might be no -ill-omened stumbling. "Carry the gilded feet across the threshold," -sings Catullus, "that the omen may be favourable." This moment is -illustrated by a scene from a Roman comedy (No. =54=), taken from a -lamp exhibited on Table-Case K (see above, p. 28, fig. 17). The bride -is being carried on the back of a man, while a Cupid waits at the -door to receive her. Within the house she received a gift of fire and -water, elements so necessary to the performance of the housewife's -duties, and on the day following the wedding she did sacrifice at her -husband's altar. - - (=635=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 774; Furtwängler and - Reichhold, _Griech. Vasenmalerei_, I., pl. 57 (3); (=637=) - _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 485; (=638=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., - D 11; _Ath. Mitt._, XXXII., 1907, p. 80 ff.; (=639=) _Cat. of - Rings_, 276; (=640=) _Cat. of Sculpt._ 2379; (=641=) _Journ. - of Hellenic Studies_, XXXVI., p. 85. - - See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Matrimonium_. - - - [Footnote 89: Theocr. ii. 17: [Greek: - - iunx, helke ty tênon emon poti dôma ton andra]. - ] - - [Footnote 90: Cf. Aristot. [Greek: Ath. Pol.] 3, 5; Dem. _c. - Neaer._, c. 76; Mommsen, _Feste d. Stadt Athen_, p. 393 ff.] - - [Footnote 91: See _Jahrb. d. arch. Inst._, 1900, p. 144 ff.] - - [Footnote 92: _Mon. dell' Inst._ iv., pl. 9.] - - [Footnote 93: No. lxi.] - - [Footnote 94: _Ibid._, l. 131 f.] - - - - -XXV.--MUSIC AND DANCING. - -(Wall-Cases 54-56.) - - -=Music.=--The Greek term [Greek: mousikê] (music) included much more -than we mean by music. It was applied to the education of the mind -as opposed to [Greek: gymnastikê] (gymnastics), the education of the -body. In the narrower sense, however, it corresponded to the modern -term, and to this the Greeks from early times attached a high -importance. It was the effect of music upon the character which -appealed to them above all things, and it was this which caused Plato -to banish from his ideal state certain modes of music which would, he -thought, be injurious to its well-being. These modes or "harmonies" -were named after race-divisions. We find the Dorian, the Aeolic, -the Ionic, the Lydian, and the Phrygian. The Dorian was universally -approved for its manly qualities, but Plato rejected the Lydian as -useless and effeminate.[95] - -Of the stringed instruments used among the Greeks, the lyre was the -most prominent. There were two varieties of this, the kithara and the -lyre proper. The kithara, an instrument with a large wooden sounding -board and upright arms, was played chiefly by professional musicians, -such as the kitharist represented on a fine vase in the Third Vase -Room, who has won a victory at one of the great musical contests (E -460; Pedestal 7). The illustration (fig. 252), taken from an amphora -of the fifth century (E 256, Case H, Third Vase Room), shows Apollo -playing on the kithara, which is supported by a band passing round his -left wrist, but leaving the fingers of the left hand free to play -on the strings. In his right hand he holds the _plectrum_, which is -attached by a cord to the instrument. The _plectrum_ was of various -forms, but its most essential part was the tooth for catching and -sounding the wires. The lyre proper (fig. 253) is distinguished by -its curving arms and sounding board of tortoiseshell (hence called -_chelys_). The wooden framework and parts of the shell of a Greek lyre -found in a tomb near Athens are shown in Case 56 (No. =642=). As the -popular instrument, the lyre was naturally taught in schools. Two -interesting Greek vases (Nos. =643= and =644=), exhibited in these -Cases, give pictures of boys receiving music lessons at a school. In -one instance a boy is learning the lyre, in another the boy is playing -the flutes, while the master, who holds a _plectrum_, is playing on a -lyre. Domestic animals are freely admitted, and the discipline seems -far from severe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 252. APOLLO PLAYING ON A KITHARA.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 253. LYRE.] - -As the school scene shows, flute-playing, though condemned by Plato -and Aristotle,[96] was commonly taught at Athens. Ancient flutes are -distinguished from the modern instruments by the vibrating reed which -formed the mouthpiece, and by the fact that they were always played -in pairs. Hence the frequency with which pairs of ancient flutes are -found. Two of sycamore wood (No. =645=; Case 56) were discovered in -the same tomb (near Athens) as the lyre described above (No. =642=). -Another pair of flutes (in bronze) from Italy (No. =646=; fig. 254) -have their mouthpieces in the form of busts of Maenads. A terracotta -shows a pair of female musicians (No. =647=) playing with a drum and -double flutes. To assist the playing of the two flutes together a -mouth-band was often worn, as may be seen from designs on vases, -_e.g._, on a cup of Epiktetos (E 38; Third Vase Room), and on some of -the Cypriote sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room passage. - -A framed impression from a Greek hymn to Apollo inscribed on stone is -here exhibited (No. =648=). Musical notes, indicated by letters of the -Greek alphabet in various positions, are placed at intervals over -the letters to guide the singer. The inscription was found at Delphi, -where other inscriptions of a similar character have come to light. - -Flute-playing was very popular with the Romans, among whom it was -considered the proper accompaniment of every kind of ceremony.