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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: A Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life - -Author: British Museum - -Release Date: May 16, 2016 [EBook #52081] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Lesley Halamek, Stephen Rowland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE. - - _SECOND EDITION._ - -[Illustration: - - _Frontispiece._ TERRACOTTA BOATS FROM AMATHUS (p. 34). -] - - - - - BRITISH MUSEUM. - - DEPARTMENT OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. - - - A GUIDE - - TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING - - GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE. - - _SECOND EDITION._ - - - WITH A FRONTISPIECE AND TWO HUNDRED AND - SIXTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS. - - LONDON: - - - PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES. - - 1920. - - - - - LONDON: - PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, - DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, - AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1. - - - - -ERRATA. - - -P. 121, l.17. _For_ =339= _read_ =339*= - -Pp. 143, 144, 145. _For_ =421-426= _read_ =421*-426*= - -P. 216 near foot. _For_ =655= _read_ =655*= - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In this Exhibition an attempt has been made to bring together a number -of miscellaneous antiquities which formed a part of the collections of -the Department, in such a method as illustrates the purpose for -which they were intended, rather than their artistic quality, their -material, or their place in the evolution of craft or design. - -Such a series falls naturally into groups, and it has been found -convenient to treat these groups in accordance with a general scheme, -the illustration of the public and private life of the Greeks and -Romans. - -The materials forming the basis of this scheme are, primarily, objects -which already formed part of the Museum collections: for this reason -it has not been possible always to preserve that proportion in the -relation of the sections to the whole which would have been studied -if the objects had been selected for acquisition with this purpose -in view. Further, it is necessary to warn visitors that they must not -expect to find the subject in any sense exhaustively treated here: -the complete illustration of every detail of ancient life would be -impossible for any museum as at present constituted. All that can here -be done is to shape the available material into a system which may at -least present a fairly intelligible, if limited, view of ancient -life. Several new acquisitions, made since the appearance of the first -edition of this Guide, have strengthened the exhibition in directions -in which it was deficient, and it is hoped that this process will be -continued. Meanwhile, some of the gaps have been filled by means of -casts and reproductions of objects belonging to other categories in -this Museum, or preserved elsewhere. - -The preparation of the first edition of this Guide (1908) was -entrusted to different members of the Departmental Staff. Mr. Yeames -prepared a great deal of the necessary preliminary work: Mr. -Walters wrote the sections on Athletics, the Circus, Gladiators, and -Agriculture: Mr. Forsdyke those on Coins, Arms and Armour, Dress -and the Toilet. The remaining sections were mainly the work of Mr. -Marshall. - -In the present edition the section on Arms and Armour has been -re-written by Mr. Forsdyke, and the remainder has been mainly revised -by myself. The proofs have been read by Mr. Walters and Mr. Forsdyke. - - A. H. SMITH. - - BRITISH MUSEUM, - _March, 1920._ - - - - -CONTENTS. - -_The references in brackets are to the numbers of the Figures._ - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 1 - - - I. POLITICAL INSCRIPTIONS AND SLAVERY 1 - - Treaties, etc. (1); Proxenia Decrees (2-3); - Dikasts' Tickets and Ostraka (4-6); - Votive Arms (7-8); Military Diploma (9_a_, 9_b_); - Corn Largesse (10); Slaves (11). - - - II. COINS 14 - - Greek Coins (12); Roman Coins (13-15). - - - III. DRAMA 25 - - Greek Comedy (16); Roman Plays (17-18); Actors - and Masks (19-22). - - - IV. SHIPPING 33 - - Greek Shipping (Frontispiece and 23-26); Roman - Shipping (27-28). - - - V. RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION 39 - - Implements and Methods of Worship. Votive - Altars (29); Sacrifices and Apparatus (30-31); - Prayer; Theoxenia (32); Augury; Shrines (33-34). - - Votive Offerings (35-45). - - Superstition and Magic. Magical Inscriptions; - Bronze Hand (46). - - - VI. ATHLETICS 58 - - Pugilism (47); Sports of the Pentathlon (48-51); - Boxing Gloves (52); Prize Vase (53). - - - VII. GLADIATORS AND THE ARENA 64 - - Types of Gladiator (54-58); Helmet (59); Tesserae - (60); Animal Contests (61). - - - VIII. CHARIOT-RACING AND THE CIRCUS 70 - - Chariots in the Circus, and Charioteers (62-65). - - - IX. ARMS AND ARMOUR 74 - - Early Armour (66); Helmets (67-79); Cuirasses - (80-85); Greaves, etc. (86-89); Shields (90); - Standards (91-93). - - Early Weapons. Mycenaean Swords and Daggers - (94-96); Mycenaean Spears and Arrows (97-98); - Early Italian Swords and Spears (99-100); Greek - Swords (101-105); Greek and Roman Spears (106-108); - Roman Swords (109); Sling-shot and Arrowheads - (110-111); Calthrop (112). - - - X. HOUSE AND FURNITURE 109 - - General Furniture. Couch (113). - - Lighting. Lampstands (114-115); Lamps (116-119); - Candlesticks and Lanterns (120-123). - - The Kitchen. Implements. Fish Plate (124). - - The Bath. Strigils (125-126); Water Supply. - Pumps (127-128); Heating. Shapes of Vases. - - - XI. DRESS AND TOILET 122 - - Greek Female Dress (129-133); Greek Male Dress - (134-138); Roman Dress (139-140); Footwear (141-2); - Fibulae (143-158). - - Jewellery. Bracelets (159); Earrings (160); - Bullae, Necklaces, Studs, Pins (161-163). - - Toilet. Combs (164); Toilet Boxes (165); - Mirrors; Razors (166-168); Miscellanea (169-170). - - - XII. DOMESTIC ARTS 142 - - Spinning and Weaving (171-177); Sewing Implements - (178-182); Cutlery (183); Locks and Keys - (184-190); Seals (191). - - - XIII. TRADE 158 - - Shops (192-193). - - - XIV. WEIGHTS AND SCALES 159 - - Greek Weights (194-195); Roman Weights; - Scales and Steelyards (196-200). - - - XV. TOOLS, BUILDING AND SCULPTURE 166 - - Tools (201); Building Materials (202-203). - - - XVI. HORSES AND CHARIOTS 169 - - Chariots and Carts (204-205); Horse Trappings - (206-208). - - - XVII. AGRICULTURE 174 - - Ploughs (209); Wine Making (210); Olive Harvest - (211-212); Goat-herd, etc. (213). - - - XVIII. INDUSTRIAL ARTS 180 - - Metal-working (214-215); Pottery (216-222); - Gems and Pastes; Wood-working; Lathe-work. - - - XIX. MEDICINE AND SURGERY 185 - - Greek and Roman Medicine (223-226). - - - XX. MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS 191 - - Measures (227); Compasses (228); Stamps (229). - - - XXI. INFANCY. TOYS 193 - - Infants (230-231); Dolls, etc. (232-234); Tops (235). - - - XXII. EDUCATION, WITH WRITING AND PAINTING 197 - - Reading and Writing Lessons (236-238); Arithmetic; - Writing Materials (239-241); Painting. - - - XXIII. GAMES 203 - - Knucklebones (242-243); Dice (244); Ivory - Pieces (245). - - - XXIV. MARRIAGE 207 - - Greek Marriage (246-249); Roman Marriage - (250-251). - - - XXV. MUSIC AND DANCING 213 - - Musical Instruments. Kithara and Lyre (252-253); - Flutes and Cymbals (254); Dancing (255). - - - XXVI. DOMESTIC AND PET ANIMALS; FLOWERS 218 - - Performing Animals (256); Flowers. - - - XXVII. METHODS OF BURIAL 220 - - Greek Burials (257-258); Italian Burials. Hut - Urns (259); Canopic Urn (260); Funeral Masks - (261); Etruscan Urn (262); Roman Burials and - Funeral Urns (263); Roman Grave Relief (264). - - - - -GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE - - -The exhibition is arranged in the central rectangle of what was -formerly the Etruscan Saloon; it includes Wall-Cases =25-64=, -=94-119=, and Table-Cases =E-K=. The subject naturally divides itself -into the two chief headings of public and domestic institutions, and -each of these occupies one half of the room. On the West side are -grouped the sections relating mainly to Public Life, on the East those -of Private Life: of the former, the section illustrating the monetary -system of the ancients and its development naturally leads up to -the Department of Coins and Medals. For the general scheme of the -exhibition, reference should be made to the Table of Contents. - - NOTE.--_The references at the end of each section correspond - to the numbers of the objects in this Guide. These numbers, - which are placed near the objects in the Cases, are - distinguished by being in red upon a white ground. Numbers - attached to the objects (such as B 77 on a vase) refer to - the British Museum Catalogues, which should be consulted for - fuller details than can be given in the Guide._ - - - - -I.--POLITICAL INSCRIPTIONS AND SLAVERY. - -(Table-Case K.) - - -A section of Table-Case K contains a series of inscriptions which -illustrate various sides of Greek and Roman political life. - -It must be borne in mind that the Greek state was generally of very -small dimensions. As a rule all life was centred within a city, which -had but a moderate extent of outlying country. Aristotle describes the -perfect city or state (the words are interchangeable) as the union -of several villages, supplying all that is necessary for independent -life.[1] Greece, though small in area, was thus divided up into a -large number of states, whose interests were constantly in conflict. -It thus came about that it was provided with systems of treaties, -arbitrations, and consular representation such as marked a fully -developed international system. - -=Treaties.=--The bronze tablet No. =1= dates probably from the -second half of the sixth century B.C., at a time when the Eleians and -Heraeans of Arcadia were still dwelling in villages, and were not yet -united each into a single city. It is written in the Aeolic dialect of -Elis, and records a treaty between the two peoples named. There was to -be a close alliance between them in respect of all matters of common -interest, whether of peace or war. Any breach of the treaty, or any -damage to the inscription recording the treaty, would involve a fine -of a talent of silver to be paid by the offender to Olympian Zeus, -the supreme Greek deity. The tablet was brought from Olympia by Sir -William Gell in 1813. - -No. =2= is a cast of a similar treaty between the communities of the -Anaiti and Matapii, for a fifty years' friendship. In case of a breach -of the treaty the priests at Olympia have arbitrators' powers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--TREATY OF CHALEION AND OEANTHEIA. (NO. 3.)] - -No. =3= (fig. 1) is a bronze tablet, with a ring at one end for -suspension, recording a treaty made between the cities of Chaleion and -Oeantheia on the Gulf of Corinth. It is in the Lokrian dialect, and -can be dated to about 440 B.C. The main object of the treaty was -to regulate the practice of reprisals between the citizens of the -respective towns, and, in particular, to prevent injury to foreign -merchants visiting either port. There are also provisions for ensuring -a fair trial to aliens. The tablet was found at Oeantheia (Galaxidi), -and was formerly in the Woodhouse collection. - -=Colonization.=--This was a feature of peculiar importance in Greek -life. In the course of the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. numerous -colonists had left their homes on the mainland of Greece or on the -coast of Asia Minor, and had settled principally in Southern Italy -and Sicily, or round the shores of the Black Sea. The reasons for -such emigration were sometimes political, but more often commercial. -Between the mother-city and the colony relations of an intimate -character were almost invariably maintained. Representatives from -either city attended the more important festivals held in the other -town, and the daughter-city not infrequently sought the advice of the -mother-city in times of difficulty and danger. The inscription on the -bronze tablet No. =4= illustrates the way in which colonists left one -Greek state to settle in another comparatively near at hand, and -also shows the relations existing between the colonists and the -mother-state. At a date probably previous to 455 B.C. colonists from -the Opuntian or Eastern Lokrians (inhabiting a district lying opposite -to the island of Euboea) left their homes to settle in Naupaktos, a -town situated on the narrowest part of the Gulf of Corinth, in the -territory of the Western Lokrians. The question arose as to how far -the colonists were to remain in connection with the mother-country. -The tablet shows that the settlers had the privilege of enjoying full -social and religious rights on revisiting their native city, although -during their absence they were exempt from paying taxes to it. -Under certain conditions they might resume their residence in the -mother-state without fee, and they also had a right to inherit -property left by a near relative in that state. Other provisions deal -with judicial arrangements affecting the new settlers. - -=Proxenia.=--Just as modern states appoint consuls in foreign -countries in order that the interests of their citizens abroad may be -protected, so the various Greek cities appointed their representatives -in different foreign states. These representatives were chosen from -the citizens of the town in which they acted, and their appointment -was regarded as a special honour, carrying with it substantial -privileges. The main functions of the _proxeni_ were those of -dispensing hospitality to travellers and assisting them in cases of -difficulty, and of receiving ambassadors arriving from the state which -they represented. They were also expected generally to further that -state's commercial interests. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--GRANT OF _proxenia_ TO DIONYSIOS (NO. 5). Ht. -12-7/8 in.] - -Two bronze tablets recording decrees of _proxenia_, passed by the -people of Corcyra, are here exhibited. No. =5= (fig. 2), probably of -the end of the fourth century B.C., records the grant of _proxenia_ -to Dionysios, son of Phrynichos, an Athenian.[2] It mentions the date, -the appointment, and the right of possessing land and house property -in Corcyra, the last evidently a reward granted to the _proxenos_ -for his services. No. =6= (fig. 3), of about 200 B.C., is a grant of -_proxenia_ to Pausanias, son of Attalos, a citizen of Ambrakia.[3] -He is accorded the usual honours, and the Treasurer is directed to -provide the money for the engraving of the decree on bronze. Both -these tablets were found in Corfu, the modern name of the ancient -Corcyra. The persons appointed acted, of course, in Athens and -Ambrakia respectively. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--GRANT OF _proxenia_ TO PAUSANIAS (NO. 6). Ht. -8-7/8 in.] - -=Law-courts at Athens.=--One of the most striking features of -democratic Athens was its elaborate machinery for the administration -of justice. The system of popular control began in the fifth century -B.C., and reached its full development in the fourth. For petty -offences the various magistrates had the power of inflicting a small -fine, but graver charges were usually decided by a jury court. Those -who composed these jury courts were called _dikastae_. They were -chosen at first up to the number of six thousand from the entire body -of citizens over thirty years of age, but later on apparently any -citizen over thirty years of age was a qualified juryman. From the -time of Perikles each juryman received three obols (about 5d.) a -day for his services. The whole body of jurymen was divided into ten -sections, each of which was distinguished by one of the first ten -letters of the Greek alphabet (A to K). Each dikast received a ticket -([Greek: pinakion]), at first of bronze, but in Aristotle's day of -boxwood, inscribed with his name, his parish, and the number of his -section. In Aristotle's day the father's name was always given as -well.[4] Four of these dikasts' tickets (in bronze) are exhibited in -this case, together with a fragment of a fifth. Upwards of eighty are -known, all apparently belonging to the fourth century B.C. The tickets -shown are: - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--TICKET OF THUKYDIDES (NO. 10). L. 4-1/4 in.] - -No. =7=, which belonged to Deinias of Halae, of the third section -([Greek: G]). The ticket is stamped with the Athenian symbol of an owl -within an olive wreath, two owls with one head, and a Gorgoneion. - -No. =8=, belonging to Archilochos of Phaleron, of the fifth section -([Greek: E]). - -No. =9=, belonging to Aristophon, son of Aristodemos, of Kothokidae. -His was the third section ([Greek: G]). - -No. =10=, the ticket of Thukydides of Upper Lamptrae (fig. 4). He -belonged to the sixth section ([Greek: Z]). The ticket bears the -symbols of an owl within an olive wreath, and a Gorgoneion. - -The lowest fragment is part of a ticket belonging to Philochares of -Acharnae of the fifth section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--INSCRIBED POTSHERDS (OSTRAKA) AT ATHENS (NO. -11).] - -=Ostracism.=--This was a peculiar device adopted by Greek city-states -for getting temporary relief from the influence of prominent citizens, -whose presence was for the time being considered undesirable. At -Athens ostracism was introduced by the statesman Kleisthenes about 508 -B.C. The method of effecting it was as follows. The popular assembly -(Ekklesia) first decided whether they desired that ostracism should -be carried out. If they considered it expedient, they met and recorded -their vote. The name of the person they most wished to get rid of -was written on a potsherd (ostrakon), and if six thousand votes were -recorded against any one name, that man had to go into banishment for -ten years. In Case K is a coloured illustration (No. =11=) of three -ostraka found at Athens (fig. 5). The names written on the sherds are -well known in Greek history. _Themistokles_ (fig. 5_a_), of the deme -Phrearri, was the creator of Athenian sea-power. In consequence of -this ostracism (ca. 471 B.C.) he died an exile at Magnesia on -the Maeander. _Megakles_ (fig. 5_b_) of the deme Alopeke, son of -Hippokrates and uncle of Perikles, was ostracised in 487 B.C. as -"a friend of the tyrants." In the next year, 486 B.C., was banished -_Xanthippos_ (fig. 5_c_), son of Arriphron and father of Perikles, -on the ground of undue prominence. The Museum collection contains no -ostraka of historic importance, but the potsherd inscribed by one Teos -(No. =12=) gives an idea of the actual object (fig. 6). - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--POTSHERD OF TEOS (NO. 12).] - -=Dedications for Victory.=--The dedication in a temple of a part of -the spoils of victory was not merely a religious observance. It was -also the formal entering of a claim to victory. The Etruscan helmet -(No. =13=) dedicated at Olympia by Hieron of Syracuse, is an example -(fig. 7). It was found at Olympia in 1817, and was presented to the -Museum by King George the Fourth. On the side is a votive inscription: - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--ETRUSCAN HELMET DEDICATED AT OLYMPIA BY HIERON -AND THE SYRACUSANS (NO. 13). 1:4.] - -[Greek: Hiarôn ho Deinomeneos kai toi Syrakosioi tô Di Tyran' apo -Kymas]--"_Hieron son of Deinomenes and the Syracusans offer to Zeus -Etruscan spoils from Kyme_." Hieron was tyrant of Syracuse from 478 to -467 B.C., in succession to his brother Gelon, and was one of the most -prominent figures of the age. Gelon had nobly upheld the supremacy of -the Greeks in the west by destroying a Carthaginian host at Himera, in -the same year and, as the tale went, on the same day as the battle -of Salamis. Hieron added to the brilliance of the Sicilian court, and -signalised his naval power in the great repulse of the Etruscans. The -ancient city of Kyme, near Naples, the earliest Greek colony in the -west, was hard pressed by the neighbouring barbarians and by the -civilised and powerful state of Etruria. The Greeks appealed for -help to Hieron, and he sent them a fleet of warships, which beat the -Etruscans in sight of the citadel of Kyme, and broke their sea-power -for ever (474 B.C.). From the arms and treasure taken in the battle -Hieron made the customary offering in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, -and this helmet with its eloquent inscription was part of the -dedicated spoil. - -For other votive helmets see below, p. 76. - -The votive spear-head, No. =14=, dedicated by an unknown Theodoros to -(Zeus) Basileus, about 500 B.C., was probably found at Olympia. The -occasion of the dedication is unknown, but it nearly resembles No. -=15= (cast), which was dedicated at Olympia by the Methanians as -spoil from the Lacedaemonians.[5] The original is at Berlin. Several -spear-heads of this type have been found. They do not seem to be -effective for use in battle, and they are therefore supposed to -have been specially made for dedicatory purposes. It has also been -suggested that they are spear-butts, but this does not seem probable. - -[Illustration: [Greek: Theodôros anethêke Basilei.] - -FIG. 8.--SPEAR-HEAD DEDICATED BY THEODOROS TO (ZEUS) BASILEUS. (NO. -14). 1:3.] - -=Emblem of Office.=--The bronze caduceus (No. =17=), (familiar as the -emblem of the herald Mercury), is inscribed "I belong to the people -of Longene," and was apparently the staff of the public herald of that -town. It was found in a tomb in Sicily, and is of the fifth century -B.C. The device is in the form of a staff, surmounted by a pair of -intertwined serpents. - -=Roman military Life.=--This is illustrated by two of the Latin -inscriptions here shown. The oblong bronze tablet No. =18= (figs. -9_a_ and 9_b_) is part of a Roman _diploma_, a document recording -privileges in respect of citizenship and rights of marriage granted to -a veteran soldier. The _diploma_ derived its name from the fact that -it was composed of two tablets hinged together. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9_a_.--FRAGMENT OF A BRONZE _diploma_ (NO. 18). -Ht. 5-1/2 in.] - -We have in the present instance only the left side of one of the -tablets. The right side, which had two holes for the metal rings -attaching it to the other tablet, has been broken away. The -inscription[6] is a copy of one originally engraved on bronze and set -up on the wall behind the temple of Augustus _ad Minervam_ at Rome. It -is headed with the names of M. Julius Philippus, the Emperor, and of -his son, who had the title of Caesar. This is followed by the grant -of full matrimonial rights to the soldiers of ten cohorts and by the -date, equivalent to Jan. 7th, 246 A.D. Next comes the name of the -individual soldier to whom this copy of the original inscription was -given, one Neb. Tullius, a veteran of the fifth praetorian cohort -of Philip at Aelia Mursa in Pannonia. The grant of full matrimonial -privileges was a considerable one, for it meant that the veteran's -wife and children gained the privileges of Roman citizens, if, as was -often the case, the wife was not possessed of citizen rights at the -time of marriage. The two holes in the middle of the tablet were used -for the wire thread, which was passed round the tablets three times -according to the usual official custom, and had the seals of seven -witnesses affixed to it. Fig. 9_b_ is a restoration showing the -original form of the document opened, the exterior of the two tablets -being seen. This _diploma_ was found in Piedmont. Parts of similar -documents will be seen exhibited in the Room of Roman Britain. - -Near the _diploma_ is a small bronze ticket (No. =19=), inscribed on -either side. One side bears the name of Ti(berius) Claudius Priscus, -the other records that he belonged to the fourth praetorian cohort and -the _centuria Paterni_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9_b_.--THE ABOVE _diploma_ RESTORED.] - -=Corn Largesses.=--From the end of the second century B.C. it had -become a regular feature of Roman policy to supply the populace of the -city with corn either gratis or at an artificially cheap rate. After -the fall of the Republic the Emperors carried still further the policy -of free distributions (_congiaria_ or _liberalitates_). It has been -reckoned that the annual cost of their largesses averaged £90,000 -from Julius Caesar to Claudius, and £300,000 from Nero to Septimius -Severus. Persius, who wrote in the time of Nero, notes with a sneer -that it was one of the privileges of the meanest Roman citizen to -exchange his ticket for a portion of musty flour. This policy of -the Emperors is illustrated by the inscribed corn-ticket (_tessera -frumentaria_) shown in this Case (No. =20=; fig. 10). It is inscribed -on one side, _Ant(onini) Aug(usti) Lib(eralitas) II._, i.e., the -second special largess of Antoninus, perhaps Antoninus Pius, who -reigned from 138-161 A.D. On the other side appears _fru(mentatio) -LXI._, i.e. the sixty-first monthly corn distribution, dating -doubtless from the accession of Antoninus. The letters were originally -inlaid with silver, as is shown by the remains of that metal in the -numerals. The sepulchral inscription mentioned on p. 224 should be -studied in connection with this corn-ticket. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BRONZE CORN-TICKET (NO. 20). 1:1.] - -=Official Emblem.=--The relief in Case =99= shows the _Fasces_ (that -is, the axes and the rods tied in a bundle) which were carried by the -lictors before the higher Roman magistrates. - -=Slavery.=--The circular bronze badge (No. =21=) shows the Roman -method of dealing with runaway slaves after the softening influence -of Christianity had begun to make itself felt. In earlier times the -runaway slave had been punished with the cruel penalty of branding. -Apparently from the time of Constantine onwards an inscribed badge was -substituted, authorising the summary arrest of the slave if he were -caught out of bounds. The inscription on the badge exhibited runs: -"Hold me, lest I escape, and take me back to my master Viventius on -the estate of Callistus." - -Two other objects may perhaps be brought into connection with slavery. -The scourge (No. =22=), with its lash loaded with bronze beads, was -frequently used for the punishment of slaves. It is the _horribile -flagellum_ of Horace. A scourge very similar to the present is seen on -a relief in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, representing a high-priest -of Kybele, whose devotees were in the habit of scourging themselves -in the service of the goddess.[7] The pair of iron fetters (No. -=23=), found in 1813 in a cave behind the Pnyx at Athens, bear a -close resemblance to those worn by a _bestiarius_ or beast-fighter -represented on a relief from Ephesus exhibited in Case 110, (_Cat. of -Sculpt._, II., No. 1286). - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--SLAVE BADGE (NO. 21). 3:5.] - -Two small bronzes (No. =24=) show dwarf slaves undergoing the -punishment of the cangue, in which neck and wrists are fixed in a -board. - - (1) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 264; Hicks and Hill, _Greek Hist. - Inscr._, No. 9; (2) Roberts, _Gr. Epigraphy_, No. 297; (3) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 263; _B.M. Inscr._, 953; (4) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 262; _B.M. Inscr._, 954; (5) _Cat. of Bronzes_, - 333; (6) _ibid._, 334; (7) to (10) _ibid._, 329-332; Hicks and - Hill, 151; _I.G._, II., 886, 901, 885, 908b; (11) _Jahrbuch d. - Arch. Inst._, II., p. 161; (12) _B.S. Athens Ann._, V. pl. 5, - fig. 112; (13) _B.M. Inscr._, 1155; _Cat. of Bronzes_, 250; - (14) _B.M. Inscr._, 948A; _Journ. of Hellen. Stud._, II., - p. 77; (15) Roberts, _Gr. Epigraphy_, No. 286; (17) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 319; _I.G._ XIV., 594; cf. _Hermes_, III., p. 298 - ff.; (18) _Eph. Epigraph._, IV., p. 185; _C.I.L._, III., - Suppl. i., p. 2000. On the _diplomata_ generally, see Smith, - _Dict. of Ant._, and Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. of Ant._, - s.v.; (19) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 901; _C.I.L._, XV., 7166; - Hübner, _Exempla_, No. 915; (20) _Cat. of Bronzes_, - 3016; _C.I.L._, XV., 7201; _Klio_, Beiheft III., p. 21; - _Philologus_, XXIX., p. 17; (21) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 902; - _C.I.L._, XV., 7193. - - - [Footnote 1: _Pol._ i. 1, 8.] - - [Footnote 2: [Greek: - - Prytanis Stratôn. | meis Psydreus, hamera te | tarta epi deka; - prostatas | Gnathios Sôkrateus; | proxenon poei ha halia | - Dionysion Phrynichou | Athênaion auton kai | ekgonous. didôti - de kai | gas kai oikias empasin. | tan de proxenian grapsan | - tas eis chalkon anthemen | ei ka proboulois kai prodikois dokêi - kalôs echein. - - Dionysion | Phrynichou | Athênaion.] - ] - - [Footnote 3: [Greek: - - Edoxe ta halia, proxe|non eimen Pausanian At|talou Ambrakiôtan | - tas polios tôn Korkyrai|ôn auton kai engonous; | eimen de autois - kai ta | alla timia, hosa kai [tois] | allois proxenois [kai] | - euergetais geg(ra)|ptai. | tan de proxeni|an proboulous kai - pro|dikous grapsantas eis | chalkôma anathemen, | ton de - tamian domen | to genomenon analô|ma. - - Pausanian Attalou | Ambrakiôtan.] - ] - - [Footnote 4: [Greek: Ath. Pol. 63: echei d' hekastos dikastês - pinakion pyxinon, epigegrammenon to onoma to heautou patrothen - kai tou dêmou kai gramma hen tôn stoicheiôn mechri tou k.]] - - [Footnote 5: [Greek: Methanioi apo Lakedaimoniôn.]] - - [Footnote 6: - Imp. Cae(sar) M. Iulius Phili[ppus Pius] - Fel(ix) Aug(ustus), pont(ifex) max(imus), trib(unicia) - p[ot(estate) III, cos., p.p. et] - M. Iulius Philippus nobil[issim(us) Caes(ar)] - nomina militum, qui milit[averunt in] - cohortibus pretoris Phil[ippianis de-] - cem I. II. III. IIII. V. VI. VII. VIII. VII[II. X. piis vin-] - dicibus, qui pii et fortiter [militia fun-] - cti sunt, ius tribuimus con[ubii dumta-] - xat cum singulis et primi[s uxoribus], - ut etiam si peregrini iur[is feminas] - in matrimon(io) suo iunxe[rint, proinde - liberos toll(ant), acxi (for _ac si_) ex duob(us) c[ivibus Ro-] - manis natos. a. d. VII. [idus Ian.] - C. Bruttio Presente et C. Al(b)[- - - - - cos.] - Coh(ors) V pr(aetoria) Philip[pian(a) p(ia) v(index).] - Neb. Tullio Neb. f. M(a) - - - - - - - - - Ael(ia) Murs[a]. - Descript(um) et recognit(um) ex ta[bula aerea], - que fix(a) est Romae in muro [pos(t) templum] - divi Aug(usti) ad Mine[rvam]. - - ] - - [Footnote 7: Baumeister, _Denkmäler_, II., p. 801, fig. 867.] - - - - -II.--COINS. - -(Table-Case K.) - - -The coins which are selected to represent the Greek and Roman -currencies extend over a period of just one thousand years, in the -course of which the coinage went through all the developments and -anticipated all the varieties of type and fabric which it has since -experienced, while in artistic merit it reached an excellence which -will probably never be surpassed. The Greek coinage, moreover, has the -great interest of being that upon which all later coinages have been -modelled--for the Chinese money, which originated about the same time, -and apparently independently, may be left out of account. - -=Greek Coins.=--The character and provenance of the earliest coins -agree with the best ancient tradition of their origin, in so far as -it associates them with Asia Minor, although it is more probable -that they were invented by the Greek cities of the coast than by -the Lydians, to whom they have been credited in accordance with the -Herodotean tradition.[8] The most primitive pieces are found in Asia -Minor, and their metal is a natural mixture of gold and silver, called -electrum, which occurs in the mountains of Lydia, and was brought down -to the sea in the sands of the great rivers, the golden Hermus and its -tributary the Pactolus. The cities which the Greeks had planted on the -Asiatic shores grew in the seventh century B.C. to a high degree of -wealth, by reason of their position on a rich coastland, where they -were intermediary in the trade of east and west. There were great -bankers in these Ionian cities who had large stores of treasure; their -gold and silver would be kept in bars or ingots of definite weight -stamped with the device, in place of the written signature, of the -banker. From thus marking large ingots with his own signature, it -would be a short step for the banker to do the same with smaller -denominations of the same weights, so producing a private coinage for -his own convenience in calculation, which would come to have a limited -acceptance in the quarters where his credit was good. Such pieces -are probably to be recognised in the nondescript coins of which the -electrum stater is an example (No. =24=; fig. 12_a_); this is scored -on one side with parallel scratches and stamped on the other with -three deep punch-marks. There are many pieces in existence which have -even less design than this, although their weights conform to definite -coin-standards. We may perhaps regard this example as a private coin, -one of the last of its kind, which immediately preceded the adoption -of coinage by the state. The invention of coinage lies really in this -innovation, which, however obvious it may seem to us now, was then -of deep political significance. When once a state currency was -instituted, the private coinage fell out of use, for no individual -banker could compete with the guarantee of the state, and the state -would not tolerate imitation of its own types. We may therefore take -it that the successive stages in the "invention" of coinage were -somewhat as follows: first, the occasional practice of stamping -certain weights of metal with marks by which they could be identified; -this probably continued in private use for a long period before it was -adopted by a state; and finally the adoption all over the Greek world -of a series of state coinages. - -The example, once set, was quickly followed by the more important -Greek cities, until by the middle of the sixth century the art of -coinage had travelled from Ionia across the mainland of Greece to -the colonies in Italy and Sicily. Owing to the peculiar political -conditions of Greece, where every town held a separate and independent -sovereignty, each state was jealous to assert its autonomy on its -coins, with the result that the Greek coinage presents an enormous -variety of types, held together, however, as the money of one people -by the uniformity of their general character and of the art in which -they are expressed. - -We may now proceed to consider a few representative coins, which in -the midst of innumerable local issues were important enough by -their purity of weight and metal, or by their abundance, or by the -commercial reputation of their issuing states, to predominate in -the Greek world as a sort of international currency and standard of -exchange. - -The earliest electrum stater of Ionia is interesting on account of its -fabric only, for it has no type. It is a bean-shaped lump of metal, -one side of which has been stamped with a flat die marked with -parallel scratches, the other with three punches, which have left -deep impressions (No. =24=; fig. 12_a_). The pieces which immediately -followed, such as the silver money of Aegina (No. =25=; fig. 12_d_), -have a real type on the obverse, while the punch-mark on the reverse -is more regular, and is often ornamented with some design of a special -character, though it does not contain a type until later. - -With the introduction of coinage into European Greece, a change was -made in the metal of the currency, for gold and electrum, which were -plentiful in Asia, were not common in Greece proper, and a silver -coinage was there the rule until Philip of Macedon took possession of -the Thracian gold mines. The few gold issues before his time were due -to exceptional circumstances; thus the gold coinage of Athens (No. -=26=) was occasioned by great financial stress, when treasure was -melted down to supply the currency. There was, however, no lack of -gold money in Greece, for after the first electrum issues came the -fine gold staters of Croesus, in the early sixth century (No. =27=; -fig. 12_b_), and, on his overthrow by Cyrus, an international gold -coinage was still available in the enormous issues of the Persian -darics (No. =28=; fig. 12_c_), which were in common use all over -the ancient world until the Macedonian gold replaced them. A few -subsidiary electrum coinages survived in Asia, the most famous being -the Kyzikene staters (No. =29=; fig. 12_m_), which were a standard -exchange in the Aegean and Black Sea regions. A peculiarity of this -coinage is that the distinctive type of the town, the tunny, is -relegated to a secondary place, while the main type is a constantly -changing design. In the piece illustrated the subject is taken from a -group of the Athenian tyrannicides, Harmodios and Aristogeiton, which -stood in the market place of their native city. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--GREEK COINS. 1:1.] - -Another important currency, used especially in western Greece, the -"colts" of Corinth, took its type from the local myth that the winged -horse Pegasos was captured by Bellerophon at the fountain Peirene, -which flowed from the acropolis of the town (No. =30=; fig. 12_e_). -The original punch-mark on the reverse was soon replaced by the -helmeted head of Athena, who also had a part in the Pegasos myth, and -these two types were constant as long as the Corinthian state existed. -The money which enjoyed the fairest reputation was that of Athens, -which, at the time of the Athenian empire, superseded the issues of -the subject cities and became the standard currency in the Aegean -Sea. It penetrated into the far East, and there are extant examples of -native imitations from India and Arabia. The wide circulation of these -staters among barbarous peoples was the cause of their peculiar -style; for not only were the types of Athena's head and her owl and -olive-branch unaltered from the first sixth-century design, but the -execution was an imitation of the primitive manner, the stiffness of -archaic art being reproduced in an affected archaism. As the money of -Athens was the foremost in the Greek world, it is useful to note the -extraordinary number of denominations which were struck in silver at -its most flourishing period, the fifth century B.C. A large, but still -not complete, series is exhibited here (No. =31=). It consists of the -_Decadrachm_ (10 drachmae, fig. 12_f_), an early and rare coin, the -_Tetradrachm_ (4 drachmae, fig. 12_g_), which was the famous Athenian -stater or standard piece, the _Didrachm_ (2 drachmae), the _Drachm_ -(fig. 12_h_), the unit of weight, which contained six obols, the -_Triobol_ (3 obols), the _Diobol_ (2 obols), the _Obol_ (fig. -12_i_), the _Tritemorion_ (3/4 obol), the _Hemiobol_ (1/2 obol), the -_Trihemitetartemorion_ (3/8 obol), and the _Tetartemorion_ (1/4 -obol, fig. 12_k_), the half of the last piece being equivalent to the -largest bronze coin, the _Chalkous_ (No. =32=). - -With the Athenian series is the bronze core of an ancient imitation of -a silver stater, of which the silver plating has perished (No. =33=). -False coining was punished with extreme penalties even in those early -days: in an extant monetary convention between Mytilene and Phocaea, -of the fourth century B.C., the crime of adulterating the money is -threatened with death.[9] - -On the conquest of Athens by Macedon, at the end of the fourth century -B.C., the autonomous Athenian coinage was largely superseded by the -Macedonian regal issues, and did not recover its position until late -in the next century. It was renewed in a different form, with none of -the old archaism, of which the occasion was past. The coins of the new -style exemplify the thin flat fabric of the period, and although the -types of Athena and the owl are preserved, their arrangement is much -more complicated. The new head of Athena is a copy from the colossal -ivory and gold statue which Pheidias made, and on the reverse of the -coins the owl and olive spray are accompanied by many new devices, of -which the most remarkable are the names, symbols, and monograms of -the monetary magistrates; eminent personages sometimes figure in -this place. On the coins exhibited (No. =34=; fig. 12_l_) one of the -officials is Antiochos, who was afterwards Epiphanes, king of Syria. - -In the interval between the old and new coinages, when the Athenian -money was scanty, the currency was supplied by the regal issues of the -Macedonian kings and their successors. Under Philip II. and his son -Alexander the Great, the Macedonian monarchy extended its dominion -by conquest, not only over the isolated Greek cities, but over the -ancient empire of Persia. The opportunity was thus provided for a -universal coinage, and it was realised in the gold and silver -issues of Philip and Alexander (Nos. =35=, =36=; fig. 12_n-q_). The -acquisition of the Thracian gold-mines gave Philip the means for an -abundant coinage of gold, the first considerable Greek issue of the -kind, which contributed in no small measure to his political success. -The style of these coins of Philip is not different from that of other -Greek money, except that they are inscribed with a personal name--of -Philip--instead of the name of a whole people, and the types, a -horse and jockey and a two-horse chariot, are also personal, as they -commemorate the racing successes of the king. The fine heads on the -obverse, however, are still divine, that of Zeus appearing on the -silver and the young Apollo on the gold, for the idea of representing -a living personage on a coin was still distant. Of this money the -gold especially was struck in enormous quantities, and the types were -imitated more and more crudely, as time went on, in Gaul and Britain. -(_See_ the series shown in the Room of Roman Britain.) The coinage of -Alexander was even more widely spread. His types were more orthodox -than those of Philip: the head of Athena and a Victory on the gold, -and the head of young Herakles, wrapped in the lion-skin, with a -figure of Zeus enthroned, on the silver staters, although in the head -of Herakles there is some suggestion of the features of Alexander. -These coins were struck all over the world which Alexander conquered, -and lasted after his death as the money of his successors and of -independent cities, in some cases even for two centuries; but the -kings who divided his great empire modified the type by introducing -real portraits of Alexander, as a deified hero, and later of -themselves, as living deities, so that the representation of a -ruler's head on coins, which is still practised to-day, began with -quasi-religious Greek coin-types. The regularity of the Greek coinage -which Alexander established was only temporary, and his influence was -fast disappearing when the subjection of the world by the Romans in -the first century B.C. merged all provincial issues in the complete -uniformity of the Imperial mint. - -=Roman Coins.=--As gold in the Asiatic coastlands and silver in -European Greece, so in Italy the native medium of exchange was bronze. -In the earliest times the raw metal was circulated in broken knobs of -indefinite weight (_aes rude_), which required in all transactions the -use of scales. The rude metal was afterwards superseded by cast ingots -of an oblong shape, which bore a device to indicate their purpose as -money (_aes signatum_). Yet the weights were still irregular, and -no mark of value accompanied the types, so that the pieces were not -strictly coins. A survival of this primitive currency is seen in the -large ingot which has on one side a tripod and on the other an anchor -(No. =37=; fig. 13). This piece itself belongs to a later period, when -the lighter coined money was already in use. The special purpose for -which this and similar pieces were intended is quite uncertain. The -first coinage of Rome was less massive than this, but being entirely -of bronze, was still inconveniently large and cumbrous (_aes grave_). -The Roman of the fourth century B.C., when he found it necessary to -transport any considerable sum, took his money about with him in a -waggon.[10] The use of bronze for a token currency, as in Greece, was -not possible without a superior coinage of gold or silver to secure -its value. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--AES SIGNATUM (NO. 37). 1:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--AES GRAVE (NO. 38). AS, SEMIS, QUADRANS, AND -UNCIA. 1:2.] - -A typical series of the Roman heavy bronze money is exhibited (No. -=38=; fig. 14) The system is based on the pound of twelve ounces, and -the denominations of the various pieces are distinguished by the -heads or obverse types, and by the marks of value which they bear. The -series consists of the _As_, or pound (+I+), the half, _Semis_ (+S+), -the third, _Triens_, of four ounces (····), the quarter, _Quadrans_, -of three ounces (···), the sixth, _Sextans_, of two ounces (··), and -the _Uncia_, or ounce, the lower unit (·) (_cf._ p. 160). Each of -these is further differentiated by the obverse head. The _as_ has the -double head of Janus, the god of beginnings, whose coin opened the -series of money, as his month begins the year. The _semis_ has the -head of Jupiter, wearing a laurel wreath; the _triens_, Minerva armed; -the _quadrans_, Hercules in the lion-skin; the _sextans_, Mercury, the -messenger, with wings in his cap; and the _uncia_, a head of Bellona, -the goddess of battle. All the reverses have a common type, the prow -of a ship. This device may mark the date of the introduction of the -Roman coinage, which coincided with Rome's first essays on the sea, -in the middle of the fourth century before Christ. It remained as the -reverse type of the bronze money all through the Republic, and even -in later times, when a coin was tossed, the cry was "heads" or -"ships."[11] - -The heavy bronze coinage of the city of Rome was only one among -many similar currencies of the central Italian states. As the Romans -conquered the neighbouring territories, where there existed local -weight-systems, which, in the interests of commerce, it was well -to preserve, instead of imposing their own money, they inaugurated -subordinate issues at the dependent mints. On this principle it was -natural that when the march of Roman conquest came upon the peoples of -South Italy, where a silver currency had been long ago introduced by -the Greek colonists, a local issue for those parts was instituted as -a subsidiary coinage. To this class of Roman money belongs the silver -stater or didrachm with Campanian types (the head of Mars and the -bust of a horse) which was struck by the Romans--as the legend -+ROMANO+(_rum_) shews--in Capua for the use of the Campanian district -(No. =39=; fig. 15_a_). With the extension of power and territory the -old bronze pieces were inadequate, and in the year 268 B.C. a silver -coinage was begun at Rome itself. At the same time the Campanian mint -was closed, and the heavy bronze coins, being subordinated to -the silver unit, were issued as token-money in a reduced and more -convenient size. - -The first Roman silver coinage bears the types of the goddess Roma, -wearing a winged helmet, and on the reverse the patron deities of -trade and commerce, Castor and Pollux, the Heavenly Twins or Dioscuri -(No. =40=; fig. 15_b-d_). They are armed with spears and ride on -horseback, with their stars above their heads. These types occur on -all three denominations of the earliest silver, the _Denarius_ (marked -+X+), which was worth 10 _asses_; its half, the _Quinarius_ (+V+); and -the _Sestertius_ (+IIS+) of 2-1/2 _asses_, which became the unit in -reckoning accounts. The two smallest silver pieces were not always -struck; but the _denarius_, with the reduced copper for small -denominations, remained in use during the period of the Republic -at Rome and long into the Empire. Although both series had a great -variety of types, the fabric and general appearance were unaltered. - -With the change to the Empire, reform in all directions was begun, and -the coinage was set on a new basis. Gold was introduced to meet the -needs of the metropolis of the world, and two new coins, the _Aureus_ -and its half, were struck in this metal. They were modelled on the -silver pieces. The standard silver coin was still the _denarius_, -and the only change which it experienced was in type. The head of the -emperor took the place of those of deities, with a superscription, -which was the forerunner of modern coin-legends. It consisted of -the name and titles of the emperor, often with the date of striking, -arranged in a circle round the edge of the coin. The minting of gold -and silver was assumed by the emperor, but the lower denominations -were left to the senate, whose authority is expressed on each piece by -the letters +S·C+ (_Senatus Consulto_, "by decree of the Senate"). The -senatorial series consisted of the _Sestertius_, the equivalent of the -smallest silver coin, now valued at 4 _asses_ instead of the original -2-1/2; the _Dupondius_, of 2 _asses_; the _As_, and fractions of the -_as_, _Semis_ and _Quadrans_, which are of less frequent occurrence. -These coins sometimes differed as to the metal used, the _as_ and -_semis_ being of copper, and the _dupondius_ and _sestertius_ of -brass; or in the style of the emperor's head; or, as in the case of -the coins exhibited, the _as_ is marked +I+ and the _dupondius_ +II+ -(fig. 15_h_ and _i_). Usually, however, the two pieces are confused, -and are loosely termed by collectors "second brass," the sesterce -being "first brass," and all denominations lower than the _as_ "third -brass." The reverse types were very numerous, and, with the exception -of the mark +S·C+ on the senatorial issues, none of them was peculiar -to any denomination. The series which is selected here to illustrate -the Imperial coinage is of the reign of Nero (54-68 A.D.); all the -pieces, therefore, bear the image and superscription of that Caesar, -and their reverses have complimentary references to the emperor and -his family, or topical allusions to current events (No. =41=; fig. -15_e-l_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--ROMAN COINS. 1:1.] - -Nero was the first emperor to reduce the weight of the _denarius_, and -from his time the degeneration was rapid. A series of seven pieces, -from Tiberius to Probus (14-281 A.D.), illustrates the debasement of -the metal, which is apparent to the eye (No. =42=). By the time of -Gordianus Pius (238-244 A.D.) no trace of silver is visible, and the -coin of Probus here exhibited is plainly copper. Yet these pieces -represent the only silver money which was then coined. - -Many of the coins which have come down to us have been preserved by -the care or avarice of their former owners, who hid their wealth for -security and were unable to recover it. Portions of two such hoards -are shown at the end of the case. One consists of Athenian staters of -the late fifth century B.C. (No. =43=), which were found in the Greek -settlement of Naukratis, and the other is a large collection of late -Roman coins of the fifth century A.D. (No. =44=). These were buried -in another Egyptian town, Hawara, in the egg-shaped jug which is shown -with them. At Pompeii, a city which was overwhelmed by the volcano in -the midst of its daily life, money, like all other things, has been -found ready to hand and actually in use. There is in this Case all -that the fire has left of a Pompeian money-box, and among the coins -which it contains is a brass sesterce of Nero, whose reign ended -eleven years before the catastrophe. Shreds of a net purse are also -visible in the box (No. =45=). - -=Special uses of Coins.=--A silver stater of Sikyon (No. =46=), is -marked by an inscription punctured by the dedicator--_To Artemis in -Lakedaemon_. A religious character attaches also to the bronze coin of -Laodikeia in Phrygia, which is pierced and suspended from a wire loop -for wearing as a charm against sickness, by virtue of the figures -which it bears of Asklepios and Hygieia, the deities of health (No. -=47=). - -A curious coin, struck for a special religious purpose, is the copper -piece of Nemausus (Nîmes, in the South of France), which is made in -the shape of a ham for dedication to the deity of the local fountain -(No. =48=). The offering was probably originally paid in kind. - -=Ancient false Coins.=--With the exception of the Italian heavy -copper, which was cast, nearly all ancient coins were struck in dies, -and most of the false pieces which have survived are defective in the -quality of the metal, while the fabric is good. In the later Roman -Empire, when all the standard money was of base metal, the surface was -so bad that the coins could easily be counterfeited by casting, and -great numbers of the clay moulds used by forgers or by the monetary -authorities date from this period. Among the large collection here -exhibited (No. =49=) there are some unbroken moulds, and some with the -run metal still adhering. Base metal was detected by the use of the -touch-stone, and pieces of doubtful weight were tested by the balance. -An ivory folding balance is shown (No. =49*=). The long arm is made -just too light to counterpoise a good denarius--the test being that if -the coin were heavy enough it would fall off the plate at the end. - - For Greek and Roman coins in general, see Hill, _Handbook of - Greek and Roman Coins_ (with the Bibliography there given); - G. Macdonald, _Coin Types_ (Glasgow, 1905); Head, _Historia - Numorum_ (2nd ed. 1911.) - - - [Footnote 8: i. 94.] - - [Footnote 9: Michel, _Recueil des inscr. grecques_, No. 8.] - - [Footnote 10: Livy, iv. 60.] - - [Footnote 11: Macr. _Sat._ i. 7, 22. pueri denarios in - sublime iactantes capita aut navia exclamant.] - - - - -III.--DRAMA. - -(Table-Case K and Glass Shade above.) - - -The antiquities illustrating the ancient drama are placed in one half -of Table-Case K, and under the glass shade standing above it. - -=Greek Drama.=--This was in its origin essentially religious, and -retained up to the decline of tragedy at the end of the fifth century -B.C. the character of a religious ceremony. Thus tragedy gradually -developed out of the rude dances in honour of the wine-god Dionysos, -which were performed at country vintage festivals. The name tragedy -means "goat-song," and is probably to be associated with the sacrifice -of the goat, the enemy of the vines. - -The dramatic part of a tragedy was at first confined to a dialogue -between a single actor and the leader of the chorus, with long musical -interludes, but the number of actors was gradually increased, with -the result that more stress was laid on the dramatic action. Aeschylos -introduced a second actor, Sophokles a third, and Euripides, the last -of the great tragedians, reduced the lyrical element of the play to -comparatively insignificant proportions. - -Comedy underwent a development not unlike that of tragedy. It also -had its origin in the coarse buffoonery common at the rustic festivals -which celebrated the vintage. Introduced into Athens from the -neighbouring Megara early in the sixth century B.C., it did not -receive recognition from the state until the middle of the fifth -century. The comedy of the closing years of that century is -inseparably connected with the name of Aristophanes, who combined -merciless political satire with exquisite poetry. - -In the fourth century B.C. a great change came over comedy at Athens. -The later plays of Aristophanes mark the beginning of the comedy of -manners, which took the place of the old political comedy. The master -of this new comedy was Menander. Through Roman translations and -adaptations of Menander and his fellow poets by Plautus and Terence, -comes the comedy of Molière and modern Europe. - -The theatre, in which these ancient plays were performed, was of slow -development. The grassy slopes of a hill, bordering on a circular -dancing-place (_orchestra_), satisfied the earliest audiences. Later -on, a definite place was set apart for theatrical performances, and a -wooden structure erected for the actors. It was not until the fourth -century that permanent stone seats were laid down in the Theatre of -Dionysos at Athens, although performances had been given there for -more than a century. - -=Roman Drama.=--The drama at first met with a determined opposition -from Romans of the old school as a new-fangled thing from Greece. The -taste of the people, also, was not inclined to favour so cultured an -amusement as the drama. The Romans preferred to see a fight between -men or beasts rather than to listen to a play, and on one occasion, -when listening to a play of Terence, they rushed pell-mell from the -theatre, because a rumour arose that a combat of gladiators was going -to take place.[12] - -The more important Roman comedies were adapted from the New Comedy of -the Greeks. These adaptations are familiar to us from the surviving -plays of Plautus (254-184 B.C.) and Terence (ca. 185-159 B.C.). Actors -at Rome had long to be content with temporary wooden structures, which -were pulled down when the performances were over. A permanent theatre -was not erected in Rome till 55 B.C. - -The objects illustrating the ancient drama can conveniently be divided -into (_a_) representations of scenes from plays, and (_b_) figures of -actors and masks. - -(_a_) =Scenes from Plays.=--The vase (No. =50=) placed under the glass -shade is valuable as an illustration of the beginnings of Athenian -drama. It is a plate of Athenian fabric of the sixth century B.C., -with designs which probably represent the sacrifice made to Athena at -the Panathenaic games, and two scenes relating to dramatic contests. -The first of these scenes shows a tragic chorus with the goat, which -was the prize of victory. The second shows a comic chorus, in which a -man seated at the back of a mule-car appears to be making jests at the -expense of another man who follows. This "jesting from a car" became a -regular phrase to express ribald joking.[13] None of the men who took -part in these contests is distinguished by any peculiarity of costume. -Another early vase, however (No. =51=), gives a lively picture of two -actors dressed up as birds. Before them stands a flute-player. -Though this vase is many years earlier in date than the _Birds_ of -Aristophanes (414 B.C.), yet it may serve to give us some idea of the -appearance of the chorus in that play. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--SCENE FROM A MOCK-TRAGEDY. COMBAT BETWEEN -ARES AND HEPHAESTOS BEFORE HERA (NO. 52).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--MARRIAGE SCENE FROM A ROMAN-COMEDY (NO. 54). -2:3.] - -The two large vases illustrate Greek dramatic performances of a -considerably later date. They give us scenes from _phlyakes_, a class -of burlesques which were in vogue in the Greek cities of Southern -Italy, especially at Tarentum, at the end of the fourth and the -beginning of the third century B.C. They are associated with the name -of Rhinthon, a Syracusan poet. These plays dealt in the wildest spirit -of farce with subjects drawn from Greek mythology and legend, as well -as with scenes from daily life. One of the vases (No. =52=; fig. -16) shows a contest upon the stage, between actors representing Ares -([Greek: Eneualios]) and Hephaestos ([Greek: Daidalos]) fighting in -the presence of Hera. The grotesque mask, the padded figures, and the -general air of exaggeration are indicative of the character of these -plays, which earned for them the title of mock-tragedies ([Greek: -hilarotragôdiai]). The other vase (No. =53=) is a parody of the myth -of Cheiron cured by Apollo. The blind Centaur, whose equine body -is represented pantomime-fashion by a second actor pushing behind, -ascends the steps leading up to the stage, where stands the slave -Xanthias. Behind is the Centaur's pupil Achilles, and looking on from -a cave are two grotesquely ugly nymphs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--SCENE FROM A ROMAN TRAGEDY. HERCULES -DISPUTING WITH MARS (NO. 55). 1:1.] - -Case K contains two interesting representations of Roman comedy and -tragedy respectively. The oblong lamp (No. =54=; fig. 17) gives a -scene from a comedy, not improbably the mock-marriage scene from the -fourth act of the _Casina_ of Plautus. The steps leading up to the -door of the house divide the actors into two groups. On the left -is the bridegroom (Olympio?) with his mule, in preparation for his -departure into the country. On the right comes the marriage procession -approaching a woman (Pardalisca?) who stands by the steps. First walks -a Silenus, carrying a Cupid on his shoulders; next comes the bride, -carried aloft by a man, in order that she may be lifted over the -threshold in conformity with the usual Roman marriage rite (see below, -p. 212). Behind is an altar in the courtyard of the house. A Cupid -waits at the door to receive the bride. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--IVORY STATUETTE OF A TRAGIC ACTOR.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF COMIC ACTOR -(MONEY-LENDER?) (NO. 60). Ht. 7-7/8 in.] - -The Gallo-Roman medallion (No. =55=; fig. 18) is from a vase. It gives -a picture of a Roman tragedy. On a high stage sits Jupiter enthroned, -with Victory and Minerva on his right and left hand respectively. -Before the stage stand Hercules and Mars, disputing. Hercules has -slain Cycnus, the son of Mars, and the irate father stands exclaiming: -"Be assured that I am come as the avenger of my son." To which -Hercules replies: "Unconquered valour can ne'er be terrified."[14] The -characters speak in iambic verse. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF COMIC ACTOR (SLAVE?) -(NO. 61). Ht. 8-1/2 in.] - -(_b_) =Figures of actors and masks.=--In tragedy the actors probably -wore a dress differing from that of the spectators only in a certain -richness of material and colour, and in an adherence to the fashion -of an earlier period. Two features, however, distinguished them in -appearance from ordinary men, the buskin ([Greek: kothornos]) or -high-soled boot, and the tragic mask. The use of the former (which -increased in height as time went on) was due to a desire to enhance -the wearer's dignity by raising him somewhat above the common -height of men. The wearing of the mask was brought about chiefly -by tradition, partly by the great size of ancient theatres, which -rendered some easily recognized type of face a practical necessity. -The tragic mask (fig. 22 below, right) was usually surmounted by a -high projection over the forehead, called the _onkos_, on which the -hair was raised to a height varying with the social position of the -character. The mask illustrated (No. =56=) is of ivory and finely -worked. It is a mask such as would have been worn by some king in -tragedy, an Agamemnon or a Kreon. The general appearance of a tragic -actor is finely brought before us by an ivory statuette (not in the -Museum) which was found near Rieti, a place about 35 miles N.E. of -Rome (fig. 19). The elaborately embroidered robe is coloured blue, and -the _onkos_, mask, and buskins are clearly seen. (_Mon. dell' Inst._ -xi. pl. 13.) - -[Illustration: FIG 22.--COMIC, SATYRIC, AND TRAGIC MASKS (NOS. 65, 66, -56). Ca. 5:8.] - -The figures of actors and the comic masks exhibited under the glass -shade and in Table-Case K bring before us the different characters -prominent in Athenian comedy of the fourth and third centuries B.C., -and in the Roman comedy derived from it. It was a comedy of everyday -life, in which the same well-known types were constantly reappearing. -Such were the parasite (No. =57=), who bears all the marks of a -fondness for good living, and carries a flask and a ham; the glutton -(Nos. =58= and =59=), distinguished by his large padded stomach; -the money-lender (No. =60=), with his acute and cunning expression, -grasping his purse tightly by his side with both hands, and partially -concealing it beneath his cloak (fig. 20). The adventures of the -slave and his punishments were a favourite theme with poets of the -new comedy. No. =61= (fig. 21) may represent the trusted elderly slave -aghast at the misdoings of his young master. A still greater favourite -is the runaway slave who seeks refuge from his irate master in the -protection of the altar. The bronze statuette (No. =62=), and the -terracotta (No. =63=) show him seated on the altar, and in No. =64= -his hands are tied behind him. A typical comic mask (No. =65=) is -illustrated above (fig. 22, left), characterised by its exaggerated -features, especially the wide open mouth, the snub nose and thick -bushy eyebrows. The satyric play, which of the three kinds of Greek -drama kept nearest in spirit to the early Dionysiac village revel, -is illustrated by the satyric masks (No. =66=; fig. 22, centre), with -their high upstanding hair and semi-bestial features, as well as -by the masks of the bald-headed Seilenos, the constant companion of -Dionysos in his revels. - -Most of the examples of masks shown in the case are merely -representations. A few such as No. =67= with pierced eye and -mouth-holes, and of life size, may have been intended for use. Two -heads of actors from marble reliefs (Nos. =68=, =69=) show to what -extent the face of the actor could be seen, within the apertures of -the mask. - - (50) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 80; _Journ. Hell. Stud._, I., - pl. 7; (51) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 509; _Journ. Hell. Stud._, - II., pl. 14; (52) _Cat. of Vases_, IV., F 269; cf. Heydemann - in _Jahrb. d. arch. Inst._, I. (1886), p. 260 ff.; (53) - _Cat. of Vases_, IV., F 151; (54) _Cat. of Lamps_, 446; Cf. - Froehner, _Hoffman Sale Cat._, 1886, p. 38, No. 127; (55) - _Cat. of Roman Pottery_, M 121; _Gazette Arch._, 1877, p. 66, - pl. 12. - - On the ancient theatre generally, see Haigh, _The Attic - Theatre_, edn. 3, where references to literature will be - found. For Masks, see Daremberg and Saglio, Dict., _s.v._ - Persona. - - - [Footnote 12: _Hecyra_, _prolog._, 30 ff.] - - [Footnote 13: Cf. Dem., _de Cor._, 122: [Greek: - kai boas rhêta kai arrêta onomazôn, hôsper ex hamaxês].] - - [Footnote 14: - - Adesse ultorem nati m[e] credas mei. - [Invic]ta virtus nusqua(m) terreri potest. - ] - - - - -IV.--SHIPPING. - -(Wall-Cases 94-97.) - - -As early as the eighth century before Christ the Greeks possessed -powerful war-vessels propelled by numerous oarsmen. These appear on -vases of that date, as for example on a large bowl of Boeotian fabric -(described below in connection with chariots, p. 169), which shows -such a ship with its double line of rowers and a man at the stern -managing the big steering-oars. The crew of this vessel seems to have -numbered some forty men.[15] A more finished representation of early -Greek ships is seen on a cup (No. =70=) of the end of the sixth -century B.C. (figs. 23, 24), where the contrasted builds of the war -galley and the merchantman are clearly indicated. The war galley has -two rows of eleven and twelve oars respectively. The merchantman has -no rowers, but is entirely dependent on its sail. It has a high-built -hull, suited for holding cargo. In each we see the steersman at -the stern with his two steering-oars. Beside him is the ladder for -embarking and disembarking. A terracotta model ship from Cyprus (No. -=71=; fig. 25) of about this period shows the socket for the mast and -the high poop for the steersman, with the remains of an iron oar. This -vessel is doubtless intended for a merchantman. The numerous small -terracotta boats (No. =72=) found with this merchant vessel at Amathus -give a good idea of the fishing boats of the time (Case 94; see -frontispiece). These boats are also interesting as reminding us of the -legend that Kinyras, king of Cyprus, promised Menelaos to send fifty -ships to help the Greeks against Troy. He sent but one, carrying -forty-nine others of terracotta, manned by terracotta figures. After -the taking of Troy, Agamemnon is said to have made it his first -business to punish Kinyras for his trickery. It would seem that the -story must have been based on knowledge of the fact that terracotta -boats were a product of Amathus. It is hard to suppose that it is -merely a coincidence. The small model war-galley (No. =73=) from -Corinth, containing warriors armed with circular shields, is -interesting from the place of its discovery, for Corinth was -traditionally an early shipbuilding centre, and triremes are said to -have been first built at that city.[16] - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--EARLY GREEK WARSHIP (NO. 70).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--EARLY GREEK MERCHANT-SHIP (NO. 70).] - -The use of triremes (ships with triple arrangement of oars) did not -become common among the Greeks till the earlier part of the fifth -century B.C. This was the typical Greek warship of the period of the -Peloponnesian war, and the arrangement of the rowers in it has given -rise to much controversy. The crew (according to one view) consisted -of two hundred rowers, sixty-two on the highest tier ([Greek: -thranitai]), fifty-four on the middle ([Greek: zygitai]), and -fifty-four on the lowest ([Greek: thalamitai]), as well as thirty who -were apparently stationed on the highest deck ([Greek: perineô]). The -best ancient representation of the rowers in a trireme is that given -on a relief in Athens, of which a cast is shown here (No. =74=; Case -94). The upper oars pass over the gunwale, the second and third lines -(if these are oars) through port-holes. In the trireme the ram was -of the greatest importance, and much attention was devoted to -strengthening it. An excellent illustration of the prow of a trireme -is to be seen in the terracotta vase from Vulci (No. =75=; fig. 26). -Here are an upper and a lower ram, each armed with three teeth; the -curved ornament above the ram has been broken away. The projections on -either side of the handles of the vase, decorated with a woman's head, -would serve as a protection to the oars. The eye on the side is a -prominent decoration in Greek ships. It is seen on the ship painted -on the vase B 508 in Case 95 (No. =76=), from which the diver is -preparing to jump, and has survived even to the present day, for eyes -are still found painted on the bows of Mediterranean fishing boats. -The eyes are often supposed to be a defence against the evil eye, but -the exact position they occupy on each side of the prow is suggested -by the almost inevitable analogy between the prow of a vessel and the -head of an animal. Roman ships did not differ very materially from -Greek ships, but a special class of swift ships with two banks of -oars was adopted from Liburnian pirates who inhabited the islands off -Illyria, and these ships were called Liburnian galleys. A figure-head -in bronze from a Roman ship, found in the sea off Actium, is shown in -Case 96 (No. =77=). It represents Minerva, and probably belonged to -some ship sunk in the great battle between Octavian and Antony in 31 -B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--TERRACOTTA MODEL OF MERCHANT-SHIP (NO. 71). -L. 12 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--VASE IN THE FORM OF A PROW OF A TRIREME (NO. -75). L. 8 in.] - -A fragment of a relief from a sarcophagus shows a Roman trireme, with -a figure of a swan in relief on the prow (No. =78=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--ROMAN SHIP ENTERING A HARBOUR (NO. 79). Diam. -4 in.] - -Some lamps placed in Cases 96, 97 give interesting pictures of Roman -harbours. In one (No. =79=; fig. 27), a ship is seen entering the -harbour, which is indicated by a light-house on the left. Of the crew -of six, one is seated high on the stern, blowing a trumpet to announce -the ship's approach; before him is the steersman, and next come three -men furling the sail. The man in the bows is preparing to let down -the anchor. Another lamp (No. =80=; fig. 28) shows a harbour with -buildings on the quay. A fisherman in a small boat holds a rod and -line in his right hand, and a fish which he has just caught in his -left. Before him is a man on shore just about to cast a net into the -water. In the third lamp (No. =81=) Cupid is seen in a boat, hauling -in his net from the water. - -A marble laver (No. =82=), originally decorated with a relief of -Asklepios, Hygieia and Telesphoros, has been subsequently sculptured -with votive dedications for a fair voyage. On the left, Poseidon -stands on a ship, with a suppliant before him, on the right is a ship -running before the wind. The inscriptions invoke good voyages for -Theodoulos and Pedius Psycharios. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--ROMAN FISHERMEN IN A HARBOUR (NO. 80). Diam. -3-5/8 in.] - - (70) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 436; Daremberg and Saglio, fig. - 5282; (71) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 112, fig. 164, No. 12; - (72) _ibid._; (74) _Cat. of Sculpture_, III., 2701; (75) _Cat. - of Terracottas_, D 201; (76) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 508; (77) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 830; Torr, _Ancient Ships_, pl. 8, 41; (78) - Daremberg and Saglio, fig. 5277; (79) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1140; - (80) _Cat. of Lamps_, 527; (81) _Cat. of Lamps_, 634. - - On ancient ships generally, see Torr, _Ancient Ships_, and - art. _Navis_ in Daremberg and Saglio; W. W. Tarn in _Journ. - Hell. Stud._, XXV., pp. 137, 204 ff.; A. B. Cook in _Camb. - Comp. to Gk. Stud._, 3 ed., p. 567 ff. - - - [Footnote 15: _Journ. Hell. Stud._, XIX., pl. 8.] - - [Footnote 16: Thuc., i. 13.] - - - - -V.--RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION. - -(Wall-Cases 98-106.) - - -The wide subjects of Religion and Superstition are naturally -represented in a fragmentary way in the few cases devoted to them -in this collection. They are roughly classified in the following -description, into groups, viz.:-- - - (1) Implements and methods of worship. - (2) Votive offerings. - (3) Superstition and Magic. - - -=Implements and methods of worship.= - -_Altars, etc._--The larger altars (and sepulchral chests of altar -form) will be found in the sculpture galleries. Here we have (No. -=83=) a small altar, from Dodona, inscribed as belonging to all the -gods,[17] and various model altars, probably used in some cases for -the burning of incense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--ALTAR DEDICATED FOR THE SAFE RETURN OF -SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS AND HIS FAMILY (NO. =84=). Ht. 2 ft. 7 in.] - -An interesting example (No. =84=) of the practice of dedicating altars -to members of Roman Imperial houses is furnished by the inscription -(fig. 29) in the lower part of Case 98. It formed the front of a -marble altar, and is dedicated to the Imperial Fortune by a freedman -named Antonius, who was in charge of the "Department of Petitions," -for the safe return of the Emperor Septimius Severus, his wife -Julia Domna, and his sons Caracalla and Geta. But so far as Geta was -concerned, the Imperial Fortune was not propitious. He was murdered by -his brother Caracalla, and his name was erased from this, as from all -other inscriptions throughout the Roman Empire, by Caracalla's edict. -The date of the inscription is about 200 A.D. - -In Case 102 is an altar (No. =85=) dedicated to the Bona Dea -of Anneanum (a town in Etruria) by C. Tullius Hesper and Tullia -Restituta. The Bona Dea was a goddess specially invoked by women. -Hence we may suppose that it was Tullia Restituta more particularly -who showed her thankfulness by this dedication. - -In Case 98 are two examples (Nos. =86=, =87=) of a combined lamp and -altar, for use in domestic shrines, probably of late Roman date.[18] -In one of these the basin for libations is supported on a pine-cone. -Akin to these is the small limestone cone and altar from the -Cyrenaica. - -No. =88= (fig. 30) is a bronze representing an attendant leading a -pig to sacrifice. The pig (as well as the sheep and the bull) was a -favourite sacrificial animal among the Romans. At the lustral ceremony -of the _suovetaurilia_, the bull, sheep, and pig were driven round -the farmer's fields to keep them free from blight and disease. Certain -deities, notably Persephone and the Bona Dea, had swine as their -special victims. In Case 105 will be seen a terracotta votive pig (No. -=89=) found in the precinct of Demeter and Persephone at Knidos. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--ATTENDANT DRIVING PIG TO SACRIFICE (NO. 88). -Ht. 4 in.] - -In Case 98 is an elaborate model in terracotta of a temple laver from -Cyprus (No. =90=). In Case 100 is a terracotta model of a sacred table -(No. =91=, fig. 31), set with a service of vessels for the sanctuary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--TABLE WITH SERVICE OF VESSELS (NO. 91). 2:3.] - -_Bronze Implements._--A series of early Italic bronze implements (No. -=92=), may have been used in sacrifice. Those with the curved claws -were probably used for taking boiled meats out of a caldron. They -remind us of the five-pronged sacrificial forks mentioned in Homer, -and of the custom of the Jewish priests' servants as described in the -Book of Samuel: "The priest's servant came, while the flesh was in -seething, with a fleshhook of three teeth in his hand; and he struck -it into the pan, or kettle, or caldron, or pot; all that the fleshhook -brought up the priest took therewith."[19] On the right are three -bronze gridirons. These, like the fleshhooks, originally had wooden -handles inserted into their sockets. The meat was spitted upon hooks, -which only remain in one instance. - -A series of implements terminating in a hand bent at the knuckles (No. -=93=), and a pair of tongs on wheels (No. =94=), are probably meant -for manipulating embers. - -_Miscellaneous._--A small silver model of a temple key is shown in -Case 100. The small alabaster statuette of a goddess with turreted -crown (No. =95=) is of special interest from the fact that her mouth -and breasts are pierced, evidently with the object of allowing some -fluid, such as milk or wine, to flow from them for the edification of -her votaries. A jar (No. =96=) contained perhaps the honey syrup, used -in Egypt for feeding the sacred crocodiles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--THE DIOSCURI COMING TO THE THEOXENIA (NO. -98).] - -_Religious Rites._--_Prayer._--The fifth century kylix (No. =97=) -shows the gesture of the raised right hand, often used in prayer. The -young athlete, whose oil-flask hangs behind him, is probably praying -before the altar. That athletes entered upon their tasks with extreme -seriousness is clear from the oath taken by them before the image of -Zeus in the Council House at Olympia, when they swore upon the cut -pieces of a boar that they would be guilty of no foul play. In the -Greek view athletics and religion were very closely connected. - -_The Lectisternium_, or Theoxenia, was the ceremony in which a banquet -was set, and the gods were invited to attend. It is illustrated by the -drawing of a lekythos (No. =98=) from Kameiros in Rhodes (about 500 -B.C.), which represents the two gods Castor and Pollux descending -from heaven on horseback to take part in the festival of the Theoxenia -(fig. 32). This feast, indicated by the couch on which they were to -recline, was given in honour of the twin gods. Such a festival well -illustrates the perfectly human interests which the Greeks attributed -to their deities. - -Compare with this vase the cast (No. =99=) of a relief in the Louvre, -from Larissa. A man and his wife, the dedicators of the relief, are -represented as having set out a couch, a banquet of cakes, and an -altar. The Twins descend, heralded by Victory. Beside the relief is -a fragment of a lamp (No. =100=) incised with a dedication to the -Dioscuri, that is, to Castor and Pollux. Here also is the inscribed -base (No. =101=) of a statuette dedicated to the Dioscuri by Euarchos -(sixth century B.C.). - -_Augury._--Passing now to Italic religious ceremonies, we may notice -the archaic bronze statuette of an augur (No. =102=), whose function -it was to draw omens from the aspect of the heavens or the flight -and cries of birds. He wears a cloak drawn veil-wise over his head, -a common religious garb, and in his right hand holds the _lituus_ -or curved wand used for the ceremonial dividing of the heavens into -quarters. In connection with this statuette mention should be made of -an early Greek inscription (No. =103=) in the bottom of Cases 95-96. -It was found at Ephesus, and is probably of about the same period as -the statuette, the sixth century B.C. It gives rules for drawing lucky -or unlucky omens from the flight of birds. The principal signs are the -flight from right to left or _vice versa_, and the raising or lowering -of the bird's wing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--APHRODITE WITHIN A SHRINE (NO. 104). Ht. -2-1/2 in.] - -_Shrines._--In Cases 100, 101 a series of terracotta shrines is -exhibited. They were doubtless for household use, employed in much the -same way as modern images of the Madonna. No. =104= (fig. 33), from -the early Greek settlement of Naukratis, in the Nile Delta, shows -Aphrodite within a shrine supported by figures of the Egyptian god -Bes, a characteristic combination of Greek and Egyptian elements. No. -=105=, from Amathus, in Cyprus, is also semi-Egyptian in character, -and shows a deity surmounted by a winged solar disk. Another shrine -from Naukratis (No. =106=) contains the sacred Apis-bull of the -Egyptians. No. =107= is an example of a shrine containing a baetylic -image, that is, a stone worshipped as sacred. A cone resembling the -one here shown was worshipped in the temple of Aphrodite at Paphos in -Cyprus. In front, a small lead model shrine (No. =108=) of later date, -from Sardinia, represents Aphrodite just risen from the sea-foam and -wringing out her hair. The circular shrine (No. =109=; fig. 34) is of -Roman date, from Eretria in Euboea. Its form and more especially the -indication of overlapping scale-plates on the roof remind us strongly -of the famous temple of Vesta at Rome. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--TERRACOTTA MODEL SHRINE (NO. 109). Ht. 4 in.] - -In Case 101 is a bronze tablet with an iron chain and staple (No. -=110=). The tablet, apparently of about 200 B.C., is inscribed on both -sides, and seems to give a list of statues of deities, some, such as -Vezkei, peculiar to the Samnites, others, such as Ceres and Hermes, -of widely spread worship. It is a most important monument of the Oscan -dialect, a language spoken by the early Italic tribes whose chief -centre was the mountainous country above Campania. It was found at -Agnone (Bovianum Vetus) in the Samnite territory. - - -=Votive Offerings.= - -A votive offering is a present made to a deity, in order to secure -some favour for the future, to avert anger for a past offence, or to -express gratitude for a favour received. This last purpose includes -offerings made in fulfilment of a vow, the vow being a kind of -contract between the individual and the god. This comes out most -clearly in the Roman expression _voti reus_--"condemned to pay a -vow"--applied to those whose prayer had been granted, and who now had -to fulfil their promise made in time of stress and difficulty. Votive -offerings cover the whole field of life, and may include persons, -lands, buildings, or objects specially appropriate either to the god -or to the person who makes the dedication. - -Very frequently the vow was made by some person stricken with disease, -and it is to such a cause that we owe the numerous votive offerings -representing some part of the human body. - -The constant streams of these offerings made the ancient temples -depositories of all kinds of objects, ranging from jewels of great -price and high artistic merit to the roughest terracotta figure. In -the Gold Ornament Room (Case 19) is a magnificent gold pin of the -Ptolemaic period inscribed with a dedication to Aphrodite of Paphos, -showing that the offering was the result of a vow made by Eubule, -the wife of Aratos, and one Tamisa. Overcrowding led to periodical -clearances of objects of the least intrinsic value. To prevent things -dedicated returning to the uses of common life, they were frequently -broken and thrown into heaps. This accounts for the masses of -_débris_, consisting chiefly of terracottas and vases, which have been -found within the precincts of great sanctuaries. - -The vast accumulations of treasure in the various temples naturally -demanded careful cataloguing, labelling and supervision on the part -of the temple officials (see examples of marble labels from the -sacred enclosure of Demeter at Cnidos). From time to time elaborate -inventories were drawn up, and (after the manner of ancient documents) -inscribed on stone. Such inventories have been discovered in large -numbers at Delos, Athens, and elsewhere. An example is shown in the -lower part of Case 97, being an inventory (No. =111=) of various -garments dedicated to Artemis Brauronia, who had a shrine upon the -acropolis of Athens. We know that it was the custom of women after -childbirth to dedicate garments to Artemis, and in particular to -Artemis Brauronia. That the garments were often anything but new is -shown by the fact that several are described as "in rags." A typical -extract from the inscription may be given: "A purple dress, with -variegated chequer pattern. Dedicated by Thyaene and Malthake." The -entries range in date from 350 to 344 B.C. - -The principal objects here exhibited as illustrating the ancient -custom of dedication may now be mentioned. In Wall-Case 96 is an -inscription of the fifth century B.C. (No. =112=) found in the ruins -of the temple of Poseidon on Cape Taenaron in Lakonia. It records -the dedication by one Theares of a slave named Kleogenes to the -temple-service of Poseidon. The names of an _ephoros_, probably an -official of the temple, and of a witness are added. In some cases the -dedication of a slave to a god is equivalent to enfranchisement. - -Among votive offerings specially appropriate to the god, we have -already mentioned the reliefs dedicated for a good voyage (No. =82=) -and the Theoxenia relief (No. =99=). The pedestal (No. =112*=), -with an inscription that it was restored "whether sacred to god or -goddess," is a parallel to the altar inscribed with a dedication "to -an unknown god," which caught the eye of St. Paul when he was viewing -the antiquities of Athens. - -In the bottom of Case 102 is the base of a statuette (No. =113=; fig. -35) found at Curium in Cyprus. It bears an inscription, written both -in Greek and in the native Cypriote syllabic characters: "Ellooikos, -the son of Poteisis, dedicated this as a vow to Demeter and the Maid." -The inscription is of the fourth century B.C., and is of special -interest on account of its bilingual character. Two other large -objects in marble of a votive character are exhibited in the bottom of -Cases 103 and 104 respectively. The chest-like stool (No. =114=) was -offered by a priestess named Philis to Persephone, the basket (No. -=115=) by one Xeno to Demeter and Persephone. The basket is dedicated -with peculiar fitness to the goddesses of corn and fruit, for it was -in such woven baskets that the ears of corn were ingathered, while the -chest is also closely associated with Demeter and Persephone, who are -frequently represented seated on it. Both of these last objects were -found by Sir Charles Newton in the precinct of Demeter at Knidos in -Asia Minor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--BASE WITH DEDICATION TO DEMETER AND -PERSEPHONE (NO. 113).] - -We now turn to the votive offerings personal to the donor, and we -find that not infrequently, where the object itself is perishable, or -otherwise unsuitable as an offering, a sculptured representation takes -its place. - -Two curious examples of such dedicatory tablets (Nos. =116=, =117=) -are seen in the casts placed in the upper and lower parts respectively -of Case 101. The originals, from Slavochori, probably the site of -the ancient Amyklae near Sparta, are in the Hall of Inscriptions. -The first was dedicated by Anthusa, daughter of Damaenetos, a [Greek: -hypostatria] or under-tirewoman in the service of a temple, possibly -that of Dionysos, for we know that this god had a temple near Amyklae, -which none but women might enter. On the relief is a series of -objects connected with the toilet, such as a mirror, a comb, a box -of cosmetics, a case containing a sponge, a pair of slippers, etc. -Possibly the dedicator was in charge of objects of this nature. The -other relief, from the same place, was dedicated by a priestess named -Claudia Ageta, daughter of Antipater, and shows a very similar series -of objects. Both these reliefs are of Imperial date. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--TERRACOTTA MODEL OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS (NO. -122). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--SCULPTURED LOCKS OF HAIR DEDICATED TO -POSEIDON (NO. 123). Ht. 13-1/2 in.] - -A similar substitution of a representation for the object is found -in the series of offerings which commemorate recovery from disease -or bodily injury. The upper part of Cases 103-106 contains a set of -marble reliefs (No. =118=) found at the foot of the Pnyx at Athens, -the rocky semicircular meeting-place of the Athenian people. They are -dedicated by women--Eutychis, Isias, Olympias, and others--to Zeus the -Highest, and have representations of various parts of the human body, -such as eyes, breasts, arms, etc. These reliefs, which are of Roman -date, are clearly thank-offerings for recovery from disease. There -must have been a regular trade in these models, for Clement of -Alexandria, writing about 200 A.D., talks of "those who manufacture -ears and eyes of precious wood and dedicate them to the gods, setting -them up in their temples."[20] No. =119=, from a shrine of Asklepios -in Melos, is a relief representing a left leg, dedicated, as the -inscription shows, by way of thank-offering to the deities of healing, -Asklepios and Hygieia. Next it is a small relief from Cyrene -(No. =120=), showing a right ear. There are several other objects here -exhibited which were probably offered by grateful votaries in return -for healing mercies. Such are the bronze ticket with a bronze leg -suspended from it (No. =121=), inscribed with the name of the donor -Caledus, and two arms with a chain for suspension. In Cases 105 and -106 a whole series of terracotta votive hands, feet, eyes, breasts, -etc., doubtless represents the thank-offerings of the poorer classes. -With these is a curious terracotta model (No =122=; fig. 36) of the -lungs (A), heart (B), liver (C), kidneys (D), spleen (E), and other -internal organs of the human body. Though primarily of a votive -character, it is of considerable interest to the student of ancient -anatomy. A votive relief of rather different character is placed on -the upper shelf. It represents two plaited locks of hair dedicated -(as the inscription records) by Philombrotos and Aphthonetos, sons of -Deinomachos, to Poseidon, god of the sea (No. =123=; fig. 37). It -was a common custom in Greece to dedicate hair at important crises of -life, particularly to deities connected with water. Achilles, on the -death of Patroklos, shore off for him the hair he was growing long as -an offering to the river Spercheios.[21] - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--BRONZE VOTIVE HARE (NO. 124). L. 2-3/4 in.] - -Other objects illustrating the frequency and variety of Greek and -Roman dedications may best be described in approximately chronological -order. Two objects, which are more fully dealt with in other sections, -may here be mentioned. In the sixth century B.C. the athlete Exoidas -dedicated to the Dioscuri, patrons of athletic exercise, the -bronze diskos (fig. 50; No. =157=) with which he had conquered "the -high-souled" Kephallenians in athletic contest. The helmet, dedicated -by Hieron after his naval victory off Kyme, has been already described -(p. 8). Other votive helmets are shown in Cases 114-5. For the votive -spearheads (?) see p. 9. The huntsman, no less than the athlete -and the warrior, felt that the gods took an intimate part in his -successes. This is illustrated by the inscribed bronze model of a hare -in Case 103, with its head thrown back in the death agony (No. =124=; -fig. 38). The Ionic letters, of about 480 B.C., read: "Hephaestion -dedicated me to Apollo of Priene."[22] This offering reminds us of -another exhibited in the left-hand wall-case in the Greek Ante-Room -downstairs. A small limestone statuette, found on the site of the -Greek settlement of Naukratis in Egypt, represents a young huntsman -with two boars and two hares slung over his shoulders. It is inscribed -"A dedication by Kallias"--probably to Aphrodite, since it was found -within her precinct (_Cat. of Sculpt._, I., 118). - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--TABLET, WITH DEDICATION BY LOPHIOS (NO. 125). -1:2.] - -Other interesting Greek dedications of an early date are the bronze -tablet (Case 105: No. =125=; fig. 39) found in Corfu, with an -inscription showing it to be an offering by one Lophios[23]; the -silver ingot (No. =126=) dedicated to Zeus Lykaeos (Zeus "the -wolf-god") by Trygon; and the elaborate axe-head (No. =127=; fig. 40), -found in Calabria, which bears an inscription recording that it was -vowed to Hera of the Plain by Kyniskos, a "cook," as a tenth of his -earnings (sixth century B.C.).[24] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--BRONZE VOTIVE AXE-HEAD (NO. 127). Ht. 6-1/2 -in.] - -The two bronze bulls (Nos. =128= and =129=) are offerings made by -Greeks to an Egyptian deity. They were dedicated by Greeks named -respectively Sokydes and Theodoros, and represent the sacred bull -Apis, worshipped at Memphis in Egypt as an incarnation of the god -Ptah. The offering of Sokydes is here illustrated (Fig. 41).[25] -Notice the elaborate saddle-cloth, and the wings of the Egyptian -scarabaeus and hawk engraved on the bull's back. The date of these -bronzes is the late sixth or early fifth century B.C. The Greeks must -have become acquainted with the worship of Apis in the seventh century -B.C., when they served King Psammetichos I. as mercenaries. That -monarch was a fervent worshipper of the god, and built a great temple -for him at Memphis. Herodotus[26] mentions the courts where the bull -was kept, and says that the Greeks called him "Epaphos." The bull -dedicated by Sokydes was found in the Nile Delta, that dedicated by -Theodoros at Athens. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--BRONZE VOTIVE BULL (NO. 128). Ht. 4 in.] - -The two bronze wheels in Case 103 each bear a votive inscription. The -earlier (No. =130=), said to have been found near Argos, was perhaps -an offering to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux, the divine patrons of -athletic contests) by Eudamos, a victor in a chariot race. The other -(No. =131=; fig. 42) comes from the temple of the Kabeiri at Thebes, -and is dedicated by Xenon and Pyrrhippa to Kabeiros and the Child. -The bronze bell (No. =132=, fig. 43) is from the same temple, and -was likewise offered by one Pyrrhias to Kabeiros and the Child. The -Kabeiri were deities of a mystic and subterranean character, who -at Thebes apparently became closely connected with Dionysos, the -wine-god. That a large element of burlesque entered into their worship -can be seen from the vases discovered on the site of their shrine -(Second Vase Room, B 77 and 78). - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--BRONZE WHEEL DEDICATED TO KABEIROS AND THE -CHILD (NO. 131). Diam. 3-7/8 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--BRONZE BELL DEDICATED TO KABEIROS AND THE -CHILD (NO. 132). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--SILVER PLAQUE DEDICATED TO JUPITER DOLICHENUS -(NO. 133). Ht. 9-1/2 in.] - -Near this tablet are several Roman dedications. Three curious -silver-gilt plaques, probably of the second century after Christ -(Nos. =133-135=), found at Heddernheim, near Frankfurt-on-Main, -were dedicated to Jupiter Dolichenus. At first merely a local god, -originating in the town of Doliche in Commagene, near the Euphrates, -he later acquired considerable popularity throughout the Roman Empire, -and his worship was carried far and wide by the Roman legionaries, who -were largely instrumental in conveying these Oriental worships to the -West. The silver tablet illustrated (No. =133=; fig. 44) shows Jupiter -Dolichenus in a shrine, holding thunderbolt and sceptre, with the -eagle at his feet. The inscription, written in somewhat defective -Latin,[27] runs: "To Jupiter, best and greatest, of Doliche, where -iron has its birth. Dedicated by Flavius Fidelis and Q. Julius -Posstimus by command of the god on behalf of themselves and their -families." As often in late Latin inscriptions, E is written ||. -Another tablet (very fragmentary) shows the god in trappings of -war, holding double-axe and thunderbolt, and standing on a bull (No. -=135=). He is being crowned by Victory. The presence of mines in -North Syria will account for the recurring phrase, "Where iron has its -birth." A series of similar dedications to Mars and Vulcan, which were -found at Barkway in Hertfordshire, is exhibited in the Room of Roman -Britain. Examples are shown in Case 104 of a third series (No. =136=, -fig. 45), part of a great hoard found at Bala Hissar (Pessinus) -in Galatia. These have figures of Helios, Selene, and Mithras. The -last-named deity was the Persian god of light. He did not thoroughly -win his way into the Roman world until the second century after -Christ. But, once established, he proved himself of far-reaching -power. Mithraism had in its ritual many points of resemblance to that -of Christianity, and in the third and fourth centuries after Christ -proved a most formidable rival to the spread of Christian doctrines. A -memorial of Mithras is seen in the large bronze tablet (No. =137=) -in Case 105. Its top is decorated with knife and libation-bowl. The -inscription, of about the third century after Christ, tells us that it -was dedicated to Sextus Pompeius Maximus by priests of Mithras. He had -held offices in the Mithraic priesthood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--SILVER PLAQUES DEDICATED TO MITHRAS (NO. -136). 1:3.] - -There are several small bronze tablets in Case 105 with dedicatory or -religious inscriptions. Among them may be mentioned No. =138=, offered -to Juno by a freedman named Q. Valerius Minander, and No. =139=, an -oval bronze seal with a design representing the Emperor Philip -(244-9 A.D.; mentioned above, p. 10, in connection with the bronze -_diploma_), his wife Otacilia, and their son Philip. The inscription -shows that the seal belonged to the religious society of the Breisean -Mystae, who apparently sealed on behalf of the city of Smyrna, where -was a synod of the Mystae of the Breisean Dionysos. No. =140= is the -result of a vow made by Hedone, the maid-servant of M. Crassus, to -Feronia, a goddess closely connected with freedmen and freedwomen.[28] -Her temple at Terracina, on the west coast of Italy, was specially -associated with the manumission of slaves. It is likely, therefore, -that Hedone's vow had something to do with her manumission. -Dedications were made for safe journeys by land or by sea. In No. -=141=, dedicated by P. Blattius Creticus to Jupiter Poeninus, whose -sanctuary was at the summit of the Great St. Bernard Pass, we have one -of a number of offerings by travellers encountering the dangers of the -Alps. In No. =142= we have a votive offering in the shape of a bronze -plate, made to the _Lares_ or gods of the house by Q. Carminius -Optatus. The Lares are represented in art as youthful male figures, -holding a _cornucopia_ or horn of plenty, and a plate (_patera_) [see -Case 52 of the Bronze Room, and No. =143=]. The offering of a plate -was peculiarly appropriate, for with the _Penates_ these gods were -supposed to ensure the food-supply of the family. - -In Case 106 note the series of lead figurines (modelled on both -sides). They represent warriors with helmet, cuirass, shield, sword, -and greaves. These figurines (No. =144=), probably of the seventh to -sixth centuries B.C., were found at Amelia (Ameria) in Umbria. It -is probable that they are of a votive character, though it has been -suggested that they are the prototypes of the modern tin soldier. Very -similar figurines have been discovered near Sparta, on the site of -the Menelaon, and more recently on the site of the temple of Artemis -Orthia by members of the British School at Athens. - -=Superstition and Magic.=--As the simple faith in the gods decayed -in the Greek and Roman worlds, compensation was largely sought in the -dark rites of superstition and magic. The antiquities in Cases -105, 106, indicate some of the forms which such superstition took. -Prominent among them was the practice of writing down curses on lead -or talc with a view to the injury of those against whom the writer -conceived that he had a grudge. These tablets were called in Latin -_defixiones_, because they were supposed to fix down, as it were, the -hated enemy. The imprecations written on them usually run in formulae, -and the gods implored to work the ruin are naturally those of the -nether regions. In later times especially, all manner of obscure and -barbarous demons are introduced. The examples of these tablets here -exhibited probably belong to the last three centuries before Christ. -They come from various quarters--Knidos, Ephesus, Curium in Cyprus, -Kyme in S. Italy, and Athens. Those found by Sir Charles Newton at -Knidos may be taken as typical. In one case a certain Antigone, in -order to clear herself from the charge of having attempted to poison -Asklepiades, invokes curses upon herself if the accusation be true. -In another, Artemeis devotes to Demeter, Persephone, and all the gods -associated with Demeter, the person who withholds garments entrusted -to him. These tablets (No. =145=) appear to have been nailed to the -walls of the sacred precinct of Demeter, where they were found. In the -case of a tablet from Athens, the iron nail, which fastened it to the -wall is still preserved. - -Nails themselves were highly esteemed as instruments of magic. Ovid, -for instance, says that Medea (the typical witch) made waxen effigies -of absent foes, and then drove nails into the vital parts.[29] -Examples of magical nails are seen in the series of bronze nails (No. -=146=) covered with cabalistic inscriptions and signs, and sometimes -showing a strange mixture of Judaism and Paganism, as when Solomon and -Artemis are invoked together. They may be attributed to the Gnostics, -a sect which arose in the second century after Christ. Their claim was -that, by a combination of various religious beliefs, they arrived at -the only true knowledge of divine things. The magic nail has in one -case (No. =147=) been used to fasten a bronze lamp, decorated with a -head of Medusa, into a socket. - -On the shelf above will be noticed a number of bronze hands (No. -=148=; fig. 46). They are right hands, represented with the thumb -and first two fingers raised. On them are numerous magic symbols in -relief, such as the snake, the lizard, and the tortoise. The hand -illustrated (fig. 46) is covered with such signs, prominent among -which are the serpent with the cock's comb, the pine-cone, the frog, -and the winged caduceus. One of the hands bears the inscription -"Zougaras dedicated me to Sabazius in fulfilment of a vow"; another -"Aristokles, a superintendent, to Zeus Sabazius." Sabazius was a -Phrygian and Thracian deity, whose worship was widely spread in the -Roman world. There can be no doubt that these hands were intended to -avert the evil eye. Sometimes the hands have instruments connected -with the ecstatic worships of the East depicted upon them, such as -the Phrygian flutes, the cymbals, or the sistrum. Case 106 contains -several specimens of the last-named instrument. It was composed of -a handle and loop-shaped metal frame, across which passed several -movable metal rods. When the sistrum was shaken the curved ends of -the rods came into violent contact with the sides of the frame and -produced a metallic clang. The sistrum was used by the Egyptians in -their religious rites, and particularly in the worship of Isis. With -the introduction of that worship into Italy in the first century B.C., -the Romans became familiar with it. Apuleius, a writer of the second -century after Christ, mentions silver and gold sistra, as well as -bronze. A silver example is here shown (No. =149=). The decoration is -often elaborate, a favourite ornament for the top being the group -of the wolf suckling Romulus and Remus, or the recumbent figure of a -panther. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--BRONZE MAGIC HAND (NO. 148). Ht. 5-3/4 in.] - -To the same class of amulets as the votive hands must be assigned the -terracotta model of a mirror, covered over with numerous objects of -magical virtue (No. =150=). Several of these are well-known attributes -of deities, _e.g._ the thunderbolt, the trident, the club, the -crescent, and the caduceus. The object of these amulets seems to have -been to propitiate the deities whose symbols are represented on them. - - =Implements and methods of Worship.=--(83) _B.M. Inscr._, - 955; (84) _C.I.L._, VI., 180; (85) _C.I.L._, VI., 30689; _Mus. - Marbles_, X., pl. 53, fig. 1; (86-87) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1407, - 1408; (91) Cf. Mazois, _Pompei_, III., p. 22; Daremberg and - Saglio, fig. 5; (92) Helbig, _Homerisches Epos_, 2nd ed., p. - 353; (95) _Athen. Mittheilungen_, xxvi, p. 325; (96) _Class. - Rev._, II., p. 297; (97) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 114; (98) - _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 633; (99) _Guide to the Casts_, 327; - (100) _Cat. of Lamps_, 159; (101) _B.M. Inscr._, 1033; (102) - _Forman Sale Cat._, 1899, No. 55, pl. 2.; (103) _B.M. Inscr._, - 678; (105) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 112; (106) _Cat. of - Terracottas_, C 614; (107) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 113; - (110) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 888. - - =Votive Offerings.