[97] For -military purposes they used several other wind instruments. Two bronze -mouthpieces (No. =649=) in Case 55 may perhaps come from long straight -trumpets (_tubae_). The Roman curved horn (_cornu_) is represented by -two large specimens in bronze (No. =650=) placed at the top of Cases -55, 56. The terracotta bugle in Case 55 is probably a model of the -Roman _bucina_ (No. =651=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 254.--BRONZE FLUTES AND CYMBALS (NOS. 646, 654). -1:3.] - -The simplest of all ancient wind instruments is the rustic Pan's pipe -(_syrinx_), usually formed of seven or eight hollow reeds fastened -together with wax. The Greek Pan's pipe has the reeds of equal length, -the different notes being produced by the different positions of the -natural joints of the reed. An example may be seen among the Cypriote -sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room passage. The Roman _syrinx_ -had its lower edge sloping, the result of cutting off the reeds -immediately below the natural joints. A terracotta statuette in Case -55 (No. =652=) represents a shepherd boy playing on a Pan's pipe of -the Roman kind, and a marble relief from Ephesus at the top of Case 54 -(No. =653=) shows a beardless man seated with a large _syrinx_ in his -hands. The Greek inscription tells us that the relief was dedicated by -Ebenos, a "first flute," to Hierokles his piper. - -It was the Pan's pipe which gave Ktesibios of Alexandria (third -century B.C.; cf. p. 120) the model on which he constructed his -water-organ, an instrument which became popular with the Romans. A -Roman "contorniate" shown in Case 58 has one of these water-organs -represented upon it. The air was supplied by water pressure and the -notes were played by means of a key-board. - -Cymbals were largely used by the Greeks and Romans in religious -ceremonies of an ecstatic character, such as the mysteries of Demeter -and Kore and the worship of Kybele. Among the cymbals in Case 56 is -an interesting pair (No. =654=; fig. 254) inscribed in Greek with the -name of Oata their owner ([Greek: Oatas eimi]). They were originally -joined together by a chain, part of which still remains. In the lower -part of Cases 55-56 is a considerable variety of bells in bronze (No. -=655=). - - (=643=) and (=644=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 171, 172; - (=645=) For the structure of the ancient flute, cf. especially - Baumeister, _Denkmäler_, s.v. _Flöten;_ (=648=) _Bull. de - Corr. Hell._, XVIII., pl. 21; (=652=) For the _syrinx_, cf. - Tillyard in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, XXVII. (1907), p. 167 ff.; - (=653=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, II., 1271. - - See in general, _Camb. Comp. to Gk. Stud._, pp. 370-374; - Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Musica_. - -=Dancing.=--Dancing among the Greeks and Romans differed in many -ways from our own. In the first place dances (which were generally -accompanied by the flutes) were largely associated with religion. -Plato in his _Laws_ gave it as his opinion that, in imitation of -the Egyptian example, all dancing should be made to take a religious -character.[98] This ceremonial side of Greek dancing is illustrated -by a primitive stone vessel from Cyprus (No. =655=), which represents -three draped women dancing in a ring. Among the Romans the processions -of the Salii or dancing priests of Mars are among the best-known -examples of religious dancing. - -In private life dancing was regarded by the Greeks rather as an -entertainment to be provided by hired performers than as a recreation -in which guests could take their part.[99] Hence with them men and -women did not dance together as in the modern fashion. The demand for -dancing girls to entertain the guests at banquets led to the training -of large numbers of this class. A vase (No. =656=), placed in the -lower part of Case 54, shows dancing girls being instructed in their -art. They repeatedly appear on Greek vases dancing before the feasting -guests (_e.g._ on E 68 in Case E in the Third Vase Room, the interior -of a cup in the style of Brygos). These girls often carried castanets -when dancing, as may be seen on the lekythos (No. =657=) and in the -relief from Melos (No. =658=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 255.--GREEK WOMEN DANCING. Ca. 2:7.] - -Greek women sometimes danced in private among themselves, especially -on the occasion of some domestic festival.[100] It is with this kind -of dancing that we should probably associate the terracotta figurines -(fig. 255). They illustrate the important part played by the arms and -the drapery in ancient dancing, which was largely mimetic. Ovid notes -that supple arms are one of the principal qualifications for a good -dancer.[101] This tradition was undoubtedly inherited from Greek -dancing, for (religious rites apart) the Romans regarded the art as an -unseemly one, so much so that Cicero remarked "that practically no one -except a madman danced when sober."[102] - - (=656=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 185; (=657=) _Ibid._, E - 642: (658) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 370. For Greek dancing in - general, cf. Emmanuel, _La danse grecque_. - - - [Footnote 95: Plat., _Rep._ iii. 398-9.] - - [Footnote 96: Plato, _Rep._ iii. 399 D; - Arist., _Pol._ viii. 6, 5 ff.] - - [Footnote 97: Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 659 f.: - - cantabat fanis, cantabat tibia ludis, - cantabat maestis tibia funeribus. - ] - - [Footnote 98: Plat., _Leg._ 799 A.] - - [Footnote 99: Cf. the famous story of Hippokleides - (Herodot., vi. 129), whose dancing lost him a bride.] - - [Footnote 100: Aristoph., _Lys._ 408; Athen., xv. 668 D.] - - [Footnote 101: _Ars. Amat._ i. 595: - - si vox est, canta; si mollia bracchia, salta. - ] - - [Footnote 102: _Pro Mur._ 6; cf. Nepos, _Epam._ 1.] - - - - -XXVI.--DOMESTIC AND PET ANIMALS; FLOWERS. - -(Wall-Cases 57-58.) - - -The upper part of Wall-Cases 57, 58 contains a number of -representations of domesticated and pet animals. The series includes -cattle, goats, pigs, dogs, cats, pigeons and poultry. Often, but not -always, the animal is associated with some human actor, as when the -child rides on a dog, pig, or goat, or when the large cock tries to -peck at the bunch of grapes in a child's hand (No. =659=). - -More than one of the pigeons wears a _bulla_ round its neck (No. -=660=) to avert the evil eye (see p. 136), and a cock is decked with -a wreath of ivy leaves (No. =661=). On a vase (No. =662=) a girl has -tied a string to the hind leg of a tortoise, and dangles it before her -dog; on another (No. =663=) two children are making a dog jump through -a hoop. In a relief already mentioned (p. 198, No. =603=) the dog -seeks the notice of its studious mistress, little Avita. In the scene -of the music school (No. =643= in Case 55) the boy plays with the cat -behind the master's chair. Another form of amusement is illustrated -by the kylix, No. =664=. A boy is seated, and holds on his knee a cage -containing a bird, probably a quail. Quail-fighting was a very popular -amusement at Athens, where odds were freely betted on the result of -the encounter. The wooden instrument, seen above the boy, would be -used to provoke the quails to fight with one another. The game of -quail-striking ([Greek: ortygokopia]) was another variety of sport -with quails. In this the object was to prove the endurance of the -quail by striking it with the fingers or pulling out its feathers. -A Roman lamp (No. =665=; fig. 256) gives an interesting view of an -itinerant with his troop of performing animals. On his right is an -ape, on his left a cat climbing a ladder. Above are two hoops for the -animals to jump through. - -[Illustration: FIG. 256.--ITINERANT WITH PERFORMING ANIMALS (NO. 665). -2:3.] - -=Flowers.=--In Cases 57-58 will be seen a set of funeral wreaths (No. -=666=; cf. p. 226), found at Hawara, in Egypt. Among the flowers which -can be identified in those wreaths are the rose, narcissus, sweet -marjoram, and immortelle. We know, from an epigram of Martial,[103] -that Egypt cultivated roses with such success that she exported them -from Alexandria to Rome during the winter, though at the time when the -poet wrote (latter part of first century A.D.), Italy was, according -to him, in a position to export roses to Egypt. In their gardens the -Romans devoted most of their attention to their trees, which they -cut into fantastic shapes by the agency of the landscape gardener -(_topiarius_). The species of flowers known to them were decidedly -limited in number, but we find gardens of singular beauty depicted -on their wall-paintings, notably on one found at Prima Porta near -Rome.[104] - - (=659=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 539; (=662=) _Cat. of Vases_, - IV., F 101; (=665=) _Cat. of Lamps_, 679; (=666=) Petrie, - _Hawara_, p. 47. - - - [Footnote 103: vi. 80.] - - [Footnote 104: _Ant. Denkmäler_, I., pl. 11.] - - - - -XXVII.--METHODS OF BURIAL. - -(Wall-Cases 58-64.) - - -=Greece.