=--(111) _B.M. Inscr._, 34; (112) _B.M. - Inscr._, 139; (113) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 64; (114) - _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1311; (115) _Cat. of Sculpture_, - II., 1312; (116-120) _Cat. of Sculpture_, I., 799-812; (121) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 891; (123) _Cat. of Sculpture_, I., 798; - (124) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 237; (125) _B.M. Inscr._, 165; _Cat. - of Bronzes_, 261; (126) _B.M. Inscr._, 1102; (127) _ibid._, - 1094; (128) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 3208; (130) _ibid._, 253; (131) - _B.M. Inscr._, 958; (132) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 318; (133-135) - _Bonner Jahrb._, CVII (1901), p. 61 ff., pls. 6, 7; (137) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 904; (138) _ibid._, 899; (139) _ibid._, - 887; (140) _ibid._, 897; (141) _ibid._, 895; (142) _ibid._, - 906; (144) Cf. Tod and Wace, _Sparta Mus. Cat._, p. 228; - _B.S.A._, XII., p. 322 ff. - - On votive offerings generally, cf. Rouse, _Greek Votive - Offerings_, passim. - - =Superstition and Magic.=--(145) Newton, _Discoveries at - Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchidae_, p. 719 ff. On these - _defixiones_ generally, see Audollent, _Defixionum Tabellae_, - Paris, 1904; (146) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 3191-3194; cf. Daremberg - and Saglio, _Dict. des Ant._, s.v. _Clavus_; (148) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 874-876; cf. _Arch.-ep. Mitt._, II., p. 44 ff.; - (150) _Cat. of Terracottas_, E 129; _Journ. Hell. Stud._, - VII., p. 44 ff. - - For Greek religion, see Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study - of Greek Religion_; for Roman, Warde Fowler, _The Roman - Festivals_. - - - [Footnote 17: [Greek: Hiaros pantôn theôn hode bômos.]] - - [Footnote 18: Similar objects have been found in the - Catacombs. Cf. Seroux d'Agincourt, _Sammlung d. Denkmaeler - d. Sculptur_, pl. viii., fig 27.] - - [Footnote 19: Cf. [Greek: obelos trikôlios] as the measure of a - sacrificial perquisite, in the inscriptions of Cos. Paton & - Hicks, _Inscrr. of Cos_, No. 37, l. 53; No. 40_b_, l. 14.] - - [Footnote 20: _Strom._, v. 566.] - - [Footnote 21: _Il._ xxiii. 141 f.: [Greek: - - stas apaneuthe pyrês xanthên apekeirato chaitên, - tên rha Spercheiô potamô trephe têlethoôsan.] - ] - - [Footnote 22: [Greek: - - Tô Apollôni tô Priêlêi m' anethêken Hêphaistiôn.]] - - [Footnote 23: [Greek: Lophios m'anethêke.]] - - [Footnote 24: [Greek: - - Tas Hêras hiaros | emi tas en pedi|ôi Qunisqo|s me anethê|ke - hôrtamo|s wergôn | dekatan.]] - - [Footnote 25: Inscribed: [Greek: - - Tô Panepi m' anestase Sôkydês].] - - [Footnote 26: ii. 153.] - - [Footnote 27: - - I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo) Dolicheno, u|bi ferrum nascit|ur, - Flavius Fidelis et Q. Iulius Posstim|us ex imperio ipsi|us - pro se et suos (_sic_).] - - [Footnote 28: Cf. Livy, xxii. 1, 18: ... ut libertinae et ipsae, - unde Feroniae donum daretur, pecuniam pro facultatibus suis - conferrent.] - - [Footnote 29: Ov., _Her._ vi. 91 f.] - - - - -VI.--ATHLETICS. - -(Wall-Cases 107-108.) - - -Athletic and pugilistic contests were already developed on Greek soil -before the Homeric Age. Thus we have a steatite vase from Crete (_see_ -Cast in First Vase Room) with boxers in all positions. A pair of -boxers (of about 1100 B.C.) from a vase found at Enkomi in Cyprus is -shown in fig. 47 (No. =151=). In the Homeric poems athletic contests -frequently occur, but only as isolated and unorganized events, without -rules or system. It was only at a much later date that the games were -organized on lines corresponding to those of modern sport. At Olympia, -the great festivals were said, according to tradition, to have begun -in 776 B.C., and it was from that year that the Greeks calculated -their dates, reckoning by the periodical return of the meeting every -fourth year. - -The events at the games which may specially be called athletic were -six in number: the _pentathlon_ (or "five contests") was a competition -made up of the jump, the foot-race, throwing the _diskos_, throwing -the javelin, and wrestling.[30] The pentathlon was decided by a -system of "heats," and the victor enjoyed a great reputation as an -exceptional "all-round" man. The _pankration_ was a combination -of wrestling and boxing, which tended to develop the type of heavy -professional athletes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--BOXERS OF THE LATE MYCENAEAN PERIOD (NO. -151).] - -The victorious athlete was held in high honour by his native city. The -prize at the games was indeed of no value--at Olympia it was a crown -of wild olive--but on his return home the victor entered the city in -triumph, feasts were held and odes were sung in his honour, he was -maintained for the remainder of his life, and his statue was set up in -the place where his victory had been won. - -We will first deal with the events of the _pentathlon_ in order:-- - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--STONE JUMPING-WEIGHT (NO. 154*). L. 11-1/2 -in.] - -_The Jump._--For the ancient jumping contests the competitors used -jumping-weights (_halteres_). Their use is shown on the vase, E 499 -(No. =152=). One youth is about to leap, another stands waiting, and -the trainer holds a short switch. On the vase E 561 (No. =153=) a -youth is also on the point of leaping. Examples of the jumping-weights -are shown. The pair in lead (No. =154=) are of a type which is seen -not infrequently on Greek vases, consisting of blocks of lead widened -at each end. The weight for the left hand, which is completely -preserved, weighs 2 lb. 5 oz. (_cf._ also fig. 52). With this pair -may be compared the cast of a single stone jumping-weight (No. =154*=) -found at Olympia and now at Berlin (fig. 48). It differs from the pair -just described, and resembles the type described by Pausanias,[31] who -travelled through Greece in the second century of our era, as forming -half of an elongated and irregular sphere. It probably dates from -about 500 B.C. Another type is represented by a remarkable but -cumbrous example in limestone, from Kameiros in Rhodes, a long -cylindrical instrument with deep grooves for the thumb and fingers, to -give a firm hold (No. =155=; fig. 49). - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--STONE JUMPING-WEIGHT (NO. 155). L. 7-1/2 in.] - -_The Foot Race._--A somewhat conventional foot race of armed hoplites -is shown on the vase B 143. This is a Panathenaic amphora, that is, -one of the two-handled vases, won, as the inscription on the other -side states, at the games at Athens. They always bear on one side a -figure of the patron goddess Athena, on the other a representation of -the contest in which they were won. Many examples may be seen in the -Second and Fourth Vase Rooms. - -_Throwing the Diskos._--This was one of the oldest and most popular -contests at the great festivals. It was already known in Homeric -times, and we read of Odysseus using a disc of stone, and of one -of iron hurled at the funeral games in honour of Patroklos; but all -existing examples are in bronze except a lead disc at Berlin which -cannot have been used in athletics. The diskos was used, not like the -modern quoit, with the object of hitting a mark, but with a view to -throwing as far as possible, as in the modern contest of putting the -weight. - -Existing discs vary considerably in size and weight, and were -doubtless made to suit various degrees of strength, like modern -dumb-bells or Indian clubs. The plain bronze example in this Case (No. -=156=) weighs as much as 8 lb. 13 oz. The small disc (No. =157=; fig. -50), which was dedicated by Exoidas to the Dioscuri after a victory -over his Kephallenian competitors[32] (cf. above, p. 49), weighs only -2 lb. 12 oz. The weight used at modern athletic sports weighs 16 lb. -and has been put 48 ft. 2 in. - -Diskos-throwing reached its greatest popularity in the sixth and fifth -centuries, and it is to the middle of this period that the remarkable -votive disc here shown (No. =158=; fig. 51) may be assigned. It is -engraved with finely-incised designs, representing on one side -an athlete with jumping-weights; on the other, another holding a -hurling-spear[33] in both hands. This disc weighs rather more than 4 -lb. The method of handling the disc will be readily understood from -the bronze figure and representations on vases exhibited in this Case; -they should be compared with the copies of the famous Diskobolos of -Myron in the second Graeco-Roman Room and the Gallery of Casts. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--DISKOS OF EXOIDAS (NO. 157). Diam. 6-3/8 in.] - -_Javelin-Throwing and Wrestling._--These sports are frequently shown -on the Panathenaic vases already described (p. 60). Other games of a -varied character also occur, and we find such contests as tilting from -horseback at a suspended shield, the torch-race, and races in full -armour depicted. A specimen (B 134 in the Second Vase Room) shows four -athletes engaged in four out of the five contests of the _pentathlon_ -(cf. also B 361 (No. =159=) in this Case). - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--ENGRAVED BRONZE DISKOS (NO. 158). Diam. 8-1/4 -in.] - -_Boxing_, one of the most ancient contests (see above, fig. 47), was -long practised at the games with gloves of ox-hide, which was torn -into long strips and bound round the hand. Such wrappings, like modern -boxing-gloves, were intended rather to protect the wearer than to -injure his opponent. At a later date, probably in the fourth century -B.C., a more dangerous glove was introduced, in the form of a pad -of thick leather bound over the fingers. This new form must have -inflicted severe wounds; it is apparently used by the two African -boxers in terracotta seen in this Case (No. =160=). But in the decline -of the Roman Empire, when the brutality of the spectators had to be -satisfied at all costs, a still more cruel glove was invented, which -had a heavy addition in metal, and must have been an appalling weapon. -See the fragment in terracotta (No. =161=, fig. 52). A cast from a -terracotta relief (No. =162=) shows a statue of a victorious boxer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--LATER BOXING-GLOVE (NO. 161). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: [Greek: Epi tois Onomastou tou Pheidileô athlois -ethethên.] - -FIG. 53.--PRIZE VASE FROM THE GAMES OF ONOMASTOS (NO. 163). 1:6.] - -The other objects in this case are less directly connected with -athletics; the most noteworthy is a large bronze caldron (No. =163=, -fig. 53), of about the sixth century B.C., which was found at Kyme, in -South Italy, and was given as a prize at games held in that district. -It is inscribed: "I was a prize at the games of Onomastos." He -was doubtless a wealthy citizen at whose expense the contests were -arranged, a form of public service very common in Greek cities. A -piece of corrugated tile (No. =164=) comes from the floor of the -palaestra (wrestling place) at Olympia. - - (151) _Cat. of Vases_, I., 2, No. C 334; (153) cf. Jüthner, - _Ant. Turngeräthe_, p. 3 ff.; (154) Furtwängler, _Olympia_, - IV., (_Die Bronzen_), p. 180; (156) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2691; - (157) _ibid._, 3207; _B.M. Inscr._, 952; (158) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 248; (160) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 84, 85; - (162) _ibid._, D 632; (163) _I.G._, xiv. 862; (164) Adler, - _Olympia_, II. (_Baudenkmaeler_) p. 115. - - On Greek athletics generally, see _Greek Athletic Festivals_, - by E. N. Gardiner. - - - [Footnote 30: Summed up by Simonides (cf. Bergk, No. 153) - [Greek: - enika - halma, podôkeiên, diskon, akonta, palên]. - ] - - [Footnote 31: v. 26, 3.] - - [Footnote 32: [Greek: - - Echsoida(s) m' anethêke Diwos Qouroin megaloio: - chalkeon hôi nikase Kephalanas megathymous.] - ] - - [Footnote 33: The lines on this side appear to have been worn - down and re-cut, but the restorer has misunderstood the spear, - and left it as a single fine line.] - - - - -VII.--GLADIATORS AND THE ARENA. - -(Wall-Case 109.) - - -Gladiatorial combats were not native to Rome, but had long been known -in Etruria as an adjunct to funeral ceremonies, and were probably -introduced thence into Rome by way of Campania, where the amphitheatre -of Pompeii is the oldest in existence. The first show of gladiators at -Rome took place in 264 B.C., but only three pairs of combatants were -engaged in it. In course of time the number of gladiators increased, -and such contests were given with greater frequency, although they -remained a mere accompaniment of funeral ceremonies until 105 B.C., in -which year they were for the first time offered as official amusements -to the people. During the empire, gladiatorial shows were organised -on a vast scale, and amphitheatres were built in all the provinces. -It was inevitable that the influence of Christianity should make such -exhibitions impossible. But it was not till nearly a century after the -Emperor Constantine had recognised Christianity as a state religion, -that Honorius put an end to the exhibition of gladiators in Rome (404 -A.D.). - -The serious combats in the Roman arena were announced by a procession -and a preliminary fight with the weapons used in practice. This mock -struggle excited the men, and made them ready for the terrible trial -of skill which followed. Lots were drawn, and the combatants arranged -in pairs, but sometimes _mêlées_ were planned, in which large numbers -were engaged. It was possible for a man to draw a bye, and so to -fight only with the winner of a previous round; probably, however, a -gladiator seldom fought more than two fights in a single day. - -A fight might end in three ways: (1) the better gladiator might kill -his adversary in the heat of the fray; (2) the vanquished gladiator -might lay down his arms and raise his left hand as a sign of defeat -and a prayer for mercy. See lamp, No. =165= (fig. 54). It rested -officially with the giver of the spectacle to grant or refuse the -defeated man's request, but the matter was really decided by the -spectators, who expressed their desire that he should be spared by -shouting for his discharge, waving a piece of cloth in the air, or -raising the left hand. The opposite decision was expressed by pointing -the thumb downwards and shouting "slay" (_jugula_). (3) If two men -fought on equal terms and displayed great courage, they might both -be discharged before the combat reached a definite result (_stantes -missi_). The victor, when finally discharged from service in the -arena, was presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), similar to those -used in practice, as a sign that he had fought his last serious fight. -Horace alludes to this in his _Epistles_, when asking Maecenas if he -may retire from his service. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--FIGHT BETWEEN "SAMNITE" GLADIATORS (NO. 165). -Diam. 3-3/4 in.] - -Gladiators were divided into classes according to their equipment -and mode of fighting. The following were the most important:--(1) The -_Samnite_ (figs. 54, 55). He wore a helmet with high crest, one or -sometimes two greaves, and a guard on the right arm. He also had an -oblong shield. The equipment is well shown in the bronze statuette -(No. =166=, fig. 55), lately acquired from the Gréau and Weber -collections. (2) The _retiarius_ or net-thrower (No. =167=, fig. 56), -who carried a trident, a dagger, and a large net in which he tried to -envelop his adversary. The net-thrower was matched against a gladiator -called a _secutor_, who was armed like the Samnite, and perhaps -received his name because he was the follower (_secutor_) of his -lightly-armed foe. (3) The _Thrax_ (Thracian), armed with the -Thracian curved dagger, a small shield, and a helmet. He fought the -_hoplomachus_, another variety of Samnite. (4) The _mirmillo_, the -origin of whose name and nature of whose equipment are not certainly -known. He was opposed to the net-thrower, and later to the Thracian. -Among other classes of less importance may be mentioned the mounted -gladiators (_equites_), who appear on the left of fig. 57 (a Pompeian -relief).[34] - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A "SAMNITE" GLADIATOR -(NO. 166).] - -A curious marble relief from Halikarnassos (No. =168=; fig. 58) gives -a vivid picture of an unusual form of gladiatorial combat, between two -women. They are armed like the _Samnites_, but without helmets, and -the fight seems to take place on a sort of platform on either side -of which the head of a spectator is visible. Their names are given -as Amazon and Achillia, and above their heads is inscribed in Greek -"discharged," [Greek: apelythêsan]. It is known that women fought in -the arena under the Empire[35]; but under Septimius Severus (193-211) -so much scandal was caused by a specially furious combat of a large -number of female gladiators that such exhibitions were forbidden.[36] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--RETIARIUS (NO. 167). Diam. 3-5/8 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--POMPEIAN RELIEF, REPRESENTING COMBATS OF -GLADIATORS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--COMBAT OF WOMEN GLADIATORS (NO. 168). Width 2 -ft. 7 in.] - -The objects exhibited in illustration of gladiatorial shows are -numerous and varied, though not artistically remarkable. The subject -was especially popular with the smaller craftsmen, the makers of -bronze statuettes and the potters of Italy and Gaul, who produced -terracotta lamps and vases for a large but uncritical public. A -selection of some dozen lamps (No. =169=) is here given illustrating -different stages of the combat, or single gladiators; one is simply -ornamented with specimens of gladiatorial armour (helmets, greaves, -shields, and daggers). - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--GLADIATOR'S HELMET.] - -No complete example of a gladiator's helmet is shown in the Case, but -the bronze visor (No. =170=), a small bronze model (No. =171=), and -a model in glazed pottery (No. =172=) suffice to give an idea of the -usual type. The illustration (fig. 59) of a helmet at Pompeii shows -the arrangement of the visors. The cast (No. =173=) is from a relief -from Ephesus (the original is in the Sculpture Galleries) which -shows combats and corn-waggons (see Case 50) the _panem et circenses_ -demanded by the Roman populace. - -Some interest attaches to the series of ivory tickets (_tesserae_), -which are inscribed with the names of gladiators, and are valuable as -being dated by the names of the consuls in office (No. =174=). They -range from the beginning of the first century B.C. to the time of -Domitian (81-96 A.D.); those shown in the Case extend from 85 B.C. to -32 A.D. The usual formula of the inscription gives (1) the gladiator's -name, (2) the name of his master, (3) the letters +SP+ and the date -of the day and month, (4) the consuls of the year. The meaning of the -letters +SP+ is disputed, but the most likely explanation is that they -stand for _spectavit_, "became a spectator," with reference to the -honourable discharge of the recipient. Several examples are known -in which the word is thus written in full. The ticket of which an -illustration is given in fig. 60 bears the inscription, "Cocero the -gladiator of Fafinius became a spectator on the 5th of October in the -Consulship of Lucius Cinna and Gnaeus Papirius" (85 B.C.). - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--GLADIATOR'S DISCHARGE TICKET (NO. 174). L. -1-3/4 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--MAN AND BEAR (NO. 177).] - -The contests in the arena were not limited to those between -gladiators. Combats of animals, and of men with animals enjoyed equal -popularity. In the latter case the men might be hunters (_venatores_), -lightly armed, and able to escape by agility and skill. They might -also be criminals or martyrs (who were counted as criminals) exposed -to wild beasts without hope of resistance or escape. Two terracotta -reliefs (Nos. =175=, =175*=) are shown in this Case, of about the -time of Augustus, which, though fragmentary, evidently relate to -exhibitions of this kind. A better and more complete example is the -sculptured relief from Ephesus (No. =176=) with four panels, in each -of which is a man in combat with a lion, probably successive stages -in a single event. A lamp (No. =177=; fig. 61) shows a man and a bear, -separated by a kind of turnstile, called a _cochlea_. - - See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Gladiator_, and - _Venatio_. - - (165) _Cat. of Lamps_, 663; (166) _Gréau Cat._, 264; (167) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 976; (168) _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1117; - (173) _ibid._, II., 1285; (174) for a recent theory that - the tesserae are records of an _incubatio_ at a medicinal - sanctuary (cf. p. 185) see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - _Tessera_ p. 136; (175) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 624; (175*) - _ibid._, D 655; (176) _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., 1286; (177) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 1068. - - - [Footnote 34: _Mus. Borb._, XV., pl. 30.] - - [Footnote 35: Cf. Tac., _Ann._ xv. 32; Suet., _Dom._ 4.] - - [Footnote 36: Dio Cass., lxxv. 16.] - - - - -VIII.--CHARIOT-RACING AND THE CIRCUS. - -(Wall-Case 110.) - - -Chariot-racing was one of the oldest of Greek sports, and is -described in the _Iliad_ as one of the contests held at the funeral -of Patroklos. At that time the two-horse war-chariot was used in the -race, and a special type of racing-car does not seem to have existed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--ROMAN RACING-CHARIOT TURNING THE POST (NO. -179). L. 16 in.] - -The introduction of chariot-races in the great athletic contests was a -concession to the wealthy inhabitants of prosperous cities. To enter a -chariot with a team of four horses, which was now the usual number for -the great race at Olympia, demanded almost as large a proportionate -expenditure as to run a horse for the Derby to-day. Rich men in Greece -Proper found rivals in the tyrants of Sicily and Cyrene, who -ruled over cities with large revenues and districts providing good -opportunities for successful horse-breeding. - -At Olympia four-horse chariots raced for the first time in 680 B.C., -chariots with two horses not until 408. Between those dates a race -for horsemen was started, and won on the first occasion by a native of -Thessaly, which, owing to its rich plains, was celebrated in antiquity -for a magnificent breed of horses. A winner in the horse-race is -depicted on the vase No. =178= (exhibited in Case 107), about to -receive a wreath and a tripod as his prizes, while a herald proclaims: -"The horse of Dysneiketos wins." - -The race of four-horse chariots was, perhaps, the greatest event in -the Olympian Games, and certainly the most exciting to the spectators, -as accidents were frequent, especially at the turn. Consummate skill -was necessary to double the post as close and as fast as possible. -Readers of Sophokles' _Electra_ will remember the account given by the -messenger of the alleged death of Orestes in a collision of chariots -turning the post.[37] - -The Romans probably derived their custom of chariot-racing from the -Greeks, as also the plan which, with some alterations in detail, -they adopted for their _circus_. In the early days of Rome the marshy -valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills was the place chosen -for the games, and remained so through the succeeding centuries, -during which the course was gradually surrounded with an immense -building; this in the fourth century after Christ held not far short -of 180,000 people. - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--IVORY STATUETTE OF A CHARIOTEER (NO. 180). -5:8.] - -In the later Roman Empire the charioteers were hired by factions, -which were distinguished by different colours, and excited violent -enthusiasm among all classes of Roman society. The passion survived -the introduction of Christianity, and was perhaps even more violent at -Constantinople than at Rome; it was said that the inhabitants of the -new capital of the Empire divided their interests between a passion -for chariot-racing and theological discussion. Successful -charioteers were transferred from one faction to another like modern -football-players. Records exist of the number of victories gained by -famous whips, and of the proportion won under the different colours. - -The costume of the charioteer was always distinct. In Greece he wore -a long robe girt at the waist, which is well seen on the bronze -statue from Delphi,[38] and on the chariot-racing reliefs from the -Mausoleum.[39] At Rome his dress was peculiar, and is illustrated by -the terracotta relief (No. =179=; fig. 62) and other objects in this -Case, notably the small ivory statuette (No. =180=; fig. 63). It -consisted of a close-fitting cap, and a shirt fastened round the -waist. Characteristic thongs called _fasciae_ were wound round the -ribs. The thongs of the reins were also wound about the body. A knife -was stuck in the belt so that the reins might be quickly cut in the -event of an accident. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--LAMP SHOWING CHARIOT-RACE IN CIRCUS (NO. -181). Diam. 3-3/4 in.] - -A sort of bird's-eye view of the whole circus, with a race in -progress, is given on the lamp No. =181= (fig. 64), on which we see on -one side the _carceres_ or barriers with folding-doors from which the -chariots started; on the other a stand with rows of spectators, while -in the lower part of the design is the _spina_, or central rib of the -circus, crowded with various structures. Not less instructive is the -scene on the terracotta relief (No. =179=), though only one chariot -is there represented (fig. 62, above). Two lamps (Nos. =182=, =183=) -illustrate respectively the return of a victorious horse (fig. 65) -and a victorious four-horse chariot. The former is accompanied by men -bearing palm-branches and a tablet probably inscribed with the name of -the successful competitor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--VICTORIOUS HORSE (NO. 182). 3-3/5 in.] - -The cast No. =184= is taken from a mould in the Terracotta Room (No. -E 79) for the central panel of a large lamp. Its chief figure is a -successful charioteer, crowned with a bulky wreath. - - (178) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 144; (179) _Cat. of - Terracottas_, D 627; (181) _Cat. of Lamps_, 626; (182) - _ibid._, 788; (183) _ibid._, 671; (184) _ibid._, 1398. - - For the circus in general see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - - Two interesting sarcophagus reliefs, with scenes in the - circus, are shown in the Roman Gallery (_Cat. of Sculpture_, - III., 2318, 2319). - - - [Footnote 37: _El._ 680 ff.] - - [Footnote 38: _Cat. of Casts_, No. 94.] - - [Footnote 39: _Cat. of Sculpture_, II., Nos. 1036, 1037.] - - - - -IX.--ARMS AND ARMOUR. - -(Wall-Cases 111-119, and Table-Case E.) - - -The arms and armour of the ancients are contained in Wall-Cases -111-119, and in Table-Case E. The weapons of attack date from the -beginning of the use of metal, in the prehistoric period, but all the -defensive armour belongs to the historical age. - -=Armour.=--There is not much literary evidence for the armour of -antiquity, but military subjects are very commonly represented in -works of art, and these, with the actual remains of armour, give -a good idea of the ancient panoply. The armour of the prehellenic -civilisations of Greece, as described by Homer, is a subject of -dispute, and as this collection possesses no specimen of such remnants -as have been found, there is no need here to discuss the question. It -is enough to say that the armour of the inhabitants of Greece of -the Mycenaean or Bronze Age was entirely different from that of the -Hellenic period, which began with the introduction of iron in the -place of bronze, and that the heroes of the Homeric poems, who are so -frequently portrayed in classical art, are represented in the armour -not of their own day, but of that of the artist. The earliest Greek -fashion is seen in a small bronze figure of a soldier from Dodona, -a cast of which is exhibited in Case 113 (No. =185=; fig. 66). The -original is in the Antiquarium at Berlin. Its date is about 500 B.C. -The man was striking with a spear; he carries a shield on his left -arm, and wears a metal helmet, cuirass and greaves. These three pieces -of body-armour were worn throughout classical times, being adopted -from the Greeks by the Romans. All are represented in this collection. - -=Helmet.=--The earliest type of helmet is known as Corinthian, because -it is worn by the goddess Athena in the well-known coin-type of -Corinth (fig. 12_e_). It was a complete metal casing of the head and -neck, open only in front of the eyes and mouth; the nose was protected -by a vertical strip which was left between the eyes, and the rest of -the face was covered as by a mask (fig. 66). In the earliest specimens -(No. =186=) the metal is everywhere of the same thickness, the -cheek-pieces large and clumsy, the nose-piece straight, and little -attempt is made to curve the back so as to fit the neck. Later helmets -were more gracefully designed: the nasal and cheek-pieces are shaped -and curved, the crown is distinguished from the lower part, the neck -has a natural contour, and is set off from the rest of the helmet by -a notch on each side of the bottom rim (No. =187=; fig. 67). The lines -of hair and eyebrows are often indicated in embossed and engraved -patterns (Nos. =188=, =189=; fig. 78). - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--GREEK SOLDIER. CAST OF BRONZE STATUETTE FROM -DODONA (NO. 185). 2:3.] - -It would seem that the Corinthian helmet at its best was a cumbrous -piece of armour. The ears of the wearer were covered, and the -ill-fitting shell must have sat loose upon the head, so as to be -easily displaced by a sudden turn. This and the chafing of the metal -were obviated in some degree by a lining of felt or leather, which was -sewn inside the helmet in the rows of holes along the edges. In No. -=189= the actual fastenings may be seen as well as the holes: thin -twine along the bottom rim, and rivets in the holes elsewhere. This is -an unusually well preserved helmet; the wooden peg on which the plume -was tied is still in place (fig. 78). A leathern cap was also worn, -and is seen on the coins of Corinth (fig. 12_e_), where the helmet is -represented in the position in which it was carried when the wearer -was not fighting, _i.e._, pushed back until the lower rim projected in -a peak over the forehead. This position came to be adopted in battle -also; for in the last of the Corinthian series (Nos. =190=, =191=, -fig. 68, =192=) there is not sufficient depth to the helmet to admit -of its being worn over the face in the original way, nor are the -eyeholes large enough to be of use, while in two examples these are -represented only by engraving, a traditional design which shows the -evolution of the helmet (No. =192=). Such examples are, however, not -really Greek. They come from South Italy, and belong to a late -period, when the art and manners of Greek colonists were reproduced in -barbarous form among the natives. Drawings of this helmet on Italian -vases of the third century B.C. give a date for the class. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--GREEK HELMETS OF "CORINTHIAN" AND "ISLAND" -TYPES (NOS. 187, 193). 1:5.] - -An additional value is given to three of the early helmets by -inscriptions which they bear and which help to date them. The first -(No. =188=) is a record of a dedication of Corinthian spoils to Zeus -by the Argives: [Greek: TARG[EI]OI ANETHEN TOI DIWI TON QORINTHOTHEN], -in lettering which belongs probably to the end of the sixth century -B.C.[40] The helmet was found in the bed of the river Alpheios, -near Olympia, and was doubtless dedicated in the sanctuary. A shield -bearing the first word of a similar inscription has since been found -at Olympia, and was probably part of the same offering. Another helmet -(No. =186=) has five letters, [Greek: OLYMP], scratched on the -corner of one of the cheek-pieces in characters of about 500 B.C. The -complete word was perhaps [Greek: Olympiô], "_To the Olympian Zeus_." -This is said to have been found at Dodona in Epeiros. The third is -inscribed on the front with the name of its owner, [Greek: DASIMOS -PYRRHOU], "_Dasimos son of Pyrrhos_" (No. =194=). The date of the -writing is the beginning of the fifth century. This helmet, which -comes from South Italy, differs from the Corinthian only in having -holes for the ears, but it is really the first of a new type, the -so-called Attic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--GRAECO-ITALIAN HELMET OF DEBASED CORINTHIAN -FORM (NO. 191). 1:6.] - -The evidence of inscriptions, painting and sculpture shows that the -Corinthian helmet was generally worn by the Greeks from the first -appearance of metal armour in the eighth century B.C. to the early -years of the fifth. It then became less common, but never quite -disappeared, and was used, certainly as a decorative type, by the -Romans of the Empire. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--ATTIC HELMET FROM MACEDONIA (NO. 195). Ca. -1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--ATTIC HELMET DECORATED WITH RAM'S HEADS ON -THE CHEEK-PIECES. AT NAPLES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--HEAD OF HIPPOLYTE, WITH HELMET IN THE SHAPE -OF A PHRYGIAN CAP.] - -The Attic helmet, which gets its name from its use on the coins of -Athens (fig. 12, _f-l_), appeared first in the sixth century B.C., -and in the fourth was the usual type. In shape it is lighter than the -Corinthian, and resembles a cap with appendages to protect the neck, -cheeks and nose. The ear was thus left free. The finest Attic helmet -(No. =195=, fig. 69) has been acquired recently from the British -Salonika Force. It was found with a spearhead and other objects in a -grave of about 500 B.C. in the camp of the 29th General Hospital -at Mikra Karabournou, in January, 1918, and was transferred to this -collection from the Imperial War Museum. The nasal is elegantly -modelled, eyebrows and tongues of hair over the forehead are wrought -in relief, and broad spiral bands in relief decorate and strengthen -the cheek-pieces. The cheek-pieces were often hung on hinges (No. -=197=), and were pushed up from the face when the wearer was not -fighting (fig. 81). No. =198= is a cheek-piece from Loryma in Caria, -which reproduces the form of the face beneath it. An Attic helmet -from Ruvo in Apulia (No. =196=) has fixed cheek-pieces in the shape of -rams' heads, which were completed with applied reliefs like those of a -similar helmet at Naples (fig. 70). The nose-piece was often omitted. -The forehead was well covered, and was usually marked by a triangular -frontal band, often enclosing an ornament. No. =197= has the head of -a young Satyr in relief. The Attic helmet was also adopted in Italy, -especially by the Etruscans. No. =199= (fig. 78) was found in an -Etruscan tomb at Vulci. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--ITALIAN HELMETS WITH METAL CRESTS (NOS. 205, -202). 1:6.] - -These two helmets, the Corinthian and the Attic, were so far the most -general among the Greeks as to merit the name of the classical types. -No. =193= is an intermediate form which has been assigned to the -Aegean Islands because of its occurrence in vase-paintings from the -Cyclades. This example was found in the river Alpheios, and was -no doubt originally dedicated, like several other pieces in this -collection, in the temple at Olympia. It is cut straight over the -eyes, has no nose-piece and no ear-holes (fig. 67). A peculiar feature -is a broad band with high raised edges which runs over the crown of -the head from forehead to neck. A stout pin in front of this shows -that the band was a channel in which the crest was fixed. A row of -silver studs and a silver band decorate the rim of this helmet, and -there are remains of ornaments in relief, palmettes on forehead and -at the ears, and on each cheek-piece a horseman. These were no doubt -also of silver, but the plates have come away, leaving their impress -upon the cement which used to hold them in place. The style of the -modelling belongs to the end of the sixth century B.C. Another Greek -type has the shape of a Phrygian cap, with the addition of movable -cheek-pieces, of which the hinges are partially preserved (No. =200=). -Such a helmet is often worn by Amazons, for instance by the Queen -Hippolyte on an Attic bowl of about 450 B.C., which is exhibited in -the Third Vase Room (fig. 71). It is also shewn in the cast of an -Etruscan bronze statuette which stands beside the helmet (No. =201=). -The tall oval helmet (No. =202=, fig. 72) with its barbarous pair of -horns in the shape of crests of sea-horses, is Italian, but the same -type appears on Greek monuments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--ETRUSCAN AND EARLY ITALIAN HELMETS (NOS. 207, -203). 1:5.] - -Italian helmets are more like hats, giving no protection to the face -unless cheek-pieces are added. An early form, from Ancona, is almost -hemispherical, with wide brim and two large bosses on the sides (No. -=203=, fig. 73). The bosses would stop glancing blows on the head. The -smaller knob on the front of this example may have held the crest; -if so, the corresponding knob behind has been lost. Two helmets from -Cannae are later developments of the same type (No. =204=, fig. 74). -They are decorated and stiffened with two curved bands in relief, one -on each side of the crown. The bosses and brims are broken away. The -earliest helmets of this shape belong to the seventh century B.C. Our -later specimens were probably worn in the battle of Cannae (216 B.C.). -They have wrongly been called Carthaginian because of their discovery -on this battlefield, but the type is European, and has been found at -Hallstatt. The helmet with sharp pointed top also belongs to a class -which extended to France and Germany in the early Iron Age (No. =205=, -fig. 72). The arched socket for the crest is a peculiarity of this -example, which is of later date, about fourth century B.C. More -strictly of Italian origin are the heavy Etruscan helmets resembling -reversed jockey-caps, with a knob on top, a short peak covering the -wearer's neck, and attached cheek-pieces (No. =206=, fig. 75). They -are cast; nearly all other helmets are hammered work. Their date is -from the fifth to the third century B.C. The Etruscans also used an -oval helmet with ridged crown, of which the most notable example comes -from Olympia, where it was dedicated as part of the Greek spoils from -the naval battle of Kyme (B.C. 474). This helmet is described above -among the Greek Inscriptions (p. 8, fig. 7, No. =13=). Other examples -are heavier, and have a broad decorated rim (No. =207=, fig. 73). - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--ITALIAN HELMET, FROM THE BATTLEFIELD OF -CANNAE (NO. 204). 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--ETRUSCAN "JOCKEY-CAP" HELMET WITH HINGED -CHEEK-PIECES (NO. 206). 1:5.] - -There is no specimen of a Roman helmet in this collection. The -scarcity of remains of Roman armour is due to the fact that it was -mostly made of iron, which has decayed. Representations of different -shapes may be seen, in a statuette of an officer (No. =219=, fig. 85), -a small model of a trophy (No. =233=), a cast of a large marble relief -(No. =236=), and a drawing of a soldier from the Column of Trajan -(fig. 90). All these show close-fitting caps with broad chin-straps, -which also serve as cheek-pieces. They are varieties of the Attic -type. Some Roman helmets found in England are exhibited in the -Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities. One of them is -reproduced in fig. 76. It is evidently related to the much older -Etruscan "jockey-cap." The hinged cheek-pieces are wanting. It is -likely that the Romans would combine Greek and Italian patterns in -designing a uniform helmet for their own army. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--ROMAN LEGIONARY HELMET FOUND NEAR -BERKHAMPSTEAD. Ca. 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--PARADE HELMET MASKS (NOS. 209, 208).] - -A peculiar fashion of Roman helmet is represented by two bronze -vizor-masks in Case 117 (Nos. =208=, =209=, fig. 77). A complete -helmet of the same kind, exhibited in the Room of Roman Britain, was -found at Ribchester in 1796, and two other specimens, a fragmentary -iron helmet and a bronze mask, have recently been excavated at -Newstead on the Tweed. The Newstead helmet has remains of padding -still adhering, which prove that these strange helmets were actually -worn, though Arrian, writing on tactics in the second century A.D., -says that they were used for display, and not in battle. The earlier -of our examples (No. =208=, fig. 77, right), which probably belongs -to the first century A.D., is said to have been found on the face of -a skeleton in a grave at Nola in Italy in the eighteenth century. The -other (No. =209=, fig. 77, left), which has the more usual type -of features, has lately been presented to the Museum, having been -purchased at Aintab in Syria during the occupation of the country by -British troops. Both masks are pierced at eyes, nostrils and mouth, -and show traces of attachment to the helmet above the forehead. No. -=209= has remains of white metal plating on the face, the hair being -left in the colour of bronze. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--HELMETS WITH WOODEN PEG FOR PLUME AND TUBE -FOR FEATHER (NOS. 189, 199). 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--ITALIAN HELMET DECORATED WITH HORNS, WINGS -AND PLUME.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--ITALIAN VASE-PAINTING, SHOWING FEATHERED -HELMET AND THE METAL CUIRASS.] - -Crests are shown on all kinds of helmets, as in the Greek, Etruscan -and Roman statuettes (figs. 66, 81, 85), and the drawings on Greek and -Italian vases (figs. 79, 86, etc.); it is not uncommon to find three -on one helmet. They had thick horsehair plumes, sometimes simply wired -to the helmet, sometimes mounted in sockets. Very few helmets show -original fittings for the crests. These must have been added by the -owners. Some helmets have holes drilled in the crown; No. =186= has -remains of wire in the holes. No. =189= has a bronze socket still -holding a wooden peg, but this is only fastened with cement, and its -rough make is not in keeping with the fine finish of this helmet (fig. -78). The flanged channel and pins of No. =193= (fig. 67) are peculiar -to that type of helmet. An Etruscan helmet of Attic shape (No. =199=, -fig. 78) had a pair of tubes to carry single feathers, only one -of which remains (_cf._ fig. 80). It was an Italian habit to wear -fantastic ornaments. The head of a horseman from a wall-painting -at Capua shows horns, wings, and a plume or feather (fig. 79). A -Corinthian helmet from Apulia has a pair of curved horns like those in -the wall-painting (No. =190=). An Attic helmet belonging to a suit of -armour which was found in a grave at Capua, and is exhibited here on -loan from H.M. Armoury in the Tower of London (No. =210=), has horns -of coiled wire (perhaps clips for feathers), and a pair of wings. -The oval bronze hat (No. =202=, fig. 72) has two crests of sea-horses -mounted as horns, with the support for a plume between them. These -accessories are detachable; they are cut out of thin sheet metal and -fit on to flat ears on the helmet. Two of the latest of the Corinthian -class (No. =191=, fig. 68) have such attachments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--ETRUSCAN BRONZE STATUETTE WITH PLATED -CUIRASS. 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--A SOLDIER PUTTING ON HIS CUIRASS.] - -=Cuirass.=--The earliest metal cuirass consisted of two bronze plates -roughly shaped to fit the body, and fastened together at the sides and -shoulders. The bottom edge was turned up so as not to cut the hips. -The Greek statuette from Dodona (No. =185=, fig. 66) shows the form. -It was contemporary with the Corinthian helmet in Greece, and was -probably discarded there for the same reason, that it was as much -a burden as a protection. In Italy it had a longer life, but in an -improved shape which is represented in Italian vase-painting (fig. -80), and is shown here in the cast of an Etruscan statuette (No. -=201=), as well as in some actual specimens from Italy (Nos. =210=, -=211=, =212=). These fit closely to the body, of which the form is -moulded in free style on the metal plates, and the bottom edge follows -the line of the waist. A fringe of leather was often attached to the -rim. The fastenings are rings for lacing, and pins in sockets which -serve either as hinges or clasps. The other cuirass was generally used -in Greece from the beginning of the fifth century B.C. An Etruscan -statuette in the Bronze Room shows every detail of the type (fig. 81). -It was made of leather plated with bronze, with shoulder-straps to -buckle down upon the breast. In scenes of the arming of soldiers, for -instance on a vase by the painter Douris, at Vienna (fig. 82), the -method of putting on this cuirass is often represented, and the -construction of the various parts is shown. The bronze plating might -be in the form of square tabs or round scales. Two fragments of such -plating are exhibited (No. =213=, fig. 83, right). The larger consists -of six plates of bronze with the lower edge scalloped, sewn with wire -on a leathern coat, and overlapping in such a way as everywhere to -present three thicknesses of metal. The leather of this example is -modern. The other is of five much smaller scales, similarly wired -together. The larger fragment is from France, the smaller from -Oxyrhynchus, in Egypt. Some pieces of heavier bronze plating, one of -them still clasping a shrivelled tongue of leather, may have served as -the long tabs which form a skirt to this cuirass. They were excavated -at Kertch in the Crimea (No. =214=, fig. 83, left). - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--BRONZE PLATING FROM CUIRASSES (NOS. 214, -213). 3:5.] - -A peculiar Italian type is represented by a triangular bronze -breastplate filled with three circles in relief (No. =215=). This -breastplate often appears on third-century vases of South Italian -fabric, and a number of such plates have been found in tombs of the -beginning of the Iron Age. It is therefore an ancient pattern, but -this example is contemporary with the vases (fig. 84). - -Another piece of native Italian fashion is the metal belt (No. =216=) -which is also represented in vase paintings of the third century B.C. -(fig. 84). It was worn with the triangular breastplate. Rows of holes -along the edges show that the belts were lined with cloth or leather. -The fastening is simple, one end hooking into the other. Many -elaborate hooks are exhibited (No. =217=). Two oval bronze plaques -(No. =218=) may have belonged to belts of different type. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--VASE PAINTINGS SHOWING ITALIAN BREASTPLATE -AND METAL BELT.] - -Remains of Roman cuirasses are as rare as of the helmets, and for the -same reason; but the general type of the armour worn by the legionary -soldier is illustrated by a small statuette (No. =219=; fig. 85). The -cuirass is of the same design as the flexible Greek type; it is made -of overlapping bands of metal, which are fastened down the front. -There are shoulder-pieces of similar construction, and straps are -brought over from the back to hold the armour in place. Underneath -is a kilt of leather or metal strips. Two other varieties of Roman -cuirass are shown in the cast of the relief representing pieces of -armour (No. =236=), and a fourth is the coat of mail, which appears -in the reliefs of the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius at Rome -(about 110 and 190 A.D. respectively). It is represented here by -fragments of two different patterns and sizes (No. =220=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER -(NO. 219). 2:3.] - -=Greaves.=--The third part of the Greek body armour is the greaves. -Metal greaves may have been worn towards the close of the Mycenaean -Age (the pair from Enkomi in Cyprus dates from about 1100 B.C.), but -their general use was due, like that of the metal cuirass, to the -adoption of the small shield, which necessitated a better covering -of the body and legs. The poet Alcaeos says that the greave was a -protection against missiles. It was a thin sheet of bronze, shaped to -fit the leg, which it clasped and held of its own elasticity. Only the -greaves from Enkomi (No. =221=) are laced with bronze wire. Warriors -putting on their greaves are often represented on the Attic vases. -Fig. 86 is from the same scene as fig. 82. An ankle-pad was worn to -keep the bottom edge from chafing. There is little difference of shape -or decoration in the existing specimens. Some reach only to the knee, -and some extend above it to cover part of the thigh (Nos. =222=, -=225=). With the exception of the pair from Enkomi, all these date -from the sixth to the third century B.C. Two of the finest (No. =223=; -fig. 87) from Ruvo in South Italy, are decorated on the knee with a -figure of a Gorgon. The tongue and eyes were made of ivory. The style -points to Ionia as the place, and the sixth century as the time of -manufacture. Rather later is the pair with incised palmettes above the -knees (No. =224=). The only other decoration is the expression of the -muscles of the leg to correspond with the similar representation -of the body on the breastplate. As in the belt and helmet, there is -usually a row of holes along the rim for the attachment of a lining. -In the Roman army the greave was worn from early times, but under the -Empire it became a mark of distinction for the centurions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--A SOLDIER PUTTING ON HIS GREAVES.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--PAIR OF BRONZE GREAVES DECORATED WITH FIGURES -OF GORGONS (NO. 223). 1:6.] - -Some rare pieces of armour are arranged with the greaves. No. =226= is -a thigh-piece, of which the provenance is not known. A similar piece -was found at Olympia. Armour for the thigh is represented on some -Greek vases of the sixth century B.C., but not on later monuments, -although both Xenophon and Arrian mention it as part of the equipment -of cavalry. A guard for the upper part of the right arm, from Italy, -which is more familiar as armour of the later gladiator, dates from -the fifth or fourth century B.C. (No. =227=). It was fastened to the -shoulder of the cuirass. Another piece of different shape is mounted -with the suit of armour from Capua (No. =210=). There are three pairs -of shin-guards from Italy (No. =228=). The ankle-pieces are designed -to protect the "Achilles" tendon at the back of the foot (No. =229=; -fig. 88). These subsidiary pieces of leg-armour were probably worn -by the Italians of the fourth century B.C., when the long greave was -going out of fashion. Armour of an unusual kind is represented by the -pair of bronze shoes, which are also from Ruvo (No. =230=; fig. 89). -The metal covering is only for the top of the foot, and the toes are -on a separate plate, which is hinged at the joint. Part of a single -shoe of the same type was found at Olympia. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--BRONZE ANKLE-GUARD (NO. 229). 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--BRONZE SHOES (NO. 230). 1:4.] - -=Shield.=--An essential part of the ancient panoply was the shield, -but actual remains are rare. Greek shields were probably made of wood -or leather studded or plated with metal. The prehistoric shield of -Homer's time we know was a large bull-hide, which enveloped the man -from head to foot, and was slung round his neck by a strap. Herodotus -says that this unwieldy weapon was superseded by the smaller shield, -an invention of the Carians, held on the left arm by a loop and a -cross-bar (fig. 102). The common shapes were circular and oval; more -fanciful patterns, lozenges and crescents, belonged to less civilised -neighbours of the Greeks. Leather construction is seen in the shape of -the Boeotian shield (so called from its use as the national coin-type -of Boeotia), which the Dodona soldier carries (No. =185=; fig. 66). -This is oval with a gap in the middle of each long side, a shape -produced by stretching a hide on a long frame with cross-bars at top -and bottom. Strings for tightening the leather cover are drawn inside -a shield in fig. 102. Two circular bronze shields are exhibited, both -from Italy. The large one is decorated with narrow bands of Sphinxes, -rosettes, palm- and lotus-patterns in relief, in the oriental Greek -style of the sixth century B.C. (No. =231=). The smaller (No. =232=), -which has a spiked boss and punctured geometric patterns, is probably -Italian of about the same date. Neither of these examples has the -fittings of a shield inside. They may have been made for decorative or -votive use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER FROM THE TRAJAN -COLUMN.] - -No Roman shields are represented, and none have survived entire, for -they were also made of wood and leather, and only the central boss and -the framework were of metal. The ordinary type is illustrated in the -reliefs of the Trajan Column (fig. 90), where the legionaries are -perhaps distinguished from the auxiliary soldiers by their oblong -shields. These are further differentiated by the badges of the various -legions; the illustration shows a thunderbolt. The Greeks also carried -devices on their shields, mostly figures of animals (fig. 102, a -bull's head), which would be chosen as the emblem of a man or family, -like coats of arms in mediaeval Europe. Some states also had their -badges; men of Lacedaemon, Sicyon, and Messene bore the initial -letters of the names of their towns. - -=Trophies.=--A peculiar usage of war among the Greeks, which was -afterwards practised by the Romans, was the erection of trophies of -the arms captured from a defeated enemy. Soldiers of all ages have -celebrated their achievements by the display of armour or similar -spoils which they have stripped from their opponents; but the custom -of building effigies with the empty armour, to be left for a monument -on the battlefield, as a token of victory, belonged properly to -the Greeks. Helmet, cuirass and greaves were slung in position on a -tree-trunk, and the shield and other weapons were bound to the arms -of a cross-piece. An inscription was affixed, giving an account of the -victory and the dedication of the monument to a deity, as other spoils -were dedicated in the temples. In the centre of the Wall-Cases 116-117 -two suits of armour are set up in this fashion (Nos. =210=, =211=). In -Case 111 there are a small bronze model of a Roman trophy (No. =233=), -and two lamps with designs of the same subject. One of them has a -trophy of barbarian arms, a horned helmet and oblong wooden shields, -with a man and a woman captive at the foot (No. =234=). The other is -more fanciful: a trophy is borne aloft by a Victory, who is poised -with her foot on a globe, to symbolise the subjection of the world -(No. =235=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--ROMAN LEGIONARY BADGES USED AS STANDARDS, -FROM THE TRAJAN COLUMN.] - -The Greeks had established customs in raising trophies, and these were -strictly observed. The trophy was an assertion of victory, and was -accepted by the vanquished and left inviolate by them. But it was -contrary to usage for the victors to repair it, or to make the -supports of anything more durable than wood. The native Roman practice -was to fix captured armour in the house, like trophies of the -chase. The built trophy was borrowed from the Greeks, but it was -not necessarily erected on the battlefield. At Rome there were many -trophies commemorating provincial victories, and the custom was -continued in the representations of spoils on the triumphal arches -and other monuments of the Imperial age. A marble relief of pieces -of armour from one of these monuments is reproduced in a cast (No. -=236=). The arms are mostly Roman, but the dragon-standard and loose -tunic belong to the Dacians, a barbarous people who made trouble on -the north-east frontier of the Roman Empire in the second century -after Christ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--ROMAN MANIPULAR _Vexillum_, FROM THE TRAJAN -COLUMN.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--SILVER COIN OF VALENS (364-378 A.D.) SHOWING -THE EMPEROR HOLDING THE _Labarum_, TRIUMPHANT OVER BARBARIANS.] - -=Standards.=--Military standards were not much used by the Greeks, but -in the Roman army, which was a regular institution, not a temporary -levy of citizens, they were elaborately developed. The eagle was the -standard of the legion. It was a gilt image of the bird with -spread wings, holding a thunderbolt in its claws. Marks of -military distinction bestowed upon the legion--crowns, wreaths, and -medallions--were carried on the staff which supported the eagle or on -the eagle itself (fig. 109, p. 105). Smaller standards belonged to the -companies of the legion (maniples or centuries). These were originally -banners (_vexilla_) mounted on spears, with honorary wreaths and -medallions attached to the shafts. A cast of such a standard is -exhibited (No. =237=). The cross-piece represents the bar on which -the banner was hung, the sloping and vertical members at its ends are -derived from the cords which fastened the cross-bar to the pole. The -other standards shown in fig. 91, figures of birds or animals carried -on a plain shaft, are also represented here, in the bronze boar -(No. =238=). Such standards were probably used by detachments of the -legion. The regimental emblems were chosen or bestowed for various -reasons; some legions had several badges, and the same badges are -found with several legions. The boar is known to have belonged to -the 1st (_Italica_), 2nd (_Adjutrix_), 10th (_Fretensis_) and 20th -(_Valeria Victrix_). The bronze hand (No. =239=) may have been part -of a standard, but its poor structure rather indicates votive use. An -open hand was the proper standard of the maniple, the Roman company -of two centuries, which, indeed, derived its name from this device -(_manipulus_, a handful). The Roman explanation, as recorded by Ovid -and others, was that when Romulus first organised his men by hundreds, -he gave each company a standard consisting of a handful of twigs or -grass on the point of a spear. In any case the maniple took its name -from the hand, and the hand is often represented as the standard of -the maniple; fig. 92 is taken from the Trajan Column. The cross-bar, -which originally carried the banner, and its hanging tassels are shown -in this standard, as in No. =237=, but the more important part of the -cord, which fastened the bar to the shaft, has been omitted from the -design. This fortuitous pattern of a cross was eagerly recognised by -the early Church as a military emblem of Christianity, and the famous -_labarum_, the miraculous standard which Christ gave to the Emperor -Constantine on the eve of the battle of the Milvian Bridge, was a -cavalry _vexillum_ of the Roman army with the monogram of Christ -emblazoned on its banner (fig. 93). - - The pieces of armour are described in the _Catalogue of - Bronzes_ to which reference should be made for fuller details. - The Catalogue numbers are painted on the objects. - - (185) _Bronzen aus Dodona in den Kgl. Museen zu Berlin_, p. - 13, pl. 2; (201) Friederichs, _Kleinere Kunst_, 2197; (208) - _Cat. of Bronzes_, 877; Benndorf, _Ant. Gesichtshelme_, p. 15, - pl. 3; for the class see Curle, _A Roman Frontier Post and its - People_, p. 179; (221) _B.M. Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 16, - fig. 26; (236) _Cat. of Sculpture_, 2620; (237, 238, 239) - reproduced by Daremberg and Saglio, _Dict. Ant._ s.v. _Signa - Militaria_. - -=Weapons.=--The weapons of offence, which are exhibited in Table-Case -E, differ from the majority of the antiquities shown in this room, -in that many of them were made at a remote period in the history of -Greece and Italy, some even dating from the beginning of the Bronze -Age, when the use of metal had not long supplanted that of stone. In -a few examples from the island of Cyprus, the metal is almost pure -copper. It is therefore not strictly accurate to call these weapons -Greek and Roman, for they were made a thousand years before those -nations began; but they come from the lands which were afterwards -inhabited by the Greeks and Romans, and are valuable as representing -the development of arms in those parts of the world, and as being the -work of the primitive races in whom the Greeks and Romans had their -origin. - -=Early Greek Bronze Age.=--The first class consists of arms which -belong to the Early Bronze Age in Greece, a period preceding the -mature and extensive civilisation to which the name of Mycenaean is -commonly applied. The general date of 3000 to 2000 B.C., which is -assigned to the weapons of this period, serves rather to indicate -their chronological relations than to give their precise age. In any -case they stand as a definite beginning of the history of arms in -Europe. In these early times the sword had not been invented, and -short daggers or spear-heads only were produced by workmen with a -still imperfect mastery of metallurgy. The most ancient form was a -short thick blade, with rivets in the base, where it was fastened -to the hilt or shaft. A more secure attachment was contrived by -prolonging the broad base of the blade into a tang, which was let -into the handle and held by a rivet through the end. But the greatest -advance was the discovery that if a rib were left up the middle of -the blade, the edges could be fined down and tapered to a sharp point -without loss of strength. In the final development the stiffening rib -and the tang were connected, so that the strongest part of the blade -was continued down into the handle. Yet in spite of progress and -improvements in design, the old patterns remained in use to the end of -the Bronze Age, and even later, so that a chronological classification -based on the forms of early Weapons is untrustworthy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--PRIMITIVE BRONZE SPEAR- AND DAGGER-BLADES, -FROM GREECE AND CYPRUS (NOS. 241-4). 1:4.] - -All the stages in the development are shown in these examples. The -most primitive types are represented by a series of blades from Cyprus -(No. =241=; fig. 94_a_), which, from material and technique, might be -placed at a very early period; but they were excavated from Mycenaean -tombs of the end of the Bronze Age. To the same island belong the -narrow blades with long tangs, which are turned round at the end in a -hook to hold the handle (No. =242=; fig. 94_b_). This type is said -to have been found in graves of 3000 B.C. It is certainly a primitive -shape, and peculiar to the pre-Mycenaean civilisation of Cyprus. -Another local variety is known in the leaf-shaped blade with a sharp -tang and two slits, one on each side of the midrib, through which -the shaft was lashed in place (No. =243=; fig. 94_c_). The pattern -is characteristic of the contemporary civilisation of the Cycladic -Islands. Two pointed blades with no tang belong to the same early -period. The smaller of the two was found at Athens (No. =244=; fig. -94_d_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--BRONZE SWORDS OF THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD (NOS. -245, 247-8). 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--BRONZE SWORDS OF LATE MYCENAEAN TYPE (NOS. -249-50). 1:4.] - -=Mycenaean swords and daggers.=--The next period was the close of the -Bronze Age in Greece, occupying the second millennium before Christ. -It has been called, from its best-known centre at Mycenae, the -Mycenaean Age. In this period, by improvement in metal-working, the -short daggers were lengthened into swords, which, towards the end of -the age, were made even a yard long, and very slender. Such weapons -were used mainly for thrusting, for they would break with a direct -blow. Homer records many such accidents on the battlefield. At the -same time the spear-head was differentiated from the dagger-blade, -being provided with a socket for the shaft. Mycenaean weapons are -represented here by swords and spear-heads found mainly at Ialysos in -Rhodes, and belonging to the end of the period. The swords are short -and heavy, and are made in one piece with the hilt. The guard is -straight in the earlier specimens, and the pommel of the hilt was a -round knob, of which the tang remains (No. =245=; fig. 95_a_). This is -the form of the well-known daggers from Mycenae, which have the blades -inlaid with designs in coloured metals, the hilts and pommels embossed -and chased in gold. Electrotype copies of the Mycenae daggers are -exhibited in the Gold Ornament Room Passage. A closer parallel to -these is a blade from Cameiros which has the rivets still in place -(No. =246=). In other swords the raised flange on the edges of the -hilt is continued to form a crescent-shaped pommel. The hollow space -was filled with an ornamental material for the grip. The rivets are -usually in place, and on a small dagger from Karpathos a great part of -the ivory mount is preserved (No. =247=; fig. 95_b_). The last form -of this hilt appears in a heavy sword, formerly in the Woodhouse -Collection (No. =248=; fig. 95_c_). The projection of flanges and -pommel is accentuated, and the ends of the guard are curled up like -horns. This type survived into the Hellenic period. Another late -Mycenaean form is seen in a long and slender sword with a broad base -to the blade, which contracts again towards the hilt (No. =249=; fig. -96_a_). At the other end of the hilt are two divergent tongues of -metal, which are better preserved in another example, of heavier -fabric, from Enkomi, in Cyprus (No. =250=; fig. 96_b_). The type is -that in which the earliest iron swords of Greece were made (No. =263=; -fig. 101_b_), and which was the prototype of the common bronze sword -of the rest of Europe. The lighter specimen (No. =249=) is from -Scutari in Albania. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--BRONZE SPEARHEADS OF THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD -(NO. 251). 1:4.] - -=Mycenaean spears and arrows.=--The spear was in Homeric times the -soldier's most important arm, a long and heavy weapon which was thrown -with great force or used for thrusting. Mycenaean spearheads are -illustrated in a series from Ialysos (No. =251=; fig. 97). They -are skilfully made to secure the greatest strength with the least -expenditure of material; in most cases the shaft runs far up into the -blade, which is narrow and springs gently from the socket, some being -wider near the point than at the base. There is considerable variety -of shape, but all are characterised by the thin blade with shallow -curves. Mycenaean arrowheads from the same site are of more primitive -design (No. =252=; fig. 98). The best are large and heavy, and -have long barbs; a tang and no socket to take the shaft. Others are -curiously flat and weak, and are plainly metal reproductions of a -stone pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--MYCENAEAN BRONZE ARROWHEADS FROM IALYSOS (NO. -252). 2:3.] - -=Italian Bronze Age.=--The Bronze Age of Italy is represented here by -daggers and spears which date from about the fifteenth to the tenth -century B.C. Italian daggers are remarkable for the use of engraved -geometrical decoration on the blades. The first class resembles the -Mycenaean weapons in the form of the hilt with edges raised for inlay -and crescent-shaped pommel, and the round base of the blade is also -similar to an early Mycenaean type. The haft of one dagger is wound -with bronze wire, another has an ivory handle bound with gold (No. -=253=; fig. 99_a_), and a third has the pommel filled with ivory (No. -254). Some of the blades were made separately, and riveted to the hilt -after the primitive fashion (No. =255=; fig. 99_b_). In that case -the hilt was split to receive the tang, and overlapped the base (No. -=256=). Some of these daggers diverge still further from the Mycenaean -in having the blade with recurving edges which is characteristic of -a cutting sword (No. =257=; fig. 99_c_). The sheaths are of peculiar -shape, being made of a thin plate of bronze with an ornament at the -end in the form of a large round knob or several discs on a peg (No. -=258=; fig. 99 _e_, _f_). They are decorated with the same linear -designs as the blades. A later variety of Italian sword, known from -the horned extremities of the pommel as the _Antennae_ type, is -represented by two specimens (No. =259=; fig. 99_d_). In the first, -the horns are simply curved projections, in the other they are -developed into large rings or spiral coils. The type is of frequent -occurrence throughout Europe, even in the north. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--EARLY ITALIAN BRONZE SWORDS AND SHEATHS (NOS. -253, 255, 257-9). 1:6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--ITALIAN BRONZE SPEARHEADS (NO. 260).] - -Italian spearheads do not suggest so much connection with -Mycenaean types. Some of them are narrow, but most have broad and -strongly-curving blades which spring sharply from the sockets (No. -=260=; fig. 100). A spearhead from Sicily is remarkable for its great -size (No. =261=): it is thirty-five inches long. - -The rest of the arms belong to the historical period. The usual -weapons of the Greeks were the spear and sword. The bow was a special -arm, which did not form part of the equipment of the ordinary soldier, -and its use, like that of the sling, was practised by men of certain -districts, who served as mercenaries to other states. The axe was -a barbarous weapon, and is generally represented in the hands of -Amazons, who brought their mode of warfare from the wilds of Scythia -(see fig. 109). - -=Greek swords.=--The earliest Greek swords in this collection date -from the tenth century B.C., when iron was fast taking the place of -bronze; but forms common in the Bronze Age were still reproduced in -iron, just as those peculiar to stone implements were for some time -preserved in bronze. This conservative tendency is noticeable in three -iron swords, of which two are from Cyprus (Nos. =262=, =263=; fig. -101_b_). They reproduce the general form of the bronze sword from -Enkomi in the same island (No. =250=; fig. 96). A short iron dagger is -similar to the common Mycenaean type (No. =264=; fig. 101_a_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--IRON SWORDS, SHOWING THE SURVIVAL OF -MYCENAEAN TYPES (NOS. 263-4). 1:4.] - -The ordinary Greek sword of the fifth century B.C. is represented by -three examples. The type appears frequently in works of art. On a vase -in the Third Vase Room (E 468; Pedestal 6) there is a drawing of the -combat of Achilles and Memnon, in which Memnon is armed with this -sword. In the sheath by his side is another, so that it is possible -to see both hilt and blade at once (fig. 102). The shape is entirely -different from that of prehistoric times. The hilt is round and the -pommel a small knob, while the guard is a plain crosspiece. The blade, -which, being made of iron, is long and thin, swells from the hilt -towards the point in the manner characteristic of the cutting sword. -All these features are visible in the examples (No. =265=; fig. -104_a_, _b_). The swelling blade is best seen in the largest specimen, -while the iron-handled fragment, which was excavated from a tomb near -the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos, shows the original form of the hilt. -The small dagger with a bone hilt and the bone end of the scabbard -forms part of a group of weapons which were found on the battlefield -of Marathon (No. =266=; fig. 103). The others are iron spearheads, -arrowheads both of bronze and iron, and leaden slingshot, two of which -are marked with a thunderbolt and the Greek name _Zoilos_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--VASE-PAINTING OF THE COMBAT BETWEEN ACHILLES -AND MEMNON, SHOWING THE CLASSICAL GREEK WEAPONS.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--WEAPONS FROM THE BATTLEFIELD OF MARATHON -(NO. 266). Ca. 1:3.] - -Another common type of Greek sword is the heavy knife-like sabre with -a hilt in the shape of a bird's head (No. =267=; fig. 104_c_). Its -original appearance may be seen on the Athenian bowl already mentioned -on page 80 (fig. 105). The classical name was _machaira_. Xenophon -recommends it as a cavalry weapon, because of its heavy down-stroke. -This example comes from Spain, where many similar swords have been -found, but the origin of the type is Greek or even Oriental. The -dagger with a cylindrical bronze hilt of which the pommel is a -lynx-head, appears from the style of the decoration to be Graeco-Roman -(No. =268=). Some models in terracotta from Naukratis give the types -of the Hellenistic period (No. =269=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--GREEK IRON SWORDS (NOS. 265, 267). 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--THE _Machaira_, WITH HILT IN THE SHAPE OF A -BIRD.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--GREEK SPEARHEADS (NOS. 272-3, 275). About -1:4.] - -=Greek and Roman spears.=--Classical spears are represented by a -variety of heads both in bronze and iron. The earliest Greek type is -an iron head found with pottery of the tenth or ninth century B.C. in -a grave at Assarlik in Asia Minor (No. =271=). Those with three and -four blades are a small class, examples of which came to light at -Olympia, and suggest as a date the end of the sixth century B.C. (No. -=272=; fig. 106_a_). To the same date may belong the decoratively -modelled bronze spear from Kameiros, and another of plainer design -from the same place (No. =273=; fig. 106_b_, _c_), with two from -Olympia, and a large iron one (No. =274=) found with the fine Attic -helmet (p. 78) in Macedonia. A curious spearhead, or perhaps a butt, -from Olympia is shown among the Greek Inscriptions (p. 9, No. =14=, -fig. 8). Spearbutts are not uncommon. Some are plain tapered ferrules -(No. =279=; fig. 107), others end in two-pronged forks (Nos. =280=, -=281=; fig. 107). The bronze forks are from Egypt, the iron one -(fig. 107, bottom centre) was found on the bank of the Tiber with the -spearheads mentioned below. The unusually long iron head, which was -found in Spain with the iron _machaira_, is probably a later Greek -form (No. =275=; fig. 106_d_). This example exhibits in a high degree -the superiority of iron to bronze. Other iron spearheads are from -Italy; some are from the Tiber (No. =276=). Three specimens, one with -remains of the wooden shaft and the lashing of wire, were found near -the village of Talamone on the west coast of Italy (No. =277=; fig. -108), where in 225 B.C. the Romans won a decisive victory over the -Gauls, who had marched successfully to within a few days of Rome, and -were returning home with their plunder. Like the helmets from Kyme and -Cannae, and the arms from Marathon, these spears are relics of one -of the famous battles of antiquity. The Roman soldiers of later times -carried spears of a different kind. They had no thrusting lance, but -an extremely heavy weapon, the _pilum_, which they threw with great -effect at close quarters. The small iron heads from Licenza (No. -=278=) have much the same shape as the head of the _pilum_. They -probably belonged to light throwing-spears. The purpose of the long -head was to bend and encumber the enemy after piercing his shield or -armour. - -=Roman swords.=--The collection of swords ends in those which belong -to the Roman period. A fragment of a sword with a heavy iron blade -seems too big for the natives of Italy, and may have been used by a -Gaulish invader (No. =282=). The large sword with a flat guard and -an ivory and bronze handle (No. =283=) is perhaps a Roman _gladius_, -which was afterwards superseded in the army by a sword of Spanish -pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--BRONZE AND IRON SPEAR-BUTTS (NOS. 279-81). -Ca. 1:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--IRON SPEARHEADS FROM TALAMONE (NO. 277). -About 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--ROMAN LEGIONARY SWORD AND SCABBARD FOUND AT -MAINZ (NO. 284). 1:4. Reliefs, 2:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--GREEK AND CYPRIOTE BRONZE ARROWHEADS (NOS. -290, 288). 2:3.] - -The later Roman sword is excellently represented by the so-called -"Sword of Tiberius," which was found in a field at Mainz on the Rhine -(No. =284=; fig. 109). The short iron blade is of the usual type, -measuring twenty-one inches in length and two and a half in width at -the base, from whence it tapers gently to a sharp point. The scabbard -was made of wood covered with a plate of silver-gilt which is -decorated with reliefs in gilt bronze. The plates of the bands which -were hooked to the sword-belt are ornamented with wreaths of oak. At -the hilt is a group which represents the Emperor Tiberius receiving -his nephew Germanicus on the latter's return, in the year 17 A.D., -from his victorious campaigns against the Germans, in the course of -which he had recovered one of the legionary eagles which Varus had -lost. The emperor, robed as a deity, is seated on a throne, resting -his left arm on a shield which is inscribed +FELICITAS · TIBERI+--"The -Good Fortune of Tiberius"--and holding in his right hand a small -figure of Victory with wreath and palm, which he has just taken -from his returning general. Germanicus stands before him in military -attire, with his right hand stretched out. In the background is an -armed figure, and behind the emperor a winged Victory brings a shield -upon which is the legend +VIC · AVG+--"The Victory of Augustus." -The middle of the scabbard is occupied by a medallion charged with -a portrait of Tiberius, and at the point is a larger plate which is -divided into two fields. The uppermost has a representation of a Roman -eagle in a temple, and in the other is an Amazon armed with battle-axe -and lance. It might not be wrong to connect the eagle with that of -Varus; and the figure of the Amazon calls to mind the ode of Horace -(_Carm._ iv. 4) celebrating the success of Drusus, the father of -this Germanicus, against the Germans of the Danube, in which the poet -expresses surprise that those barbarians should be armed with the -Amazonian axe. Perhaps the next generation attributed this legendary -weapon also to the Germans of the Rhine, and the Amazon is an allusion -to the campaigns which the sword commemorates. From the contrast of -the elaboration of the design with the cheapness of the execution, it -would seem that the weapon is one of many copies which were turned -out for some official purpose, probably a sword of honour presented to -officers who had served with Germanicus. - -Other remains of Roman swords are less complete. There are several -fragments of scabbards, a bronze guard, two ivory pieces which may -have been pommels of the hilt or caps of the sheath, and a good -specimen of an entire hilt in bone (No. =285=). This is very similar -to the classical Greek pattern. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--ROMAN ARROWHEADS (NO. 293). 2:3.] - -=Sling-shot and arrowheads.=--Weapons which show little difference -of form in Greek or Roman times are the sling-shot (No. =286=) and -arrowheads. Sling-shot are mostly cast in lead, but some are of bronze -and stone. The inscribed sling-bolts from Marathon have already been -mentioned, and others similarly bear inscriptions in raised letters: a -personal name, of the maker or the general or the slinger; or the name -of the state from whose army it was shot--"From the Corinthians"; or a -message to the bullet or to the enemy--"Strike hard," and "Take this." -A large bronze arrowhead from Olynthus (No. =291=) bears the name of -Philip, probably the father of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian -king against whom Demosthenes wrote his Olynthiac and Philippic -orations. - -Some of the arrowheads have already been described, the Mycenaean from -Rhodes (No. =252=; fig. 98), and those from Marathon (No. =266=; fig. -103). The large iron heads with knife-like blade and long tang are -Oriental (No. =287=); those from Marathon were no doubt used by -Persian bowmen. A similar group from Cyprus, but of bronze, shows long -square heads (No. =288=; fig. 110, top, right). A bundle of six bronze -arrowheads of broad leaf shape, found in a grave at Enkomi in Cyprus, -has rusted together as the arrows lay in the quiver, remains of which -and of the wooden shafts can still be seen (No. =289=). Greek examples -belong to two classes; they are all made of bronze. The commoner class -has sockets and blades like miniature spearheads; (No. =290=; fig. -110). Many of these have three blades; the large inscribed head from -Olynthus (No. =291=) is of this shape, but barbed. Another variety, -which always has barbs, is triangular with a central hole for the -shaft. The second class consists of heavy heads with long barbs and -tangs (No. =292=). These appear to be related to a Mycenaean form (see -fig. 98), and as they are often represented on coins of Crete, they -may perhaps be identified as the arrows of the Cretan bow. The Roman -period is represented by six iron arrowheads from Xanten (_Castra -Vetera_) on the Rhine. They show the spearhead and triangular shapes, -and are all barbed (No. =293=; fig. 111). - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--BONE CALTHROP FROM THE CRIMEA (NO. 296). -2:3.] - -Such is the regular series of classical weapons. Exceptional pieces -are the bronze double-axe (No. =294=), if this can be called a weapon, -the ridged mace-head from Rome (No. =295=), and the calthrop (No. -=296=; fig. 112), a contrivance for disabling cavalry. This singular -object, which was found at Kertch in the Crimea, is cut from a human -radius bone. - - The bronze weapons are more fully described in the _Catalogue - of Bronzes_ under the numbers painted on the objects. - - (269) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 629 ff.; (271) _Journal of - Hellenic Studies_, VIII., p. 64; (284) _Proc. Soc. Ant. - Lond._, N.S. III., p. 358; _Cat. of Bronzes_, 867; (289) - _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 17, fig. 28; (296) McPherson, - _Antiq. Kertch_, p. 101. - - - [Footnote 40: [Greek: - - Targeioi anethen tôi Diwi tôn Korinthothen.] - - - - -X.--HOUSE AND FURNITURE. - -(Wall-Cases 25-40.) - - -Cases 25-40 contain furniture, lamps and lamp-stands, cooking -utensils, objects used in connection with the bath, and objects -illustrating the methods of heating buildings and supplying them with -water. With the house itself, its plan and its appearance we are -not concerned in this work. It is enough to say that the fundamental -distinction between the ancient and modern house is that the one -looked inwards, the other looks outwards. The ancient house received -its light and air either from the open courtyard, round which it was -built, or else from a large aperture in the roof. The former was the -prevailing arrangement in Greece, the latter (in the earlier period) -that adopted in Italy. The outside of the average Greek house was -probably very destitute of architectural ornament, presenting a wide -space of blank wall broken but by few windows. - -The Roman house in its final development assumed a form closely -resembling that of the Greek house just described. At an early period -it was based on the early Italian house. This consisted merely of an -oblong chamber, with a small opening in the roof for the admission -of light and emission of smoke. This chamber was called an _atrium_, -perhaps because walls and roof were black (_ater_) with soot from the -smoke of the fire. Gradually the opening in the roof became larger. -Rain fell in the centre into a basin called the _impluvium_. The -_atrium_ lost its character as a living room, and further courts and -rooms in the Greek manner were added to it. - -We may now deal with the internal arrangements and the furniture. The -objects may be described as they concern (1) the general furniture -of the house; (2) the lighting; (3) the kitchen; (4) the bath; (5) -water supply; (6) the warming. (7) Annexed is a small type-series of -vases. - -=The Furniture of the house.=--In the nature of things, wooden -furniture rarely occurs outside Egypt, except in South Russia. Thus we -have a wooden table leg: a dog springs upward, from an acanthus leaf, -surmounting an animal's leg (No. =300=). This comes from Kertch in the -Crimea. In general, the remains of furniture shown in this section -are the metal accessories and fittings. These are for the most part of -Roman date, but Roman furniture was so largely derived from the Greek, -that they may be regarded as illustrating Greek furniture as well. - -Some remarkable examples of bolster-ends in bronze, bronze inlaid with -silver, and ivory, are shown in Cases 27, 28. They usually terminate -above in a head of a mule, or of a duck, and below in a medallion -bust. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--BRONZE COUCH (RESTORED).] - -The seat (No. =301=) is incorrectly put together. It is composed of -the parts of one or two couches which should be restored as in fig. -113. - -Below is a small bronze stool (No. =302=), without arms or back, of -a type not uncommon at Pompeii. Two tripods with expanding legs are -placed in the bottom of Cases 27-28. One of these (No. =303=) has an -arrangement similar to that of the candelabrum No. =307=, whereby it -could be heightened at will. These tripods were used as small tables. -Of a much older period is the fragment (No. =304=) from the leg of a -large bronze tripod, from Palaekastro in Crete. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--ARCHAIC LAMPSTAND AND LAMP IN TERRACOTTA -(NO. 305). Ca. 1:7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--ROMAN BRONZE LAMPSTAND. (NO. 306*). 1:4.] - -=Lighting.=--In Cases 25, and 28, 29 are placed several candelabra -used either for the support of wicks floating in an oil-bath or for -lamps, or torches. Those stands which have come down to us are chiefly -of bronze, but the cheaper ones in ancient times were made of -wood. Martial, in an epigram, warns the possessor of such a wooden -candelabrum to take care that the whole stand does not turn into one -blazing candle.[41] A primitive example of lamp and candelabrum shaft -combined is shown in No. =305=, (fig. 114), from Cameiros (about -seventh century B.C.). A female figure, of columnar form, supports -a lamp with three nozzles. The Etruscan candelabra and many of the -candelabra found at Herculaneum and Pompeii consist of a base in the -form of three legs or paws, very commonly those of lions, a tall stem, -and a circular support or spreading arms for the lamps at the top. -The stem may be fluted, or may be knotted like a stem of a plant, or -divided like a reed. In Roman times another variety is also common, -composed of a massive base with three or more spreading arms, from -which lamps were suspended. Such a stand (No. =306=) is seen on the -upper shelf of Cases 29-30. A point which may be specially noted -in regard to some of the bronze stands of the Roman period is the -decoration of the shaft, which often takes the form of a climbing -animal. That shown in fig. 115 (No. =306*=) has a panther, a cock, and -a bearded serpent on the shaft. An ingenious expanding Roman bronze -lampstand (No. =307=) from the Hamilton Collection should be noticed -in the lower part of Case 29. The central rod attached to the circular -lamp-support can be raised at will, and secured in place by means of -a bronze pin passed through one of the pairs of holes pierced in the -side rods. - -The lamps themselves (in Cases 31 and 32) are of terracotta, bronze -and marble. The greater number are of the Roman period. One of the -earliest is a primitive lamp (No. =308=; fig. 116) of the prehistoric -period known as Mycenaean, and was found in the course of the Museum -excavations at Enkomi in Cyprus. It was thrust, by its spike, into the -masonry joints of a built tomb, and must have had a wick floating in -the oil, or supported at the spout. The essential parts of a lamp in -the developed form are (1) the well for the oil, formed by the body -of the lamp and fed from an opening above; in the bronze lamps this -opening is covered by means of a lid, sometimes hinged, sometimes -secured by a chain, as in No. =309=, fig. 117; (2) the nozzle for -the insertion of the wick. The nozzle generally takes the form of -a projecting spout, but the arrangement varies very considerably in -different lamps, and a single lamp is often furnished with several -nozzles. The lamps might either be simply placed on a candelabrum or -else suspended from it. Several of the bronze lamps have chains for -the latter purpose (No. =309=; fig. 117). A peculiar bronze hook, of -which there are several examples in these cases, was sometimes used in -the Roman period for hanging up the lamps; in the example illustrated -(No. =310=; fig. 118) it is seen hinged to the lamp in such a way that -the lamp could be suspended, supported from the ground, or carried in -any way desired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--BRONZE LAMP FROM ENKOMI (NO. 308).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117--ROMAN BRONZE HANGING-LAMP (NO. 309). Ca. -1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--ROMAN BRONZE LAMP WITH HOOK FOR SUSPENSION -(NO. 310). Ca. 1:3.] - -The numerous Graeco-Roman bronze lamps in these cases show a great -variety of form. Heads of Seilenos, Pan, negroes, etc., appear side by -side with a fir-cone, a foot, a duck, a snail, or a wolf. The handles -often terminate in an animal's head, _e.g._, that of a horse, a dog, a -lion, or a swan (cf. fig. 117). A fine example, with a tragic mask on -the handle (No. =311=; fig. 119) was found at Rome in 1912. But the -choicest example of a bronze lamp will be found in the Bronze Room -(Case B). It is a double lamp for suspension, and was found in the -Roman Baths at Paris. A silver lamp with Heracles strangling the -serpents, on a boat-shaped cradle (No. =312=), is shown in Case 29. -The cheaper terracotta lamps are freely decorated with designs taken -from daily life or mythology. Numerous specimens of these lamps will -be seen in Table-Case B in the Fourth Vase Room. A very elaborate -example (No. =313=) in the form of a ship is seen here in the bottom -of Case 30. The twenty-three holes for wicks and filling should be -noted. The lamp fillers, as may be seen from the bronze specimen -exhibited, closely resembled the lamps themselves (No. =314=). - -Candlesticks are rare. In the Etruscan candelabra (Nos. =315=, =316=; -Bronze Room Cases 57-60) projecting spikes seem to be intended for -piercing candles, as shown by a tomb painting at Orvieto (fig. 120; -see Bronze Room, Case 60). Two candlesticks of modern type (which -rarely occurs) are shown in Case 30 (No. =317=; fig. 121). - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--ROMAN BRONZE LAMP. TRAGIC MASK (NO. 311).] - -Besides lamps and candles, lanterns were also largely in use, -especially for outdoor purposes. Such a portable Roman lantern (in -Case 32) is here illustrated (No. =318=; fig. 122). It is cylindrical -in shape and has a hemispherical cover, which could be raised from -the body of the lantern. The latter was enclosed with plates of some -transparent material such as horn, bladder, or linen. That talc was -also used is shown by the fact that several of the lanterns in the -Museum at Naples have their walls made of this material. Just below -the lantern is a small bronze statuette, which has formed the body of -a knife (No. =319=). A grotesque figure is walking with a lantern in -his right hand, and a basket slung over his shoulders. It was found at -Behnesa, in Egypt, and probably represents a bird-catcher returning in -the evening with his spoils. The lantern carried by him very closely -resembles the one described above. - -Cheaper forms of perforated clay lanterns are also exhibited (No. -=320=; fig. 123). - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--ETRUSCAN CANDLE HOLDER, FROM A TOMB FRESCO.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--BRONZE CANDLESTICK FROM SYRIA (NO. 317).] - -=The Kitchen.=--Cases 33-36 contain cooking implements and remains of -ancient fruit and grain. The vessels give a good idea of the furniture -of a Pompeian kitchen, although there is no example of the more -elaborate contrivances for preparing hot drinks and keeping food warm, -such as have been found at Pompeii, and may be seen in the Museum at -Naples. - -The kitchen implements arranged in these cases do not differ -materially from those in modern use, except that they are made -of bronze, and frequently have some graceful and appropriate -ornamentation. One or two of the objects call for special remark. On -the second shelf from the bottom of Case 34 is an implement with -a long handle and a rectangular pan furnished with six circular -depressions (No. =321=). A circular pan with twenty-eight such -depressions was found at Pompeii, and is now at Naples. These pans -were probably used either for baking cakes or frying eggs. - -In Case 36, on the same shelf as the pan for baking cakes, is a bronze -frying-pan (No. =322=), with a spout at one corner. Instead of -butter, fat, or dripping, the Romans, like the inhabitants of southern -countries at the present day, were accustomed to use oil in frying. -The shelf above the pans is occupied with ladles, dippers, and -other implements. The handles of the ladles usually terminate in a -beautifully modelled head of an animal, such as that of a duck, swan, -or dog. One wine dipper (No. =323=) is hinged so as to fold for the -pocket. On the next shelf above are two painted plates of about the -beginning of the third century B.C. They belong to a well marked class -(cf. Fourth Vase Room, Cases 26-7) of plates of Campanian fabric, -distinguished by the fish and other marine creatures painted upon -them. It is probable that they were intended for the serving of fish. -Of the two examples shown in this case one (No. =324=) is decorated -with a sea-perch, a sargus (a fish peculiar to the Mediterranean), and -a torpedo, the other (No. =325=; fig. 124) with a red mullet, a bass, -a sargus, and a cuttlefish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--BRONZE LANTERN (NO. 318). 1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--EARTHENWARE LANTERN (NO. 320).] - -The strainers (No. =326=), with perforated designs, on the right of -Case 36, were used for clearing wine and other liquids. In Cases 36, -37 are bronze moulds for shaping food in the form of shells. - -Some remains of ancient walnuts, grain, and fragments of calcined -bread from Pompeii, and a black cup from Rhodes, containing eggs, are -shown in the middle shelf of Case 35. - -The process of bread-making is illustrated by the terracottas shown in -this case. One (No. =327=) from Kameiros in Rhodes represents a woman -kneading dough on a board placed in a circular trough resting on -three legs. Another (No. =328=), of much rougher workmanship, shows a -bearded man engaged in a like occupation. A third (No. =329=) shows -a woman kneading in front of the oven. A small terracotta model of an -oven shows two cakes baking (No. =330=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--FISH-PLATE (NO. 325). Diam. 8-3/4 in.] - -In antiquity knives and forks were little used at table, fingers -being mainly employed. Only one three-pronged fork (No. =331=) is -here shown. Spoons, however, were common, and a considerable number -of ancient spoons (No. =332=) are exhibited in Case 36. The series of -large ivory spoons with elaborately ornamented handles belong to an -early period, a similar one coming from the Polledrara tomb at Vulci -in Etruria, of the seventh century B.C. The small spoons in bronze or -ivory, with round head and handle running to a point, were probably -used for the eating of eggs and the extraction of snails from their -shells. Snails were a favourite dish with the Romans, and the spoon -got its name (_cochleare_) from being employed in this way.[42] - -In the lower part of Case 36 are examples of pestles and mortars (No. -=333=). The pestle usually takes the form of a bent thumb, or of a leg -and foot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--ATHLETE USING STRIGIL.] - -In early times cooking was done either in the courtyard of the -house or in the principal living-room. Pompeian houses are, however, -generally provided with separate kitchens, small rooms opening off the -court of the peristyle. The hearth is a simple rectangular structure -of masonry, sometimes furnished with projecting supports for holding -vessels over the fire. Much, however, of the warming and working was -done over small braziers, such as are shown on a small scale, and by -a model, in the lower part of Case 36. The terracotta braziers are of -characteristic form, with three internal projecting knobs to support -the cooking vessel. These are generally ornamented with masks of -Hephaestos, Satyrs, or the like (No. =334=). Compare examples in the -Terracotta Room (_Cat. of Terracottas_, p. xix., C 863 ff). See also -in Case 36 a terracotta food warmer, from Olbia, in the form of a -shrine (No. =335=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.--BRONZE STRIGILS AND OIL-FLASK (NO. 337). Ca. -2:7.] - -=The Bath.=--Certain implements shown in Case 37 illustrate the -routine of the bath, which occupied a large place in the life both -of the Greeks and Romans. Celsus, who wrote on the art of medicine -probably early in the first century after Christ, recommended the -bather first to go into the moderately heated room (_tepidarium_), and -perspire slightly, then to anoint himself and to pass into the hot air -room. After perspiring there he was to pour hot, warm, and cold water -alternately over his head, then to scrape himself with the strigil, -and finally to anoint himself--the last probably a precaution against -taking cold. This description will enable us to understand the use -of the implements carried by bathers. Of these the strigil is most -important. It was a curved piece of metal, usually bronze, but -sometimes iron, employed by athletes for removing dust and oil -after exercise, and by bathers for scraping away sweat and dirt. The -accompanying figure (fig. 125), drawn from a Greek vase of the fifth -century B.C., shows an athlete resting after exercise, and about to -use the strigil. Some times a strigil, oil-flask, and sponge are seen -on vases, suspended from the wall of the _palaestra_ where youths are -exercising. In Case 37 a small lekythos (No. =336=) shows an athlete -with a strigil, and an impression from a gem illustrates the method of -using that implement. The strigils here seen range in date from about -the sixth century B.C. to the third century A.D. Many of them are -inscribed with the name of their owners, and some have small figures, -_e.g._, a man dancing or a horse galloping, stamped upon them. Two -strigils which deserve special mention are the silver one found in -the sarcophagus of the Etruscan lady, Seianti Hanunia (second century -B.C.), and exhibited with that sarcophagus in the Terracotta Room, and -the beautiful bronze ornamental strigil in the Bronze Room (Pedestal -3), with the handle in the form of a girl herself using the strigil. -A complete bather's outfit of Roman date (No. =337=), found near -Düsseldorf, includes two bronze strigils and an oil-flask attached by -rings to a handle (fig. 126), and several glass vases for use in the -toilet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--SECTION OF ROMAN BRONZE PUMP FROM BOLSENA -(NO. 338). 1:5.] - -=Water Supply.=--A few objects in Cases 38-39 illustrate the methods -of water-supply among the Romans, which are characterised by their -completeness and excellence. The remains of two Roman double-action -pumps in bronze from Bolsena in Etruria (Nos. =338=, =339=; figs. 127, -128) are of special interest. These are constructed on a principle -invented by Ktesibios of Alexandria, who probably lived in the third -century B.C. They were worked by alternating plungers, raised and -lowered by a rocking-beam. The first illustration (fig. 127) shows -the less advanced but more complete pump in section, and explains the -method, of working. The bottoms of the cylinders (A) were connected -by pipes with the reservoir, and are furnished with flap-valves -(B), opening upwards. When the plunger (C) was raised, a vacuum -was created, and the water lifted the valve and rushed in. When the -plunger was raised to its highest point the valve fell again and -retained the water; when the plunger descended it forced the water -from the cylinder into the central discharge pipe through another -flap-valve (D) at the end of the horizontal pipe. BD in the figure -shows the structure of the flap-valves, which the Greeks called -[Greek: assaria] ("pennies") from their likeness to coins. F is -a complete plunger of the same type as those used in the pump -illustrated, but not belonging to it. Only two-thirds of the second -pump (No. =339=) survive, but the missing part (marked off in the -diagram by a dotted line) is supplied in the section (fig. 128). In -this example the more advanced spindle valve takes the place of the -flap valves, and the two valves side by side open into a central domed -chamber, in place of the simple central cylinder of No. =338=. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--SECTION OF SECOND ROMAN BRONZE PUMP, FROM -BOLSENA (NO. 339).] - -There are here several jets and spouts for the emission of water, one -(No. =339=) in the form of a pine-cone, pierced with small holes for -sending out a spray, others in the form of dolphins (No. =340=) and -the fore-part of a horse (No. =341=). The bronze stop-cocks seen in -Case 39 were used for controlling the flow of water from the cisterns -to the various parts of the house. They were inserted in the lead -water-pipes, portions of which still adhere to them. Their arrangement -is excellently illustrated by those discovered at the Roman villa at -Boscoreale, near Pompeii (see _Mon. Ant._ vii., p. 454, fig. 45_a_). -See also a gargoyle in the form of a lion for rain water (No. =342=), -and a bronze grating from the Mausoleum of Halikarnassos (No. =343=) -for draining it away. Various lead supply pipes and clay drain pipes -are shown in case 39. - -=Heating.=--In early times houses were heated by means of a large open -hearth placed in the middle of the principal room, whence the smoke -escaped as it might, through the door, or between the roof beams. Next -followed the use of portable braziers in bronze, such as have been -found in Etruscan tombs from the seventh century B.C. (cf. Italic -Room, Cases B, C). The small braziers used for cooking, etc., in the -Hellenistic period have been mentioned above, p. 118. A system of -heating by hot air was introduced by the Romans, but was used chiefly -for the warming of baths. For the general heating of houses such an -arrangement was, until about the third century A.D. exceptional, and -Seneca, writing in the first century A.D. regards it as an enervating -luxury. Several examples of Roman terracotta flue-tiles (No. =344=) -for the transmission of hot air are seen in the bottom of Cases 39, -40. - -=Shapes of Vases.=--Case 40 contains a small type-series of the -leading shapes of Greek vases, intended to teach the names current in -archaeology (No. =345=). - - (300) Cf. _Ant. du Bosph. Cimm._, pl. 81, where a restoration - of a table with a leg of this kind is shown; (301) The - couch in fig. 113 is after the restoration of a couch from - Boscoreale, given in _Arch. Anzeiger_, 1900, p. 178; (304) - Cf. Furtwaengler, _Olympia, IV._, (_Die Bronzen_), pls. 28, 34; - (305) _Cat. of Lamps_, 137; (308) _ibid._, 1; (309) _ibid._, - 66; (310) _ibid._, 97; (312) _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, - XXVIII., pl. 33; (313) _Cat. of Lamps_, 390; (314) _ibid._, - 1437; (318) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1435; (320) _ibid._, 1511; (323) - _Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 148, No. 4; (324, 325) _Cat. - of Vases_, IV., F 259 and F 267; (338-339) _Cat. of Bronzes_, - 2573-4; (343) Newton, _Hist. Disc._, II., p. 143. - - On the Greek house generally, see Daremberg and Saglio s.v. - _Domus_ and B. C. Rider, _The Greek House_. On the Roman - house, see Daremberg and Saglio, _loc. cit._, and Mau-Kelsey, - _Pompeii_. - - - [Footnote 41: Martial, xiv. 44: - - Esse vides lignum; serves nisi lumina, fiet - De candelabro magna lucerna tibi. - ] - - [Footnote 42: Cf. Martial, xiv. 121: - - Sum cochleis habilis, sed nec minus utilis ovis: - Numquid scis potius cur cochleare vocer? - ] - - - - -XI.--DRESS AND TOILET. - -(Table-Case F.) - - -The objects connected with the toilet in Case F are those accessories -in metal and other materials that have been preserved. The actual -fashion of the dress of the Greeks and Romans can be best studied -elsewhere--in the Vase Rooms, the Room of Terracottas, and the -Sculpture Galleries. A few words only need be said here as to the -principal varieties of costume. - -=Greek Female Dress.=--The very singular and modern-looking dress of -the Minoan ladies may be seen in the facsimiles of Cretan statuettes -and carvings in the First Vase Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE -DORIAN _Chiton_.] - -The earliest dress of women which is represented in the art of -historical Greece is that which was known as the Dorian _chiton_, or -tunic. It was an oblong sheet of woollen cloth, measuring rather more -than the height of the wearer, and about twice the span of her arms. -This blanket was folded as shown in the annexed diagram (fig. 129). -The tunic then fell into position about the figure, leaving the arms -bare, as in the illustration, which is taken from a toilet-box (E 772) -in the Third Vase Room (fig. 130). The dress in its simplest form was -now complete, but as one side of it was open, a girdle was usually -worn to keep the edges together. At Sparta, where Dorian manners -were preserved in their primitive severity, the side remained open. -Elsewhere it was partially or completely sewn up. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--THE DORIAN _Chiton_.] - -About the beginning of the 6th century B.C. the Ionian chiton was -introduced into Greece from Asia Minor, and became the ordinary -undergarment of women, in Italy as well as Greece, throughout the -classical period. It was in effect a loosely-fitting dress with wide -sleeves, girt at the waist. Being of fine linen instead of wool, a -mantle or wrap was worn over it to make up for the thinness of the -cloth. This construction is plainly shown in a drawing on the inside -of a cup (E 44) by the potter Euphronios, which represents a woman -busy with the knot of her girdle (fig. 131). The material was soft -and heavy, yet thin and transparent enough to reveal the form of the -figure beneath it. It is only in a dressing scene, such as this, -that the Ionian chiton is represented alone. Otherwise a mantle -(_himation_) was worn in addition. These mantles were of various -shapes and sizes, though always rectangular, and their arrangement did -not follow any fixed rule. Distinct fashions, however, in the wearing -of the over-mantle can be remarked at certain periods. Thus, when -the Ionian dress first came into use at Athens, an extraordinary -elaboration was cultivated, the folds being arranged with such -precision as to suggest that the garment is not a rectangular wrap, -but a made-up shawl artificially pressed and gathered. This style -of dress is best known from a large series of statues which were -discovered in excavations on the Acropolis of Athens. They are relics -of the city which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 B.C., and -give an accurate date for the prevalence of the fashion. The type is -represented in a statuette in the Bronze Room (fig. 132): the lady -stands in an attitude of archaic severity, and holds up with her -left hand the skirt of the soft Ionian chiton which is underneath the -shawl. - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--THE IONIAN _Chiton_.] - -The outer garment was afterwards larger than this, as well as more -simply arranged. Often the whole figure was wrapped in the mantle, -which was also drawn over the mouth and the back of the head. This -heavy style was favoured in the fourth and third centuries B.C., and -constantly appears in the most numerous products of that period, the -terracotta statuettes from Tanagra and elsewhere. Fig. 133 is from -one of these, and others in the Terracotta Room show very clearly the -beautiful and varied draperies of the himation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--GREEK BRONZE STATUETTE, ILLUSTRATING AN -EARLY FASHION OF WOMEN'S DRESS. 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--TERRACOTTA STATUETTE OF A LADY OF THE -HELLENISTIC PERIOD. 1:2.] - -=Greek Male Dress.=--A dress worn in early times was a tunic falling -to the feet, with or without the mantle. It continued in use as -a ceremonial and festal attire of elderly men, minstrels and -charioteers. It is illustrated in a drawing of Peleus by the -vase-painter Amasis (?) (fig. 134), in which the soft texture of the -long white Ionian chiton is indicated by wavy lines, and the heavy -mantle hangs stiffly across the shoulders. Subsequently the long tunic -was discarded, and either a short form of the same garment, which had -been in use before for outdoor exercise, was adopted in its place, or -the outer cloak was worn alone. The short tunic was worn as before -by men engaged in active pursuits, and by boys, workmen and slaves. -A common fashion of wearing it was to fasten the shoulder on one side -only, so that the right arm and breast were free for violent movement. -A series of statuettes in the Bronze Room represents the blacksmith -god Hephaestos in this working garb (fig. 135). The ordinary costume -of the citizen was the himation or a mantle of smaller size. With this -the right shoulder was usually left free, as with the tunic; it is the -common dress of men on the red-figure Athenian vases (see the Third -Vase Room), from one of which (E 61) the illustration is taken -(fig. 136). Men of leisure or high rank affected a more elaborate -arrangement of the himation, by which the whole body was enveloped and -the free movement of the hands impeded. The statue of Sophokles in -the Lateran Museum at Rome is a good example of the care which a -cultivated man of the fifth century bestowed upon the adjustment of -this garment (fig. 137). - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--PELEUS WEARING THE IONIAN _Chiton_.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF HEPHAESTOS, WEARING THE -SHORT _Chiton_. 2:5.] - -Other mantles were of various sizes and were distinguished by many -names. The _chlamys_ was the smallest, and differed from the rest -also in shape, though its scheme was still rectangular. It was rather -longer in proportion to its width, and was clasped round the neck by -a brooch. Its origin was in Thessaly, where it was the cape of the -native horsemen, and it continued to be used for this purpose in the -rest of Greece. Young men wore it, especially when riding, and it was -a light and convenient dress for travellers. A young horseman on a cup -by the painter Euphronios (fig. 138) has a gaily embroidered chlamys -hung evenly across his shoulders, and underneath is seen the skirt of -the short chiton. - -=Roman Dress.=--The dress of Roman women was the same as that of the -Greeks of the Hellenistic period, who are vividly portrayed in the -terracotta statuettes (fig. 133). Their undergarment was the Ionian -chiton, now called _tunica_, of which two were sometimes worn -together, and the overmantle was the Greek himation, by its Roman -name, _palla_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--MAN WEARING THE _Himation_. (From a vase of -Hieron.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--STATUE OF SOPHOKLES WEARING THE _Himation_.] - -For men there was also a tunic similar to that worn by the Greeks; -but in place of the himation the Roman _toga_ was worn, a garment of -entirely different shape. In the relief of a cutler's shop, which -is exhibited in Case 41, the shopman wears the tunic without a belt, -while the customer, who has just come in from the street, wears the -toga as well (fig. 193). In that of the forge, in Case 48, both the -smiths have the tunic alone, with but the right shoulders unfastened -and the skirts girt up to the knee in Greek fashion (fig. 192; compare -fig. 135). Yet the Roman tunic seems already to have departed from the -Greek pattern in having sleeves, though only to the elbows. Sleeved -tunics were not unknown to the Greeks, whose slaves are often -represented in this dress; but it was a foreign habit, and as such -avoided. - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--A HORSEMAN WEARING THE _Chlamys_.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE SHAPE OF THE TOGA.] - -The shape of the toga was roughly semicircular, the straight edge -being about six yards long and the width in the middle about two -yards, as in the diagram (fig. 139). The simplest mode of putting it -on was to place one end on the left shoulder, with the straight edge -nearest the centre of the body and the point almost touching the -ground. The left hand would be just covered by the curved edge. The -rest was then passed behind the back, over or under the right arm, -and over the left shoulder again, so that the point hung almost to the -ground behind. This was also a method of wearing the Greek himation, -and it is difficult to distinguish the two garments when so arranged; -but a close examination will discover the sharp point and the curved -edge in the case of the toga. At the end of the Republic and under the -Empire, to which period most of the monuments belong, more elaborate -fashions were developed, as in fig. 140, from a statuette in the -Bronze Room. - -We turn to the accessories of the dress and the toilet in Table Case -F. - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A ROMAN WEARING TUNIC -AND TOGA. 1:2.] - -=Greek and Roman Footwear.=--The general distinction was that the -Greeks wore both sandals, and also boots or shoes. The Romans wore the -boot, the _calceus_, but disapproved of the sandal. Part of Cicero's -charge against Verres was that he wore sandals, as well as other Greek -dress. - -The objects shown in Case F are either actual shoes and sandals -or representations of them from works of art, such as fragments of -statues; or applications of the device of a foot to the decoration of -such things as vases, lamps, tripod-feet, etc. - -The extant specimens include a Roman leather shoe (No. =344=) of cut -leather work, found in London; slippers from Antinoe in Egypt (No. -=345=), with coloured and cut leather work; a pair of cork soles -from Egypt (No. =346=), the edges of which were formerly gilt. A -well-preserved pair of soles is exhibited (No. =347=). They are made -of wood, divided at the instep, and plated with bronze, held in place -by iron nails. These appear to be of Etruscan origin, as several -examples have been found at Vulci (_Mus. Etr. Vat., I._, pl. 57, fig. -7). The sandal in its simplest form, as in the vase B 587 (No. =348=), -consists of a sole attached to the foot by thongs passing between -the great and second toes, and round the heel. The arrangement of -the thongs gradually became more elaborate, with the result that the -uncomfortable separation of the toes could be avoided. In the case of -the foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. =349=; fig. 141) there is -no toe-thong, but only a reminiscence of the ornament from which it -formerly started. An undershoe or sock now became possible, and the -shoe and laced sandal in combination (cf. the statue of Mausolos, -about 350 B.C.) became highly elaborate. See also the cast of a relief -in the Third Graeco-Roman Room (No. =350=) and the feet in marble and -bronze. In effect, the result was not greatly different from the Roman -military boot (_caliga_) bound up the leg with thongs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--FOOT OF THE HERMES OF OLYMPIA (NO. 349). -1:9.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--BRONZE STATUETTE OF A NEGRO SLAVE CLEANING A -BOOT (NO. 355). 1:2.] - -A simpler boot or shoe of modern pattern was also in use. In its -plainest forms it represents the Roman boot (_calceus_). Several -examples (No. =351=) are shown in this case. See also a vase (No. -=352=) in the form of a modern lace-boot. The nails on the sole are -arranged so as to impress _alpha_ and _omega_, and the mystic symbol -of the _swastika_ on the ground. A delicate gold model of a boot (No. -=353=) has [Illustration] [Greek: patou] "walk!" (?) on the sole. A -shoe has been found in Egypt, impressing at every step the invitation -[Greek: AKOLOUTHEI] ("follow!") The shoemaker at work in his workshop -is seen in the fifth century kylix (E 86; No. =354=). He is in the act -of cutting the leather with the semicircular knife of the form still -in use. - -In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the bronze statuette (No. -=355=; fig. 142) of a kneeling negro slave cleaning a boot. - - On Greek Dress, cf. Lady Evans, _Greek Dress_; E. B. Abrahams, - _Greek Dress_; on Roman, Heuzey in _Rev. de l'art ancien et - moderne_, 1897; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pallium_, _Peplos_, - _Toga_. On shoes and sandals, see _ibid._, _Calceus_, _Caliga_, - _Solea_. - -=Fibulae.=--Although the straight pin (cf. p. 137) was used for -fastening the dress, fibulae--that is, brooches on the safety-pin -principle--were most commonly worn. This method of fastening was of -early origin, and its use can be traced in all parts of Europe, but, -curiously enough, it seems to have been unknown in Egypt and the East. -The fibula experienced in the first centuries of its existence and in -the hands of different peoples so many variations and developments -of form, that these can be classified in distinct types, and their -presence in tombs and other deposits affords valuable evidence of the -date and origin of the objects with which they occur. - -The reader who wishes to pursue the study of the fibula with more -detail is referred to drawers 1-8 in Case D of the Bronze Room, and -to the collections in the Iron Age Room. In this case of toilet -accessories only a few of the typical forms are shown. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--FIBULA OF THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD (NO. 356). -1:4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--GREEK FIBULA WITH GEOMETRIC DECORATION (NO. -357). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--EARLY GREEK FIBULA (NO. 358). 1:2.] - -The simplest form of fibula is represented here by examples excavated -at Enkomi in Cyprus, which belong to the end of the Bronze Age, before -1000 B.C. (No. =356=; fig. 143). Starting from this primitive form, -the history of the fibula is one of progressive development and -elaboration. It must be observed in the first place that the whole -class of fibulae may be divided into two great groups--viz., an older -group, in which the coiled spring is unilateral, that is, a plain -spiral, between the bow and the pin; and a younger group, in which the -spring is bilateral, that is a symmetrically disposed double coil, on -each side of the pin. We deal first with the =Unilateral group=. In -Greek regions the development of the form, fig. 143, was mainly a -development of the catchplate in a vertical plane--that is in the -plane of the bow of the fibula. This plate, often with incised -patterns (Fig. 144; No. =357=) was a characteristic of the period of -geometric art in Greece. Two very large examples are shown above Case -D in the Bronze Room. The plainly curved bows may have some further -ornament, such as beads strung on them (No. =358=; fig. 145) or -imitation bead patterns, or a figure of a standing bird (No. =359=; -fig. 146). All these examples come from the island of Rhodes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--EARLY GREEK FIBULA (NO. 359). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--FIBULA FROM CYPRUS (NO. 360). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--ITALIAN FIBULA (NO. 361). 1:2.] - -Some from Cyprus are quite distinct, and seem to have no connection -with the others (No. =360=; fig. 147). In the classical period the -fibula was little used in Greece, in consequence of modifications in -dress which rendered such fastenings unnecessary. - -In Italy, on the other hand, the fibula flourished exceedingly. The -plain wire original, such as that given above (fig. 143) was soon -elaborated. In the catch-plate it developed either horizontally, that -is, by a beating out of the plate in a plane at right angles to that -of the bow (No. =361=; fig. 148) or longitudinally, by the elongation -of the catch-plate as in Nos. =362-3= (figs. 149-150). At the same -time developments were taking place in the bow. It became larger (fig. -149), and then was hollowed out to save weight and material (fig. -150), and assumed forms known as leech-shaped and boat-shaped--and -these threw out lateral knobs and ornaments (fig. 150), often of great -elaboration. Alternatively, the bow makes a second convolution (fig. -148), and may be adorned with horn-like pairs of projections (No. -=364=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--ITALIAN FIBULA OF LEECH SHAPE (NO. 362). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--ITALIAN FIBULA (NO. 363). 1:2.] - -An independent form is chiefly found at Hallstatt, in cemeteries of -the early European Iron Age. In this, two, or perhaps four, spiral -coils make the whole decoration of the brooch (No. =365=, fig. 151). - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--FIBULA OF _Hallstatt_ TYPE (NO. 365). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--FIBULA OF _La Tène_ TYPE (NO. 366). 1:2.] - -=The Bilateral form.=--The fibulae with the spring coiled on each side -of the central bow came into use about 400 B.C., in the late Iron Age -civilization, called the La Tène period, from the site on the Lake of -Neufchatel, where the richest finds have been made. Together with the -introduction of the double spring, there is a continued elongation -of the catch-plate, which is turned up as in No. =366= (fig. 152) and -attached to the bow as in No. =367= (fig. 153). Later its structural -origin is forgotten, and it becomes a solid framework (No. =368=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--FIBULA OF _La Tène_ PERIOD (NO. 367).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--FIBULA FROM BELOW SHOWING THE BILATERAL -SPRING (NO. 369).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--ROMAN FIBULA OF CROSS-BOW SHAPE (NO. 370). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--ROMAN FIBULA (NO. 371). 1:2.] - -The fibula of the Roman Empire was more like a brooch than a -safety-pin, if a distinction can be drawn between the two. The bow -became broad and heavy, while the pin was often made separately and -attached by a hinge. But it shows a strong connection with the La Tène -types, especially in the double coil of the spring, which was often -protected by a sheath (No. =369=; fig. 154). Even when the spring went -out of use, the fibula retained this cross-bow shape (No. =370=; fig. -155). The elaborate bronze brooch in the form of a ribbed band passing -through a ring (No. =371=; fig. 156) is stamped underneath with the -name of the maker (+VLATI+), in the manner of the Roman pottery. -Enamel or metal inlay was liberally applied in the decoration of the -later brooches. A large collection with great variety of shapes is -exhibited. The effect of the bright colours is best seen in the big -round pieces which were popular in the third and fourth centuries A.D. -(No. =373=; fig. 157). Animal forms were also common at this time, and -were similarly decorated with inlay (No. =374=; fig. 158). These -types were widely spread over the western provinces of the Empire, and -continued in use among the nations who succeeded to the Roman power. - -Somewhat akin to the fibulae are the strap buckles, which appear -to have come into use at a late period only. A group, nearly of the -modern form, is exhibited (No. =374*=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--LATE ROMAN ENAMELLED FIBULA (NO. 373). 1:1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--LATE ROMAN ENAMELLED FIBULA (NO. 374). 1:1.] - -=Jewellery and Ornaments.=--Jewellery in gold and silver can be best -studied in the Room of Gold Ornaments. The examples shown here are -chosen as types of the forms, rather than as choice pieces. - -=Bracelets.=--A favourite form of bracelet or armlet was modelled -in imitation of a snake coiled round the arm or wrist. See the small -silver bracelet of about the fourth to third century B.C., inscribed -with the names of its owner Kletis (No. =375=; fig. 159). The same -design is also used for finger-rings (No. =376=). Snake-coils of a -large size were also worn on the legs, as shown by a small terracotta -torso from Ephesus, which has this ornament on the thigh (No. =377=). -This torso also has a chain of beads passing over the shoulders and -crossing between the breasts. Such an arrangement is common on figures -in vases of the fourth to third century B.C. - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--BRACELET OF KLETIS (NO. 375).] - -=Finger-rings.=--The rings are generally set with an engraved gem -or bezel; some have revolving scarabs which are pierced through -the middle (No. =378=), another has a gold intaglio portrait of the -Empress Faustina (No. =379=), while an enormous bronze ring has the -design cut in the bezel itself, a double head of Hermes and a Seilenos -(No. =380=). These examples are in bronze and of poor workmanship, but -they serve to illustrate the general style of ancient rings. A great -number in gold and silver, arranged in order of date, are exhibited in -the Room of Gold Ornaments, where the subject can be more adequately -studied. The intaglio designs were for use in sealing, which was -more commonly practised by the ancients than it is now. Others have a -purely decorative purpose, and were worn in profusion. The bronze -hand (No. =381=) has rings on the upper joints of the fingers, -in accordance with a common fashion of the Roman Imperial period. -Fragments of bronze and terracotta also show the fashions of wear. -The Greeks of an early period did not usually wear ornamental rings, -although signets were in constant use, and it was not until the fourth -century B.C. that rings were worn for display. In Rome there were -class restrictions on the use of the gold ring, but these were -lessened as time went on, until in the late Empire they practically -disappeared. Betrothal rings were customary among the Romans, but in -Greece there is no record of their use. A gold betrothal ring is shown -in Case 53 (No. =639=). - -=Earrings.=--The bronze earrings are from the site of the temple of -Artemis at Ephesus, and are earlier than the sixth century B.C. (fig. -160). Two types are represented; the swelling hoop of wire, which hung -like a liquid drop (No. =382=) and the heavy coil, which was suspended -from a ring (No. =383=). For a very great variety of earrings, see the -collection in the Room of Gold Ornaments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--GREEK BRONZE EARRINGS OF EARLY DATE, FROM -EPHESUS (NOS. 382-3). 3:4.] - -=Bullae.=--The flat bronze pendants (No. =384=), with a circular -receptacle in the middle, are _bullae_. These are ornaments of -Etruscan origin, introduced early into Rome. They were designed to -contain amulets and charms, and were worn principally by freeborn -Roman boys, and occasionally by domestic animals. - -=Necklaces.=--The necklaces here exhibited (No. =385=) consist -of beads of painted terracotta and glass. See also the imitation -jewellery in terracotta, in the Terracotta Room, Table Case C. -Those of more precious materials are in the Gold Ornament Room. Some -fragments of terracotta show the Cypriote fashion of wearing numerous -necklaces together (No. =386=). - -=Studs, etc.=--Links and studs of Roman times (No. =387=) bear -a striking resemblance to the modern articles, as does a coiled -hook-and-eye which dates actually from the Bronze Age Period (No. -=388=). A peculiar fastening is seen in the double hooks which -probably served to loop together the two sides of a shawl or cloak -(No. =389=). They are probably of Roman date, and come in some -instances from the province of Gaul. - -=Pins.=--Some of the pins may have been used equally well to fasten -the clothing or to adorn the hair; but others were evidently designed -to serve only one of these purposes. Those in carved ivory are plainly -hair-pins (No. =390=; fig. 161). The roughly worked busts of Roman -ladies of the Empire indicate the period to which the series belongs. -The little statuette is intended to represent Aphrodite wringing the -water out of her hair, after rising from the sea. A fine gold pin -similarly modelled is exhibited in the Gold Ornament Room (Case K; -No. 3034). The ivory hand, which holds a cone and is encircled by a -serpent, has some magical significance, like the bronze votive-hands -in Case 106 (p. 57). - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--ROMAN IVORY HAIR-PINS (NO. 390). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--BRONZE AND SILVER PINS, OF MYCENAEAN AND -GREEK PERIODS (NOS. 391-6). 1:2.] - -The metal pins are less elaborate. The simplest shape was straight and -headless, a direct copy of the natural thorn which first suggested the -idea. A very primitive head is seen on the small bronze pin which is -bent round at the top (No. =391=; fig. 162_a_). It was found in the -island of Kalymnos, and belongs to the pre-Mycenaean age, say 2000 -B.C. A silver pin is similarly bent, but as it has a head as well, -is not so early (No. =392=; fig. 162_b_). Another prehistoric type is -represented by several bronze pins which were excavated from tombs of -the late Mycenaean age at Enkomi in Cyprus (No. =393=; fig. 162_c_). -These are pierced with eyes in which chains were fastened to secure -the pins to the dress or to each other. Three pins crowned by large -ivory knobs come from the same site and belong to the same period (No. -=394=; fig. 162_d_). The bronze pin with a head made of several discs -is Greek of the sixth century B.C., as it appears in the paintings -of the François Vase at Florence, which is an Attic work of that date -(No. =395=; figs. 162_e_, 163). Another classical type is the silver -pin with a moulded head (No. =396=; fig. 162_f_). Others of less -remarkable designs cannot be definitely dated. - -=Toilet.=--In the most personal aspects of life and manners there is -least room for change, for in the course of ages it is not man that -has altered, but his surroundings; and the study of such intimate -details reveals a close similarity between the ancient and the modern -worlds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--A WOMAN IN THE DORIAN _Chiton_, SHOWING THE -PIN ON SHOULDER.] - -=Combs.=--To begin with the more necessary implements, the combs go -back to a high antiquity. An ivory comb from Enkomi in Cyprus dates -from the Mycenaean age (No. =397=; fig. 164). It is of simpler form -than later combs, having only one row of teeth. The others are of the -Greek and Roman periods, and are made both of wood and bone. The usual -pattern is that of a modern tooth-comb, with a row of teeth on each -side of the body--one coarse and one fine. There are wooden examples -from Kertch, in South Russia (No. =398=). More elaborate is the ivory -piece, which is decorated with reliefs, a Gryphon and a lion on -one side and two cranes at a fountain on the other (No. =399=. The -original is in the case of Ivories, L). Another of good Roman period -is carved by an amateur hand with an inscription, doubtless in -compliment to the lady to whom it belonged (No. =400=; fig. 164). The -legend reads +MODESTINA·V·H·E·E+--the four letters at the end being -perhaps abbreviated epithets of the fair Modestina, _V(irgo) -H(onesta) E(t) E(gregia)_. A different type appears in the triangular -pocket-comb, which fits into a protecting case (No. =401=; fig. 164). -This belongs to the end of the Roman Empire, the fourth century A.D., -and may already show the influence of barbarian art. Similar combs -were brought to England by the Danes, and some of them which have been -found at York and elsewhere are exhibited in the British and Mediaeval -Department. - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--IVORY COMBS, OF THE MYCENAEAN AND ROMAN -PERIODS (NOS. 397, 400, 401). 1:3.] - -With the combs is a brush of vegetable bristles from an Egyptian -rubbish heap of a late period of the empire (No. =402=). - -=Toilet Boxes.=--Other relics of the dressing-table are the -toilet-boxes and scent-bottles. There is a Greek toilet-box from -Naukratis still coloured by the rouge which it contained (No. =403=); -and another has a carved wooden lid in the shape of a woman's head of -great beauty (No. =404=). A leaden box was found in a Greek tomb at -Halikarnassos (No. =405=). Another was given by Kratylos of Aegina -to Eulimine. The inscription, the modern turn of which is perhaps not -free from suspicion, describes it as a "slight token of respect from -a certain small Aeginetan" (No. =406=; fig. 165).[43] Other boxes of -bronze and ivory date from the Roman period. Most of the wooden -boxes are carved in fantastic or frivolous shapes: a swimming duck, -a crouching boar, and a shoe (Nos. =407=, =408=, =409=). These are -divided into compartments for the various powders, and some blocks of -paint are still preserved. For liquid ointments there are an alabaster -box (No. =410=) and three bottles of the same material and remains -of a leather bottle with its cork (No. =411=). An Etruscan bronze -_cista_, which stands on three human feet, contains a set of movable -tubes, each for a different unguent (No. =412=). The lid of this -receptacle was crowned by the small bronze statuette which stands -beside it. Besides cosmetics for the complexion, the toilet-boxes -may have held tooth-powders, for which there are many receipts in the -works of ancient writers on medicine. - -=Mirrors.=--For mirrors the ancients were at a disadvantage. The use -of glass was known, but was not common, and the ordinary reflecting -medium was a sheet of burnished metal. There are, however, two genuine -looking-glasses--one in a leaden frame, from Olbia (No. =413=), and -the other set, with several fragments, in a plaster slab, from Gheyta, -in Egypt (No. =414=). The glass was probably backed with foil, and it -is remarkable that the reflectors are convex, so that the image must -have been distorted. A similar surface is attempted on the square -sheet of metal, which is glazed with a vitreous enamel (No. =415=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--TOILET BOX OF EULIMINE (NO. 406).] - -The more usual metal mirrors have two principal forms: a circular -reflector, mounted on a handle like the modern hand-glass, which is -represented by a specimen in silver from Naukratis (No. =416=), and -a similar disc enclosed in a folding box (No. =417=). Both these -varieties were often decorated with engraving. See No. =417=, a mirror -from Hermione, with an engraved design of Aphrodite and Eros. In -the Bronze Room there are large collections of all types. A small -pocket-mirror in this Case has on one side of the bronze box a head -of Nero, and on the other the god Dionysos standing by a vine (No. -=418=). The disc is silver-plated, like most of these examples. Two -similar boxes have been turned out of large brass coins of Nero (No. -=419=). A fragment of a silvered mirror from Amathus in Cyprus has -a palm-tree engraved on its face (No. =420=). Though the design -indicates that this side is the front, yet the reflector was the -convex back, and thus, in a spirit quite foreign to Greek art, the -purpose of the thing was subordinated to its decoration. - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--BRONZE RAZOR OF PRIMITIVE SHAPE (NO. 421). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--BRONZE RAZOR FROM ATHENS (NO. 422). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--BRONZE RAZOR FROM SARDINIA (NO. 423). 3:5.] - -=Razors.=--The razor is another toilet instrument which existed in the -earliest times. No prehistoric specimens are in this collection, but -a primitive shape is represented by two circular blades with -stirrup-like handles (No. =421=, fig. 166). Others are of square spade -shape, with a twisted loop handle and a hole in the blade. One of -these is from Athens (No. =422=; fig. 167). A third type is shown in -three razors of Phoenician origin (from Sardinia and Carthage), with -long hatchet blades (No. =423=; fig. 168). These are ornamented with -engraving and have handles in the shape of swan's heads. All are made -of bronze, and were no doubt capable of taking an edge so keen as to -render them far more efficacious than their present appearance would -suggest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--BRONZE NAIL-FILE (NO. 424). 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--SILVER EAR-PICK (NO. 425). 3:5.] - -=Miscellaneous Toilet Implements.=--Next to the razors are placed -various tools of which the functions are easily understood. There are -several nail-files with a roughened surface, and a smooth notch -for polishing (No. =424=; fig. 169). Two of these are combined with -ear-picks, which were in general use at Rome. They have a minute bowl -at the end of a slender arm. A very elegant ear-pick, which has a -leaf-shaped scraper at the other end, is made of silver (No. =425=; -fig. 170). Others end in a sharp point, which may have been used -either for a tooth-pick or in emergency for a _stilus_ pen (cf. p. -199). Another ear-pick is combined with a pair of tweezers and some -other tools now lost (No. =426=). The tweezers were used for plucking -out such hairs as Roman fashion deemed unsightly. - - For _Fibulae_, see _Catalogue of Bronzes_, and _Guide to - Antiquities of Early Iron Age_ (Dept. of B. & M. Antiqs.); - (375) _Cat. of Jewellery_, 2775; (406) _B.M. Inscr._, 947; - (420) _Excavations in Cyprus_, fig. 149. - - - [Footnote 43: [Greek: Smikrou tinos Aiginêtou endees eimi - endeigma latreias.]] - - - - -XII.--DOMESTIC ARTS. - -(Table-Case G.) - - -In this Table Case, under the general heading of "The Domestic Arts," -objects are exhibited connected with the house industries of spinning, -weaving, and sewing, together with various groups of objects connected -with home life, such as locks and keys, seals, knives, etc. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--WOMAN SPINNING (NO. 421). Ht. of Vase 8-3/4 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--WOMAN SPINNING (NO. 422). Ht. of Vase 4-1/2 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--SPINDLES AND WHORLS, SHUTTLE AND LOOMWEIGHT. -2:5.] - -=Spinning and Weaving.=--(_a_) _Preparation of yarn._--The process of -spinning is clearly seen in the accompanying drawings from Greek -vases of the fourth and fifth centuries exhibited in this Case (Nos. -=421-2=; figs. 171-2). In each, a woman is holding up in her left hand -the distaff, a rod which is thrust through a bunch of unspun wool. -With the fingers of her right hand she is twisting fibres drawn from -the wool. The yarn is attached below to the top of the spindle, a rod -of wood or metal with a disc (whorl) near the bottom to assist the -rotation. When some quantity of yarn had been twisted it was wound -round the body of the spindle and hitched into a hook at its upper -end (see figs. 171, 173), to prevent it from unwinding. The twisting -process was then recommenced. An impressive description of the ancient -spindle is given by Plato in the vision of Er at the end of the -_Republic_,[44] where he likens the axis of the universe to the shaft -of a spindle suspended by a hook of adamant, and the revolving starry -heavens to a whorl made up of eight concentric rims, fitting one into -the other like boxes. Two bronze spindles (No. =423=) are seen in -the Case and are illustrated on either side of fig. 173. In the same -figure are shown four ivory whorls from spindles (No. =424=). Before -the wool was placed upon the distaff it appears to have been rubbed, -with a view to the separation of the fibres, upon an instrument known -as the _epinetron_ or _onos_. This was semi-cylindrical in form and -was placed upon the knee. Several examples in terracotta had long been -known, and were explained with little plausibility as covering-tiles. -One, however, was found with a painted design which first gave the -clue to its real use (Fig. 174). One of these _epinetra_ B 96 (No. -=425=) is exhibited in this Case, together with a fragment of a -second. Other examples are to be seen in the Second Vase Room (Cases -24 and 25), and one of these is illustrated here (No. =426=; fig. -175). A miniature example was found with the girl doll seated in a -chair, exhibited in Table-Case J with the other dolls (p. 195, fig. -234, below). - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--WOMAN WITH _Epinetron_ ON KNEE.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--EPINETRON OR SPINNING INSTRUMENT (NO. 426). -L. 14-1/2 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 176.--PENELOPE AT THE LOOM.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--LOOM WEIGHT (NO. 428). 2:3.] - -(_b_) _The Loom._--The only kind of loom in use in Greek and Roman -times was probably the upright loom. A good idea of its form is -obtained from the illustration (fig. 176), taken from a Greek -vase-painting[45] of the fifth century B.C., representing Penelope -seated beside the loom, with one of the suitors or Telemachos before -her. The primary part of the loom is the wooden frame (_jugum_) -resembling two posts with a cross-bar. Near the top is a roller, about -which the threads of the warp and the finished cloth are wound. The -threads of the warp hang downwards, strained by weights attached -to their ends. The row of nine rods fitted into sockets in the top -framework is probably for holding the balls of different coloured wool -used in the weaving. Coloured patterns are woven towards each selvedge -of the fabric. The band of winged figures must be regarded as a piece -of embroidery. (For tapestry weaving see below.) The two horizontal -rods lower down are the _canons_, which effect the alternation of the -threads of the warp. It may be noted that the threads are alternately -long and short at the lower end, so that the _canon_ would be inserted -correctly with great ease. The loom weights, which hang at the bottom, -closely resemble in form the sets (No. =427=) of pyramidal terracotta -and lead weights in this Case. The terracotta discs (figs. 173 and -177), which are pierced with two holes and sometimes have a stamped -design, are also probably loom-weights. No. =428= (fig. 177) has a -design of two dolphins plunging into the sea; No. =429= (fig. 173) is -stamped with a name--Kleodamos. As a loom weight was needed for every -thread of a warp, it is not surprising that they are found in great -numbers. Possibly the small bronze object (No. =430=) seen at the -bottom of fig. 173 may be an ancient shuttle, for passing the thread -of the woof to and fro in a horizontal direction, alternately before -and behind the threads of the warp. Afterwards they were driven close -together by the batten ([Greek: spathê]), a possible example of which -is the toothed bone object seen in this Case (No. =431=). - -Various specimens of ancient cloth are shown here. A piece from the -Crimea (No. =432=), with pretty geometric patterns in black on a -light ground, and a large fragment from an Egyptian tomb (No. =433=), -inscribed in paint "Diogenes, who was a patcher in his lifetime,"[46] -may be specially mentioned. - -The art of tapestry weaving was highly developed during the later -Roman Empire, especially in Egypt. See a fragment from Antinoe, fourth -to fifth centuries A.D. (No. =434=). The art of embroidery, that is, -of working with a needle on an already woven fabric, was practised -from very early times. See the small vase with a woman seated working -on a four-sided embroidery frame, supported on her lap (No. =435=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--BRONZE THIMBLE (NO. 436). 2:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--IRON SCISSORS FROM PRIENE (NO. 437). 2:3.] - -The objects illustrating ancient sewing, etc., speak pretty well for -themselves. Such are the bronze thimble (No. =436=; fig. 178), the -iron scissors (No. =437=; fig. 179), and the series of pins, needles, -bodkins, netting needles, etc. (figs. 180, 181). The needles and -pins are arranged in the Case according to their supposed order of -development, starting from the thorn or bone fragment with a hole -pierced in it. The Roman bronze needle-case from France (No. =438=; -fig. 182) is worthy of note. Similar cases were used by Roman surgeons -for their instruments. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--NEEDLES, ETC. 2:5.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182--BRONZE NEEDLE-CASE (NO. 438). 2:3] - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--NETTING-NEEDLES. 2:5.] - - (421) _Cat. of Vases_, III., D 13; (433) Petrie, _Hawara_, pl. - viii., 2; (435) _Journ. of Hellen. Stud._, xxxi., p. 15; - cf. Blümner, _Technologie_, 2nd ed., pp. 220, 221; (438) Cf. - Deneffe, _La trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain_, pl. 2. - - On the ancient loom, see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - _Textrinum_; Blümner, _Technologie_, I., 2nd. ed., p. 135 ff. - -=Cutlery.=--At the east end of Table-Case G will be seen a series of -Greek and Roman knives, ranging from the long Mycenaean hunting knife -from Ialysos in Rhodes (No. =438=) to the numerous Roman pocket-knives -with bronze handles, frequently in the form of animals (No. =439=). -The iron blade has often rusted away, as will be seen from the -illustration (fig. 183), which gives a selection of these knives. -(_a_) represents a handle in the form of a panther catching a deer, -(_b_) one in the form of a ram's head, with a leg projecting below to -assist the grip, (_e_) a hound catching a hare. The iron blades are -still preserved in the case of (_c_) and (_d_). The first, from Nîmes, -has a bronze handle ending in a woman's head; (_d_) has a handle of -the same material in the form of a hound catching a hare. - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--ROMAN KNIVES AND KNIFE-HANDLES (NO. 439). -Ca. 1:2.] - -For two reliefs of a cutler's forge and a cutler's shop, see below, -pages 156, 157. - -=Locks and Keys.=--The earliest and simplest form of door fastening -used by the Greeks seems to have consisted of a bar of wood set behind -the door, and made to slide into a hole or staple in the sidepost. An -advance on this arrangement was soon made, when the bar was pulled -to by a strap from the outside, and could be opened again from the -outside by means of a key passed through a hole in the door, and -adapted to lift up the pegs which held the bar fast in position. This -is the type of lock mentioned in the _Odyssey_,[47] where Penelope -releases the strap from the hook to which it was fastened, puts in the -key, and lifts the pegs, "striking them fairly." The key for such a -lock will probably have resembled No. =440=, marked _a_ in fig. 186 -below, the working of which is shown in the sketch (fig. 184).[48] -It was passed narrow-wise through the central slot, then turned, and -drawn back so as to lift up the pegs fitted in grooves in the side -slots. The bar below would thus be freed and could be drawn to and -fro by the strap. This type of lock is still sometimes used in the -East.[49] - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--HOMERIC LOCK (RESTORED).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--ROMAN LOCK, WITH RESTORATIONS SHOWING -ORIGINAL MECHANISM AND USE OF KEY (NO. 441). 3:7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--ROMAN KEYS. 2:3.] - -The majority of Roman locks, though of a more complicated structure, -are made on the same principle, as may be seen from the ancient lock -No. =441= (probably from Pompeii) here exhibited, together with model -lock of the same type (No. =442=) and a diagram showing its original -arrangement (fig. 185_a-d_). Here the bolt has been shot through -the end link of a chain, part of which remains (fig. 185_c_). It is -secured by pins, the ends of which fit into a series of perforations -in the bolt and are kept down by a spring. The bolt was released by a -key fitted with teeth corresponding to the perforations (fig. 185_d_). -The key lifted the pins out of the holes and took their place. The -bolt was then drawn aside, as the key was moved along the horizontal -slot. On account of the double movement, first vertical and then -horizontal, the keyhole is in the shape |¯. Several bolts, keys -(_e.g._ No. =442=; fig. 186_c_), and door plates for locks of this -type are exhibited in this Case. Three keys from Syria are shown (No. -=443=) fitted into the wards of the actual bolts for which they were -made. Notice the projections on the ring of key _c_, which were used -for shooting a supplementary bolt, a common device in Roman locks. - -The modern type of lock, in which the key works on a pivot and moves -the bolt backwards and forwards by a rotatory movement, after passing -through a series of wards, was also known to the Romans. This is -proved by the existence of several Roman keys solely adapted to a -lock of this character (_e.g._, No. =444=; fig. 186_d_). Such keys are -frequently found combined with finger-rings, a convenient method of -lessening the danger of loss. We may conclude that this type of key -was a favourite one for use with small padlocks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 187. ROMAN PADLOCK, WITH KEY RUSTED IN IT (NO. -445). Ca. 1:3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--ROMAN PADLOCKS (NOS. 446, 447). 1:1.] - -Padlocks of Roman date are common. In this Case three of a barrel form -are shown. One (No. =445=; fig. 187) has the key still rusted in -it. The padlock has traces of a chain attachment at one end, and was -probably kept hanging to a doorpost, while the bolt was shot into the -end link of a chain attached to the door. Two other Roman padlocks -illustrated (fig. 188) are more ornamental in character. One (No. -=446=) is in the form of a circular box with hinged handle, the free -end of which was fastened by pin-bolts within the box. There is also -a secret catch underneath. The other padlock (No. =447=) is furnished -with a chain attached to one side of it. The last link of the free end -was fastened inside the box, the lid of which was closed with a secret -catch. The head on the cover is that of a Sphinx, a hint that the -riddle of opening was not easy to solve. A hole in the floor of -the box makes it probable that it was fastened to the object to be -secured. - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--BRONZE STRONG-BOX, WITH COVER SEEN ON INNER -SIDE. _c_ AND _d_ EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF THE BOLT (NO. 450). 1:2.] - -Other objects deserving mention are the keys for raising latches (No. -=448=; fig. 186_b_), and the combined ward and pin keys (No. =449=; -fig. 186_e_), and also the very interesting Graeco-Roman bronze -strong-box from Tarentum (No. =450=; fig. 189). The box (_a_) has -a sliding lid (_b_), originally furnished on the inside with four -separate fastenings. Two are horizontal bolts shot home by turning -toothed discs from the outside; the third is the catch seen at the -end, which was held fast in the slot by a pin-bolt (_c_). This bolt -was moved by a disc on the outside of the cover, and was itself locked -by the turning of another disc behind it; it could only be drawn back -when the slot in that disc was brought into line with the bolt, as -indicated in design _d_ of the figure. The small catch on the right at -the end of the box fell into position automatically when the cover was -closed, and could only be unfastened by turning the box on its side. -The outside of the lid shows four similar circles, over which were the -revolving or sliding discs now lost (fig. 190). - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--COVER OF ABOVE STRONG-BOX (OUTER SIDE). -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--SEALS AND SEAL-LOCKS (NOS. 452-4). 1:1.] - -=Seals.=--These were closely connected with locks in ancient life, and -often in fact took their place. Aristophanes makes the women complain -that not only did their husbands carry the patent Laconian key, -but that they also (at the instigation of Euripides) carried very -complicated "worm-eaten" seals,[50] not likely to be forged. Several -objects in this Case illustrate the use of seals. When a man wished to -secure an object he tied it up with string and put a lump of clay over -the knot, impressing the clay with his signet. Such impressions are -seen on several baked lumps of clay here exhibited. One large lump -(No. =451=) has no fewer than eight Roman seal impressions (several -from the same seal), while the knot of the cord remains embedded in -the clay underneath. This Case also contains examples (No. =452=) of -Roman seal-locks (one in wood and several in ivory). The wooden lock, -found in Egypt, is shown in fig. 191_a_, where its probable use is -indicated. The lock was suspended from the door-jamb on a pivot -passed through the small hole seen at the left end. The loop or staple -attached to the door was then inserted in the groove, and the movable -cover slid through it, as shown in the figure. The clay or wax was -next pressed into the hole behind the lid, and sealed with a signet -(as in fig. 191_b_, top view). The door could then not be opened -unless the seal or the lock was broken. Such a lock would be very -useful to prevent the often-mentioned pilfering by slaves.[51] Another -interesting class of objects is that of the seal-boxes (No. =453=). -They are small bronze boxes with hinged lids, and resemble in form -a pear-shaped or circular lamp. Each box has a small slot cut out on -either side, and three or four holes pierced in its floor. The cover -not infrequently has a design in relief (such as might be impressed -from a seal), _e.g._, a frog (fig. 191_d_). The illustration (fig. -191_e_) shows a suggested method of using them. The box is fastened by -studs (passed through the holes in its floor) to the lid of the object -to be secured. The string is inserted in a staple on the front of it -and tied in a knot, which is placed in the seal-box and held fast by -wax stamped with a seal. The projecting stud-heads would assist the -natural tenacity of the wax, so that it would be impossible to remove -the string without breaking the seal. Other arrangements are, of -course, possible. For instance, the staple might not be used, and -string might instead be tied round the object to be secured. The -ends would be brought into the seal-box by two of the holes, there be -secured by the sealed knot, and would leave it by two other holes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--ROMAN CUTLER'S FORGE (NO. 457). Ht. 18-3/4 -in.] - -Another form of seal was that consisting of two lead discs connected -by a loop (No. =454=). The discs were pressed together and stamped on -the outer surfaces with a design (as in fig. 191_c_). In this way the -loop was securely attached to the object to be protected. Probably -these seals were attached to merchandise by manufacturers or customs -officials, just in the same way as lead seals are used in our own -time. Their use appears to have been confined almost, if not entirely, -to Sicily. - -A variety of labels in lead, bronze, and ivory is shown in this Case. -They generally have a hole for attachment, and bear the name and -initials of their owner. The bronze label (No. =455=), to which a -portion of the iron object to which it was attached still adheres, has -the name of the owner, C. Junius Hermetus, inscribed upon it. A second -label has the name of another member of the family, Decius Junius -Hermetus (No. =456=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--ROMAN CUTLER'S SHOP (NO. 458). Ht. 19-1/2 -in.] - -Seals were applied by the use of signet rings of gold, silver, or -bronze with the impression of the seal cut in the metal or on a gem -set in the bezel (see p. 136). The engraved ring was usually employed -for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing of a letter or -document, and the device of the seal was more or less ornamental. For -the somewhat allied group of bronze tablets, used for marking objects, -rather than securing them, see p. 192. - - (441) On ancient locks, see Diels, _Parmenides_, p. 117 ff.; - Fink, _Der Verschluss bei den Griechen u. Römern_; Daremberg - and Saglio, s.v. _Sera_; (453) Cf. _Num. Chron._, 1897, p. - 293 ff.; (454) Cf. _Annali dell' Inst._, 1864, p. 343 ff., and - _Mon. dell' Inst._, VIII., pl. xi. - - - [Footnote 44: 616 C, D.] - - [Footnote 45: _Mon. d. Inst._, ix. pl. 42.] - - [Footnote 46: [Greek: Diogenês êpêtês men ôn hote ezê ...]] - - [Footnote 47: xxi. 46 ff.; [Greek: - - autik' ar' hê g' himanta thoôs apelyse korônês, - en de klêid' hêke, thyreôn d' anekopten ochêas, - anta tityskomenê.] - ] - - [Footnote 48: After Jacobi, _Das Römerkastell Saalburg_, - p. 469, fig. 74, 1, 2 (modified).] - - [Footnote 49: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, IX., - p. 190 ff.] - - [Footnote 50: Ar., _Thesm._ 421 ff.] - - [Footnote 51: Cf. Plin., _H.N._ xxxiii. 26: nunc cibi quoque - ac potus anulo vindicantur a rapina.] - - - - -XIII-XVIII.--TRADE AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. - -(Wall-Cases 41-53, Table Case H.) - - - - -XIII.--TRADE. - - -The part of the collection now to be described deals generally -with commerce and the industrial arts. We have already seen the -bird-catcher (p. 115), the baker (p. 117), and the shoemaker at work -(p. 130). - -In the corners of Cases 41 and 48 are casts of reliefs from the -gravestone of L. Cornelius Atimetus, a Roman cutler of the first -century A.D. One relief (No. =457=; fig. 192) shows the cutler's -workshop, with two men working at some object placed on an anvil in -front of a furnace. One man holds the object with the tongs, the other -hammers it into shape. Above them hang a knife, sickle, tongs, etc. -Behind on the left is the bellows. The other relief (No. =458=; fig. -193) represents the cutler's shop, with numerous knives and sickles -hanging in an open cupboard. The cutler on the right, who wears the -tunic only, is showing a knife to a customer on the left, who wears -the toga, as a mark of dignity. - -In Case 41 is a cast of a relief of a pork-butcher's shop, in the -Dresden Museum (No. =459=). On the left, the butcher's wife, seated -in a high chair, is busy with a set of tablets, for the accounts. The -butcher is jointing a side of bacon on a massive block. Portions -of bacon hang on hooks. Behind the butcher is a spare chopper and -a steelyard, at present hung out of the way. The details of the -steelyard such as the weight, the alternative hook for suspension, and -the scalepan are shown (see below p. 161). - - - - -XIV.--WEIGHTS AND SCALES. - -(Wall-Cases 41-44.) - - -=Greek Weights.=--In Case B of the First Vase Room will be seen the -plaster model of a large stone object of triangular form, pierced -towards the apex with a hole.[52] It has the design of an octopus on -either side, and may with some probability be regarded as a standard -hanging weight (64 pounds). This object was found by Sir A. Evans at -Knossos in Crete, in the "Palace of Minos," and may be dated roughly -at 2000 B.C. A set of very early weights of the Mycenaean period from -Cyprus is in Case 41, consisting of haematite objects in the form of -sling bolts (No. =460=), passing in a series of gradations from large -to small. No definite system can, however, be deduced from these -weights. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--LEAD AND BRONZE WEIGHTS. 2:3.] - -The Greek weights of the historic period here shown are mainly of two -leading standards, known as the Aeginetan and the Solonian or Attic. -The standard weight of the Aeginetan system was the heavy mina of -9,722 grains (about 1-2/5 lb. avoirdupois). The Solonian (Euboic) mina -weighed normally 6,737 grains (nearly 1 lb. avoirdupois), but there -was a special heavy mina in use which weighed exactly double the -normal. This last was the original mina introduced by Solon, which -gradually gave way to the light mina of half its weight. Weights -of the Aeginetan and Solonian systems are here exhibited. Through -incompleteness or inaccuracy they often show considerable variation -from the norm. The mina was subdivided into 100 drachmae, and the -drachma into 6 obols. Certain stamped devices distinguish these -Attic weights, viz., the astragalos or knuckle-bone, the amphora, the -tortoise, the dolphin, and the crescent. Fig. 194 shows three weights -of the later Solonian standard: (_a_) a mina in lead stamped with a -dolphin and inscribed [Greek: MNA] (7,010 grs.) (No. =461=); (_b_) a -half mina in lead (3,399 grs.) with the device of a tortoise and the -inscription [Greek: DÊMO] (= [Greek: dêmou]), "of the people," (No. -=462=); and (_c_) a bronze weight of 4 drachmae (283 grs.) stamped -with an amphora and the word [Greek: TESSARES] (No. =463=). Sometimes -a half tortoise occurs, as in No. =464=, a quarter mina, or a half -amphora, as on No. =465=, a one-third mina. Various other standards -are represented in this Case, _e.g._ that of Kyzikos in Asia Minor, -but these need not be particularly described. A noteworthy weight is -the bronze one (No. =466=), in the form of a series of rising steps, -inscribed on the top [Greek: DIOS]. This probably is a temple-weight, -very likely used to weigh votive objects. Weights of a similar type -have been found at Olympia. The peculiar series of stone weights (No. -=467=) decorated with female breasts was found in the precincts of the -temple of Demeter at Knidos, and may be regarded as temple-weights, -probably made as a votive offering. They do not seem to correspond to -any known standard. - -Some weights are marked as standards. A lead weight of 10,863 grains, -with a design of two cornucopias (No. =468=) is inscribed [Greek: -Etous dls' dêmosia mna], _i.e._, "In the year 234 a public (or -standard) mina." The date is probably by the Seleucid era, and -equivalent to 78 B.C. Another example is the large square weight from -Herakleia in Bithynia, with a head of Herakles in relief (No. =469=; -fig. 195). It is inscribed "To the divine Augusti and the people" -([Greek: theois Sebastois kai tô damô]) on the rim in front, and on -the sides with the names of the aediles P. Clodius Rufus and Tertius -Vacilius (weight 41,494 grs., nearly 6 lb. avoirdupois). - -We have instances of weights of artistic form in these Cases. The -hanging weights from steelyards in particular (No. =470=; fig. 195) -are often in the form of a head or bust. - -=Roman Weights.=--The standard was here the _libra_ or pound, which -weighed 5,050 grains (being ·721 of the pound avoirdupois, which is -equal to 7,000 grains), and was subdivided into 12 _unciae_ or ounces, -the ounce again being divided into 24 _scripula_ or scruples. The -Roman weights are here grouped according to multiples or divisions of -the pound, and generally have their values marked upon them in dotted -characters. Thus the pound is marked +I+, the half pound +S+(_emis_), -and so on. The series, beginning at the bottom of Case 51, runs 10, -5, 4, 3, 2, 1-1/2, and 1 pounds. Fractions of the pound are 1/2lb. -(semis) = 6 oz; 1/3lb. (triens) = 4 oz.; 1/4lb. (quadrans) = 3 oz.; -1/6lb. (sextans) = 2 oz.; and one ounce. Fractions of the ounce are -1/2oz. = 12 scruples; 1/3oz. = 8 scruples; 1/4oz. = 6 scruples; 1/8oz. -= 3 scruples; 1/12oz. = 2 scruples; and one scruple. Some of the -numerous dark stone weights have inscriptions, showing that they had -been certified by proper authority. Thus one _libra_ (No. =472=) is -inscribed: "On the authority of Q. Junius Rusticus, city-prefect" [167 -A.D.]. In Sicily and Magna Graecia a weight called a _litra_ was used -instead of the Roman pound, weighing rather less than the _libra_. A -set of _litra_ weights in bronze, of late Imperial date, is shown -in Case 41 (No. =473=). An ounce weight (marked [Illustration] in -silver, and weighing 389 grains), belonging to this series, is seen in -fig. 194 above. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--BRONZE WEIGHTS OF ARTISTIC FORM (NO. 400, -etc.). 4:7.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--ROMAN BRONZE STEELYARD (NO. 475). L. 12-3/4 -in.] - -=Weighing Instruments.=--Of these there are two chief varieties, the -simple balance (_libra_), and the steelyard (_statera_). In the former -weight is set against, weight, at equal distances from the point of -suspension. In the latter the object to be weighed, suspended from -the short arm of the lever, is set against a small weight in an -appropriate position on the long arm. The Greeks seem to have used -the former only; the Romans used both. The use of the balance is -illustrated by the Greek vase with the design of Hermes weighing the -souls of Achilles and Memnon, and by the Roman lamp showing a stork -weighing an elephant and a mouse (No. =474=). The steelyard was widely -used in the Roman world. Owing to its portability, it was doubtless -much employed by hawkers and street-sellers, as at the present day. -We have also seen it above (p. 158) in the pork-butcher's shop (No. -=459=). Out of the several steelyards exhibited here, one example, -from Catania in Sicily (No. =475=; fig. 196), may be described in -detail. It consists of a bronze rod of square section, divided -into two unequal portions. The shorter portion has (_a_) two hooks -suspended from chains attached to the end of the rod by a movable -collar working in a groove (the object to be weighed was of course -attached to these hooks); (_b_) three hooks, placed at intervals -of about 3/4, 1-1/2, and 3 in. respectively from the collar, and -suspended from small movable rings. These hooks are in different -planes, corresponding to three of the four edges in the longer portion -of the bar. The bar is graduated on three of its four faces, viz., -on the first with nine divisions, each subdivided into twelfths. This -scale was used when the steelyard was suspended by the hook nearest -the graduated bar (as in the fig.). Objects weighing up to nine Roman -pounds could thus be weighed by moving a sliding weight along the -bar. The figure V will be seen at the fifth pound, the half pounds are -marked by three dots, and the twelfths correspond to the _unciae_. The -second face begins with VI and goes up to twenty-three pounds. It was -used when the steelyard was suspended by the middle hook. The third -face starts with XXII pounds, and goes up to fifty-nine pounds. In the -second and third scales, multiples of five and ten pounds are marked -by the figures V and X. Fifty pounds is indicated by the letter -[Greek: N] +N+, which has that numerical value in the Greek notation. -This third scale was used in conjunction with the hook nearest the -collar. The sliding weight (now lost) must have weighed about 17,000 -grs. (2-3/7 lb. avoirdupois). All the other steelyards here shown work -on this principle, though many have only two graduated scales and two -suspending hooks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--STEELYARD FROM SMYRNA (NO. 476).] - -Fig. 197 shows a highly ornate example of a steelyard (No. =476=), -lately acquired from the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The weight is in the -form of a bust of Silenus. The larger hooks are designed as heads of -serpents, and the smaller hooks as heads of eagles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--ROMAN BRONZE BALANCES (NOS. 477, 480). Ca. -1:4.] - -The steelyard principle was also applied by the Romans to balances, -with a view to avoiding the use of numerous small weights. An example -is No. =477= (fig. 198), where one half of the bronze arm is graduated -with twelve divisions corresponding to scruples (1/24 of an ounce). -The sliding weight would thus be used to determine weights of less -than half an ounce. The bar of another balance (No. =478=) had 24 such -divisions for determining any weight below the ounce. A saucepan -from Pompeii (No. =479=) in the Naples Museum has the same principle -applied to its handle, for weighing the liquid contents. An -interesting little balance (No. =480=; fig. 198) may be mentioned -here. At one end is a fixed weight in the form of a head (of the -Sun-god?). This balance was adapted to test the weight of an object -weighing about 69 grains, perhaps a Roman coin such as the _denarius_ -or _solidus_. - -In the lower part of Cases 43, 44 it will be noted that the arm of a -steelyard and one of the arms of a balance are shown, with a bronze -fitting (No. =481=; fig. 199) designed to check the amplitude of the -oscillations. A corresponding piece may be seen on a railway platform -weighing machine. This piece was long misinterpreted as a standard, -etc., but its real intention is made certain by reliefs at Treves -(fig. 200) and Capua. - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--CHECK FOR STEELYARD (NO. 481).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 200.--A STEELYARD IN USE.] - - (457, 458) Amelung, _Sculpt. d. Vat._, pl. 30, p. 275 ff.; - (459) _Arch. Anzeiger_, IV., p. 102; (460) _Excavations in - Cyprus_, pl. xi., 368, etc. On Greek and Roman weights see - Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pondus_; _Cambridge Companion - to Greek_ and _to Latin Studies_; (466) Cf. _Olympia, - V. (Inschriften)_, p. 801 ff.; (467) Newton, _Disc. at - Halicarnassus_, II., pp. 387 and 804; (469) _Mon. dell' - Inst._, 1855, pl. 1; (472) _C.I.L._, XIII., 10030 (10); (474) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 595; (481) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2909. For - Treves relief (fig. 200) cf. Hettner, _Illustr. Führer_, p. - 6; for Capua relief, cf. _Jahreshefte d. Oesterr. Arch. Inst., - XVI., Beibl._, p. 10; for the standing balance, see also - Stuart and Revett, IV., p. 15. - - - [Footnote 52: See _Ann. of Brit. School at Athens_, VII., - p. 42, fig. 7.] - - - - -XV.--TOOLS, BUILDING, AND SCULPTURE. - -(Wall-Cases 45-48.) - - -=Tools.=--These are exhibited in Cases 45-46. The objects for the most -part speak for themselves, but attention may be called to one or two -of the most interesting. Such is the Roman bronze set-square (No. -=482=; fig. 201), furnished with a base to enable it to stand. Its -outer edges would be used by masons or carpenters to determine angles -of 90° and 45° respectively. The inner angle of 90° would be useful -for testing the true position of objects set at right angles to -one another, such as the sides of a box, etc. The simplest type of -set-square, that formed by two edges at right angles to one another, -is seen in No. =483=. Notice the set of bronze plummets (No. =484=), -which were suspended from strings. The one illustrated (fig. 201) has -_Bassi_, "belonging to Bassus," inscribed on it in punctured letters. -Two other inscribed tools are of interest. The one is the sickle-like -iron blade from, perhaps, a gardener's knife, with the inscription, -"Durra made me" (No. =485=), the other a finely made Greek bronze -chisel, bearing the name of Apollodoros (No. =486=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--ROMAN SET-SQUARE AND PLUMMET (NOS. 482, -484). 1:4.] - -=Building materials and Sculptures.=--Cases 45-48 contain objects -illustrating the materials and methods of Greek and Roman builders and -sculptors. There are several Greek tiles dated by the impression of a -magistrate's name, _e.g._, "Under Aeschyliskos," "Under Apollodoros," -the latter (No. =487=) bearing traces of the feet of a dog which has -run across the tile before it was dry. - -The characteristic stamps on the Roman bricks of the Empire were -impressed by wooden blocks in which the legend was engraved direct -with a broad lettering, tending to exaggeration in the 3rd century and -later. The beginning of the inscription is marked by a small raised -circle, and the information given includes the name of the estate -(often imperial) from which the clay comes, the name of the potter and -his kiln, and sometimes the date by the consulship, though all these -pieces of information do not necessarily occur on the same tile. As -typical examples may be given: No. =488=, here illustrated (fig. -202), bearing the device of a pine-cone between two branches, and the -inscription _ex fig(linis) M. Herenni Pollionis dol(iare) L. Sessi -Successi_, "From the pottery of M. Herennius Pollio; baked by L. -Sessus Successus"; and No. =489=, with the device of Victory, and the -inscription: "Brick from the Publinian pottery (made with clay from) -the estate of Aemilia Severa." A large number of the estates from -which the clay came were, it should be noted, owned by women. - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--ROMAN STAMPED TILE (NO. 488). Ca. 1:3.] - -No. =490= is an example of a dated brick--_Imp. Antonino II (= iterum) -et Br(u)ttio Co(n)s(ulibus)_ _i.e._, 139 A.D. The stamp was first -engraved by error with the name of Balbinus, consul of 137 A.D., and -afterwards corrected by re-engraving +RTTIO+ on +ALBIN+. No. =491= -refers to the _portus_, _i.e._, the depot of Licinius. - -Many of the bronze accessories of building are shown here, such as two -pairs of bronze door-knockers from Syria (No. =492=). - -The bronze dowels (No. =493=) were employed for fastening together -stone sections, such as the drums of columns. They are often in the -form of truncated cones placed base to base, the thickest part being -thus in the position where the strain was greatest (fig. 203_a_). -Other dowels from the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos are in the form -of bronze cylinders in collars of bronze, rigidly fixed by three -key-pieces. The cylinders were set in the great stone which closed the -entrance of the Mausoleum, and were intended to drop half their length -into the corresponding sockets in the lower sill of the entrance (Nos. -=494-495=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--BRONZE DOWEL AND DOOR-PIVOT (NOS. 493, 496). -1:2.] - -A series of bronze coverings (No. =496=) for the pivots of doors -reminds us of the fact that in ancient times most of the doors worked -on a different principle from our own. The bronze-covered pivots (fig. -203_b_), rigidly fixed to the door by a key-piece, turned in bronze -sockets(_c_) fitted into the lintel or threshold. This arrangement -explains the allusions to the grating of doors met with in ancient -writers.[53] Hinges of the modern type were, however, well known. -Examples are to be seen in Cases 47, 48, among them a hinge with the -fragments of the wood, to which it was originally attached, still -adhering (No. =497=). - -Towards the end of the Republic and under the Empire the Romans -devoted much attention to the adornment of their buildings, public and -private. For this purpose marbles of every variety were imported from -all parts of the world, while an elaborate system of wall-painting was -also developed. Mamurra, an officer of Julius Caesar, is said to have -been the first to veneer the walls of his house with marble. A few -selected examples from the Tolley collection of polished specimens of -the materials used in ancient Rome are here exhibited (No. =498=). The -whole collection comprises some 700 specimens, so that we cannot be -surprised that Pliny declines to enumerate the varieties known in -his day, on account of the vastness of their number.[54] The simpler -building materials used at Rome were, besides the tiles or bricks -already mentioned, the hard limestone rock known as travertine and the -volcanic tufa and peperino. A specimen of the last is shown here. - -The place of hanging pictures in ancient houses was largely taken by -fresco wall-paintings, several fragments of which are here shown. -The floors of the houses were not covered with carpets, but were -frequently decorated with mosaics, which might range from simple -geometric patterns in black and white (as in many of the specimens -here seen) to elaborate pictorial designs. The construction of these -pavements, out of small stone cubes (_tesserae_) set in cement, is -clearly seen in the examples exhibited. Genuine mosaic was sometimes -imitated in painted plaster. One or two such fragments can be seen in -the Case. - -As examples of the processes of sculpture, note a half-finished -figure of a seated Sphinx (No. =499=); and a cast (No. =500=) of -a half-finished figure of Hermes, from a private collection. The -sculptor has made free use of the drill for the roughing out of the -figure, and at the same time has brought the exposed parts to a high -degree of finish. A piece of bead and reel moulding (No. =501=) is -also unfinished. - - (=484=) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v., _Perpendiculum_. - - (=488=) For the stamped Roman bricks see, _Cat. of - Terracottas_, E 148-153. For _C.I.L._ reff., see _ibid._ (but E - 151 = _C.I.L._ xv. 214). - - (=494=, =495=) Newton, _Disc. at Halicarnassus_, II (1) p. 97; - _Cat. of Sculpture_, II, 990, 991. - - (=498=) Cf. Pullen, _Handbook of Ancient Roman Marbles_. - - - [Footnote 53: Virgil, _Ciris_, 222: - - Marmoreo aeratus stridens in limine cardo. - ] - - [Footnote 54: _H.N._ xxxvi. 54.] - - - - -XVI.--HORSES AND CHARIOTS. - -(Wall-Cases 49-51.) - - -=Chariots and Carts.=--The war-chariot plays a conspicuous part in -the Homeric poems, and the horse and chariot are there so closely -identified that we find the phrase "he leapt from his horses" used -as equivalent to "he leapt from his chariot." After the Homeric age, -however, the use of the chariot in war died out in Greece and it -thenceforward appears most conspicuously in the great Greek games, -where it was used for racing purposes. A very early example of this -racing chariot may be seen on a Boeotian bowl of the eighth century -(on the top of Case D, First Vase Room).[55] Here are depicted two -chariots with a high open framework at front and back, each drawn -(apparently) by a single horse, and driven by a man clothed in a long -robe distinctive of the Greek charioteer. There is little doubt that -in reality the chariots are meant to be drawn by two horses, and that -the deceptive appearance is due to the limitations of the artist. -On Greek monuments of a later date than this vase, the light racing -chariot is constantly represented. Some primitive chariots in -terracotta and stone from Cyprus are also shown in Case 50. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--ROMAN RACING CHARIOT (NO. 502). L. 10-1/2 -in.] - -Roman chariots are represented by a good bronze model (No. =502=; fig. -204) found in the Tiber. This is a racing car, drawn at full speed by -two horses, one of which is now lost. It corresponds closely to the -cars used for racing in the circus, such as may be seen in Case 110. -At the end of the pole (appearing just behind the horse's mane) is -a decoration in the form of a ram's head, an ornament of the same -character as the four bronze objects placed with the horse-muzzles in -the upper part of Case 51 (No. =503=). These have decorations in the -form of the bust of a Satyr blowing a horn, and busts of a boy, an -Amazon, and a Cupid respectively. In the lowest parts of Cases 50 and -51 are various bronze decorations, which have no doubt belonged to -axle-boxes and other parts of a chariot, but their exact arrangement -is not clear. - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--ROMAN CAR FOR CARRYING IMAGES TO THE CIRCUS -(NO. 506). L. 2 ft. 10-1/2 in.] - -Another form of Roman car is illustrated by the fine hanging bronze -lamp representing the Moon-goddess (Luna), drawn in her chariot by a -pair of bulls (No. =504=). The lamp was for three wicks, two on the -outer sides of the bulls, and one at the back of Luna's head. The -goddess is represented on coins of the second and third century after -Christ in a similar bull-car.[56] A terracotta (No. =505=) is in the -form of a four-wheeled hooded waggon, probably a travelling car of the -type called [Greek: apênê] by the Greeks and _raeda_ by the Romans. -In the top of Case 49 is a marble relief (No. =506=; fig. 205) -representing a covered two-wheeled cart drawn by four horses. The -sides of the cart are decorated with reliefs, depicting Jupiter and -the two Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux. Probably the car is a _tensa_, -used to convey images of the gods to and from the circus on the -occasion of the games, and for other religious purposes. The relief -formed part of a sarcophagus of about the third century after Christ. - -=Horse-trappings.=--Case 50 contains two interesting sets of bronze -harness of an early date from Italy, probably of the eighth century -B.C. (No. =507=). They are mounted upon leather, and placed on models -of horses' heads; the sidepieces of the bits are themselves in the -form of horses. Of much later date, perhaps of the fifth or fourth -century B.C., is the Greek bit from Achaea (No. =508=; fig. 206). It -is remarkable for its severe character, but was certainly not out of -the ordinary, for a bit of precisely similar character is described -by Xenophon in his treatise on horsemanship (early fourth century -B.C.).[57] He says there were two varieties of this type of bit, the -mild and the severe. In the present example we may probably recognise -the severe variety, which had "the 'wheels' heavy and small and the -'hedgehogs' sharp, in order that the horse when he got it into his -mouth might be distressed by its roughness and give up resisting." -The "wheels" are clearly the central discs for pressing on the tongue, -while the prickly cylinders at the sides were aptly termed "hedgehogs" -by the Greeks. In this same Case there are also examples of the milder -Roman bit, one in iron and another in lead, perhaps intended for -votive use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--GREEK BIT (NO. 508). Width, ca. 9 in.] - -Case 51 contains three examples of muzzles for horses (No. =509=), -nearly complete, with a fragment of a fourth. These muzzles are in -bronze, but we can hardly expect that this was the usual material. -Probably the bronze examples were reserved for state occasions or -else only used by the very wealthy. The muzzles depicted on vases -seem rather to be of some pliant material--leather, for example. It is -probable that all the bronze examples in this Case belong to the Greek -period, though the one here illustrated (fig. 207) has been assigned -to as late a date as the fourth century after Christ. The muzzle was -only used when the horse was being rubbed down or led, not when he -was ridden or driven. Xenophon[58] observes that "the groom must -understand how to put the muzzle on the horse, when he takes him out -to rub him or to roll him. And, indeed, wherever he takes him without -a bridle, he ought to muzzle him." The muzzles must have been fastened -to the horse's head by straps attached to the rings seen on each side -of them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--BRONZE HORSE-MUZZLE (NO. 509). Ht. ca. 9 -in.] - -It has been a subject of controversy whether Greek and Roman horses -were shod. There is no mention of horse-shoes in Greek literature, -and it seems improbable that they were used by the Greeks. Xenophon -advises the use of a specially constructed stone floor for hardening -the horse's hoofs,[59] but in spite of such precautions, it is not -surprising to hear that the Athenian cavalry horses sometimes went -lame as a result of continuous work on hard ground.[60] Horse-shoes -are occasionally (though rarely) spoken of in Roman literature. Their -use seems to have been quite exceptional as when Nero, for instance, -had his mules shod with silver.[61] In the lower part of Case 51 will -be seen a series of iron shoes of the Roman period (No. =510=; fig. -208), for the most part found in the south of France. It is impossible -to believe that these were ever used as ordinary horse-shoes. The -most plausible theory is that they were "hobbles," put on the feet of -horses and other quadrupeds to prevent them straying. The upper part -of this same Case contains sets of spurs (No. =511=), most of them -probably Roman. The arrangement for attaching the spurs to the heel -varies. Two have loops formed by the head and neck of swans, three -have discs or knobs, while another has holes for laces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--IRON HOBBLE (NO. 510). 1:4.] - - (=502=) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2695; (=503=) _ibid._, 2696 ff.; - (=504=) _ibid._, 2520; (=505=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C - 612; (=506=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2310; (=507=) _Cat. of - Bronzes_, 357; (=508=) Cf. Pernice, _Griech. Pferdegeschirr_, - pll. ii. and iii. (56th _Winckelmannsfestprogramm_); (=509=) - _ibid._, pl. i. and pp. 6-16; (=510=) Cf. _Rev. Arch._, 1900 - (36), p. 296 ff; Smith, _Dict. of Ant._^3, s.v. _Solea_. - - - [Footnote 55: See _Journal of Hell. Stud._, xix., pl. 8.] - - [Footnote 56: _E.g._, on _B.M. Coins of Ionia_, - pl. xx. 7 (Coin of Magnesia: Gordianus Pius).] - - [Footnote 57: Xen., _De re eq._ x. 6: [Greek: prôton men - toinyn chrê ou meion duoin chalinoin kektêsthai; toutôn - de estô ho men leios, tous trochous eumegetheis echôn, ho de - heteros tous men trochous kai bareis kai tapeinous, tous d' - echinous oxeis, hina hopotan men touton labê, aschallôn tê - trachytêti dia touto aphiê].] - - [Footnote 58: _De re eq._ v. 3.] - - [Footnote 59: Xen., _op. cit._, iv. 3.] - - [Footnote 60: Thuc., vii. 27, 5.] - - [Footnote 61: Suet., _Ner._ 30.] - - - - -XVII.--AGRICULTURE. - -(Wall-Case 52.) - - -Farming, the rearing of live stock, the cultivation of corn, vines and -olives were practised by the earliest civilisations of the Aegean, and -of Greece. - -The use of the plough was also known at that distant period. In this -Case are shown three bronze ploughshares (No. =512=), which belong -to the Mycenaean Age, and were found in Cyprus. A plough in its most -primitive form was merely the trunk of a tree which served as the -pole, with two branches on opposite sides, one forming the share, -the other the handle. This was the plough in one piece spoken of by -Hesiod. The Mycenaean ploughshare belongs to a later development, when -the plough is made up of several parts, the "joined plough" of Homer -and Hesiod. Such is the plough seen in the very primitive bronze group -(No. =513=), where it is in the act of being turned at the end of the -furrow. To effect the turning the two oxen are pulling the yoke in -opposite directions. A black-figured vase of the sixth century, here -exhibited (No. =514=), shows the later plough in a simple form, which -has changed but little for many centuries, as may still be observed in -the East. The different parts can be seen more clearly from a bronze -votive plough of the third century B.C. at Florence (fig. 209). It is -made up of (1) a horizontal share-beam, to which is fastened the iron -share, (2) a pole, at the end of which is the yoke, (3) the vertical -handle. This type of plough is exactly described by Virgil in the -_Georgics_.[62] - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--BRONZE VOTIVE PLOUGH.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--WINE BEING DECOCTED (NO. 518). L. 1 ft. 9 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--MEN GATHERING OLIVES (NO. 521). Ca. 1:2.] - -The ploughman was followed by the sower, who is represented on the -vase mentioned above (No. =514=) with a basket from which he scatters -the seed in the furrow. At harvest-time a sickle was used to cut the -grain, of which instrument two iron specimens are shown in the -Case, from Lycia in Asia Minor (No. =515=). Winnowing the grain was -accomplished either by means of a shovel or a basket of peculiar shape -([Greek: liknon], _vannus_); on a terracotta relief in the Museum (D -525, Case 75, Terracotta Room Annexe) the infant Dionysos is being -rocked in one of these objects instead of a cradle, by a Satyr and a -Nymph. - -Of fruit crops the vine and the olive were by far the most important -in the Greek and Roman world, and great attention was paid to their -cultivation. The operations involved in the manufacture of both -wine and oil find many illustrations among ancient works of art. The -gathering of grapes is illustrated by a Roman terracotta relief (No. -=516=) exhibited in the Case, where a Satyr is picking grapes from -a vine. Another relief of the same class (No. =517=) depicts the -treading out of the grapes in the wine-press, also by Satyrs, two of -whom are balancing themselves by holding a ring between them while -they tread the grapes in an oblong trough to the tune of flutes. An -elderly Satyr brings up fresh supplies in a basket. The massive bronze -rings commonly known as "athletes' rings" may have been used at the -wine-press (No. =517*=). - -The must or new wine was partly used for drinking as soon as ready, -partly decocted into a sort of jelly (_defrutum_), and partly stowed -in cellars in large casks or jars (_dolia_); in the latter case -after being fermented for nine days it was covered up and sealed. The -commoner kinds were drunk direct from the _dolia_, the finer sorts -drawn off into amphorae and stored up. On the marble reliefs here -given (No. =518=; fig. 210) we have a representation of the conversion -of the must into _defrutum_: two men are attending to a caldron -placed over a fire, while a third is pouring wine from an amphora into -another caldron, and a fourth is waiting to fill a jug from the same. -In the lowest part of the Case is exhibited the upper part of an -amphora with long neck and two handles (whence the frequent term -_diota_), as an example of those used for the storage of wine. The -terracotta figure of a man carrying a wineskin and one of these -_diotae_ (No. =519=), and a Roman lamp depicting slaves carrying casks -of wine, should also be noted (No. =520=). - -The cultivation of the olive is well illustrated by a black-figured -vase of the sixth century B.C. (No. =521=; fig. 211), showing a -primitive method of gathering the fruit: a youth has climbed to the -top of the tree, and he and two men are beating the branches with -sticks to bring the fruit down, while another youth collects it in a -vessel. This method is expressly condemned by Varro, an early Roman -writer on agriculture.[63] - -In order to extract the oil from the pulp of the fruit, it was -necessary to use a press of some kind, such as we see on the -terracotta relief here exhibited (No. =522=; fig. 212), of the first -century B.C. Here the press consists of flat stones between which -layers of olives are placed; to the uppermost stone is fastened a -long pole, which serves as a lever, and is being worked by two Satyrs; -round the press a rope is wound many times. Compare the large vase in -the Hall of Inscriptions (_Cat. of Sculpture_, 2502). - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--SATYRS AT OIL-PRESS (NO. 522). Ht. 7 in.] - -The remaining objects in this Case are mostly illustrative of men or -beasts of burden engaged in agricultural and kindred occupations, such -as the goat-herd depicted on a Roman lamp, to whom the name of Titurus -is applied, with reference to Virgil's first Eclogue (No. =523=; fig. -213). The bronze figure of a donkey (No. =524=) with panniers recalls -the ornament of Trimalchio's dinner-table described by Petronius, and -may have served a similar purpose. Model panniers, and terracottas -of a donkey and a camel with the panniers laden with rural produce, -should also be noted. Several model carts from Amathus, in terracotta, -are either flat-bottomed, for general use, or in vase-shape, for the -transport of wine or other liquids (No. =525=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--GOATHERD WITH FLOCK (NO. 523). Diam. 3-3/4 -in.] - - (=512=) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 15, 1477; (=516=, - =517=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D 542, D 544; (=518=) _Cat. of - Sculpture_, III., 2212; (=520=) _Cat. of Lamps_, 1142; (=521=) - _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 226; (=522=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, D - 550. Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Torcular_; (=523=) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 661; (=524=) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. - _Clitellae_; (=525=) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 112. - - - [Footnote 62: i. 169 ff.; Cf. Gow, _Journ. of Hellenic - Studies_, xxxiv., p. 249.] - - [Footnote 63: Varro, _Res Rust._ i. 55: de oliveto - oleam ... legere oportet potius quam quatere.] - - - - -XVIII.--INDUSTRIAL ARTS. - -(Table-Case H.) - - -In Table Case H we have objects illustrating the craft of the metal -worker, the potter, the turner, and the woodworker. - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--LIMESTONE HALF-MOULD, WITH CAST FROM SAME -(NO. 531). Ht. 4-1/2 in.] - -Towards one end of the case are objects illustrating the processes of -metal work. A Greek vase of the sixth century B.C. depicts a man in -the act of thrusting a mass of metal into a blazing furnace. -Anvil, tongs, and hammers are visible (No. =526=). Beside it is a -reproduction of a Vase in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, showing an -armourer at work on a helmet (No. =527=). Two limestone moulds of a -very early period are for casting primitive implements (No. =528=). -Note also a mould (No. =529=) for a metal weight of a type similar to -that with the head of Herakles in Case 41. The mould shows a female -head with a cornucopia before it, apparently a personification of -Profit ([Greek: Kerdos]), whose name appears above the head. Another -mould (No. =530=) is intended for a series of lead weights of values -[Greek: a'] to [Greek: ê'], that is, 1 to 8. (Compare a similar set in -Case 42.) It should be observed that the moulds seen here are, for -the most part, only half-moulds, or in some cases even less. A -corresponding half-mould had to be placed in position before casting -could be effected. This is well shown by a limestone half-mould from -Rome (No. =531=; fig. 214) for casting lead counters, with designs -representing Victory, Fortune, and Athena. Here can be seen the -channels by which the molten metal was introduced, and the holes for -the studs joining the two half-moulds together. In one of these a lead -stud still remains. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--PART OF MOULD FOR A RING OF THE SHAPE -INDICATED (NO. 532).] - -The steatite mould for a ring of the Mycenaean period (No. =532=; Fig. -215) required a counterpart piece, and a third piece at the bottom to -complete it. Some of the steatite moulds which have no channels for -the molten metal, were probably used for the production of ornaments -by pressing and rubbing thin foil into the forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--GREEK POTTER AT WORK (NO. 533). Ht. 4-1/2 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--POTTER'S WHEEL IN TERRACOTTA (NO. 534). -Diam. 9-3/4 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--GREEK POTTER ATTACHING HANDLE TO VASE (NO. -535).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--POTTER'S KILN (NO. 536).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--CLAY LAMPS SPOILED IN BAKING (NO. 538). Ca. -1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--STAMPS FOR MAKING MOULDS FOR VASES IN RELIEF -(NO. 545).] - -=The Potter.=--At the end of the case are exhibits connected with -potters and pottery. Here is seen the limestone figure of a Greek -potter from Cyprus (No. =533=; fig. 216), seated and modelling clay on -the wheel. He reminds us of Homer's description of the potter's action -when he compares the whirling motion of dancers to the revolving of a -potter's wheel--"a motion exceeding light, as when a potter sits and -makes trial of a wheel fitted to his hands, to see whether it will -run."[64] Immediately behind is a potter's wheel in terracotta -(No. =534=; fig. 217), which has in the centre a depression for the -insertion of the pivot on which it turned. It was found on a primitive -site at Gournià in Crete. As the clay spun round on the wheel the -potter moulded it into shape inside and outside with his hands. The -foot, the handles, and the neck of the vase were moulded separately -as a rule and attached afterwards to the body. A design on a sixth -century Greek vase here exhibited (No. =535=; fig. 218), depicts a -Greek potter in the act of attaching a handle to a cup which rests -upon a wheel. When the vase or other object had been modelled in clay, -it then had to be fired. For this purpose a kiln was required, such -as one (probably Roman) excavated at Shoeburyness, a model of which is -here exhibited (No. =536=). It consists of a barrel-shaped chamber, -at about half the height of which is a horizontal table on a conical -support, with eight round openings pierced in its circumference to -allow the heat to penetrate above. Fuel was introduced below through a -small fire-chamber constructed at the side (fig. 219). The packing of -the objects to be fired required considerable care. For this purpose -the so-called "cockspurs" (No. =537=) were used for the larger pieces. -But sometimes there were failures, such as the two batches of Roman -lamps seen in this Case, which have become fused together in the -baking (No. =538=; fig. 220). If it survived the risks of manufacture, -the pot often needed repair when in use, and several examples are -shown of rivets, large and small, employed for this purpose (No. -=539=). The cover of a toilet-box (No. =540=) shows the method of -painting employed in the Greek red-figured vases; here the grotesque -head has been outlined in black, but the background has not been -filled in with black in the usual way. Two terracotta heads with -projecting stumps (No. =541=) show the manner in which the terracotta -figurines were built up of several parts. The heads were inserted into -holes in the trunks, and were then fastened in position with clay. An -unfinished clay relief (No. =542=) of a man with his dog, shows the -first process in the production of modelled relief, such as those in -the Room of Terracottas, Case 8. - -A mould (No. =543=) for making a bowl of the ware called Arretine from -its place of manufacture, Arretium in Central Italy, is shown, with a -cast from the mould beside it. An impression is also shown of the -mark of M. Perennius, the most noted of the Arretine potters, in -combination with his slave Bargates (No. =544=). Near the mould are -stamps, one with a design of a slave heating some fluid in a caldron, -and others of a bear and lion (No. =545=; fig. 221). These stamps were -used for producing the designs in the moulds, being impressed in the -clay while it was soft. Several specimens of these moulds and bowls, -which are of about the first century B.C., will be seen in Cases 39-40 -of the Fourth Vase Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--MOULD FOR LOWER PART OF CLAY LAMP (NO. 546). -L. 4-1/4 in.] - -The moulds for parts of Roman lamps, show the way in which these -objects were produced. The clay was pressed into the lower mould (such -as No. =546=; fig. 222) and also into a corresponding upper mould -(compare No. =547=), and then the two halves were joined together and -ready for baking. - - (=526=) _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 507; (=528=) _Excavations in - Cyprus_, p. 26, fig. 50; (=531=) Cf. _Bull. della Comm. Arch._ - xxxiii. (1905), p. 146 ff; (=532=) _Cat. of Jewellery,_ No. - 609; (=533=) _Excavations in Cyprus_, p. 93, fig. 145; (=535=) - _Cat. of Vases_ II., B 432; (=536=) _Proc. of Soc. of Ant._, - Ser. II., xvi., p. 40; (=542=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 376. - pl. 20; (=545=) _Cat. of Roman Pottery_, M 82, 83; (=546=) - _Cat. of Lamps_, 1401. - -=Gems and Pastes.=--In the next division of Case H are objects -illustrating the processes of producing Gems and Pastes. These include -a series of scarabs, scarabaeoids, and other beads at various -stages of manufacture (No. =548=); a series of clay moulds for -Graeco-Egyptian porcelain scarabs from Naukratis (No. =549=) and a -fine specimen of a paste cameo head of Silenos (No. =550=). Here also -are examples of stone socket-handles for a bow-drill (No. =551=). In -this and the next compartment several pieces of work are incised with -designs intended to be filled in with inlay (No. =552=). See also -a series of fragments of an acanthus pattern in ivory, evidently -intended to be inlaid. A piece of rock crystal is carved with ears -of corn in intaglio, gilded (No. =553=). See also examples of enamel -work, of the period of the Roman empire, on studs, seal boxes, etc. -(cf. p. 135, 155). - -=Woodworking, etc.=--An interesting wooden box of Roman date is -derived from Panticapaeum, in the Crimea (No. =554=). This has two -sliding lids, above and below respectively, each furnished with two -catches. The interior was divided by a horizontal partition, and was -again subdivided into numerous small divisions. An inlaid pattern -decorates the border of the box. Another box of simpler construction -(No. =555=) was found in a grave in Bulgaria. Various specimens of -fretwork in jet and ivory are shown, and two pieces of an egg and -tongue moulding, carved in wood, and coloured with scarlet and -gilding, from a sarcophagus, also found at Panticapaeum (No. =555*=). - -=The Lathe.=--In the next division are examples of work finished on -the lathe, in a variety of materials, as marble, alabaster, coloured -stones, crystal, bronze, ivory, bone, and wood; also a rough piece of -alabaster from Cyprus, derived from a lathe mandrel. - - - [Footnote 64: _Il._ xviii. 600 ff.] - - - - -XIX.--MEDICINE AND SURGERY. - -(Table-Case H.) - - -=Greek Medicine.=--From the earliest times, as indicated by passages -in the Homeric poems, the Greeks practised simple forms of surgery in -such matters as the treatment of the wounded.[65] In the historic -age of Greece we find temple or wonder-working medicine, practised in -temples of Asklepios, especially at Epidaurus; and at the same time a -school of medicine, of the Asklepiadae, seated in the island of Kos. - -A lively account of temple-healing is given in the _Plutus_ of -Aristophanes, where the slave Karion relates the experiences of his -master and himself when passing the night in the temple.[66] Examples -of the votive offerings deposited in the temples by those who had -been made whole have been mentioned in the section on Religion and -Superstition, p. 47 ff., and are to be seen in Cases 103-106. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--GREEK SURGEON AT WORK (NO. 556).] - -The more serious side of Greek medicine is inseparably connected with -the name of Hippokrates (born 460 B.C.), though the Koan school had -existed some time before his birth. The Asklepiadae were originally -members of a single clan, but the admission of persons from outside -soon made the clan into a medical school. The famous Hippokratean -oath, imposed upon members of the Koan school, shows the standard set -up before the medical profession: "I will conduct the treatment of the -sick for their advantage, to the best of my ability and judgment, -and I will abstain from all evil and all injustice. I will administer -poison to none, if asked to do so, nor will I ever make such a -suggestion. I will pass my life and exercise my art in innocence and -purity." In Greece there were both public and private physicians. -There were further dispensaries, or perhaps more accurately surgeries, -called [Greek: iatreia]. These were furnished with the necessary -surgical and medical appliances. The scene from a fifth century -vase-painting (No. =556=; fig. 223)[67] depicts a young surgeon at -work in an [Greek: iatreion]. He is operating on a patient's arm -(perhaps bleeding him), while another man, also wounded in the arm, -sits before him. A dwarf slave is ushering other patients into the -surgery, where bleeding-cups are seen hanging on the wall. Patients -also went to the [Greek: iatreia] to get draughts of medicine.[68] -Before the Alexandrian age it is probable that medicine was in advance -of surgery, for up to that time no scientific study of anatomy had -been attempted. Aristotle observes that the internal organs of the -human body were in his time very little known,[69] and what dissection -there was must have been practised on animals. The terracotta model -(No. =122=; fig. 36, above) of the heart, liver, lungs and kidneys -shows how vague the ancient idea as to the position of these organs -sometimes was. - -=Roman Medicine.=--Medical science for a long time made but little -progress in Rome. The Greek physician Archagathos, who began to -practise there in 219 B.C., became extremely unpopular owing to his -bold methods of surgery.[70] The Roman doctors were chiefly of Greek -nationality, and not infrequently were slaves or freedmen. Julius -Caesar encouraged foreign physicians to settle in Rome by granting -them citizenship, and under the early Empire Rome was overcrowded with -medical men, if we may believe Pliny and Martial.[71] - -The objects illustrating Greek and Roman Medicine and Surgery are -exhibited in part of Table-Case H. First in importance are the -surgical instruments, a selection of which is shown in fig. 224. -With rare exceptions these instruments are of bronze. The principal -varieties are here represented. There are several knives or -bistouries, an excellent example being the one from Myndos in Asia -Minor, with the upper part of the handle inlaid with silver (No. -=557=; fig. 224_g_). The lower part of the handle was in iron, and has -fallen away. The heavier bronze blades must have been used for various -purposes in connection with dissecting. The forceps is fairly common. -The interesting variety seen on the right of the illustration (_k_) -with its fine toothed ends (No. =558=) is probably an uvula forceps, -used for crushing the part intended to be amputated. An instrument -frequently found is the spatula or "spathomele" (No. =559=; fig. -224 _a-c_, _e_, _f_), so called from its flat broad end. This was -principally employed for mixing and spreading ointments, while the -olive-shaped ends were used as probes. Other instruments which call -for notice are the fine-toothed surgical saw (No. =560=; fig. 224_h_), -the sharp hook (No. =561=; fig. 224_d_), used for "seizing and raising -small pieces of tissue for excision, and for fixing and retracting the -edges of wounds." The bifurcated probes (No. =562=) were perhaps used -for the extraction of arrows and other weapons. A curious instrument -(No. =563=), the use of which was for long a puzzle, appears to be a -folding drill-bow and has been completed accordingly. - -More elaborate than any of these are the examples of surgical -appliances which have been found in the excavations at Pompeii, -and are now at Naples. These are represented here by a group of -electrotype reproductions, including anal and vaginal specula, and -other objects (No. =564=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--BRONZE SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS (NO. 557, etc.). -1:2.] - -The bronze cupping-vessel (No. =565=) should be noticed. Similar -vessels are seen suspended on the walls of the surgery depicted in -the vase-scene figured above (fig. 223). Burning lint or some other -lighted substance was placed in the vessel to rarify the air, and -its mouth was then applied to the part from which blood was to be -extracted. One such cupping vessel appears on the marble relief in the -Phigaleian Room, representing a physician named Jason treating a boy -with a swollen stomach (Fig. 225). Compare a similar consultation on -an engraved gem, under the immediate superintendence of Asklepios. -The bronze box (No. =566=), probably from the Cyrenaica, was almost -certainly used by a Roman physician for his drugs. It is divided into -several compartments, each furnished with a separate cover, and has -a sliding lid. Boxes of a precisely similar character have been found -with surgical instruments. Compare also the cast from Athens of a -votive relief with a fitted case of instruments (No. =567=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--MARBLE RELIEF. PHYSICIAN TREATING PATIENT. -Ht. 2 ft. 7 in.] - -A very interesting class of antiquities is furnished by the stamps of -oculists (No. =569=). These take the form of square or oblong -plates, generally of steatite or slate. On the edges are engraved -inscriptions, giving the name of the oculist, the name of his -specific, and its purpose. These salves were pounded on the stone -into a paste. They generally bear a Greek name, such as Diasmyrnes, -Crocodes, etc., indicating their composition. They appear to have been -made up into the form of sticks impressed with the engraved edge of -the stone, and put into cylindrical bronze boxes, which have from -time to time been found with Roman surgical instruments. One or two -examples of the stamps may be given: "Saffron ointment for scars -and discharges prepared by Junius Taurus after the prescription of -Paccius"[72] (fig. 226, bottom). "The anodyne of Q. Junius Taurus for -every kind of defective eyesight."[73] Puff names for the drugs, such -as "Invincible," "Inimitable," also occur. An engraved gem, from a -drug compounder's ring has a seated Athena and the legend +HEROPHILI -OPOBALSAMUM+--"Balsam of Herophilus" (No. =570=). Whether the balsam -was named in honour of the founder of scientific anatomy, or of a -more obscure oculist of the first century B.C., or of an unknown -drug-seller cannot be determined. A set of Roman lead weights, -probably used for the weighing of drugs, is here exhibited. They are -marked 1 to 10, the unit probably being the _scripulum_ of 18 grains -(No. =571=). Two small lead pots placed near the weights were used for -holding eye-salves. One from Corfu bears the letters +A T+; the other, -from Athens, has the tripod of Apollo, the god of healing, and is -inscribed "The Lykian salve from Musaeos" (No. =572=). Near these -pots are spoons with channels for melting and pouring the salves -into wounds (No. =573=). A piece of stone with corrugated surfaces -is thought to be for rolling pills (No. =574=). The ivory figure of -a dwarf afflicted with a peculiar form of spinal curvature causing -pigeon-breastedness is a work of considerable spirit, probably of the -third century A.D. (No. =574*=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--STAMP OF THE OCULIST JUNIUS TAURUS (NO. -569). 4:5.] - - (=563=) _Cat. of Bronzes_, 2674; _Journ. of Hellenic Stud._ - 34, p. 116; (=567=) Svoronos, _Athen. Nationalmus._ - xlvii, 1378; (=568=) Cf. Espérandieu, _Signacula Medicorum - Oculariorum_; (=574*=) _Papers of the Brit. School at Rome_, - iv, pp. 279-282. - - See on ancient medicine and surgery generally, Daremberg - and Saglio, s.v. _Chirurgia_, _Medicus_; Milne, _Surgical - Instruments in Greek and Roman Times_; Deneffe, _Étude sur la - trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain du III^e siècle_ (found - near Paris, 1880). - - - [Footnote 65: Cf. _Il._ iv. 218; xi. 844.] - - [Footnote 66: Ar. _Plut._ 653 ff.] - - [Footnote 67: See _Mon. Piot_, XIII. (1906), pl. xiii., - p. 149 ff. From a vase in a private collection in Paris.] - - [Footnote 68: Plat., _Leg._ i. 646: [Greek: tous eis ta - iatreia autous badizontas epi pharmakoposian]. - ] - - [Footnote 69: _Hist. An._ i. 16.] - - [Footnote 70: Plin., _H.N._ xxix. 12 f.] - - [Footnote 71: Plin., _H.N._ xxix. 11: - hinc illae circa aegros miserae sententiarum concertationes, - hinc illa infelix monimenti inscriptio: turba se medicorum - periisse. Cf. Martial, v. 9.] - - [Footnote 72: _Juni Tauri crocod(es) Paccian(um) ad - cicat(rices) et reum(a)._] - - [Footnote 73: _Q. Jun(i) Tauri anodynum ad omn(em) - lippit(udinem)._] - - - - -XX.--MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--ROMAN BRONZE FOOT-RULE (NO. 578). L. 292 -mm.