=--In the prehistoric period known as Mycenaean, the -inhabitants of Greek lands probably buried their dead and did not -cremate them. It is possible, however, that a partial burning was in -vogue in this and the succeeding periods in Greece. In the case of the -more wealthy Mycenaean dead, the bodies were elaborately decked with -gold ornaments. Oval plates of gold were tied over the forehead and -mouth of the corpse, in the latter case (where the impression of the -lips can be seen) perhaps with the idea of keeping out evil spirits. -The window-cases in the Gold Ornament Room contain many examples of -these funeral diadems and mouthpieces from Cyprus. In the Homeric -poems we find the bodies of the dead burnt upon a pyre and the ashes -buried beneath a mound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 257. FUNERAL LEKYTHOS. Ht. 15-1/4 in.] - -Scenes representing the preparation of the body for cremation or -burial are frequently depicted on Greek vases. They occur on the large -"Dipylon" vases, made specially for standing outside the tomb (see -examples in the First Vase Room), and on black-figure vases, where the -body is seen lying on the bier surrounded by mourners. It is, however, -upon the white lekythi of the fifth century (No. =668=; fig. 257), one -of which is here illustrated, that funeral scenes are most commonly -found. We know from Greek literature that these vases were expressly -made for putting in tombs. A speaker in the _Ekklesiazusae_ of -Aristophanes talks of "the man who paints the lekythi for the -dead."[105] On the vase here figured a woman is making offerings at -the tombstone. These offerings were made by the relatives from time -to time, and consisted mainly of sashes, wreaths, and vases, as may be -seen from the vases placed in the Case. The Greek funeral monuments of -the best period are characterised by their restrained beauty. Examples -of the different types will be found in the Phigaleian Room downstairs -and in the Gallery of Casts. In the Cases 59-60, the only tombstones -are the archaic one of Idagygos of Halikarnassos (No. =669=; fig. -258) found in Cyprus, inscribed with an elegiac couplet in which he is -called "the squire of Ares,"[106] and a round stone (No. =670=) with -a late inscription showing that the tomb was that of Menestratos, a -Corinthian buried in Attic soil. The Greek tombs were generally ranged -on either side of the main roads leading from the city gates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 258.--INSCRIBED TOMBSTONE OF IDAGYGOS (NO. 669). -Ht. 5 ft. 8 in.] - -A terracotta urn of about the third century B.C. (No. =671=) in Case -60 serves as an example of the vases used to contain the calcined -remains of the dead. It holds a number of burnt bones, among them part -of a jaw-bone, with a silver obol adhering to it. The coin was placed -in the mouth of the corpse as the fee of the ferryman Charon for -piloting the dead across Acheron. The gilded figure of a Siren found -in this vase is emblematic of the spirit world. - -Two later monuments with Greek inscriptions are the marble chests in -Cases 61-62. Each has a lock-plate (cf. those in Case G), carved -in front in low relief. No. =672= is the cinerary chest of Metras -Tryphon, who had been publicly crowned by the people of Ephesus, and -has this crown represented on his urn. The second chest (No. =673=), -from the temple of Kybele at Sardes, is inscribed with the name of -Metrodoros, who is called a "sprinkler" ([Greek: perirantês]) no doubt -with reference to an office held by him in the temple service. Below -this chest is a marble cup from Rhodes (No. =674=), bearing the -inscription: "The burying-place of those who have lost their ancestral -tomb." This cup, which is ornamented above with flying birds and has -holes for a metal attachment, seems to have been set on a column as a -boundary mark. - -[Illustration: FIG. 259.--ITALIAN HUT-URN (NO. 675). Ca. 1:4.] - -=Italy.=--In the earliest period inhumation was the custom in Italy, -but cremation gradually became more and more common. The Twelve Tables -(450 B.C.) show both practices prevailing side by side. The hut-urns -(Nos. =675= and =676=; fig. 259) found at Monte Albano, near Rome, are -evidence of cremation having been practised at a very early date in -Italy (eighth to seventh century B.C.). They served as receptacles for -the ashes of the dead, and are an instance of the custom of making -the last resting-place of the deceased as like as possible to his -habitation during life. They represent rude wattled huts, in which -the roof-beams of rough branches can be clearly distinguished. The -Etruscan tomb-chambers, one of which is shown in a picture in Case 59, -furnish a later instance (seventh to sixth century B.C.) of sepulchres -built in imitation of living-rooms. A small model (in Case 59) of an -Etruscan built tomb shows the skeleton in armour, with painted -vases placed about it (No. =677=). The Etruscan cinerary urns are -distinguished by the frequent introduction of the portrait. The -"Canopic" urns, which take the shape of jars roughly in the form of -a human body and head, are especially noteworthy. The example -illustrated (No. =678=, fig. 260), probably of the seventh century -B.C., has the face pierced with numerous holes, most likely for the -attachment of a mask. Two Etruscan sepulchral masks (No. =679=) in -terracotta, of about the end of the sixth century B.C., are exhibited -near the Canopic urn and are shown in fig. 261. These remarkable masks -are covered with incised designs, most likely of magic significance, -intended to avert evil from the dead. A separate half-mask (No. =680=) -of this type is exhibited here, and another will be found with the -objects illustrating superstition in Case 106. In these masks we can -see the innate Italian tendency to preserve the features of the dead, -and we may perhaps recognise in them the origin of the waxen portrait -masks of his ancestors which the Roman noble set up in his hall. -The portrait is again found on the lid of the sixth-century Etruscan -funeral urn (No. =681=; fig. 262) in Case 59. Here a draped woman lies -on a couch of elaborate form, decorated below with a relief of two -lions devouring a bull. A kindred type of Etruscan funeral monument -will be seen in the two large terracotta sarcophagi in the Terracotta -Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 260.