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--BRONZE PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES (NO. 579). L. -7-1/2 in.] - -=Measures.=--In Case H are a few examples of ancient measures and -geometrical instruments. A Greek clay cup (No. =575=), inscribed -[Greek: hêmikotylion], contains exactly half a pint. The Greek kotyle, -therefore, according to this standard, measured exactly a pint. A copy -of a well-known Roman standard gallon, the so-called Farnese Congius, -is in Case 44 (No. =576=). Nos. =577= and =578= are two Roman bronze -foot-rules, measuring respectively 294 mm. (11·6 in.) and 292 mm. -(11·5 in.). The normal Roman foot measured 296 mm., and was adopted -under Greek influence, whereas the early Italic foot had only measured -278 mm. (slightly under 11 in.). Fig. 227 (No. =578=) shows the -subdivisions of these foot rules. One side is marked by dots into -sixteenths (_digiti_); another into twelfths (_unciae_); another into -fourths (_palmi_). The foot-rule illustrated has the remains of a -catch (indicated in the fig.) for keeping it rigid, when opened. There -are several pairs of ordinary compasses and dividers, and also two -pairs of proportional (2:1) compasses (No. =579=). One of these is -figured here (fig. 228). Notice the method of tightening by means of -a wedge, with the object of keeping the compasses fixed in any -particular position. - - =Measures.=--(=575=) _Cat. of Vases_, IV, F 595; (=577=) Cf. - Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Pes_; _Hermes_, XXII., p. 17 ff. - and p. 79 ff.; _Ath. Mitt._, IX. (1884), p. 198 ff. - - -=Bronze Stamps.=--The large bronze stamps shown in Case H are somewhat -akin to seals in their intention. But while the engraved ring was -usually employed for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing -of a letter or document, and the device of the seal was more or less -ornamental, the bronze tablets were used for commercial or domestic -purposes and seldom bear anything but the name of the person using -them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--ROLLING STAMP, WITH THE NAME OF ALEXANDER -(NO. 584).] - -These tablets are of various forms, but the majority are rectangular, -and bear the owner's name, like the one in this Case from Arles -(No. =580=), with the name of Q. Julius Renatus; others have merely -initials. Some are made in the form of a shoe or the sole of a foot, -and this is a shape frequently employed by the potters of the Roman -period in Italy for stamping their names on vases. Other forms to be -here observed are a leaf (No. =581=), a ship (No. =582=), and a fish -(No. =583=). The letters in most cases are in relief, producing an -impression in _intaglio_ on a soft substance such as unbaked clay. -They were probably used for the most part for stamping the plaster -stoppers of wine jars, loaves of bread and such like objects. - -An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of -Alexander (No. =584=; fig. 229). - - - - -The remainder of the guide is devoted to the personal life of the -individual from the cradle to the grave. Successive sections are -devoted to Infancy and its Amusements; to Education and School -Life--to which sections on Writing and Painting are annexed; to games, -marriages, music, dancing, pet animals; and, finally, to objects -bearing on death and burial. - - - - -XXI.--INFANCY. TOYS. - - -At the end of Case J are four terracotta models of cradles (No. -=585=) with young children in them. One is a winged Eros, and one is -swaddled. Beside the cradles are three cups (No. =586=), with spouts -shaped as mouth-pieces, which may be supposed to be for milk or pap. -Here also are two clay rattles (No. =587=), and a child's wooden -clapper (No. =588=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--CHILD IN HIGH CHAIR (NO. 590).] - -A set of small trefoil-lipped jugs (No. =589=) is painted with designs -closely connected with child life. Children are shown playing with -jugs of this type, with animals and toy carts, or other objects. It -is probable that these jugs were given to Athenian children on the -festival day of the wine god Dionysos, which went by the name of -[Greek: Choes] ("Jugs"). Note No. =590= (fig. 230), with a child -confined in a turret-shaped high chair, and No. =591= (fig. 231), with -two children with draw-carts, each holding a jug. - -=Toys.=--Children of all ages and nations bear a great resemblance to -one another; consequently, it is not surprising, though it is always -interesting, to find that Greek and Roman toys are often very similar -to those of modern times. At the corner of Case J is a series of small -reproductions of furniture, implements and the like in lead, bronze, -pottery and terracotta (No. =592=). Often no doubt, they are simply -toys, like the furniture of a doll's house. Sometimes, however, they -must be supposed to have had a more serious votive character in a -temple. In some cases, perhaps, they were of both kinds. Among the -treasures of Hera at Olympia, the traveller Pausanias saw a small -couch said to have been a plaything of Hippodameia,[74] and it was -not uncommon for children on growing up to dedicate their toys in a -temple. - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--GREEK TOY JUG (NO. 591). 1:1 and 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--GREEK TERRACOTTA DOLL (NO. 593). Ht. 5-1/8 -in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--OLD WOMAN ON MULE (NO. 596). 1:1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--SEATED DOLL, WITH MARRIAGE-BOWL, EPINETRON -AND SHOES (NO. 599). Ca. 1:2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--TERRACOTTA MODEL TOPS AND DESIGN FROM -VASE-PAINTING. (NO. 600). Ht. of Model on right, 4-1/4 in.] - -The dolls that survive from Greek times were chiefly of terracotta, -and frequently furnished with movable arms and legs. It will be -noticed that most of these dolls have holes pierced in the top of -their heads for the passage of strings connected with the arms and -sometimes with the legs. These would produce a movement of the -arms and legs, and explain the term [Greek: neurospasta] ("drawn -by strings") applied to these dolls. In Xenophon's _Symposium_ a -travelling showman speaks of being kept by the profits drawn from such -puppets.[75] One, holding castanets, is illustrated here (fig. 232; -No. =593=). We get allusions in literature to these dolls and other -small terracotta figures, which show that one of their chief uses was -the amusement of children. One writer[76] speaks of "those who make -little figures of clay in the form of all kinds of animals destined -for the beguiling of little children." Such a figure is that of -the donkey with a sea-perch tied on its back (No. =594=) or the -fascinating group of the little boy on the goose (No. =595=), and the -old woman on the mule (No. =596=; fig. 233). Many of these toys bring -vividly to mind country scenes in Greece at the present day. Though -they were doubtless intended chiefly for little children, women did -not altogether disdain these terracotta toys. A Greek tombstone of -the fifth century B.C. has a relief showing a girl, quite grown up, -standing with a terracotta doll, exactly like those in this Case, in -her hands, while a young slave-girl holds the figure of a duck before -her.[77] Humbler but less breakable toys of Roman date are the wooden -horse (No. =597=) and rag doll (No. =598=) from Egypt. For the most -part these toys have been found in the tombs of children. The seated -figure of a girl (No. =599=; fig. 234), holding an ivory dove in her -hand, and surrounded by her spinning instrument for the knee (see p. -145), her shoes, and marriage-bowl, was found in a tomb near Athens, -probably of the fourth century B.C. The bowl is almost certainly the -[Greek: lebês gamikos], used by the bridal pair immediately after -marriage. It is therefore not unreasonable to conclude that the tomb -was that of a newly wedded bride. Another plaything in vogue among the -Greeks was the whipping top, an ancient model of which in terracotta -(No. =600=) is seen in the Case and is illustrated on the right of -fig. 235. On the left of the figure is another form of Greek whipping -top (of terracotta, found in the sanctuary of the Kabeiri at -Thebes), and in the centre a design from a vase, in which a woman is -represented whipping such a top. In a Greek epigram[78] the top is -mentioned as a boy's plaything, together with a ball, a rattle, and -the favourite knucklebones, and an inscription from the sanctuary -of the Kabeiri at Thebes speaks of four knucklebones, a top -([Greek: strobilos]), a whip, and a torch dedicated by a woman named -Okythoa.[79] - - (=591=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 533 ff.; Benndorf, _Griech. - u. Sicil. Vasenbilder_, p 64; (=599=) For the [Greek: lebês - gamikos], see _Ath. Mitt._, XXXII. (1907), p. 111 f.; (=600=) - See _Ath. Mitt._, XIII., p. 426 f., and _Van Branteghem - Coll._, No. 167. - - - [Footnote 74: Paus. V. 20. 1.] - - [Footnote 75: Xen., _Symp._ 55.] - - [Footnote 76: Suidas, s.v. [Greek: Koroplathoi].] - - [Footnote 77: Conze, _Att. Grabreliefs_, No. 880, - pl. clxx.] - - [Footnote 78: _Anth. Pal._ vi. 309. [Greek: - - euphêmon toi sphairan, eukrotalon te Philoklês - Hermeiê tautên pyxineên platagên, - astragalas th' hais poll' epemênato, kai ton helikton - rhombon, kourosynês paigni', anekremasen]. - ] - - [Footnote 79: _Athen. Mitt._, XIII., p. 427: [Greek: Okythoa - astragalôs pettaras, strobilon, mastiga, daida,....] - ] - - - - -XXII.--EDUCATION, WITH WRITING AND PAINTING. - -(Table-Case J.) - - -=Education.=--Case J contains several objects illustrating that part -of the Greek child's education which was connected with the arts of -reading, arithmetic and writing. A Greek terracotta of the fourth -century B.C. with Silenus holding the child Dionysos by the hand (No. -=601=), may be supposed to represent the old pedagogue, the slave -whose duty it was to take the child to school. (Scenes in a music -school are shown on the vases E 171, E 172, in cases 55-56.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--TERRACOTTA GROUPS. READING AND WRITING -LESSONS (NO. 602). Ht. 4-1/4 in. and 4-3/4 in.] - -=Reading.=--Another terracotta group of about the third century B.C. -(No. =602=, fig. 236, _right_) shows a kindly old schoolmaster seated -and teaching a boy who stands by his side to read from a roll. The -ancient book differed from our own in taking the form of a roll. The -reader would first unroll the beginning, and then, as he went on, roll -up the part he had finished, making thus a double roll, as it were, -of the part read and the part unread. See the tablet in Case 56 of -the child Avita, reading her scrolls, with her dog in attendance (No. -=603=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--SPELLING EXERCISE (NO. 605).] - -A simple Greek alphabet is inscribed on marble (No. =604=) [Greek: -...de...thiklmnxoprstuphchps]. A fragment of a syllabic reading or -spelling exercise is shown on a piece of pottery (No. =605=; fig. 237). -Each letter of the alphabet is combined with each vowel in turn, as -[Greek: ra re rê r[i ro ru rô] sa se sê si s[o su sô]] and so on. -In the case of [Greek: rê] the syllable was miswritten [Greek: re] and -corrected. A school-boy's wax tablet (No. =606=; fig. 238) shows on -its right half how syllables constitute words as [Greek: the ôn] for -[Greek: theôn]. A large wooden board with an iron handle (No. =607=) -is inscribed with lines of Homer (_Iliad_ i., 468 ff.), no doubt for -use in school. A fragment of an 'Iliac table,' (No. =608=) with a -scene from the _Iliad_ (Achilles dragging the body of Hector round -Troy, and Achilles conversing with Athena) was probably also intended -for teaching purposes. - -=Arithmetic.=--The left side of the tablet (No. =606=; fig. 238) gives -a multiplication table, from [Greek: a´ a´ a´], once one is one, to -[Greek: g´ i´ l´], thrice ten is thirty. The Greek numerals follow the -alphabet to [Greek: i´] = 10, followed by [Greek: k´] = 20, [Greek: -l´] = 30, and so on. Six is represented by the sign [Greek: stigma´ -(f´)], which occupies the place of F in the Latin alphabet, and stands -for the old digamma or vau. - -=Writing.=--The wax-coated tablet which contains the foregoing table -was the usual appliance for writing. A writing lesson is shown in -the terracotta group (No. =602=, fig. 236, _left_). The instrument -employed was a pointed implement, called by the Romans a _stilus_. An -example in ivory, here figured (No. =609=; fig. 239), was found in a -tomb of the fifth century B.C. at Eretria in Euboea. The broad flat -end was used for erasures, so that we find the Romans using the -phrase _vertere stilum_, "to turn the pen" in the sense of "to -erase." Numerous _stili_ in bronze are shown in the Case, and some -are illustrated in fig. 240. The fifth example from the top in the -illustration is in silver bound with gold wire, probably from France -and of late Roman date. These tablets were not as a rule used singly, -but strung together, so that the waxen surface was protected when the -two or more leaves were closed. The present tablet was composed of -two leaves, one of which is in the Department of Manuscripts with -a writing exercise upon it. The arrangement of several tablets in a -fashion anticipating the form of the modern book is well shown in the -relief of the pork butcher (Case 41). - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--TABLET WITH MULTIPLICATION TABLE AND READING -EXERCISE (NO. 606).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--IVORY _Stilus_ (NO. 609). 2:3.] - -For documents of a more permanent character paper was made from the -papyrus plant, whence it takes its name. It was manufactured chiefly -at Alexandria from the time of the foundation of that town in the -fourth century B.C., and pen and ink were used to write on it. A -specimen of Greek writing on papyrus is seen in the Case (No. =610=). -It is a letter of the first century after Christ, asking that a supply -of drugs of good quality--"none of your rotten stuff that won't pass -muster in Alexandria"--should be sent to the writer, Prokleios. -Later on, parchment, prepared from the skins of animals, and made -principally at Pergamon, in Asia Minor, began to rival papyrus as -writing-material. Specimens of ancient reed and bronze pens (No. -=611=) are given in the illustration above (fig. 240), and a series of -ancient inkpots is here figured (No. =612=; fig. 241). The pens, whose -split nibs have a curiously modern appearance, are all of Roman date. -The reed pens come from Behnesa, in Egypt, and one of the bronze pens -was found in the Tiber at Rome. The inkpots are also of Roman date. -The middle one of the lower row has its hinged cover still remaining, -with the inlaid vine-spray in silver round the rim. The one to the -right of it is in blue faïence, and was found in Egypt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--ROMAN PENS AND _Stili_. 1:2.] - -Writing was sometimes put directly upon wood. Such is the case with -the fragment of board from Egypt mentioned above. The lawyer's tablet -(No. =612*=), of about the fifth century A.D., which deals with loans, -etc., has the surface specially whitened for the writing and a space -for keeping the pen. Parts of the two outer leaves, which contained -between them eight inner leaves, are shown in the Case. - - (=604=) _B.M. Inscr._, 323; (=605=) _Journ. Hell. Stud._, - XXVIII. (1908), p. 123; cf. Dumont, _Inscriptions céramiques_, - p. 405 (5); (=608=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2192; (=610=) - _B.M. Papyri_, ccclvi. - - On Greek education generally, see Freeman, _Schools of - Hellas_, and the select bibliography there given. For ancient - books, cf. E. M. Thompson, _Handbook of Greek and Latin - Palaeography_. For relics of Graeco-Egyptian school-life, see - _Journ. Hell. Stud._, _loc. cit._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--ROMAN INKPOTS (NO. 612). Ca. 1:2.] - -=Painting.=--Adjoining the objects connected with writing, are -illustrations of the art of painting in Roman times. They include -a series of ancient colours, pestles and mortars, some paintings on -wood, one, painted by the encaustic process, enclosed in its ancient -wooden frame. The colours, as may be seen, were kept in a dry -condition, and had to be pounded with pestle and mortar before they -were mixed for the use of the artist. A good number of ancient colours -are shown here, the blue (silicate of copper) being particularly -prominent. The six saucers (No. =613=), found together in a tomb of -the Roman period at Hawara, Egypt, contain water-colour paints. These -are _dark red_ (oxide of iron), _yellow_ (ochre, oxide of iron), -_white_ (sulphate of lime), _pink_ (organic colour, probably madder, -in sulphate of lime), _blue_ (glass coloured by copper), _red_ (oxide -of lead). The saucers were found piled by the side of the owner's -body. Pestles and mortars for pounding the colours are shown in the -Case. A favourite form of pestle is that which resembles a bent leg or -thumb, such as the one from Rhodes (No. =614=), inscribed with what is -probably the owner's name. Near it is the terracotta figure of a dwarf -(No. =615=), seated (apparently in a violent passion) before a pestle -and mortar. We may imagine that he is a slave set to mix his master's -colours. - -The methods of painting illustrated here are two, viz., painting on -a dry ground in water-colours, and what is known as "encaustic" -painting. For the first, water-colours were used, and the ground -material was generally a thin piece of wood, whitened to receive the -colours. Egypt has furnished many examples of this kind of painting. -Among them is the portrait of a woman from the Fayum, wearing a fillet -(No. =616=). This no doubt comes from a mummy of the Roman period, -such as the one exhibited in Case 72 next the entrance to the Gold -Room Corridor, which has a similar painted portrait (in encaustic, -however) placed over the face. Other water-colour paintings of Roman -date from Egypt are shown in Case J, such as the figures of Fortune -and Venus painted in several colours on a red ground (No. =617=), -and the fragmentary figure (No. =618=), wearing a jewel of gold and -pearls, and inscribed with the name of Sarapis ([Greek: SARAPI]). The -encaustic process was that employed in the case of the framed portrait -(No. =619=), found at Hawara in Egypt. The frame is carefully made, -the sides being joined by tenons and mortises. There is a groove for a -glass covering, and the cord by which it was suspended still remains. -The portrait was painted in wax, by a process which can hardly have -been other than that called "encaustic" by Pliny.[80] The nature of -this process has been much disputed, but probably the colours were -ground in with the wax, which was fused by the heat of the sun or -artificial means, and then laid on by the brush. A stump (_cestrum_) -was also sometimes employed. Probably a box divided into compartments -was used for holding these wax-colours in their fluid state. Such a -receptacle may perhaps be recognised in the long terracotta vessel, -which has a groove in the middle for a brush (No. =620=). - - (=613=) Petrie, _Hawara_, p. 11; (=619=) _ibid._, p. 10. - - - [Footnote 80: Plin. _H.N._ xxxv. 122, 149.] - - - - -XXIII.--GAMES. - -(Table-Case J.) - - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--TWO WOMEN PLAYING AT KNUCKLEBONES.] - -Herodotus has a curious story to the effect that the Lydians invented -dice, knucklebones, balls, and other playthings to help them to pass a -time of famine, by playing and eating on alternate days.[81] Draughts -([Greek: pessoi]) are expressly excepted from his list, and were -ascribed to the fertile invention of Palamedes at the time of the -Trojan war. Games played with knucklebones (small bones forming part -of the ankle-joint in cloven-footed animals) may be described -first, since they were, as may be judged from the number of ancient -knucklebones found (No. =621= in this Case), extremely common. We are -told in the _Anthology_ of a boy who gained eighty knucklebones as a -writing-prize.[82] Among women too they were a favourite plaything. -The illustration (fig. 242), from a painting on marble found at Resina -(the ancient Herculaneum), shows two women engaged at knucklebones. -(See also the terracotta group D 161 in the Room of Terracottas, Case -32). This game was called "five-stones" ([Greek: pentelithoi]), a -name still given by children to a very similar game. The lexicographer -Pollux describes the game thus: "The knucklebones are thrown up into -the air, and an attempt is made to catch them on the back of the -hand. If you are only partially successful, you have to pick up the -knucklebones which have fallen to the ground, without letting fall -those already on the hand.... It is, above all, a woman's game."[83] -This description makes the illustration clear. Each woman has five -knucklebones, and the one whose turn it is to play has caught three -on the back of her hand; the two which are falling to the ground she -would have to pick up without shaking off those already on the hand. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--KNUCKLEBONES AND DICE (NOS. 621-3). 1:1.] - -Besides being used in various kinds of games, knucklebones were also -employed as dice. The four long faces of the knucklebone differed from -one another in form, one being convex, another concave, another nearly -flat, and the fourth sinuous and irregular. The values assigned to -these sides were: (_a_) to the flat side ([Greek: chion]), 1; (_b_) -the sinuous side ([Greek: kôon]), 6; (_c_) the concave ([Greek: -hyption]), 3; (_d_) the convex ([Greek: prênes]), 4. This is the order -in which they are shown in fig. 243, from left to right. Astragali -thus required no marks of value upon them, since their sides were -naturally distinguished. The ordinary cube-shaped dice, marked 1-6 -(No. =622=) were also widely used by the Greeks and Romans (fig. 243). -The usual arrangement of numbers was, as now, 1 opposite 6, 2 opposite -5, and 3 opposite 4,[84] but other arrangements occur. Some dice are -interesting on account of their peculiar form, _e.g._, the squatting -silver figures (No. =623=, fig. 204), which are marked with the values -1-6 on different parts of the body. A Roman bronze dice-box is shown -in fig. 244 (No. =624=). The ordinary materials of dice were ivory, -bone, or wood. Of the multifarious ways of playing with dice known to -the Greeks and Romans, the one most in vogue may be mentioned. In this -three dice were used, and the object was to throw the highest number -([Greek: pleistobolinda]). The best throw, three sixes, became -proverbial. In Aeschylos' _Agamemnon_ the watchman, when he saw the -beacon-fire blaze forth which told of Agamemnon's victorious return, -exclaimed:----"I'll count my master's fortunes fallen fair, now that -my beacon watch has thrown a triple six."[85] With astragali, on the -other hand, the best throw was 1, 3, 4, 6, and was called "the throw -of Venus." For this each bone had to present a different face.[86] The -worst throw was the "Dogs," when four aces turned up.[87] - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--BRONZE DICE-BOX (NO. 624). 4:5.] - -Dice of exceptional form are the twenty-sided one, inscribed with the -Greek letters [Greek: A] to [Greek: Y] (No. =625=), a fourteen-sided -one inscribed with Roman numerals (No. =626=), and an uninscribed -fourteen-sided crystal die from Naukratis. With these may be mentioned -the triple teetotum (No. =627=) and the four-sided triple die, one -side of which has been left plain (No. =628=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--IVORY PIECES FROM GAMES (NOS. 630-631). -2:3.] - -Of the rules governing other games, represented here by several -pieces, we are entirely ignorant. The plaster pawns (No. =629=) found -at Panticapaeum (Kertch) in the Crimea, probably belonged to some game -analogous to our draughts. An interesting set of pieces is that of -the ivory discs (No. =630=; fig. 245), which bear on their obverse a -design in relief _e.g._ two Muses and the head of the Sun-god, and on -their reverse a number, from 1 to 15, in both Greek and Latin figures, -as well as a word descriptive of the design on the obverse. Thus the -two illustrated have on their reverse - - +VI+ - [Greek: MOUSAI] - [Greek: TH] - [Greek: F] - -and - - +II+ - [Greek: HÊLIOS] - [Greek: B] - -(_i.e._, VI.--Nine ([Greek: th´]) Muses--6, and II.--Helios--2) -respectively. It seems pretty clearly established that these discs -were used as pieces in a game, which probably resembled draughts or -backgammon. Fifteen of these pieces have been found together in a -child's tomb at Panticapaeum. The game appears to have been popular -in the first and second centuries after Christ, and probably had its -origin in Alexandria. It seems likely that it bore a resemblance to -the Roman game called _duodecim scripta_ ("twelve lines"), played with -fifteen pieces on either side. The moves were determined by the throw -of the dice, as in our backgammon. Another set of pieces belonging to -a game are the label-shaped ivories (No. =631=; fig. 245), inscribed -on one side with words, often of an abusive character, such as -_male (e)st_ ("bad luck"), _fur_ ("thief"), _nugator_ ("trifler"), -_stumacose_ ("ill-tempered fellow"), etc., and on the other with -numbers. The pieces mentioned have the numbers +XXIII+, +A+, +II+, -+I+, and +II A+ respectively on their reverse sides (see fig. 245). -The whole series of numbers on these ivories runs from 1 to 25, and -includes in addition 30 and 60; it is noteworthy that the highest -numbers have inscriptions of a complimentary character, _e.g._, -_felix_ and _benigne_. The pieces may have been used in the Roman game -called "the game of soldiers" (_ludus latrunculorum_).[1] - -At the top of Cases 57-58 is an oblong marble board (No. =632=), -inscribed with six words of six letters each. It was found in a tomb -near the Porta Portese, Rome. The words are-- - - +CIRCVS PLENVS+ - +CLAMOR INGENS+ - +IANVAE TE+ ? _te(nsae)_ - -"Circus full," "Great shouting," "Doors bursting (?)." - -Each word is separated from that opposite it by a flower within a -circle. Many such stones are known, always with six words of six -letters, so that it seems clear that they were used as boards for a -game, possibly the _duodecim scripta_ already mentioned. The pieces -used were probably the so-called "contorniates," bronze discs of coin -form, with designs in relief on either side within a raised rim and -a circular depression. Two examples of these contorniates (in -electrotype) are exhibited below the stone board (No. =633=). The -pieces are of late Imperial date, of about the time of Constantine. -Many have subjects closely connected with the circus, a fact which -harmonizes well with the inscription on the board described. One of -the two exhibited has a head of Alexander and a representation of a -chariot race, the other a head of Nero and a water organ (see below, -p. 216). - - (=630=) Cf. _Röm. Mitt._, 1896, p. 238 ff.; _Rev. Arch._, 4th - Series V. (1905), p. 110 ff.; (=631=) _Röm. Mitt._, 1896, p. - 227 ff.; (=632=) Cf. _Num. Chron._ (4th Series), VI., p. 232 - ff.; _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1887, p. 118. - - On ancient toys and games generally, see Becq de Fouquières, - _Les jeux des anciens_; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Ludus_. - - - [Footnote 81: Herodot., i. 94.] - - [Footnote 82: _Anth. Pal._ vi. 308: [Greek: - - Nikêsas tous paidas, epei kala grammat' egrapsen, - Konnaros ogdôkont' astragalous elaben.] - ] - - [Footnote 83: Pollux, ix. 126 (reading [Greek: ephistatai] and - omitting [Greek: ê]).] - - [Footnote 84: Cf. _Anth. Pal._ xiv. 8: [Greek: - - hex, hen, pente, dyo, tria, tessara kybos elaunei.] - ] - - [Footnote 85: Aesch., _Agam._ 32: [Greek: - - ta despotôn gar eu pesonta thêsomai, - tris hex balousês têsde moi phryktôrias.] - ] - - [Footnote 86: Mart., xiv. 14: - - Cum steterit nullus vultu tibi talus eodem, - Munera me dices magna dedisse tibi. - ] - - [Footnote 87: Prop., iv. 8, 45 f.: - - Me quoque per talos Venerem quaerente secundos, - Semper damnosi subsiluere canes. - ] - - [Footnote 88: _Latro_ originally meant "a mercenary soldier."] - - - - -XXIV.--MARRIAGE. - -(Wall-Case 53.) - - -=Greek Marriage.=--Though neither Greek nor Roman marriage was -definitely associated with the religion of the state, it was, however, -among both peoples closely associated with religious rites of a -domestic character. Plato in his _Laws_ makes it the distinguishing -mark of the legally wedded wife that "she had come into the house with -gods and sacred marriage rites." These rites are sometimes represented -upon Greek vases, as may be seen from the objects and illustrations -placed in this Case. The ceremonies may be conveniently divided into -those concerning (_a_) the preparation of the bride; (_b_) the removal -of the bride from the house of her father to that of her husband; -(_c_) the reception at that house; and (_d_) the presents given on the -day following the marriage ([Greek: epaulia]). - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--DECKING OF A GREEK BRIDE (NO. 635).] - -(_a_) On the day before her wedding the bride not infrequently made an -offering of the playthings of her childhood to some deity, presenting -her toys to Artemis in particular. On the day before marriage, too, -water for the bridal bath was brought in procession in the special -form of tall vase called a [Greek: loutrophoros]; a small model is -seen in Case 59 (No. =634=). The vase is also seen standing on the -chest in the room of the bride here depicted (No. =635=; fig. 246). -The scene is taken from the design on a toilet box of the fifth -century B.C. (E 774), which shows the bride being adorned for her -marriage. Besides the tall amphora already mentioned, two vases called -"marriage bowls" ([Greek: lebêtes gamikoi]) are seen standing on tall -stems before the door, on the further side of which one of the bride's -friends is turning the magic wheel intended to inspire the bridegroom -with a greater longing of love. So Theocritus sings: - - "Draw to my home, O mystic wheel, - the man that I long for."[89] - -(_b_) The arrival of the husband, who comes to fetch the bride to his -home, may probably be recognised in the design on the fifth-century -vase No. =636=. It is, however, a special and sacred occasion which -is here represented. The bride, who is seated and holds a sceptre, is -probably the Basilinna, wife of the Basileus, the magistrate at Athens -who was charged with the supervision of the state-religion. She turns -back to look at the bridegroom, who is none other than the wine-god -Dionysos, holding his thyrsos or staff crowned with the pine-cone. Two -love-gods fly towards the pair with wedding gifts, while on the right -approaches a Victory holding lighted torches, which served to light -the night-procession to the bridegroom's house. The subject is -explained by a ceremony which took place at the Attic wine-festival -of the Anthesteria, celebrated annually in February and March. On the -second day of the festival there was a mystic marriage between the -wine-god Dionysos and the wife of the Basileus,[90] and it can hardly -be doubted that the present design refers to this. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--THE WEDDED PAIR DRIVING TO THE BRIDEGROOM'S -HOME (NO. 637).] - -(_c_) The actual progress of the bride to her husband's home is -depicted on the black-figured vase No. =637=, of sixth-century date -(fig. 247). The departure took place at nightfall by torch-light, and -the bride and bridegroom usually (as in the present instance) made the -journey in a mule-car, attended by a friend called the _parochos_. On -the vase (fig. 247) the bride and bridegroom are seen in front of the -mule-car, and the _parochos_ is seated behind. When the pair reached -their home, they were welcomed by the father and mother of the -bridegroom, and a procession was formed to the hearth-altar. This is -a scene depicted on No. =638=, a reproduction of a painting on a -toilet-box in the Third Vase Room (D 11, on Case F). The bridegroom -leads the bride by the hand towards the hearth-altar, by the side of -which stands the hearth-goddess Hestia, holding a sceptre and what -is probably a fig, an allusion to the figs, dates and other fruits -showered over the wedded pair as they reached the hearth, and thence -called [Greek: katachysmata] (down-pourings). Before the pair go a -boy playing on the double-flutes and two women holding torches, who -probably move round the altar, as well as another woman, who perhaps -leads the way to the bridal chamber (figs. 248 and 249). - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--TOILET-BOX WITH WEDDING PROCESSION.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--BRIDEGROOM LEADING BRIDE TO HEARTH-ALTAR. -Design on the toilet-box (No. 638).] - -(_d_) Upon the day following the marriage the relations and friends -brought presents to the house ([Greek: epaulia]).[91] The presents -consisted chiefly in objects likely to be useful to the bride, such as -vases, articles of toilet, spinning implements, etc. The subject was -a favourite one with the Greek vase-painters, probable examples being -the designs on E 188 in Case 47 and the toilet-box E 773 in Case H in -the Third Vase Room. A still better instance occurs on the restored -"marriage vase" E 810 in Case H in the same room. - -=Roman Marriage.=--Roman practice recognised various methods of lawful -marriage. The illustrations and objects shown in this Case deal only -with certain ceremonies which were common to all of them. They concern -(_a_) the betrothal; (_b_) the actual wedding rites; and (_c_) the -escorting (_deductio_) of the bride to the house of the bridegroom. - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--ROMAN WEDDING CEREMONY (NO. 641).] - -(_a_) The betrothal took the form of a solemn contract between the -fathers and guardians on either side. In all Roman contracts it -was customary that a pledge should be given, and this pledge often -consisted in a ring. It was fitting, therefore, that a ring given to -the woman by her betrothed should come to be a sign of the betrothal -contract. It is natural to identify these rings with a series of Roman -rings which have for their design two clasped right hands. An example -in gold of about the third century A.D. (No. =639=) is shown in this -Case. - -(_b_) The actual ceremony of marriage consisted in the solemn clasping -of hands (_dextrarum iunctio_), an action seen on the relief on the -sepulchral chest (No. =640=) placed in this Case. The inscription -shows that the chest was dedicated by a freedman and imperial scribe -named Vitalis to the memory of his wife Vernasia Cyclas. The ceremony -is only shown in an abbreviated form on this chest, but it appears in -more detail on a relief from a sarcophagus (No. =641=; fig. 250). The -husband and wife clasp hands, and between them stands the _pronuba_ or -matron-friend of the bride, placing a hand on the shoulder of each. -On the left of the group stands a man, perhaps the bride's father. -To left and right of this scene of everyday Roman life we have -the mythological personages whose attendance at the wedding may be -supposed to be of good augury--Mars, Victory and Fortune. The clasping -of hands was followed by a sacrifice to Jupiter, and this closed -the actual wedding ceremonies. The sacrifice is represented in the -illustration (fig. 251) taken from a Roman sarcophagus.[92] The bride, -and bridegroom stand by the burning altar, upon which the latter -pours a libation. Behind the pair stands _Juno pronuba_, the presiding -goddess of the wedding rites. On the right a bull is being led up to -sacrifice, and on the left stand Venus, Hymenaeus and the Graces. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--ROMAN WEDDING SACRIFICE.] - -(_c_) When night had fallen there followed the procession, in -which the bride was escorted from her father's house to that of the -bridegroom, a procession described in one of the most splendid of the -poems of Catullus.[93] Torch-bearers and flute-players led the way, -and the wedding train was accompanied by a crowd, the boys in -which chanted rude jesting verses and petitioned the bridegroom for -nuts.[94] When the doorway of the house was reached, the bridegroom -carefully lifted the bride over the threshold, that there might be no -ill-omened stumbling. "Carry the gilded feet across the threshold," -sings Catullus, "that the omen may be favourable." This moment is -illustrated by a scene from a Roman comedy (No. =54=), taken from a -lamp exhibited on Table-Case K (see above, p. 28, fig. 17). The bride -is being carried on the back of a man, while a Cupid waits at the -door to receive her. Within the house she received a gift of fire and -water, elements so necessary to the performance of the housewife's -duties, and on the day following the wedding she did sacrifice at her -husband's altar. - - (=635=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 774; Furtwängler and - Reichhold, _Griech. Vasenmalerei_, I., pl. 57 (3); (=637=) - _Cat. of Vases_, II., B 485; (=638=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., - D 11; _Ath. Mitt._, XXXII., 1907, p. 80 ff.; (=639=) _Cat. of - Rings_, 276; (=640=) _Cat. of Sculpt._ 2379; (=641=) _Journ. - of Hellenic Studies_, XXXVI., p. 85. - - See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Matrimonium_. - - - [Footnote 89: Theocr. ii. 17: [Greek: - - iunx, helke ty tênon emon poti dôma ton andra]. - ] - - [Footnote 90: Cf. Aristot. [Greek: Ath. Pol.] 3, 5; Dem. _c. - Neaer._, c. 76; Mommsen, _Feste d. Stadt Athen_, p. 393 ff.] - - [Footnote 91: See _Jahrb. d. arch. Inst._, 1900, p. 144 ff.] - - [Footnote 92: _Mon. dell' Inst._ iv., pl. 9.] - - [Footnote 93: No. lxi.] - - [Footnote 94: _Ibid._, l. 131 f.] - - - - -XXV.--MUSIC AND DANCING. - -(Wall-Cases 54-56.) - - -=Music.=--The Greek term [Greek: mousikê] (music) included much more -than we mean by music. It was applied to the education of the mind -as opposed to [Greek: gymnastikê] (gymnastics), the education of the -body. In the narrower sense, however, it corresponded to the modern -term, and to this the Greeks from early times attached a high -importance. It was the effect of music upon the character which -appealed to them above all things, and it was this which caused Plato -to banish from his ideal state certain modes of music which would, he -thought, be injurious to its well-being. These modes or "harmonies" -were named after race-divisions. We find the Dorian, the Aeolic, -the Ionic, the Lydian, and the Phrygian. The Dorian was universally -approved for its manly qualities, but Plato rejected the Lydian as -useless and effeminate.[95] - -Of the stringed instruments used among the Greeks, the lyre was the -most prominent. There were two varieties of this, the kithara and the -lyre proper. The kithara, an instrument with a large wooden sounding -board and upright arms, was played chiefly by professional musicians, -such as the kitharist represented on a fine vase in the Third Vase -Room, who has won a victory at one of the great musical contests (E -460; Pedestal 7). The illustration (fig. 252), taken from an amphora -of the fifth century (E 256, Case H, Third Vase Room), shows Apollo -playing on the kithara, which is supported by a band passing round his -left wrist, but leaving the fingers of the left hand free to play -on the strings. In his right hand he holds the _plectrum_, which is -attached by a cord to the instrument. The _plectrum_ was of various -forms, but its most essential part was the tooth for catching and -sounding the wires. The lyre proper (fig. 253) is distinguished by -its curving arms and sounding board of tortoiseshell (hence called -_chelys_). The wooden framework and parts of the shell of a Greek lyre -found in a tomb near Athens are shown in Case 56 (No. =642=). As the -popular instrument, the lyre was naturally taught in schools. Two -interesting Greek vases (Nos. =643= and =644=), exhibited in these -Cases, give pictures of boys receiving music lessons at a school. In -one instance a boy is learning the lyre, in another the boy is playing -the flutes, while the master, who holds a _plectrum_, is playing on a -lyre. Domestic animals are freely admitted, and the discipline seems -far from severe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 252. APOLLO PLAYING ON A KITHARA.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 253. LYRE.] - -As the school scene shows, flute-playing, though condemned by Plato -and Aristotle,[96] was commonly taught at Athens. Ancient flutes are -distinguished from the modern instruments by the vibrating reed which -formed the mouthpiece, and by the fact that they were always played -in pairs. Hence the frequency with which pairs of ancient flutes are -found. Two of sycamore wood (No. =645=; Case 56) were discovered in -the same tomb (near Athens) as the lyre described above (No. =642=). -Another pair of flutes (in bronze) from Italy (No. =646=; fig. 254) -have their mouthpieces in the form of busts of Maenads. A terracotta -shows a pair of female musicians (No. =647=) playing with a drum and -double flutes. To assist the playing of the two flutes together a -mouth-band was often worn, as may be seen from designs on vases, -_e.g._, on a cup of Epiktetos (E 38; Third Vase Room), and on some of -the Cypriote sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room passage. - -A framed impression from a Greek hymn to Apollo inscribed on stone is -here exhibited (No. =648=). Musical notes, indicated by letters of the -Greek alphabet in various positions, are placed at intervals over -the letters to guide the singer. The inscription was found at Delphi, -where other inscriptions of a similar character have come to light. - -Flute-playing was very popular with the Romans, among whom it was -considered the proper accompaniment of every kind of ceremony.[97] For -military purposes they used several other wind instruments. Two bronze -mouthpieces (No. =649=) in Case 55 may perhaps come from long straight -trumpets (_tubae_). The Roman curved horn (_cornu_) is represented by -two large specimens in bronze (No. =650=) placed at the top of Cases -55, 56. The terracotta bugle in Case 55 is probably a model of the -Roman _bucina_ (No. =651=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 254.--BRONZE FLUTES AND CYMBALS (NOS. 646, 654). -1:3.] - -The simplest of all ancient wind instruments is the rustic Pan's pipe -(_syrinx_), usually formed of seven or eight hollow reeds fastened -together with wax. The Greek Pan's pipe has the reeds of equal length, -the different notes being produced by the different positions of the -natural joints of the reed. An example may be seen among the Cypriote -sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room passage. The Roman _syrinx_ -had its lower edge sloping, the result of cutting off the reeds -immediately below the natural joints. A terracotta statuette in Case -55 (No. =652=) represents a shepherd boy playing on a Pan's pipe of -the Roman kind, and a marble relief from Ephesus at the top of Case 54 -(No. =653=) shows a beardless man seated with a large _syrinx_ in his -hands. The Greek inscription tells us that the relief was dedicated by -Ebenos, a "first flute," to Hierokles his piper. - -It was the Pan's pipe which gave Ktesibios of Alexandria (third -century B.C.; cf. p. 120) the model on which he constructed his -water-organ, an instrument which became popular with the Romans. A -Roman "contorniate" shown in Case 58 has one of these water-organs -represented upon it. The air was supplied by water pressure and the -notes were played by means of a key-board. - -Cymbals were largely used by the Greeks and Romans in religious -ceremonies of an ecstatic character, such as the mysteries of Demeter -and Kore and the worship of Kybele. Among the cymbals in Case 56 is -an interesting pair (No. =654=; fig. 254) inscribed in Greek with the -name of Oata their owner ([Greek: Oatas eimi]). They were originally -joined together by a chain, part of which still remains. In the lower -part of Cases 55-56 is a considerable variety of bells in bronze (No. -=655=). - - (=643=) and (=644=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 171, 172; - (=645=) For the structure of the ancient flute, cf. especially - Baumeister, _Denkmäler_, s.v. _Flöten;_ (=648=) _Bull. de - Corr. Hell._, XVIII., pl. 21; (=652=) For the _syrinx_, cf. - Tillyard in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, XXVII. (1907), p. 167 ff.; - (=653=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, II., 1271. - - See in general, _Camb. Comp. to Gk. Stud._, pp. 370-374; - Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. _Musica_. - -=Dancing.=--Dancing among the Greeks and Romans differed in many -ways from our own. In the first place dances (which were generally -accompanied by the flutes) were largely associated with religion. -Plato in his _Laws_ gave it as his opinion that, in imitation of -the Egyptian example, all dancing should be made to take a religious -character.[98] This ceremonial side of Greek dancing is illustrated -by a primitive stone vessel from Cyprus (No. =655=), which represents -three draped women dancing in a ring. Among the Romans the processions -of the Salii or dancing priests of Mars are among the best-known -examples of religious dancing. - -In private life dancing was regarded by the Greeks rather as an -entertainment to be provided by hired performers than as a recreation -in which guests could take their part.[99] Hence with them men and -women did not dance together as in the modern fashion. The demand for -dancing girls to entertain the guests at banquets led to the training -of large numbers of this class. A vase (No. =656=), placed in the -lower part of Case 54, shows dancing girls being instructed in their -art. They repeatedly appear on Greek vases dancing before the feasting -guests (_e.g._ on E 68 in Case E in the Third Vase Room, the interior -of a cup in the style of Brygos). These girls often carried castanets -when dancing, as may be seen on the lekythos (No. =657=) and in the -relief from Melos (No. =658=). - -[Illustration: FIG. 255.--GREEK WOMEN DANCING. Ca. 2:7.] - -Greek women sometimes danced in private among themselves, especially -on the occasion of some domestic festival.[100] It is with this kind -of dancing that we should probably associate the terracotta figurines -(fig. 255). They illustrate the important part played by the arms and -the drapery in ancient dancing, which was largely mimetic. Ovid notes -that supple arms are one of the principal qualifications for a good -dancer.[101] This tradition was undoubtedly inherited from Greek -dancing, for (religious rites apart) the Romans regarded the art as an -unseemly one, so much so that Cicero remarked "that practically no one -except a madman danced when sober."[102] - - (=656=) _Cat. of Vases_, III., E 185; (=657=) _Ibid._, E - 642: (658) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 370. For Greek dancing in - general, cf. Emmanuel, _La danse grecque_. - - - [Footnote 95: Plat., _Rep._ iii. 398-9.] - - [Footnote 96: Plato, _Rep._ iii. 399 D; - Arist., _Pol._ viii. 6, 5 ff.] - - [Footnote 97: Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 659 f.: - - cantabat fanis, cantabat tibia ludis, - cantabat maestis tibia funeribus. - ] - - [Footnote 98: Plat., _Leg._ 799 A.] - - [Footnote 99: Cf. the famous story of Hippokleides - (Herodot., vi. 129), whose dancing lost him a bride.] - - [Footnote 100: Aristoph., _Lys._ 408; Athen., xv. 668 D.] - - [Footnote 101: _Ars. Amat._ i. 595: - - si vox est, canta; si mollia bracchia, salta. - ] - - [Footnote 102: _Pro Mur._ 6; cf. Nepos, _Epam._ 1.] - - - - -XXVI.--DOMESTIC AND PET ANIMALS; FLOWERS. - -(Wall-Cases 57-58.) - - -The upper part of Wall-Cases 57, 58 contains a number of -representations of domesticated and pet animals. The series includes -cattle, goats, pigs, dogs, cats, pigeons and poultry. Often, but not -always, the animal is associated with some human actor, as when the -child rides on a dog, pig, or goat, or when the large cock tries to -peck at the bunch of grapes in a child's hand (No. =659=). - -More than one of the pigeons wears a _bulla_ round its neck (No. -=660=) to avert the evil eye (see p. 136), and a cock is decked with -a wreath of ivy leaves (No. =661=). On a vase (No. =662=) a girl has -tied a string to the hind leg of a tortoise, and dangles it before her -dog; on another (No. =663=) two children are making a dog jump through -a hoop. In a relief already mentioned (p. 198, No. =603=) the dog -seeks the notice of its studious mistress, little Avita. In the scene -of the music school (No. =643= in Case 55) the boy plays with the cat -behind the master's chair. Another form of amusement is illustrated -by the kylix, No. =664=. A boy is seated, and holds on his knee a cage -containing a bird, probably a quail. Quail-fighting was a very popular -amusement at Athens, where odds were freely betted on the result of -the encounter. The wooden instrument, seen above the boy, would be -used to provoke the quails to fight with one another. The game of -quail-striking ([Greek: ortygokopia]) was another variety of sport -with quails. In this the object was to prove the endurance of the -quail by striking it with the fingers or pulling out its feathers. -A Roman lamp (No. =665=; fig. 256) gives an interesting view of an -itinerant with his troop of performing animals. On his right is an -ape, on his left a cat climbing a ladder. Above are two hoops for the -animals to jump through. - -[Illustration: FIG. 256.--ITINERANT WITH PERFORMING ANIMALS (NO. 665). -2:3.] - -=Flowers.=--In Cases 57-58 will be seen a set of funeral wreaths (No. -=666=; cf. p. 226), found at Hawara, in Egypt. Among the flowers which -can be identified in those wreaths are the rose, narcissus, sweet -marjoram, and immortelle. We know, from an epigram of Martial,[103] -that Egypt cultivated roses with such success that she exported them -from Alexandria to Rome during the winter, though at the time when the -poet wrote (latter part of first century A.D.), Italy was, according -to him, in a position to export roses to Egypt. In their gardens the -Romans devoted most of their attention to their trees, which they -cut into fantastic shapes by the agency of the landscape gardener -(_topiarius_). The species of flowers known to them were decidedly -limited in number, but we find gardens of singular beauty depicted -on their wall-paintings, notably on one found at Prima Porta near -Rome.[104] - - (=659=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 539; (=662=) _Cat. of Vases_, - IV., F 101; (=665=) _Cat. of Lamps_, 679; (=666=) Petrie, - _Hawara_, p. 47. - - - [Footnote 103: vi. 80.] - - [Footnote 104: _Ant. Denkmäler_, I., pl. 11.] - - - - -XXVII.--METHODS OF BURIAL. - -(Wall-Cases 58-64.) - - -=Greece.=--In the prehistoric period known as Mycenaean, the -inhabitants of Greek lands probably buried their dead and did not -cremate them. It is possible, however, that a partial burning was in -vogue in this and the succeeding periods in Greece. In the case of the -more wealthy Mycenaean dead, the bodies were elaborately decked with -gold ornaments. Oval plates of gold were tied over the forehead and -mouth of the corpse, in the latter case (where the impression of the -lips can be seen) perhaps with the idea of keeping out evil spirits. -The window-cases in the Gold Ornament Room contain many examples of -these funeral diadems and mouthpieces from Cyprus. In the Homeric -poems we find the bodies of the dead burnt upon a pyre and the ashes -buried beneath a mound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 257. FUNERAL LEKYTHOS. Ht. 15-1/4 in.] - -Scenes representing the preparation of the body for cremation or -burial are frequently depicted on Greek vases. They occur on the large -"Dipylon" vases, made specially for standing outside the tomb (see -examples in the First Vase Room), and on black-figure vases, where the -body is seen lying on the bier surrounded by mourners. It is, however, -upon the white lekythi of the fifth century (No. =668=; fig. 257), one -of which is here illustrated, that funeral scenes are most commonly -found. We know from Greek literature that these vases were expressly -made for putting in tombs. A speaker in the _Ekklesiazusae_ of -Aristophanes talks of "the man who paints the lekythi for the -dead."[105] On the vase here figured a woman is making offerings at -the tombstone. These offerings were made by the relatives from time -to time, and consisted mainly of sashes, wreaths, and vases, as may be -seen from the vases placed in the Case. The Greek funeral monuments of -the best period are characterised by their restrained beauty. Examples -of the different types will be found in the Phigaleian Room downstairs -and in the Gallery of Casts. In the Cases 59-60, the only tombstones -are the archaic one of Idagygos of Halikarnassos (No. =669=; fig. -258) found in Cyprus, inscribed with an elegiac couplet in which he is -called "the squire of Ares,"[106] and a round stone (No. =670=) with -a late inscription showing that the tomb was that of Menestratos, a -Corinthian buried in Attic soil. The Greek tombs were generally ranged -on either side of the main roads leading from the city gates. - -[Illustration: FIG. 258.--INSCRIBED TOMBSTONE OF IDAGYGOS (NO. 669). -Ht. 5 ft. 8 in.] - -A terracotta urn of about the third century B.C. (No. =671=) in Case -60 serves as an example of the vases used to contain the calcined -remains of the dead. It holds a number of burnt bones, among them part -of a jaw-bone, with a silver obol adhering to it. The coin was placed -in the mouth of the corpse as the fee of the ferryman Charon for -piloting the dead across Acheron. The gilded figure of a Siren found -in this vase is emblematic of the spirit world. - -Two later monuments with Greek inscriptions are the marble chests in -Cases 61-62. Each has a lock-plate (cf. those in Case G), carved -in front in low relief. No. =672= is the cinerary chest of Metras -Tryphon, who had been publicly crowned by the people of Ephesus, and -has this crown represented on his urn. The second chest (No. =673=), -from the temple of Kybele at Sardes, is inscribed with the name of -Metrodoros, who is called a "sprinkler" ([Greek: perirantês]) no doubt -with reference to an office held by him in the temple service. Below -this chest is a marble cup from Rhodes (No. =674=), bearing the -inscription: "The burying-place of those who have lost their ancestral -tomb." This cup, which is ornamented above with flying birds and has -holes for a metal attachment, seems to have been set on a column as a -boundary mark. - -[Illustration: FIG. 259.--ITALIAN HUT-URN (NO. 675). Ca. 1:4.] - -=Italy.=--In the earliest period inhumation was the custom in Italy, -but cremation gradually became more and more common. The Twelve Tables -(450 B.C.) show both practices prevailing side by side. The hut-urns -(Nos. =675= and =676=; fig. 259) found at Monte Albano, near Rome, are -evidence of cremation having been practised at a very early date in -Italy (eighth to seventh century B.C.). They served as receptacles for -the ashes of the dead, and are an instance of the custom of making -the last resting-place of the deceased as like as possible to his -habitation during life. They represent rude wattled huts, in which -the roof-beams of rough branches can be clearly distinguished. The -Etruscan tomb-chambers, one of which is shown in a picture in Case 59, -furnish a later instance (seventh to sixth century B.C.) of sepulchres -built in imitation of living-rooms. A small model (in Case 59) of an -Etruscan built tomb shows the skeleton in armour, with painted -vases placed about it (No. =677=). The Etruscan cinerary urns are -distinguished by the frequent introduction of the portrait. The -"Canopic" urns, which take the shape of jars roughly in the form of -a human body and head, are especially noteworthy. The example -illustrated (No. =678=, fig. 260), probably of the seventh century -B.C., has the face pierced with numerous holes, most likely for the -attachment of a mask. Two Etruscan sepulchral masks (No. =679=) in -terracotta, of about the end of the sixth century B.C., are exhibited -near the Canopic urn and are shown in fig. 261. These remarkable masks -are covered with incised designs, most likely of magic significance, -intended to avert evil from the dead. A separate half-mask (No. =680=) -of this type is exhibited here, and another will be found with the -objects illustrating superstition in Case 106. In these masks we can -see the innate Italian tendency to preserve the features of the dead, -and we may perhaps recognise in them the origin of the waxen portrait -masks of his ancestors which the Roman noble set up in his hall. -The portrait is again found on the lid of the sixth-century Etruscan -funeral urn (No. =681=; fig. 262) in Case 59. Here a draped woman lies -on a couch of elaborate form, decorated below with a relief of two -lions devouring a bull. A kindred type of Etruscan funeral monument -will be seen in the two large terracotta sarcophagi in the Terracotta -Room. - -[Illustration: FIG. 260.--CANOPIC URN (NO. 678). Ht. 1 ft. 11 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 261.--ETRUSCAN FUNERAL MASKS (NO. 679). Ca. 1:6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 262.--ETRUSCAN FUNERAL URN (NO. 681). L. 1 ft. -11-1/2 in.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 263.--ROMAN FUNERAL URN (NO. 682). Ht. 1 ft. 5-1/2 -in.] - -With rare exceptions (conspicuously in the case of members of the -noble families of the Cornelian house and all infants) the Romans, -during the period of the Republic, burned their dead. This system -continued under the early Empire, but gradually gave way to burial -under the influence of Christianity. Several examples of Roman -cinerary urns and sepulchral relief are here shown. These urns are of -various shapes, but the altar-form (No. =682=; fig. 263) was specially -favoured. The inscription gives the names of L. Dexius Clymenus and C. -Sergius Alcimus. The latter, a child of three and a quarter, is stated -to have received his portion of corn on the tenth day at the office of -distribution numbered XXXIX, a curious side-light on the practice -of free distribution of corn under the Roman Empire, already noticed -above (p. 11). Other Roman funeral urns which may be mentioned are the -vase (No. =683=) with the remains of L. Laelius Victor, a soldier of -the fourteenth city cohort, and the alabaster caskets numbered -=684= and =685=. These urns of the wealthier classes were generally -deposited in a vault underneath a monument placed at the side of one -of the great roads leading from the city gates. Those, however, who -could not afford such expensive monuments subscribed for a joint tomb -(_columbarium_), a large chamber containing in its walls numerous -niches for the urns. An interesting tablet (No. =686=) in Case 62 -throws light on the arrangements adopted in the case of these joint -tombs. It is inscribed with the name of P. Sontius Philostorgus and -marked the niche in which the urn containing his ashes was placed. The -inscription reads: "Lot I in block III." From other inscriptions of -the same character it appears that the niches were arranged in five -horizontal rows of thirty-six, and that each of the members of the -burial club was allotted one place in each of the five rows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 264.--TOMBSTONE OF AURELIUS HERMIA AND HIS WIFE -(NO. 687). Width 3 ft. 5 in.] - -Another noteworthy monument is (No. =687=) an inscribed relief of the -first century B.C., belonging to Aurelius Hermia, a butcher from -the Viminal hill, and his wife Aurelia Philematio(n), who are seen -clasping hands (fig. 264). The husband praises the virtues of his -wife, and the wife those of her husband, her fellow-freedman, who had -been more than a father to her. Other interesting inscriptions from -tombstones are No. =688=, on a hunting dog named Margarita, a great -favourite with her master and mistress, who died in giving birth to -puppies, and No. =689=, which sheds light on the memorial ceremonies -after burial. A testator here leaves seven twenty-fourths of the rent -accruing from a block of flats to his freedmen and freedwomen, on -condition that they celebrate his memory four times in a year--on his -birthday, the Day of Roses, the Day of Violets, and the feast of -the Parentalia, the last the Roman All Souls' Day, held publicly in -February, but privately on the anniversary of the day of death. -A lighted lamp, with incense, was to be placed on the tomb on the -Kalends, Nones, and Ides, the three dividing days of each month. - -The funeral wreaths from Hawara (Cases 57, 58; No. =666=, see p. 219) -are an instance of offerings at tombs belonging to the Roman period. -They have been so thoroughly preserved in the dry climate of Egypt -that the different varieties of flowers can still be distinguished. - - (=668=) Cf. Murray and Smith, _White Athenian Vases in the - B.M._; (=669=) _B.M. Inscr._ 971; (=670=) _ibid._, 102; - (=671=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, C 12 and 13; (=672=) _Cat. of - Sculpt._, II., 1277; (=674=) _ibid._, III., 2400; (=675=) Cf. - Walters, _Hist. of Anc. Pottery_, II., p 288; (=678=) _ibid._ - II., p. 304 ff; (=679=) Benndorf, _Ant. Gesichtshelme_, p. 42, - pl. xi; (=681=) _Cat. of Terracottas_, B 629; (=682=) _Cat. of - Sculpt._, III., 2359; (683) _ibid._, 2402; (=684=) and - (=685=) _ibid._, 2420 and 2425; (=686=) Dessau, _Inscrr. Lat. - Selectae_, 7892 a; (=687=) _Cat. of Sculpt._, III., 2274; - (=688=) _C.I.L._ VI., 29,896; (=689=) _C.I.L._ VI., 10,248. - - On Greek tombstones, see Conze, _Attische Grabreliefs_; P. - Gardner, _Sculptured tombs of Hellas_. On Roman monuments, - Altmann, _Röm. Grabaltäre_. - - - [Footnote 105: Aristoph., _Ekkl._ 996: [Greek: - - hos tois nekroisi zôgraphei tas lêkythous]. - ] - - [Footnote 106: [Greek: - - enthade moiran echôn Halikarnêsseus Idagygos - keitai, Aristokleos pais, Areos therapôn.] - ] - - - - -INDEX. - -_The numbers refer to the pages of the Guide._ - - - ACROBATS, 218 - - ACTORS, 31 - - AEGINETAN WEIGHT-SYSTEM, 159 - - ALTARS, 39 - - ALTAR-URNS, 223 - - AMPHORAE, on weights, 159; - for wine, 177 - - ANATOMICAL MODEL, 47, 187 - - ANKLE-PIECES, 89 - - APHRODITE, dedication to, 45; - in shrine, 43 - - APIS-BULL, 50 - - ARITHMETIC, 198 - - ARM-GUARD, 89 - - ARMED-RACE, 60 - - ARMOUR, 74; - Dacian, 92 - - ARROWHEADS, Mycenaean, 97; - Greek and Roman, 107 - - ARTEMIS BRAURONIA, garments dedicated to, 45 - - AS, 20, 22 - - ASKLEPIADAE, school of, 185 - - ASTRAGALOS, on weights, 159; - in games, 203. - _See also_ KNUCKLE-BONES - - ATHLETES, 59 - - "ATHLETES' RINGS," 177 - - ATRIUM, 109 - - AUGURY, 43 - - AURELIUS HERMIA, tombstone of, 226 - - AXE, 108 - - AXE-HEAD, votive, 50 - - - BAETYLIC IMAGE, 44 - - BAKERS, 117 - - BALANCES, 25, 161 - - BASKET, votive, 46 - - BATHS, 118 - - BEASTS in the arena, 69 - - BELL, votive, 51 - - BELT, metal, 87 - - BETROTHAL RING, 211 - - BIRDS, actors as, 28 - - BISTOURIES, 187 - - BITS, 172 - - BOARD, inscribed for school use, 198 - - BOATS, terracotta, 34 - - BONA DEA, 39 - - BOOTS, 129 - - BOXES, 139, 153, 185, 189 - - BOXING, 58 - - BOXING-GLOVES, 62 - - BRACELETS, 135 - - BRAZIERS, 118 - - BREAD-MAKING, 117 - - BREISEAN MYSTAE, 55 - - BRICKS, Roman, 167 - - BRIDAL PROCESSION, 210 - - BUCINA, 215 - - BULLA, 136, 218 - - BULLS, bronze votive, 50 - - BURIAL, 220 - - - CADUCEUS, 9 - - CALDRON, given as prize, 63 - - CALTHROP, 108 - - CANDELABRA, 110 - - CANDLESTICKS, 114 - - CANGUE, 13 - - CANOPIC URNS, 222 - - CARACALLA, 39 - - CARTS, models of, 171, 179, 193 - - CHAIR, Infant's, 193 - - CHARIOTEERS, 71; - dress of, 71, 170 - - CHARIOT-RACING, 70, 169 - - CHARIOTS, 169 - - CHARON'S FEE, 221 - - CHESTS, funeral, 223 - - CHITON, Dorian, 123; - Ionian, 124 - - CHLAMYS, 126 - - CIRCUS, 70 - - CITIZENSHIP, Roman, 9 - - CLOTH, pieces of ancient, 147 - - COIN-BALANCE, 25, 165 - - COINS, Greek, 14; - Roman, 19; - special uses, 24; - false, 24 - - COLONIZATION, 3 - - COLUMBARIUM, 224 - - COMBS, 138 - - COMEDY, 26-33 - - COMIC CHORUS, 26 - - COMPASSES, 191 - - CONSULS, 3 - - CONTORNIATES, 207 - - CORN LARGESSES, 11, 223 - - COUCH, bronze, 110 - - CRADLES, 193 - - CRESTS, on helmets, 83 - - CROCODILE SYRUP, 42 - - CUIRASS, 85 - - CUPPING-VESSEL, 188 - - CURSES, 56 - - CUTLER'S FORGE, 156, 158 - - CUTLER'S SHOP, 157, 158 - - CUTLERY, 148 - - CYMBALS, 216 - - CYPRIOTE DEDICATION, 46 - - - DAGGERS, early and Mycenaean, 94; - Italian, 98 - - DANCING, 216 - - DEDICATIONS, 7, 24, 38 - - DEFIXIONES, 56 - - DEFRUTUM, 177 - - DEXTRARUM IUNCTIO, 211 - - DICE, 204 - - DIKASTAE, 6 - - DIOSCURI at Theoxenia, 43; - dedications to 49, 51, 61 - - DIPLOMA, Roman bronze, 9 - - DISKOS, 60 - - DOG'S EPITAPH, 226 - - DOLLS, 194 - - DOMESTIC ANIMALS, 218 - - DOWELS, 167 - - DRAGON-STANDARD (Dacian), 92 - - DRAMA, Greek and Roman, 25 - - DRAUGHTS, 203, 206 - - DRESS, Greek 123; - Roman, 127 - - DRILL-BOW, surgical, 187 - - DRUG-BOX, 189 - - DUODECIM SCRIPTA, 206 - - - EAR-PICKS, 142 - - EARRINGS, 136 - - EDUCATION, 197 - - ENAMEL DECORATION, 134, 185 - - ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, 202 - - EPINETRON, 145, 196 - - EYES, painted on ships, 35 - - - FALSE MONEY, 24 - - FASCES, 12 - - FERONIA, dedication to, 55 - - FETTERS, 13 - - FIBULAE, 131 - - FIGURE-HEAD, 35 - - FINGER-RINGS, 135 - - FISHERMAN, 37 - - FISH-PLATES, 116 - - "FIVE-STONES," 203 - - FLOWERS, 219 - - FLUES, 122 - - FLUTES, 214 - - FOOD, from Pompeii, 116 - - FOOT-RACE, 60 - - FOOT-RULES, 191 - - FORCEPS, 187 - - FOUNTAIN-JETS, 121 - - FRAME, for picture, 202 - - FUNERAL DIADEMS, 220 - - FURNITURE, 110; - (toy), 193 - - - GAMES, 203 - - GEMS, 184 - - GETA, name of, erased from inscriptions, 39 - - GLADIATORS, 64; - armour of, 68; - discharge tickets of, 69 - - GNOSTICS, 56 - - GRAPE-GATHERING, 177 - - GREAVES, 88 - - - HAIR, votive, 48 - - HALF-MASKS, 222 - - HANDS, magical, 56 - - HARBOURS, 37 - - HARE, votive, 49 - - HARNESS, 171 - - HEATING OF HOUSES, 122 - - HELMETS, 74; - Aegean, 79; - Attic, 77; - Corinthian, 74; - Etruscan, 81; - Gladiatorial, 68; - Inscribed, 76, 81; - Italian, 80; - Roman, 81; - votive, from Kyme, 7, 81; - Parade vizor-masks, 82 - - HELMET-CRESTS, 83 - - HERA, axe-head dedicated to, 50 - - HIERON, helmet dedicated by, 7, 81 - - HIMATION, 124 - - HINGES, 168 - - HIPPOKRATES, 186 - - HOOKS, surgical, 187 - - HORSE-SHOES, 173 - - HOUSE, Greek and Roman, 109 - - HUNTSMEN, dedications by, 49 - - HUT-URNS, 222 - - - INKPOTS, 200 - - INLAY, ivory, 185 - - INTERNAL ORGANS, model of, 47 - - INVENTORIES, temple, 45 - - ISIS, worship of, 57 - - - JASON, relief of the physician, 189 - - JAVELIN-THROWING, 61 - - JEWELLERY, 135 - - JUMPING-WEIGHTS, 59 - - JUNO, dedication to, 55 - - JUPITER. _See_ ZEUS. - - JUPITER DOLICHENUS, silver plaques dedicated to, 52 - - JUPITER POENINUS, dedication to, 55 - - JURY-TICKETS, 6 - - - KEYS, 149; - Temple, 42 - - KILN, potter's, 182 - - KINYRAS, legend of, 34 - - KITCHEN, 115 - - KITHARA, 213 - - KNIVES, 148 - - KNOCKERS, 167 - - KNUCKLEBONES, 197, 203 - - KTESIBIOS OF ALEXANDRIA, 120, 216 - - - LABELS, 45, 156 - - LAMP-FILLERS, 114 - - LAMPS, 112; - combined with altar, 40; - moulds for, 184 - - LANTERNS, 114 - - LARES, 55 - - LATHE, use of, 185 - - LAWYER'S TABLET, 200 - - LEAD FIGURINES, votive, 55 - - LEG, votive, 48 - - LEGIONARY, armour of, 88, 91 - - LEKYTHI, white funeral, 220 - - LETTER on papyrus, 200 - - LIBRA, 160 - - LIGHT-HOUSE, 37 - - LIGHTING, methods of, 110 - - LITRA, 160 - - LOCK, 149 - - LOCK-PLATES, 152, 221 - - LOOM, 145 - - LOOM-WEIGHTS, 146 - - LUDUS LATRUNCULORUM, 207 - - LYRE, 213 - - - MAGIC symbols, 56; - wheel, 208 - - MANTLE. _See_ HIMATION. - - MARATHON, weapons from, 101 - - MARBLES, specimens of, 168 - - MARRIAGE, Greek, 207; - Roman, 211; - military, 9; - vases used in, 208 - - MASKS, dramatic, 31; - sepulchral, 222 - - MEASURES, 191 - - MEDICINE, 185 - - MERCHANT-SHIP, 33 - - METAL-WORK, 180 - - MIRRORS, 140; - with magical symbols, 57 - - MITHRAS, 54 - - MORTARS, 118 - - MOSAICS, 169 - - MOULDS, for cooking, 116; - for counters, 180; - for vases and terracottas, 184; - for weights, 180 - - MOUTH-BAND, for flutes, 214 - - MOUTH-PIECES, funeral, 220 - - MULTIPLICATION-TABLE, 198 - - MUSIC, 213 - - MUSIC-LESSONS, 214 - - MUSICAL NOTATION, 215 - - MUZZLES, for horses, 173 - - - NAIL-FILES, 142 - - NAILS, magical, 56 - - NECKLACES, 136 - - NEEDLE-CASE, 148 - - NEEDLES, 147 - - NETTING-NEEDLES, 147 - - NEUROSPASTA, 195 - - - OBOL, 221 - - OCULIST-STAMPS, 189 - - OIL-FLASKS, 119 - - OIL-PRESS, 178 - - OLIVE-GATHERING, 176 - - ONOS. _See_ EPINETRON. - - OSCAN dedicatory tablet, 44 - - OSTRACISM, 7 - - - PADLOCKS, 152 - - PAINTING, 201; - of vases, 183 - - PANATHENAIC GAMES, 60 - - PANKRATION, 59 - - PAN'S PIPE, 215 - - PAPYRUS, 199 - - PARCHMENT, 200 - - PARENTALIA, 225 - - PASTES, 184 - - PENS, 200 - - PENTATHLON, 59 - - PERFORMING ANIMALS, 218 - - PERSEPHONE, dedications to, 46 - - PESTLES, 118 - - PHILIP (Emperor), _diploma_ granted by, 9; - seal with name of, 55 - - PHLYAKES, 28 - - PIG, as sacrificial animal, 40 - - PILUM, 103 - - PINS, 137, 147; - pin dedicated to Aphrodite, 45 - - PIVOTS from doors, 168 - - PLATING of cuirass, 86 - - PLAUTUS, _Casina_, 29 - - PLECTRUM, 214 - - PLOUGH, 174 - - PLUMMETS, 166 - - PNYX, votive reliefs from, 47 - - PORK-BUTCHER'S SHOP, 158 - - POTTER'S WHEEL, 181 - - POTTERY, 181 - - PRAYER, 42 - - PRIZE VASES, 60, 63 - - PROBES, 187 - - PROPORTIONAL COMPASSES, 191 - - PROW of trireme, 35 - - PROXENIA, decrees of, 3 - - PUMPS, 120 - - - QUAIL-FIGHTING, 218 - - - RACING-CHARIOTS, 70, 169 - - RAEDA, 171 - - RAG-DOLL, 196 - - RATTLES, 193 - - RAZORS, 141 - - READING, 198 - - RELIGION, 39 - - REPRISALS, 2 - - RINGS, 135 - - RIVETS, 183 - - ROSE-DAY, 226 - - - SABAZIUS, 56 - - SACRIFICES, 40 - - SACRIFICIAL IMPLEMENTS, 40 - - SAFETY-PINS. _See_ FIBULAE. - - SALII, dances of, 216 - - SALVE-POTS, 190 - - SANDALS, 129 - - SAW, surgical, 187 - - SCISSORS, 147 - - SCOURGE, 13 - - SCRUPLE (weight), 160, 190 - - SCULPTURE, unfinished, 169 - - SEAL-BOXES, 155 - - SEAL-LOCKS, 154 - - SEALS, 154 - - SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, altar dedicated for return of, 39 - - SET-SQUARES, 166 - - SHIELDS, 90 - - SHIN-GUARDS, 89 - - SHIPS, 33 - - SHOES, 89, 129 - - SHOPS, 158 - - SHRINES, 43 - - SHUTTLE, 146 - - SICKLE, 175 - - SIREN, 221 - - SISTRUM, 57 - - SLAVE BADGE, 12 - - SLAVERY, 12 - - SLAVES, dedicated to temple-service, 45; - in drama, 32 - - SLINGSHOT, 101, 107 - - SOLES, 130 - - SOLONIAN WEIGHTS, 159 - - SOWER, 175 - - SPATULAE, 187 - - SPEARS, classical, 102; - Italian, 99; - Mycenaean, 97; - primitive, 94; - votive, 9; - butts of, 103 - - SPINDLES, 143 - - SPOONS, 117 - - SPURS, 174 - - STAMPS for moulds, 184; - for other purposes, 167, 189, 192 - - STANDARDS, 92 - - STATUETTE, pierced, 42 - - STEELYARDS, 161 - - STILI (pens), 199 - - STONES, sacred, 44 - - STOOL, bronze, 110; - votive, 46 - - STOP-COCKS, 121 - - STRAINERS, 116 - - STRIGILS, 119 - - STRONG-BOX, 153 - - STUDS, 136 - - SUOVETAURILIA, 40 - - SURGERIES, 186 - - SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS, 187 - - SWORDS, Mycenaean, 95; - Greek, 100 ff; - Italian, 99; - Roman, 104 - - SYRINX. _See_ PAN'S PIPE. - - - TABLE, votive, 40 - - TABLE-LEG, 110 - - TABLETS, 44, 192, 198, 200 - - TABULA ILIACA, 198 - - TEETOTUM, 205 - - TEMPLE-INVENTORIES, 45 - - TEMPLE-WEIGHTS, 160 - - TENSA, 171 - - TERRACOTTAS, method of making, 183 - - THEOXENIA, festival of, 42 - - THIGH-PIECE, 89 - - THIMBLE, 147 - - TIBERIUS, sword of (so-called), 104 - - TICKETS, 6, 11, 12, 69 - - TILE-STAMPS, 166 - - TILES, Greek, 166; - Roman, 167; - from Palaestra at Olympia, 64 - - TITURUS, 178 - - TOGA, 127 - - TOILET, articles of, 138; - on votive reliefs, 46 - - TOILET-BOXES, 139 - - TOMBS, 220 - - TOOLS, 166 - - TOYS, 193 - - TRAGEDY, 25; - chorus in, 26; - Roman, 54 - - TREATIES, 2 - - TRIPODS, 110 - - TRIREMES, 34 - - TROPHIES, 91 - - TUNIC, 123 - - TWEEZERS, 142 - - - UNCIA (coin), 20; - weight, 160 - - UNKNOWN GOD, 46 - - URN, funeral, 223 - - UVULA FORCEPS, 187 - - - VASE-SHAPES, 122 - - VINTAGE, 177 - - VIOLET-DAY, 226 - - VOTIVE OFFERING, 7, 44, 194 - - - WALL-PAINTINGS, 169 - - WAR-VESSELS, 33 - - WATER-ORGAN, 216 - - WATER-PIPES, 121 - - WATER-SUPPLY, 120 - - WAX-TABLETS, 198 - - WEAPONS, 94 - - WEAVING, 145 - - WEDDING-SACRIFICE, 212 - - WEIGHTS, - Greek, 158; - Roman, 160; - hanging, 161; - medical, 190 - - WHEELS, votive, 51 - - WHIPPING-TOPS, 196 - - WHORLS, 143 - - WINE-PRESS, 177 - - WINNOWING-BASKET, 177 - - WOMEN GLADIATORS, 66 - - WOOD, paintings on, 202 - - WOODWORKING, 185 - - WREATHS, 219, 226 - - WRESTLING, 61 - - WRITING, 198 - - - ZEUS LYKAEOS, votive offering to, 50 - - ZEUS SABAZIUS, 56 - - ZEUS THE HIGHEST, votive offerings to, 47 - - - - -LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, DUKE STREET, -STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1. - - - - - Transcriber's Note - - - - - represents italic text; = = represents bold text; + + represents - strong text, sans serif. ^ denotes a superscript. - - | inserted by the author to represent the end of a line of carving - on a document or monument. Sometimes | occurs in the middle of a - word, indicating the word has been split by a line-break. - - In the all-caps Greek text, the book preserves some different Greek - letter-forms. - - Compare the capital theta with a cross at the top of - p. 77, and theta with a dot at the bottom of p. 130. - - There is a - V-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 7, and Y-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 12. - - There is a capital lunate sigma, and an alpha with a v-shaped - crossbar on p. 202 ... and on p. 161, as a marking in silver on an - ounce weight with another symbol. - - And there is the zeta like a rotated H on p. 6, and an upper and - lower case Koppa (Qoppa), and the Digamma (wau, stigm). - - C.I.L. is abbreviation for '_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_'. - - 'Inscrr.', 'reff.': a double consonant signifies plural. - - Some missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired. - - Any illustration which intersected a paragraph, e.g., at a page - turn, has been moved to a more convenient position. - - Page 20: (.··) corrected to (···) for consistency. - - Page 56: 'suppose' corrected to 'supposed'. - - "... _defixiones_, because they were supposed to fix down, as it - were, the hated enemy." - - Page 64 (Footnote 32): A colon : has been used to represent the - triple vertical dots (a punctuation mark, much like a colon) - after [Greek: "Eksoida(s) m'anethêke Diwos qouroin megaloio]" - - Page 103: Spearbutts; p. 104: Spear-Butts. Both retained. - - Page 111: Superfluous 'a' removed. - - "The stem may be fluted, or...." - - Page 114: 'emall' corrected to 'small'. - - "Just below the lantern is a small bronze statuette,..." - - Page 145: Loom Weight; loom-weights ... various spellings; all - retained. - - Numerous other instances of words being sometimes hyphenated and - sometimes un-hyphenated appear in the text. All have been retained. - - Page 150: 'to' corrected to 'so'. - - "... then turned, and drawn back so as to lift up the pegs...." - - Page 152: "the keyhole is in the shape" (of an inverted right-angle, - represented by) |¯. - - Page 160: 1-1/2oz. corrected to 1/12oz. - - "... 1/12oz. = 2 scruples;" - - Page 190: extra 'a' removed. - - "These salves were pounded on the stone into a paste." - - Page 192: 'Nos.' corrected to 'No.'. - - "An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of - Alexander (No. =584=; fig. 229)." - - Page 198: - - From Wikipedia (https: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma): - - Digamma, waw, or wau (uppercase: (F), lowercase: (F), numeral: - [Greek: st]) is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. - It originally stood for the sound /w/ but it has principally - remained in use as a Greek numeral for 6. - - Whereas it was originally called waw or wau, its most common - appellation in classical Greek is digamma; as a numeral, it was - called epis[=e]mon during the Byzantine era and is now known as - stigma after the value of the Byzantine ligature combining - [Greek: s-t] ... In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the - digraph [Greek: st]. - - ([=e] represents e-macron) - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating -Greek and Roman Life, by British Museum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION *** - -***** This file should be named 52081-8.txt or 52081-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/0/8/52081/ - -Produced by deaurider, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: A Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life - -Author: British Museum - -Release Date: May 16, 2016 [EBook #52081] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Lesley Halamek, Stephen Rowland and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - -<div class="tn1"> -<h4>Transcriber's Note:<a name="top"></a></h4> - -<p>All the illustrations in this book can be enlarged by clicking on the illustration.<br /> -This better shows the wealth of detail in these very old vase paintings, sculptures and other artifacts.</p> -<p class="center">The rest of the <a href="#transcriber_note">Transcriber's Note</a> is at the end of the book.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><img src="images/cover.jpg" width="400" height="634" alt="Cover" /></div> - -<div class="half-title"> - -<h3>A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING<br /><br class="b30" /> -GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE.<br /><br class="b30" /> - -<span class="less2it">SECOND EDITION.</span></h3></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/frontispiece-1000.png"><img src="images/frontispiece-600.png" width="600" height="346" alt="" /></a> - -<p class="centerb"><span class="left"><i>Frontispiece.</i>]</span> <span class="sc">Terracotta Boats from Amathus</span> (p. <a href="#page34">34</a>).</p></div> - -<hr class="clear" /><div class="chapter"> - -<h1><span class="spaced1 wsp">BRITISH MUSEUM.</span><br /><br class="b30" /> - -<span class="less">DEPARTMENT OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES.</span><br /><br /> - -<span class="space-above5 spaced2 wsp">A GUIDE</span><br /><br class="b50" /> - -<span class="less2">TO THE EXHIBITION ILLUSTRATING</span><br /><br class="b50" /> - -<big>GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE.</big><br /><br class="b50" /> - -<span class="less wsp"><i>SECOND EDITION.</i></span></h1> -</div> - -<hr class="mid" /> - -<p class="centerb">WITH A FRONTISPIECE AND TWO HUNDRED AND -SIXTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS.</p> - -<hr class="mid" /> - -<p class="centerc"><span class="space-above5">LONDON:</span></p> - -<p class="centerb2">PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES.</p> - -<p class="centerb1">1920.</p> - -<div class="half-title1"> -<p class="center">LONDON:<br /> -PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br /> -DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="half-title1"> -<div class="centerd"> -<h4>ERRATA.</h4> - -<p>P. 121, l.17. <i>For</i> <span class="bhead">339</span> <i>read</i> <span class="bhead">339*</span></p> - -<p>Pp. 143, 144, 145. <i>For</i> <span class="bhead">421-426</span> <i>read</i> <span class="bhead">421*-426*</span></p> - -<p>P. 216 near foot. <i>For</i> <span class="bhead">655</span> <i>read</i> <span class="bhead">655*</span></p> -</div></div> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>PREFACE.</h2> -</div> -<p>In this Exhibition an attempt has been made to bring together -a number of miscellaneous antiquities which formed a part of -the collections of the Department, in such a method as illustrates -the purpose for which they were intended, rather than their -artistic quality, their material, or their place in the evolution -of craft or design.</p> - -<p>Such a series falls naturally into groups, and it has been -found convenient to treat these groups in accordance with a -general scheme, the illustration of the public and private life of -the Greeks and Romans.</p> - -<p>The materials forming the basis of this scheme are, primarily, -objects which already formed part of the Museum collections: -for this reason it has not been possible always to preserve that -proportion in the relation of the sections to the whole which -would have been studied if the objects had been selected for -acquisition with this purpose in view. Further, it is necessary -to warn visitors that they must not expect to find the subject -in any sense exhaustively treated here: the complete illustration -of every detail of ancient life would be impossible for any museum -as at present constituted. All that can here be done is to shape -the available material into a system which may at least present -a fairly intelligible, if limited, view of ancient life. Several new -acquisitions, made since the appearance of the first edition of -this Guide, have strengthened the exhibition in directions in -which it was deficient, and it is hoped that this process will be -continued. Meanwhile, some of the gaps have been filled by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi" id="pagevi"></a>[pg vi]</span> -means of casts and reproductions of objects belonging to other -categories in this Museum, or preserved elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The preparation of the first edition of this Guide (1908) was -entrusted to different members of the Departmental Staff. Mr. -Yeames prepared a great deal of the necessary preliminary -work: Mr. Walters wrote the sections on Athletics, the Circus, -Gladiators, and Agriculture: Mr. Forsdyke those on Coins, -Arms and Armour, Dress and the Toilet. The remaining -sections were mainly the work of Mr. Marshall.</p> - -<p>In the present edition the section on Arms and Armour has -been re-written by Mr. Forsdyke, and the remainder has been -mainly revised by myself. The proofs have been read by Mr. -Walters and Mr. Forsdyke.</p> - -<p class="author"><span class="sc">A. H. Smith.</span></p> - -<p class="ind"><span class="sc">British Museum</span>,<br /><br class="b30" /> -<span class="ind1a"><i>March, 1920.</i></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii" id="pagevii"></a>[pg vii]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>CONTENTS.</h2> - -<p class="center"><i>The references in brackets are to the numbers of the Figures.</i></p> -</div> - -<table class="toc" summary="Contents" border="0"> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left1"> </td> - <td class="right">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page1"><span class="sc">Introduction</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>I.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page1a"><span class="sc">Political Inscriptions and Slavery</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page1">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Treaties, etc. (1); Proxenia Decrees (2-3);<br /> - Dikasts' Tickets and Ostraka (4-6);<br /> - Votive Arms (7-8); Military Diploma (9<i>a</i>, 9<i>b</i>);<br /> - Corn Largesse (10); Slaves (11).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>II.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page14"><span class="sc">Coins</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page14">14</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Coins (12); Roman Coins (13-15).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>III. </td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page25a"><span class="sc">Drama</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page25">25</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Comedy (16); Roman Plays (17-18); Actors - and Masks (19-22).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>IV.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page33a"><span class="sc">Shipping</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page33">33</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Shipping (Frontispiece and 23-26); Roman - Shipping (27-28).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>V.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page39"><span class="sc">Religion and Superstition</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page39">39</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Implements and Methods of Worship. Votive - Altars (29);<br /> Sacrifices and Apparatus (30-31);<br /> - Prayer; Theoxenia (32); Augury; Shrines (33-34).<br /> - Votive Offerings (35-45).<br /> - Superstition and Magic. Magical Inscriptions;<br /> - Bronze Hand (46).</td> - <td class="right"> - - </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>VI.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page58a"><span class="sc">Athletics</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page58">58</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Pugilism (47); Sports of the Pentathlon (48-51);<br /> - Boxing Gloves (52); Prize Vase (53).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>VII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page64a"><span class="sc">Gladiators and the Arena</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page64">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Types of Gladiator (54-58); Helmet (59); Tesserae - (60);<br /> Animal Contests (61).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>VIII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page70"><span class="sc">Chariot-Racing and the Circus</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page70">70</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Chariots in the Circus, and Charioteers (62-65).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>IX.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page74"><span class="sc">Arms and Armour</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page74">74</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Early Armour (66); Helmets (67-79); Cuirasses (80-85);<br /> - Greaves, etc. (86-89); Shields (90); Standards(91-93).<br /> - Early Weapons. Mycenaean Swords and Daggers - (94-96);<br /> Mycenaean Spears and Arrows (97-98);<br /> - Early Italian Swords and Spears (99-100);<br /> Greek - Swords (101-105); Greek and Roman Spears (106-108);<br /> - Roman Swords (109); Sling-shot and Arrowheads - (110-111);<br /> Calthrop (112). - </td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>X.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page109a"><span class="sc">House and Furniture</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page109">109</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">General Furniture. Couch (113).<br /> - Lighting. Lampstands (114-115); Lamps (116-119);<br /> - Candlesticks and Lanterns (120-123).<br /> - The Kitchen. Implements. Fish Plate (124).<br /> - The Bath. Strigils (125-126); Water Supply.<br /> - Pumps (127-128); Heating. Shapes of Vases. - </td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XI.</td> - <td class="left1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii" id="pageviii"></a>[pg viii]</span><a class="contents" href="#page122a"><span class="sc">Dress and Toilet</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page122">122</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Female Dress (129-133); Greek Male Dress - (134-138);<br /> Roman Dress (139-140); Footwear (141-2); - Fibulae (143-158).<br /> - Jewellery. Bracelets (159); Earrings (160);<br /> - Bullae, Necklaces, Studs, Pins (161-163).<br /> - Toilet. Combs (164); Toilet Boxes (165);<br /> - Mirrors; Razors (166-168); Miscellanea (169-170). - </td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page142a"><span class="sc">Domestic Arts</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page142">142</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Spinning and Weaving (171-177); Sewing Implements - (178-182);<br /> Cutlery (183); Locks and Keys - (184-190); Seals (191).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XIII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page158"><span class="sc">Trade</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page158">158</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Shops (192-193).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XIV.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page158a"><span class="sc">Weights and Scales</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page158">158</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Weights (194-195); Roman Weights;<br /> - Scales and Steelyards (196-200).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XV.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page166"><span class="sc">Tools, Building and Sculpture</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page166">166</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Tools (201); Building Materials (202-203).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XVI.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page169a"><span class="sc">Horses and Chariots</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page169">169</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Chariots and Carts (204-205); Horse Trappings - (206-208).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XVII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page174a"><span class="sc">Agriculture</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page174">174</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Ploughs (209); Wine Making (210); Olive Harvest - (211-212);<br /> Goat-herd, etc. (213).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XVIII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page180"><span class="sc">Industrial Arts</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page180">180</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Metal-working (214-215); Pottery (216-222);<br /> - Gems and Pastes; Wood-working; Lathe-work.</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XIX.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page185a"><span class="sc">Medicine and Surgery</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page185">185</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek and Roman Medicine (223-226).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XX.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page191a"><span class="sc">Measures and Instruments</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page191">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Measures (227); Compasses (228); Stamps (229).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXI.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page193a"><span class="sc">Infancy. Toys</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page193">193</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Infants (230-231); Dolls, etc. (232-234); Tops (235).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page197a"><span class="sc">Education, with Writing and Painting</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page197">197</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Reading and Writing Lessons (236-238); Arithmetic;<br /> - Writing Materials (239-241); Painting.</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXIII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page203"><span class="sc">Games</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page203">203</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Knucklebones (242-243); Dice (244); Ivory - Pieces (245).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXIV.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page207a"><span class="sc">Marriage</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page207">207</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Marriage (246-249); Roman Marriage - (250-251).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXV.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page213a"><span class="sc">Music and Dancing</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page213">213</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Musical Instruments. Kithara and Lyre (252-253);<br /> - Flutes and Cymbals (254); Dancing (255).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXVI.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page218a"><span class="sc">Domestic and Pet Animals; Flowers</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page218">218</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Performing Animals (256); Flowers.</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td>XXVII.</td> - <td class="left1"><a class="contents" href="#page220"><span class="sc">Methods of Burial</span></a></td> - <td class="right"><a href="#page220">220</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="left2">Greek Burials (257-258); Italian Burials. Hut - Urns (259);<br /> Canopic Urn (260); Funeral Masks - (261); Etruscan Urn (262);<br /> Roman Burials and - Funeral Urns (263); Roman Grave Relief (264).</td> - <td class="right"> </td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>[pg 1]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="more">GREEK AND ROMAN LIFE</h2> -</div> -<p>The exhibition is arranged in the central rectangle of what was -formerly the Etruscan Saloon; it includes Wall-Cases <span class="bhead">25-64</span>, -<span class="bhead">94-119</span>, and Table-Cases <span class="bhead">E-K</span>. The subject naturally divides -itself into the two chief headings of public and domestic institutions, -and each of these occupies one half of the room. On the -West side are grouped the sections relating mainly to Public Life, -on the East those of Private Life: of the former, the section illustrating -the monetary system of the ancients and its development -naturally leads up to the Department of Coins and Medals. For -the general scheme of the exhibition, reference should be made -to the Table of Contents.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -<span class="sc">Note.</span>—<i>The references at the end of each section correspond to the -numbers of the objects in this Guide. These numbers, which are placed -near the objects in the Cases, are distinguished by being in red upon a -white ground. Numbers attached to the objects (such as B 77 on a -vase) refer to the British Museum Catalogues, which should be consulted -for fuller details than can be given in the Guide.</i> -</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>I.—POLITICAL INSCRIPTIONS AND SLAVERY.<a name="page1a" id="page1a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case K.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>A section of Table-Case K contains a series of inscriptions which -illustrate various sides of Greek and Roman political life.</p> - -<p>It must be borne in mind that the Greek state was generally -of very small dimensions. As a rule all life was centred within -a city, which had but a moderate extent of outlying country. -Aristotle describes the perfect city or state (the words are interchangeable) -as the union of several villages, supplying all that is -necessary for independent life.<a id="footnotetag1" name="footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a> -Greece, though small in area, was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> -thus divided up into a large number of states, whose interests were -constantly in conflict. It thus came about that it was provided -with systems of treaties, arbitrations, -and consular representation -such as marked a fully developed -international system.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Treaties.</span>—The bronze tablet -No. <span class="bhead">1</span> dates probably from the -second half of the sixth century -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, at a time when the Eleians -and Heraeans of Arcadia were still -dwelling in villages, and were not -yet united each into a single city. -It is written in the Aeolic dialect -of Elis, and records a treaty between -the two peoples named. There was -to be a close alliance between them -in respect of all matters of common -interest, whether of peace or war. -Any breach of the treaty, or any -damage to the inscription recording -the treaty, would involve a fine of a -talent of silver to be paid by the -offender to Olympian Zeus, the -supreme Greek deity. The tablet -was brought from Olympia by Sir -William Gell in 1813.</p> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">2</span> is a cast of a similar treaty -between the communities of the -Anaiti and Matapii, for a fifty years' -friendship. In case of a breach of -the treaty the priests at Olympia -have arbitrators' powers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/002-1200.png"><img src="images/002-600.png" width="600" height="156" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.—Treaty of Chaleion and Oeantheia. (No. 3.)</span></p></div> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">3</span> (fig. 1) is a bronze tablet, -with a ring at one end for suspension, recording a treaty made between -the cities of Chaleion and Oeantheia on the Gulf of Corinth. It is in -the Lokrian dialect, and can be dated to about 440 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The main -object of the treaty was to regulate the practice of reprisals -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span> -between the citizens of the respective towns, and, in particular, to -prevent injury to foreign merchants visiting either port. There -are also provisions for ensuring a fair trial to aliens. The tablet -was found at Oeantheia (Galaxidi), and was formerly in the -Woodhouse collection.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Colonization.</span>—This was a feature of peculiar importance in -Greek life. In the course of the eighth and seventh centuries <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -numerous colonists had left their homes on the mainland of Greece -or on the coast of Asia Minor, and had settled principally in -Southern Italy and Sicily, or round the shores of the Black Sea. -The reasons for such emigration were sometimes political, but -more often commercial. Between the mother-city and the colony -relations of an intimate character were almost invariably maintained. -Representatives from either city attended the more -important festivals held in the other town, and the daughter-city -not infrequently sought the advice of the mother-city in times of -difficulty and danger. The inscription on the bronze tablet No. <span class="bheads">4</span> -illustrates the way in which colonists left one Greek state to -settle in another comparatively near at hand, and also shows -the relations existing between the colonists and the mother-state. -At a date probably previous to 455 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> colonists from the Opuntian -or Eastern Lokrians (inhabiting a district lying opposite to the -island of Euboea) left their homes to settle in Naupaktos, a town -situated on the narrowest part of the Gulf of Corinth, in the -territory of the Western Lokrians. The question arose as to how -far the colonists were to remain in connection with the mother-country. -The tablet shows that the settlers had the privilege of -enjoying full social and religious rights on revisiting their native -city, although during their absence they were exempt from paying -taxes to it. Under certain conditions they might resume their -residence in the mother-state without fee, and they also had a -right to inherit property left by a near relative in that state. -Other provisions deal with judicial arrangements affecting the new -settlers.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Proxenia.</span>—Just as modern states appoint consuls in foreign -countries in order that the interests of their citizens abroad may -be protected, so the various Greek cities appointed their representatives -in different foreign states. These representatives were -chosen from the citizens of the town in which they acted, and -their appointment was regarded as a special honour, carrying with -it substantial privileges. The main functions of the <em>proxeni</em> were -those of dispensing hospitality to travellers and assisting them in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> -cases of difficulty, and of receiving ambassadors arriving from the -state which they represented. They were also expected generally -to further that state's commercial interests.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/004-860.png"><img src="images/004-400.png" width="400" height="462" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.—Grant of</span> <i>proxenia</i> <span class="sc">to Dionysios (No. 5)</span>. Ht. 12<b>⅞</b> in.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above5">Two bronze tablets recording decrees of <em>proxenia</em>, passed by -the people of Corcyra, are here exhibited. No. <span class="bhead">5</span> (fig. 2), probably -of the end of the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, records the grant of -<em>proxenia</em> to Dionysios, son of Phrynichos, an Athenian.<a id="footnotetag2" name="footnotetag2"></a><a href="#footnote2"><sup>2</sup></a> -It mentions the date, the appointment, and the right of possessing land and house -property in Corcyra, the last evidently a reward granted to the -<em>proxenos</em> for his services. No. <span class="bhead">6</span> (fig. 3), of about 200 -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, is a <span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> -grant of <em>proxenia</em> to Pausanias, son of Attalos, a citizen of Ambrakia.<a id="footnotetag3" name="footnotetag3"></a><a href="#footnote3"><sup>3</sup></a> -He is accorded the usual honours, and the Treasurer is directed -to provide the money for the engraving of the decree on bronze. -Both these tablets were found in Corfu, the modern name of the -ancient Corcyra. The persons appointed acted, of course, in -Athens and Ambrakia respectively.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/005-600.png"><img src="images/005-280.png" width="280" height="456" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.—Grant of</span> <i>proxenia</i> <span class="sc">to Pausanias (No. -6)</span>. Ht. 8<b>⅞</b> in.</p></div> - -<p class="clear"><span class="bhead">Law-courts at Athens.</span>—One of the most striking features -of democratic Athens was its elaborate machinery for the administration -of justice. The system of popular control began in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span> -fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and reached its full development in the fourth. -For petty offences the various magistrates had the power of inflicting -a small fine, but graver charges were usually decided by a jury -court. Those who composed these jury courts were called <em>dikastae</em>. -They were chosen at first up to the number of six thousand from -the entire body of citizens over thirty years of age, but later on -apparently any citizen over thirty years of age was a qualified -juryman. From the time of Perikles each juryman received three -obols (about 5d.) a day for his services. The whole body of jurymen -was divided into ten sections, each of which was distinguished -by one of the first ten letters of the Greek alphabet (A to K). -Each dikast received a ticket -(<ins title="Greek: pinakion">πινάκιον</ins>), at first of bronze, but in -Aristotle's day of boxwood, inscribed with his name, his parish, -and the number of his section. In Aristotle's day the father's -name was always given as well.<a id="footnotetag4" name="footnotetag4"></a><a href="#footnote4"><sup>4</sup></a> -Four of these dikasts' tickets (in bronze) are exhibited in this case, together with a fragment of -a fifth. Upwards of eighty are known, all apparently belonging -to the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The tickets shown are:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/006-1000.png"><img src="images/006-500.png" width="500" height="101" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.—Ticket of Thukydides (No. 10).</span> L. 4<b>¼</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">7</span>, which belonged to Deinias of Halae, of the third section -(<span class="sans1">Γ</span>). The ticket is stamped with the Athenian symbol of -an owl within an olive wreath, two owls with one head, and a -Gorgoneion.</p> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">8</span>, belonging to Archilochos of Phaleron, of the fifth -section (<span class="sans1">Ε</span>).</p> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">9</span>, belonging to Aristophon, son of Aristodemos, of -Kothokidae. His was the third section (<span class="sans1">Γ</span>).</p> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">10</span>, the ticket of Thukydides of Upper Lamptrae (fig. 4). -He belonged to the sixth section -(<img src="images/006z-15.png" width="15" height="11" alt="Ancient Zeta" />). -The ticket bears the symbols of an owl within an olive wreath, and a Gorgoneion.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span></p> - -<p>The lowest fragment is part of a ticket belonging to Philochares -of Acharnae of the fifth section.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/007a-1000.png"><img src="images/007a-500.png" width="500" height="87" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.—Inscribed Potsherds (Ostraka) at Athens (No. 11).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/007b-290.png"><img src="images/007b-150.png" width="150" height="236" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.—Potsherd of Teos (No. 12).</span></p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Ostracism.