--CANOPIC URN (NO. 678). Ht. 1 ft. 11 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 261.--ETRUSCAN FUNERAL MASKS (NO. 679). Ca. 1:6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 262.--ETRUSCAN FUNERAL URN (NO. 681). L. 1 ft. -11-1/2 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 263.--ROMAN FUNERAL URN (NO. 682). Ht. 1 ft. 5-1/2 -in.] - -With rare exceptions (conspicuously in the case of members of the -noble families of the Cornelian house and all infants) the Romans, -during the period of the Republic, burned their dead. This system -continued under the early Empire, but gradually gave way to burial -under the influence of Christianity. Several examples of Roman -cinerary urns and sepulchral relief are here shown. These urns are of -various shapes, but the altar-form (No. =682=; fig. 263) was specially -favoured. The inscription gives the names of L. Dexius Clymenus and C. -Sergius Alcimus. The latter, a child of three and a quarter, is stated -to have received his portion of corn on the tenth day at the office of -distribution numbered XXXIX, a curious side-light on the practice -of free distribution of corn under the Roman Empire, already noticed -above (p. 11). Other Roman funeral urns which may be mentioned are the -vase (No. =683=) with the remains of L. Laelius Victor, a soldier of -the fourteenth city cohort, and the alabaster caskets numbered -=684= and =685=. These urns of the wealthier classes were generally -deposited in a vault underneath a monument placed at the side of one -of the great roads leading from the city gates. Those, however, who -could not afford such expensive monuments subscribed for a joint tomb -(_columbarium_), a large chamber containing in its walls numerous -niches for the urns. An interesting tablet (No. =686=) in Case 62 -throws light on the arrangements adopted in the case of these joint -tombs. It is inscribed with the name of P. Sontius Philostorgus and -marked the niche in which the urn containing his ashes was placed. The -inscription reads: "Lot I in block III." From other inscriptions of -the same character it appears that the niches were arranged in five -horizontal rows of thirty-six, and that each of the members of the -burial club was allotted one place in each of the five rows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 264.--TOMBSTONE OF AURELIUS HERMIA AND HIS WIFE -(NO. 687). Width 3 ft. 5 in.] - -Another noteworthy monument is (No. =687=) an inscribed relief of the -first century B.C., belonging to Aurelius Hermia, a butcher from -the Viminal hill, and his wife Aurelia Philematio(n), who are seen -clasping hands (fig. 264). The husband praises the virtues of his -wife, and the wife those of her husband, her fellow-freedman, who had -been more than a father to her. Other interesting inscriptions from -tombstones are No. =688=, on a hunting dog named Margarita, a great -favourite with her master and mistress, who died in giving birth to -puppies, and No. =689=, which sheds light on the memorial ceremonies -after burial. A testator here leaves seven twenty-fourths of the rent -accruing from a block of flats to his freedmen and freedwomen, on -condition that they celebrate his memory four times in a year--on his -birthday, the Day of Roses, the Day of Violets, and the feast of -the Parentalia, the last the Roman All Souls' Day, held publicly in -February, but privately on the anniversary of the day of death. -A lighted lamp, with incense, was to be placed on the tomb on the -Kalends, Nones, and Ides, the three dividing days of each month. - -The funeral wreaths from Hawara (Cases 57, 58; No. =666=, see p. 219) -are an instance of offerings at tombs belonging to the Roman period. -They have been so thoroughly preserved in the dry climate of Egypt -that the different varieties of flowers can still be distinguished. - - (=668=) Cf. Murray and Smith, _White Athenian Vases in the - B.M._; (=669=) _B.M. Inscr._ 971; (=670=) _ibid._, 102; - (=671=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 12 and 13; (=672=) _Cat. of - Sculpt._, II., 1277; (=674=) _ibid._, III., 2400; (=675=) Cf. - Walters, _Hist. of Anc. Pottery_, II., p 288; (=678=) _ibid._ - II., p. 304 ff; (=679=) Benndorf, _Ant. Gesichtshelme_, p. 42, - pl. xi; (=681=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 629; (=682=) _Cat. of - Sculpt._, III., 2359; (683) _ibid._, 2402; (=684=) and - (=685=) _ibid._, 2420 and 2425; (=686=) Dessau, _Inscrr. Lat. - Selectae_, 