</span>—This was a peculiar device adopted by Greek -city-states for getting temporary relief from the influence of -prominent citizens, whose presence was for the time being considered -undesirable. At Athens ostracism was introduced by -the statesman Kleisthenes about 508 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The method of -effecting it was as follows. The popular assembly (Ekklesia) first -decided whether they desired that ostracism should be carried out. -If they considered it expedient, they met and recorded their vote. -The name of the person they most wished to get rid of was written -on a potsherd (ostrakon), and if six thousand votes were recorded -against any one name, that man had to go into banishment -for ten years. In Case K is a coloured illustration (No. <span class="bhead">11</span>) of -three ostraka found at Athens (fig. 5). The names written on -the sherds are well known in Greek history. <em>Themistokles</em> (fig. 5<i>a</i>), -of the deme Phrearri, was the creator of Athenian sea-power. -In consequence of this ostracism (ca. 471 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) he died an exile -at Magnesia on the Maeander. <em>Megakles</em> (fig. 5<i>b</i>) of the deme -Alopeke, son of Hippokrates and uncle of Perikles, -was ostracised in 487 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> as "a friend of the tyrants." -In the next year, 486 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, was banished <em>Xanthippos</em> -(fig. 5<i>c</i>), son of Arriphron and father of Perikles, on -the ground of undue prominence. The Museum -collection contains no ostraka of historic importance, -but the potsherd inscribed by one Teos (No. -<span class="bhead">12</span>) gives an idea of the actual object (fig. 6).</p> - -<p class="clear"><span class="bhead">Dedications for Victory.</span>—The dedication in -a temple of a part of the spoils of victory was not -merely a religious observance. It was also the formal -entering of a claim to victory. The Etruscan helmet -(No. <span class="bhead">13</span>) dedicated at Olympia by Hieron of Syracuse, is an example -(fig. 7). It was found at Olympia in 1817, and was presented to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span> -the Museum by King George the Fourth. On the side is a votive -inscription:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/008a-1000.png"><img src="images/008a-500.png" width="500" height="129" alt="Votive Inscription" /></a></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/008b-900.png"><img src="images/008b-350.png" width="350" height="326" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.—Etruscan Helmet Dedicated at Olympia by Hieron and -the Syracusans (No. 13).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<p><ins title="Greek: Hiarôn ho Deinomeneos kai toi Syrakosioi tô Di Tyran' apo Kymas"> -Ἱάρων ὁ -Δεινομένεος -καὶ τοὶ -Συρακόσιοι -τῷ Δὶ -Τύραν' ἀπὸ -Κύμας</ins>—"<em>Hieron -son of Deinomenes and the Syracusans offer to Zeus -Etruscan spoils from Kyme</em>." Hieron was tyrant of Syracuse from -478 to 467 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, in succession to his brother Gelon, and was one -of the most prominent figures of the age. Gelon had nobly upheld -the supremacy of the Greeks in the west by destroying a Carthaginian -host at Himera, in the same year and, as the tale went, on the same -day as the battle of Salamis. Hieron added to the brilliance of the -Sicilian court, and signalised his naval power in the great repulse -of the Etruscans. The ancient city of Kyme, near Naples, the -earliest Greek colony in the west, was hard pressed by the neighbouring -barbarians and by the civilised and powerful state of Etruria. -The Greeks appealed for help to Hieron, and he sent them a fleet -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> -of warships, which beat the Etruscans in sight of the citadel -of Kyme, and broke their sea-power for ever (474 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>). From -the arms and treasure taken in the battle Hieron made the -customary offering in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and this -helmet with its eloquent inscription was part of the dedicated -spoil.</p> - -<p>For other votive helmets see below, p. <a href="#page76">76</a>.</p> - -<p>The votive spear-head, No. <span class="bhead">14</span>, dedicated by an unknown -Theodoros to (Zeus) Basileus, about 500 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, was probably found -at Olympia. The occasion of the dedication is unknown, but it -nearly resembles No. <span class="bhead">15</span> (cast), which was dedicated at Olympia -by the Methanians as spoil from the Lacedaemonians.<a id="footnotetag5" name="footnotetag5"></a><a href="#footnote5"><sup>5</sup></a> -The original is at Berlin. Several spear-heads of this type have been found. -They do not seem to be effective for use in battle, and they are -therefore supposed to have been specially made for dedicatory -purposes. It has also been suggested that they are spear-butts, -but this does not seem probable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a href="images/009-1000.png"><img src="images/009-500.png" width="500" height="136" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><ins title="Greek: Theodôros anethêke Basilei."> -Θεόδωρος -ἀνέθηκε -Βασιλεῖ.</ins></p> - -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.—Spear-head Dedicated by Theodoros to (Zeus) Basileus. -(No. 14).</span> 1:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Emblem of Office.</span>—The bronze caduceus (No. <span class="bhead">17</span>), (familiar -as the emblem of the herald Mercury), is inscribed "I belong to the -people of Longene," and was apparently the staff of the public -herald of that town. It was found in a tomb in Sicily, and is of -the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The device is in the form of a staff, surmounted -by a pair of intertwined serpents.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Roman military Life.</span>—This is illustrated by two of the Latin -inscriptions here shown. The oblong bronze tablet No. <span class="bhead">18</span> (figs. 9<i>a</i> -and 9<i>b</i>) is part of a Roman <em>diploma</em>, a document recording -privileges in respect of citizenship and rights of marriage granted -to a veteran soldier. The <em>diploma</em> derived its name from -the fact that it was composed of two tablets hinged together. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> -We have in the present instance only the left side of one of the -tablets. The right side, which had two holes for the metal -rings attaching it to the other tablet, has been broken away. -The inscription<a id="footnotetag6" name="footnotetag6"></a><a href="#footnote6"><sup>6</sup></a> -is a copy of one originally engraved on bronze and set up on the wall -behind the temple of Augustus <em>ad Minervam</em> at Rome. It is headed -with the names of M. Julius Philippus, the Emperor, and of his son, -who had the title of Caesar. This is followed by the grant of full -matrimonial rights to the soldiers of ten cohorts and by the date, -equivalent to Jan. 7th, 246 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> -Next comes the name of the individual soldier to whom this copy of the -original inscription was given, one Neb. Tullius, a veteran of the -fifth praetorian cohort of Philip at Aelia Mursa in Pannonia. The -grant of full matrimonial privileges was a considerable one, for it -meant that the veteran's wife and children gained the privileges of -Roman citizens, if, as was often the case, the wife was not possessed -of citizen rights at the time of marriage. The two holes in the middle -of the tablet were used for the wire thread, which was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> -passed round the tablets three times according to the usual -official custom, and had the seals of seven witnesses affixed -to it. Fig. 9<i>b</i> is a restoration showing the original form of the -document opened, the exterior of the two tablets being seen. This -<em>diploma</em> was found in Piedmont. Parts of similar documents will -be seen exhibited in the Room of Roman Britain.</p> - -<div class="centerp2"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/010-500.png"><img src="images/010-230.png" width="230" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9<i>a</i>.—<span class="sc">Fragment of a Bronze</span> -<i>diploma</i> (<span class="sc">No. 18</span>). Ht. 5<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 6em;"><a href="images/011-1000.png"><img src="images/011-500.png" width="500" height="358" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9<i>b</i>.—<span class="sc">The above</span> <i>diploma</i> -<span class="sc">RESTORED</span>.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="space-above2">Near the <em>diploma</em> is a small bronze ticket -(No. <span class="bhead">19</span>), inscribed on -either side. One side bears the name of Ti(berius) Claudius Priscus, -the other records that he belonged to the fourth praetorian cohort -and the <em>centuria Paterni</em>.</p> - -<p class="clear"><span class="bhead">Corn Largesses.</span>—From -the end of the second century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -it had become a regular feature of Roman policy to supply the -populace of the city with corn either gratis or at an artificially cheap rate. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> -After the fall of the Republic the Emperors carried still -further the policy of free distributions (<em>congiaria</em> or -<em>liberalitates</em>). -It has been reckoned that the annual cost of their largesses averaged -£90,000 from Julius Caesar to Claudius, and £300,000 from Nero -to Septimius Severus. Persius, who wrote in the time of Nero, notes -with a sneer that it was one of the privileges of the meanest Roman -citizen to exchange his ticket for a portion of musty flour. This -policy of the Emperors is illustrated by the inscribed corn-ticket -(<em>tessera frumentaria</em>) shown in this Case (No. <span class="bhead">20</span>; fig. 10). It is -inscribed on one side, <em>Ant(onini) Aug(usti) Lib(eralitas) II.</em>, i.e., the -second special largess of Antoninus, perhaps Antoninus Pius, who -reigned from 138-161 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> On the other side appears <em>fru(mentatio) -LXI.</em>, i.e. the sixty-first monthly corn distribution, dating doubtless -from the accession of Antoninus. The letters were originally -inlaid with silver, as is shown by the remains of that metal in the -numerals. The sepulchral inscription mentioned on p. <a href="#page224">224</a> should -be studied in connection with this corn-ticket.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/012-850.png"><img src="images/012-400.png" width="400" height="270" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.—Bronze Corn-Ticket (No. 20).</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Official Emblem.</span>—The relief in Case <span class="bhead">99</span> shows the <em>Fasces</em> -(that is, the axes and the rods tied in a bundle) which were carried -by the lictors before the higher Roman magistrates.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Slavery.</span>—The circular bronze badge (No. <span class="bhead">21</span>) shows the -Roman method of dealing with runaway slaves after the softening -influence of Christianity had begun to make itself felt. In earlier -times the runaway slave had been punished with the cruel penalty -of branding. Apparently from the time of Constantine onwards -an inscribed badge was substituted, authorising the summary arrest -of the slave if he were caught out of bounds. The inscription on -the badge exhibited runs: "Hold me, lest I escape, and take me -back to my master Viventius on the estate of Callistus."</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span></p> - -<p>Two other objects may perhaps be brought into connection with -slavery. The scourge (No. <span class="bhead">22</span>), with its lash loaded with bronze -beads, was frequently used for the punishment of slaves. It is the -<em>horribile flagellum</em> of Horace. A scourge very similar to the present -is seen on a relief in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, representing -a high-priest of Kybele, whose devotees were in the habit of -scourging themselves in the service of the goddess.<a id="footnotetag7" name="footnotetag7"></a><a href="#footnote7"><sup>7</sup></a> The pair of -iron fetters (No. <span class="bhead">23</span>), found in 1813 in a cave behind the Pnyx at -Athens, bear a close resemblance to those worn by a <em>bestiarius</em> or -beast-fighter represented on a relief from Ephesus exhibited in -Case 110, (<i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i>, II., No. 1286).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/013-620.png"><img src="images/013-500.png" width="300" height="316" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.—Slave Badge (No. 21).</span> 3:5.</p></div> - -<p>Two small bronzes (No. <span class="bhead">24</span>) show dwarf slaves undergoing the -punishment of the cangue, in which neck and wrists are fixed in a -board.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(1) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 264; Hicks and Hill, <i>Greek Hist. Inscr.</i>, No. 9; -(2) Roberts, <i>Gr. Epigraphy</i>, No. 297; (3) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 263; <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, -953; (4) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 262; <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 954; (5) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 333; -(6) <i>ibid.</i>, 334; (7) to (10) <i>ibid.</i>, 329-332; Hicks and Hill, 151; <i>I.G.</i>, II., -886, 901, 885, 908b; (11) <i>Jahrbuch d. Arch. Inst.</i>, II., p. 161; (12) <i>B.S. -Athens Ann.</i>, V. pl. 5, fig. 112; (13) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 1155; <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, -250; (14) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 948<span class="all-sc">A</span>; <i>Journ. of Hellen. Stud.</i>, II., p. 77; (15) -Roberts, <i>Gr. Epigraphy</i>, No. 286; (17) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 319; <i>I.G</i>. XIV., -594; cf. <i>Hermes</i>, III., p. 298 ff.; (18) <i>Eph. Epigraph.</i>, IV., p. 185; -<i>C.I.L.</i>, III., Suppl. i., p. 2000. On the <i>diplomata</i> generally, see Smith, -<i>Dict. of Ant.</i>, and Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict. of Ant.</i>, s.v.; (19) <i>Cat. -of Bronzes</i>, 901; <i>C.I.L.</i>, XV., 7166; Hübner, <i>Exempla</i>, No. 915; (20) -<i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 3016; <i>C.I.L.</i>, XV., 7201; <i>Klio</i>, Beiheft III., p. 21; -<i>Philologus</i>, XXIX., p. 17; (21) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 902; <i>C.I.L.</i>, XV., 7193. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag1">1:</a> -<i>Pol.</i> i. 1, 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote2" name="footnote2"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag2">2:</a></p> -<p class="footnote2a"><ins title="Greek: Prytanis Stratôn. |"> -Πρύτανις Στράτων. |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: meis Psydreus, hamera te |"> -μεὶς Ψυδρεύς, -ἀμέρα τε |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: tarta epi deka; prostatas |">τάρτα ἐπὶ -δέκα; -προστάτας |</ins><br /> -<ins title="Greek: Gnathios Sôkrateus; |"> -Γνάθιος -Σωκράτευς; |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: proxenon poei ha halia |"> -πρόξενον ποεῖ -ἀ ἀλία |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: Dionysion Phrynichou | Athênaion"> -Διονύσιον -Φρυνίχου | -Ἀθηναῖον</ins><br /> -<ins title="Greek: auton kai |"> -αὐτὸν καὶ |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: ekgonous. didôti de kai |"> -ἐκγόνους. -δίδωτι δὲ καὶ |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: gas kai oikias empasin. |"> -γᾶς καὶ -οἰκίας ἔμπασιν. |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: tan de proxenian "> -τὰν δὲ προξενίαν<br /> -<ins title="Greek: grapsan | tas eis chalkon anthemen">γράψαν | -τας εἰς -χαλκὸν ἀνθέμεν |</ins> -<ins title="Greek: ei ka proboulois kai prodikois dokêi kalôs echein."> -εἴ κα προβούλοις -καὶ προδίκοις</ins> -δοκῆι καλῶς<br /> -ἔχειν.</ins></p> - -<p class="centerq"><ins title="Greek: Dionysion | Phrynichou | Athênaion."> -Διονύσιον | -Φρυνίχου | -Ἀθηναῖον.</ins> -</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote3" name="footnote3"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag3">3:</a></p> -<p class="footnote2a"><ins title="Greek: Edoxe ta halia, proxe|non eimen Pausanian At|talou Ambrakiôtan | tas"> -Ἔδοξε τᾷ ἁλίᾳ, -πρόξε|νον εἶμεν -Παυσανίαν Ἀτ|τάλου -Ἀμβρακιώταν | τᾶς</ins><br /> -<ins title="Greek: polios tôn Korkyrai|ôn auton kai engonous; | eimen de autois kai ta | alla"> -πόλιος τῶν -Κορκυραί|ων -αὐτὸν καὶ -ἐγγόνους; | -εἶμεν δὲ -αὐτοῖς καὶ τὰ | -ἄλλα</ins><br /> -<ins title="Greek: timia, hosa kai [tois] | allois proxenois [kai] | euergetais geg(ra)|ptai. | tan de"> -τίμια, -ὄσα καὶ[τοῖς] | -ἄλλοις -προξένοις [καὶ] | -εὐεργέταις -γέγ(ρα)|πται. | τὰν δὲ</ins><br /> -<ins title="Greek: proxeni|an proboulous kai pro|dikous grapsantas eis | chalkôma anathemen, |"> -προξενί|αν -προβούλους -καὶ προ|δίκους -γράψαντας εἰς | -χάλκωμα -ἀναθέμεν, |</ins><br /> -<ins title="Greek: ton de tamian domen | to genomenon analô|ma."> -τὸν δὲ ταμίαν -δόμεν | -τὸ γενόμενον -ἀνάλω|μα.</ins></p> -<p class="centerq"> -<ins title="Greek: Pausanian Attalou | Ambrakiôtan."> -Παυσανίαν -Ἀττάλου | -Ἀμβρακιώταν.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote4" name="footnote4"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag4">4:</a></p> -<p class="footnote2a"><ins title="Greek: Ath. Pol. 63: "> -Ἀθ. Πολ. 63.</ins> -<ins title="Greek: echei d' hekastos dikastês pinakion pyxinon,"> -ἔχει δ' ἕκαστος δικαστὴς -πινάκιον πύξινον,</ins> - -<ins title="Greek: epigegrammenon to onoma to heautou patrothen"> -ἐπιγεγραμμένον τὸ ὄνομα<br /> -τὸ ἑαυτοῦ πατρόθεν</ins> - -<ins title="Greek: kai tou dêmou kai gramma hen tôn stoicheiôn mechri tou k."> -καὶ τοῦ δήμου καὶ γράμμα -ἓν τῶν στοιχείων μέχρι τοῦ κ.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote2"><a id="footnote5" name="footnote5"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag5">5:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Methanioi apo Lakedaimoniôn."> -Μεθάνιοι ἀπὸ -Λακεδαιμονίων.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote6" name="footnote6"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag6">6:</a></p> -<p class="footnote2b"> -Imp. Cae(sar) M. Iulius Phili[ppus Pius]<br /> -Fel(ix) Aug(ustus), pont(ifex) max(imus), trib(unicia) p[ot(estate) III, cos., p.p. et]<br /> -M. Iulius Philippus nobil[issim(us) Caes(ar)]<br /> -nomina militum, qui milit[averunt in]<br /> -cohortibus pretoris Phil[ippianis de-]<br /> -cem I. II. III. IIII. V. VI. VII. VIII. VII[II. X. piis vin-]<br /> -dicibus, qui pii et fortiter [militia fun-]<br /> -cti sunt, ius tribuimus con[ubii dumta-]<br /> -xat cum singulis et primi[s uxoribus],<br /> -ut etiam si peregrini iur[is feminas]<br /> -in matrimon(io) suo iunxe[rint, proinde<br /> -liberos toll(ant), acxi (for <i>ac si</i>) ex duob(us) c[ivibus Ro-]<br /> -manis natos. a. d. VII. [idus Ian.]<br /> -C. Bruttio Presente et C. Al(b)[- - - - - cos.]<br /> -Coh(ors) V pr(aetoria) Philip[pian(a) p(ia) v(index).]<br /> -Neb. Tullio Neb. f. M(a) - - - - - - - -<br /> -<span class="ind">Ael(ia) Murs[a].</span><br /> -Descript(um) et recognit(um) ex ta[bula aerea],<br /> -que fix(a) est Romae in muro [pos(t) templum]<br /> -<span class="ind1">divi Aug(usti) ad Mine[rvam].</span><br /> -</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote7" name="footnote7"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag7">7:</a> - Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler</i>, II., p. 801, fig. 867.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>II.—COINS.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case K.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The coins which are selected to represent the Greek and Roman -currencies extend over a period of just one thousand years, in the -course of which the coinage went through all the developments -and anticipated all the varieties of type and fabric which it has -since experienced, while in artistic merit it reached an excellence -which will probably never be surpassed. The Greek coinage, -moreover, has the great interest of being that upon which all -later coinages have been modelled—for the Chinese money, -which originated about the same time, and apparently independently, -may be left out of account.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Greek Coins.</span>—The character and provenance of the earliest -coins agree with the best ancient tradition of their origin, in so -far as it associates them with Asia Minor, although it is more probable -that they were invented by the Greek cities of the coast than by -the Lydians, to whom they have been credited in accordance with -the Herodotean tradition.<a id="footnotetag8" name="footnotetag8"></a><a href="#footnote8"><sup>8</sup></a> -The most primitive pieces are found in Asia Minor, and their metal is a natural mixture of gold and -silver, called electrum, which occurs in the mountains of Lydia, -and was brought down to the sea in the sands of the great rivers, -the golden Hermus and its tributary the Pactolus. The cities -which the Greeks had planted on the Asiatic shores grew in the -seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> to a high degree of wealth, by reason of their -position on a rich coastland, where they were intermediary in the -trade of east and west. There were great bankers in these Ionian -cities who had large stores of treasure; their gold and silver would -be kept in bars or ingots of definite weight stamped with the device, -in place of the written signature, of the banker. From thus -marking large ingots with his own signature, it would be a short -step for the banker to do the same with smaller denominations of -the same weights, so producing a private coinage for his own -convenience in calculation, which would come to have a limited -acceptance in the quarters where his credit was good. Such pieces -are probably to be recognised in the nondescript coins of which -the electrum stater is an example (No. <span class="bhead">24</span>; fig. 12<em>a</em>); this is -scored on one side with parallel scratches and stamped on the other with -three deep punch-marks. There are many pieces in existence which -have even less design than this, although their weights conform to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> -definite coin-standards. We may perhaps regard this example as -a private coin, one of the last of its kind, which immediately preceded -the adoption of coinage by the state. The invention of coinage -lies really in this innovation, which, however obvious it may seem -to us now, was then of deep political significance. When once -a state currency was instituted, the private coinage fell out of use, -for no individual banker could compete with the guarantee of the -state, and the state would not tolerate imitation of its own types. -We may therefore take it that the successive stages in the -"invention" of coinage were somewhat as follows: first, the -occasional practice of stamping certain weights of metal with marks -by which they could be identified; this probably continued in -private use for a long period before it was adopted by a state; and -finally the adoption all over the Greek world of a series of state -coinages.</p> - -<p>The example, once set, was quickly followed by the more -important Greek cities, until by the middle of the sixth century the -art of coinage had travelled from Ionia across the mainland of Greece -to the colonies in Italy and Sicily. Owing to the peculiar political -conditions of Greece, where every town held a separate and -independent sovereignty, each state was jealous to assert its -autonomy on its coins, with the result that the Greek coinage -presents an enormous variety of types, held together, however, -as the money of one people by the uniformity of their general -character and of the art in which they are expressed.</p> - -<p>We may now proceed to consider a few representative coins, -which in the midst of innumerable local issues were important -enough by their purity of weight and metal, or by their abundance, -or by the commercial reputation of their issuing states, to predominate -in the Greek world as a sort of international currency -and standard of exchange.</p> - -<p>The earliest electrum stater of Ionia is interesting on account -of its fabric only, for it has no type. It is a bean-shaped lump of -metal, one side of which has been stamped with a flat die marked -with parallel scratches, the other with three punches, which have -left deep impressions (No. <span class="bhead">24</span>; fig. 12<em>a</em>). The pieces which -immediately followed, such as the silver money of Aegina (No. <span class="bhead">25</span>; -fig. 12<em>d</em>), have a real type on the obverse, while the punch-mark -on the reverse is more regular, and is often ornamented with some -design of a special character, though it does not contain a type -until later.</p> - -<p>With the introduction of coinage into European Greece, a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> -change was made in the metal of the currency, for gold and -electrum, which were plentiful in Asia, were not common in -Greece proper, and a silver coinage was there the rule until -Philip of Macedon took possession of the Thracian gold mines. -The few gold issues before his time were due to exceptional -circumstances; thus the gold coinage of Athens (No. <span class="bhead">26</span>) was occasioned -by great financial stress, when treasure was melted down -to supply the currency. There was, however, no lack of gold -money in Greece, for after the first electrum issues came the fine -gold staters of Croesus, in the early sixth century (No. <span class="bhead">27</span>; fig. -12<em>b</em>), and, on his overthrow by Cyrus, an international gold coinage -was still available in the enormous issues of the Persian darics -(No. <span class="bhead">28</span>; fig. 12<em>c</em>), which were in common use all over the ancient -world until the Macedonian gold replaced them. A few subsidiary -electrum coinages survived in Asia, the most famous being -the Kyzikene staters (No. <span class="bhead">29</span>; fig. 12<em>m</em>), which were a standard -exchange in the Aegean and Black Sea regions. A peculiarity of -this coinage is that the distinctive type of the town, the tunny, -is relegated to a secondary place, while the main type is a constantly -changing design. In the piece illustrated the subject is taken -from a group of the Athenian tyrannicides, Harmodios and -Aristogeiton, which stood in the market place of their native city.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;"><a href="images/017-600.png"><img src="images/017-290.png" width="290" height="474" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.—Greek Coins.</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<p>Another important currency, used especially in western Greece, -the "colts" of Corinth, took its type from the local myth that the -winged horse Pegasos was captured by Bellerophon at the fountain -Peirene, which flowed from the acropolis of the town (No. <span class="bhead">30</span>; -fig. 12<em>e</em>). The original punch-mark on the reverse was soon replaced -by the helmeted head of Athena, who also had a part in the -Pegasos myth, and these two types were constant as long as the -Corinthian state existed. The money which enjoyed the fairest -reputation was that of Athens, which, at the time of the Athenian -empire, superseded the issues of the subject cities and became the -standard currency in the Aegean Sea. It penetrated into the far -East, and there are extant examples of native imitations from -India and Arabia. The wide circulation of these staters among -barbarous peoples was the cause of their peculiar style; for not -only were the types of Athena's head and her owl and olive-branch -unaltered from the first sixth-century design, but the execution -was an imitation of the primitive manner, the stiffness of archaic -art being reproduced in an affected archaism. As the money of -Athens was the foremost in the Greek world, it is useful to note -the extraordinary number of denominations which were struck in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> -silver at its most flourishing period, the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> A large, -but still not complete, series is exhibited here (No. <span class="bhead">31</span>). It consists -of the <em>Decadrachm</em> (10 drachmae, fig. 12<em>f</em>), an early and rare -coin, the <em>Tetradrachm</em> (4 drachmae, fig. 12<em>g</em>), which was the famous -Athenian stater or standard piece, the <em>Didrachm</em> (2 drachmae), -the <em>Drachm</em> (fig. 12<em>h</em>), the unit of weight, which contained six -obols, the <em>Triobol</em> (3 obols), the <em>Diobol</em> (2 obols), the <em>Obol</em> (fig. -12<em>i</em>), the <em>Tritemorion</em> (<b>¾</b> obol), the <em>Hemiobol</em> (<b>½</b> obol), the -<em>Trihemitetartemorion</em> (<b>⅜</b> obol), and the <em>Tetartemorion</em> (<b>¼</b> obol, -fig. 12<em>k</em>), the half of the last piece being equivalent to the largest bronze coin, -the <em>Chalkous</em> (No. <span class="bhead">32</span>).</p> - -<p>With the Athenian series is the bronze core of an ancient -imitation of a silver stater, of which the silver plating has perished -(No. <span class="bhead">33</span>). False coining was punished with extreme penalties even -in those early days: in an extant monetary convention between -Mytilene and Phocaea, of the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>., the crime of -adulterating the money is threatened with death.<a id="footnotetag9" name="footnotetag9"></a><a href="#footnote9"><sup>9</sup></a></p> - -<p>On the conquest of Athens by Macedon, at the end of the -fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, the autonomous Athenian coinage was largely -superseded by the Macedonian regal issues, and did not recover -its position until late in the next century. It was renewed in a -different form, with none of the old archaism, of which the occasion -was past. The coins of the new style exemplify the thin flat fabric -of the period, and although the types of Athena and the owl are -preserved, their arrangement is much more complicated. The new -head of Athena is a copy from the colossal ivory and gold statue -which Pheidias made, and on the reverse of the coins the owl and -olive spray are accompanied by many new devices, of which the -most remarkable are the names, symbols, and monograms of the -monetary magistrates; eminent personages sometimes figure in -this place. On the coins exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">34</span>; fig. 12<i>l</i>) one of the -officials is Antiochos, who was afterwards Epiphanes, king of Syria.</p> - -<p>In the interval between the old and new coinages, when the -Athenian money was scanty, the currency was supplied by the -regal issues of the Macedonian kings and their successors. Under -Philip II. and his son Alexander the Great, the Macedonian monarchy -extended its dominion by conquest, not only over the isolated -Greek cities, but over the ancient empire of Persia. The opportunity -was thus provided for a universal coinage, and it was realised -in the gold and silver issues of Philip and Alexander (Nos. <span class="bhead">35</span>, -<span class="bhead">36</span>; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> -fig. 12<i>n-q</i>). The acquisition of the Thracian gold-mines gave Philip -the means for an abundant coinage of gold, the first considerable -Greek issue of the kind, which contributed in no small measure -to his political success. The style of these coins of Philip is not -different from that of other Greek money, except that they are -inscribed with a personal name—of Philip—instead of the name -of a whole people, and the types, a horse and jockey and a two-horse -chariot, are also personal, as they commemorate the racing -successes of the king. The fine heads on the obverse, however, -are still divine, that of Zeus appearing on the silver and the young -Apollo on the gold, for the idea of representing a living personage -on a coin was still distant. Of this money the gold especially was -struck in enormous quantities, and the types were imitated more -and more crudely, as time went on, in Gaul and Britain. (<i>See</i> the -series shown in the Room of Roman Britain.) The coinage of -Alexander was even more widely spread. His types were more -orthodox than those of Philip: the head of Athena and a Victory -on the gold, and the head of young Herakles, wrapped in the lion-skin, -with a figure of Zeus enthroned, on the silver staters, although -in the head of Herakles there is some suggestion of the features of -Alexander. These coins were struck all over the world which -Alexander conquered, and lasted after his death as the money of -his successors and of independent cities, in some cases even for two -centuries; but the kings who divided his great empire modified -the type by introducing real portraits of Alexander, as a deified -hero, and later of themselves, as living deities, so that the representation -of a ruler's head on coins, which is still practised to-day, -began with quasi-religious Greek coin-types. The regularity of -the Greek coinage which Alexander established was only temporary, -and his influence was fast disappearing when the subjection of the -world by the Romans in the first century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> merged all provincial -issues in the complete uniformity of the Imperial mint.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/020a-460.png"><img src="images/020a-220.png" width="220" height="466" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.—Aes Signatum (No. 37).</span> 1:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Roman Coins.</span>—As gold in the Asiatic coastlands and silver -in European Greece, so in Italy the native medium of exchange -was bronze. In the earliest times the raw metal was circulated -in broken knobs of indefinite weight (<em>aes rude</em>), which required in -all transactions the use of scales. The rude metal was afterwards -superseded by cast ingots of an oblong shape, which bore a device -to indicate their purpose as money (<em>aes signatum</em>). Yet the -weights were still irregular, and no mark of value accompanied -the types, so that the pieces were not strictly coins. A survival -of this primitive currency is seen in the large ingot which has on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> -one side a tripod and on the other an anchor (No. <span class="bhead">37</span>; fig. 13). -This piece itself belongs to a later period, when the lighter coined -money was already in use. The special purpose for which this -and similar pieces were intended is quite uncertain. The first coinage -of Rome was less massive than this, but being entirely of bronze, was -still inconveniently large and cumbrous (<em>aes grave</em>). -The Roman of the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, when he found it necessary to -transport any considerable sum, took his money about with him in -a waggon.<a id="footnotetag10" name="footnotetag10"></a><a href="#footnote10"><sup>10</sup></a> -The use of bronze for a token currency, as in Greece, was not possible -without a superior coinage of gold or silver to secure its value.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/020b-1000.png"><img src="images/020b-500.png" width="500" height="211" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.—Aes Grave (No. 38). As, Semis, Quadrans, and Uncia.</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>A typical series of the Roman heavy -bronze money is exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">38</span>; fig. 14) -The system is based on the pound of twelve -ounces, and the denominations of the various -pieces are distinguished by the heads or -obverse types, and by the marks of value -which they bear. The series consists of the -<em>As</em>, or pound (<span class="sans2">I</span>), the half, <em>Semis</em> (<span class="sans2">S</span>), -the third, <em>Triens</em>, of four ounces (<span class="bhead">····</span>), -the quarter, <em>Quadrans</em>, of three ounces (<span class="bhead">···</span>), the -sixth, <em>Sextans</em>, of two ounces (<span class="bhead">··</span>), and the <em>Uncia</em>, or ounce, the -lower unit (<span class="bhead">·</span>) (<i>cf.</i> p. <a href="#page160">160</a>). Each of these is further differentiated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> -by the obverse head. The <em>as</em> has the double head of Janus, the god -of beginnings, whose coin opened the series of money, as his month -begins the year. The <em>semis</em> has the head of Jupiter, wearing a -laurel wreath; the <em>triens</em>, Minerva armed; the <em>quadrans</em>, Hercules -in the lion-skin; the <em>sextans</em>, Mercury, the messenger, with wings -in his cap; and the <em>uncia</em>, a head of Bellona, the goddess of -battle. All the reverses have a common type, the prow of a -ship. This device may mark the date of the introduction of the -Roman coinage, which coincided with Rome's first essays on the -sea, in the middle of the fourth century before Christ. It remained -as the reverse type of the bronze money all through the Republic, -and even in later times, when a coin was tossed, the cry was -"heads" or "ships."<a id="footnotetag11" name="footnotetag11"></a><a href="#footnote11"><sup>11</sup></a></p> - -<p>The heavy bronze coinage of the city of Rome was only one -among many similar currencies of the central Italian states. As -the Romans conquered the neighbouring territories, where there -existed local weight-systems, which, in the interests of commerce, -it was well to preserve, instead of imposing their own money, -they inaugurated subordinate issues at the dependent mints. On -this principle it was natural that when the march of Roman -conquest came upon the peoples of South Italy, where a silver -currency had been long ago introduced by the Greek colonists, -a local issue for those parts was instituted as a subsidiary coinage. -To this class of Roman money belongs the silver stater or didrachm -with Campanian types (the head of Mars and the bust of a horse) -which was struck by the Romans—as the legend <span class="sans">ROMANO</span>(<em>rum</em>) -shews—in Capua for the use of the Campanian district (No. <span class="bhead">39</span>; -fig. 15<i>a</i>). With the extension of power and territory the old bronze -pieces were inadequate, and in the year 268 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> a silver coinage -was begun at Rome itself. At the same time the Campanian mint -was closed, and the heavy bronze coins, being subordinated to the -silver unit, were issued as token-money in a reduced and more -convenient size.</p> - -<p>The first Roman silver coinage bears the types of the goddess -Roma, wearing a winged helmet, and on the reverse the patron -deities of trade and commerce, Castor and Pollux, the Heavenly -Twins or Dioscuri (No. <span class="bhead">40</span>; fig. 15<em>b-d</em>). They are armed with -spears and ride on horseback, with their stars above their heads. -These types occur on all three denominations of the earliest silver, -the <em>Denarius</em> (marked <span class="sans">X</span>), which was worth 10 <em>asses</em>; its half, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> -<em>Quinarius</em> (<span class="sans">V</span>); and the <em>Sestertius</em> (<span class="sans">IIS</span>) of 2<b>½</b> -<em>asses</em>, which became the unit in reckoning accounts. The two smallest silver pieces were -not always struck; but the <em>denarius</em>, with the reduced copper for -small denominations, remained in use during the period of the -Republic at Rome and long into the Empire. Although both -series had a great variety of types, the fabric and general -appearance were unaltered.</p> - -<p>With the change to the Empire, reform in all directions was -begun, and the coinage was set on a new basis. Gold was introduced -to meet the needs of the metropolis of the world, and two -new coins, the <em>Aureus</em> and its half, were struck in this metal. -They were modelled on the silver pieces. The standard silver -coin was still the <em>denarius</em>, and the only change which it experienced -was in type. The head of the emperor took the place of -those of deities, with a superscription, which was the forerunner -of modern coin-legends. It consisted of the name and titles of -the emperor, often with the date of striking, arranged in a circle -round the edge of the coin. The minting of gold and silver was -assumed by the emperor, but the lower denominations were left to -the senate, whose authority is expressed on each piece by the letters -<span class="sans">S·C</span> (<em>Senatus Consulto</em>, "by decree of the Senate"). The senatorial -series consisted of the <em>Sestertius</em>, the equivalent of the smallest -silver coin, now valued at 4 <em>asses</em> instead of the original 2<b>½</b>; the -<em>Dupondius</em>, of 2 <em>asses</em>; the <em>As</em>, and fractions of the -<i>as</i>, <em>Semis</em> and <em>Quadrans</em>, which are of less frequent occurrence. These coins -sometimes differed as to the metal used, the <em>as</em> and <em>semis</em> being of -copper, and the <em>dupondius</em> and <em>sestertius</em> of brass; or in the style -of the emperor's head; or, as in the case of the coins exhibited, -the <em>as</em> is marked <span class="sans">I</span> and the <em>dupondius</em> <span class="sans">II</span> (fig. -15<em>h</em> and <em>i</em>). Usually, however, the two pieces are confused, and are loosely termed by -collectors "second brass," the sesterce being "first brass," and all -denominations lower than the <em>as</em> "third brass." The reverse types -were very numerous, and, with the exception of the mark <span class="sans">S·C</span> on -the senatorial issues, none of them was peculiar to any denomination. -The series which is selected here to illustrate the Imperial coinage -is of the reign of Nero (54-68 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>); all the pieces, therefore, bear -the image and superscription of that Caesar, and their reverses -have complimentary references to the emperor and his family, -or topical allusions to current events (No. <span class="bhead">41</span>; fig. 15<em>e-l</em>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/023-600.png"><img src="images/023-280.png" width="280" height="465" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.—Roman Coins.</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<p>Nero was the first emperor to reduce the weight of the <em>denarius</em>, -and from his time the degeneration was rapid. A series of seven -pieces, from Tiberius to Probus (14-281 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>), illustrates the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg 23]<br /><a name="page24" id="page24"></a></span> -debasement of the metal, which is apparent to the eye (No. <span class="bhead">42</span>). -By the time of Gordianus Pius (238-244 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>) no trace of silver is -visible, and the coin of Probus here exhibited is plainly copper. Yet -these pieces represent the only silver money which was then coined.</p> - -<p>Many of the coins which have come down to us have been -preserved by the care or avarice of their former owners, who hid -their wealth for security and were unable to recover it. Portions -of two such hoards are shown at the end of the case. One consists -of Athenian staters of the late fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">43</span>), -which were found in the Greek settlement of Naukratis, and the other -is a large collection of late Roman coins of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">44</span>). These were buried in another Egyptian town, Hawara, -in the egg-shaped jug which is shown with them. At Pompeii, a -city which was overwhelmed by the volcano in the midst of its daily -life, money, like all other things, has been found ready to hand -and actually in use. There is in this Case all that the fire has left -of a Pompeian money-box, and among the coins which it contains -is a brass sesterce of Nero, whose reign ended eleven years before -the catastrophe. Shreds of a net purse are also visible in the -box (No. <span class="bhead">45</span>).</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Special uses of Coins.</span>—A silver stater of Sikyon (No. <span class="bhead">46</span>), -is marked by an inscription punctured by the dedicator—<em>To Artemis -in Lakedaemon</em>. A religious character attaches also to the bronze -coin of Laodikeia in Phrygia, which is pierced and suspended from -a wire loop for wearing as a charm against sickness, by virtue of -the figures which it bears of Asklepios and Hygieia, the deities of -health (No. <span class="bhead">47</span>).</p> - -<p>A curious coin, struck for a special religious purpose, is the -copper piece of Nemausus (Nîmes, in the South of France), which -is made in the shape of a ham for dedication to the deity of the -local fountain (No. <span class="bhead">48</span>). The offering was probably originally -paid in kind.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Ancient false Coins.</span>—With the exception of the Italian -heavy copper, which was cast, nearly all ancient coins were struck -in dies, and most of the false pieces which have survived are defective -in the quality of the metal, while the fabric is good. In the later -Roman Empire, when all the standard money was of base metal, -the surface was so bad that the coins could easily be counterfeited -by casting, and great numbers of the clay moulds used by forgers -or by the monetary authorities date from this period. Among the -large collection here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">49</span>) there are some unbroken -moulds, and some with the run metal still adhering. Base metal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> -was detected by the use of the touch-stone, and pieces of doubtful -weight were tested by the balance. An ivory folding balance is -shown (No. <span class="bhead">49*</span>). The long arm is made just too light to counterpoise -a good denarius—the test being that if the coin were heavy enough -it would fall off the plate at the end.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -For Greek and Roman coins in general, see Hill, <i>Handbook of Greek -and Roman Coins</i> (with the Bibliography there given); G. Macdonald, -<i>Coin Types</i> (Glasgow, 1905); Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i> (2nd ed. 1911.) -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote8" name="footnote8"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag8"> 8:</a> -i. 94.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote9" name="footnote9"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag9"> 9:</a> -Michel, <i>Recueil des inscr. grecques</i>, No. 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote10" name="footnote10"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag10">10:</a> -Livy, iv. 60.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote11" name="footnote11"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag11">11:</a> -Macr. <i>Sat.</i> i. 7, 22. <span class="foo">pueri denarios in sublime iactantes capita aut -navia exclamant.</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>III.—DRAMA.<a name="page25a" id="page25a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case K and Glass Shade above.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The antiquities illustrating the ancient drama are placed in one -half of Table-Case K, and under the glass shade standing above it.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Greek Drama.</span>—This was in its origin essentially religious, -and retained up to the decline of tragedy at the end of the fifth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> the character of a religious ceremony. Thus tragedy -gradually developed out of the rude dances in honour of the wine-god -Dionysos, which were performed at country vintage festivals. -The name tragedy means "goat-song," and is probably to be -associated with the sacrifice of the goat, the enemy of the vines.</p> - -<p>The dramatic part of a tragedy was at first confined to a dialogue -between a single actor and the leader of the chorus, with long -musical interludes, but the number of actors was gradually increased, -with the result that more stress was laid on the dramatic action. -Aeschylos introduced a second actor, Sophokles a third, and -Euripides, the last of the great tragedians, reduced the lyrical -element of the play to comparatively insignificant proportions.</p> - -<p>Comedy underwent a development not unlike that of tragedy. -It also had its origin in the coarse buffoonery common at the rustic -festivals which celebrated the vintage. Introduced into Athens -from the neighbouring Megara early in the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, it -did not receive recognition from the state until the middle of the -fifth century. The comedy of the closing years of that century is -inseparably connected with the name of Aristophanes, who combined -merciless political satire with exquisite poetry.</p> - -<p>In the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> a great change came over comedy -at Athens. The later plays of Aristophanes mark the beginning -of the comedy of manners, which took the place of the old political -comedy. The master of this new comedy was Menander. Through -Roman translations and adaptations of Menander and his fellow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span> -poets by Plautus and Terence, comes the comedy of Molière and -modern Europe.</p> - -<p>The theatre, in which these ancient plays were performed, was -of slow development. The grassy slopes of a hill, bordering on a -circular dancing-place (<em>orchestra</em>), satisfied the earliest audiences. -Later on, a definite place was set apart for theatrical performances, -and a wooden structure erected for the actors. It was not until -the fourth century that permanent stone seats were laid down in -the Theatre of Dionysos at Athens, although performances had been -given there for more than a century.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Roman Drama.</span>—The drama at first met with a determined -opposition from Romans of the old school as a new-fangled thing -from Greece. The taste of the people, also, was not inclined to -favour so cultured an amusement as the drama. The Romans -preferred to see a fight between men or beasts rather than to listen -to a play, and on one occasion, when listening to a play of Terence, -they rushed pell-mell from the theatre, because a rumour arose -that a combat of gladiators was going to take place.<a id="footnotetag12" name="footnotetag12"></a><a href="#footnote12"><sup>12</sup></a></p> - -<p>The more important Roman comedies were adapted from the -New Comedy of the Greeks. These adaptations are familiar to us -from the surviving plays of Plautus (254-184 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) and Terence -(ca. 185-159 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>). Actors at Rome had long to be content with -temporary wooden structures, which were pulled down when the -performances were over. A permanent theatre was not erected in -Rome till 55 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The objects illustrating the ancient drama can conveniently be -divided into (<i>a</i>) representations of scenes from plays, and (<i>b</i>) -figures of actors and masks.</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) <span class="bhead">Scenes from Plays.</span>—The vase (No. <span class="bhead">50</span>) placed under the -glass shade is valuable as an illustration of the beginnings of -Athenian drama. It is a plate of Athenian fabric of the sixth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, with designs which probably represent the sacrifice -made to Athena at the Panathenaic games, and two scenes relating -to dramatic contests. The first of these scenes shows a tragic -chorus with the goat, which was the prize of victory. The second -shows a comic chorus, in which a man seated at the back of a mule-car -appears to be making jests at the expense of another man who -follows. This "jesting from a car" became a regular phrase to -express ribald joking.<a id="footnotetag13" name="footnotetag13"></a><a href="#footnote13"><sup>13</sup></a> -None of the men who took part in these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>[pg 27]<a name="page28" id="page28"></a><br /></span> -contests is distinguished by any peculiarity of costume. Another -early vase, however (No. <span class="bhead">51</span>), gives a lively picture of two actors -dressed up as birds. Before them stands a flute-player. Though -this vase is many years earlier in date than the <i>Birds</i> of Aristophanes -(414 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>), yet it may serve to give us some idea of the appearance -of the chorus in that play.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/027-1000.png"><img src="images/027-500.png" width="500" height="366" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.—Scene from a Mock-Tragedy. Combat between Ares and -Hephaestos before Hera (No. 52).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/028-1000.png"><img src="images/028-500.png" width="500" height="295" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.—Marriage Scene from a Roman-Comedy (No. 54).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>The two large vases illustrate Greek dramatic performances -of a considerably later date. They give us scenes from <em>phlyakes</em>, -a class of burlesques which were in vogue in the Greek cities of -Southern Italy, especially at Tarentum, at the end of the fourth -and the beginning of the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> They are associated -with the name of Rhinthon, a Syracusan poet. These plays dealt -in the wildest spirit of farce with subjects drawn from Greek -mythology and legend, as well as with scenes from daily life. One -of the vases (No. <span class="bhead">52</span>; fig. 16) shows a contest upon the stage, -between actors representing Ares (<ins title="Greek: Eneualios">Ἐνευάλιος</ins>) -and Hephaestos (<ins title="Greek: Daidalos">Δαίδαλος</ins>) -fighting in the presence of Hera. The grotesque mask, -the padded figures, and the general air of exaggeration are indicative -of the character of these plays, which earned for them the title of -mock-tragedies (<ins title="Greek: hilarotragôdiai">ἱλαροτραγῳδίαι</ins>). -The other vase (No. <span class="bhead">53</span>) is a -parody of the myth of Cheiron cured by Apollo. The blind Centaur, whose -equine body is represented pantomime-fashion by a second actor -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> -pushing behind, ascends the steps leading up to the stage, where -stands the slave Xanthias. Behind is the Centaur's pupil Achilles, -and looking on from a cave are two grotesquely ugly nymphs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a href="images/029-795.png"><img src="images/029-370.png" width="370" height="465" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.—Scene from a Roman Tragedy. Hercules Disputing with -Mars (No. 55).</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<p>Case K contains two interesting representations of Roman -comedy and tragedy respectively. The oblong lamp (No. <span class="bhead">54</span>; -fig. 17) gives a scene from a comedy, not improbably the mock-marriage -scene from the fourth act of the <em>Casina</em> of Plautus. The -steps leading up to the door of the house divide the actors into two -groups. On the left is the bridegroom (Olympio?) with his mule, -in preparation for his departure into the country. On the right -comes the marriage procession approaching a woman (Pardalisca?) -who stands by the steps. First walks a Silenus, carrying a Cupid -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> -on his shoulders; next comes the bride, carried aloft by a man, in -order that she may be lifted over the threshold in conformity with -the usual Roman marriage rite (see below, p. <a href="#page212">212</a>). Behind is an -altar in the courtyard of the house. A Cupid waits at the door -to receive the bride.</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/030a-330.png"><img src="images/030a-160.png" width="160" height="482" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.—Ivory Statuette of a -Tragic Actor.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 240px; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/030b-390.png"><img src="images/030b-180.png" width="180" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.—Terracotta Statuette -of Comic Actor (Money-Lender?) (No. 60).</span> Ht. 7<b>⅞</b> in.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">The Gallo-Roman medallion (No. <span class="bhead">55</span>; fig. 18) is from a vase. -It gives a picture of a Roman tragedy. On a high stage sits -Jupiter enthroned, with Victory and Minerva on his right and left -hand respectively. Before the stage stand Hercules and Mars, -disputing. Hercules has slain Cycnus, the son of Mars, and the -irate father stands exclaiming: "Be assured that I am come as -the avenger of my son." To which Hercules replies: "Unconquered -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> -valour can ne'er be terrified."<a id="footnotetag14" name="footnotetag14"></a><a href="#footnote14"><sup>14</sup></a> -The characters speak in iambic verse.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/031-420.png"><img src="images/031-200.png" width="200" height="476" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.—Terracotta Statuette of -Comic Actor (Slave?) (No. 61).</span> Ht. 8<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <span class="bhead">Figures of actors and masks.</span>—In tragedy the actors -probably wore a dress differing from that of the spectators only in -a certain richness of material and colour, and in an adherence to -the fashion of an earlier period. Two features, however, distinguished -them in appearance from ordinary men, the buskin -(<ins title="Greek: kothornos">κόθορνος</ins>) -or high-soled boot, and the tragic mask. The use of the former (which -increased in height as time went on) was due to a desire to enhance -the wearer's dignity by raising him somewhat above the common height -of men. The wearing of the mask was brought about chiefly by -tradition, partly by the great size of ancient theatres, which -rendered some easily recognized type of face a practical necessity. -The tragic mask (fig. 22 below, right) was usually surmounted by a -high projection over the forehead, called the <em>onkos</em>, on which the -hair was raised to a height varying with the social position of the -character. The mask illustrated (No. <span class="bhead">56</span>) is of ivory and finely -worked. It is a mask such as would have been worn by some king in -tragedy, an Agamemnon or a Kreon. The general appearance of a tragic -actor is finely brought before us by an ivory -statuette (not in the Museum) which was found near Rieti, a place -about 35 miles N.E. of Rome (fig. 19). The elaborately embroidered -robe is coloured blue, and the <em>onkos</em>, mask, and buskins are clearly -seen. (<i>Mon. dell' Inst.</i> xi. pl. 13.)</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span></p> - -<p>The figures of actors and the comic masks exhibited under the -glass shade and in Table-Case K bring before us the different -characters prominent in Athenian comedy of the fourth and third -centuries <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and in the Roman comedy derived from it. It was -a comedy of everyday life, in which the same well-known types -were constantly reappearing. Such were the parasite (No. <span class="bhead">57</span>), -who bears all the marks of a fondness for good living, and carries -a flask and a ham; the glutton (Nos. <span class="bhead">58</span> and <span class="bhead">59</span>), distinguished -by his large padded stomach; the money-lender (No. <span class="bhead">60</span>), with -his acute and cunning expression, grasping his purse tightly by -his side with both hands, and partially concealing it beneath his -cloak (fig. 20). The adventures of the slave and his punishments -were a favourite theme with poets of the new comedy. No. <span class="bhead">61</span> -(fig. 21) may represent the trusted elderly slave aghast at the -misdoings of his young master. A still greater favourite is the -runaway slave who seeks refuge from his irate master in the -protection of the altar. The bronze statuette (No. <span class="bhead">62</span>), and the -terracotta (No. <span class="bhead">63</span>) show him seated on the altar, and in No. <span class="bhead">64</span> -his hands are tied behind him. A typical comic mask (No. <span class="bhead">65</span>) -is illustrated above (fig. 22, left), characterised by its exaggerated -features, especially the wide open mouth, the snub nose -and thick bushy eyebrows. The satyric play, which of the three -kinds of Greek drama kept nearest in spirit to the early Dionysiac -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> -village revel, is illustrated by the satyric masks (No. <span class="bhead">66</span>; fig. 22, -centre), with their high upstanding hair and semi-bestial features, -as well as by the masks of the bald-headed Seilenos, the constant -companion of Dionysos in his revels.</p> - -<p>Most of the examples of masks shown in the case are merely -representations. A few such as No. <span class="bhead">67</span> with pierced eye and mouth-holes, -and of life size, may have been intended for use. Two heads -of actors from marble reliefs (Nos. <span class="bhead">68</span>, <span class="bhead">69</span>) show to what extent -the face of the actor could be seen, within the apertures of the mask.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 480px; clear: both;"><a href="images/032-1000.png"><img src="images/032-460.png" width="460" height="271" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig 22.—Comic, Satyric, and Tragic Masks (Nos. 65, 66, -56).</span> Ca. 5:8.</p></div> - -<blockquote><p> -(50) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 80; <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, I., pl. 7; (51) <i>Cat. -of Vases</i>, II., B 509; <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, II., pl. 14; (52) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, IV., -F 269; cf. Heydemann in <i>Jahrb. d. arch. Inst.</i>, I. (1886), p. 260 ff.; -(53) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, IV., F 151; (54) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 446; Cf. Froehner, -<i>Hoffman Sale Cat.</i>, 1886, p. 38, No. 127; (55) <i>Cat. of Roman Pottery</i>, -M 121; <i>Gazette Arch.</i>, 1877, p. 66, pl. 12.</p> - -<p>On the ancient theatre generally, see Haigh, <i>The Attic Theatre</i>, edn. -3, where references to literature will be found. For Masks, see Daremberg -and Saglio, Dict., <i>s.v.</i> Persona. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote12" name="footnote12"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag12">12:</a> -<i>Hecyra</i>, <i>prolog.</i>, 30 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote2"><a id="footnote13" name="footnote13"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag13">13:</a> -Cf. Dem., <i>de Cor.</i>, 122: - <ins title="Greek: kai boas rhêta kai arrêta onomazôn, hôsper ex hamaxês"> -καὶ βοᾷς -ῥητὰ καὶ -ἄρρητα -ὀνομάζων, -ὥσπερ ἐξ -ἁμάξης.</ins>.</p> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote14" name="footnote14"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag14">14:</a></p> - -<div class="poem2 width18"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>Adesse ultorem nati m[e] credas mei.</p> -<p>[Invic]ta virtus nusqua(m) terreri potest.</p> - </div> </div> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>IV.—SHIPPING.<a name="page33a" id="page33a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 94-97.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>As early as the eighth century before Christ the Greeks -possessed powerful war-vessels propelled by numerous oarsmen. -These appear on vases of that date, as for example on a large bowl -of Boeotian fabric (described below in connection with chariots, -p. 169), which shows such a ship with its double line of rowers and -a man at the stern managing the big steering-oars. The crew of -this vessel seems to have numbered some forty men.<a id="footnotetag15" name="footnotetag15"></a><a href="#footnote15"><sup>15</sup></a> -A more finished representation of early Greek ships is seen on a cup -(No. <span class="bhead">70</span>) of the end of the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (figs. 23, 24), -where the contrasted builds of the war galley and the merchantman are -clearly indicated. The war galley has two rows of eleven and -twelve oars respectively. The merchantman has no rowers, but -is entirely dependent on its sail. It has a high-built hull, suited -for holding cargo. In each we see the steersman at the stern -with his two steering-oars. Beside him is the ladder for embarking -and disembarking. A terracotta model ship from Cyprus (No. <span class="bhead">71</span>; -fig. 25) of about this period shows the socket for the mast and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> -high poop for the steersman, with the remains of an iron oar. This -vessel is doubtless intended for a merchantman. The numerous -small terracotta boats (No. <span class="bhead">72</span>) found with this merchant vessel at -Amathus give a good idea of the fishing boats of the time -(Case 94; see frontispiece). These boats are also interesting as -reminding us of the legend that Kinyras, king of Cyprus, promised -Menelaos to send fifty ships to help the Greeks against Troy. He -sent but one, carrying forty-nine others of terracotta, manned by -terracotta figures. After the taking of Troy, Agamemnon is said -to have made it his first business to punish Kinyras for his trickery. -It would seem that the story must have been based on knowledge -of the fact that terracotta boats were a product of Amathus. It -is hard to suppose that it is merely a coincidence. The small model -war-galley (No. <span class="bhead">73</span>) from Corinth, containing warriors armed with -circular shields, is interesting from the place of its discovery, for -Corinth was traditionally an early shipbuilding centre, and triremes -are said to have been first built at that city.<a id="footnotetag16" name="footnotetag16"></a><a href="#footnote16"><sup>16</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/034-1000.png"><img src="images/034-500.png" width="500" height="338" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.—Early Greek Warship (No. 70).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/035-1000.png"><img src="images/035-500.png" width="500" height="308" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.—Early Greek Merchant-Ship (No. 70).</span></p></div> - -<p>The use of triremes (ships with triple arrangement of oars) did -not become common among the Greeks till the earlier part of the -fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> This was the typical Greek warship of the period -of the Peloponnesian war, and the arrangement of the rowers in it -has given rise to much controversy. The crew (according to one -view) consisted of two hundred rowers, sixty-two on the highest tier -(<ins title="Greek: thranitai">θρανῖται</ins>), -fifty-four on the middle (<ins title="Greek: zygitai">ζυγῖται</ins>), and fifty-four on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> -the lowest (<ins title="Greek: thalamitai">θαλαμῖται</ins>), -as well as thirty who were apparently stationed on the highest deck -(<ins title="Greek: perineô">περίνεῳ</ins>). The best ancient -representation of the rowers in a trireme is that given on a relief in -Athens, of which a cast is shown here (No. <span class="bhead">74</span>; Case 94). The -upper oars pass over the gunwale, the second and third lines (if -these are oars) through port-holes. In the trireme the ram was of -the greatest importance, and much attention was devoted to -strengthening it. An excellent illustration of the prow of a trireme -is to be seen in the terracotta vase from Vulci (No. <span class="bhead">75</span>; fig. 26). -Here are an upper and a lower ram, each armed with three teeth; -the curved ornament above the ram has been broken away. The projections -on either side of the handles of the vase, decorated with a -woman's head, would serve as a protection to the oars. The eye on the -side is a prominent decoration in Greek ships. It is seen on the ship -painted on the vase B 508 in Case 95 (No. <span class="bhead">76</span>), from which the diver -is preparing to jump, and has survived even to the present day, -for eyes are still found painted on the bows of Mediterranean -fishing boats. The eyes are often supposed to be a defence against -the evil eye, but the exact position they occupy on each side of the -prow is suggested by the almost inevitable analogy between the -prow of a vessel and the head of an animal. Roman ships did not -differ very materially from Greek ships, but a special class of swift -ships with two banks of oars was adopted from Liburnian pirates -who inhabited the islands off Illyria, and these ships were called -Liburnian galleys. A figure-head in bronze from a Roman ship, -found in the sea off Actium, is shown in Case 96 (No. <span class="bhead">77</span>). It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> -represents Minerva, and probably belonged to some ship sunk in -the great battle between Octavian and Antony in 31 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/036a-1000.png"><img src="images/036a-500.png" width="500" height="233" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.—Terracotta Model of Merchant-Ship (No. 71).</span> L. 12 in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/036b-1000.png"><img src="images/036b-500.png" width="500" height="480" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.—Vase in the Form of a Prow of a Trireme (No. 75).</span> L. 8 in.</p></div> - -<p>A fragment of a relief from a sarcophagus shows a Roman -trireme, with a figure of a swan in relief on the prow (No. <span class="bhead">78</span>).</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/037-690.png"><img src="images/037-300.png" width="300" height="434" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.—Roman Ship entering a Harbour (No. 79).</span> Diam. 4 in.</p></div> - -<p>Some lamps placed in Cases 96, 97 give interesting pictures of -Roman harbours. In one (No. <span class="bhead">79</span>; fig. 27), a ship is seen entering -the harbour, which is indicated by a light-house on the left. Of the -crew of six, one is seated high on the stern, blowing a trumpet to -announce the ship's approach; before him is the steersman, and -next come three men furling the sail. The man in the bows is -preparing to let down the anchor. Another lamp (No. <span class="bhead">80</span>; fig. 28) -shows a harbour with buildings on the quay. A fisherman in -a small boat holds a rod and line in his right hand, and a fish -which he has just caught in his left. Before him is a man -on shore just about to cast a net into the water. In the -third lamp (No. <span class="bhead">81</span>) Cupid is seen in a boat, hauling in his net -from the water.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span></p> - -<p>A marble laver (No. <span class="bhead">82</span>), originally decorated with a relief of -Asklepios, Hygieia and Telesphoros, has been subsequently sculptured -with votive dedications for a fair voyage. On the left, Poseidon -stands on a ship, with a suppliant before him, on the right is a ship -running before the wind. The inscriptions invoke good voyages -for Theodoulos and Pedius Psycharios.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/038-700.png"><img src="images/038-300.png" width="300" height="428" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.—Roman Fishermen in a Harbour (No. 80).</span> Diam. 3<b>⅝</b> in.</p></div> - -<blockquote><p> -(70) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 436; Daremberg and Saglio, fig. 5282; (71) -<i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 112, fig. 164, No. 12; (72) <i>ibid.</i>; (74) <i>Cat. of -Sculpture</i>, III., 2701; (75) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, D 201; (76) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, -II., B 508; (77) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 830; Torr, <i>Ancient Ships</i>, pl. 8, 41; -(78) Daremberg and Saglio, fig. 5277; (79) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 1140; (80) -<i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 527; (81) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 634.</p> - -<p>On ancient ships generally, see Torr, <i>Ancient Ships</i>, and art. <i>Navis</i> -in Daremberg and Saglio; W. W. Tarn in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, XXV., -pp. 137, 204 ff.; A. B. Cook in <i>Camb. Comp. to Gk. Stud.</i>, 3 ed., p. 567 ff. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote15" name="footnote15"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag15">15:</a> -<i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, XIX., pl. 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote16" name="footnote16"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag16">16:</a> -Thuc., i. 13.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>V.—RELIGION AND SUPERSTITION.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 98-106.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The wide subjects of Religion and Superstition are naturally -represented in a fragmentary way in the few cases devoted to them -in this collection. They are roughly classified in the following -description, into groups, viz.:—</p> - -<ul class="none"> - <li>(1) Implements and methods of worship.</li> - <li>(2) Votive offerings.</li> - <li>(3) Superstition and Magic.</li> -</ul> - -<h3>Implements and methods of worship.</h3> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"><a href="images/039-580.png"><img src="images/039-260.png" width="260" height="362" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.—Altar Dedicated for the Safe Return of -Septimius Severus and his Family (No. <span class="bhead">84</span>).</span> Ht. 2 ft. 7 in.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Altars, etc.</i></span>—The larger altars (and sepulchral chests of altar -form) will be found in the sculpture galleries. Here we have -(No. <span class="bhead">83</span>) a small altar, from Dodona, -inscribed as belonging to all the gods,<a id="footnotetag17" name="footnotetag17"></a><a href="#footnote17"><sup>17</sup></a> -and various model altars, probably used -in some cases for the burning of incense.</p> - -<p>An interesting example (No. <span class="bhead">84</span>) of -the practice of dedicating altars to members of Roman Imperial houses -is furnished by the inscription (fig. 29) in the lower part of Case -98. It formed the front of a marble altar, and is dedicated to the -Imperial Fortune by a freedman named Antonius, who was in charge of -the "Department of Petitions," for the safe return of the Emperor -Septimius Severus, his wife Julia Domna, and his sons Caracalla and -Geta. But so far as Geta was concerned, the Imperial Fortune was not -propitious. He was murdered by his brother Caracalla, and his name was -erased from this, as from all other inscriptions throughout the Roman -Empire, by Caracalla's edict. The date of the inscription is about -200 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span></p> - -<p>In Case 102 is an altar (No. <span class="bhead">85</span>) dedicated to the Bona Dea of -Anneanum (a town in Etruria) by C. Tullius Hesper and Tullia -Restituta. The Bona Dea was a goddess specially invoked by women. -Hence we may suppose that it was Tullia Restituta more particularly -who showed her thankfulness by this dedication.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span></p> - -<p>In Case 98 are two examples (Nos. <span class="bhead">86</span>, <span class="bhead">87</span>) of a combined lamp -and altar, for use in domestic shrines, probably of late Roman date.<a id="footnotetag18" name="footnotetag18"></a><a href="#footnote18"><sup>18</sup></a> -In one of these the basin for libations is supported on a pine-cone. -Akin to these is the small limestone cone and altar from the Cyrenaica.</p> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">88</span> (fig. 30) is a bronze representing an attendant leading -a pig to sacrifice. The pig (as well as the sheep and the bull) -was a favourite sacrificial animal among the Romans. At the lustral -ceremony of the <em>suovetaurilia</em>, the bull, sheep, and pig were driven -round the farmer's fields to keep them free from blight and disease. -Certain deities, notably Persephone and the Bona Dea, had swine -as their special victims. In Case 105 will be seen a terracotta -votive pig (No. <span class="bhead">89</span>) found in the precinct of Demeter and Persephone -at Knidos.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; clear: both;"><a href="images/040-800.png"><img src="images/040-400.png" width="400" height="475" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.—Attendant Driving Pig to -Sacrifice (No. 88).</span> Ht. 4 in.</div> - -<p>In Case 98 is an elaborate model in terracotta of a temple laver -from Cyprus (No. <span class="bhead">90</span>). In Case 100 is a terracotta model of a -sacred table (No. <span class="bhead">91</span>, fig. 31), set with a service of vessels for the -sanctuary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/041-880.png"><img src="images/041-400.png" width="400" height="455" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.—Table with Service of Vessels (No. 91).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Bronze Implements.</i></span>—A series of early Italic bronze implements -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">92</span>), may have been used in sacrifice. Those with the curved -claws were probably used for taking boiled meats out of a caldron. -They remind us of the five-pronged sacrificial forks mentioned in -Homer, and of the custom of the Jewish priests' servants as described -in the Book of Samuel: "The priest's servant came, while the flesh -was in seething, with a fleshhook of three teeth in his hand; and -he struck it into the pan, or kettle, or caldron, or pot; all that the -fleshhook brought up the priest took therewith."<a id="footnotetag19" name="footnotetag19"></a><a href="#footnote19"><sup>19</sup></a> -On the right are three bronze gridirons. These, like the fleshhooks, originally -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> -had wooden handles inserted into their sockets. The meat was -spitted upon hooks, which only remain in one instance.</p> - -<p>A series of implements terminating in a hand bent at the knuckles -(No. <span class="bhead">93</span>), and a pair of tongs on wheels (No. <span class="bhead">94</span>), are probably -meant for manipulating embers.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Miscellaneous.</i></span>—A small silver model of a temple key is shown -in Case 100. The small alabaster statuette of a goddess with turreted -crown (No. <span class="bhead">95</span>) is of special interest from the fact that her mouth -and breasts are pierced, evidently with the object of allowing some -fluid, such as milk or wine, to flow from them for the edification of -her votaries. A jar (No. <span class="bhead">96</span>) contained perhaps the honey syrup, -used in Egypt for feeding the sacred crocodiles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/042-1000.png"><img src="images/042-500.png" width="500" height="370" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.—The Dioscuri coming to the Theoxenia (No. 98).</span></p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Religious Rites.</i></span>—<span class="bhead"><i>Prayer.</i></span>—The fifth century kylix (No. <span class="bhead">97</span>) -shows the gesture of the raised right hand, often used in prayer. -The young athlete, whose oil-flask hangs behind him, is probably -praying before the altar. That athletes entered upon their tasks -with extreme seriousness is clear from the oath taken by them -before the image of Zeus in the Council House at Olympia, when -they swore upon the cut pieces of a boar that they would be guilty -of no foul play. In the Greek view athletics and religion were very -closely connected.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>The Lectisternium</i></span>, or Theoxenia, was the ceremony in which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span> -a banquet was set, and the gods were invited to attend. It is -illustrated by the drawing of a lekythos (No. <span class="bhead">98</span>) from Kameiros -in Rhodes (about 500 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>), which represents the two gods Castor -and Pollux descending from heaven on horseback to take part in -the festival of the Theoxenia (fig. 32). This feast, indicated by the -couch on which they were to recline, was given in honour of the -twin gods. Such a festival well illustrates the perfectly human -interests which the Greeks attributed to their deities.</p> - -<p>Compare with this vase the cast (No. <span class="bhead">99</span>) of a relief in the Louvre, -from Larissa. A man and his wife, the dedicators of the relief, -are represented as having set out a couch, a banquet of cakes, and -an altar. The Twins descend, heralded by Victory. Beside the -relief is a fragment of a lamp (No. <span class="bhead">100</span>) incised with a dedication to -the Dioscuri, that is, to Castor and Pollux. Here also is the -inscribed base (No. <span class="bhead">101</span>) of a statuette -dedicated to the Dioscuri by Euarchos -(sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>).</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px; margin-top: -2em;"><a href="images/043-600.png"><img src="images/043-300.png" width="300" height="258" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.—Aphrodite within a Shrine <br />(No. 104).</span> Ht. 2<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Augury.</i></span>—Passing now to Italic -religious ceremonies, we may notice the archaic bronze statuette of an -augur (No. <span class="bhead">102</span>), whose function it was to draw omens from the aspect -of the heavens or the flight and cries of birds. He wears a cloak -drawn veil-wise over his head, a common religious garb, and in his -right hand holds the <i>lituus</i> or curved wand used for the -ceremonial dividing of the heavens into quarters. In connection -with this statuette mention should be made of an early Greek -inscription (No. <span class="bhead">103</span>) in the bottom of Cases 95-96. It was found -at Ephesus, and is probably of about the same period as the -statuette, the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> It gives rules for drawing lucky -or unlucky omens from the flight of birds. The principal signs -are the flight from right to left or <i>vice versa</i>, and the raising or -lowering of the bird's wing.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Shrines.</i></span>—In Cases 100, 101 a series of terracotta shrines is -exhibited. They were doubtless for household use, employed in -much the same way as modern images of the Madonna. No. <span class="bhead">104</span> -(fig. 33), from the early Greek settlement of Naukratis, in the Nile -Delta, shows Aphrodite within a shrine supported by figures of the -Egyptian god Bes, a characteristic combination of Greek and -Egyptian elements. No. <span class="bhead">105</span>, from Amathus, in Cyprus, is also -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span> -semi-Egyptian in character, and shows a deity surmounted by a -winged solar disk. Another shrine from Naukratis (No. <span class="bhead">106</span>) -contains the sacred Apis-bull of the Egyptians. No. <span class="bhead">107</span> is an -example of a shrine containing a baetylic image, that is, a stone -worshipped as sacred. A cone resembling the one here shown was -worshipped in the temple of Aphrodite at Paphos in Cyprus. In -front, a small lead model shrine (No. <span class="bhead">108</span>) of later date, from -Sardinia, represents Aphrodite just risen from the sea-foam and -wringing out her hair. The circular shrine (No. <span class="bhead">109</span>; fig. 34) is -of Roman date, from Eretria in Euboea. -Its form and more especially the indication -of overlapping scale-plates on the roof -remind us strongly of the famous temple -of Vesta at Rome.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 210px;"><a href="images/044-440.png"><img src="images/044-200.png" width="200" height="446" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.—Terracotta Model Shrine (No. 109).</span> Ht. 4 in.</p></div> - -<p>In Case 101 is a bronze tablet with an -iron chain and staple (No. <span class="bhead">110</span>). The -tablet, apparently of about 200 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, is -inscribed on both sides, and seems to give a list of statues of -deities, some, such as Vezkei, peculiar to the Samnites, others, such -as Ceres and Hermes, of widely spread worship. It is a most important -monument of the Oscan dialect, a language spoken by the early Italic -tribes whose chief centre was the mountainous country above Campania. -It was found at Agnone (Bovianum Vetus) in the Samnite territory.</p> - -<h3>Votive Offerings.</h3> - -<p>A votive offering is a present made to a deity, in order -to secure some favour for the future, to avert anger for a past -offence, or to express gratitude for a favour received. This last -purpose includes offerings made in fulfilment of a vow, the vow -being a kind of contract between the individual and the god. This -comes out most clearly in the Roman expression <em>voti reus</em>—"condemned -to pay a vow"—applied to those whose prayer had been -granted, and who now had to fulfil their promise made in time of -stress and difficulty. Votive offerings cover the whole field of life, -and may include persons, lands, buildings, or objects specially -appropriate either to the god or to the person who makes the -dedication.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span></p> - -<p>Very frequently the vow was made by some person stricken -with disease, and it is to such a cause that we owe the numerous -votive offerings representing some part of the human body.</p> - -<p>The constant streams of these offerings made the ancient temples -depositories of all kinds of objects, ranging from jewels of great -price and high artistic merit to the roughest terracotta figure. -In the Gold Ornament Room (Case 19) is a magnificent gold pin of -the Ptolemaic period inscribed with a dedication to Aphrodite of -Paphos, showing that the offering was the result of a vow made by -Eubule, the wife of Aratos, and one Tamisa. Overcrowding led to -periodical clearances of objects of the least intrinsic value. To -prevent things dedicated returning to the uses of common life, they -were frequently broken and thrown into heaps. This accounts -for the masses of <em>débris</em>, consisting chiefly of terracottas and vases, -which have been found within the precincts of great sanctuaries.</p> - -<p>The vast accumulations of treasure in the various temples -naturally demanded careful cataloguing, labelling and supervision -on the part of the temple officials (see examples of marble labels -from the sacred enclosure of Demeter at Cnidos). From time to -time elaborate inventories were drawn up, and (after the manner -of ancient documents) inscribed on stone. Such inventories have -been discovered in large numbers at Delos, Athens, and elsewhere. -An example is shown in the lower part of Case 97, being an inventory -(No. <span class="bhead">111</span>) of various garments dedicated to Artemis Brauronia, -who had a shrine upon the acropolis of Athens. We know that it -was the custom of women after childbirth to dedicate garments to -Artemis, and in particular to Artemis Brauronia. That the -garments were often anything but new is shown by the fact that -several are described as "in rags." A typical extract from the -inscription may be given: "A purple dress, with variegated -chequer pattern. Dedicated by Thyaene and Malthake." The -entries range in date from 350 to 344 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p>The principal objects here exhibited as illustrating the ancient -custom of dedication may now be mentioned. In Wall-Case 96 is -an inscription of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">112</span>) found in the -ruins of the temple of Poseidon on Cape Taenaron in Lakonia. It -records the dedication by one Theares of a slave named Kleogenes to -the temple-service of Poseidon. The names of an <i>ephoros</i>, probably an -official of the temple, and of a witness are added. In some cases the -dedication of a slave to a god is equivalent to enfranchisement.</p> - -<p>Among votive offerings specially appropriate to the god, we have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> -already mentioned the reliefs dedicated for a good voyage (No. <span class="bhead">82</span>) -and the Theoxenia relief (No. <span class="bhead">99</span>). The pedestal (No. <span class="bhead">112*</span>), -with an inscription that it was restored "whether sacred to god or -goddess," is a parallel to the altar inscribed with a dedication "to -an unknown god," which caught the eye of St. Paul when he was -viewing the antiquities of Athens.</p> - -<p>In the bottom of Case 102 is the base of a statuette (No. <span class="bhead">113</span>; -fig. 35) found at Curium in Cyprus. It bears an inscription, -written both in Greek and in the native Cypriote syllabic -characters: "Ellooikos, the son of Poteisis, dedicated this as a -vow to Demeter and the Maid." The inscription is of the fourth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and is of special interest on account of its bilingual -character. Two other large objects in marble of a votive character -are exhibited in the bottom of Cases 103 and 104 respectively. -The chest-like stool (No. <span class="bhead">114</span>) was offered by a priestess named -Philis to Persephone, the basket (No. <span class="bhead">115</span>) by one Xeno to Demeter -and Persephone. The basket is dedicated with peculiar fitness to -the goddesses of corn and fruit, for it was in such woven baskets -that the ears of corn were ingathered, while the chest is also -closely associated with Demeter and Persephone, who are frequently -represented seated on it. Both of these last objects were found by -Sir Charles Newton in the precinct of Demeter at Knidos in Asia -Minor.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/046-1000.png"><img src="images/046-500.png" width="500" height="140" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.—Base with Dedication to Demeter and Persephone (No. -113).</span></p></div> - -<p>We now turn to the votive offerings personal to the donor, and -we find that not infrequently, where the object itself is perishable, -or otherwise unsuitable as an offering, a sculptured representation -takes its place.</p> - -<p>Two curious examples of such dedicatory tablets (Nos. <span class="bhead">116</span>, <span class="bhead">117</span>) -are seen in the casts placed in the upper and lower parts respectively -of Case 101. The originals, from Slavochori, probably the site of -the ancient Amyklae near Sparta, are in the Hall of Inscriptions. -The first was dedicated by Anthusa, daughter of Damaenetos, a -<ins title="Greek: hypostatria">ὑποστάτρια</ins> -or under-tirewoman in the service of a temple, possibly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> -that of Dionysos, for we know that this god had a temple near -Amyklae, which none but women might enter. On the relief is a -series of objects connected with the toilet, such as a mirror, a -comb, a box of cosmetics, a case containing a sponge, a pair of -slippers, etc. Possibly the dedicator was in charge of objects of -this nature. The other relief, from the same place, was dedicated -by a priestess named Claudia Ageta, daughter of Antipater, and -shows a very similar series of objects. Both these reliefs are of -Imperial date.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/047-860.png"><img src="images/047-400.png" width="400" height="461" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.—Terracotta Model of the Internal Organs (No. -122).</span> 1:2.</div> - -<p>A similar substitution of a representation for the object is -found in the series of offerings which commemorate recovery from -disease or bodily injury. The upper part of Cases 103-106 contains -a set of marble reliefs (No. <span class="bhead">118</span>) found at the foot of the Pnyx at -Athens, the rocky semicircular meeting-place of the Athenian people. -They are dedicated by women—Eutychis, Isias, Olympias, and others—to -Zeus the Highest, and have representations of various parts of -the human body, such as eyes, breasts, arms, etc. These reliefs, which -are of Roman date, are clearly thank-offerings for recovery from -disease. There must have been a regular trade in these models, for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> -Clement of Alexandria, writing about 200 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, talks of "those who -manufacture ears and eyes of precious wood and dedicate them to the -gods, setting them up in their temples."<a id="footnotetag20" name="footnotetag20"></a><a href="#footnote20"><sup>20</sup></a> -No. <span class="bhead">119</span>, from a shrine -of Asklepios in Melos, is a relief representing a left leg, dedicated, -as the inscription shows, by way of thank-offering to the deities of -healing, Asklepios and Hygieia. Next it is a small relief from -Cyrene (No. <span class="bhead">120</span>), showing a right ear. There are several other -objects here exhibited which were probably offered by grateful -votaries in return for healing mercies. Such are the bronze -ticket with a bronze leg suspended from it (No. <span class="bhead">121</span>), inscribed -with the name of the donor Caledus, and two arms with a chain -for suspension. In Cases 105 and 106 a whole series of terracotta -votive hands, feet, eyes, breasts, etc., doubtless represents the -thank-offerings of the poorer classes. With these is a curious -terracotta model (No <span class="bhead">122</span>; fig. 36) of the lungs (<span class="all-sc">A</span>), heart -(<span class="all-sc">B</span>), liver (<span class="all-sc">C</span>), kidneys (<span class="all-sc">D</span>), spleen (<span class="all-sc">E</span>), and other -internal organs of the human body. Though primarily of a votive character, it is of -considerable interest to the student of ancient anatomy. A votive -relief of rather different character is placed on the upper shelf. -It represents two plaited locks of hair dedicated (as the inscription -records) by Philombrotos and Aphthonetos, sons of Deinomachos, -to Poseidon, god of the sea (No. <span class="bhead">123</span>; fig. 37). It was a common -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> -custom in Greece to dedicate hair at important crises of life, -particularly to deities connected with water. Achilles, on the -death of Patroklos, shore off for him the hair he was growing long -as an offering to the river Spercheios.<a id="footnotetag21" name="footnotetag21"></a><a href="#footnote21"><sup>21</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"><a href="images/048-950.png"><img src="images/048-380.png" width="380" height="366" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.—Sculptured Locks of Hair Dedicated to Poseidon (No. -123).</span> Ht. 13<b>½</b> in.</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/049-1000.png"><img src="images/049-500.png" width="500" height="307" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.—Bronze Votive Hare (No. 124).</span> L. 2<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Other objects illustrating the frequency and variety of Greek -and Roman dedications may best be described in approximately -chronological order. Two objects, which are more fully dealt -with in other sections, may here be mentioned. In the sixth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> the athlete Exoidas dedicated to the Dioscuri, -patrons of athletic exercise, the bronze diskos (fig. 50; No. <span class="bhead">157</span>) -with which he had conquered "the high-souled" Kephallenians in -athletic contest. The helmet, dedicated by Hieron after his naval -victory off Kyme, has been already described (p. <a href="#page8">8</a>). Other votive -helmets are shown in Cases 114-5. For the votive spearheads (?) -see p. <a href="#page9">9</a>. The huntsman, no less than the athlete and the warrior, -felt that the gods took an intimate part in his successes. This -is illustrated by the inscribed bronze model of a hare in Case 103, -with its head thrown back in the death agony (No. <span class="bhead">124</span>; fig. 38). -The Ionic letters, of about 480 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, read: "Hephaestion dedicated -me to Apollo of Priene."<a id="footnotetag22" name="footnotetag22"></a><a href="#footnote22"><sup>22</sup></a> -This offering reminds us of another -exhibited in the left-hand wall-case in the Greek Ante-Room downstairs. -A small limestone statuette, found on the site of the Greek -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> -settlement of Naukratis in Egypt, represents a young huntsman -with two boars and two hares slung over his shoulders. It is -inscribed "A dedication by Kallias"—probably to Aphrodite, -since it was found within her precinct (<i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i>, I., 118).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/050a-1000.png"><img src="images/050a-500.png" width="500" height="201" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.—Tablet, with Dedication by Lophios (No. 125). 1:2.</span></p></div> - -<p>Other interesting Greek dedications of an early date are the -bronze tablet (Case 105: No. <span class="bhead">125</span>; -fig. 39) found in Corfu, with an inscription showing it to be an -offering by one Lophios<a id="footnotetag23" name="footnotetag23"></a><a href="#footnote23"><sup>23</sup></a>; -the silver ingot (No. <span class="bhead">126</span>) dedicated -to Zeus Lykaeos (Zeus "the wolf-god") by Trygon; and the elaborate -axe-head (No. <span class="bhead">127</span>; fig. 40), found in Calabria, which bears an -inscription recording that it was vowed to Hera of the Plain by -Kyniskos, a "cook," as a tenth of his earnings -(sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>).<a id="footnotetag24" name="footnotetag24"></a><a href="#footnote24"><sup>24</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 380px;"><a href="images/050b-540.png"><img src="images/050b-350.png" width="250" height="461" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.—Bronze Votive Axe-head -(No. 127).</span> Ht. 6<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>The two bronze bulls (Nos. <span class="bhead">128</span> -and <span class="bhead">129</span>) are offerings made by -Greeks to an Egyptian deity. They were dedicated by Greeks named -respectively Sokydes and Theodoros, and represent the sacred bull -Apis, worshipped at Memphis in Egypt as an incarnation of the god -Ptah. The offering of Sokydes -is here illustrated (Fig. 41).<a id="footnotetag25" name="footnotetag25"></a><a href="#footnote25"><sup>25</sup></a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> -Notice the elaborate saddle-cloth, and the wings of the Egyptian -scarabaeus and hawk engraved on the bull's back. The date of -these bronzes is the late sixth or early fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The -Greeks must have become acquainted with the worship of Apis -in the seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, when they served King Psammetichos I. -as mercenaries. That monarch was a fervent worshipper of the god, -and built a great temple for him at Memphis. Herodotus<a id="footnotetag26" name="footnotetag26"></a><a href="#footnote26"><sup>26</sup></a> -mentions -the courts where the bull was kept, and says that the Greeks called -him "Epaphos." The bull dedicated by Sokydes was found in the -Nile Delta, that dedicated by Theodoros at Athens.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/051-860.png"><img src="images/051-400.png" width="400" height="465" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.—Bronze Votive Bull (No. 128).</span> Ht. 4 in.</p></div> - -<p>The two bronze wheels in Case 103 each bear a votive inscription. -The earlier (No. <span class="bhead">130</span>), said to have been found near Argos, was -perhaps an offering to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux, the divine -patrons of athletic contests) by Eudamos, a victor in a chariot race. -The other (No. <span class="bhead">131</span>; fig. 42) comes from the temple of the Kabeiri -at Thebes, and is dedicated by Xenon and Pyrrhippa to Kabeiros -and the Child. The bronze bell (No. <span class="bhead">132</span>, fig. 43) is from the same -temple, and was likewise offered by one Pyrrhias to Kabeiros and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>[pg 52]</span> -the Child. The Kabeiri were deities of a mystic and subterranean -character, who at Thebes apparently became closely connected -with Dionysos, the wine-god. That a large element of burlesque -entered into their worship can be seen from the vases discovered -on the site of their shrine (Second Vase Room, B 77 and 78).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/052a-1000.png"><img src="images/052a-500.png" width="500" height="500" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.—Bronze Wheel Dedicated to Kabeiros and the Child -(No. 131).</span> Diam. 3<b>⅞</b> in.</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 190px;"><a href="images/052b-320.png"><img src="images/052b-160.png" width="160" height="242" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.—Bronze Bell Dedicated to Kabeiros and -the Child (No. 132).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>Near this tablet are several Roman dedications. Three curious -silver-gilt plaques, probably of the second century after Christ -(Nos. <span class="bhead">133-135</span>), found at Heddernheim, near -Frankfurt-on-Main, were dedicated to Jupiter -Dolichenus. At first merely a local god, originating -in the town of Doliche in Commagene, -near the Euphrates, he later acquired considerable -popularity throughout the Roman Empire, -and his worship was carried far and wide by -the Roman legionaries, who were largely instrumental -in conveying these Oriental worships -to the West. The silver tablet illustrated -(No. <span class="bhead">133</span>; fig. 44) shows Jupiter Dolichenus in -a shrine, holding thunderbolt and sceptre, -with the eagle at his feet. The inscription, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>[pg 53]</span> -written in somewhat defective Latin,<a id="footnotetag27" name="footnotetag27"></a><a href="#footnote27"><sup>27</sup></a> -runs: "To Jupiter, best -and greatest, of Doliche, where iron has its birth. Dedicated by -Flavius Fidelis and Q. Julius Posstimus by command of the god -on behalf of themselves and their families." As often in late -Latin inscriptions, E is written <span class="bhead">| |</span>. Another tablet (very -fragmentary) shows the god in trappings of war, holding double-axe -and thunderbolt, and standing on a bull (No. <span class="bhead">135</span>). He is -being crowned by Victory. The presence of mines in North Syria -will account for the recurring phrase, "Where iron has its birth." -A series of similar dedications to Mars and Vulcan, which were -found at Barkway in Hertfordshire, is exhibited in the Room of -Roman Britain. Examples are shown in Case 104 of a third series -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>[pg 54]</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">136</span>, fig. 45), part of a great hoard found at Bala Hissar -(Pessinus) in Galatia. These have figures of Helios, Selene, and -Mithras. The last-named deity was the Persian god of light. He -did not thoroughly win his way into the Roman world until the -second century after Christ. But, once established, he proved -himself of far-reaching power. Mithraism had in its ritual many -points of resemblance to that of Christianity, and in the third and -fourth centuries after Christ proved a most formidable rival to -the spread of Christian doctrines. A memorial of Mithras is seen -in the large bronze tablet (No. <span class="bhead">137</span>) in Case 105. Its top is decorated -with knife and libation-bowl. The inscription, of about the third -century after Christ, tells us that it was dedicated to Sextus Pompeius -Maximus by priests of Mithras. He had held offices in the -Mithraic priesthood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/053-640.png"><img src="images/053-300.png" width="300" height="462" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.—Silver Plaque Dedicated to Jupiter -Dolichenus (No. 133).</span> Ht. 9<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/054-1000.png"><img src="images/054-500.png" width="500" height="479" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.—Silver Plaques Dedicated to Mithras (No. 136).</span> 1:3.</p></div> - -<p>There are several small bronze tablets in Case 105 with dedicatory -or religious inscriptions. Among them may be mentioned No. <span class="bhead">138</span>, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>[pg 55]</span> -offered to Juno by a freedman named Q. Valerius Minander, and -No. <span class="bhead">139</span>, an oval bronze seal with a design representing the Emperor -Philip (244-9 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>; mentioned above, p. <a href="#page10">10</a>, in connection with the -bronze <em>diploma</em>), his wife Otacilia, and their son Philip. The inscription -shows that the seal belonged to the religious society of the -Breisean Mystae, who apparently sealed on behalf of the city of -Smyrna, where was a synod of the Mystae of the Breisean Dionysos. -No. <span class="bhead">140</span> is the result of a vow made by Hedone, the maid-servant -of M. Crassus, to Feronia, a goddess closely connected with freedmen -and freedwomen.