7892 a; (=687=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2274; - (=688=) _C.I.L._ VI., 29,896; (=689=) _C.I.L._ VI., 10,248. - - On Greek tombstones, see Conze, _Attische Grabreliefs_; P. - Gardner, _Sculptured tombs of Hellas_. On Roman monuments, - Altmann, _Röm. Grabaltäre_. - - - [Footnote 105: Aristoph., _Ekkl._ 996: [Greek: - - hos tois nekroisi zôgraphei tas lêkythous]. - ] - - [Footnote 106: [Greek: - - enthade moiran echôn Halikarnêsseus Idagygos - keitai, Aristokleos pais, Areos therapôn.] - ] - - - - -INDEX. - -_The numbers refer to the pages of the Guide._ - - - ACROBATS, 218 - - ACTORS, 31 - - AEGINETAN WEIGHT-SYSTEM, 159 - - ALTARS, 39 - - ALTAR-URNS, 223 - - AMPHORAE, on weights, 159; - for wine, 177 - - ANATOMICAL MODEL, 47, 187 - - ANKLE-PIECES, 89 - - APHRODITE, dedication to, 45; - in shrine, 43 - - APIS-BULL, 50 - - ARITHMETIC, 198 - - ARM-GUARD, 89 - - ARMED-RACE, 60 - - ARMOUR, 74; - Dacian, 92 - - ARROWHEADS, Mycenaean, 97; - Greek and Roman, 107 - - ARTEMIS BRAURONIA, garments dedicated to, 45 - - AS, 20, 22 - - ASKLEPIADAE, school of, 185 - - ASTRAGALOS, on weights, 159; - in games, 203. - _See also_ KNUCKLE-BONES - - ATHLETES, 59 - - "ATHLETES' RINGS," 177 - - ATRIUM, 109 - - AUGURY, 43 - - AURELIUS HERMIA, tombstone of, 226 - - AXE, 108 - - AXE-HEAD, votive, 50 - - - BAETYLIC IMAGE, 44 - - BAKERS, 117 - - BALANCES, 25, 161 - - BASKET, votive, 46 - - BATHS, 118 - - BEASTS in the arena, 69 - - BELL, votive, 51 - - BELT, metal, 87 - - BETROTHAL RING, 211 - - BIRDS, actors as, 28 - - BISTOURIES, 187 - - BITS, 172 - - BOARD, inscribed for school use, 198 - - BOATS, terracotta, 34 - - BONA DEA, 39 - - BOOTS, 129 - - BOXES, 139, 153, 185, 189 - - BOXING, 58 - - BOXING-GLOVES, 62 - - BRACELETS, 135 - - BRAZIERS, 118 - - BREAD-MAKING, 117 - - BREISEAN MYSTAE, 55 - - BRICKS, Roman, 167 - - BRIDAL PROCESSION, 210 - - BUCINA, 215 - - BULLA, 136, 218 - - BULLS, bronze votive, 50 - - BURIAL, 220 - - - CADUCEUS, 9 - - CALDRON, given as prize, 63 - - CALTHROP, 108 - - CANDELABRA, 110 - - CANDLESTICKS, 114 - - CANGUE, 13 - - CANOPIC URNS, 222 - - CARACALLA, 39 - - CARTS, models of, 171, 179, 193 - - CHAIR, Infant's, 193 - - CHARIOTEERS, 71; - dress of, 71, 170 - - CHARIOT-RACING, 70, 169 - - CHARIOTS, 169 - - CHARON'S FEE, 221 - - CHESTS, funeral, 223 - - CHITON, Dorian, 123; - Ionian, 124 - - CHLAMYS, 126 - - CIRCUS, 70 - - CITIZENSHIP, Roman, 9 - - CLOTH, pieces of ancient, 147 - - COIN-BALANCE, 25, 165 - - COINS, Greek, 14; - Roman, 19; - special uses, 24; - false, 24 - - COLONIZATION, 3 - - COLUMBARIUM, 224 - - COMBS, 138 - - COMEDY, 26-33 - - COMIC CHORUS, 26 - - COMPASSES, 191 - - CONSULS, 3 - - CONTORNIATES, 207 - - CORN LARGESSES, 11, 223 - - COUCH, bronze, 110 - - CRADLES, 193 - - CRESTS, on helmets, 83 - - CROCODILE SYRUP, 42 - - CUIRASS, 85 - - CUPPING-VESSEL, 188 - - CURSES, 56 - - CUTLER'S FORGE, 156, 158 - - CUTLER'S SHOP, 157, 158 - - CUTLERY, 148 - - CYMBALS, 216 - - CYPRIOTE DEDICATION, 46 - - - DAGGERS, early and Mycenaean, 94; - Italian, 98 - - DANCING, 216 - - DEDICATIONS, 7, 24, 38 - - DEFIXIONES, 56 - - DEFRUTUM, 177 - - DEXTRARUM IUNCTIO, 211 - - DICE, 204 - - DIKASTAE, 6 - - DIOSCURI at Theoxenia, 43; - dedications to 49, 51, 61 - - DIPLOMA, Roman bronze, 9 - - DISKOS, 60 - - DOG'S EPITAPH, 226 - - DOLLS, 194 - - DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 218 - - DOWELS, 167 - - DRAGON-STANDARD (Dacian), 92 - - DRAMA, Greek and Roman, 25 - - DRAUGHTS, 203, 206 - - DRESS, Greek 123; - Roman, 127 - - DRILL-BOW, surgical, 187 - - DRUG-BOX, 189 - - DUODECIM SCRIPTA, 206 - - - EAR-PICKS, 142 - - EARRINGS, 136 - - EDUCATION, 197 - - ENAMEL DECORATION, 134, 185 - - ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, 202 - - EPINETRON, 145, 196 - - EYES, painted on ships, 35 - - - FALSE MONEY, 24 - - FASCES, 12 - - FERONIA, dedication to, 55 - - FETTERS, 13 - - FIBULAE, 131 - - FIGURE-HEAD, 35 - - FINGER-RINGS, 135 - - FISHERMAN, 37 - - FISH-PLATES, 116 - - "FIVE-STONES," 203 - - FLOWERS, 219 - - FLUES, 122 - - FLUTES, 214 - - FOOD, from Pompeii, 116 - - FOOT-RACE, 60 - - FOOT-RULES, 191 - - FORCEPS, 187 - - FOUNTAIN-JETS, 121 - - FRAME, for picture, 202 - - FUNERAL DIADEMS, 220 - - FURNITURE, 110; - (toy), 193 - - - GAMES, 203 - - GEMS, 184 - - GETA, name of, erased from inscriptions, 39 - - GLADIATORS, 64; - armour of, 68; - discharge tickets of, 69 - - GNOSTICS, 56 - - GRAPE-GATHERING, 177 - - GREAVES, 88 - - - HAIR, votive, 48 - - HALF-MASKS, 222 - - HANDS, magical, 56 - - HARBOURS, 37 - - HARE, votive, 49 - - HARNESS, 171 - - HEATING OF HOUSES, 122 - - HELMETS, 74; - Aegean, 79; - Attic, 77; - Corinthian, 74; - Etruscan, 81; - Gladiatorial, 68; - Inscribed, 76, 81; - Italian, 80; - Roman, 81; - votive, from Kyme, 7, 81; - Parade vizor-masks, 82 - - HELMET-CRESTS, 83 - - HERA, axe-head dedicated to, 50 - - HIERON, helmet dedicated by, 7, 81 - - HIMATION, 124 - - HINGES, 168 - - HIPPOKRATES, 186 - - HOOKS, surgical, 187 - - HORSE-SHOES, 173 - - HOUSE, Greek and Roman, 109 - - HUNTSMEN, dedications by, 49 - - HUT-URNS, 222 - - - INKPOTS, 200 - - INLAY, ivory, 185 - - INTERNAL