<a id="footnotetag28" name="footnotetag28"></a><a href="#footnote28"><sup>28</sup></a> -Her temple at Terracina, on the west coast of Italy, was specially associated with the manumission of slaves. -It is likely, therefore, that Hedone's vow had something to do with -her manumission. Dedications were made for safe journeys by -land or by sea. In No. <span class="bhead">141</span>, dedicated by P. Blattius Creticus -to Jupiter Poeninus, whose sanctuary was at the summit of the -Great St. Bernard Pass, we have one of a number of offerings -by travellers encountering the dangers of the Alps. In No. <span class="bhead">142</span> -we have a votive offering in the shape of a bronze plate, made to the -<em>Lares</em> or gods of the house by Q. Carminius Optatus. The Lares -are represented in art as youthful male figures, holding a <em>cornucopia</em> -or horn of plenty, and a plate (<em>patera</em>) [see Case 52 of the Bronze -Room, and No. <span class="bhead">143</span>]. The offering of a plate was peculiarly -appropriate, for with the <em>Penates</em> these gods were supposed to ensure -the food-supply of the family.</p> - -<p>In Case 106 note the series of lead figurines (modelled on both -sides). They represent warriors with helmet, cuirass, shield, sword, -and greaves. These figurines (No. <span class="bhead">144</span>), probably of the seventh -to sixth centuries <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, were found at Amelia (Ameria) in Umbria. -It is probable that they are of a votive character, though it has -been suggested that they are the prototypes of the modern tin -soldier. Very similar figurines have been discovered near Sparta, -on the site of the Menelaon, and more recently on the site of the -temple of Artemis Orthia by members of the British School at -Athens.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Superstition and Magic.</span>—As the simple faith in the gods -decayed in the Greek and Roman worlds, compensation was -largely sought in the dark rites of superstition and magic. The -antiquities in Cases 105, 106, indicate some of the forms which -such superstition took. Prominent among them was the practice -of writing down curses on lead or talc with a view to the injury -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>[pg 56]</span> -of those against whom the writer conceived that he had a grudge. -These tablets were called in Latin <em>defixiones</em>, because they were -supposed to fix down, as it were, the hated enemy. The imprecations -written on them usually run in formulae, and the gods -implored to work the ruin are naturally those of the nether regions. -In later times especially, all manner of obscure and barbarous -demons are introduced. The examples of these tablets here -exhibited probably belong to the last three centuries before Christ. -They come from various quarters—Knidos, Ephesus, Curium -in Cyprus, Kyme in S. Italy, and Athens. Those found by Sir -Charles Newton at Knidos may be taken as typical. In one case -a certain Antigone, in order to clear herself from the charge of -having attempted to poison Asklepiades, invokes curses upon -herself if the accusation be true. In another, Artemeis devotes to -Demeter, Persephone, and all the gods associated with Demeter, -the person who withholds garments entrusted to him. These -tablets (No. <span class="bhead">145</span>) appear to have been nailed to the walls of the -sacred precinct of Demeter, where they were found. In the case -of a tablet from Athens, the iron nail, which fastened it to the wall -is still preserved.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"><a href="images/057-550.png"><img src="images/057-260.png" width="260" height="465" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.—Bronze Magic Hand -(No. 148).</span> Ht. 5<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Nails themselves were highly esteemed as instruments of magic. -Ovid, for instance, says that Medea (the typical witch) made -waxen effigies of absent foes, and then drove nails into the vital -parts.<a id="footnotetag29" name="footnotetag29"></a><a href="#footnote29"><sup>29</sup></a> -Examples of magical nails are seen in the series of bronze -nails (No. <span class="bhead">146</span>) covered with cabalistic inscriptions and signs, -and sometimes showing a strange mixture of Judaism and Paganism, -as when Solomon and Artemis are invoked together. They may -be attributed to the Gnostics, a sect which arose in the second -century after Christ. Their claim was that, by a combination -of various religious beliefs, they arrived at the only true knowledge -of divine things. The magic nail has in one case (No. <span class="bhead">147</span>) been -used to fasten a bronze lamp, decorated with a head of Medusa, -into a socket.</p> - -<p>On the shelf above will be noticed a number of bronze hands -(No. <span class="bhead">148</span>; fig. 46). They are right hands, represented with the -thumb and first two fingers raised. On them are numerous magic -symbols in relief, such as the snake, the lizard, and the tortoise. -The hand illustrated (fig. 46) is covered with such signs, -prominent among which are the serpent with the cock's comb, -the pine-cone, the frog, and the winged caduceus. One of the -hands bears the inscription "Zougaras dedicated me to Sabazius -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>[pg 57]</span> -in fulfilment of a vow"; another "Aristokles, a superintendent, -to Zeus Sabazius." Sabazius was a Phrygian and Thracian -deity, whose worship was widely spread in the Roman world. -There can be no doubt that these hands were intended to avert -the evil eye. Sometimes the hands have instruments connected -with the ecstatic worships of the East depicted upon them, such -as the Phrygian flutes, the cymbals, or the sistrum. Case 106 -contains several specimens of the last-named instrument. It -was composed of a handle and loop-shaped metal frame, across -which passed several movable metal rods. When the sistrum was shaken -the curved ends of the rods came into violent contact with the sides -of the frame and produced a metallic clang. The sistrum was used by -the Egyptians in their religious rites, and particularly in the -worship of Isis. With the introduction of that worship into Italy in -the first century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, the Romans became familiar with it. Apuleius, -a writer of the second century after Christ, mentions silver and gold -sistra, as well as bronze. A silver example is here shown (No. <span class="bhead">149</span>). -The decoration is often elaborate, a favourite ornament for the top -being the group of the wolf suckling Romulus and Remus, or the -recumbent figure of a panther.</p> - -<p>To the same class of amulets as the votive hands must be -assigned the terracotta model of a mirror, covered over with -numerous objects of magical virtue (No. <span class="bhead">150</span>). Several of these -are well-known attributes of deities, <i>e.g.</i> the thunderbolt, the -trident, the club, the crescent, and the caduceus. The object of -these amulets seems to have been to propitiate the deities whose -symbols are represented on them.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -<span class="bhead">Implements and methods of Worship.</span>—(83) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 955; -(84) <i>C.I.L.</i>, VI., 180; (85) <i>C.I.L.</i>, VI., 30689; <i>Mus. Marbles</i>, X., pl. 53, -fig. 1; (86-87) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 1407, 1408; (91) Cf. Mazois, <i>Pompei</i>, III., -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>[pg 58]</span> -p. 22; Daremberg and Saglio, fig. 5; (92) Helbig, <i>Homerisches Epos</i>, -2nd ed., p. 353; (95) <i>Athen. Mittheilungen</i>, xxvi, p. 325; (96) <i>Class. Rev.</i>, -II., p. 297; (97) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, III., E 114; (98) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 633; -(99) <i>Guide to the Casts</i>, 327; (100) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 159; (101) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, -1033; (102) <i>Forman Sale Cat.</i>, 1899, No. 55, pl. 2.; (103) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, -678; (105) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 112; (106) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, C 614; -(107) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 113; (110) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 888.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Votive Offerings.</span>—(111) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 34; (112) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, -139; (113) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 64; (114) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, II., -1311; (115) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, II., 1312; (116-120) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, I., -799-812; (121) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 891; (123) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, I., 798; -(124) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 237; (125) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 165; <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 261; -(126) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 1102; (127) <i>ibid.</i>, 1094; (128) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 3208; -(130) <i>ibid.</i>, 253; (131) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 958; (132) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 318; -(133-135) <i>Bonner Jahrb.</i>, CVII (1901), p. 61 ff., pls. 6, 7; (137) <i>Cat. -of Bronzes</i>, 904; (138) <i>ibid.</i>, 899; (139) <i>ibid.</i>, 887; (140) <i>ibid.</i>, 897; -(141) <i>ibid.</i>, 895; (142) <i>ibid.</i>, 906; (144) Cf. Tod and Wace, <i>Sparta -Mus. Cat.</i>, p. 228; <i>B.S.A.</i>, XII., p. 322 ff.</p> - -<p>On votive offerings generally, cf. Rouse, <i>Greek Votive Offerings</i>, passim.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Superstition and Magic.</span>—(145) Newton, <i>Discoveries at Halicarnassus, -Cnidus, and Branchidae</i>, p. 719 ff. On these <i>defixiones</i> generally, -see Audollent, <i>Defixionum Tabellae</i>, Paris, 1904; (146) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, -3191-3194; cf. Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict. des Ant.</i>, s.v. <i>Clavus</i>; (148) -<i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 874-876; cf. <i>Arch.-ep. Mitt.</i>, II., p. 44 ff.; (150) <i>Cat. of -Terracottas</i>, E 129; <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, VII., p. 44 ff.</p> - -<p>For Greek religion, see Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek -Religion</i>; for Roman, Warde Fowler, <i>The Roman Festivals</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1c"><a id="footnote17" name="footnote17"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag17">17:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Hiaros pantôn theôn hode bômos."> -Ἱαρὸς πάντων -θεῶν -ὅδε βωμός.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote18" name="footnote18"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag18">18:</a> -Similar objects have been found in the Catacombs. Cf. Seroux -d'Agincourt, <i>Sammlung d. Denkmaeler d. Sculptur</i>, pl. viii., fig 27.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote19" name="footnote19"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag19">19:</a> -Cf. <ins title="Greek: obelos trikôlios"><span class="foo">ὀβελὸς -τρικώλιος</span></ins> as the measure of a sacrificial perquisite, in -the inscriptions of Cos. Paton & Hicks, <i>Inscrr. of Cos</i>, No. 37, l. 53; No. 40<i>b</i>, l. 14.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote20" name="footnote20"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag20">20:</a> -<i>Strom.</i>, v. 566.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote21" name="footnote21"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag21">21:</a> -<i>Il.</i> xxiii. 141 f.:</p> - -<div class="poem1 width27"> <div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: stas apaneuthe pyrês xanthên apekeirato chaitên,"> -στὰς ἀπάνευθε -πυρῆς -ξανθὴν -ἀπεκείρατο -χαίτην,</ins></p> - -<p><ins title="Greek: tên rha Spercheiô potamô trephe têlethoôsan."> -τήν ῥα -Σπερχειῷ -ποταμῷ -τρέφε -τηλεθόωσαν.</ins></p> - </div> </div> - -<p class="footnote2"><a id="footnote22" name="footnote22"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag22">22:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Tô Apollôni tô Priêlêi m' anethêken Hêphaistiôn.">Τῷ Ἁπόλλωνι -τῷ Πριηλῆΐ -μ' ἀνέθηκεν -Ἡφαιστίων.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote2"><a id="footnote23" name="footnote23"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag23">23:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Lophios m'anethêke.">Λόφιός μ' -ἀνέθηκε.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote2"><a id="footnote24" name="footnote24"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag24">24:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Tas Hêras hiaros|emi tas en pedi| ôi Qunisqo|s me anethê|ke hôrtamo|s wergôn | dekatan."> -Τᾶς Ἥρας -ἱαρός|ἐμι -τᾶς ἐν πεδί| -ωι -Ϙυνίσϙο|ς -με -ἀνέθη|κε -ὥρταμο|ς -ϝέργων | -δεκάταν.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote2"><a id="footnote25" name="footnote25"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag25">25:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Tô Panepi m' anestase Sôkydês">Τῷ Πάνεπί -μ' ἀνέστασε Σωκύδης.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote26" name="footnote26"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag26">26:</a> -ii. 153.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote27" name="footnote27"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag27">27:</a> -<span class="foo">I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo) Dolicheno, u|bi ferrum nascit|ur, Flavius<br /> -Fidelis et Q. Iulius Posstim|us ex imperio ipsi|us pro se et suos (<i>sic</i>).</span></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote28" name="footnote28"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag28">28:</a> -Cf. Livy, xxii. 1, 18: <span class="foo">... ut libertinae et ipsae, unde Feroniae donum -daretur, pecuniam pro facultatibus suis conferrent.</span></p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote29" name="footnote29"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag29">29:</a> -Ov., <i>Her.</i> vi. 91 f.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>VI.—ATHLETICS.<a name="page58a" id="page58a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 107-108.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/059a-580.png"><img src="images/059a-300.png" width="300" height="235" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.—Boxers of the late -Mycenaean Period (No. 151).</span></p></div> - -<p>Athletic and pugilistic contests were already developed on Greek -soil before the Homeric Age. Thus we have a steatite vase from -Crete (<i>see</i> Cast in First Vase Room) with boxers in all positions. -A pair of boxers (of about 1100 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) from a vase found at Enkomi -in Cyprus is shown in fig. 47 (No. <span class="bhead">151</span>). In the Homeric poems -athletic contests frequently occur, but only as isolated and unorganized -events, without rules or system. It was only at a much -later date that the games were organized on lines corresponding -to those of modern sport. At Olympia, the great festivals were -said, according to tradition, to have begun in 776 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and it was -from that year that the Greeks calculated their dates, reckoning -by the periodical return of the meeting every fourth year.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>[pg 59]</span></p> - -<p>The events at the games which may specially be called athletic -were six in number: the <em>pentathlon</em> (or "five contests") was a -competition made up of the jump, the foot-race, throwing the -<em>diskos</em>, throwing the javelin, and wrestling.<a id="footnotetag30" name="footnotetag30"></a><a href="#footnote30"><sup>30</sup></a> -The pentathlon was decided by a system of "heats," and the victor enjoyed a great -reputation as an exceptional "all-round" man. The <em>pankration</em> -was a combination of wrestling and boxing, which tended to develop the -type of heavy professional athletes.</p> - -<p>The victorious athlete was held in high honour by his native city. The -prize at the games was indeed of no value—at Olympia it was a -crown of wild olive—but on his return home the victor entered -the city in triumph, feasts were held and odes were sung in his -honour, he was maintained for the remainder of his life, and his -statue was set up in the place where his victory had been won.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/059b-1000.png"><img src="images/059b-500.png" width="500" height="150" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.—Stone Jumping-Weight (No. 154*).</span> L. 11<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>We will first deal with the events of the <i>pentathlon</i> in order:—</p> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>The Jump.</i></span>—For the ancient jumping contests the competitors -used jumping-weights (<em>halteres</em>). Their use is shown on the vase, -E 499 (No. <span class="bhead">152</span>). One youth is about to leap, another stands -waiting, and the trainer holds a short switch. On the vase E 561 -(No. <span class="bhead">153</span>) a youth is also on the point of leaping. Examples of -the jumping-weights are shown. The pair in lead (No. <span class="bhead">154</span>) are -of a type which is seen not infrequently on Greek vases, consisting -of blocks of lead widened at each end. The weight for the left -hand, which is completely preserved, weighs 2 lb. 5 oz. (<i>cf.</i> also -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>[pg 60]</span> -fig. 52). With this pair may be compared the cast of a single stone -jumping-weight (No. <span class="bhead">154*</span>) found at Olympia and now at Berlin -(fig. 48). It differs from the pair just described, and resembles the -type described by Pausanias,<a id="footnotetag31" name="footnotetag31"></a><a href="#footnote31"><sup>31</sup></a> -who travelled through Greece in the second century of our era, as -forming half of an elongated and irregular sphere. It probably dates -from about 500 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Another type is represented by a remarkable but -cumbrous example in limestone, from Kameiros in Rhodes, a long -cylindrical instrument with deep grooves for the thumb and fingers, to -give a firm hold (No. <span class="bhead">155</span>; fig. 49).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/060-1000.png"><img src="images/060-500.png" width="500" height="388" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.—Stone Jumping-Weight (No. 155).</span> L. 7<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>The Foot Race.</i></span>—A somewhat conventional foot race of armed -hoplites is shown on the vase B 143. This is a Panathenaic amphora, -that is, one of the two-handled vases, won, as the inscription -on the other side states, at the games at Athens. They always -bear on one side a figure of the patron goddess Athena, on the -other a representation of the contest in which they were won. -Many examples may be seen in the Second and Fourth -Vase Rooms.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Throwing the Diskos.</i></span>—This was one of the oldest and most -popular contests at the great festivals. It was already known in -Homeric times, and we read of Odysseus using a disc of stone, and -of one of iron hurled at the funeral games in honour of Patroklos; -but all existing examples are in bronze except a lead disc at Berlin -which cannot have been used in athletics. The diskos was used, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>[pg 61]</span> -not like the modern quoit, with the object of hitting a mark, but -with a view to throwing as far as possible, as in the modern contest -of putting the weight.</p> - -<p>Existing discs vary considerably in size and weight, and were -doubtless made to suit various degrees of strength, like modern -dumb-bells or Indian clubs. The plain bronze example in this -Case (No. <span class="bhead">156</span>) weighs as much as 8 lb. 13 oz. The small disc -(No. <span class="bhead">157</span>; fig. 50), which was dedicated by Exoidas to the Dioscuri -after a victory over his Kephallenian competitors<a id="footnotetag32" name="footnotetag32"></a><a href="#footnote32"><sup>32</sup></a> (cf. above, p. <a href="#page49">49</a>), -weighs only 2 lb. 12 oz. The weight used at modern athletic sports -weighs 16 lb. and has been put 48 ft. 2 in.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/061-860.png"><img src="images/061-400.png" width="400" height="400" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 50.—Diskos of Exoidas (No. 157).</span> Diam. 6<b>⅜</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Diskos-throwing reached its greatest popularity in the sixth -and fifth centuries, and it is to the middle of this period that the -remarkable votive disc here shown (No. <span class="bhead">158</span>; fig. 51) may be assigned. -It is engraved with finely-incised designs, representing on one side -an athlete with jumping-weights; on the other, -another holding a hurling-spear<a id="footnotetag33" name="footnotetag33"></a><a href="#footnote33"><sup>33</sup></a> -in both hands. This disc weighs rather more than 4 lb. The method of -handling the disc will be readily understood from the bronze figure -and representations on vases exhibited in this Case; they should be -compared with the copies of the famous Diskobolos of Myron in the -second Graeco-Roman Room and the Gallery of Casts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/062-1500.png"><img src="images/062-500.png" width="500" height="275" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 51.—Engraved Bronze Diskos (No. 158).</span> Diam. 8<b>¼</b> in.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Javelin-Throwing and Wrestling.</i></span>—These sports are frequently -shown on the Panathenaic vases already described (p. <a href="#page60">60</a>). Other -games of a varied character also occur, and we find such contests -as tilting from horseback at a suspended shield, the torch-race, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>[pg 62]</span> -and races in full armour depicted. A specimen (B 134 in the Second -Vase Room) shows four athletes engaged in four out of the five -contests of the <em>pentathlon</em> (cf. also B 361 (No. <span class="bhead">159</span>) in this -Case).</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 320px; margin-top: -2em;"><a href="images/063a-900.png"><img src="images/063a-300.png" width="300" height="196" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 52.—Later Boxing-Glove (No. 161).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead"><i>Boxing</i></span>, one of the most ancient contests (see above, fig. 47), -was long practised at the games with gloves of ox-hide, which was -torn into long strips and bound round the hand. Such wrappings, -like modern boxing-gloves, were intended rather to protect the wearer -than to injure his opponent. At a later date, probably in the fourth -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>[pg 63]</span> -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, a more dangerous glove was introduced, in the form -of a pad of thick leather bound over the fingers. This new form -must have inflicted severe wounds; it is apparently used by the -two African boxers in terracotta seen in this Case (No. <span class="bhead">160</span>). -But in the decline of the Roman Empire, when the brutality of the -spectators had to be satisfied at all costs, a still more cruel glove -was invented, which had a heavy addition in metal, and must have been -an appalling weapon. See the fragment in terracotta (No. <span class="bhead">161</span>, fig. -52). A cast from a terracotta relief (No. <span class="bhead">162</span>) shows a statue of a -victorious boxer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; clear: both;"><a href="images/063b-1000.png"><img src="images/063b-500.png" width="500" height="255" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><ins title="Greek: Epi tois Onomastou tou Pheidileô athlois ethethên."> -Ἐπὶ τοῖς -Ὀνομάστου -τοῦ Φειδίλεω -ἄθλοις -ἐθέθην.</ins></p> - -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 53.—Prize Vase from the Games of Onomastos (No. 163).</span> 1:6.</p></div> - -<p>The other objects in this case are less directly connected with -athletics; the most noteworthy is a large bronze caldron (No. <span class="bhead">163</span>, -fig. 53), of about the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, which was found at Kyme, -in South Italy, and was given as a prize at games held in that -district. It is inscribed: "I was a prize at the games of Onomastos." -He was doubtless a wealthy citizen at whose expense the contests -were arranged, a form of public service very common in Greek -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>[pg 64]</span> -cities. A piece of corrugated tile (No. <span class="bhead">164</span>) comes from the floor -of the palaestra (wrestling place) at Olympia.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(151) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, I., 2, No. C 334; (153) cf. Jüthner, <i>Ant. Turngeräthe</i>, -p. 3 ff.; (154) Furtwängler, <i>Olympia</i>, IV., (<i>Die Bronzen</i>), p. 180; -(156) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 2691; (157) <i>ibid.</i>, 3207; <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 952; -(158) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 248; (160) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, D 84, 85; (162) -<i>ibid.</i>, D 632; (163) <i>I.G.</i>, xiv. 862; (164) Adler, <i>Olympia</i>, II. (<i>Baudenkmaeler</i>) -p. 115.</p> - -<p>On Greek athletics generally, see <i>Greek Athletic Festivals</i>, by -E. N. Gardiner. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote30" name="footnote30"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag30">30:</a> -Summed up by Simonides (cf. Bergk, No. 153)</p> -<div class="poem1 width21"> <div class="stanza"> -<p class="i32"><ins title="Greek: enika"> ἐνίκα</ins></p> -<p><ins title="Greek: halma, podôkeiên, diskon, akonta, palên">ἅλμα, -ποδωκείην, -δίσκον, -ἄκοντα, -πάλην.</ins></p> - </div> </div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote31" name="footnote31"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag31">31:</a> -v. 26, 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote32" name="footnote32"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag32">32:</a> </p> - -<div class="poem1 width27"> <div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: Eksoida(s) m' anethêke Diwos Qouroin megaloio:">Ἐχσοΐδα(ς) -μ' ἀνέθηκε -Διϝὸς Ϙούροιν -μεγάλοιο <span style="font-size: 1em;">⁝</span></ins></p> -<p><ins title="Greek: chalkeon hôi nikase Kephalanas megathymous.">χάλκεον ὧι -νίκασε Κεφαλᾶνας -μεγαθύμους.</ins></p> - </div> </div> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote33" name="footnote33"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag33">33:</a> -The lines on this side appear to have been worn down and re-cut, -but the restorer has misunderstood the spear, and left it as a single fine -line.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>VII.—GLADIATORS AND THE ARENA.<a name="page64a" id="page64a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Case 109.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Gladiatorial combats were not native to Rome, but had long -been known in Etruria as an adjunct to funeral ceremonies, and -were probably introduced thence into Rome by way of Campania, -where the amphitheatre of Pompeii is the oldest in existence. The -first show of gladiators at Rome took place in 264 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, but only -three pairs of combatants were engaged in it. In course of time -the number of gladiators increased, and such contests were given -with greater frequency, although they remained a mere accompaniment -of funeral ceremonies until 105 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, in which year they were -for the first time offered as official amusements to the people. -During the empire, gladiatorial shows were organised on a vast -scale, and amphitheatres were built in all the provinces. It was -inevitable that the influence of Christianity should make such -exhibitions impossible. But it was not till nearly a century after -the Emperor Constantine had recognised Christianity as a state -religion, that Honorius put an end to the exhibition of gladiators -in Rome (404 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>).</p> - -<p>The serious combats in the Roman arena were announced by a -procession and a preliminary fight with the weapons used in practice. -This mock struggle excited the men, and made them ready for the -terrible trial of skill which followed. Lots were drawn, and the -combatants arranged in pairs, but sometimes <em>mêlées</em> were planned, -in which large numbers were engaged. It was possible for a man -to draw a bye, and so to fight only with the winner of a previous -round; probably, however, a gladiator seldom fought more than -two fights in a single day.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>[pg 65]</span></p> - -<p>A fight might end in three ways: (1) the better gladiator might -kill his adversary in the heat of the fray; (2) the vanquished -gladiator might lay down his arms and raise his left hand as a -sign of defeat and a prayer for mercy. See lamp, No. <span class="bhead">165</span> (fig. 54). -It rested officially with the giver of the spectacle to grant or refuse -the defeated man's request, but the matter was really decided by -the spectators, who expressed their desire that he should be spared -by shouting for his discharge, waving a piece of cloth in the -air, or raising the left hand. The opposite decision was expressed -by pointing the thumb downwards and shouting "slay" (<em>jugula</em>). -(3) If two men fought on equal terms and displayed great courage, -they might both be discharged before the combat reached a definite -result (<em>stantes missi</em>). The victor, when finally discharged from -service in the arena, was presented with a wooden sword (<em>rudis</em>), -similar to those used in practice, as a sign that he had fought his -last serious fight. Horace alludes to this in his <em>Epistles</em>, when -asking Maecenas if he may retire from his service.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/065-750.png"><img src="images/065-350.png" width="350" height="464" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 54.—Fight between "Samnite" Gladiators (No. 165).</span> -Diam. 3<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>[pg 66]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/066-400.png"><img src="images/066-200.png" width="200" height="481" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 55.—Bronze Statuette of a "Samnite" Gladiator (No. 166).</span></p></div> - -<p>Gladiators were divided into classes according to their equipment -and mode of fighting. The following were the most important:—(1) -The <em>Samnite</em> (figs. 54, 55). He wore a helmet with high crest, one -or sometimes two greaves, and a guard on the right arm. He also -had an oblong shield. The equipment is well shown in the bronze -statuette (No. <span class="bhead">166</span>, fig. 55), lately acquired from the Gréau and Weber -collections. (2) The <em>retiarius</em> or net-thrower (No. <span class="bhead">167</span>, fig. 56), -who carried a trident, a dagger, and a large net in which he tried -to envelop his adversary. The net-thrower was matched against a -gladiator called a <em>secutor</em>, who was armed -like the Samnite, and perhaps received his -name because he was the follower (<em>secutor</em>) -of his lightly-armed foe. (3) The <em>Thrax</em> -(Thracian), armed with the Thracian curved -dagger, a small shield, and a helmet. He -fought the <em>hoplomachus</em>, another variety of -Samnite. (4) The <em>mirmillo</em>, the origin of -whose name and nature of whose equipment -are not certainly known. He was opposed -to the net-thrower, and later to the Thracian. -Among other classes of less importance may -be mentioned the mounted gladiators (<em>equites</em>), -who appear on the left of fig. 57 (a Pompeian -relief).<a id="footnotetag34" name="footnotetag34"></a><a href="#footnote34"><sup>34</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/067a-840.png"><img src="images/067a-400.png" width="400" height="475" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 56.—Retiarius (No. 167).</span> Diam. 3<b>⅝</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/067b-1500.png"><img src="images/067b-600.png" width="600" height="108" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 57.—Pompeian Relief, representing Combats of -Gladiators.</span></p></div> - -<p>A curious marble relief from Halikarnassos -(No. <span class="bhead">168</span>; fig. 58) gives a vivid picture of -an unusual form of gladiatorial combat, -between two women. They are armed -like the <em>Samnites</em>, but without helmets, -and the fight seems to take place on -a sort of platform on either side of which -the head of a spectator is visible. Their -names are given as Amazon and Achillia, and above their heads -is inscribed in Greek "discharged," <ins title="Greek: apelythêsan"> -ἀπελύθησαν</ins>. It is known that -women fought in the arena under the Empire<a id="footnotetag35" name="footnotetag35"></a><a href="#footnote35"><sup>35</sup></a>; but under Septimius -Severus (193-211) so much scandal was caused by a specially furious -combat of a large number of female gladiators that such exhibitions -were forbidden.<a id="footnotetag36" name="footnotetag36"></a><a href="#footnote36"><sup>36</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/067c-990.png"><img src="images/067c-500.png" width="500" height="420" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 58.—Combat of Women Gladiators -(No. 168).</span> Width 2 ft. 7 in.</p></div> - -<p>The objects exhibited in illustration of gladiatorial shows are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>[pg 67]</span> -numerous and varied, though not artistically remarkable. The -subject was especially popular with the smaller craftsmen, the -makers of bronze statuettes and the potters of Italy and Gaul, who -produced terracotta lamps and vases for a large but uncritical -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>[pg 68]</span> -public. A selection of some dozen lamps (No. <span class="bhead">169</span>) is here given -illustrating different stages of the combat, or single gladiators; one -is simply ornamented with specimens of gladiatorial armour (helmets, -greaves, shields, and daggers).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/068-980.png"><img src="images/068-400.png" width="400" height="401" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 59.—Gladiator's Helmet.</span></p></div> - -<p>No complete example of a gladiator's helmet is shown in the -Case, but the bronze visor (No. <span class="bhead">170</span>), a small bronze model (No. -<span class="bhead">171</span>), and a model in glazed pottery (No. <span class="bhead">172</span>) -suffice to give an idea of the usual type. The illustration (fig. 59) of a helmet at Pompeii -shows the arrangement of the visors. The cast (No. <span class="bhead">173</span>) is from -a relief from Ephesus (the original is in the Sculpture Galleries) -which shows combats and corn-waggons (see Case 50) the <em>panem et -circenses</em> demanded by the Roman populace.</p> - -<p>Some interest attaches to the series of ivory tickets (<em>tesserae</em>), -which are inscribed with the names of gladiators, and are valuable -as being dated by the names of the consuls in office (No. <span class="bhead">174</span>). -They range from the beginning of the first century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> to the -time of Domitian (81-96 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>); those shown in the Case extend -from 85 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> to 32 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> The usual formula of the inscription -gives (1) the gladiator's name, (2) the name of his master, (3) the -letters <span class="sans">SP</span> and the date of the day and month, (4) the consuls -of the year. The meaning of the letters <span class="sans">SP</span> is disputed, but -the most likely explanation is that they stand for <em>spectavit</em>, "became -a spectator," with reference to the honourable discharge of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>[pg 69]</span> -recipient. Several examples are known in which the word is thus -written in full. The ticket of which an illustration is given in -fig. 60 bears the inscription, "Cocero the gladiator of Fafinius -became a spectator on the 5th of October in the Consulship of -Lucius Cinna and Gnaeus Papirius" (85 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>).</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/069a-540.png"><img src="images/069a-300.png" width="300" height="350" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 60.—Gladiator's Discharge Ticket (No. 174).</span> L. 1<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/069b-460.png"><img src="images/069b-250.png" width="250" height="351" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 61.—Man and Bear (No. 177).</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">The contests in the arena were not limited to those between -gladiators. Combats of animals, and of men with animals -enjoyed equal popularity. In the latter case the men might be -hunters (<em>venatores</em>), lightly armed, and able to escape by agility -and skill. They might also be criminals or martyrs (who were -counted as criminals) exposed to wild beasts without hope of resistance -or escape. Two terracotta reliefs (Nos. <span class="bhead">175</span>, <span class="bhead">175*</span>) are shown in -this Case, of about the time of Augustus, which, though fragmentary, -evidently relate to exhibitions of this kind. A better and more -complete example is the sculptured relief from Ephesus (No. <span class="bhead">176</span>) -with four panels, in each of which is a man in combat with a lion, -probably successive stages in a single event. A lamp (No. <span class="bhead">177</span>; -fig. 61) shows a man and a bear, separated by a kind of turnstile, -called a <em>cochlea</em>.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Gladiator</i>, and <i>Venatio</i>.</p> - -<p>(165) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 663; (166) <i>Gréau Cat.</i>, 264; (167) <i>Cat. of -Lamps</i>, 976; (168) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, II., 1117; (173) <i>ibid.</i>, II., 1285; -(174) for a recent theory that the tesserae are records of an <i>incubatio</i> at -a medicinal sanctuary (cf. p. 185) see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Tessera</i> -p. 136; (175) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, D 624; (175*) <i>ibid.</i>, D 655; (176) -<i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, II., 1286; (177) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 1068. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote34" name="footnote34"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag34">34:</a> -<i>Mus. Borb.</i>, XV., pl. 30.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote35" name="footnote35"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag35">35:</a> -Cf. Tac., <i>Ann.</i> xv. 32; Suet., <i>Dom.</i> 4.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote36" name="footnote36"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag36">36:</a> -Dio Cass., lxxv. 16.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>[pg 70]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>VIII.—CHARIOT-RACING AND THE CIRCUS.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Case 110.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Chariot-racing was one of the oldest of Greek sports, and is -described in the <em>Iliad</em> as one of the contests held at the funeral -of Patroklos. At that time the two-horse war-chariot was used -in the race, and a special type of racing-car does not seem to have -existed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/070-1000.png"><img src="images/070-500.png" width="500" height="371" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 62.—Roman Racing-Chariot Turning the Post (No. -179).</span> L. 16 in.</p></div> - -<p>The introduction of chariot-races in the great athletic contests -was a concession to the wealthy inhabitants of prosperous cities. -To enter a chariot with a team of four horses, which was now the -usual number for the great race at Olympia, demanded almost as -large a proportionate expenditure as to run a horse for the Derby -to-day. Rich men in Greece Proper found rivals in the tyrants -of Sicily and Cyrene, who ruled over cities with large revenues -and districts providing good opportunities for successful horse-breeding.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 170px;"><a href="images/071-300.png"><img src="images/071-140.png" width="140" height="363" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 63.—Ivory Statuette of a Charioteer (No. 180).</span> 5:8.</p></div> - -<p>At Olympia four-horse chariots raced for the first time in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>[pg 71]</span> -680 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, chariots with two horses not until 408. Between those -dates a race for horsemen was started, and won on the first -occasion by a native of Thessaly, which, owing to its rich plains, -was celebrated in antiquity for a magnificent breed of horses. A -winner in the horse-race is depicted on the vase No. <span class="bhead">178</span> -(exhibited in Case 107), about to receive a wreath and a tripod as -his prizes, while a herald proclaims: "The horse of Dysneiketos -wins."</p> - -<p>The race of four-horse chariots was, perhaps, the greatest event -in the Olympian Games, and certainly the most exciting to the -spectators, as accidents were frequent, especially at the turn. -Consummate skill was necessary to double the post as close -and as fast as possible. Readers of Sophokles' -<em>Electra</em> will remember the account given by the -messenger of the alleged death of Orestes in a -collision of chariots turning the post.<a id="footnotetag37" name="footnotetag37"></a><a href="#footnote37"><sup>37</sup></a></p> - -<p>The Romans probably derived their custom of chariot-racing from the -Greeks, as also the plan which, with some alterations in detail, they -adopted for their <em>circus</em>. In the early days of Rome the marshy -valley between the Palatine and Aventine Hills was the place chosen -for the games, and remained so through the succeeding centuries, -during which the course was gradually surrounded with an immense -building; this in the fourth century after Christ held not far short -of 180,000 people.</p> - -<p>In the later Roman Empire the charioteers -were hired by factions, which were distinguished -by different colours, and excited violent enthusiasm -among all classes of Roman society. The passion survived the -introduction of Christianity, and was perhaps even more violent -at Constantinople than at Rome; it was said that the inhabitants -of the new capital of the Empire divided their interests between -a passion for chariot-racing and theological discussion. Successful -charioteers were transferred from one faction to another like -modern football-players. Records exist of the number of victories -gained by famous whips, and of the proportion won under the -different colours.</p> - -<p>The costume of the charioteer was always distinct. In Greece -he wore a long robe girt at the waist, which is well seen on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>[pg 72]</span> -bronze statue from Delphi,<a id="footnotetag38" name="footnotetag38"></a><a href="#footnote38"><sup>38</sup></a> and on the chariot-racing reliefs from -the Mausoleum.<a id="footnotetag39" name="footnotetag39"></a><a href="#footnote39"><sup>39</sup></a> At Rome his dress was peculiar, and is illustrated -by the terracotta relief (No. <span class="bhead">179</span>; fig. 62) and other objects -in this Case, notably the small ivory statuette (No. <span class="bhead">180</span>; fig. 63). -It consisted of a close-fitting cap, and a shirt fastened round the -waist. Characteristic thongs called <em>fasciae</em> were wound round the -ribs. The thongs of the reins were also wound about the body. -A knife was stuck in the belt so that the reins might be quickly -cut in the event of an accident.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a href="images/072-780.png"><img src="images/072-370.png" width="370" height="565" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 64.—Lamp Showing Chariot-Race in Circus (No. 181).</span> -Diam. 3<b>¾</b> in.</div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>[pg 73]</span></p> - -<p>A sort of bird's-eye view of the whole circus, with a race in -progress, is given on the lamp No. <span class="bhead">181</span> (fig. 64), on which we see -on one side the <em>carceres</em> or barriers with folding-doors from which -the chariots started; on the other a stand with rows of spectators, -while in the lower part of the design is the <em>spina</em>, or central rib of -the circus, crowded with various structures. Not less instructive -is the scene on the terracotta relief (No. <span class="bhead">179</span>), though only one -chariot is there represented (fig. 62, above). Two lamps (Nos. <span class="bhead">182</span>, -<span class="bhead">183</span>) illustrate respectively the return of a victorious horse (fig. 65) -and a victorious four-horse chariot. The former is accompanied -by men bearing palm-branches and a tablet probably inscribed -with the name of the successful competitor.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;"><a href="images/073-780.png"><img src="images/073-310.png" width="310" height="472" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 65.—Victorious Horse (No. 182).</span> 3<b><small><sup>3</sup></small>⁄<small>5</small></b> in.</p></div> - -<p>The cast No. <span class="bhead">184</span> is taken from a mould in the Terracotta Room -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>[pg 74]</span> -(No. E 79) for the central panel of a large lamp. Its chief figure -is a successful charioteer, crowned with a bulky wreath.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(178) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 144; (179) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, D 627; -(181) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 626; (182) <i>ibid.</i>, 788; (183) <i>ibid.</i>, 671; (184) -<i>ibid.</i>, 1398.</p> - -<p>For the circus in general see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v.</p> - -<p>Two interesting sarcophagus reliefs, with scenes in the circus, are -shown in the Roman Gallery (<i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, III., 2318, 2319). -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote37" name="footnote37"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag37">37:</a> -<i>El.</i> 680 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote38" name="footnote38"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag38">38:</a> -<i>Cat. of Casts</i>, No. 94.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote39" name="footnote39"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag39">39:</a> -<i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, II., Nos. 1036, 1037.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>IX.—ARMS AND ARMOUR.<a name="page74a" id="page74a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 111-119, and Table-Case E.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The arms and armour of the ancients are contained in Wall-Cases -111-119, and in Table-Case E. The weapons of attack date -from the beginning of the use of metal, in the prehistoric period, -but all the defensive armour belongs to the historical age.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Armour.</span>—There is not much literary evidence for the armour -of antiquity, but military subjects are very commonly represented -in works of art, and these, with the actual remains of armour, -give a good idea of the ancient panoply. The armour of the -prehellenic civilisations of Greece, as described by Homer, is a -subject of dispute, and as this collection possesses no specimen -of such remnants as have been found, there is no need here to -discuss the question. It is enough to say that the armour of the -inhabitants of Greece of the Mycenaean or Bronze Age was entirely -different from that of the Hellenic period, which began with the -introduction of iron in the place of bronze, and that the heroes -of the Homeric poems, who are so frequently portrayed in classical -art, are represented in the armour not of their own day, but of -that of the artist. The earliest Greek fashion is seen in a small -bronze figure of a soldier from Dodona, a cast of which is exhibited -in Case 113 (No. <span class="bhead">185</span>; fig. 66). The original is in the Antiquarium -at Berlin. Its date is about 500 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The man was striking with -a spear; he carries a shield on his left arm, and wears a metal -helmet, cuirass and greaves. These three pieces of body-armour -were worn throughout classical times, being adopted from the -Greeks by the Romans. All are represented in this collection.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Helmet.</span>—The earliest type of helmet is known as Corinthian, -because it is worn by the goddess Athena in the well-known coin-type -of Corinth (fig. 12<i>e</i>). It was a complete metal casing of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>[pg 75]</span> -head and neck, open only in front of the eyes and mouth; the nose -was protected by a vertical strip which was left between the eyes, -and the rest of the face was covered as by a mask (fig. 66). In -the earliest specimens (No. <span class="bhead">186</span>) the metal is everywhere of the -same thickness, the cheek-pieces large and clumsy, the nose-piece -straight, and little attempt is made to curve the back so as to fit -the neck. Later helmets were more gracefully designed: the nasal -and cheek-pieces are shaped and curved, the crown is distinguished -from the lower part, the neck has a natural contour, and is set off -from the rest of the helmet by a notch on each side of the bottom -rim (No. <span class="bhead">187</span>; fig. 67). The lines of hair and eyebrows are often -indicated in embossed and engraved patterns (Nos. <span class="bhead">188</span>, <span class="bhead">189</span>; -fig. 78).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/075-660.png"><img src="images/075-310.png" width="310" height="467" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.—Greek Soldier. Cast of Bronze Statuette -from Dodona (No. 185).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>It would seem that the Corinthian helmet at its best was a -cumbrous piece of armour. The ears of the wearer were covered, -and the ill-fitting shell must have sat loose upon the head, so as -to be easily displaced by a sudden turn. This and the chafing of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>[pg 76]</span> -the metal were obviated in some degree by a lining of felt or leather, -which was sewn inside the helmet in the rows of holes along the edges. -In No. <span class="bhead">189</span> the actual fastenings may be seen as well as the holes: -thin twine along the bottom rim, and rivets in the holes elsewhere. -This is an unusually well preserved helmet; the wooden peg on -which the plume was tied is still in place (fig. 78). A leathern -cap was also worn, and is seen on the coins of Corinth (fig. 12<i>e</i>), -where the helmet is represented in the position in which it was carried -when the wearer was not fighting, <i>i.e.</i>, pushed back until the lower -rim projected in a peak over the forehead. This position came to -be adopted in battle also; for in the last of the Corinthian series -(Nos. <span class="bhead">190</span>, <span class="bhead">191</span>, fig. 68, -<span class="bhead">192</span>) there is not sufficient depth to the -helmet to admit of its being worn over the face in the original way, -nor are the eyeholes large enough to be of use, while in two examples -these are represented only by engraving, a traditional design which -shows the evolution of the helmet (No. <span class="bhead">192</span>). Such examples are, -however, not really Greek. They come from South Italy, and belong -to a late period, when the art and manners of Greek colonists were -reproduced in barbarous form among the natives. Drawings of this -helmet on Italian vases of the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> give a date for -the class.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/076-1200.png"><img src="images/076-500.png" width="500" height="291" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.—Greek Helmets of "Corinthian" and "Island" Types -(Nos. 187, 193).</span> 1:5.</div> - -<p>An additional value is given to three of the early helmets by -inscriptions which they bear and which help to date them. The -first (No. <span class="bhead">188</span>) is a record of a dedication of Corinthian spoils to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>[pg 77]</span> -Zeus by the Argives: <ins title="Greek: TARG[EI]OI ANETHEN TOI DIWI TON QORINTHOTHEN (see TN)"><span class="sans"> -ΤΑΡΓ[ΕΙ]ΟΙ -ΑΝΕΘΕΝ -ΤΟΙ ΔΙϜΙ ΤΟΝ -ϘΟΡΙΝΘΟΘΕΝ</span></ins>, in lettering which belongs probably to the end of the -sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span><a id="footnotetag40" name="footnotetag40"></a><a href="#footnote40"><sup>40</sup></a> -The helmet was found in the bed of the river -Alpheios, near Olympia, and was doubtless dedicated in the -sanctuary. A shield bearing the first word of a similar inscription -has since been found at Olympia, and was probably part of the same -offering. Another helmet (No. <span class="bhead">186</span>) has five letters, -<ins title="Greek: OLYMP (see TN)"><span class="sans">ΟΛΥΜΠ</span></ins>, -scratched on the corner of one of the cheek-pieces in characters of -about 500 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The complete word was perhaps <ins title="Greek: Olympiô"> -Ὀλυμπίῳ</ins>, "<em>To the -Olympian Zeus</em>." This is said to have been found at Dodona in -Epeiros. The third is inscribed on the front with the name of its -owner, <ins title="Greek: DASIMOS PYRRHOU"><span class="sans"> -ΔΑΣΙΜΟΣ -ΠΥΡΡΟΥ</span></ins>, "<em>Dasimos son of Pyrrhos</em>" (No. <span class="bhead">194</span>). -The date of the writing is the beginning of the fifth century. This -helmet, which comes from South Italy, differs from the Corinthian -only in having holes for the ears, but it is really the first of a new -type, the so-called Attic.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/077-1000.png"><img src="images/077-500.png" width="500" height="454" alt="" /></a></div> -<div class="caption">Fig. 68.—<span class="sc">Graeco-Italian Helmet of Debased Corinthian Form -(No. 191).</span> 1:6.</div> - -<p>The evidence of inscriptions, painting and sculpture shows that -the Corinthian helmet was generally worn by the Greeks from the -first appearance of metal armour in the eighth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> to the -early years of the fifth. It then became less common, but never -quite disappeared, and was used, certainly as a decorative type, by -the Romans of the Empire.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/078a-800.png"><img src="images/078a-400.png" width="400" height="473" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 69.—Attic Helmet from -Macedonia (No. 195).</span> Ca. 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 240px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/078b-450.png"><img src="images/078b-240.png" width="240" height="268" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 70.—Attic Helmet Decorated -with Ram's Heads on the Cheek-Pieces. At Naples.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/078c-370.png"><img src="images/078c-180.png" width="180" height="300" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 71.—Head of Hippolyte, -with Helmet in the shape of a Phrygian Cap.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">The Attic helmet, which gets its name from its use on the coins <span class="pagenum"><a -name="page78" id="page78"></a>[pg 78]</span> of Athens (fig. 12, <i>f-l</i>), appeared -first in the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and in the fourth was the usual type. -In shape it is lighter than the Corinthian, and resembles a cap with -appendages to protect the neck, cheeks and nose. The ear was thus left -free. The finest Attic helmet (No. <span class="bhead">195</span>, fig. 69) has been acquired -recently from the British Salonika Force. It was found with a -spearhead and other objects in a grave of about 500 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> in the camp -of the 29th General Hospital at Mikra Karabournou, in January, 1918, -and was transferred to this collection from the Imperial War Museum. -The nasal is elegantly modelled, eyebrows and tongues of hair over the -forehead are wrought in relief, and broad spiral bands in relief decorate -and strengthen the cheek-pieces. The cheek-pieces were often hung -on hinges (No. <span class="bhead">197</span>), and were pushed up from the face when the -wearer was not fighting (fig. 81). No. <span class="bhead">198</span> is a cheek-piece from -Loryma in Caria, which reproduces the form of the face beneath -it. An Attic helmet from Ruvo in Apulia (No. <span class="bhead">196</span>) has fixed -cheek-pieces in the shape of rams' heads, which were completed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>[pg 79]</span> -with applied reliefs like those of a similar helmet at Naples (fig. 70). -The nose-piece was often omitted. The forehead was well covered, -and was usually marked by a triangular frontal band, often enclosing -an ornament. No. <span class="bhead">197</span> has the head of a young Satyr in relief. -The Attic helmet was also adopted in Italy, especially by the -Etruscans. No. <span class="bhead">199</span> (fig. 78) was found in an Etruscan tomb at -Vulci.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/079-1000.png"><img src="images/079-500.png" width="500" height="424" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 72.—Italian Helmets with Metal Crests -(Nos. 205, 202)</span>. 1:6.</p></div> - -<p>These two helmets, the Corinthian and the Attic, were so far -the most general among the Greeks as to merit the name of the -classical types. No. <span class="bhead">193</span> is an intermediate form which has been -assigned to the Aegean Islands because of its occurrence in vase-paintings -from the Cyclades. This example was found in the river -Alpheios, and was no doubt originally dedicated, like several other -pieces in this collection, in the temple at Olympia. It is cut straight -over the eyes, has no nose-piece and no ear-holes (fig. 67). A -peculiar feature is a broad band with high raised edges which runs -over the crown of the head from forehead to neck. A stout pin -in front of this shows that the band was a channel in which the -crest was fixed. A row of silver studs and a silver band decorate -the rim of this helmet, and there are remains of ornaments in relief, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>[pg 80]</span> -palmettes on forehead and at the ears, and on each cheek-piece a -horseman. These were no doubt also of silver, but the plates have -come away, leaving their impress upon the cement which used to -hold them in place. The style of the modelling belongs to the -end of the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Another Greek type has the shape of -a Phrygian cap, with the addition of movable cheek-pieces, of which -the hinges are partially preserved (No. <span class="bhead">200</span>). Such a helmet is -often worn by Amazons, for instance by the Queen Hippolyte on an -Attic bowl of about 450 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, which is exhibited in the Third Vase -Room (fig. 71). It is also shewn in the cast of an Etruscan bronze -statuette which stands beside the helmet (No. <span class="bhead">201</span>). The tall -oval helmet (No. <span class="bhead">202</span>, fig. 72) with its barbarous pair of horns in -the shape of crests of sea-horses, is Italian, but the same type -appears on Greek monuments.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/080-1000.png"><img src="images/080-500.png" width="500" height="234" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 73.—Etruscan and Early Italian Helmets -(Nos. 207, 203).</span> 1:5.</p></div> - -<p>Italian helmets are more like hats, giving no protection to the -face unless cheek-pieces are added. An early form, from Ancona, -is almost hemispherical, with wide brim and two large bosses on -the sides (No. <span class="bhead">203</span>, fig. 73). The bosses would stop glancing blows -on the head. The smaller knob on the front of this example may -have held the crest; if so, the corresponding knob behind has been -lost. Two helmets from Cannae are later developments of the same -type (No. <span class="bhead">204</span>, fig. 74). They are decorated and stiffened with -two curved bands in relief, one on each side of the crown. The -bosses and brims are broken away. The earliest helmets of this -shape belong to the seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Our later specimens were -probably worn in the battle of Cannae (216 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>). They have wrongly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>[pg 81]</span> -been called Carthaginian because of their discovery on this battlefield, -but the type is European, and has been found at Hallstatt. -The helmet with sharp pointed top also belongs to a class which -extended to France and Germany in the early Iron Age (No. <span class="bhead">205</span>, -fig. 72). The arched socket for the crest is a peculiarity of this -example, which is of later date, about fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> More -strictly of Italian origin are the heavy Etruscan helmets resembling -reversed jockey-caps, with a knob on top, a short peak covering the -wearer's neck, and attached cheek-pieces (No. <span class="bhead">206</span>, fig. 75). They are -cast; nearly all other helmets are hammered work. Their date is from -the fifth to the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The Etruscans also used an oval -helmet with ridged crown, of which the most notable example comes from -Olympia, where it was dedicated as part of the Greek spoils from the -naval battle of Kyme (<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> 474). This helmet is described above among -the Greek Inscriptions (p. <a href="#page8">8</a>, fig. 7, No. <span class="bhead">13</span>). Other examples are -heavier, and have a broad decorated rim (No. <span class="bhead">207</span>, fig. 73).</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px; margin-top: 12em;"><a href="images/081a-740.png"><img src="images/081a-300.png" width="300" height="249" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.—Italian Helmet, from -the Battlefield of Cannae (No. 204).</span> 1:5.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/081b-650.png"><img src="images/081b-300.png" width="300" height="455" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 75.—Etruscan "Jockey-Cap" -Helmet with hinged Cheek-Pieces (No. 206).</span> 1:5.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">There is no specimen of a Roman helmet in this collection. -The scarcity of remains of Roman armour is due to the fact that -it was mostly made of iron, which has decayed. Representations of -different shapes may be seen, in a statuette of an officer (No. <span class="bhead">219</span>, -fig. 85), a small model of a trophy (No. <span class="bhead">233</span>), a cast of a large marble -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>[pg 82]</span> -relief (No. <span class="bhead">236</span>), and a drawing of a soldier from the Column of -Trajan (fig. 90). All these show close-fitting caps with broad chin-straps, -which also serve as cheek-pieces. They are varieties of the -Attic type. Some Roman helmets found in England are exhibited -in the Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities. One of -them is reproduced in fig. 76. It is evidently related to the much -older Etruscan "jockey-cap." The hinged cheek-pieces are wanting. -It is likely that the Romans would combine Greek and Italian -patterns in designing a uniform helmet for their own army.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/082a-1000.png"><img src="images/082a-500.png" width="500" height="308" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 76.—Roman Legionary Helmet found near -Berkhampstead.</span> Ca. 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/082b-1200.png"><img src="images/082b-500.png" width="500" height="239" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 77.—Parade Helmet Masks (Nos. 209, 208).</span></p></div> - -<p>A peculiar fashion of Roman helmet is represented by two bronze vizor-masks -in Case 117 (Nos. <span class="bhead">208</span>, <span class="bhead">209</span>, fig. 77). A complete -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>[pg 83]</span> -helmet of the same kind, exhibited in the Room of Roman -Britain, was found at Ribchester in 1796, and two other specimens, -a fragmentary iron helmet and a bronze mask, have recently been -excavated at Newstead on the Tweed. The Newstead helmet has -remains of padding still adhering, which prove that these strange -helmets were actually worn, though Arrian, writing on tactics in -the second century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, says that they were used for display, and -not in battle. The earlier of our examples (No. <span class="bhead">208</span>, fig. 77, right), -which probably belongs to the first century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, is said to have -been found on the face of a skeleton in a grave at Nola in Italy in -the eighteenth century. The other (No. <span class="bhead">209</span>, fig. 77, left), which -has the more usual type of features, has lately been presented to -the Museum, having been purchased at Aintab in Syria during the -occupation of the country by British troops. Both masks are -pierced at eyes, nostrils and mouth, and show traces of attachment -to the helmet above the forehead. No. <span class="bhead">209</span> has remains of white -metal plating on the face, the hair being left in the colour of -bronze.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/083-1200.png"><img src="images/083-500.png" width="500" height="296" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 78.—Helmets with Wooden Peg for Plume and Tube -for Feather (Nos. 189, 199).</span> 1:5.</p></div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/084a-440.png"><img src="images/084a-250.png" width="250" height="413" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 79.—Italian -Helmet decorated with Horns, <br />Wings and Plume.</span></p></div> - -<p>Crests are shown on all kinds of helmets, as in the Greek, Etruscan -and Roman statuettes (figs. 66, 81, 85), and the drawings on Greek -and Italian vases (figs. 79, 86, etc.); it is not uncommon to find -three on one helmet. They had thick horsehair plumes, sometimes -simply wired to the helmet, sometimes mounted in sockets. Very -few helmets show original fittings for the crests. These must have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>[pg 84]</span> -been added by the owners. Some helmets have holes drilled in -the crown; No. <span class="bhead">186</span> has remains of wire in the holes. No. <span class="bhead">189</span> -has a bronze socket still holding a wooden peg, but this is only -fastened with cement, and its rough make is not in keeping with the -fine finish of this helmet (fig. 78). The flanged channel and pins of -No. <span class="bhead">193</span> (fig. 67) are peculiar to that type of helmet. An Etruscan -helmet of Attic shape (No. <span class="bhead">199</span>, fig. 78) had a pair of tubes to carry -single feathers, only one of which remains (<i>cf.</i> fig. 80). It was an -Italian habit to wear fantastic ornaments. The head of a horseman from -a wall-painting at Capua shows horns, wings, and a plume or feather -(fig. 79). A Corinthian helmet from Apulia has a pair of curved horns -like those in the wall-painting (No. <span class="bhead">190</span>). An Attic helmet belonging -to a suit of armour which was found in a grave at Capua, and is -exhibited here on loan from H.M. Armoury in -the Tower of London (No. <span class="bhead">210</span>), has horns of coiled wire (perhaps -clips for feathers), and a pair of wings. The oval bronze hat -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>[pg 85]</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">202</span>, fig. 72) has two crests of sea-horses mounted as horns, -with the support for a plume between them. These accessories are -detachable; they are cut out of thin sheet metal and fit on to flat -ears on the helmet. Two of the latest of the Corinthian class -(No. <span class="bhead">191</span>, fig. 68) have such attachments.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/084b-900.png"><img src="images/084b-400.png" width="400" height="444" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 80.—Italian Vase-Painting, showing Feathered -Helmet and the Metal Cuirass.</span></p></div> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/085a-690.png"><img src="images/085a-300.png" width="230" height="466" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 81.—Etruscan Bronze Statuette -with Plated Cuirass.</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/085b-520.png"><img src="images/085b-250.png" width="250" height="473" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 82.—A Soldier Putting -on his Cuirass.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Cuirass.</span>—The earliest metal cuirass consisted of two bronze -plates roughly shaped to fit the body, and fastened together at the -sides and shoulders. The bottom edge was turned up so as not to -cut the hips. The Greek statuette from Dodona (No. <span class="bhead">185</span>, fig. 66) -shows the form. It was contemporary with the Corinthian helmet -in Greece, and was probably discarded there for the same reason, -that it was as much a burden as a protection. In Italy it had a longer -life, but in an improved shape which is represented in Italian vase-painting -(fig. 80), and is shown here in the cast of an Etruscan -statuette (No. <span class="bhead">201</span>), as well as in some actual specimens from Italy -(Nos. <span class="bhead">210</span>, <span class="bhead">211</span>, <span class="bhead">212</span>). These fit closely to the body, of -which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>[pg 86]</span> -the form is moulded in free style on the metal plates, and the bottom -edge follows the line of the waist. A fringe of leather was often -attached to the rim. The fastenings are rings for lacing, and -pins in sockets which serve either as hinges or clasps. The other -cuirass was generally used in Greece from the beginning of the fifth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> An Etruscan statuette in the Bronze Room shows -every detail of the type (fig. 81). It was made of leather plated with -bronze, with shoulder-straps to buckle down upon the breast. In -scenes of the arming of soldiers, for instance on a vase by the painter -Douris, at Vienna (fig. 82), the method of putting on this cuirass -is often represented, and the construction of the various parts is -shown. The bronze plating might be in the form of square tabs -or round scales. Two fragments of such plating are exhibited (No. -<span class="bhead">213</span>, fig. 83, right). The larger consists of six plates of bronze with -the lower edge scalloped, sewn with wire on a leathern coat, and -overlapping in such a way as everywhere to present three thicknesses -of metal. The leather of this example is modern. The other is -of five much smaller scales, similarly wired together. The larger -fragment is from France, the smaller from Oxyrhynchus, in Egypt. -Some pieces of heavier bronze plating, one of them still clasping a -shrivelled tongue of leather, may have served as the long tabs which -form a skirt to this cuirass. They were excavated at Kertch in the -Crimea (No. <span class="bhead">214</span>, fig. 83, left).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/086-1000.png"><img src="images/086-500.png" width="500" height="293" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 83.—Bronze Plating from Cuirasses (Nos. 214, 213).</span> -3:5.</p></div> - -<p>A peculiar Italian type is represented by a triangular bronze -breastplate filled with three circles in relief (No. <span class="bhead">215</span>). This -breastplate -often appears on third-century vases of South Italian fabric, -and a number of such plates have been found in tombs of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>[pg 87]</span> -beginning of the Iron Age. It is therefore an ancient pattern, but -this example is contemporary with the vases (fig. 84).</p> - -<p>Another piece of native Italian fashion is the metal belt (No. <span class="bhead">216</span>) -which is also represented in vase paintings of the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -(fig. 84). It was worn with the triangular breastplate. Rows of -holes along the edges show that the belts were lined with cloth or -leather. The fastening is simple, one end hooking into the other. -Many elaborate hooks are exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">217</span>). Two oval bronze -plaques (No. <span class="bhead">218</span>) may have belonged to belts of different type.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/087-1200.png"><img src="images/087-500.png" width="500" height="395" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 84.—Vase Paintings showing Italian Breastplate and -Metal Belt.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/088-450.png"><img src="images/088-170.png" width="170" height="373" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 85.—Bronze Statuette of a -Roman Legionary Soldier (No. 219).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>Remains of Roman cuirasses are as rare as of the helmets, and -for the same reason; but the general type of the armour worn by -the legionary soldier is illustrated by a small statuette (No. <span class="bhead">219</span>; -fig. 85). The cuirass is of the same design as the flexible Greek type; -it is made of overlapping bands of metal, which are fastened down the -front. There are shoulder-pieces of similar construction, and straps -are brought over from the back to hold the armour in place. Underneath -is a kilt of leather or metal strips. Two other varieties of -Roman cuirass are shown in the cast of the relief representing pieces -of armour (No. <span class="bhead">236</span>), and a fourth is the coat of mail, which appears -in the reliefs of the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius at Rome -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>[pg 88]</span> -(about 110 and 190 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> respectively). It is represented here by -fragments of two different patterns and sizes (No. <span class="bhead">220</span>).</p> - -<p class="space-below5"><span class="bhead">Greaves.</span>—The third part of the Greek body armour is the -greaves. Metal greaves may have been worn towards the close of -the Mycenaean Age (the pair from Enkomi in Cyprus dates from -about 1100 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>), but their general use was due, like that of the -metal cuirass, to the adoption of the small shield, which necessitated -a better covering of the body and legs. The poet Alcaeos says that -the greave was a protection against missiles. It was a thin sheet of -bronze, shaped to fit the leg, which it clasped and held of its own -elasticity. Only the greaves from Enkomi (No. <span class="bhead">221</span>) are laced with -bronze wire. Warriors putting on their greaves are often represented -on the Attic vases. Fig. 86 is from the same scene as fig. 82. An -ankle-pad was worn to keep the bottom edge from chafing. There is -little difference of shape or decoration in the existing specimens. -Some reach only to the knee, and some extend above it to cover part of -the thigh (Nos. <span class="bhead">222</span>, <span class="bhead">225</span>). -With the exception of the pair from Enkomi, all these date from the sixth to the -third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Two of the -finest (No. <span class="bhead">223</span>; fig. 87) from Ruvo in South -Italy, are decorated on the knee with a figure of a Gorgon. -The tongue and eyes were made of ivory. The style points to -Ionia as the place, and the sixth century as the time of manufacture. -Rather later is the pair with incised palmettes above the knees -(No. <span class="bhead">224</span>). The only other decoration is the expression of the -muscles of the leg to correspond with the similar representation -of the body on the breastplate. As in the belt and helmet, there -is usually a row of holes along the rim for the attachment of -a lining. In the Roman army the greave was worn from early -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>[pg 89]</span> -times, but under the Empire it became a mark of distinction -for the centurions.</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/089a-670.png"><img src="images/089a-300.png" width="300" height="413" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 86.—A Soldier putting on his Greaves.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/089b-640.png"><img src="images/089b-290.png" width="290" height="449" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 87.—Pair of Bronze Greaves -Decorated with Figures of Gorgons (No. 223).</span> 1:6.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">Some rare pieces of armour are arranged with the greaves. -No. <span class="bhead">226</span> is a thigh-piece, of which the provenance is not known. -A similar piece was found at Olympia. Armour for the thigh is -represented on some Greek vases of the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, but not -on later monuments, although both Xenophon and Arrian mention -it as part of the equipment of cavalry. A guard for the upper part -of the right arm, from Italy, which is more familiar as armour of -the later gladiator, dates from the fifth or fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">227</span>). It was fastened to the shoulder of the cuirass. Another -piece of different shape is mounted with the suit of armour from -Capua (No. <span class="bhead">210</span>). There are three pairs of shin-guards from Italy -(No. <span class="bhead">228</span>). The ankle-pieces are designed to protect the "Achilles" -tendon at the back of the foot (No. <span class="bhead">229</span>; fig. 88). These subsidiary -pieces of leg-armour were probably worn by the Italians of the -fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, when the long greave was going out of fashion. -Armour of an unusual kind is represented by the pair of bronze -shoes, which are also from Ruvo (No. <span class="bhead">230</span>; fig. 89). The metal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>[pg 90]</span> -covering is only for the top of the foot, and the toes are on a separate -plate, which is hinged at the joint. Part of a single shoe of the same -type was found at Olympia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;"><a href="images/090a-520.png"><img src="images/090a-260.png" width="260" height="234" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 88.—Bronze Ankle-Guard (No. 229).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/090b-1000.png"><img src="images/090b-500.png" width="500" height="395" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 89.—Bronze Shoes (No. 230).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/091-490.png"><img src="images/091-230.png" width="230" height="467" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 90.—Roman Legionary Soldier from the Trajan Column.</span></p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Shield.</span>—An essential part of the ancient panoply was the shield, -but actual remains are rare. Greek shields were probably made of wood -or leather studded or plated with metal. The prehistoric shield of -Homer's time we know was a large bull-hide, which enveloped the man -from head to foot, and was slung round his neck by a strap. Herodotus -says that this unwieldy weapon was superseded by the smaller shield, -an invention of the Carians, held on the left arm by a loop and a -cross-bar (fig. 102). The common shapes were circular and oval; more fanciful patterns, lozenges and -crescents, belonged to less civilised neighbours of the Greeks. -Leather construction is seen in the shape of the Boeotian shield -(so called from its use as the national coin-type of Boeotia), which -the Dodona soldier carries (No. <span class="bhead">185</span>; fig. 66). This is oval with a -gap in the middle of each long side, a shape produced by stretching -a hide on a long frame with cross-bars at top and bottom. Strings -for tightening the leather cover are drawn inside a shield in fig. 102. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>[pg 91]</span> -Two circular bronze shields are exhibited, both from Italy. The -large one is decorated with narrow bands of Sphinxes, rosettes, -palm- and lotus-patterns in relief, in the oriental Greek style of the sixth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">231</span>). The smaller (No. <span class="bhead">232</span>), which has -a spiked boss and punctured geometric patterns, is probably Italian of -about the same date. Neither of these examples has the fittings -of a shield inside. They may have been made for decorative -or votive use.</p> - -<p>No Roman shields are represented, and none have survived entire, for -they were also made of wood and leather, and only the central boss and -the framework were of metal. The ordinary type is illustrated in the -reliefs of the Trajan Column (fig. 90), where the legionaries are -perhaps distinguished from the auxiliary soldiers by their oblong -shields. These are further differentiated by the badges of the various -legions; the illustration shows a thunderbolt. The Greeks also carried -devices on their shields, mostly figures of animals (fig. 102, a -bull's head), which would be chosen as the emblem of a man or family, -like coats of arms in mediaeval Europe. Some states also had their -badges; men of Lacedaemon, Sicyon, and Messene bore the initial -letters of the names of their towns.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/092-570.png"><img src="images/092-300.png" width="300" height="327" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 91.—Roman Legionary Badges used as Standards, from the Trajan Column.</span></p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Trophies.</span>—A peculiar usage of -war among the Greeks, which was -afterwards practised by the Romans, was the erection of trophies -of the arms captured from a defeated enemy. Soldiers of -all ages have celebrated their achievements by the display of -armour or similar spoils which they have stripped from their -opponents; but the custom of building effigies with the empty -armour, to be left for a monument on the battlefield, as a token -of victory, belonged properly to the Greeks. Helmet, cuirass -and greaves were slung in position on a tree-trunk, and the shield -and other weapons were bound to the arms of a cross-piece. An -inscription was affixed, giving an account of the victory and the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>[pg 92]</span> -dedication of the monument to a deity, as other spoils were dedicated -in the temples. In the centre of the Wall-Cases 116-117 two suits -of armour are set up in this fashion (Nos. <span class="bhead">210</span>, <span class="bhead">211</span>). In Case 111 -there are a small bronze model of a Roman trophy (No. <span class="bhead">233</span>), and two -lamps with designs of the same subject. One of them has a trophy -of barbarian arms, a horned helmet and oblong wooden shields, with -a man and a woman captive at the foot (No. <span class="bhead">234</span>). The other is -more fanciful: a trophy is borne aloft by a Victory, who is poised -with her foot on a globe, to symbolise the subjection of the world -(No. <span class="bhead">235</span>).</p> - -<p>The Greeks had established customs in raising trophies, and these were -strictly observed. The trophy was an assertion of victory, and was -accepted by the vanquished and left inviolate by them. But it was -contrary to usage for the victors to repair it, or to make the -supports of anything more durable than wood. The native Roman practice -was to fix captured armour in the house, like trophies of the chase. -The built trophy was borrowed from the Greeks, but it was not -necessarily erected on the battlefield. At Rome there were many -trophies commemorating provincial victories, and the custom was -continued in the representations of spoils on the triumphal arches and -other monuments of the Imperial age. A marble relief of pieces of -armour from one of these monuments is reproduced in a cast (No. <span class="bhead">236</span>). -The arms are mostly Roman, but the dragon-standard and loose tunic -belong to the Dacians, a barbarous people who made trouble on the -north-east frontier of the Roman Empire in the second century after -Christ.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"><a href="images/093a-250.png"><img src="images/093a-120.png" width="120" height="476" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 92.—Roman Manipular</span> <em>Vexillum</em>,<br /> -<span class="sc">from the Trajan Column</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px; margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 3em;"><a href="images/093b-590.png"><img src="images/093b-300.png" width="300" height="305" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 93.—Silver Coin of Valens -(364-378 a.d.) showing the Emperor holding the</span> <em>Labarum</em>, -<span class="all-sc">TRIUMPHANT OVER BARBARIANS</span>.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Standards.</span>—Military standards were not much used by the -Greeks, but in the Roman army, which was a regular institution, -not a temporary levy of citizens, they were elaborately developed. -The eagle was the standard of the legion. It was a gilt image of -the bird with spread wings, holding a thunderbolt in its claws. -Marks of military distinction bestowed upon the legion—crowns, -wreaths, and medallions—were carried on the staff which supported -the eagle or on the eagle itself (fig. 109, p. 105). Smaller standards -belonged to the companies of the legion (maniples or centuries). These -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>[pg 93]</span> -were originally banners (<em>vexilla</em>) mounted on spears, with honorary -wreaths and medallions attached to the shafts. A cast of such -a standard is exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">237</span>). The cross-piece represents the -bar on which the banner was hung, the sloping and vertical members -at its ends are derived from the cords which fastened the -cross-bar to the pole. The other standards shown in fig. 91, -figures of birds or animals carried on a plain shaft, are also represented -here, in the bronze boar (No. <span class="bhead">238</span>). Such standards were -probably used by detachments of the legion. The regimental -emblems were chosen or bestowed for various reasons; some legions had -several badges, and the same badges are found with several legions. -The boar is known to have belonged to the 1st (<em>Italica</em>), 2nd -(<em>Adjutrix</em>), 10th (<em>Fretensis</em>) and 20th (<em>Valeria Victrix</em>). The -bronze hand (No. <span class="bhead">239</span>) may have been part of a standard, but its poor -structure rather indicates votive use. An open hand was the proper -standard of the maniple, the Roman company of two centuries, which, -indeed, derived its name from this device (<em>manipulus</em>, a handful). -The Roman explanation, as recorded by Ovid and others, was that when -Romulus first organised his men by hundreds, he gave -each company a standard consisting of a handful of twigs or -grass on the point of a spear. In any case the maniple took its -name from the hand, and the hand is often represented as the -standard of the maniple; fig. 92 is taken from the Trajan Column. -The cross-bar, which originally carried the banner, and its hanging -tassels are shown in this standard, as in No. <span class="bhead">237</span>, but the more -important part of the cord, which fastened the bar to the shaft, -has been omitted from the design. This fortuitous pattern of a -cross was eagerly recognised by the early Church as a military -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>[pg 94]</span> -emblem of Christianity, and the famous <em>labarum</em>, the miraculous -standard which Christ gave to the Emperor Constantine on the eve -of the battle of the Milvian Bridge, was a cavalry <em>vexillum</em> of the -Roman army with the monogram of Christ emblazoned on its -banner (fig. 93).</p> - -<blockquote><p> -The pieces of armour are described in the <i>Catalogue of Bronzes</i> -to which reference should be made for fuller details. The Catalogue -numbers are painted on the objects.</p> - -<p>(185) <i>Bronzen aus Dodona in den Kgl. Museen zu Berlin</i>, p. 13, pl. 2; -(201) Friederichs, <i>Kleinere Kunst</i>, 2197; (208) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 877; -Benndorf, <i>Ant. Gesichtshelme</i>, p. 15, pl. 3; for the class see Curle, <i>A -Roman Frontier Post and its People</i>, p. 179; (221) <i>B.M. Excavations in -Cyprus</i>, p. 16, fig. 26; (236) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, 2620; (237, 238, 239) -reproduced by Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict. Ant.</i> s.v. <i>Signa Militaria</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Weapons.</span>—The weapons of offence, which are exhibited in -Table-Case E, differ from the majority of the antiquities shown -in this room, in that many of them were made at a remote period -in the history of Greece and Italy, some even dating from the -beginning of the Bronze Age, when the use of metal had not long -supplanted that of stone. In a few examples from the island of -Cyprus, the metal is almost pure copper. It is therefore not -strictly accurate to call these weapons Greek and Roman, for they -were made a thousand years before those nations began; but they -come from the lands which were afterwards inhabited by the -Greeks and Romans, and are valuable as representing the development -of arms in those parts of the world, and as being the work -of the primitive races in whom the Greeks and Romans had their -origin.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/095-340.png"><img src="images/095-130.png" width="130" height="455" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 94.—Primitive Bronze Spear- and Dagger-Blades, -from Greece and Cyprus (Nos. 241-4).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Early Greek Bronze Age.</span>—The first class consists of -arms which belong to the Early Bronze Age in Greece, -a period preceding the mature and extensive civilisation to -which the name of Mycenaean is commonly applied. The -general date of 3000 to 2000 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, which is assigned to the -weapons of this period, serves rather to indicate their chronological -relations than to give their precise age. In any case they stand -as a definite beginning of the history of arms in Europe. In these -early times the sword had not been invented, and short daggers -or spear-heads only were produced by workmen with a still -imperfect mastery of metallurgy. The most ancient form was a -short thick blade, with rivets in the base, where it was fastened -to the hilt or shaft. A more secure attachment was contrived by -prolonging the broad base of the blade into a tang, which was let -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>[pg 95]</span> -into the handle and held by a rivet through the end. But the -greatest advance was the discovery that if a rib were left up the -middle of the blade, the edges could be fined down and tapered to -a sharp point without loss of strength. In the final development -the stiffening rib and the tang were connected, so that the strongest -part of the blade was continued down into the handle. Yet in spite of -progress and improvements in design, the old patterns remained in use -to the end of the Bronze Age, and even later, so that a chronological -classification based on the forms of early Weapons is untrustworthy.</p> - -<p>All the stages in the development are shown in these examples. The -most primitive types are represented by a series of blades from Cyprus -(No. <span class="bhead">241</span>; fig. 94<em>a</em>), which, from material and technique, might be -placed at a very early period; but they were excavated from Mycenaean -tombs of the end of the Bronze Age. To the same island belong the -narrow blades with long tangs, which are turned round at the end in a -hook to hold the handle (No. <span class="bhead">242</span>; fig. 94<em>b</em>). This type is said to -have been found in graves of 3000 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> It is certainly a primitive -shape, and peculiar to the pre-Mycenaean civilisation of Cyprus. -Another local variety is known in the leaf-shaped blade with a sharp -tang and two slits, one on each side of the midrib, through which the -shaft was lashed in place (No. <span class="bhead">243</span>; fig. 94<em>c</em>). The pattern is -characteristic of the contemporary civilisation of the Cycladic -Islands. Two pointed blades with no tang belong to the same early -period. The smaller of the two was found at Athens (No. <span class="bhead">244</span>; -fig. 94<em>d</em>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/096a-460.png"><img src="images/096a-180.png" width="180" height="469" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 95.—Bronze Swords of the Mycenaean Period Nos. 245, 247-8).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 120px;"><a href="images/096b-270.png"><img src="images/096b-90.png" width="90" height="484" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 96.—Bronze Swords of late Mycenaean Type (Nos. 249-50).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Mycenaean swords and daggers.</span>—The next period -was the close of the Bronze Age in Greece, occupying the -second millennium before Christ. It has been called, from its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>[pg 96]</span> -best-known centre at Mycenae, the Mycenaean Age. In this period, by -improvement in metal-working, the short daggers were lengthened into -swords, which, towards the end of the age, were made even a yard long, -and very slender. Such weapons were used mainly for thrusting, for -they would break with a direct blow. Homer records many such accidents -on the battlefield. At the same time the spear-head was differentiated -from the dagger-blade, being provided with a socket for the shaft. -Mycenaean weapons are represented here by swords and spear-heads -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>[pg 97]</span> -found mainly at Ialysos in Rhodes, and belonging to the end of the -period. The swords are short and heavy, and are made in one piece -with the hilt. The guard is straight in the earlier specimens, and the -pommel of the hilt was a round knob, of which the tang remains -(No. <span class="bhead">245</span>; fig. 95<i>a</i>). This is the form of the well-known daggers -from Mycenae, which have the blades inlaid with designs in coloured -metals, the hilts and pommels embossed and chased in gold. -Electrotype copies of the Mycenae daggers are exhibited in the -Gold Ornament Room Passage. A closer parallel to these is a -blade from Cameiros which has the rivets still in place (No. <span class="bhead">246</span>). -In other swords the raised flange on the edges of the hilt is -continued to form a crescent-shaped pommel. The hollow space -was filled with an ornamental material for the grip. The rivets -are usually in place, and on a small dagger from Karpathos a -great part of the ivory mount is preserved (No. <span class="bhead">247</span>; fig. 95<em>b</em>). -The last form of this hilt appears in a heavy sword, formerly -in the Woodhouse Collection (No. <span class="bhead">248</span>; fig. 95<em>c</em>). The projection -of flanges and pommel is accentuated, and the ends of the -guard are curled up like horns. This type survived into the -Hellenic period. Another late Mycenaean form is seen in a long -and slender sword with a broad base to the blade, which contracts -again towards the hilt (No. <span class="bhead">249</span>; fig. 96<em>a</em>). At the other end of -the hilt are two divergent tongues of metal, which are better preserved -in another example, of heavier fabric, from Enkomi, in -Cyprus (No. <span class="bhead">250</span>; fig. 96<em>b</em>). The type is that in which the earliest -iron swords of Greece were made (No. <span class="bhead">263</span>; fig. 101<em>b</em>), and which -was the prototype of the common bronze sword of the rest of Europe. -The lighter specimen (No. <span class="bhead">249</span>) is from Scutari in Albania.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/097-1200.png"><img src="images/097-600.png" width="600" height="157" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 97.—Bronze Spearheads of the Mycenaean Period (No. -251).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Mycenaean spears and arrows.</span>—The spear was in -Homeric times the soldier's most important arm, a long and -heavy weapon which was thrown with great force or used for -thrusting. Mycenaean spearheads are illustrated in a series from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>[pg 98]</span> -Ialysos (No. <span class="bhead">251</span>; fig. 97). They are skilfully made to secure -the greatest strength with the least expenditure of material; -in most cases the shaft runs far up into the blade, which is -narrow and springs gently from the socket, some being wider near -the point than at the base. There is considerable variety of shape, -but all are characterised by the thin blade with shallow curves. -Mycenaean arrowheads from the same site are of more primitive -design (No. <span class="bhead">252</span>; fig. 98). The best are large and heavy, and have -long barbs; a tang and no socket to take the shaft. Others are -curiously flat and weak, and are plainly metal reproductions of a -stone pattern.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/098-1000.png"><img src="images/098-500.png" width="500" height="345" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 98.—Mycenaean Bronze Arrowheads from Ialysos -(No. 252).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Italian Bronze Age.</span>—The Bronze Age of Italy is represented -here by daggers and spears which date from about the fifteenth to the -tenth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Italian daggers are remarkable for the use of -engraved geometrical decoration on the blades. The first class -resembles the Mycenaean weapons in the form of the hilt with edges -raised for inlay and crescent-shaped pommel, and the round base of -the blade is also similar to an early Mycenaean type. The haft of -one dagger is wound with bronze wire, another has an ivory handle -bound with gold (No. <span class="bhead">253</span>; fig. 99<i>a</i>), and a third has the pommel -filled -with ivory (No. 254). Some of the blades were made separately, and -riveted to the hilt after the primitive fashion (No. <span class="bhead">255</span>; fig. -99<i>b</i>). -In that case the hilt was split to receive the tang, and overlapped -the base (No. <span class="bhead">256</span>). Some of these daggers diverge still further -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>[pg 99]</span> -from the Mycenaean in having the blade with recurving edges -which is characteristic of a cutting sword (No. <span class="bhead">257</span>; fig. 99<em>c</em>). -The sheaths are of peculiar shape, being made of a thin plate of -bronze with an ornament at the end in the form of a large round -knob or several discs on a peg (No. <span class="bhead">258</span>; fig. 99 <em>e</em>, <em>f</em>). -They are decorated with the same linear designs as the blades. A later -variety of Italian sword, known from the horned extremities of the -pommel as the <em>Antennae</em> type, is represented by two specimens -(No. <span class="bhead">259</span>; fig. 99<em>d</em>). In the first, the horns are simply curved -projections, in the other they are developed into large rings or -spiral coils. The type is of frequent occurrence throughout Europe, -even in the north.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/099a-1200.png"><img src="images/099a-600.png" width="600" height="264" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 99.—Early Italian Bronze Swords and Sheaths -(Nos. 253, 255, 257-9).</span> 1:6.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/099b-1200.png"><img src="images/099b-600.png" width="600" height="233" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 100.—Italian Bronze Spearheads (No. 260).</span></p></div> - -<p>Italian spearheads do not suggest so much connection with -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>[pg 100]</span> -Mycenaean types. Some of them are narrow, but most have broad -and strongly-curving blades which spring sharply from the sockets -(No. <span class="bhead">260</span>; fig. 100). A spearhead from Sicily is remarkable for -its great size (No. <span class="bhead">261</span>): it is thirty-five -inches long.</p> - -<p>The rest of the arms belong to the historical period. The usual -weapons of the Greeks were the spear and sword. The bow was a special -arm, which did not form part of the equipment of the ordinary soldier, -and its use, like that of the sling, was practised by men of certain -districts, who served as mercenaries to other states. The axe was a -barbarous weapon, and is generally represented in the hands of -Amazons, who brought their mode of warfare from the wilds of Scythia -(see fig. 109).</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Greek swords.</span>—The -earliest Greek swords in this collection date from the tenth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, -when iron was fast taking the place of bronze; but forms common in the Bronze Age were still reproduced in -iron, just as those peculiar to stone implements were for some time -preserved in bronze. This conservative tendency is noticeable in three -iron swords, of which two are from Cyprus (Nos. <span class="bhead">262</span>, <span class="bhead">263</span>; fig. -101<em>b</em>). They reproduce the general form of the bronze sword from -Enkomi in the same island (No. <span class="bhead">250</span>; fig. 96). A short iron dagger is -similar to the common Mycenaean type (No. <span class="bhead">264</span>; fig. 101<em>a</em>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/100-320.png"><img src="images/100-100.png" width="100" height="456" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 101.—Iron Swords, showing the Survival of Mycenaean Types (Nos. 263-4).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<p>The ordinary Greek sword of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> is represented by -three examples. The type appears frequently in works of art. On a vase -in the Third Vase Room (E 468; Pedestal 6) there is a drawing of the -combat of Achilles and Memnon, in which Memnon is armed with this sword. In the sheath -by his side is another, so that it is possible to see both hilt and -blade at once (fig. 102). The shape is entirely different from that of -prehistoric times. The hilt is round and the pommel a small knob, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>[pg 101]</span> -while the guard is a plain crosspiece. The blade, which, being made -of iron, is long and thin, swells from the hilt towards the point in the -manner characteristic of the cutting sword. All these features are -visible in the examples (No. <span class="bhead">265</span>; fig. 104<em>a</em>, <em>b</em>). The -swelling blade is best seen in the largest specimen, while the iron-handled fragment, -which was excavated from a tomb near the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos, -shows the original form of the hilt. The small dagger -with a bone hilt and the bone end of the scabbard forms part of -a group of weapons which were found on the battlefield of Marathon -(No. <span class="bhead">266</span>; fig. 103). The others are iron spearheads, arrowheads -both of bronze and iron, and leaden slingshot, two of which are -marked with a thunderbolt and the Greek name <em>Zoilos</em>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/101a-1200.png"><img src="images/101a-600.png" width="600" height="219" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 102.