ORGANS, model of, 47 - - INVENTORIES, temple, 45 - - ISIS, worship of, 57 - - - JASON, relief of the physician, 189 - - JAVELIN-THROWING, 61 - - JEWELLERY, 135 - - JUMPING-WEIGHTS, 59 - - JUNO, dedication to, 55 - - JUPITER. _See_ ZEUS. - - JUPITER DOLICHENUS, silver plaques dedicated to, 52 - - JUPITER POENINUS, dedication to, 55 - - JURY-TICKETS, 6 - - - KEYS, 149; - Temple, 42 - - KILN, potter's, 182 - - KINYRAS, legend of, 34 - - KITCHEN, 115 - - KITHARA, 213 - - KNIVES, 148 - - KNOCKERS, 167 - - KNUCKLEBONES, 197, 203 - - KTESIBIOS OF ALEXANDRIA, 120, 216 - - - LABELS, 45, 156 - - LAMP-FILLERS, 114 - - LAMPS, 112; - combined with altar, 40; - moulds for, 184 - - LANTERNS, 114 - - LARES, 55 - - LATHE, use of, 185 - - LAWYER'S TABLET, 200 - - LEAD FIGURINES, votive, 55 - - LEG, votive, 48 - - LEGIONARY, armour of, 88, 91 - - LEKYTHI, white funeral, 220 - - LETTER on papyrus, 200 - - LIBRA, 160 - - LIGHT-HOUSE, 37 - - LIGHTING, methods of, 110 - - LITRA, 160 - - LOCK, 149 - - LOCK-PLATES, 152, 221 - - LOOM, 145 - - LOOM-WEIGHTS, 146 - - LUDUS LATRUNCULORUM, 207 - - LYRE, 213 - - - MAGIC symbols, 56; - wheel, 208 - - MANTLE. _See_ HIMATION. - - MARATHON, weapons from, 101 - - MARBLES, specimens of, 168 - - MARRIAGE, Greek, 207; - Roman, 211; - military, 9; - vases used in, 208 - - MASKS, dramatic, 31; - sepulchral, 222 - - MEASURES, 191 - - MEDICINE, 185 - - MERCHANT-SHIP, 33 - - METAL-WORK, 180 - - MIRRORS, 140; - with magical symbols, 57 - - MITHRAS, 54 - - MORTARS, 118 - - MOSAICS, 169 - - MOULDS, for cooking, 116; - for counters, 180; - for vases and terracottas, 184; - for weights, 180 - - MOUTH-BAND, for flutes, 214 - - MOUTH-PIECES, funeral, 220 - - MULTIPLICATION-TABLE, 198 - - MUSIC, 213 - - MUSIC-LESSONS, 214 - - MUSICAL NOTATION, 215 - - MUZZLES, for horses, 173 - - - NAIL-FILES, 142 - - NAILS, magical, 56 - - NECKLACES, 136 - - NEEDLE-CASE, 148 - - NEEDLES, 147 - - NETTING-NEEDLES, 147 - - NEUROSPASTA, 195 - - - OBOL, 221 - - OCULIST-STAMPS, 189 - - OIL-FLASKS, 119 - - OIL-PRESS, 178 - - OLIVE-GATHERING, 176 - - ONOS. _See_ EPINETRON. - - OSCAN dedicatory tablet, 44 - - OSTRACISM, 7 - - - PADLOCKS, 152 - - PAINTING, 201; - of vases, 183 - - PANATHENAIC GAMES, 60 - - PANKRATION, 59 - - PAN'S PIPE, 215 - - PAPYRUS, 199 - - PARCHMENT, 200 - - PARENTALIA, 225 - - PASTES, 184 - - PENS, 200 - - PENTATHLON, 59 - - PERFORMING ANIMALS, 218 - - PERSEPHONE, dedications to, 46 - - PESTLES, 118 - - PHILIP (Emperor), _diploma_ granted by, 9; - seal with name of, 55 - - PHLYAKES, 28 - - PIG, as sacrificial animal, 40 - - PILUM, 103 - - PINS, 137, 147; - pin dedicated to Aphrodite, 45 - - PIVOTS from doors, 168 - - PLATING of cuirass, 86 - - PLAUTUS, _Casina_, 29 - - PLECTRUM, 214 - - PLOUGH, 174 - - PLUMMETS, 166 - - PNYX, votive reliefs from, 47 - - PORK-BUTCHER'S SHOP, 158 - - POTTER'S WHEEL, 181 - - POTTERY, 181 - - PRAYER, 42 - - PRIZE VASES, 60, 63 - - PROBES, 187 - - PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES, 191 - - PROW of trireme, 35 - - PROXENIA, decrees of, 3 - - PUMPS, 120 - - - QUAIL-FIGHTING, 218 - - - RACING-CHARIOTS, 70, 169 - - RAEDA, 171 - - RAG-DOLL, 196 - - RATTLES, 193 - - RAZORS, 141 - - READING, 198 - - RELIGION, 39 - - REPRISALS, 2 - - RINGS, 135 - - RIVETS, 183 - - ROSE-DAY, 226 - - - SABAZIUS, 56 - - SACRIFICES, 40 - - SACRIFICIAL IMPLEMENTS, 40 - - SAFETY-PINS. _See_ FIBULAE. - - SALII, dances of, 216 - - SALVE-POTS, 190 - - SANDALS, 129 - - SAW, surgical, 187 - - SCISSORS, 147 - - SCOURGE, 13 - - SCRUPLE (weight), 160, 190 - - SCULPTURE, unfinished, 169 - - SEAL-BOXES, 155 - - SEAL-LOCKS, 154 - - SEALS, 154 - - SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, altar dedicated for return of, 39 - - SET-SQUARES, 166 - - SHIELDS, 90 - - SHIN-GUARDS, 89 - - SHIPS, 33 - - SHOES, 89, 129 - - SHOPS, 158 - - SHRINES, 43 - - SHUTTLE, 146 - - SICKLE, 175 - - SIREN, 221 - - SISTRUM, 57 - - SLAVE BADGE, 12 - - SLAVERY, 12 - - SLAVES, dedicated to temple-service, 45; - in drama, 32 - - SLINGSHOT, 101, 107 - - SOLES, 130 - - SOLONIAN WEIGHTS, 159 - - SOWER, 175 - - SPATULAE, 187 - - SPEARS, classical, 102; - Italian, 99; - Mycenaean, 97; - primitive, 94; - votive, 9; - butts of, 103 - - SPINDLES, 143 - - SPOONS, 117 - - SPURS, 174 - - STAMPS for moulds, 184; - for other purposes, 167, 189, 192 - - STANDARDS, 92 - - STATUETTE, pierced, 42 - - STEELYARDS, 161 - - STILI (pens), 199 - - STONES, sacred, 44 - - STOOL, bronze, 110; - votive, 46 - - STOP-COCKS, 121 - - STRAINERS, 116 - - STRIGILS, 119 - - STRONG-BOX, 153 - - STUDS, 136 - - SUOVETAURILIA, 40 - - SURGERIES, 186 - - SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, 187 - - SWORDS, Mycenaean, 95; - Greek, 100 ff; - Italian, 99; - Roman, 104 - - SYRINX. _See_ PAN'S PIPE. - - - TABLE, votive, 40 - - TABLE-LEG, 110 - - TABLETS, 44, 192, 198, 200 - - TABULA ILIACA, 198 - - TEETOTUM, 205 - - TEMPLE-INVENTORIES, 45 - - TEMPLE-WEIGHTS, 160 - - TENSA, 171 - - TERRACOTTAS, method of making, 183 - - THEOXENIA, festival of, 42 - - THIGH-PIECE, 89 - - THIMBLE, 147 - - TIBERIUS, sword of (so-called), 104 - - TICKETS, 6, 11, 12, 69 - - TILE-STAMPS, 166 - - TILES, Greek, 166; - Roman, 167; - from Palaestra at Olympia, 64 - - TITURUS, 178 - - TOGA, 127 - - TOILET, articles of, 138; - on votive reliefs, 46 - - TOILET-BOXES, 139 - - TOMBS, 220 - - TOOLS, 166 - - TOYS, 193 - - TRAGEDY, 25; - chorus in, 26; - Roman, 54 - - TREATIES, 2 - - TRIPODS, 110 - - TRIREMES, 34 - - TROPHIES, 91 - - TUNIC, 123 - - TWEEZERS, 142 - - - UNCIA (coin), 20; - weight, 160 - - UNKNOWN GOD, 46 - - URN, funeral, 223 - - UVULA FORCEPS, 187 - - - VASE-SHAPES, 122 - - VINTAGE, 177 - - VIOLET-DAY, 226 - - VOTIVE OFFERING, 7, 44, 194 - - - WALL-PAINTINGS, 169 - - WAR-VESSELS, 33 - - WATER-ORGAN, 216 - - WATER-PIPES, 121 - - WATER-SUPPLY, 120 - - WAX-TABLETS, 198 - - WEAPONS, 94 - - WEAVING, 145 - - WEDDING-SACRIFICE, 212 - - WEIGHTS, - Greek, 158; - Roman, 160; - hanging, 161; - medical, 190 - - WHEELS, votive, 51 - - WHIPPING-TOPS, 196 - - WHORLS, 143 - - WINE-PRESS, 177 - - WINNOWING-BASKET, 177 - - WOMEN GLADIATORS, 66 - - WOOD, paintings on, 202 - - WOODWORKING, 185 - - WREATHS, 219, 226 - - WRESTLING, 61 - - WRITING, 198 - - - ZEUS LYKAEOS, votive offering to, 50 - - ZEUS SABAZIUS, 56 - - ZEUS THE HIGHEST, votive offerings to, 47 - - - - -LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, DUKE STREET, -STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1. - - - - - Transcriber's Note - - - - - represents italic text; = = represents bold text; + + represents - strong text, sans serif. ^ denotes a superscript. - - | inserted by the author to represent the end of a line of carving - on a document or monument. Sometimes | occurs in the middle of a - word, indicating the word has been split by a line-break. - - In the all-caps Greek text, the book preserves some different Greek - letter-forms. - - Compare the capital theta with a cross at the top of - p. 77, and theta with a dot at the bottom of p. 130. - - There is a - V-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 7, and Y-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 12. - - There is a capital lunate sigma, and an alpha with a v-shaped - crossbar on p. 202 ... and on p. 161, as a marking in silver on an - ounce weight with another symbol. - - And there is the zeta like a rotated H on p. 6, and an upper and - lower case Koppa (Qoppa), and the Digamma (wau, stigm). - - C.I.L. is abbreviation for '_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_'. - - 'Inscrr.', 'reff.': a double consonant signifies plural. - - Some missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. - - Any illustration which intersected a paragraph, e.g., at a page - turn, has been moved to a more convenient position. - - Page 20: (.··) corrected to (···) for consistency. - - Page 56: 'suppose' corrected to 'supposed'. - - "... _defixiones_, because they were supposed to fix down, as it - were, the hated enemy." - - Page 64 (Footnote 32): A colon : has been used to represent the - triple vertical dots (a punctuation mark, much like a colon) - after [Greek: "Eksoida(s) m'anethêke Diwos qouroin megaloio]" - - Page 103: Spearbutts; p. 104: Spear-Butts. Both retained. - - Page 111: Superfluous 'a' removed. - - "The stem may be fluted, or...." - - Page 114: 'emall' corrected to 'small'. - - "Just below the lantern is a small bronze statuette,..." - - Page 145: Loom Weight; loom-weights ... various spellings; all - retained. - - Numerous other instances of words being sometimes hyphenated and - sometimes un-hyphenated appear in the text. All have been retained. - - Page 150: 'to' corrected to 'so'. - - "... then turned, and drawn back so as to lift up the pegs...." - - Page 152: "the keyhole is in the shape" (of an inverted right-angle, - represented by) |¯. - - Page 160: 1-1/2oz. corrected to 1/12oz. - - "... 1/12oz. = 2 scruples;" - - Page 190: extra 'a' removed. - - "These salves were pounded on the stone into a paste." - - Page 192: 'Nos.' corrected to 'No.'. - - "An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of - Alexander (No. =584=; fig. 229)." - - Page 198: - - From Wikipedia (https: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma): - - Digamma, waw, or wau (uppercase: (F), lowercase: (F), numeral: - [Greek: st]) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. - It originally stood for the sound /w/ but it has principally - remained in use as a Greek numeral for 6. - - Whereas it was originally called waw or wau, its most common - appellation in classical Greek is digamma; as a numeral, it was - called epis[=e]mon during the Byzantine era and is now known as - stigma after the value of the Byzantine ligature combining - [Greek: s-t] ... In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the - digraph [Greek: st]. - - ([=e] represents e-macron) - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating -Greek and Roman Life, by British Museum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION *** - -***** This file should be named 52081-8.txt or 52081-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/0/8/52081/ - -Produced by deaurider, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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