—Vase-Painting of the Combat between Achilles and -Memnon, showing the Classical Greek Weapons.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 520px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/101b-1000.png"><img src="images/101b-500.png" width="500" height="288" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 103.—Weapons from the Battlefield of Marathon (No. 266).</span> Ca. 1:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>[pg 102]</span></p> - -<p>Another common type of Greek sword is the heavy knife-like sabre with -a hilt in the shape of a bird's head (No. <span class="bhead">267</span>; fig. 104<i>c</i>). Its -original appearance may be seen on the Athenian bowl already mentioned -on page 80 (fig. 105). The classical name was <em>machaira</em>. Xenophon -recommends it as a cavalry weapon, because of its heavy down-stroke. -This example comes from Spain, where many similar swords have been -found, but the origin of the type is Greek or even Oriental. The -dagger with a cylindrical bronze hilt of which the pommel is a -lynx-head, appears from the style of the decoration to be Graeco-Roman -(No. <span class="bhead">268</span>). Some models in terracotta from Naukratis give the types of -the Hellenistic period (No. <span class="bhead">269</span>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/102a-500.png"><img src="images/102a-200.png" width="200" height="468" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 104.—Greek Iron Swords (Nos. 265, 267).</span> 1:5.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 13em;"><a href="images/102b-790.png"><img src="images/102b-400.png" width="400" height="310" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 105.—The</span> <i>Machaira</i>, <span class="sc">with Hilt in the Shape of a Bird</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 210px;"><a href="images/103-330.png"><img src="images/103-100.png" width="100" height="453" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 106.—Greek Spearheads (Nos. 272-3, 275).</span> About 1:4.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Greek and Roman spears.</span>—Classical spears are represented -by a variety of heads both in bronze and iron. The earliest Greek -type is an iron head found with pottery of the tenth or ninth century -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> in a grave at Assarlik in Asia Minor (No. <span class="bhead">271</span>). Those with -three and four blades are a small class, examples of which came to -light at Olympia, and suggest as a date the end of the sixth century -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>[pg 103]</span> -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">272</span>; fig. 106<em>a</em>). -To the same date may belong the decoratively modelled bronze spear -from Kameiros, and another of plainer design from the same place (No. -<span class="bhead">273</span>; fig. 106<em>b</em>, <em>c</em>), with two from Olympia, and a large iron one -(No. <span class="bhead">274</span>) found with the fine Attic helmet (p. <a href="#page78">78</a>) in Macedonia. A -curious spearhead, or perhaps a butt, from Olympia is shown among the -Greek Inscriptions (p. <a href="#page9">9</a>, No. <span class="bhead">14</span>, fig. 8). Spearbutts are not -uncommon. Some are plain tapered ferrules (No. <span class="bhead">279</span>; fig. 107), others -end in two-pronged forks (Nos. <span class="bhead">280</span>, <span class="bhead">281</span>; fig. 107). The bronze forks -are from Egypt, the iron one (fig. 107, bottom centre) was found on -the bank of the Tiber with the spearheads mentioned below. The -unusually long iron head, which was found in Spain with the iron -<em>machaira</em>, is probably a later Greek form (No. <span class="bhead">275</span>; fig. 106<i>d</i>). -This example exhibits in a high degree the superiority of iron to -bronze. Other iron spearheads are from Italy; some are from the Tiber -(No. <span class="bhead">276</span>). Three specimens, one with remains of the wooden shaft and -the lashing of wire, were found near the village of Talamone on the -west coast of Italy (No. <span class="bhead">277</span>; fig. 108), where in 225 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> the Romans -won a decisive victory over the Gauls, who had marched successfully to -within a few days of Rome, and were returning home with their plunder. -Like the helmets from Kyme and Cannae, and the arms from Marathon, -these spears are relics of one of the famous battles of antiquity. The -Roman soldiers of later times carried spears of a different kind. They -had no thrusting lance, but an extremely heavy weapon, the <em>pilum</em>, -which they threw with great effect at close quarters. The small iron -heads from Licenza (No. <span class="bhead">278</span>) have much the same shape as the head of -the <em>pilum</em>. They probably belonged to light throwing-spears. <span class="pagenum"><a -name="page104" id="page104"></a>[pg 104]</span> The purpose of the long head was -to bend and encumber the enemy after piercing his shield or armour.</p> - -<p class="space-ab"><span class="bhead">Roman swords.</span>—The -collection of swords ends in those which belong to the Roman period. A -fragment of a sword with a heavy iron blade seems too big for the -natives of Italy, and may have been used by a Gaulish invader (No. -<span class="bhead">282</span>). The large sword with a flat guard and an ivory and bronze handle -(No. <span class="bhead">283</span>) is perhaps a Roman <em>gladius</em>, which was afterwards -superseded in the army by a sword of Spanish pattern.</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft clear" style="width: 180px; margin-top: 5em;"><a href="images/104a-570.png"><img src="images/104a-180.png" width="180" height="376" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 107.—Bronze and Iron Spear-Butts -(Nos. 279-81).</span> Ca. 1:5.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/104b-390.png"><img src="images/104b-180.png" width="180" height="461" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 108.—Iron Spearheads from -Talamone (No. 277).</span> About 1:4.</p></div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>[pg 105]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/105-1040.png"><img src="images/105-320.png" width="320" height="461" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 109.—Roman Legionary Sword and Scabbard found at Mainz -(No. 284).</span> 1:4. Reliefs, 2:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>[pg 106]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/106-1000.png"><img src="images/106-500.png" width="500" height="466" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 110.—Greek and Cypriote Bronze arrowheads -(Nos. 290, 288).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>The later Roman sword is excellently represented by the so-called -"Sword of Tiberius," which was found in a field at Mainz on the -Rhine (No. <span class="bhead">284</span>; fig. 109). The short iron blade is of the usual -type, measuring twenty-one inches in length and two and a half -in width at the base, from whence it tapers gently to a sharp point. -The scabbard was made of wood covered with a plate of silver-gilt -which is decorated with reliefs in gilt bronze. The plates of the -bands which were hooked to the sword-belt are ornamented with -wreaths of oak. At the hilt is a group which represents the Emperor -Tiberius receiving his nephew Germanicus on the latter's return, in -the year 17 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, from his victorious campaigns against the Germans, -in the course of which he had recovered one of the legionary eagles -which Varus had lost. The emperor, robed as a deity, is seated on -a throne, resting his left arm on a shield which is inscribed - <span class="sans">FELICITAS · TIBERI</span>—"The Good Fortune of Tiberius"—and holding in his -right hand a small figure of Victory with wreath and palm, which -he has just taken from his returning general. Germanicus stands -before him in military attire, with his right hand stretched out. -In the background is an armed figure, and behind the emperor a -winged Victory brings a shield upon which is the legend <span class="sans">VIC · AVG</span>—"The -Victory of Augustus." The middle of the scabbard is -occupied by a medallion charged with a portrait of Tiberius, and at -the point is a larger plate which is divided into two fields. The -uppermost has a representation of a Roman eagle in a temple, and -in the other is an Amazon armed with battle-axe and lance. It -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>[pg 107]</span> -might not be wrong to connect the eagle with that of Varus; and -the figure of the Amazon calls to mind the ode of Horace -(<i>Carm.</i> iv. 4) celebrating the success of Drusus, the father of this -Germanicus, against the Germans of the Danube, in which the poet -expresses surprise that those barbarians should be armed with the -Amazonian axe. Perhaps the next generation attributed this -legendary weapon also to the Germans of the Rhine, and the -Amazon is an allusion to the campaigns which the sword commemorates. -From the contrast of the elaboration of the design -with the cheapness of the execution, it would seem that the weapon -is one of many copies which were turned out for some official -purpose, probably a sword of honour presented to officers who had -served with Germanicus.</p> - -<p>Other remains of Roman swords are less complete. There are -several fragments of scabbards, a bronze guard, two ivory pieces -which may have been pommels of the hilt or caps of the sheath, -and a good specimen of an entire hilt in bone (No. <span class="bhead">285</span>). This is -very similar to the classical Greek pattern.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/107-930.png"><img src="images/107-500.png" width="500" height="214" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 111.—Roman Arrowheads (No. 293).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Sling-shot and arrowheads.</span>—Weapons which show little -difference of form in Greek or Roman times are the sling-shot (No. -<span class="bhead">286</span>) and arrowheads. Sling-shot are mostly cast in lead, but some -are of bronze and stone. The inscribed sling-bolts from Marathon -have already been mentioned, and others similarly bear inscriptions -in raised letters: a personal name, of the maker or the general or -the slinger; or the name of the state from whose army it was shot—"From -the Corinthians"; or a message to the bullet or to the -enemy—"Strike hard," and "Take this." A large bronze arrowhead -from Olynthus (No. <span class="bhead">291</span>) bears the name of Philip, probably -the father of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian king against -whom Demosthenes wrote his Olynthiac and Philippic orations.</p> - -<p>Some of the arrowheads have already been described, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>[pg 108]</span> -Mycenaean from Rhodes (No. <span class="bhead">252</span>; fig. 98), and those from -Marathon (No. <span class="bhead">266</span>; fig. 103). The large iron heads with knife-like -blade and long tang are Oriental (No. <span class="bhead">287</span>); those from -Marathon were no doubt used by Persian bowmen. A similar -group from Cyprus, but of bronze, shows long square heads (No. -<span class="bhead">288</span>; fig. 110, top, right). A bundle of six bronze arrowheads of -broad leaf shape, found in a grave at Enkomi in Cyprus, has rusted -together as the arrows lay in the quiver, remains of which and of -the wooden shafts can still be seen (No. <span class="bhead">289</span>). Greek examples -belong to two classes; they are all made of bronze. The commoner -class has sockets and blades like miniature spearheads; (No. <span class="bhead">290</span>; -fig. 110). Many of these have three blades; the large inscribed -head from Olynthus (No. <span class="bhead">291</span>) is of this shape, but barbed. Another -variety, which always has barbs, is triangular with a central hole -for the shaft. The second class consists of heavy heads with long -barbs and tangs (No. <span class="bhead">292</span>). These appear to be related to a -Mycenaean form (see fig. 98), and as they are often represented on -coins of Crete, they may perhaps be identified as the arrows of the -Cretan bow. The Roman period is represented by six iron arrowheads -from Xanten (<em>Castra Vetera</em>) on the Rhine. They show the -spearhead and triangular shapes, and are all barbed (No. <span class="bhead">293</span>; -fig. 111).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/108-1000.png"><img src="images/108-400.png" width="400" height="303" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 112.—Bone Calthrop from the Crimea (No. 296).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>Such is the regular series of classical weapons. Exceptional -pieces are the bronze double-axe (No. <span class="bhead">294</span>), if this can be called a -weapon, the ridged mace-head from Rome (No. <span class="bhead">295</span>), and the calthrop -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>[pg 109]</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">296</span>; fig. 112), a contrivance for disabling cavalry. This -singular object, which was found at Kertch in the Crimea, is cut from -a human radius bone.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -The bronze weapons are more fully described in the <i>Catalogue of Bronzes</i> -under the numbers painted on the objects.</p> - -<p>(269) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, C 629 ff.; (271) <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, -VIII., p. 64; (284) <i>Proc. Soc. Ant. Lond.</i>, N.S. III., p. 358; <i>Cat. of -Bronzes</i>, 867; (289) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 17, fig. 28; (296) McPherson, -<i>Antiq. Kertch</i>, p. 101. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote40" name="footnote40"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag40">40:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Targeioi anethen tôi Diwi tôn Korinthothen.">Τἀργεῖοι -ἀνέθεν -τῶι Διϝὶ τῶν -Κορινθόθεν.</ins></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>X.—HOUSE AND FURNITURE.<a name="page109a" id="page109a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 25-40.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Cases 25-40 contain furniture, lamps and lamp-stands, cooking -utensils, objects used in connection with the bath, and objects -illustrating the methods of heating buildings and supplying them -with water. With the house itself, its plan and its appearance we -are not concerned in this work. It is enough to say that the -fundamental distinction between the ancient and modern house is -that the one looked inwards, the other looks outwards. The -ancient house received its light and air either from the open courtyard, -round which it was built, or else from a large aperture in the -roof. The former was the prevailing arrangement in Greece, the -latter (in the earlier period) that adopted in Italy. The outside -of the average Greek house was probably very destitute of architectural -ornament, presenting a wide space of blank wall broken but -by few windows.</p> - -<p>The Roman house in its final development assumed a form -closely resembling that of the Greek house just described. At an -early period it was based on the early Italian house. This consisted -merely of an oblong chamber, with a small opening in the roof for -the admission of light and emission of smoke. This chamber was -called an <em>atrium</em>, perhaps because walls and roof were black (<em>ater</em>) -with soot from the smoke of the fire. Gradually the opening in the -roof became larger. Rain fell in the centre into a basin called the -<em>impluvium</em>. The <em>atrium</em> lost its character as a living room, and -further courts and rooms in the Greek manner were added to it.</p> - -<p>We may now deal with the internal arrangements and the -furniture. The objects may be described as they concern (1) the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>[pg 110]</span> -general furniture of the house; (2) the lighting; (3) the kitchen; -(4) the bath; (5) water supply; (6) the warming. (7) Annexed is -a small type-series of vases.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">The Furniture of the house.</span>—In the nature of things, -wooden furniture rarely occurs outside Egypt, except in South -Russia. Thus we have a wooden table leg: a dog springs -upward, from an acanthus leaf, surmounting an animal's leg -(No. <span class="bhead">300</span>). This comes from Kertch in the Crimea. In general, the -remains of furniture shown in this section are the metal accessories -and fittings. These are for the most part of Roman date, but -Roman furniture was so largely derived from the Greek, that they -may be regarded as illustrating Greek furniture as well.</p> - -<p>Some remarkable examples of bolster-ends in bronze, bronze -inlaid with silver, and ivory, are shown in Cases 27, 28. They -usually terminate above in a head of a mule, or of a duck, and -below in a medallion bust.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/110-1000.png"><img src="images/110-500.png" width="500" height="143" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 113.—Bronze Couch (Restored).</span></p></div> - -<p>The seat (No. <span class="bhead">301</span>) is incorrectly put together. It is composed -of the parts of one or two couches which should be restored as in -fig. 113.</p> - -<p>Below is a small bronze stool (No. <span class="bhead">302</span>), without arms or back, -of a type not uncommon at Pompeii. Two tripods with expanding -legs are placed in the bottom of Cases 27-28. One of these -(No. <span class="bhead">303</span>) has an arrangement similar to that of the candelabrum -No. <span class="bhead">307</span>, whereby it could be heightened at will. These tripods -were used as small tables. Of a much older period is the fragment -(No. <span class="bhead">304</span>) from the leg of a large bronze tripod, from Palaekastro -in Crete.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Lighting.</span>—In Cases 25, and 28, 29 are placed several candelabra -used either for the support of wicks floating in an oil-bath or for -lamps, or torches. Those stands which have come down to us are -chiefly of bronze, but the cheaper ones in ancient times were made -of wood. Martial, in an epigram, warns the possessor of such a -wooden candelabrum to take care that the whole stand does not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>[pg 111]</span> -turn into one blazing candle.<a id="footnotetag41" name="footnotetag41"></a><a href="#footnote41"><sup>41</sup></a> A primitive example of lamp and -candelabrum shaft combined is shown in No. <span class="bhead">305</span>, (fig. 114), from -Cameiros (about seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>). A female figure, of -columnar form, supports a lamp with three nozzles. The Etruscan -candelabra and many of the candelabra found at Herculaneum -and Pompeii consist of a base in the form of three legs or paws, -very commonly those of lions, a tall stem, and a circular support -or spreading arms for the lamps at the top. The stem may be -fluted, or may be knotted like a stem of a plant, or divided like -a reed. In Roman times another variety is also common, composed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a></span> -of a massive base with three or more spreading arms, from which -lamps were suspended. Such a stand (No. <span class="bhead">306</span>) is seen on the -upper shelf of Cases 29-30. A point which may be specially noted -in regard to some of the bronze stands of the Roman period is the -decoration of the shaft, which often takes the form of a climbing -animal. That shown in fig. 115 (No. <span class="bhead">306*</span>) has a panther, a cock, -and a bearded serpent on the shaft. An ingenious expanding Roman -bronze lampstand (No. <span class="bhead">307</span>) from the Hamilton Collection should -be noticed in the lower part of Case 29. The central rod attached -to the circular lamp-support can be raised at will, and secured in -place by means of a bronze pin passed through one of the pairs of -holes pierced in the side rods.</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/111a-300.png"><img src="images/111a-140.png" width="140" height="452" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 114.—Archaic Lampstand and Lamp in Terracotta (No. 305).</span> Ca. 1:7.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 190px;"><a href="images/111b-330.png"><img src="images/111b-150.png" width="150" height="452" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 115.—Roman Bronze -Lampstand. (No. 306*).</span> 1:4.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; clear: both;"><a href="images/112-570.png"><img src="images/112-300.png" width="300" height="426" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 116.—Bronze Lamp -from Enkomi (No. 308).</span></p></div> - -<p class="space-above2">The lamps themselves (in Cases 31 and 32) are of terracotta, bronze -and marble. The greater number are of the Roman period. One of the -earliest is a primitive lamp (No. <span class="bhead">308</span>; fig. 116) of the prehistoric -period known as Mycenaean, and was found in the course of the Museum -excavations at Enkomi in Cyprus. It was thrust, by its spike, into the -masonry joints of a built tomb, and must have had a wick floating in -the oil, or supported at the spout. The essential parts of a lamp in -the developed form are (1) the well for the oil, formed by the body of -the lamp and fed from an opening above; in the bronze lamps this -opening is covered by means of a lid, sometimes hinged, sometimes -secured by a chain, as in No. <span class="bhead">309</span>, fig. 117; (2) the nozzle for the -insertion of the wick. The nozzle generally takes the form of a -projecting spout, but the arrangement varies very considerably in -different lamps, and a single lamp is often furnished with several -nozzles. The lamps might either be simply placed on a candelabrum or -else suspended from it. Several of the bronze lamps have chains for -the latter purpose (No. <span class="bhead">309</span>; fig. 117). A peculiar bronze hook, of -which there are several examples in these cases, was sometimes used in -the Roman period for hanging up the lamps; in the example illustrated -(No. <span class="bhead">310</span>; fig. 118) it is seen hinged to the lamp in such a way that -the lamp could be suspended, supported from the ground, or carried in -any way desired.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>[pg 113]</span></p> - -<div class="centerp clear"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 230px;"><a href="images/113a-450.png"><img src="images/113a-210.png" width="210" height="464" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 117—Roman Bronze Hanging-Lamp -(No. 309).</span> Ca. 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/113b-200.png"><img src="images/113b-90.png" width="90" height="449" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 118.—Roman Bronze Lamp -with Hook for Suspension (No. 310).</span> Ca. 1:3.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">The numerous Graeco-Roman bronze lamps in these cases show -a great variety of form. Heads of Seilenos, Pan, negroes, etc., -appear side by side with a fir-cone, a foot, a duck, a snail, or a wolf. -The handles often terminate in an animal's head, <i>e.g.</i>, that of a -horse, a dog, a lion, or a swan (cf. fig. 117). A fine example, with -a tragic mask on the handle (No. <span class="bhead">311</span>; fig. 119) was found at Rome -in 1912. But the choicest example of a bronze lamp will be found -in the Bronze Room (Case B). It is a double lamp for suspension, -and was found in the Roman Baths at Paris. A silver lamp with -Heracles strangling the serpents, on a boat-shaped cradle (No. <span class="bhead">312</span>), -is shown in Case 29. The cheaper terracotta lamps are freely -decorated with designs taken from daily life or mythology. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>[pg 114]</span> -Numerous specimens of these lamps will be seen in Table-Case B -in the Fourth Vase Room. A very elaborate example (No. <span class="bhead">313</span>) in -the form of a ship is seen here in the bottom of Case 30. The -twenty-three holes for wicks and filling should be noted. The -lamp fillers, as may be seen from the bronze specimen exhibited, -closely resembled the lamps themselves (No. <span class="bhead">314</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/114-1000.png"><img src="images/114-500.png" width="500" height="393" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 119.—Roman Bronze Lamp. Tragic Mask (No. 311).</span></p></div> - -<p>Candlesticks are rare. In the Etruscan candelabra (Nos. <span class="bhead">315</span>, -<span class="bhead">316</span>; Bronze Room Cases 57-60) projecting spikes seem to be -intended for piercing candles, as shown by a tomb painting at -Orvieto (fig. 120; see Bronze Room, Case 60). Two candlesticks -of modern type (which rarely occurs) are shown in Case 30 (No. <span class="bhead">317</span>; -fig. 121).</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/115a-170.png"><img src="images/115a-80.png" width="80" height="455" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 120.—Etruscan -Candle Holder, from a tomb fresco.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 220px; margin-top: 5em;"><a href="images/115b-420.png"><img src="images/115b-200.png" width="200" height="380" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 121.—Bronze Candlestick from Syria (No. 317).</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">Besides lamps and candles, lanterns were also largely in use, -especially for outdoor purposes. Such a portable Roman lantern -(in Case 32) is here illustrated (No. <span class="bhead">318</span>; fig. 122). It is cylindrical -in shape and has a hemispherical cover, which could be raised from -the body of the lantern. The latter was enclosed with plates of -some transparent material such as horn, bladder, or linen. That -talc was also used is shown by the fact that several of the lanterns -in the Museum at Naples have their walls made of this material. -Just below the lantern is a small bronze statuette, which has formed -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>[pg 115]</span> -the body of a knife (No. <span class="bhead">319</span>). A grotesque figure is walking with -a lantern in his right hand, and a basket slung over his shoulders. -It was found at Behnesa, in Egypt, and probably represents a -bird-catcher returning in the evening with his spoils. The lantern -carried by him very closely resembles the one described above.</p> - -<p>Cheaper forms of perforated clay lanterns are also exhibited -(No. <span class="bhead">320</span>; fig. 123).</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;"><a href="images/116a-460.png"><img src="images/116a-180.png" width="180" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 122.—Bronze Lantern -(No. 318).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 320px; margin-top: 6em;"><a href="images/116b-610.png"><img src="images/116b-300.png" width="300" height="380" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 123.—Earthenware -Lantern (No. 320).</span></p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear"><span class="bhead">The Kitchen.</span>—Cases 33-36 contain cooking implements and remains -of ancient fruit and grain. The vessels give a good idea of the -furniture of a Pompeian kitchen, although there is no example of the -more elaborate contrivances for preparing hot drinks and keeping food -warm, such as have been found at Pompeii, and may be seen in the -Museum at Naples.</p> - -<p>The kitchen implements arranged in these cases do not differ -materially from those in modern use, except that they are made of -bronze, and frequently have some graceful and appropriate -ornamentation. One or two of the objects call for special remark. On -the second shelf from the bottom of Case 34 is an implement with a -long handle and a rectangular pan furnished with six circular -depressions (No. <span class="bhead">321</span>). A circular pan with twenty-eight such -depressions was found at Pompeii, and is now at Naples. These pans -were probably used either for baking cakes or frying eggs.</p> - -<p>In Case 36, on the same shelf as the pan for baking cakes, is a bronze -frying-pan (No. <span class="bhead">322</span>), with a spout at one corner. Instead of butter, -fat, or dripping, the Romans, like the inhabitants of southern -countries at the present day, were accustomed to use oil in frying. -The shelf above the pans is occupied with ladles, dippers, and other -implements. The handles of the ladles usually terminate in a -beautifully modelled head of an animal, such as that of a <span class="pagenum"><a -name="page116" id="page116"></a>[pg 116]</span> duck, swan, or dog. One wine -dipper (No. <span class="bhead">323</span>) is hinged so as to fold for the pocket. On the next -shelf above are two painted plates of about the beginning of the third -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> They belong to a well marked class (cf. Fourth Vase Room, -Cases 26-7) of plates of Campanian fabric, distinguished by the fish -and other marine creatures painted upon them. It is probable that they -were intended for the serving of fish. Of the two examples shown in -this case one (No. <span class="bhead">324</span>) is decorated with a sea-perch, a sargus (a -fish peculiar to the Mediterranean), and a torpedo, the other (No. -<span class="bhead">325</span>; fig. 124) with a red mullet, a bass, a sargus, and a cuttlefish.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;"><a href="images/117-1000.png"><img src="images/117-460.png" width="460" height="463" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 124.—Fish-Plate (No. 325).</span> Diam. 8<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>The strainers (No. <span class="bhead">326</span>), with perforated designs, on the right of Case -36, were used for clearing wine and other liquids. In Cases 36, 37 are -bronze moulds for shaping food in the form of shells.</p> - -<p>Some remains of ancient walnuts, grain, and fragments of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>[pg 117]</span> -calcined bread from Pompeii, and a black cup from Rhodes, -containing eggs, are shown in the middle shelf of Case 35.</p> - -<p>The process of bread-making is illustrated by the terracottas -shown in this case. One (No. <span class="bhead">327</span>) from Kameiros in Rhodes -represents a woman kneading dough on a board placed in a circular -trough resting on three legs. Another (No. <span class="bhead">328</span>), of much rougher -workmanship, shows a bearded man engaged in a like occupation. -A third (No. <span class="bhead">329</span>) shows a woman kneading in front of the oven. -A small terracotta model of an oven shows two cakes baking -(No. <span class="bhead">330</span>).</p> - -<p>In antiquity knives and forks were little used at table, fingers -being mainly employed. Only one three-pronged fork (No. <span class="bhead">331</span>) -is here shown. Spoons, however, were common, and a considerable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>[pg 118]</span> -number of ancient spoons (No. <span class="bhead">332</span>) are exhibited in Case 36. -The series of large ivory spoons with elaborately ornamented -handles belong to an early period, a similar one coming from the -Polledrara tomb at Vulci in Etruria, of the seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -The small spoons in bronze or ivory, with round head and handle -running to a point, were probably used for the eating of eggs and -the extraction of snails from their shells. Snails were a favourite -dish with the Romans, and the spoon got its name (<em>cochleare</em>) from -being employed in this way.<a id="footnotetag42" name="footnotetag42"></a><a href="#footnote42"><sup>42</sup></a></p> - -<p>In the lower part of Case 36 are examples of pestles and mortars -(No. <span class="bhead">333</span>). The pestle usually takes the form of a bent thumb, -or of a leg and foot.</p> - -<p>In early times cooking was done either in the courtyard of the house -or in the principal living-room. Pompeian houses are, however, -generally provided with separate kitchens, small rooms opening off the -court of the peristyle. The hearth is a simple rectangular structure -of masonry, sometimes furnished with projecting supports for holding -vessels over the fire. Much, however, of the warming and working was -done over small braziers, such as are shown on a small scale, and by a -model, in the lower part of Case 36. The terracotta braziers are of -characteristic form, with three internal projecting knobs to support -the cooking vessel. These are generally ornamented with masks of -Hephaestos, Satyrs, or the like (No. <span class="bhead">334</span>). Compare examples in the -Terracotta Room (<i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, p. xix., C 863 ff). See also -in Case 36 a terracotta food warmer, from Olbia, in the form of a -shrine (No. <span class="bhead">335</span>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/118-510.png"><img src="images/118-250.png" width="250" height="446" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 125.—Athlete -using Strigil.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;"><a href="images/119-900.png"><img src="images/119-380.png" width="380" height="468" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 126.—Bronze Strigils and Oil-Flask (No. 337).</span> Ca. 2:7.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">The Bath.</span>—Certain implements shown in Case 37 illustrate -the routine of the bath, which occupied a large place in the life both -of the Greeks and Romans. Celsus, who wrote on the art of -medicine probably early in the first century after Christ, recommended -the bather first to go into the moderately heated room -(<em>tepidarium</em>), and perspire slightly, then to anoint himself and to -pass into the hot air room. After perspiring there he was to pour -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>[pg 119]</span> -hot, warm, and cold water alternately over his head, then to scrape -himself with the strigil, and finally to anoint himself—the last -probably a precaution against taking cold. This description will -enable us to understand the use of the implements carried by -bathers. Of these the strigil is most important. It was a curved -piece of metal, usually bronze, but sometimes iron, employed by -athletes for removing dust and oil after exercise, and by bathers -for scraping away sweat and dirt. The accompanying figure -(fig. 125), drawn from a Greek vase of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, shows -an athlete resting after exercise, and about to use the strigil. Some -times a strigil, oil-flask, and sponge are seen on vases, suspended -from the wall of the <em>palaestra</em> where youths are exercising. In -Case 37 a small lekythos (No. <span class="bhead">336</span>) shows an athlete with a strigil, -and an impression from a gem illustrates the method of using that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>[pg 120]</span> -implement. The strigils here seen range in date from about the -sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> to the third century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> Many of them are -inscribed with the name of their owners, and some have small -figures, <i>e.g.</i>, a man dancing or a horse galloping, stamped upon -them. Two strigils which deserve special mention are the silver -one found in the sarcophagus of the Etruscan lady, Seianti Hanunia -(second century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>), and exhibited with that sarcophagus in the -Terracotta Room, and the beautiful bronze ornamental strigil in -the Bronze Room (Pedestal 3), with the handle in the form of a -girl herself using the strigil. A complete bather's outfit of Roman -date (No. <span class="bhead">337</span>), found near Düsseldorf, includes two bronze strigils -and an oil-flask attached by rings to a handle (fig. 126), and several -glass vases for use in the toilet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/120-1000.png"><img src="images/120-500.png" width="500" height="357" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 127.—Section of Roman Bronze Pump from Bolsena (No. -338).</span> 1:5.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Water Supply.</span>—A few objects in Cases 38-39 illustrate the -methods of water-supply among the Romans, which are characterised -by their completeness and excellence. The remains of -two Roman double-action pumps in bronze from Bolsena in Etruria -(Nos. <span class="bhead">338</span>, <span class="bhead">339</span>; figs. 127, 128) are of special interest. These are -constructed on a principle invented by Ktesibios of Alexandria, -who probably lived in the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> They were worked -by alternating plungers, raised and lowered by a rocking-beam. -The first illustration (fig. 127) shows the less advanced but more -complete pump in section, and explains the method, of working. -The bottoms of the cylinders (A) were connected by pipes with -the reservoir, and are furnished with flap-valves (B), opening -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>[pg 121]</span> -upwards. When the plunger (C) was raised, a vacuum was created, -and the water lifted the valve and rushed in. When the plunger -was raised to its highest point the valve fell again and retained the -water; when the plunger descended it forced the water from the -cylinder into the central discharge pipe through another flap-valve -(D) at the end of the horizontal pipe. BD in the figure shows -the structure of the flap-valves, which the Greeks called <ins title="Greek: assaria"> -ἀσσάρια</ins> -("pennies") from their likeness to coins. F is a complete plunger -of the same type as those used in the pump illustrated, but not -belonging to it. Only two-thirds of the second pump (No. <span class="bhead">339</span>) -survive, but the missing part (marked off in the diagram by a dotted -line) is supplied in the section (fig. 128). In this example the more -advanced spindle valve takes the place of the flap valves, and the -two valves side by side open into a central domed chamber, in -place of the simple central cylinder of No. <span class="bhead">338</span>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 530px;"><a href="images/121-1000.png"><img src="images/121-500.png" width="500" height="438" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 128.—Section of second Roman Bronze Pump, from Bolsena -(No. 339).</span></p></div> - -<p>There are here several jets and spouts for the emission of water, -one (No. <span class="bhead">339</span>) in the form of a pine-cone, pierced with small holes -for sending out a spray, others in the form of dolphins (No. <span class="bhead">340</span>) -and the fore-part of a horse (No. <span class="bhead">341</span>). The bronze stop-cocks -seen in Case 39 were used for controlling the flow of water -from the cisterns to the various parts of the house. They were -inserted in the lead water-pipes, portions of which still adhere -to them. Their arrangement is excellently illustrated by those -discovered at the Roman villa at Boscoreale, near Pompeii (see -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>[pg 122]</span> -<i>Mon. Ant.</i> vii., p. 454, fig. 45<i>a</i>). See also a gargoyle in the form -of a lion for rain water (No. <span class="bhead">342</span>), and a bronze grating from the -Mausoleum of Halikarnassos (No. <span class="bhead">343</span>) for draining it away. -Various lead supply pipes and clay drain pipes are shown in case 39.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Heating.</span>—In early times houses were heated by means of a -large open hearth placed in the middle of the principal room, whence -the smoke escaped as it might, through the door, or between the roof -beams. Next followed the use of portable braziers in bronze, such -as have been found in Etruscan tombs from the seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -(cf. Italic Room, Cases B, C). The small braziers used for cooking, -etc., in the Hellenistic period have been mentioned above, p. <a href="#page118">118</a>. -A system of heating by hot air was introduced by the Romans, but -was used chiefly for the warming of baths. For the general heating -of houses such an arrangement was, until about the third century -<span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> exceptional, and Seneca, writing in the first century -<span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> -regards it as an enervating luxury. Several examples of Roman -terracotta flue-tiles (No. <span class="bhead">344</span>) for the transmission of hot air are -seen in the bottom of Cases 39, 40.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Shapes of Vases.</span>—Case 40 contains a small type-series of -the leading shapes of Greek vases, intended to teach the names -current in archaeology (No. <span class="bhead">345</span>).</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(300) Cf. <i>Ant. du Bosph. Cimm.</i>, pl. 81, where a restoration of a table -with a leg of this kind is shown; (301) The couch in fig. 113 is after the -restoration of a couch from Boscoreale, given in <i>Arch. Anzeiger</i>, 1900, -p. 178; (304) Cf. Furtwaengler, <i>Olympia, IV.</i>, (<i>Die Bronzen</i>), pls. 28, 34; -(305) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 137; (308) <i>ibid.</i>, 1; (309) <i>ibid.</i>, 66; (310) <i>ibid.</i>, -97; (312) <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, XXVIII., pl. 33; (313) <i>Cat. of -Lamps</i>, 390; (314) <i>ibid.</i>, 1437; (318) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 1435; (320) -<i>ibid.</i>, 1511; (323) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, fig. 148, No. 4; (324, 325) -<i>Cat. of Vases</i>, IV., F 259 and F 267; (338-339) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 2573-4; -(343) Newton, <i>Hist. Disc.</i>, II., p. 143.</p> - -<p>On the Greek house generally, see Daremberg and Saglio s.v. <i>Domus</i> -and B. C. Rider, <i>The Greek House</i>. On the Roman house, see Daremberg -and Saglio, <i>loc. cit.</i>, and Mau-Kelsey, <i>Pompeii</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote41" name="footnote41"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag41">41:</a> -Martial, xiv. 44:</p> -<div class="poem2 width21"><div class="stanza"> -<p>Esse vides lignum; serves nisi lumina, fiet</p> -<p class="i2">De candelabro magna lucerna tibi.</p> - </div></div> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote42" name="footnote42"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag42">42:</a> -Cf. Martial, xiv. 121:</p> -<div class="poem2 width21"><div class="stanza"> -<p>Sum cochleis habilis, sed nec minus utilis ovis:</p> -<p class="i2">Numquid scis potius cur cochleare vocer?</p> - </div></div> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XI.—DRESS AND TOILET.<a name="page122a" id="page122a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case F.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 270px; margin-top: -2em;"><a href="images/123a-550.png"><img src="images/123a-270.png" width="270" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 129.—Diagram illustrating the Arrangement of the Dorian</span> <em>Chiton</em>.</p></div> - -<div class="container_left"> -<p>The objects connected with the toilet in Case F are those -accessories in metal and other materials that have been -preserved. The actual fashion of the dress of the Greeks and -Romans can be best studied elsewhere—in the Vase Rooms, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>[pg 123]</span> -Room of Terracottas, and the Sculpture Galleries. A few words -only need be said here as to the principal varieties of costume.</p> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Greek Female Dress.</span>—The very singular and modern-looking dress -of the Minoan ladies may be seen in the facsimiles of Cretan -statuettes and carvings in the First Vase Room.</p> - -<p class="space-above2">The earliest dress of women which is represented in the art of -historical Greece is that which was known as the Dorian <em>chiton</em>, or -tunic. It was an oblong sheet of woollen cloth, measuring rather more -than the height of the wearer, and about twice the span of her arms. -This blanket was folded as shown in the annexed diagram (fig. 129). -The tunic then fell into position about the figure, leaving the arms -bare, as in the illustration, which is taken from a toilet-box (E 772) -in the Third Vase Room (fig. 130). The dress in its simplest form was -now complete, but as one side of it was open, a girdle was usually -worn to keep the edges together. At Sparta, where Dorian manners were -preserved in their primitive severity, the side remained open. -Elsewhere it was partially or completely sewn up.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 8em;"><a href="images/123b-1200.png"><img src="images/123b-500.png" width="500" height="314" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 130.—The Dorian</span> <em>Chiton</em>.</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>[pg 124]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 260px;"><a href="images/124-550.png"><img src="images/124-260.png" width="260" height="468" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 131.—The Ionian</span> <em>Chiton</em>.</p></div> - -<div class="container_right1"> -<p class="space-above3">About the beginning of the 6th century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> the Ionian chiton was -introduced into Greece from Asia Minor, and became the ordinary -undergarment of women, in Italy as well as Greece, throughout the -classical period. It was in effect a loosely-fitting dress with wide -sleeves, girt at the waist. Being of fine linen instead of wool, a -mantle or wrap was worn over it to make up for the thinness of the -cloth. This construction is plainly shown in a drawing on the inside -of a cup (E 44) by the potter Euphronios, which represents a woman -busy with the knot of her girdle (fig. 131). The material was soft and -heavy, yet thin and transparent enough to reveal the form of the -figure beneath it. It is only in a dressing scene, such as this, that -the Ionian chiton is represented alone. Otherwise a mantle -(<em>himation</em>) was worn in addition. These mantles were of various -shapes and sizes, though always rectangular, and their arrangement did -not follow any fixed rule. Distinct fashions, however, in the wearing -of the over-mantle can be remarked at certain periods. Thus, when the -Ionian dress first came into use at Athens, an extraordinary -elaboration was cultivated, the folds being arranged with such -precision as to suggest that the garment is not a rectangular wrap, -but a made-up shawl artificially pressed and gathered. This style of -dress is best known from a large series of statues which were -discovered in excavations on the Acropolis of Athens. They are relics -of the city which was destroyed by the Persians in 480 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and give -an accurate date for the prevalence of the fashion. The type is -represented in a statuette in the Bronze Room (fig. 132): the lady -stands in an attitude of archaic severity, and holds up with her left -hand the skirt of the soft Ionian chiton which is underneath the -shawl.</p> - -<p class="space-below3">The outer garment was afterwards larger than this, as well as -more simply arranged. Often the whole figure was wrapped in the -mantle, which was also drawn over the mouth and the back of the -head. This heavy style was favoured in the fourth and third -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>[pg 125]</span> -centuries <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and constantly appears in the most numerous products -of that period, the terracotta statuettes from Tanagra and -elsewhere. Fig. 133 is from one of these, and others in the Terracotta -Room show very clearly the beautiful and varied draperies -of the himation.</p> -</div> - -<div class="centerp clear"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/125a-380.png"><img src="images/125a-150.png" width="150" height="464" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 132.—Greek Bronze Statuette, -illustrating an Early Fashion of Women's Dress.</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"><a href="images/125b-430.png"><img src="images/125b-170.png" width="170" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 133.—Terracotta Statuette -of a Lady of the Hellenistic Period.</span> 1:2.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear"><span class="bhead">Greek Male Dress.</span>—A dress worn in early times was a tunic -falling to the feet, with or without the mantle. It continued in use as a -ceremonial and festal attire of elderly men, minstrels and charioteers. -It is illustrated in a drawing of Peleus by the vase-painter Amasis (?) -(fig. 134), in which the soft texture of the long white Ionian chiton is -indicated by wavy lines, and the heavy mantle hangs stiffly across -the shoulders. Subsequently the long tunic was discarded, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>[pg 126]</span> -either a short form of the same garment, which had been in use -before for outdoor exercise, was adopted in its place, or the outer -cloak was worn alone. The short tunic was worn as before by -men engaged in active pursuits, and by boys, workmen and slaves. -A common fashion of wearing it was to fasten the shoulder on one -side only, so that the right arm and breast were free for violent -movement. A series of statuettes in the Bronze Room represents -the blacksmith god Hephaestos in this working garb (fig. 135). -The ordinary costume of the citizen was the himation or a mantle of -smaller size. With this the right shoulder was usually left free, as -with the tunic; it is the common dress of men on the red-figure -Athenian vases (see the Third Vase Room), from one of which (E 61) the -illustration is taken (fig. 136). Men of leisure or high rank affected -a more elaborate arrangement of the himation, by which the whole body -was enveloped and the free movement of the hands impeded. The statue -of Sophokles in the Lateran Museum at Rome is a good example of the -care which a cultivated man of the fifth century bestowed upon the -adjustment of this garment (fig. 137).</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/126a-260.png"><img src="images/126a-150.png" width="150" height="464" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 134.—Peleus wearing the Ionian</span> <em>Chiton</em>.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 290px;"><a href="images/126b-500.png"><img src="images/126b-230.png" width="230" height="462" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 135.—Bronze Statuette of Hephaestos, wearing the Short</span> <em>Chiton</em>. 2:5.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">Other mantles were of various sizes and were distinguished by -many names. The <em>chlamys</em> was the smallest, and differed from the -rest also in shape, though its scheme was still rectangular. It was -rather longer in proportion to its width, and was clasped round the -neck by a brooch. Its origin was in Thessaly, where it was the cape -of the native horsemen, and it continued to be used for this purpose -in the rest of Greece. Young men wore it, especially when riding, -and it was a light and convenient dress for travellers. A young -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>[pg 127]</span> -horseman on a cup by the painter Euphronios (fig. 138) has a gaily -embroidered chlamys hung evenly across his shoulders, and underneath -is seen the skirt of the short chiton.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Roman Dress.</span>—The dress of Roman women was the same -as that of the Greeks of the Hellenistic period, who are vividly -portrayed in the terracotta statuettes (fig. 133). Their undergarment -was the Ionian chiton, now called <i>tunica</i>, of which two -were sometimes worn together, and the overmantle was the Greek -himation, by its Roman name, <i>palla</i>.</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 240px;"><a href="images/127a-520.png"><img src="images/127a-240.png" width="240" height="455" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 136.—Man wearing the</span> <i>Himation</i>. (From a vase of Hieron.)</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/127b-415.png"><img src="images/127b-190.png" width="190" height="458" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 137.—Statue of Sophokles wearing the</span> <i>Himation</i>.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">For men there was also a tunic similar to that worn by the -Greeks; but in place of the himation the Roman <i>toga</i> was worn, -a garment of entirely different shape. In the relief of a cutler's -shop, which is exhibited in Case 41, the shopman wears the tunic -without a belt, while the customer, who has just come in from the -street, wears the toga as well (fig. 193). In that of the forge, in -Case 48, both the smiths have the tunic alone, with but the right -shoulders unfastened and the skirts girt up to the knee in Greek -fashion (fig. 192; compare fig. 135). Yet the Roman tunic seems -already to have departed from the Greek pattern in having sleeves, -though only to the elbows. Sleeved tunics were not unknown to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>[pg 128]</span> -the Greeks, whose slaves are often represented in this dress; but -it was a foreign habit, and as such avoided.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"><a href="images/128a-1000.png"><img src="images/128a-470.png" width="470" height="460" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 138.—A Horseman wearing the</span> <i>Chlamys</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/128b-940.png"><img src="images/128b-450.png" width="450" height="173" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 139.—Diagram illustrating the Shape of the Toga.</span></p></div> - -<p>The shape of the toga was roughly semicircular, the straight -edge being about six yards long and the width in the middle about -two yards, as in the diagram (fig. 139). The simplest mode of -putting it on was to place one end on the left shoulder, with the -straight edge nearest the centre of the body and the point almost -touching the ground. The left hand would be just covered by the -curved edge. The rest was then passed behind the back, over or -under the right arm, and over the left shoulder again, so that the -point hung almost to the ground behind. This was also a method -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>[pg 129]</span> -of wearing the Greek himation, and it is difficult to distinguish the -two garments when so arranged; but a close examination will -discover the sharp point and the curved edge in the case of the -toga. At the end of the Republic and under the Empire, to which -period most of the monuments belong, more elaborate fashions -were developed, as in fig. 140, from a statuette in the Bronze Room.</p> - -<p>We turn to the accessories of the dress and the toilet in Table -Case F.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/129-960.png"><img src="images/129-450.png" width="450" height="465" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 140.—Bronze Statuette of a Roman wearing Tunic and Toga.</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Greek and Roman Footwear.</span>—The general distinction was -that the Greeks wore both sandals, and also boots or shoes. The -Romans wore the boot, the <i>calceus</i>, but disapproved of the sandal. -Part of Cicero's charge against Verres was that he wore sandals, -as well as other Greek dress.</p> - -<p>The objects shown in Case F are either actual shoes and sandals -or representations of them from works of art, such as fragments of -statues; or applications of the device of a foot to the decoration -of such things as vases, lamps, tripod-feet, etc.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 340px;"><a href="images/130b-630.png"><img src="images/130b-340.png" width="340" height="453" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 142.—Bronze Statuette of a Negro Slave cleaning a Boot (No. 355).</span> 1:2. </p></div> - -<p>The extant specimens include a Roman leather shoe (No. <span class="bhead">344</span>) of cut -leather work, found in London; slippers from Antinoe in Egypt (No. -<span class="bhead">345</span>), with coloured and cut leather work; a pair <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>[pg 130]</span> of cork -soles from Egypt (No. <span class="bhead">346</span>), the edges of which were formerly gilt. A -well-preserved pair of soles is exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">347</span>). They are made of -wood, divided at the instep, and plated with bronze, held in place by -iron nails. These appear to be of Etruscan origin, as several examples -have been found at Vulci (<i>Mus. Etr. Vat., I.</i>, pl. 57, fig. 7). The -sandal in its simplest form, as in the vase B 587 (No. <span class="bhead">348</span>), consists -of a sole attached to the foot by thongs passing between the great and -second toes, and round the heel. The arrangement of the thongs -gradually became more elaborate, with the result that the -uncomfortable separation of the toes could be avoided. In the case of -the foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. <span class="bhead">349</span>; fig. 141) there is no -toe-thong, but only a reminiscence of the ornament from which it -formerly started. An undershoe or sock now became possible, and the -shoe and laced sandal in combination (cf. the statue of Mausolos, -about 350 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) became highly elaborate. See also the cast of a relief -in the Third Graeco-Roman Room (No. <span class="bhead">350</span>) and the feet in marble and -bronze. In effect, the result was not greatly different from the Roman -military boot (<em>caliga</em>) bound up the leg with thongs.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/130a-590.png"><img src="images/130a-300.png" width="300" height="150" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 141.—Foot of the Hermes of Olympia (No. 349).</span> 1:9. </p></div> - -<p>A simpler boot or shoe of modern pattern was also in use. In its -plainest forms it represents the Roman boot (<em>calceus</em>). Several -examples (No. <span class="bhead">351</span>) are shown in this case. See also a vase (No. <span class="bhead">352</span>) -in the form of a modern lace-boot. The nails on the sole are arranged -so as to impress <em>alpha</em> and <em>omega</em>, and the mystic symbol of the -<em>swastika</em> on the ground. A delicate gold model of a boot (No. <span class="bhead">353</span>) -has <img src="images/130c-100.png" width="100" height="37" style="margin-bottom: -0.5em;;" alt="Walk" title="Walk" /> <ins -title="Greek: patou">πατοῦ</ins> "walk!" (?) on -the sole. A shoe has been found in Egypt, impressing at every step the -invitation <ins title="Greek: AKOLOUTHEI"><span class="sans">ΑΚΟΛΟΥΘΕΙ</span></ins> -("follow!") The shoemaker at work in his workshop is seen in the fifth -century kylix (E 86; No. <span class="bhead">354</span>). <span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>[pg 131]</span> He is in the act of cutting -the leather with the semicircular knife of the form still in use.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, attention should be drawn to the bronze statuette -(No. <span class="bhead">355</span>; fig. 142) of a kneeling negro slave cleaning a boot.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -On Greek Dress, cf. Lady Evans, <i>Greek Dress</i>; E. B. Abrahams, -<i>Greek Dress</i>; on Roman, Heuzey in <i>Rev. de l'art ancien et moderne</i>, 1897; -Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Pallium</i>, <i>Peplos</i>, <i>Toga</i>. On shoes and sandals, -see <i>ibid.</i>, <i>Calceus</i>, <i>Caliga</i>, <i>Solea</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Fibulae.</span>—Although the straight pin (cf. p. 137) was used for -fastening the dress, fibulae—that is, brooches on the safety-pin -principle—were most commonly worn. This method of fastening -was of early origin, and its use can be traced in all parts of Europe, -but, curiously enough, it seems to have been unknown in Egypt -and the East. The fibula experienced in the first centuries of its -existence and in the hands of different peoples so many variations -and developments of form, that these can be classified in distinct -types, and their presence in tombs and other deposits affords -valuable evidence of the date and origin of the objects with which -they occur.</p> - -<p>The reader who wishes to pursue the study of the fibula with -more detail is referred to drawers 1-8 in Case D of the Bronze -Room, and to the collections in the Iron Age Room. In this case -of toilet accessories only a few of the typical forms are shown.</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/131a-510.png"><img src="images/131a-250.png" width="250" height="108" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 143.—Fibula of the Mycenaean Period (No. 356).</span> 1:4. </p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/131b-610.png"><img src="images/131b-250.png" width="250" height="194" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 144.—Greek Fibula with Geometric Decoration (No. 357).</span> 1:2. </p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 230px;"><a href="images/131c-460.png"><img src="images/131c-230.png" width="230" height="231" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 145.—Early Greek Fibula (No. 358).</span> 1:2. </p></div> - -<p>The simplest form of fibula is represented here by examples -excavated at Enkomi in Cyprus, which belong to the end of the -Bronze Age, before 1000 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">356</span>; fig. 143). Starting from -this primitive form, the history of the fibula is one of progressive -development and elaboration. It must be observed in the first -place that the whole class of fibulae may be divided into two great -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>[pg 132]</span> -groups—viz., an older group, in which the coiled spring is unilateral, -that is, a plain spiral, between the bow and the pin; and a -younger group, in which the spring is bilateral, that is a -symmetrically disposed double coil, on each side of the pin. We -deal first with the <span class="bhead">Unilateral group</span>. In Greek regions the -development of the form, fig. 143, was mainly a development of -the catchplate in a vertical plane—that is in the plane of the bow -of the fibula. This plate, often with incised patterns (Fig. 144; -No. <span class="bhead">357</span>) was a characteristic of the period of geometric art in -Greece. Two very large examples are shown above Case D in the -Bronze Room. The plainly curved bows may have some further -ornament, such as beads strung on them (No. <span class="bhead">358</span>; fig. 145) or -imitation bead patterns, or a figure of a standing bird (No. <span class="bhead">359</span>; -fig. 146). All these examples come from the island of Rhodes.</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px; margin-top: 4em;"><a href="images/132a-280.png"><img src="images/132a-150.png" width="150" height="146" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 146.—Early Greek Fibula (No. 359).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/132b-650.png"><img src="images/132b-330.png" width="330" height="230" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 147.—Fibula from Cyprus (No. 360).</span> 1:2.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/132c-1000.png"><img src="images/132c-500.png" width="500" height="214" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 148.—Italian Fibula (No. 361).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>Some from Cyprus are quite distinct, and seem to have no -connection with the others (No. <span class="bhead">360</span>; fig. 147). In the classical -period the fibula was little used in Greece, in consequence of modifications -in dress which rendered such fastenings unnecessary.</p> - -<p>In Italy, on the other hand, the fibula flourished exceedingly. -The plain wire original, such as that given above (fig. 143) was soon -elaborated. In the catch-plate it developed either horizontally, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>[pg 133]</span> -that is, by a beating out of the plate in a plane at right angles to -that of the bow (No. <span class="bhead">361</span>; fig. 148) or longitudinally, by the elongation -of the catch-plate as in Nos. <span class="bhead">362-3</span> (figs. 149-150). At the same -time developments were taking place in the bow. It became larger -(fig. 149), and then was hollowed out to save weight and material -(fig. 150), and assumed forms known as leech-shaped and boat-shaped—and -these threw out lateral knobs and ornaments (fig. 150), -often of great elaboration. Alternatively, the bow makes a second -convolution (fig. 148), and may be adorned with horn-like pairs of -projections (No. <span class="bhead">364</span>).</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/133a-590.png"><img src="images/133a-300.png" width="300" height="183" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 149.—Italian Fibula of -Leech Shape (No. 362).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 350px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/133b-770.png"><img src="images/133b-350.png" width="350" height="134" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 150.—Italian Fibula -(No. 363).</span> 1:2.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear space-above3">An independent form is chiefly found at Hallstatt, in cemeteries -of the early European Iron Age. In this, two, or perhaps four, spiral -coils make the whole decoration of the brooch (No. <span class="bhead">365</span>, fig. 151).</p> - -<div class="centerp1a"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/133c-640.png"><img src="images/133c-300.png" width="300" height="230" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 151.—Fibula of</span> <i>Hallstatt</i> -<span class="sc">Type (No. 365)</span>. 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 350px; margin-top: 9em;"><a href="images/133d-500.png"><img src="images/133d-250.png" width="250" height="92" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 152.—Fibula of</span> <i>La Tène</i> -<span class="sc">Type (No. 366)</span>. 1:2.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear space-above3"><span class="bhead">The Bilateral form.</span>—The fibulae with the spring coiled -on each side of the central bow came into use about 400 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, in the -late Iron Age civilization, called the La Tène period, from the site -on the Lake of Neufchatel, where the richest finds have been made. -Together with the introduction of the double spring, there is a continued -elongation of the catch-plate, which is turned up as in No. <span class="bhead">366</span> -(fig. 152) and attached to the bow as in No. <span class="bhead">367</span> (fig. 153). Later -its structural origin is forgotten, and it becomes a solid framework -(No. <span class="bhead">368</span>).</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>[pg 134]</span></p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/134a-980.png"><img src="images/134a-400.png" width="400" height="202" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 153.—Fibula of</span> <i>La Tène</i> <span class="sc">Period -(No. 367)</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/134b-530.png"><img src="images/134b-200.png" width="200" height="242" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 154.—Fibula from below -showing the Bilateral Spring (No. 369).</span></p></div> -</div> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/134c-760.png"><img src="images/134c-300.png" width="300" height="135" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 155.—Roman Fibula of Cross-Bow Shape (No. 370).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a href="images/134d-760.png"><img src="images/134d-300.png" width="300" height="183" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 156.—Roman Fibula (No. 371).</span> 1:2.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear space-above2">The fibula of the Roman Empire was more like a brooch than a -safety-pin, if a distinction can be drawn between the two. The -bow became broad and heavy, while the pin was often made -separately and attached by a hinge. But it shows a strong connection -with the La Tène types, especially in the double coil of the spring, -which was often protected by a sheath (No. <span class="bhead">369</span>; fig. 154). Even -when the spring went out of use, the fibula retained this cross-bow -shape (No. <span class="bhead">370</span>; fig. 155). The elaborate bronze brooch in the -form of a ribbed band passing through a ring (No. <span class="bhead">371</span>; fig. 156) -is stamped underneath with the name of the maker (<span class="sans">VLATI</span>), in -the manner of the Roman pottery. Enamel or metal inlay was -liberally applied in the decoration of the later brooches. A large -collection with great variety of shapes is exhibited. The effect of -the bright colours is best seen in the big round pieces which were -popular in the third and fourth centuries <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> -(No. <span class="bhead">373</span>; fig. 157). -Animal forms were also common at this time, and were similarly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>[pg 135]</span> -decorated with inlay (No. <span class="bhead">374</span>; fig. 158). These types were widely -spread over the western provinces of the Empire, and continued in -use among the nations who succeeded to the Roman power.</p> - -<p>Somewhat akin to the fibulae are the strap buckles, which appear -to have come into use at a late period only. A group, nearly of the -modern form, is exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">374*</span>).</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/135a-880.png"><img src="images/135a-400.png" width="400" height="168" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 157.—Late Roman Enamelled Fibula (No. 373).</span> 1:1. </p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/135b-780.png"><img src="images/135b-300.png" width="300" height="125" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 158.—Late Roman Enamelled Fibula (No. 374).</span> 1:1. </p></div> -</div> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Jewellery and Ornaments.</span>—Jewellery in gold and silver -can be best studied in the Room of Gold Ornaments. The examples -shown here are chosen as types of the forms, rather than as choice -pieces.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/135c-530.png"><img src="images/135c-260.png" width="260" height="284" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 159.—Bracelet of Kletis (No. 375).</span></p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Bracelets.</span>—A favourite form of bracelet or armlet was modelled -in imitation of a snake coiled round the arm or wrist. See the small -silver bracelet of about the fourth to third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, inscribed -with the names of its owner Kletis (No. <span class="bhead">375</span>; fig. 159). The same -design is also used for finger-rings (No. <span class="bhead">376</span>). Snake-coils of a large -size were also worn on the legs, as shown by a small terracotta torso -from Ephesus, which has this ornament on the thigh (No. <span class="bhead">377</span>). This -torso also has a chain of beads passing over the shoulders and -crossing between the breasts. Such an arrangement is common on figures -in vases of the fourth to third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span></p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Finger-rings.</span>—The rings are generally -set with an engraved gem or bezel; -some have revolving scarabs which are -pierced through the middle (No. <span class="bhead">378</span>), another has a gold intaglio -portrait of the Empress Faustina (No. <span class="bhead">379</span>), while an enormous -bronze ring has the design cut in the bezel itself, a double head of -Hermes and a Seilenos (No. <span class="bhead">380</span>). These examples are in bronze -and of poor workmanship, but they serve to illustrate the general -style of ancient rings. A great number in gold and silver, arranged -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>[pg 136]</span> -in order of date, are exhibited in the Room of Gold Ornaments, where -the subject can be more adequately studied. The intaglio designs -were for use in sealing, which was more commonly practised by the -ancients than it is now. Others have a purely decorative purpose, -and were worn in profusion. The bronze hand (No. <span class="bhead">381</span>) has rings -on the upper joints of the fingers, in accordance with a common -fashion of the Roman Imperial period. Fragments of bronze -and terracotta also show the fashions of wear. The Greeks of an -early period did not usually wear ornamental rings, although signets -were in constant use, and it was not until the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -that rings were worn for display. In Rome there were class restrictions -on the use of the gold ring, but these were lessened as time went -on, until in the late Empire they practically disappeared. Betrothal -rings were customary among the Romans, but in Greece there is -no record of their use. A gold -betrothal ring is shown in Case 53 -(No. <span class="bhead">639</span>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/136-640.png"><img src="images/136-320.png" width="320" height="238" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 160.—Greek Bronze Earrings -of Early Date, from Ephesus (Nos. 382-3).</span> 3:4.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Earrings.</span>—The bronze earrings are from the site of the temple of -Artemis at Ephesus, and are earlier than the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (fig. -160). Two types are represented; the swelling hoop of wire, which hung -like a liquid drop (No. <span class="bhead">382</span>) and the heavy coil, which was suspended -from a ring (No. <span class="bhead">383</span>). For a very great variety of earrings, see the -collection in the Room of Gold Ornaments.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Bullae.</span>—The flat bronze pendants (No. <span class="bhead">384</span>), with a circular -receptacle in the middle, are <em>bullae</em>. These are ornaments of -Etruscan origin, introduced early into Rome. They were designed -to contain amulets and charms, and were worn principally by -freeborn Roman boys, and occasionally by domestic animals.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Necklaces.</span>—The necklaces here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">385</span>) consist of -beads of painted terracotta and glass. See also the imitation -jewellery in terracotta, in the Terracotta Room, Table Case C. -Those of more precious materials are in the Gold Ornament -Room. Some fragments of terracotta show the Cypriote fashion -of wearing numerous necklaces together (No. <span class="bhead">386</span>).</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Studs, etc.</span>—Links and studs of Roman times (No. <span class="bhead">387</span>) bear a -striking resemblance to the modern articles, as does a coiled hook-and-eye -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>[pg 137]</span> -which dates actually from the Bronze Age Period (No. <span class="bhead">388</span>). -A peculiar fastening is seen in the double hooks which probably -served to loop together the two sides of a shawl or cloak (No. <span class="bhead">389</span>). -They are probably of Roman date, and come in some instances -from the province of Gaul.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Pins.</span>—Some of the pins may have been used equally well to -fasten the clothing or to adorn the hair; but others were evidently -designed to serve only one of these purposes. Those in carved ivory -are plainly hair-pins (No. <span class="bhead">390</span>; fig. 161). The roughly worked -busts of Roman ladies of the Empire indicate the period to which -the series belongs. The little statuette is intended to represent -Aphrodite wringing the water out of her hair, after rising from the -sea. A fine gold pin similarly modelled is exhibited in the Gold -Ornament Room (Case K; No. 3034). The ivory hand, which holds -a cone and is encircled by a serpent, has some magical significance, -like the bronze votive-hands in Case 106 (p. <a href="#page57">57</a>).</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/137a-290.png"><img src="images/137a-150.png" width="150" height="458" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 161.—Roman Ivory Hair-Pins (No. 390).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 340px;"><a href="images/137b-600.png"><img src="images/137b-280.png" width="280" height="462" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 162.—Bronze and Silver Pins, of Mycenaean and Greek Periods (Nos. 391-6).</span> 1:2.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">The metal pins are less elaborate. The simplest shape was -straight and headless, a direct copy of the natural thorn which first -suggested the idea. A very primitive head is seen on the small bronze -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>[pg 138]</span> -pin which is bent round at the top (No. <span class="bhead">391</span>; fig. 162<i>a</i>). It was -found in the island of Kalymnos, and belongs to the pre-Mycenaean -age, say 2000 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> A silver pin is similarly bent, but as it has a head -as well, is not so early (No. <span class="bhead">392</span>; fig. 162<em>b</em>). Another prehistoric -type is represented by several bronze pins which were excavated -from tombs of the late Mycenaean age at Enkomi in Cyprus (No. <span class="bhead">393</span>; -fig. 162<em>c</em>). These are pierced with eyes in which chains were -fastened to secure the pins to the dress or to each other. Three -pins crowned by large ivory knobs come from the same site and belong -to the same period (No. <span class="bhead">394</span>; fig. 162<em>d</em>). The bronze pin with a -head made of several discs is Greek of the sixth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, as it appears in the paintings of the -François Vase at Florence, which is an Attic -work of that date (No. <span class="bhead">395</span>; figs. 162<em>e</em>, 163). -Another classical type is the silver pin with a -moulded head (No. <span class="bhead">396</span>; fig. 162<em>f</em>). Others of -less remarkable designs cannot be definitely dated.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/138-300.png"><img src="images/138-150.png" width="150" height="450" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 163.—A Woman in the Dorian</span> <i>Chiton</i>, -<span class="sc">showing the Pin on Shoulder</span>.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Toilet.</span>—In the most personal aspects of life and manners there -is least room for change, for in the course of ages it is not man that -has altered, but his surroundings; and the study of such intimate -details reveals a close similarity between the ancient and the modern -worlds.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 290px;"><a href="images/139-610.png"><img src="images/139-290.png" width="290" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 164.—Ivory Combs, of the -Mycenaean and Roman Periods <br />(Nos. 397, 400, 401).</span> 1:3.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Combs.</span>—To begin with the more necessary implements, the combs go -back to a high antiquity. An ivory comb from Enkomi in Cyprus dates -from the Mycenaean age (No. <span class="bhead">397</span>; fig. 164). It is of simpler form than -later combs, having only one row of teeth. The others are of the Greek -and Roman periods, and are made both of wood and bone. The usual -pattern is that of a modern tooth-comb, with a row of teeth on each -side of the body—one coarse and one fine. There are wooden -examples from Kertch, in South Russia (No. <span class="bhead">398</span>). More elaborate is the -ivory piece, which is decorated with reliefs, a Gryphon and a lion on -one side and two cranes at a fountain on the other (No. <span class="bhead">399</span>. The -original is in the case of Ivories, L). Another of good Roman period -is carved by an amateur hand with an inscription, doubtless in -compliment to the lady to whom it belonged (No. <span class="bhead">400</span>; fig. 164). The -legend reads <span class="sans">MODESTINA·V·H·E·E</span>—the four -letters at the end being perhaps abbreviated epithets of the fair -Modestina, <em>V(irgo) H(onesta) E(t) E(gregia)</em>. A different type -appears in the triangular pocket-comb, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>[pg 139]</span> -which fits into a protecting case (No. <span class="bhead">401</span>; fig. 164). This belongs to -the end of the Roman Empire, the fourth century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, and may already -show the influence of barbarian art. Similar combs were brought to -England by the Danes, and some of them which have been found at York -and elsewhere are exhibited in the British and Mediaeval Department.</p> - -<p>With the combs is a brush of vegetable bristles from an Egyptian -rubbish heap of a late period of the empire (No. <span class="bhead">402</span>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 320px; clear: both;"><a href="images/140a-560.png"><img src="images/140a-280.png" width="280" height="268" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 165.—Toilet Box of Eulimine (No. 406).</span></p></div> - -<p class="space-above5"><span class="bhead">Toilet Boxes.</span>—Other -relics of the dressing-table are the toilet-boxes and scent-bottles. -There is a Greek toilet-box from Naukratis still coloured by the rouge -which it contained (No. <span class="bhead">403</span>); and another has a carved wooden lid in -the shape of a woman's head of great beauty (No. <span class="bhead">404</span>). A leaden box -was found in a Greek tomb at Halikarnassos (No. <span class="bhead">405</span>). Another was -given by Kratylos of Aegina to Eulimine. The inscription, the modern -turn of which is perhaps not free from suspicion, describes it as a -"slight token of respect from a certain small Aeginetan" -(No. <span class="bhead">406</span>; fig. 165).<a id="footnotetag43" name="footnotetag43"></a><a href="#footnote43"><sup>43</sup></a> Other -boxes of bronze and ivory date from the Roman period. Most of the -wooden boxes are carved in fantastic or frivolous shapes: a swimming -duck, a crouching boar, and a shoe (Nos. <span class="bhead">407</span>, <span class="bhead">408</span>, <span class="bhead">409</span>). These are -divided into compartments for the various powders, and some blocks of -paint are still preserved. For liquid ointments there are an alabaster -box (No. <span class="bhead">410</span>) and three bottles of the same material and remains of a -leather bottle with its cork (No. <span class="bhead">411</span>). An Etruscan bronze <i>cista</i>, -which stands on three human feet, contains a set of movable tubes, -each for a different unguent (No. <span class="bhead">412</span>). The lid of this receptacle was -crowned by the small bronze statuette which <span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>[pg 140]</span> stands beside it. -Besides cosmetics for the complexion, the toilet-boxes may have held -tooth-powders, for which there are many receipts in the works of -ancient writers on medicine.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Mirrors.</span>—For mirrors the ancients were at a disadvantage. -The use of glass was known, but was not common, and the ordinary -reflecting medium was a sheet of burnished metal. There are, however, -two genuine looking-glasses—one in a leaden frame, from Olbia -(No. <span class="bhead">413</span>), and the other set, with several fragments, in a plaster -slab, from Gheyta, in Egypt (No. <span class="bhead">414</span>). The glass was probably backed -with foil, and it is remarkable that the reflectors are convex, so -that the image must have been distorted. A similar surface is -attempted on the square sheet of metal, which is glazed with a -vitreous enamel (No. <span class="bhead">415</span>).</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/140b-760.png"><img src="images/140b-350.png" width="350" height="267" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 166.—Bronze Razor of Primitive Shape (No. 421).</span> 1:2.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>[pg 141]</span></p> - -<p>The more usual metal mirrors have two principal forms: a circular -reflector, mounted on a handle like the modern hand-glass, which is -represented by a specimen in silver from Naukratis (No. <span class="bhead">416</span>), and a -similar disc enclosed in a folding box (No. <span class="bhead">417</span>). Both these varieties -were often decorated with engraving. See No. <span class="bhead">417</span>, a mirror from -Hermione, with an engraved design of Aphrodite and Eros. In the Bronze -Room there are large collections of all types. A small pocket-mirror -in this Case has on one side of the bronze box a head of Nero, and on -the other the god Dionysos standing by a vine (No. <span class="bhead">418</span>). The disc is -silver-plated, like most of these examples. Two similar boxes have -been turned out of large brass coins of Nero (No. <span class="bhead">419</span>). A fragment of -a silvered mirror from Amathus in Cyprus has a palm-tree engraved on -its face (No. <span class="bhead">420</span>). Though the design indicates that this side is the -front, yet the reflector was the convex back, and thus, in a spirit -quite foreign to Greek art, the purpose of the thing was subordinated -to its decoration.</p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Razors.</span>—The razor is another toilet instrument which existed -in the earliest times. No prehistoric specimens are in this collection, -but a primitive shape is represented by two circular blades with -stirrup-like handles (No. <span class="bhead">421</span>, fig. 166). Others are of square spade -shape, with a twisted loop handle and a hole in the blade. One of -these is from Athens (No. <span class="bhead">422</span>; fig. 167). A third type is shown in -three razors of Phoenician origin (from Sardinia and Carthage), -with long hatchet blades (No. <span class="bhead">423</span>; fig. 168). These are ornamented -with engraving and have handles in the shape of swan's heads. -All are made of bronze, and were no doubt capable of taking an edge -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>[pg 142]</span> -so keen as to render them far more efficacious than their present -appearance would suggest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/141a-870.png"><img src="images/141a-400.png" width="400" height="457" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 167.—Bronze Razor from Athens (No. 422).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/141b-1000.png"><img src="images/141b-500.png" width="500" height="192" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 168.—Bronze Razor from Sardinia (No. 423).</span> 3:5.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Miscellaneous Toilet Implements.</span>—Next to the razors are -placed various tools of which the functions are easily understood. -There are several nail-files with a roughened surface, and a smooth -notch for polishing (No. <span class="bhead">424</span>; fig. 169). Two of these are combined -with ear-picks, which were in general use at Rome. They have a -minute bowl at the end of a slender arm. A very elegant ear-pick, -which has a leaf-shaped scraper at the other end, is made of silver (No. -<span class="bhead">425</span>; fig. 170). Others end in a sharp point, which may have been -used either for a tooth-pick or in emergency for a <em>stilus</em> pen (cf. -p. 199). Another ear-pick is combined with a pair of tweezers and -some other tools now lost (No. <span class="bhead">426</span>). The tweezers were used for -plucking out such hairs as Roman fashion deemed unsightly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/142a-800.png"><img src="images/142a-400.png" width="400" height="58" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 169.—Bronze Nail-File (No. 424).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/142b-1000.png"><img src="images/142b-500.png" width="500" height="59" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 170.—Silver Ear-Pick (No. 425).</span> 3:5.</p></div> - -<blockquote><p> -For <i>Fibulae</i>, see <i>Catalogue of Bronzes</i>, and <i>Guide to Antiquities of Early -Iron Age</i> (Dept. of B. & M. Antiqs.); (375) <i>Cat. of Jewellery</i>, 2775; (406) -<i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 947; (420) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, fig. 149. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote43" name="footnote43"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag43">43:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Smikrou tinos Aiginêtou endees eimi endeigma latreias."> -<span class="foo">Σμικροῦ -τινος -Αἰγινήτου -ἐνδεές -εἰμι -ἔνδειγμα -λατρείας.</span></ins></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XII.—DOMESTIC ARTS.<a name="page142a" id="page142a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case G.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In this Table Case, under the general heading of "The Domestic -Arts," objects are exhibited connected with the house industries of -spinning, weaving, and sewing, together with various groups of -objects connected with home life, such as locks and keys, seals, -knives, etc.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/143a-610.png"><img src="images/143a-280.png" width="280" height="454" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 171.—Woman Spinning (No. 421).</span> Ht. of Vase 8<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Spinning and Weaving.</span>—(<i>a</i>) <span class="bhead"><i>Preparation of yarn.</i></span>—The -process of spinning is clearly seen in the accompanying drawings <span class="pagenum"><a -name="page143" id="page143"></a>[pg 143]</span> from Greek vases of the fourth -and fifth centuries exhibited in this Case (Nos. <span class="bhead">421-2</span>; figs. 171-2). -In each, a woman is holding up in her left hand the distaff, a rod -which is thrust through a bunch of unspun wool. With the fingers of -her right hand she is twisting fibres drawn from the wool. The yarn is -attached below to the top of the spindle, a rod of wood or metal with -a disc (whorl) near the bottom to assist the rotation. When some -quantity of yarn had been twisted it was wound round the body of the -spindle and hitched into a hook at its upper end (see figs. 171, 173), -to prevent it from unwinding. The twisting process was then -recommenced. An impressive description of the ancient spindle is given -by Plato in the vision of Er at the end of the <em>Republic</em>,<a -id="footnotetag44" name="footnotetag44"></a><a href="#footnote44"><sup>44</sup></a> where he likens the axis of -the universe to the shaft of a spindle suspended by a hook of adamant, -and the revolving starry heavens to a whorl made up of eight -concentric rims, fitting one into the other like boxes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/143b-900.png"><img src="images/143b-450.png" width="450" height="354" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 172.—Woman Spinning (No. 422).</span> Ht. of Vase 4<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above3">Two bronze spindles (No. <span class="bhead">423</span>) are seen in the -Case and are illustrated on either side of fig. 173. In the same -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>[pg 144]</span> -figure are shown four ivory whorls from spindles (No. <span class="bhead">424</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/144-860.png"><img src="images/144-330.png" width="330" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 173.—Spindles and Whorls, Shuttle and Loomweight.</span> 2:5.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/145a-780.png"><img src="images/145a-400.png" width="400" height="360" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 174.—Woman with</span> <i>Epinetron</i> -<span class="sc">on Knee</span>.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above3">Before the wool was placed upon the distaff it appears to have -been rubbed, with a view to the separation of the fibres, upon -an instrument known as the <em>epinetron</em> or <i>onos</i>. This was -semi-cylindrical in form and was placed upon the knee. Several -examples in terracotta had long been known, and were explained -with little plausibility as covering-tiles. One, however, was -found with a painted design which first gave the clue to its real -use (Fig. 174). One of these <em>epinetra</em> B 96 (No. <span class="bhead">425</span>) is exhibited -in this Case, together with a fragment of a second. Other examples -are to be seen in the Second Vase Room (Cases 24 and 25), and one -of these is illustrated here (No. <span class="bhead">426</span>; fig. 175). A miniature example -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>[pg 145]</span> -was found with the girl doll seated in a chair, exhibited in Table-Case -J with the other dolls (p. <a href="#page194a">195</a>, fig. 234, below).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/145b-1200.png"><img src="images/145b-600.png" width="600" height="256" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 175.—Epinetron or Spinning Instrument (No. 426).</span> -L. 14<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/146a-1000.png"><img src="images/146a-500.png" width="500" height="402" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 176.—Penelope at the Loom.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/146b-740.png"><img src="images/146b-360.png" width="360" height="359" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 177.—Loom Weight (No. 428).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) <span class="bhead"><i>The Loom.</i></span>—The only kind of loom in use in Greek and -Roman times was probably the upright loom. A good idea of its -form is obtained from the illustration (fig. 176), taken from a -Greek vase-painting<a id="footnotetag45" name="footnotetag45"></a><a href="#footnote45"><sup>45</sup></a> of the -fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, representing Penelope seated beside the loom, with -one of the suitors or Telemachos before her. The primary part of the -loom is the wooden frame (<em>jugum</em>) resembling two posts with a -cross-bar. Near the top is a roller, about which the threads of the -warp and the finished cloth are wound. The threads of the warp hang -downwards, strained by weights attached to their ends. The row of nine -rods fitted into sockets in the top framework is probably for holding -the balls of different coloured wool used in the weaving. Coloured -patterns are woven towards each selvedge of the fabric. The band of -winged figures must be regarded as a piece of embroidery. (For -tapestry weaving see below.) The two horizontal rods lower down are -the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>[pg 146]</span> <em>canons</em>, -which effect the alternation of the threads of -the warp. It may be noted that the threads are alternately long and -short at the lower end, so that the <em>canon</em> would be inserted -correctly with great ease. The loom weights, which hang at the bottom, -closely resemble in form the sets (No. <span class="bhead">427</span>) of pyramidal terracotta -and lead weights in this Case. The terracotta discs (figs. 173 and -177), which are pierced with two holes and sometimes have a stamped -design, are also probably loom-weights. No. <span class="bhead">428</span> (fig. 177) -has a design of two dolphins plunging into the sea; No. <span class="bhead">429</span> (fig. 173) -is stamped with a name—Kleodamos. As a loom weight was needed -for every thread of a warp, it is not surprising that they are found -in great numbers. Possibly the small bronze object (No. <span class="bhead">430</span>) seen at -the bottom of fig. 173 may be an ancient shuttle, for passing the -thread of the woof to and fro in a horizontal direction, alternately -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>[pg 147]</span> -before and behind the threads of the warp. Afterwards they -were driven close together by the batten (<ins title="Greek: -spathê">σπάθη</ins>), a possible example of which -is the toothed bone object seen in this Case (No. <span class="bhead">431</span>).</p> -<p>Various specimens of ancient cloth are shown here. A piece -from the Crimea (No. <span class="bhead">432</span>), with pretty geometric patterns in black -on a light ground, and a large fragment from an Egyptian tomb -(No. <span class="bhead">433</span>), inscribed in paint "Diogenes, who was a patcher in -his lifetime,"<a id="footnotetag46" name="footnotetag46"></a><a href="#footnote46"><sup>46</sup></a> -may be specially -mentioned.</p> - -<p>The art of tapestry weaving was highly developed during the later -Roman Empire, especially in Egypt. See a fragment from Antinoe, fourth -to fifth centuries <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">434</span>). The art of embroidery, that is, of -working with a needle on an already woven fabric, was practised from -very early times. See the small vase with a woman seated working on a -four-sided embroidery frame, supported on her lap (No. <span class="bhead">435</span>).</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px; margin-top: 8em;"><a href="images/147a-210.png"><img src="images/147a-100.png" width="100" height="156" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 178.—Bronze Thimble (No. 436).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/147b-440.png"><img src="images/147b-200.png" width="200" height="445" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 179.—Iron Scissors from -Priene (No. 437).</span> 2:3.</p></div> -</div> - -<p class="clear">The objects illustrating ancient sewing, etc., speak pretty well for -themselves. Such are the bronze thimble (No. <span class="bhead">436</span>; fig. 178), the iron -scissors (No. <span class="bhead">437</span>; fig. 179), and the series of pins, needles, -bodkins, netting needles, etc. (figs. 180, 181). The needles and pins -are arranged in the Case according to their supposed order of -development, starting from the thorn or bone fragment with a hole -pierced in it. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>[pg 148]</span> -The Roman bronze needle-case from France (No. -<span class="bhead">438</span>; fig. 182) is worthy of note. Similar cases were used by Roman -surgeons for their instruments.</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/148a-520.png"><img src="images/148a-200.png" width="200" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 180.—Needles, etc.</span> 2:5.</p></div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 170px; margin-left: 5em; margin-top: 1em;"><a href="images/148b-160.png"><img src="images/148b-70.png" width="70" height="424" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 182.—Bronze Needle-Case (No. 438).</span> 2:3</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/148c-300.png"><img src="images/148c-110.png" width="110" height="432" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 181.—Netting-Needles.</span> 2:5.</p></div> -</div> - -<blockquote><p class="clear"> -(421) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, III., D 13; (433) Petrie, <i>Hawara</i>, pl. viii., 2; -(435) <i>Journ. of Hellen. Stud.</i>, xxxi., p. 15; cf. Blümner, <i>Technologie</i>, -2nd ed., pp. 220, 221; (438) Cf. Deneffe, <i>La trousse d'un chirurgien -gallo-romain</i>, pl. 2.</p> - -<p>On the ancient loom, see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Textrinum</i>; -Blümner, <i>Technologie</i>, I., 2nd. ed., p. 135 ff. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Cutlery.</span>—At the east end of Table-Case G will be seen a -series of Greek and Roman knives, ranging from the long Mycenaean -hunting knife from Ialysos in Rhodes (No. <span class="bhead">438</span>) to the numerous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>[pg 149]</span> -Roman pocket-knives with bronze handles, frequently in the form -of animals (No. <span class="bhead">439</span>). The iron blade has often rusted away, as will -be seen from the illustration (fig. 183), which gives a selection of -these knives. (<em>a</em>) represents a handle in the form of a panther -catching a deer, (<em>b</em>) one in the form of a ram's head, with a leg -projecting below to assist the grip, (<em>e</em>) a hound catching a hare. The -iron blades are still preserved in the case of (<em>c</em>) and (<em>d</em>). The -first, from Nîmes, has a bronze handle ending in a woman's head; (<em>d</em>) has -a handle of the same material in the form of a hound catching a -hare.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/149-1200.png"><img src="images/149-600.png" width="600" height="414" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 183.—Roman Knives and Knife-Handles (No. 439).</span> Ca. 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>For two reliefs of a cutler's forge and a cutler's shop, see below, -pages <a href="#page156">156</a>, <a href="#page157">157</a>.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/150a-700.png"><img src="images/150a-350.png" width="350" height="347" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 184.—Homeric Lock(Restored).</span></p></div> - -<div class="container_right"> <p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Locks and Keys.</span>—The earliest and simplest form of door -fastening used by the Greeks seems to have consisted of a bar of wood -set behind the door, and made to slide into a hole or staple in the -sidepost. An advance on this arrangement was soon made, when the bar -was pulled to by a strap from the outside, and could be opened again -from the outside by means of a key passed through a hole in the door, -and adapted to lift up the pegs which held the bar fast in position. -This is the type of lock mentioned in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>[pg 150]</span> -the <i>Odyssey</i>,<a id="footnotetag47" name="footnotetag47"></a><a href="#footnote47"><sup>47</sup></a> -where Penelope releases the strap from the hook to -which it was fastened, puts in the key, and lifts the pegs, "striking -them fairly." The key for such a lock will probably have resembled No. -<span class="bhead">440</span>, marked <i>a</i> in fig. 186 below, the working of which is shown in -the sketch (fig. 184).<a id="footnotetag48" name="footnotetag48"></a><a href="#footnote48"><sup>48</sup></a> -It was passed narrow-wise through the central -slot, then turned, and drawn back so as to lift up the pegs fitted in -grooves in the side slots. The bar below would thus be freed and could -be drawn to and fro by the strap. This type of lock is still sometimes -used in the East.<a id="footnotetag49" name="footnotetag49"></a><a href="#footnote49"><sup>49</sup></a></p> </div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; clear: both;"><a href="images/150b-1200.png"><img src="images/150b-600.png" width="600" height="339" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 185.—Roman Lock, with Restorations showing Original -Mechanism <br />and Use of Key (No. 441).</span> 3:7.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/151-910.png"><img src="images/151-360.png" width="360" height="471" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 186.—Roman Keys.</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>The majority of Roman locks, though of a more complicated -structure, are made on the same principle, as may be seen from the -ancient lock No. <span class="bhead">441</span> (probably from Pompeii) here exhibited, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>[pg 151]</span> -together with model lock of the same type (No. <span class="bhead">442</span>) and a diagram -showing its original arrangement (fig. 185<em>a-d</em>). Here the bolt has -been shot through the end link of a chain, part of which remains -(fig. 185<em>c</em>). It is secured by pins, the ends of which fit into a series -of perforations in the bolt and are kept down by a spring. The -bolt was released by a key fitted with teeth corresponding to the -perforations (fig. 185<em>d</em>). The key lifted the pins out of the holes -and took their place. The bolt was then drawn aside, as the key -was moved along the horizontal slot. On account of the double -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>[pg 152]</span> -movement, first vertical and then horizontal, the keyhole is in the -shape <span class="bhead2">┌</span>. -Several bolts, keys (<i>e.g.</i> No. <span class="bhead">442</span>; fig. 186<em>c</em>), and door -plates for locks of this type are exhibited in this Case. Three keys from -Syria are shown (No. <span class="bhead">443</span>) fitted into the wards -of the actual bolts for which they were made. -Notice the projections on the ring of key <em>c</em>, -which were used for shooting a supplementary -bolt, a common device in Roman locks.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 230px;"><a href="images/152a-270.png"><img src="images/152a-140.png" width="140" height="399" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 187. Roman Padlock, with Key rusted in it (No. 445).</span> Ca. 1:3.</p></div> - -<div class="container_right1"> -<p class="space-above5">The modern type of lock, in which the key works on a pivot and moves -the bolt backwards and forwards by a rotatory movement, after passing -through a series of wards, was also known to the Romans. This is -proved by the existence of several Roman keys solely adapted to a lock -of this character (<i>e.g.</i>, No. <span class="bhead">444</span>; fig. 186<em>d</em>). Such keys are -frequently found combined with finger-rings, a convenient method of -lessening the danger of loss. We may conclude that this type of key -was a favourite one for use with small padlocks.</p> - -<p class="space-above2">Padlocks of Roman date are common. In this Case three of a -barrel form are shown. One (No. <span class="bhead">445</span>; fig. 187) has the key still -rusted in it. The padlock has traces of a chain attachment at one -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>[pg 153]</span> -end, and was probably kept hanging to a doorpost, while the bolt -was shot into the end link of a chain attached to the door. Two -other Roman padlocks illustrated (fig. 188) are more ornamental in -character. One (No. <span class="bhead">446</span>) is in the form of a circular box with -hinged handle, the free end of which was fastened by pin-bolts -within the box. There is also a secret catch underneath. The -other padlock (No. <span class="bhead">447</span>) is furnished with a chain attached to one -side of it. The last link of the free end was fastened inside the box, -the lid of which was closed with a secret catch. The head on the -cover is that of a Sphinx, a hint that the riddle of opening was not -easy to solve. A hole in the floor of the box makes it probable that -it was fastened to the object to be secured.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; clear: both;"><a href="images/152b-1000.png"><img src="images/152b-500.png" width="500" height="295" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 188.—Roman Padlocks (Nos. 446, 447).</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/153-1000.png"><img src="images/153-500.png" width="500" height="377" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 189.—Bronze Strong-Box, with Cover seen on Inner Side.</span> -<i>c</i> <span class="all-sc">and</span> <i>d</i> <span class="sc">explain the working of the Bolt (No. 450)</span>. 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"><a href="images/154-460.png"><img src="images/154-220.png" width="220" height="457" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 190.—Cover of -above Strong-Box (Outer Side).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>Other objects deserving mention are the keys for raising -latches (No. <span class="bhead">448</span>; fig. 186<em>b</em>), and the combined ward and pin -keys (No. <span class="bhead">449</span>; fig. 186<em>e</em>), and also the very interesting -Graeco-Roman bronze strong-box from Tarentum (No. <span class="bhead">450</span>; fig. 189). -The box (<em>a</em>) has a sliding lid (<em>b</em>), originally furnished on the -inside with four separate fastenings. Two are horizontal bolts -shot home by turning toothed discs from the outside; the third -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>[pg 154]</span> -is the catch seen at the end, which was held fast in the slot -by a pin-bolt (<em>c</em>). This bolt was moved by a disc on the -outside of the cover, and was itself locked by the turning of -another disc behind it; it could only be drawn back when -the slot in that disc was brought into line with the bolt, as -indicated in design <em>d</em> of the figure. The small catch on the right at -the end of the box fell into position automatically when the cover -was closed, and could only be unfastened by turning the box on its -side. The outside of the lid shows four similar circles, over which -were the revolving or sliding discs now lost (fig. 190).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/155-1200.png"><img src="images/155-450.png" width="450" height="473" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 191.—Seals and Seal-Locks (Nos. 452-4).</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Seals.</span>—These were closely connected -with locks in ancient life, and often in fact took their place. -Aristophanes makes the women complain that not only did their husbands -carry the patent Laconian key, but that they also (at the instigation -of Euripides) carried very complicated "worm-eaten" -seals,<a id="footnotetag50" name="footnotetag50"></a><a href="#footnote50"><sup>50</sup></a> not -likely to be forged. Several objects in this Case illustrate the use -of seals. When a man wished to secure an object he tied it up with -string and put a lump of clay over the knot, impressing the clay with -his signet. Such impressions are seen on several baked lumps of clay -here exhibited. One large lump (No. <span class="bhead">451</span>) has no fewer than eight Roman -seal impressions (several from the same seal), while the knot of the -cord remains embedded in the clay underneath. This -Case also contains examples (No. <span class="bhead">452</span>) -of Roman seal-locks (one in wood and several in ivory). The -wooden lock, found in Egypt, is shown in fig. 191<i>a</i>, where its -probable use is indicated. The lock was suspended from the door-jamb -on a pivot passed through the small hole seen at the left end. -The loop or staple attached to the door was then inserted in the -groove, and the movable cover slid through it, as shown in the figure. -The clay or wax was next pressed into the hole behind the lid, and -sealed with a signet (as in fig. 191<em>b</em>, top view). The door could then -not be opened unless the seal or the lock was broken. Such a lock -would be very useful to prevent the often-mentioned pilfering by -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>[pg 155]</span> -slaves.<a id="footnotetag51" name="footnotetag51"></a><a href="#footnote51"><sup>51</sup></a> -Another interesting class of objects is that of the seal-boxes -(No. <span class="bhead">453</span>). They are small bronze boxes with hinged lids, and -resemble in form a pear-shaped or circular lamp. Each box has a -small slot cut out on either side, and three or four holes pierced in -its floor. The cover not infrequently has a design in relief (such -as might be impressed from a seal), <i>e.g.</i>, a frog (fig. 191<em>d</em>). The -illustration (fig. 191<em>e</em>) shows a suggested method of using them. -The box is fastened by studs (passed through the holes in its floor) -to the lid of the object to be secured. The string is inserted in a -staple on the front of it and tied in a knot, which is placed in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>[pg 156]</span> -seal-box and held fast by wax stamped with a seal. The projecting -stud-heads would assist the natural tenacity of the wax, -so that it would be impossible to remove the string without breaking -the seal. Other arrangements are, of course, possible. For instance, -the staple might not be used, and string might instead be tied round -the object to be secured. The ends would be brought into the seal-box -by two of the holes, there be secured by the sealed knot, and -would leave it by two other holes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/156-870.png"><img src="images/156-400.png" width="400" height="456" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 192.—Roman Cutler's Forge (No. 457).</span> Ht. 18<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Another form of seal was that consisting of two lead discs -connected by a loop (No. <span class="bhead">454</span>). The discs were pressed together -and stamped on the outer surfaces with a design (as in fig. 191<i>c</i>). -In this way the loop was securely attached to the object to be -protected. Probably these seals were attached to merchandise by -manufacturers or customs officials, just in the same way as lead -seals are used in our own time. Their use appears to have been -confined almost, if not entirely, to Sicily.</p> - -<p>A variety of labels in lead, bronze, and ivory is shown in this -Case. They generally have a hole for attachment, and bear the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>[pg 157]</span> -name and initials of their owner. The bronze label (No. <span class="bhead">455</span>), to -which a portion of the iron object to which it was attached still -adheres, has the name of the owner, C. Junius Hermetus, inscribed -upon it. A second label has the name of another member of the -family, Decius Junius Hermetus (No. <span class="bhead">456</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;"><a href="images/157-820.png"><img src="images/157-380.png" width="380" height="461" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 193.—Roman Cutler's Shop (No. 458).</span> Ht. 19<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Seals were applied by the use of signet rings of gold, silver, or -bronze with the impression of the seal cut in the metal or on a -gem set in the bezel (see p. <a href="#page136">136</a>). The engraved ring was usually -employed for purely personal purposes, such as the sealing of a letter -or document, and the device of the seal was more or less ornamental. -For the somewhat allied group of bronze tablets, used for marking -objects, rather than securing them, see p. <a href="#page192">192</a>.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(441) On ancient locks, see Diels, <i>Parmenides</i>, p. 117 ff.; Fink, -<i>Der Verschluss bei den Griechen u. Römern</i>; Daremberg and Saglio, -s.v. <i>Sera</i>; (453) Cf. <i>Num. Chron.</i>, 1897, p. 293 ff.; (454) Cf. <i>Annali -dell' Inst.</i>, 1864, p. 343 ff., and <i>Mon. dell' Inst.</i>, VIII., pl. xi. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote44" name="footnote44"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag44">44:</a> -616 <span class="all-sc">C</span>, <span class="all-sc">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote45" name="footnote45"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag45">45:</a> -<i>Mon. d. Inst.</i>, ix. pl. 42.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote46" name="footnote46"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag46">46:</a> -<ins title="Greek: Diogenês êpêtês men ôn hote ezê ...">Διογένης -ἠπητὴς -μὲν ὢν -ὅτε ἔζη . . .</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote47" name="footnote47"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag47">47:</a> -xxi. 46 ff.;</p> - -<div class="poem1"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: autik' ar' hê g' himanta thoôs apelyse korônês,"> -αὐτίκ' -ἄρ' ἥ γ' -ἱμάντα θοῶς -ἀπέλυσε -κορώνης,</ins></p> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: en de klêid' hêke, thyreôn d' anekopten ochêas,"> -ἐν δὲ κληῖδ' -ἧκε, θυρέων δ' -ἀνέκοπτεν -ὀχῆας,</ins></p> -</div><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: anta tityskomenê."> -ἄντα -τιτυσκομένη.</ins></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote48" name="footnote48"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag48">48:</a> -After Jacobi, <i>Das Römerkastell Saalburg</i>, p. 469, fig. 74, 1, 2 (modified).</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote49" name="footnote49"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag49">49:</a> -See <i>Ann. of Brit. School at Athens</i>, IX., p. 190 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote50" name="footnote50"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag50">50:</a> -Ar., <i>Thesm.</i> 421 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote51" name="footnote51"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag51">51:</a> -Cf. Plin., <i>H.N.</i> xxxiii. 26: <span class="foo">nunc cibi quoque ac potus anulo vindicantur -a rapina.</span></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>[pg 158]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIII-XVIII.—TRADE AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 41-53, Table Case H.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIII.—TRADE.</h2> -</div> - -<p>The part of the collection now to be described deals generally -with commerce and the industrial arts. We have already seen the -bird-catcher (p. <a href="#page115">115</a>), the baker (p. <a href="#page117">117</a>), and the shoemaker at -work (p. <a href="#page130">130</a>).</p> - -<p>In the corners of Cases 41 and 48 are casts of reliefs from the -gravestone of L. Cornelius Atimetus, a Roman cutler of the first -century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> One relief (No. <span class="bhead">457</span>; fig. 192) shows the cutler's -workshop, -with two men working at some object placed on an anvil in -front of a furnace. One man holds the object with the tongs, the -other hammers it into shape. Above them hang a knife, sickle, -tongs, etc. Behind on the left is the bellows. The other relief -(No. <span class="bhead">458</span>; fig. 193) represents the cutler's shop, with numerous -knives and sickles hanging in an open cupboard. The cutler on the -right, who wears the tunic only, is showing a knife to a customer -on the left, who wears the toga, as a mark of dignity.</p> - -<p>In Case 41 is a cast of a relief of a pork-butcher's shop, in -the Dresden Museum (No. <span class="bhead">459</span>). On the left, the butcher's wife, -seated in a high chair, is busy with a set of tablets, for the accounts. -The butcher is jointing a side of bacon on a massive block. Portions -of bacon hang on hooks. Behind the butcher is a spare chopper and -a steelyard, at present hung out of the way. The details of the -steelyard such as the weight, the alternative hook for suspension, -and the scalepan are shown (see below p. <a href="#page161">161</a>).</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIV.—WEIGHTS AND SCALES.<a name="page158a" id="page158a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 41-44.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Greek Weights.</span>—In Case B of the First Vase Room will -be seen the plaster model of a large stone object of triangular -form, pierced towards the apex with a hole.<a id="footnotetag52" name="footnotetag52"></a><a href="#footnote52"><sup>52</sup></a> It has the design -of an octopus on either side, and may with some probability be -regarded as a standard hanging weight (64 pounds). This object -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>[pg 159]</span> -was found by Sir A. Evans at Knossos in Crete, in the "Palace of -Minos," and may be dated roughly at 2000 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> A set of very -early weights of the Mycenaean period from Cyprus is in Case 41, -consisting of haematite objects in the form of sling bolts (No. <span class="bhead">460</span>), -passing in a series of gradations from large to small. No definite -system can, however, be deduced from these weights.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/159-1200.png"><img src="images/159-600.png" width="600" height="245" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 194.—Lead and Bronze Weights.</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>The Greek weights of the historic period here shown are mainly -of two leading standards, known as the Aeginetan and the Solonian -or Attic. The standard weight of the Aeginetan system was the -heavy mina of 9,722 grains (about 1<b><small><sup>2</sup></small>⁄<small>5</small></b> lb. avoirdupois). The Solonian -(Euboic) mina weighed normally 6,737 grains (nearly 1 lb. avoirdupois), -but there was a special heavy mina in use which weighed -exactly double the normal. This last was the original mina introduced -by Solon, which gradually gave way to the light mina of half its -weight. Weights of the Aeginetan and Solonian systems are here -exhibited. Through incompleteness or inaccuracy they often show -considerable variation from the norm. The mina was subdivided into -100 drachmae, and the drachma into 6 obols. Certain stamped -devices distinguish these Attic weights, viz., the astragalos or -knuckle-bone, the amphora, the tortoise, the dolphin, and the -crescent. Fig. 194 shows three weights of the later Solonian standard: -(<em>a</em>) a mina in lead stamped with a dolphin and inscribed <ins title="Greek: MNA"><span class="sans">ΜΝΑ</span></ins> -(7,010 grs.) (No. <span class="bhead">461</span>); (<em>b</em>) a half mina in lead (3,399 grs.) with -the device of a tortoise and the inscription <ins title="Greek: Greek: DÊMO (= dêmou)"><span class="sans">ΔΗΜΟ</span> -(= δήμου)</ins>, "of the -people," (No. <span class="bhead">462</span>); and (<em>c</em>) a bronze weight of 4 drachmae (283 grs.) -stamped with an amphora and the word -<ins title="Greek: TESSARES"><span class="sans">ΤΕΣΣΑΡΕΣ</span></ins> -(No. <span class="bhead">463</span>). -Sometimes a half tortoise occurs, as in No. <span class="bhead">464</span>, a quarter mina, -or a half amphora, as on No. <span class="bhead">465</span>, a one-third mina. Various other -standards are represented in this Case, <i>e.g.</i> that of Kyzikos in Asia -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>[pg 160]</span> -Minor, but these need not be particularly described. A noteworthy -weight is the bronze one (No. <span class="bhead">466</span>), in the form of a series of rising -steps, inscribed on the top <ins title="Greek: DIOS"><span class="sans"> -ΔΙΟΣ</span></ins>. This probably is a temple-weight, -very likely used to weigh votive objects. Weights of a -similar type have been found at Olympia. The peculiar series of -stone weights (No. <span class="bhead">467</span>) decorated with female breasts was found -in the precincts of the temple of Demeter at Knidos, and may be -regarded as temple-weights, probably made as a votive offering. -They do not seem to correspond to any known standard.</p> - -<p>Some weights are marked as standards. A lead weight of -10,863 grains, with a design of two cornucopias (No. <span class="bhead">468</span>) is inscribed -<ins title="Greek: Etous dls' dêmosia mna"> -Ἔτους -δλςʹ -δημοσία -μνᾶ</ins>, <i>i.e.</i>, "In the year 234 a public (or standard) -mina." The date is probably by the Seleucid era, and equivalent -to 78 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Another example is the large square weight from -Herakleia in Bithynia, with a head of Herakles in relief (No. <span class="bhead">469</span>; -fig. 195). It is inscribed "To the divine Augusti and the people" -(<ins title="Greek: theois Sebastois kai tô damô">θεοῖς -Σεβαστοῖς -καὶ τῷ -δάμῳ</ins>) on the rim in front, and on the -sides with the names of the aediles P. Clodius Rufus and Tertius -Vacilius (weight 41,494 grs., nearly 6 lb. avoirdupois).</p> - -<p>We have instances of weights of artistic form in these Cases. -The hanging weights from steelyards in particular (No. <span class="bhead">470</span>; fig. -195) are often in the form of a head or bust.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Roman Weights.</span>—The standard was here the <em>libra</em> or pound, -which weighed 5,050 grains (being ·721 of the pound avoirdupois, -which is equal to 7,000 grains), and was subdivided into 12 <em>unciae</em> -or ounces, the ounce again being divided into 24 <em>scripula</em> or scruples. -The Roman weights are here grouped according to multiples or -divisions of the pound, and generally have their values marked -upon them in dotted characters. Thus the pound is marked <span class="sans">I</span>, the -half pound <span class="sans">S</span>(<em>emis</em>), and so on. The series, beginning at the bottom -of Case 51, runs 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1<b>½</b>, and 1 pounds. Fractions of the -pound are <b>½</b> lb. (semis) = 6 oz; <b>⅓</b> lb. (triens) = 4 oz.; <b>¼</b> lb. (quadrans) -= 3 oz.; <b><small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small>6</small></b> lb. (sextans) = 2 oz.; and one ounce. Fractions of -the ounce are <b>½</b> oz. = 12 scruples; <b>⅓</b> oz. = 8 scruples; <b>¼</b> oz. = 6 -scruples; <b>⅛</b> oz. = 3 scruples; <b><small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small>12</small></b> oz. = 2 scruples; and one scruple. -Some of the numerous dark stone weights have inscriptions, -showing that they had been certified by proper authority. Thus -one <em>libra</em> (No. <span class="bhead">472</span>) is inscribed: "On the authority of Q. Junius -Rusticus, city-prefect" [167 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>]. In Sicily and Magna Graecia -a weight called a <em>litra</em> was used instead of the Roman pound, weighing -rather less than the <em>libra</em>. A set of <em>litra</em> weights in bronze, of -late Imperial date, is shown in Case 41 (No. <span class="bhead">473</span>). An ounce weight -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>[pg 161]</span> -(marked <img src="images/161s-40.png" width="40" height="19" alt="inscription on ounce weight" style="margin-bottom: -0.3em;" /> in silver, and weighing 389 grains), belonging to -this series, is seen in fig. 194 above.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 560px;"><a href="images/161-1200.png"><img src="images/161-560.png" width="560" height="461" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 195.—Bronze Weights of Artistic Form</span> (<span class="sc">No. -400</span>, etc.). 4:7.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"><a href="images/162-1350.png"><img src="images/162-425.png" width="425" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 196.—Roman Bronze Steelyard (No. 475).</span> L. 12<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Weighing Instruments.</span>—Of these there are two chief -varieties, the simple balance (<em>libra</em>), and the steelyard (<em>statera</em>). In -the former weight is set against, weight, at equal distances from the -point of suspension. In the latter the object to be weighed, suspended -from the short arm of the lever, is set against a small weight -in an appropriate position on the long arm. The Greeks seem to -have used the former only; the Romans used both. The use of -the balance is illustrated by the Greek vase with the design of Hermes -weighing the souls of Achilles and Memnon, and by the Roman lamp -showing a stork weighing an elephant and a mouse (No. <span class="bhead">474</span>). The -steelyard was widely used in the Roman world. Owing to its -portability, it was doubtless much employed by hawkers and street-sellers, -as at the present day. We have also seen it above (p. <a href="#page158">158</a>) -in the pork-butcher's shop (No. <span class="bhead">459</span>). Out of the several steelyards -exhibited here, one example, from Catania in Sicily (No. <span class="bhead">475</span>; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>[pg 162]</span> -fig. 196), may be described in detail. It consists of a bronze rod of -square section, divided into two unequal portions. The shorter -portion has (<em>a</em>) two hooks suspended from chains attached to the -end of the rod by a movable collar working in a groove (the object -to be weighed was of course attached to these hooks); (<em>b</em>) three -hooks, placed at intervals of about <b>¾</b>, 1<b>½</b>, and -3 in. respectively from the collar, and suspended from small movable -rings. These hooks are in different planes, corresponding to three of -the four edges in the longer portion of the bar. The bar is graduated -on three of its four faces, viz., on the first with nine divisions, -each subdivided into twelfths. This scale was used when the steelyard -was suspended by the hook nearest the graduated bar (as in the fig.). -Objects weighing up to nine Roman pounds could thus be weighed by -moving a sliding weight along the bar. The figure V will be seen at -the fifth pound, the half pounds are marked by three dots, and the -twelfths correspond to the <em>unciae</em>. The second face begins -with VI and goes up to twenty-three pounds. It was used when the -steelyard was suspended by the middle hook. The third face starts -with XXII pounds, and goes up to fifty-nine pounds. In the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>[pg 163]</span> -second and third scales, multiples of five and ten pounds are marked -by the figures V and X. Fifty pounds is indicated by the letter <ins title="Greek: N (50)"><span class="sans">Ν</span></ins>, -which has that numerical value in the Greek notation. This third -scale was used in conjunction with the hook nearest the collar. -The sliding weight (now lost) must have weighed about 17,000 grs. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>[pg 164]</span> -(2<b><small><sup>3</sup></small>⁄<small>7</small></b> lb. avoirdupois). All the other steelyards here shown work on -this principle, though many have only two graduated scales and -two suspending hooks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px;"><a href="images/163-1100.png"><img src="images/163-355.png" width="355" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 197.—Steelyard from Smyrna (No. 476).</span></p></div> - -<p>Fig. 197 shows a highly ornate example of a steelyard (No. <span class="bhead">476</span>), -lately acquired from the neighbourhood of Smyrna. The weight -is in the form of a bust of Silenus. The larger hooks are designed -as heads of serpents, and the smaller hooks as heads of eagles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/164-1100.png"><img src="images/164-450.png" width="450" height="464" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 198.—Roman Bronze Balances (Nos. 477, 480).</span> Ca. 1:4.</p></div> - -<p>The steelyard principle was also applied by the Romans to -balances, with a view to avoiding the use of numerous small weights. -An example is No. <span class="bhead">477</span> (fig. 198), where one half of the bronze arm -is graduated with twelve divisions corresponding to scruples (<b><small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small>24</small></b> of -an ounce). The sliding weight would thus be used to determine -weights of less than half an ounce. The bar of another balance -(No. <span class="bhead">478</span>) had 24 such divisions for determining any weight below -the ounce. A saucepan from Pompeii (No. <span class="bhead">479</span>) in the Naples -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>[pg 165]</span> -Museum has the same principle applied to its handle, for weighing -the liquid contents. An interesting little balance (No. <span class="bhead">480</span>; -fig. 198) may be mentioned here. At one end is a fixed weight in -the form of a head (of the Sun-god?). This balance was adapted -to test the weight of an object weighing about 69 grains, perhaps -a Roman coin such as the <em>denarius</em> or <em>solidus</em>.</p> - -<p>In the lower part of Cases 43, 44 it will be noted that the arm -of a steelyard and one of the arms of a balance are shown, with a -bronze fitting (No. <span class="bhead">481</span>; fig. 199) designed to check the amplitude -of the oscillations. A corresponding piece may be seen on a railway -platform weighing machine. This piece was long misinterpreted -as a standard, etc., but its real intention is made certain by reliefs -at Treves (fig. 200) and Capua.</p> - -<div class="centerp"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/165a-390.png"><img src="images/165a-200.png" width="200" height="417" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 199.—Check for -Steelyard (No. 481).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 260px; margin-top: 10em;"><a href="images/165b-530.png"><img src="images/165b-260.png" width="260" height="282" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 200.—A Steelyard -in use.</span></p></div> -</div> - -<blockquote><p class="clear"> -(457, 458) Amelung, <i>Sculpt. d. Vat.</i>, pl. 30, p. 275 ff.; (459) <i>Arch. -Anzeiger</i>, IV., p. 102; (460) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, pl. xi., 368, etc. -On Greek and Roman weights see Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Pondus</i>; -<i>Cambridge Companion to Greek</i> and <i>to Latin Studies</i>; (466) Cf. <i>Olympia, -V. (Inschriften)</i>, p. 801 ff.; (467) Newton, <i>Disc. at Halicarnassus</i>, II., pp. -387 and 804; (469) <i>Mon. dell' Inst.</i>, 1855, pl. 1; (472) <i>C.I.L.</i>, XIII., -10030 (10); (474) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 595; (481) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 2909. -For Treves relief (fig. 200) cf. Hettner, <i>Illustr. Führer</i>, p. 6; for Capua -relief, cf. <i>Jahreshefte d. Oesterr. Arch. Inst., XVI., Beibl.</i>, p. 10; for the -standing balance, see also Stuart and Revett, IV., p. 15. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote52" name="footnote52"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag52">52:</a> -See <i>Ann. of Brit. School at Athens</i>, VII., p. 42, fig. 7.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>[pg 166]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XV.—TOOLS, BUILDING, AND SCULPTURE.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 45-48.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Tools.</span>—These are exhibited in Cases 45-46. The objects for -the most part speak for themselves, but attention may be called to -one or two of the most interesting. Such is the Roman bronze -set-square (No. <span class="bhead">482</span>; fig. 201), furnished with a base to enable it -to stand. Its outer edges would be used by masons or carpenters -to determine angles of 90° and 45° respectively. The inner angle -of 90° would be useful for testing the true position of objects set -at right angles to one another, such as the sides of a box, etc. The -simplest type of set-square, that formed by two edges at right -angles to one another, is seen in No. <span class="bhead">483</span>. Notice the set of bronze -plummets (No. <span class="bhead">484</span>), which were suspended from strings. The one -illustrated (fig. 201) has <em>Bassi</em>, "belonging to Bassus," inscribed -on it in punctured letters. Two other inscribed tools are of interest. -The one is the sickle-like iron blade from, perhaps, a gardener's -knife, with the inscription, "Durra made me" (No. <span class="bhead">485</span>), the -other a finely made Greek bronze chisel, bearing the name of -Apollodoros (No. <span class="bhead">486</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/166-1000.png"><img src="images/166-500.png" width="500" height="340" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 201.—Roman Set-square and Plummet (Nos. 482, 484).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Building materials and Sculptures.</span>—Cases 45-48 contain -objects illustrating the materials and methods of Greek and Roman -builders and sculptors. There are several Greek tiles dated by the -impression of a magistrate's name, <i>e.g.</i>, "Under Aeschyliskos," -"Under Apollodoros," the latter (No. <span class="bhead">487</span>) bearing traces of the -feet of a dog which has run across the tile before it was dry.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>[pg 167]</span></p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/167-910.png"><img src="images/167-450.png" width="450" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 202.—Roman Stamped Tile (No. 488).</span> -Ca. 1:3.</p></div> - -<p>The characteristic stamps on the Roman bricks of the Empire -were impressed by wooden blocks in which the legend was engraved -direct with a broad lettering, tending to exaggeration in the 3rd -century and later. The beginning of the inscription is marked by -a small raised circle, and the information given includes the name -of the estate (often imperial) from which the clay comes, the name -of the potter and his kiln, and sometimes the date by the consulship, -though all these pieces of information do not necessarily occur on -the same tile. As typical examples may be given: No. <span class="bhead">488</span>, here -illustrated (fig. 202), bearing the device of a pine-cone between -two branches, and the inscription <em>ex fig</em>(<em>linis</em>) <em>M. Herenni Pollionis -dol</em>(<em>iare</em>) <em>L. Sessi Successi</em>, "From the pottery of M. Herennius -Pollio; baked by L. Sessus Successus"; and No. <span class="bhead">489</span>, with the device of -Victory, and the inscription: "Brick from the Publinian pottery (made -with clay from) the estate of Aemilia Severa." A large number of the -estates from which the clay came were, it should be noted, owned by -women.</p> - -<p>No. <span class="bhead">490</span> is an example of a dated -brick—<em>Imp. Antonino II</em> (= <em>iterum</em>) <em>et -Br</em>(<em>u</em>)<em>ttio Co</em>(<em>n</em>)<em>s</em>(<em>ulibus</em>) <i>i.e.</i>, 139 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> -The stamp was first engraved by error with the name of Balbinus, consul of 137 <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, -and afterwards corrected by re-engraving <span class="sans">RTTIO</span> on <span class="sans">ALBIN</span>. No. -<span class="bhead">491</span> refers to the <em>portus</em>, <i>i.e.</i>, the depot of Licinius.</p> - -<p>Many of the bronze accessories of building are shown here, such -as two pairs of bronze door-knockers from Syria (No. <span class="bhead">492</span>).</p> - -<p>The bronze dowels (No. <span class="bhead">493</span>) were employed for fastening together -stone sections, such as the drums of columns. They are often in -the form of truncated cones placed base to base, the thickest part -being thus in the position where the strain was greatest (fig. 203<i>a</i>). -Other dowels from the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos are in the form -of bronze cylinders in collars of bronze, rigidly fixed by three key-pieces. -The cylinders were set in the great stone which closed the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>[pg 168]</span> -entrance of the Mausoleum, and were intended to drop half their -length into the corresponding sockets in the lower sill of the entrance -(Nos. <span class="bhead">494-495</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"><a href="images/168-810.png"><img src="images/168-400.png" width="400" height="381" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 203.—Bronze Dowel and Door-Pivot -(Nos. 493, 496).</span> 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>A series of bronze coverings (No. <span class="bhead">496</span>) for the pivots of doors -reminds us of the fact that in ancient times most of the doors worked -on a different principle from our own. The bronze-covered pivots -(fig. 203<em>b</em>), rigidly fixed to the door by a key-piece, turned in bronze -sockets(<em>c</em>) fitted into the lintel or threshold. This arrangement -explains the allusions to the grating of doors met with in ancient -writers.<a id="footnotetag53" name="footnotetag53"></a><a href="#footnote53"><sup>53</sup></a> Hinges of the modern type were, however, well known. -Examples are to be seen in Cases 47, 48, among them a hinge with -the fragments of the wood, to which it was originally attached, still -adhering (No. <span class="bhead">497</span>).</p> - -<p>Towards the end of the Republic and under the Empire the Romans -devoted much attention to the adornment of their buildings, public and -private. For this purpose marbles of every variety were imported from -all parts of the world, while an elaborate system of wall-painting was -also developed. Mamurra, an officer of Julius Caesar, is said to have -been the first to veneer the walls of his house with marble. A few -selected examples from the Tolley collection of polished specimens of -the materials used in ancient Rome are here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">498</span>). The -whole collection comprises some 700 specimens, so that we cannot be -surprised that Pliny declines to enumerate the varieties known in his -day, on account of the vastness of their number.<a id="footnotetag54" name="footnotetag54"></a><a href="#footnote54"><sup>54</sup></a> The simpler -building materials used at Rome were, besides the tiles or bricks -already mentioned, the hard limestone rock known as travertine and the -volcanic tufa and peperino. A specimen of the last is shown here.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>[pg 169]</span></p> - -<p>The place of hanging pictures in ancient houses was largely -taken by fresco wall-paintings, several fragments of which are here -shown. The floors of the houses were not covered with carpets, -but were frequently decorated with mosaics, which might range -from simple geometric patterns in black and white (as in many of -the specimens here seen) to elaborate pictorial designs. The -construction of these pavements, out of small stone cubes (<em>tesserae</em>) -set in cement, is clearly seen in the examples exhibited. Genuine -mosaic was sometimes imitated in painted plaster. One or two -such fragments can be seen in the Case.</p> - -<p>As examples of the processes of sculpture, note a half-finished -figure of a seated Sphinx (No. <span class="bhead">499</span>); and a -cast (No. <span class="bhead">500</span>) of a half-finished figure of Hermes, from a private -collection. The sculptor has made free use of the drill for the -roughing out of the figure, and at the same time has brought the -exposed parts to a high degree of finish. A piece of bead and reel -moulding (No. <span class="bhead">501</span>) is also unfinished.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">484</span>) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v., <i>Perpendiculum</i>.</p> - -<p>(<span class="bhead">488</span>) For the stamped Roman bricks see, <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, E 148-153. -For <i>C.I.L.</i> reff., see <i>ibid.</i> (but E 151 = <i>C.I.L.</i> xv. 214).</p> - -<p>(<span class="bhead">494</span>, <span class="bhead">495</span>) Newton, <i>Disc. at Halicarnassus</i>, II (1) p. 97; <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, -II, 990, 991.</p> - -<p>(<span class="bhead">498</span>) Cf. Pullen, <i>Handbook of Ancient Roman Marbles</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote53" name="footnote53"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag53">53:</a> -Virgil, <i>Ciris</i>, 222:</p> - -<div class="poem2"><div class="stanza"> -<p>Marmoreo aeratus stridens in limine cardo.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote54" name="footnote54"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag54">54:</a> -<i>H.N.</i> xxxvi. 54.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XVI.—HORSES AND CHARIOTS.<a name="page169a" id="page169a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 49-51.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Chariots and Carts.</span>—The war-chariot plays a conspicuous -part in the Homeric poems, and the horse and chariot are there -so closely identified that we find the phrase "he leapt from his -horses" used as equivalent to "he leapt from his chariot." After -the Homeric age, however, the use of the chariot in war died out -in Greece and it thenceforward appears most conspicuously in the -great Greek games, where it was used for racing purposes. A very -early example of this racing chariot may be seen on a Boeotian bowl -of the eighth century (on the top of Case D, First Vase Room).<a id="footnotetag55" name="footnotetag55"></a><a href="#footnote55"><sup>55</sup></a> -Here are depicted two chariots with a high open framework at -front and back, each drawn (apparently) by a single horse, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>[pg 170]</span> -driven by a man clothed in a long robe distinctive of the Greek -charioteer. There is little doubt that in reality the chariots are -meant to be drawn by two horses, and that the deceptive appearance -is due to the limitations of the artist. On Greek monuments -of a later date than this vase, the light racing chariot is constantly -represented. Some primitive chariots in terracotta and stone from -Cyprus are also shown in Case 50.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/170-1200.png"><img src="images/170-600.png" width="600" height="446" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 204.—Roman Racing Chariot (No. 502).</span> L. 10<b>½</b> -in.</p></div> - -<p>Roman chariots are represented by a good bronze model -(No. <span class="bhead">502</span>; fig. 204) found in the Tiber. This is a racing car, -drawn at full speed by two horses, one of which is now lost. It -corresponds closely to the cars used for racing in the circus, such -as may be seen in Case 110. At the end of the pole (appearing -just behind the horse's mane) is a decoration in the form of a -ram's head, an ornament of the same character as the four bronze -objects placed with the horse-muzzles in the upper part of Case 51 -(No. <span class="bhead">503</span>). These have decorations in the form of the bust of a -Satyr blowing a horn, and busts of a boy, an Amazon, and a Cupid -respectively. In the lowest parts of Cases 50 and 51 are various -bronze decorations, which have no doubt belonged to axle-boxes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>[pg 171]</span> -and other parts of a chariot, but their exact arrangement is not -clear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/171-1200.png"><img src="images/171-600.png" width="600" height="343" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 205.—Roman Car for Carrying Images to the Circus (No. -506).</span> L. 2 ft. 10<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Another form of Roman car is illustrated by the fine hanging -bronze lamp representing the Moon-goddess (Luna), drawn in her -chariot by a pair of bulls (No. <span class="bhead">504</span>). The lamp was for three -wicks, two on the outer sides of the bulls, and one at the back of -Luna's head. The goddess is represented on coins of the second -and third century after Christ in a similar bull-car.<a id="footnotetag56" name="footnotetag56"></a><a href="#footnote56"><sup>56</sup></a> A terracotta -(No. <span class="bhead">505</span>) is in the form of a four-wheeled hooded waggon, probably -a travelling car of the type called <ins title="Greek: apênê"> -ἀπήνη</ins> by the Greeks and <em>raeda</em> -by the Romans. In the top of Case 49 is a marble relief (No. <span class="bhead">506</span>; -fig. 205) representing a covered two-wheeled cart drawn by four -horses. The sides of the cart are decorated with reliefs, depicting -Jupiter and the two Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux. Probably the -car is a <em>tensa</em>, used to convey images of the gods to and from the -circus on the occasion of the games, and for other religious purposes. -The relief formed part of a sarcophagus of about the third century -after Christ.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Horse-trappings.</span>—Case 50 contains two interesting sets of -bronze harness of an early date from Italy, probably of the eighth -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>[pg 172]</span> -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">507</span>). They are mounted upon leather, and -placed on models of horses' heads; the sidepieces of the bits are -themselves in the form of horses. Of much later date, perhaps -of the fifth or fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, is the Greek bit from Achaea -(No. <span class="bhead">508</span>; fig. 206). It is remarkable for its severe character, but -was certainly not out of the ordinary, for a bit of precisely similar -character is described by Xenophon in his treatise on horsemanship -(early fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>).<a id="footnotetag57" name="footnotetag57"></a><a href="#footnote57"><sup>57</sup></a> -He says there were two varieties of -this type of bit, the mild and the severe. In the present example -we may probably recognise the severe variety, which had "the -'wheels' heavy and small and the 'hedgehogs' sharp, in order -that the horse when he got it into his mouth might be distressed -by its roughness and give up resisting." The "wheels" are clearly -the central discs for pressing on the tongue, while the prickly -cylinders at the sides were aptly termed "hedgehogs" by the -Greeks. In this same Case there are also examples of the milder -Roman bit, one in iron and another in lead, perhaps intended for -votive use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/172-1000.png"><img src="images/172-500.png" width="500" height="384" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 206.—Greek Bit (No. 508).</span> Width, ca. 9 in.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>[pg 173]</span></p> - -<p>Case 51 contains three examples of muzzles for horses (No. <span class="bhead">509</span>), -nearly complete, with a fragment of a fourth. These muzzles are in -bronze, but we can hardly expect that this was the usual material. -Probably the bronze examples were reserved for state occasions -or else only used by the very wealthy. The muzzles depicted on -vases seem rather to be of some pliant material—leather, for example. -It is probable that all the bronze examples in this Case belong to the -Greek period, though the one here illustrated (fig. 207) has been assigned -to as late a date as the fourth century after Christ. The muzzle was -only used when the horse was being rubbed down or led, not when he was -ridden or driven. Xenophon<a id="footnotetag58" name="footnotetag58"></a><a href="#footnote58"><sup>58</sup></a> -observes that "the groom must understand how to put the muzzle on the -horse, when he takes him out to rub him or to roll him. And, indeed, -wherever he takes him without a bridle, he ought to muzzle him." The -muzzles must have been fastened to the horse's head by straps attached -to the rings seen on each side of them.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 270px;"><a href="images/173-590.png"><img src="images/173-270.png" width="270" height="456" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 207.—Bronze Horse-Muzzle -(No. 509).</span> Ht. ca. 9 in.</p></div> - -<p>It has been a subject of controversy whether Greek and Roman horses -were shod. There is no mention of horse-shoes in Greek -literature, and it seems improbable that they were used by the -Greeks. Xenophon advises the use of a specially constructed -stone floor for hardening the horse's hoofs,<a id="footnotetag59" name="footnotetag59"></a><a href="#footnote59"><sup>59</sup></a> but in spite of such -precautions, it is not surprising to hear that the Athenian cavalry -horses sometimes went lame as a result of continuous work on hard -ground.<a id="footnotetag60" name="footnotetag60"></a><a href="#footnote60"><sup>60</sup></a> Horse-shoes are occasionally (though rarely) spoken of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>[pg 174]</span> -in Roman literature. Their use seems to have been quite exceptional -as when Nero, for instance, had his mules shod with silver.<a id="footnotetag61" name="footnotetag61"></a><a href="#footnote61"><sup>61</sup></a> In -the lower part of Case 51 will be seen a series of iron shoes of the -Roman period (No. <span class="bhead">510</span>; fig. 208), for the most part found in the -south of France. It is impossible to believe that these were -ever used as ordinary horse-shoes. The most plausible theory -is that they were "hobbles," put on the feet of horses and other -quadrupeds to prevent them straying. The upper part of this same Case -contains sets of spurs (No. <span class="bhead">511</span>), most of them probably Roman. The -arrangement for attaching the spurs to the heel varies. Two have loops -formed by the head and neck of swans, three have discs or knobs, while -another has holes for laces.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/174-860.png"><img src="images/174-400.png" width="400" height="277" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 208.—Iron Hobble (No. 510).</span> 1:4.</p></div> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">502</span>) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 2695; (<span class="bhead">503</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, 2696 ff.; (<span class="bhead">504</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, -2520; (<span class="bhead">505</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, C 612; (<span class="bhead">506</span>) <i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i>, III., 2310; -(<span class="bhead">507</span>) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 357; (<span class="bhead">508</span>) Cf. Pernice, <i>Griech. Pferdegeschirr</i>, pll. ii. -and iii. (56th <i>Winckelmannsfestprogramm</i>); (<span class="bhead">509</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, pl. i. and pp. 6-16; -(<span class="bhead">510</span>) Cf. <i>Rev. Arch.</i>, 1900 (36), p. 296 ff; Smith, <i>Dict. of Ant.</i><sup>3</sup>, s.v. <i>Solea</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote55" name="footnote55"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag55">55:</a> -See <i>Journal of Hell. Stud.</i>, xix., pl. 8.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote56" name="footnote56"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag56">56:</a> -<i>E.g.</i>, on <i>B.M. Coins of Ionia</i>, pl. xx. 7 (Coin of Magnesia: Gordianus -Pius).</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote57" name="footnote57"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag57">57:</a> -Xen., <i>De re eq.</i> x. 6: <ins title="Greek: prôton men toinyn chrê ou meion duoin chalinoin"> -<span class="foo">πρῶτον μὲν -τοίνυν χρὴ -οὐ μεῖον -δυοῖν -χαλινοῖν</span></ins><br /> - -<ins title="Greek: kektêsthai · toutôn de estô ho men leios, tous trochous eumegetheis echôn, ho de"> -κεκτῆσθαι; -τούτων δὲ -ἔστω ὁ μὲν -λεῖος, τοὺς -τροχοὺς -εὐμεγέθεις -ἔχων, ὁ δὲ</ins><br /> - -<ins title="Greek: heteros tous men trochous kai bareis kai tapeinous, tous d' echinous oxeis, hina"> -ἕτερος τοὺς -μὲν -τροχοὺς -καὶ βαρεῖς -καὶ -ταπεινούς, -τοὺς δ' -ἐχίνους -ὀξεῖς, ἵνα</ins><br /> - -<ins title="Greek: hopotan men touton labê, aschallôn tê trachytêti dia touto aphiê"> -ὅποταν μὲν -τοῦτον -λάβῃ, -ἀσχάλλων τῇ -τραχύτητι διὰ -τοῦτο -ἀφίῃ.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote58" name="footnote58"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag58">58:</a> -<i>De re eq.</i> v. 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote59" name="footnote59"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag59">59:</a> -Xen., <i>op. cit.</i>, iv. 3.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote60" name="footnote60"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag60">60:</a> -Thuc., vii. 27, 5.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote61" name="footnote61"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag61">61:</a> -Suet., <i>Ner.</i> 30.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XVII.—AGRICULTURE.<a name="page174a" id="page174a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Case 52.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>Farming, the rearing of live stock, the cultivation of corn, vines -and olives were practised by the earliest civilisations of the Aegean, -and of Greece.</p> - -<p>The use of the plough was also known at that distant period. -In this Case are shown three bronze ploughshares (No. <span class="bhead">512</span>), -which belong to the Mycenaean Age, and were found in Cyprus. -A plough in its most primitive form was merely the trunk of a -tree which served as the pole, with two branches on opposite -sides, one forming the share, the other the handle. This was the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>[pg 175]</span> -plough in one piece spoken of by Hesiod. The Mycenaean ploughshare -belongs to a later development, when the plough is made -up of several parts, the "joined plough" of Homer and Hesiod. -Such is the plough seen in the very primitive bronze group (No. <span class="bhead">513</span>), -where it is in the act of being turned at the end of the furrow. To -effect the turning the two oxen are pulling the yoke in opposite -directions. A black-figured vase of the sixth century, here exhibited -(No. <span class="bhead">514</span>), shows the later plough in a simple form, which has -changed but little for many centuries, as may still be observed -in the East. The different parts can be seen more clearly from a -bronze votive plough of the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> at Florence (fig. 209). -It is made up of (1) a horizontal share-beam, to which is fastened -the iron share, (2) a pole, at the end of which is the yoke, (3) the -vertical handle. This type of plough is exactly described by Virgil -in the <em>Georgics</em>.<a id="footnotetag62" name="footnotetag62"></a><a href="#footnote62"><sup>62</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/175a-1000.png"><img src="images/175a-500.png" width="500" height="212" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 209.—Bronze Votive Plough.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/175b-1200.png"><img src="images/175b-600.png" width="600" height="181" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 210.—Wine being Decocted (No. 518).</span> L. 1 ft. 9 -in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/176-1500.png"><img src="images/176-600.png" width="600" height="405" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 211.—Men Gathering Olives (No. 521).</span> Ca. 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>The ploughman was followed by the sower, who is represented -on the vase mentioned above (No. <span class="bhead">514</span>) with a basket from which -he scatters the seed in the furrow. At harvest-time a sickle was used -to cut the grain, of which instrument two iron specimens are shown -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>[pg 176]</span> -in the Case, from Lycia in Asia Minor (No. <span class="bhead">515</span>). Winnowing the -grain was accomplished either by means of a shovel or a basket of -peculiar shape (<ins title="Greek: liknon">λίκνον</ins>, <em>vannus</em>); on a terracotta relief in the -Museum (D 525, Case 75, Terracotta Room Annexe) the infant -Dionysos is being rocked in one of these objects instead of a cradle, -by a Satyr and a Nymph.</p> - -<p>Of fruit crops the vine and the olive were by far the most -important in the Greek and Roman world, and great attention was -paid to their cultivation. The operations involved in the manufacture -of both wine and oil find many illustrations among ancient -works of art. The gathering of grapes is illustrated by a Roman -terracotta relief (No. <span class="bhead">516</span>) exhibited in the Case, where a Satyr -is picking grapes from a vine. Another relief of the same class -(No. <span class="bhead">517</span>) depicts the treading out of the grapes in the wine-press, -also by Satyrs, two of whom are balancing themselves by -holding a ring between them while they tread the grapes in an -oblong trough to the tune of flutes. An elderly Satyr brings up -fresh supplies in a basket. The massive bronze rings commonly -known as "athletes' rings" may have been used at the wine-press -(No. <span class="bhead">517*</span>).</p> - -<p>The must or new wine was partly used for drinking as soon as -ready, partly decocted into a sort of jelly (<em>defrutum</em>), and partly -stowed in cellars in large casks or jars (<em>dolia</em>); in the latter case -after being fermented for nine days it was covered up and sealed. -The commoner kinds were drunk direct from the <em>dolia</em>, the finer -sorts drawn off into amphorae and stored up. On the marble -reliefs here given (No. <span class="bhead">518</span>; fig. 210) we have a representation of -the conversion of the must into <em>defrutum</em>: two men are attending -to a caldron placed over a fire, while a third is pouring wine from -an amphora into another caldron, and a fourth is waiting to fill a -jug from the same. In the lowest part of the Case is exhibited -the upper part of an amphora with long neck and two handles -(whence the frequent term <em>diota</em>), as an example of those used for -the storage of wine. The terracotta figure of a man carrying a -wineskin and one of these <em>diotae</em> (No. <span class="bhead">519</span>), and a Roman lamp -depicting slaves carrying casks of wine, should also be noted (No. -<span class="bhead">520</span>).</p> - -<p>The cultivation of the olive is well illustrated by a black-figured -vase of the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">521</span>; fig. 211), showing -a primitive method of gathering the fruit: a youth has climbed to -the top of the tree, and he and two men are beating the branches -with sticks to bring the fruit down, while another youth collects it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>[pg 178]</span> -in a vessel. This method is expressly condemned by Varro, an -early Roman writer on agriculture.<a id="footnotetag63" name="footnotetag63"></a><a href="#footnote63"><sup>63</sup></a></p> - -<p>In order to extract the oil from the pulp of the fruit, it was -necessary to use a press of some kind, such as we see on the terracotta -relief here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">522</span>; fig. 212), of the first century -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> Here the press consists of flat stones between which layers -of olives are placed; to the uppermost stone is fastened a long -pole, which serves as a lever, and is being worked by two Satyrs; -round the press a rope is wound many times. Compare the large -vase in the Hall of Inscriptions (<i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, 2502).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;"><a href="images/178-780.png"><img src="images/178-360.png" width="360" height="460" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 212.—Satyrs at Oil-Press (No. 522).</span> Ht. 7 in.</p></div> - -<p>The remaining objects in this Case are mostly illustrative of -men or beasts of burden engaged in agricultural and kindred -occupations, such as the goat-herd depicted on a Roman lamp, to -whom the name of Titurus is applied, with reference to Virgil's first -Eclogue (No. <span class="bhead">523</span>; fig. 213). The bronze figure of a donkey -(No. <span class="bhead">524</span>) with panniers recalls the ornament of Trimalchio's -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>[pg 179]</span> -dinner-table described by Petronius, and may have served a similar -purpose. Model panniers, and terracottas of a donkey and a camel -with the panniers laden with rural produce, should also be noted. -Several model carts from Amathus, in terracotta, are either flat-bottomed, -for general use, or in vase-shape, for the transport of -wine or other liquids (No. <span class="bhead">525</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"><a href="images/179-780.png"><img src="images/179-370.png" width="370" height="471" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 213.—Goatherd with Flock (No. 523).</span> Diam. 3<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">512</span>) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 15, 1477; (<span class="bhead">516</span>, <span class="bhead">517</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, -D 542, D 544; (<span class="bhead">518</span>) <i>Cat. of Sculpture</i>, III., 2212; (<span class="bhead">520</span>) <i>Cat. of -Lamps</i>, 1142; (<span class="bhead">521</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 226; (<span class="bhead">522</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, -D 550. Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Torcular</i>; (<span class="bhead">523</span>) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, -661; (<span class="bhead">524</span>) Cf. Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Clitellae</i>; (<span class="bhead">525</span>) <i>Excavations -in Cyprus</i>, p. 112. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote62" name="footnote62"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag62">62:</a> -i. 169 ff.; Cf. Gow, <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i>, xxxiv., p. 249.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote63" name="footnote63"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag63">63:</a> -Varro, <i>Res Rust.</i> i. 55: <span class="foo">de oliveto oleam ... legere oportet potius -quam quatere.</span></p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>[pg 180]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XVIII.—INDUSTRIAL ARTS.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case H.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>In Table Case H we have objects illustrating the craft of the metal -worker, the potter, the turner, and the woodworker.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/180-1200.png"><img src="images/180-600.png" width="600" height="372" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 214.—Limestone Half-Mould, with Cast from Same (No. -531).</span> Ht. 4<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Towards one end of the case are objects illustrating the processes -of metal work. A Greek vase of the sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> depicts a -man in the act of thrusting a mass of metal into a blazing furnace. -Anvil, tongs, and hammers are visible (No. <span class="bhead">526</span>). Beside it is a -reproduction of a Vase in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, showing -an armourer at work on a helmet (No. <span class="bhead">527</span>). Two limestone -moulds of a very early period are for casting primitive implements -(No. <span class="bhead">528</span>). Note also a mould (No. <span class="bhead">529</span>) for a metal weight of a -type similar to that with the head of Herakles in Case 41. The -mould shows a female head with a cornucopia before it, apparently -a personification of Profit (<ins title="Greek: Kerdos">Κέρδος</ins>), whose name appears above -the head. Another mould (No. <span class="bhead">530</span>) is intended for a series of -lead weights of values <ins title="Greek: a' to ê'">αʹ to ηʹ</ins>, that is, 1 to 8. (Compare a -similar set in Case 42.) It should be observed that the moulds seen -here are, for the most part, only half-moulds, or in some cases even -less. A corresponding half-mould had to be placed in position before -casting could be effected. This is well shown by a limestone -half-mould <span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>[pg 181]</span> from Rome (No. <span class="bhead">531</span>; fig. 214) for casting lead -counters, with designs representing Victory, Fortune, and Athena. Here -can be seen the channels by which the molten metal was introduced, and -the holes for the studs joining the two half-moulds together. In one -of these a lead stud still remains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/181a-880.png"><img src="images/181a-350.png" width="350" height="269" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 215.—Part of Mould for a Ring of the shape indicated (No. 532).</span></p></div> - -<p>The steatite mould for a ring of the Mycenaean period (No. <span class="bhead">532</span>; Fig. -215) required a counterpart piece, and a third piece at the bottom to -complete it. Some of the steatite moulds which have no channels for -the molten metal, were probably used for the production of ornaments -by pressing and rubbing thin foil into the forms.</p> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a href="images/181b-300.png"><img src="images/181b-150.png" width="150" height="307" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 216.—Greek Potter at Work (No. 533).</span> Ht. 4<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"><a href="images/181c-900.png"><img src="images/181c-400.png" width="400" height="296" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 217.—Potter's Wheel in Terracotta -(No. 534).</span> Diam. 9<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter clear" style="width: 380px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/182a-760.png"><img src="images/182a-380.png" width="380" height="379" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 218.—Greek Potter attaching -Handle to Vase (No. 535).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/182b-1000.png"><img src="images/182b-500.png" width="500" height="463" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 219.—Potter's Kiln (No. 536).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/183a-750.png"><img src="images/183a-350.png" width="350" height="391" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 220.—Clay Lamps Spoiled in Baking (No. 538).</span> Ca. 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/183b-1000.png"><img src="images/183b-500.png" width="500" height="345" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 221.—Stamps for Making Moulds for Vases in Relief (No. -545).</span></p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">The Potter.</span>—At the end of the case are exhibits connected -with potters and pottery. Here is seen the limestone figure of a -Greek potter from Cyprus (No. <span class="bhead">533</span>; fig. 216), seated and modelling -clay on the wheel. He reminds us of Homer's description of the -potter's action when he compares the whirling motion of dancers -to the revolving of a potter's wheel—"a motion exceeding light, as -when a potter sits and makes trial of a wheel fitted to his hands, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>[pg 182]</span> -to see whether it will run."<a id="footnotetag64" name="footnotetag64"></a><a href="#footnote64"><sup>64</sup></a> Immediately behind is a potter's -wheel in terracotta (No. <span class="bhead">534</span>; fig. 217), which has in the centre a -depression for the insertion of the pivot on which it turned. It was -found on a primitive site at Gournià in Crete. As the clay spun round -on the wheel the potter moulded it into shape inside and outside with -his hands. The foot, the handles, and the neck of the vase were -moulded separately as a rule and attached afterwards to the body. A -design on a sixth century Greek vase here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">535</span>; fig. -218), depicts a Greek potter in the act of attaching a handle to a cup -which rests upon a wheel. When the vase or other object had been -modelled in clay, it then had to be fired. For this purpose a kiln was -required, such as one (probably Roman) excavated at Shoeburyness, a -model of which is here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">536</span>). It consists of a -barrel-shaped chamber, at about half <span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>[pg 183]</span> the height of which is a -horizontal table on a conical support, with eight round openings -pierced in its circumference to allow the heat to penetrate above. -Fuel was introduced below through a small fire-chamber constructed at -the side (fig. 219). The packing of the objects to be fired required -considerable care. For this purpose the so-called "cockspurs" (No. -<span class="bhead">537</span>) were used for the larger pieces. But sometimes there were -failures, such as the two batches of Roman lamps seen in this Case, -which have become fused together in the baking (No. <span class="bhead">538</span>; fig. 220). If -it survived the risks of manufacture, the pot often needed repair when -in use, and several examples are shown of rivets, large and small, -employed for this purpose (No. <span class="bhead">539</span>). The cover of a toilet-box (No. -<span class="bhead">540</span>) shows the method of painting employed in the Greek red-figured -vases; here the grotesque head has been outlined in black, but the -background has not been filled in with black in the usual way. Two -terracotta heads with projecting stumps (No. <span class="bhead">541</span>) show the manner in -which the terracotta figurines were built up of several <span class="pagenum"><a -name="page184" id="page184"></a>[pg 184]</span> parts. The heads were inserted -into holes in the trunks, and were then fastened in position with -clay. An unfinished clay relief (No. <span class="bhead">542</span>) of a man with his dog, shows -the first process in the production of modelled relief, such as those -in the Room of Terracottas, Case 8.</p> - -<p>A mould (No. <span class="bhead">543</span>) for making a bowl of the ware called -Arretine from its place of manufacture, Arretium in Central Italy, -is shown, with a cast from the mould beside it. An impression is -also shown of the mark of M. Perennius, the most noted of the -Arretine potters, in combination with his slave Bargates (No. <span class="bhead">544</span>). -Near the mould are stamps, one with a design of a slave heating -some fluid in a caldron, and others of a bear and lion (No. <span class="bhead">545</span>; -fig. 221). These stamps were used for producing the designs in -the moulds, being impressed in the clay while it was soft. Several -specimens of these moulds and bowls, which are of about the first -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, will be seen in Cases 39-40 of the Fourth Vase Room.</p> - -<p>The moulds for parts of Roman lamps, show the way in which these -objects were produced. The clay was pressed into the lower mould (such -as No. <span class="bhead">546</span>; fig. 222) and also into a corresponding upper mould -(compare No. <span class="bhead">547</span>), and then the two halves were joined together and -ready for baking.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a href="images/184-500.png"><img src="images/184-250.png" width="250" height="315" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 222.—Mould for Lower Part of Clay Lamp (No. 546).</span> L. 4<b>¼</b> in.</p></div> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">526</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 507; (<span class="bhead">528</span>) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 26, -fig. 50; (<span class="bhead">531</span>) Cf. <i>Bull. della Comm. Arch.</i> xxxiii. (1905), p. 146 ff; (<span class="bhead">532</span>) -<i>Cat. of Jewellery</i>, No. 609; (<span class="bhead">533</span>) <i>Excavations in Cyprus</i>, p. 93, fig. 145; -(<span class="bhead">535</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i> II., B 432; (<span class="bhead">536</span>) <i>Proc. of Soc. of Ant.</i>, Ser. II., -xvi., p. 40; (<span class="bhead">542</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, B 376. pl. 20; (<span class="bhead">545</span>) <i>Cat. of -Roman Pottery</i>, M 82, 83; (<span class="bhead">546</span>) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 1401. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Gems and Pastes.</span>—In the next division of Case H are objects -illustrating the processes of producing Gems and Pastes. These -include a series of scarabs, scarabaeoids, and other beads at various -stages of manufacture (No. <span class="bhead">548</span>); a series of clay moulds for -Graeco-Egyptian porcelain scarabs from Naukratis (No. <span class="bhead">549</span>) and -a fine specimen of a paste cameo head of Silenos (No. <span class="bhead">550</span>). Here -also are examples of stone socket-handles for a bow-drill (No. <span class="bhead">551</span>). -In this and the next compartment several pieces of work are incised -with designs intended to be filled in with inlay (No. <span class="bhead">552</span>). See -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>[pg 185]</span> -also a series of fragments of an acanthus pattern in ivory, evidently -intended to be inlaid. A piece of rock crystal is carved with ears -of corn in intaglio, gilded (No. <span class="bhead">553</span>). See also examples of enamel -work, of the period of the Roman empire, on studs, seal boxes, etc. -(cf. p. 135, 155).</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Woodworking, etc.</span>—An interesting wooden box of Roman -date is derived from Panticapaeum, in the Crimea (No. <span class="bhead">554</span>). -This has two sliding lids, above and below respectively, each -furnished with two catches. The interior was divided by a horizontal -partition, and was again subdivided into numerous small -divisions. An inlaid pattern decorates the border of the box. -Another box of simpler construction (No. <span class="bhead">555</span>) was found in a -grave in Bulgaria. Various specimens of fretwork in jet and ivory -are shown, and two pieces of an egg and tongue moulding, carved -in wood, and coloured with scarlet and gilding, from a sarcophagus, -also found at Panticapaeum (No. <span class="bhead">555*</span>).</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">The Lathe.</span>—In the next division are examples of work finished -on the lathe, in a variety of materials, as marble, alabaster, coloured -stones, crystal, bronze, ivory, bone, and wood; also a rough -piece of alabaster from Cyprus, derived from a lathe mandrel.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote64" name="footnote64"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag64">64:</a> <i>Il.</i> xviii. 600 ff.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XIX.—MEDICINE AND SURGERY.<a name="page185a" id="page185a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case H.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Greek Medicine.</span>—From the earliest times, as indicated by -passages in the Homeric poems, the Greeks practised simple forms -of surgery in such matters as the treatment of the wounded.<a id="footnotetag65" name="footnotetag65"></a><a href="#footnote65"><sup>65</sup></a> -In the historic age of Greece we find temple or wonder-working -medicine, practised in temples of Asklepios, especially at Epidaurus; -and at the same time a school of medicine, of the Asklepiadae, -seated in the island of Kos.</p> - -<p>A lively account of temple-healing is given in the <em>Plutus</em> of -Aristophanes, where the slave Karion relates the experiences of -his master and himself when passing the night in the temple.<a id="footnotetag66" name="footnotetag66"></a><a href="#footnote66"><sup>66</sup></a> -Examples of the votive offerings deposited in the temples by those -who had been made whole have been mentioned in the section on -Religion and Superstition, p. <a href="#page47">47</a> ff., and are to be seen in Cases -103-106.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>[pg 186]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/186-1200.png"><img src="images/186-600.png" width="600" height="223" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 223.—Greek Surgeon at Work (No. 556).</span></p></div> - -<p>The more serious side of Greek medicine is inseparably connected -with the name of Hippokrates (born 460 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>), though the -Koan school had existed some time before his birth. The Asklepiadae -were originally members of a single clan, but the admission -of persons from outside soon made the clan into a medical school. -The famous Hippokratean oath, imposed upon members of the -Koan school, shows the standard set up before the medical profession: -"I will conduct the treatment of the sick for their -advantage, to the best of my ability and judgment, and I will -abstain from all evil and all injustice. I will administer poison -to none, if asked to do so, nor will I ever make such a suggestion. -I will pass my life and exercise my art in innocence and purity." -In Greece there were both public and private physicians. There -were further dispensaries, or perhaps more accurately surgeries, -called <ins title="Greek: iatreia">ἰατρεῖα</ins>. -These were furnished with the necessary surgical -and medical appliances. The scene from a fifth century vase-painting -(No. <span class="bhead">556</span>; fig. 223)<a id="footnotetag67" name="footnotetag67"></a><a href="#footnote67"><sup>67</sup></a> -depicts a young surgeon at work in -an <ins title="Greek: iatreion">ἰατρεῖον</ins>. He is operating on a patient's arm (perhaps bleeding -him), while another man, also wounded in the arm, sits before him. -A dwarf slave is ushering other patients into the surgery, where -bleeding-cups are seen hanging on the wall. Patients also went to the -<ins title="Greek: iatreia">ἰατρεῖα</ins> to -get draughts of medicine.<a id="footnotetag68" name="footnotetag68"></a><a href="#footnote68"><sup>68</sup></a> -Before the Alexandrian age it is probable that medicine was in advance -of surgery, for up to that time no scientific study of anatomy had -been attempted. Aristotle observes that the internal organs of the -human body were<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>[pg 187]</span> -in his time very little known,<a id="footnotetag69" name="footnotetag69"></a><a href="#footnote69"><sup>69</sup></a> and what dissection there was must -have been practised on animals. The terracotta model (No. <span class="bhead">122</span>; -fig. 36, above) of the heart, liver, lungs and kidneys shows how -vague the ancient idea as to the position of these organs sometimes -was.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Roman Medicine.</span>—Medical science for a long time made -but little progress in Rome. The Greek physician Archagathos, -who began to practise there in 219 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, became extremely -unpopular owing to his bold methods of surgery.<a id="footnotetag70" name="footnotetag70"></a><a href="#footnote70"><sup>70</sup></a> The Roman -doctors were chiefly of Greek nationality, and not infrequently -were slaves or freedmen. Julius Caesar encouraged foreign -physicians to settle in Rome by granting them citizenship, and -under the early Empire Rome was overcrowded with medical -men, if we may believe Pliny and Martial.<a id="footnotetag71" name="footnotetag71"></a><a href="#footnote71"><sup>71</sup></a></p> - -<p>The objects illustrating Greek and Roman Medicine and Surgery -are exhibited in part of Table-Case H. First in importance are -the surgical instruments, a selection of which is shown in fig. 224. -With rare exceptions these instruments are of bronze. The principal -varieties are here represented. There are several knives or -bistouries, an excellent example being the one from Myndos in -Asia Minor, with the upper part of the handle inlaid with silver -(No. <span class="bhead">557</span>; fig. 224<em>g</em>). The lower part of the handle was in iron, -and has fallen away. The heavier bronze blades must have been used -for various purposes in connection with dissecting. The forceps -is fairly common. The interesting variety seen on the right of the -illustration (<em>k</em>) with its fine toothed ends (No. <span class="bhead">558</span>) is probably -an uvula forceps, used for crushing the part intended to be -amputated. An instrument frequently found is the spatula or -"spathomele" (No. <span class="bhead">559</span>; fig. 224 <em>a-c</em>, <em>e</em>, <em>f</em>), -so called from its flat broad end. This was principally employed for -mixing and spreading ointments, while the olive-shaped ends were used -as probes. Other instruments which call for notice are the -fine-toothed surgical saw (No. <span class="bhead">560</span>; fig. 224<em>h</em>), the sharp hook (No. -<span class="bhead">561</span>; fig. 224<em>d</em>), -used for "seizing and raising small pieces of tissue for excision, -and for fixing and retracting the edges of wounds." The bifurcated -probes (No. <span class="bhead">562</span>) were perhaps used for the extraction of arrows -and other weapons. A curious instrument (No. <span class="bhead">563</span>), the use of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>[pg 188]</span> -which was for long a puzzle, appears to be a folding drill-bow and -has been completed accordingly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"><a href="images/188-840.png"><img src="images/188-330.png" width="330" height="470" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 224.—Bronze Surgical Instruments</span> (<span class="sc">No. 557</span>, etc.). 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>More elaborate than any of these are the examples of surgical -appliances which have been found in the excavations at Pompeii, -and are now at Naples. These are represented here by a group of -electrotype reproductions, including anal and vaginal specula, and -other objects (No. <span class="bhead">564</span>).</p> - -<p>The bronze cupping-vessel (No. <span class="bhead">565</span>) should be noticed. Similar -vessels are seen suspended on the walls of the surgery depicted in -the vase-scene figured above (fig. 223). Burning lint or some other -lighted substance was placed in the vessel to rarify the air, and its -mouth was then applied to the part from which blood was to be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>[pg 189]</span> -extracted. One such cupping vessel appears on the marble relief -in the Phigaleian Room, representing a physician named Jason -treating a boy with a swollen stomach (Fig. 225). Compare a similar -consultation on an engraved gem, under the immediate superintendence -of Asklepios. The bronze box (No. <span class="bhead">566</span>), probably -from the Cyrenaica, was almost certainly used by a Roman -physician for his drugs. It is divided into several compartments, -each furnished with a separate cover, and has a sliding lid. Boxes -of a precisely similar character have been found with surgical -instruments. Compare also the cast from Athens of a votive relief -with a fitted case of instruments (No. <span class="bhead">567</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/189-850.png"><img src="images/189-330.png" width="330" height="466" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 225.—Marble Relief. Physician Treating Patient.</span> Ht. 2 ft. 7 in.</p></div> - -<p>A very interesting class of antiquities is furnished by the stamps -of oculists (No. <span class="bhead">569</span>). These take the form of square or oblong -plates, generally of steatite or slate. On the edges are engraved -inscriptions, giving the name of the oculist, the name of his specific, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>[pg 190]</span> -and its purpose. These salves were pounded on the stone into -a paste. They generally bear a Greek name, such as Diasmyrnes, -Crocodes, etc., indicating their composition. They appear to have -been made up into the form of sticks impressed with the engraved -edge of the stone, and put into cylindrical bronze boxes, which have -from time to time been found with Roman surgical instruments. -One or two examples of the stamps may be given: "Saffron ointment -for scars and discharges prepared by Junius Taurus after the prescription -of Paccius"<a id="footnotetag72" name="footnotetag72"></a><a href="#footnote72"><sup>72</sup></a> (fig. 226, bottom). "The anodyne of Q. -Junius Taurus for every kind of defective eyesight."<a id="footnotetag73" name="footnotetag73"></a><a href="#footnote73"><sup>73</sup></a> Puff names -for the drugs, such as "Invincible," "Inimitable," also occur. -An engraved gem, from a drug compounder's ring has a seated Athena and -the legend <span class="sans">HEROPHILI OPOBALSAMUM</span>—"Balsam of Herophilus" -(No. <span class="bhead">570</span>). Whether the balsam was named in honour of the founder of -scientific anatomy, or of a more obscure oculist of the first century -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, or of an unknown drug-seller cannot be determined. A set of -Roman lead weights, probably used for the weighing of drugs, is here -exhibited. They are marked 1 to 10, the unit probably being the -<em>scripulum</em> of 18 grains (No. <span class="bhead">571</span>). Two small lead pots placed near -the weights were used for holding eye-salves. One from Corfu bears the -letters <span class="sc"><span class="sans">A T</span></span>; the other, from Athens, has the tripod of Apollo, the god -of healing, and is inscribed "The Lykian salve from Musaeos" (No. -<span class="bhead">572</span>). Near these pots are spoons with channels for melting and pouring -the salves into wounds (No. <span class="bhead">573</span>). A piece of stone with corrugated -surfaces is thought to be for rolling pills (No. <span class="bhead">574</span>). The ivory -figure of a dwarf afflicted with a peculiar form of spinal curvature -causing pigeon-breastedness is a work of considerable spirit, probably -of the third century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">574*</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a href="images/190-850.png"><img src="images/190-400.png" width="400" height="406" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 226.—Stamp of the Oculist Junius -Taurus (No. 569).</span> 4:5.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>[pg 191]</span></p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">563</span>) <i>Cat. of Bronzes</i>, 2674; <i>Journ. of Hellenic Stud.</i> 34, p. 116; (<span class="bhead">567</span>) -Svoronos, <i>Athen. Nationalmus.</i> xlvii, 1378; (<span class="bhead">568</span>) Cf. Espérandieu, <i>Signacula -Medicorum Oculariorum</i>; (<span class="bhead">574*</span>) <i>Papers of the Brit. School at Rome</i>, -iv, pp. 279-282.</p> - -<p>See on ancient medicine and surgery generally, Daremberg and Saglio, -s.v. <i>Chirurgia</i>, <i>Medicus</i>; Milne, <i>Surgical Instruments in Greek and Roman -Times</i>; Deneffe, <i>Étude sur la trousse d'un chirurgien gallo-romain du III<sup>e</sup> -siècle</i> (found near Paris, 1880). -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote65" name="footnote65"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag65">65:</a> -Cf. <i>Il.</i> iv. 218; xi. 844.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote66" name="footnote66"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag66">66:</a> -Ar. <i>Plut.</i> 653 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote67" name="footnote67"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag67">67:</a> -See <i>Mon. Piot</i>, XIII. (1906), pl. xiii., p. 149 ff. From a vase in a -private collection in Paris.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote68" name="footnote68"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag68">68:</a> -Plat., <i>Leg.</i> i. 646: <ins title="Greek: Greek: tous eis ta iatreia autous badizontas epi pharmakoposian"> -<span class="foo">τοὺς εἰς τὰ -ἰατρεῖα -αὐτοὺς -βαδίζοντας -ἐπὶ -φαρμακοποσίαν.</span></ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote69" name="footnote69"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag69">69:</a> -<i>Hist. An.</i> i. 16.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote70" name="footnote70"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag70">70:</a> -Plin., <i>H.N.</i> xxix. 12 f.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote71" name="footnote71"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag71">71:</a> -Plin., <i>H.N.</i> xxix. 11: <span class="foo">hinc illae circa aegros miserae sententiarum -concertationes, hinc illa infelix monimenti inscriptio: turba se medicorum -periisse.</span><br />Cf. Martial, v. 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote72" name="footnote72"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag72">72:</a> -<span class="foo"><i>Juni Tauri crocod(es) Paccian(um) ad cicat(rices) et reum(a).</i></span></p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote73" name="footnote73"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag73">73:</a> -<span class="foo"><i>Q. Jun(i) Tauri anodynum ad omn(em) lippit(udinem).</i></span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XX.—MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS.<a name="page191a" id="page191a"></a></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/191a-1200.png"><img src="images/191a-600.png" width="600" height="113" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 227.—Roman Bronze Foot-Rule (No. 578).</span> L. 292 mm.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/191b-1000.png"><img src="images/191b-500.png" width="500" height="103" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 228.—Bronze Proportional Compasses (No. 579).</span> L. -7<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Measures.</span>—In Case H are a few examples of ancient measures -and geometrical instruments. A Greek clay cup (No. <span class="bhead">575</span>), inscribed -<ins title="Greek: hêmikotylion">ἡμικοτύλιον</ins>, -contains exactly half a pint. The Greek kotyle, -therefore, according to this standard, measured exactly a pint. -A copy of a well-known Roman standard gallon, the so-called -Farnese Congius, is in Case 44 (No. <span class="bhead">576</span>). Nos. <span class="bhead">577</span> and <span class="bhead">578</span> -are two Roman bronze foot-rules, measuring respectively 294 mm. -(11·6 in.) and 292 mm. (11·5 in.). The normal Roman foot -measured 296 mm., and was adopted under Greek influence, whereas -the early Italic foot had only measured 278 mm. (slightly under -11 in.). Fig. 227 (No. <span class="bhead">578</span>) shows the subdivisions of these foot -rules. One side is marked by dots into sixteenths (<em>digiti</em>); another -into twelfths (<em>unciae</em>); another into fourths (<em>palmi</em>). The -foot-rule illustrated has the remains of a catch (indicated in the fig.) for -keeping it rigid, when opened. There are several pairs of ordinary -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>[pg 192]</span> -compasses and dividers, and also two pairs of proportional (2:1) -compasses (No. <span class="bhead">579</span>). One of these is figured here (fig. 228). -Notice the method of tightening by means of a wedge, with the -object of keeping the compasses fixed in any particular position.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -<span class="bhead">Measures.</span>—(<span class="bhead">575</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, IV, F 595; (<span class="bhead">577</span>) Cf. Daremberg -and Saglio, s.v. <i>Pes</i>; <i>Hermes</i>, XXII., p. 17 ff. and p. 79 ff.; <i>Ath. Mitt.</i>, IX. (1884), p. 198 ff. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Bronze Stamps.</span>—The large bronze stamps shown in Case H -are somewhat akin to seals in their intention. But while the -engraved ring was usually employed for purely personal purposes, -such as the sealing of a letter or document, and the device of the -seal was more or less ornamental, the bronze tablets were used for -commercial or domestic purposes and seldom bear anything but -the name of the person using them.</p> - -<p>These tablets are of various forms, but the majority are rectangular, -and bear the owner's name, like the one in this Case from -Arles (No. <span class="bhead">580</span>), with the name of Q. Julius Renatus; others have -merely initials. Some are made in the form of a shoe or the sole -of a foot, and this is a shape frequently employed by the potters of -the Roman period in Italy for stamping their names on vases. -Other forms to be here observed are a leaf (No. <span class="bhead">581</span>), a ship -(No. <span class="bhead">582</span>), and a fish (No. <span class="bhead">583</span>). The letters in most cases are in -relief, producing an impression in <em>intaglio</em> on a soft substance such -as unbaked clay. They were probably used for the most part -for stamping the plaster stoppers of wine jars, loaves of bread and -such like objects.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/192-1000.png"><img src="images/192-500.png" width="500" height="279" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 229.—Rolling Stamp, with the name of Alexander (No. -584).</span></p></div> - -<p>An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of -Alexander (No. <span class="bhead">584</span>; fig. 229).</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>[pg 193]</span></p> - -<p class="space-above2">The remainder of the guide is devoted to the personal life of the -individual from the cradle to the grave. Successive sections are -devoted to Infancy and its Amusements; to Education and School -Life—to which sections on Writing and Painting are annexed; to -games, marriages, music, dancing, pet animals; and, finally, to -objects bearing on death and burial.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXI.—INFANCY. TOYS.<a name="page193a" id="page193a"></a></h2> -</div> - -<p>At the end of Case J are four terracotta models of cradles (No. <span class="bhead">585</span>) -with young children in them. One is a winged Eros, and one is -swaddled. Beside the cradles are three cups (No. <span class="bhead">586</span>), with spouts -shaped as mouth-pieces, which may be supposed to be for milk or pap. -Here also are two clay rattles (No. <span class="bhead">587</span>), and a child's wooden clapper -(No. <span class="bhead">588</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/193-700.png"><img src="images/193-320.png" width="320" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 230.—Child in High Chair -(No. 590).</span></p></div> - -<p>A set of small trefoil-lipped jugs (No. <span class="bhead">589</span>) is painted with designs -closely connected with child life. Children are shown playing with -jugs of this type, with animals and toy carts, or other objects. It is -probable that these jugs were given to Athenian children on the -festival day of the wine god Dionysos, which went by the name of <ins -title="Greek: Choes">Χόες</ins> ("Jugs"). Note No. -<span class="bhead">590</span> (fig. 230), with a child confined in a turret-shaped high chair, -and No. <span class="bhead">591</span> (fig. 231), with two children with draw-carts, each -holding a jug.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Toys.</span>—Children of all ages and nations bear a great -resemblance to one another; consequently, it is not surprising, -though it is always interesting, to find that Greek and Roman toys -are often very similar to those of modern times. At the corner of -Case J is a series of small reproductions of furniture, implements and -the like in lead, bronze, pottery and terracotta (No. <span class="bhead">592</span>). Often -no doubt, they are simply toys, like the furniture of a doll's house. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>[pg 194]</span> -Sometimes, however, they must be supposed to have had a more -serious votive character in a temple. In some cases, perhaps, they -were of both kinds. Among the treasures of Hera at Olympia, the -traveller Pausanias saw a small couch said to have been a plaything -of Hippodameia,<a id="footnotetag74" name="footnotetag74"></a><a href="#footnote74"><sup>74</sup></a> and it was not uncommon for children on -growing up to dedicate their toys in a temple.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/194a-1200.png"><img src="images/194a-600.png" width="600" height="264" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 231.—Greek Toy Jug (No. 591).</span> 1:1 and 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="centerp1"> -<div class="figleft" style="width: 240px;"><a href="images/194b-520.png"><img src="images/194b-240.png" width="240" height="457" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 232.—Greek Terracotta -Doll (No. 593).</span> Ht. 5<b>⅛</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px; margin-top: 5em;"><a href="images/194c-850.png"><img src="images/194c-400.png" width="400" height="387" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 233.—Old Woman on Mule -(No. 596).</span> 1:1.</p></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter clear" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/195-1000.png"><img src="images/195-500.png" width="500" height="459" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><a name="page194a"></a><span class="sc">Fig. 234.—Seated Doll, with Marriage-Bowl, Epinetron and -Shoes (No. 599).</span> Ca. 1:2.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/196-1500.png"><img src="images/196-600.png" width="600" height="279" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 235.—Terracotta Model Tops and Design from -Vase-Painting. (No. 600).</span> <br />Ht. of Model on right, 4<b>¼</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>The dolls that survive from Greek times were chiefly of terracotta, -and frequently furnished with movable arms and legs. It will be -noticed that most of these dolls have holes pierced in the top of -their heads for the passage of strings connected with the arms and sometimes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>[pg 195]</span> -with the legs. These would produce a movement of the arms -and legs, and explain the term <ins title="Greek: neurospasta">νευρόσπαστα</ins> ("drawn by strings") -applied to these dolls. In Xenophon's <em>Symposium</em> a travelling showman -speaks of being kept by the profits drawn from such puppets.<a id="footnotetag75" name="footnotetag75"></a><a href="#footnote75"><sup>75</sup></a> -One, holding castanets, is illustrated here (fig. 232; No. <span class="bhead">593</span>). -We get allusions in literature to these dolls and other small terracotta -figures, which show that one of their chief uses was the amusement -of children. One writer<a id="footnotetag76" name="footnotetag76"></a><a href="#footnote76"><sup>76</sup></a> speaks of "those who make little figures of -clay in the form of all kinds of animals destined for the beguiling of -little children." Such a figure is that of the donkey with a sea-perch -tied on its back (No. <span class="bhead">594</span>) or the fascinating group of the little -boy on the goose (No. <span class="bhead">595</span>), and the old woman on the mule (No. -<span class="bhead">596</span>; fig. 233). Many of these toys bring vividly to mind country -scenes in Greece at the present day. Though they were doubtless -intended chiefly for little children, women did not altogether disdain -these terracotta toys. A Greek tombstone of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> -has a relief showing a girl, quite grown up, standing with a terracotta -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>[pg 196]</span> -doll, exactly like those in this Case, in her hands, while a young -slave-girl holds the figure of a duck before her.<a id="footnotetag77" name="footnotetag77"></a><a href="#footnote77"><sup>77</sup></a> Humbler but -less breakable toys of Roman date are the wooden horse (No. <span class="bhead">597</span>) -and rag doll (No. <span class="bhead">598</span>) from Egypt. For the most part these toys -have been found in the tombs of children. The seated figure of -a girl (No. <span class="bhead">599</span>; fig. 234), holding an ivory dove in her hand, and -surrounded by her spinning instrument for the knee (see p. <a href="#page145">145</a>), -her shoes, and marriage-bowl, was found in a tomb near Athens, -probably of the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> The bowl is almost certainly -the <ins title="Greek: lebês gamikos">λέβης γαμικός</ins>, -used by the bridal pair immediately after marriage. It is therefore not unreasonable to conclude that the -tomb was that of a newly wedded bride. Another plaything in vogue -among the Greeks was the whipping top, an ancient model of which -in terracotta (No. <span class="bhead">600</span>) is seen in the Case and is illustrated on the -right of fig. 235. On the left of the figure is another form of Greek -whipping top (of terracotta, found in the sanctuary of the Kabeiri -at Thebes), and in the centre a design from a vase, in which a woman -is represented whipping such a top. In a Greek epigram<a id="footnotetag78" name="footnotetag78"></a><a href="#footnote78"><sup>78</sup></a> the top -is mentioned as a boy's plaything, together with a ball, a rattle, -and the favourite knucklebones, and an inscription from the sanctuary -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>[pg 197]</span> -of the Kabeiri at Thebes speaks of four knucklebones, a top (<ins title="Greek: strobilos">στρόβιλος</ins>), -a whip, and a torch dedicated by a woman named Okythoa.<a id="footnotetag79" name="footnotetag79"></a><a href="#footnote79"><sup>79</sup></a></p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">591</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, III., E 533 ff.; Benndorf, <i>Griech. u. Sicil. Vasenbilder</i>, -p 64; (<span class="bhead">599</span>) For the <ins title="Greek: lebês gamikos">λέβης γαμικός</ins>, -see <i>Ath. Mitt.</i>, XXXII. (1907), p. 111 f.; (<span class="bhead">600</span>) See <i>Ath. Mitt.</i>, XIII., p. 426 f., -and <i>Van Branteghem Coll.</i>, No. 167. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote74" name="footnote74"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag74">74:</a> -Paus. V. 20. 1.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote75" name="footnote75"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag75">75:</a> -Xen., <i>Symp.</i> 55.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote76" name="footnote76"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag76">76:</a> -Suidas, s.v. <ins title="Greek: Koroplathoi">Κοροπλάθοι.</ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote77" name="footnote77"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag77">77:</a> Conze, <i>Att. Grabreliefs</i>, No. 880, pl. clxx.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote78" name="footnote78"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag78">78:</a> <i>Anth. Pal.</i> vi. 309.</p> - -<div class="poem1"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: euphêmon toi sphairan, eukrotalon te Philoklês"> -εὔφημόν τοι -σφαῖραν, -ἐϋκρόταλόν -τε Φιλοκλῆς</ins></p> -<p class="i2"><ins title="Greek: Hermeiê tautên pyxineên platagên,"> -Ἑρμείῃ -ταύτην -πυξινέην -πλατάγην,</ins></p> -<p><ins title="Greek: astragalas th' hais poll' epemênato, kai ton helikton"> -ἀστραγάλας -θ' αἷς πόλλ' -ἐπεμήνατο, -καὶ τὸν -ἑλικτὸν</ins></p> -<p class="i2"><ins title="Greek: rhombon, kourosynês paigni', anekremasen"> -ῥόμβον, -κουροσύνης -παίγνι', -ἀνεκρέμασεν.</ins></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote79" name="footnote79"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag79">79:</a> -<i>Athen. Mitt.</i>, XIII., p. 427: <ins title="Greek: Okythoa astragalôs pettaras, strobilon, mastiga, daida,...."> -<span class="foo">Ὠκυθόα -ἀστραγάλως -πέτταρας, -στρόβιλον, -μάστιγα, -δαίδα, . . . .</span></ins> -</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXII.—EDUCATION, WITH WRITING AND PAINTING.<a name="page197a" id="page197a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case J.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Education.</span>—Case J contains several objects illustrating that -part of the Greek child's education which was connected with the -arts of reading, arithmetic and writing. A Greek terracotta of the -fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> with Silenus holding the child Dionysos by the -hand (No. <span class="bhead">601</span>), may be supposed to represent the old pedagogue, -the slave whose duty it was to take the child to school. (Scenes in -a music school are shown on the vases E 171, E 172, in cases 55-56.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/197-1000.png"><img src="images/197-500.png" width="500" height="445" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 236.—Terracotta Groups. Reading and Writing Lessons -(No. 602).</span> Ht. 4<b>¼</b> in. and 4<b>¾</b> in.</p></div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>[pg 198]</span></p> - -<p><span class="bhead">Reading.</span>—Another terracotta group of about the third century -<span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">602</span>, fig. 236, <i>right</i>) shows a kindly old -schoolmaster seated -and teaching a boy who stands by his side to read from a roll. -The ancient book differed from our own in taking the form of a -roll. The reader would first unroll the beginning, and then, as -he went on, roll up the part he had finished, making thus a -double roll, as it were, of the part read and the part unread. See -the tablet in Case 56 of the child Avita, reading her scrolls, -with her dog in attendance (No. <span class="bhead">603</span>).</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/198-570.png"><img src="images/198-260.png" width="260" height="456" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 237.—Spelling Exercise -(No. 605).</span></p></div> - -<p>A simple Greek alphabet is inscribed -on marble (No. <span class="bhead">604</span>) - <ins title="Greek:...de...thiklmnxoprstuphchps"> . . . δε . . - θικλμνξοπρστυφχψ.</ins> -A fragment of a syllabic reading or spelling exercise is shown on a piece of pottery -(No. <span class="bhead">605</span>; fig. 237). Each letter of -the alphabet is combined with each vowel in turn, as <ins title="Greek: ra re rê r[i ro ru rô] sa se sê si s[o su sô">ρα ρε ρη ρ[ι -ρο ρυ ρω] -σα σε ση σι -σ[ο συ σω]</ins> and so on. In the case of <ins title="Greek: rê">ρη</ins> the syllable -was miswritten <ins title="Greek: re">ρε</ins> and corrected. A school-boy's wax tablet (No. <span class="bhead">606</span>; -fig. 238) shows on its right half how syllables constitute words as <ins title="Greek: the ôn]">θε ων</ins> -for <ins title="Greek: theôn">θεῶν</ins>. -A large wooden board with an iron handle (No. <span class="bhead">607</span>) is -inscribed with lines of Homer (<em>Iliad</em> i., 468 ff.), no doubt for use in -school. A fragment of an 'Iliac table,' (No. <span class="bhead">608</span>) with a scene from -the <em>Iliad</em> (Achilles dragging the body of Hector round Troy, and Achilles -conversing with Athena) was probably also intended for teaching purposes.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Arithmetic.</span>—The left side of the tablet (No. <span class="bhead">606</span>; fig. 238) -gives a multiplication table, from <ins title="Greek: a´ a´ a´">α´ α´ α´</ins>, once one is one, to -<ins title="Greek: g´ i´ l´">γ´ ι´ λ´</ins>, thrice ten is thirty. The Greek numerals follow the alphabet -to <ins title="Greek: i´">ι´</ins> = 10, followed by <ins title="Greek: k´">κ´</ins> = 20, <ins title="Greek: l´">λ´</ins> = 30, and so on. -Six is represented by the sign <ins title="Greek: 'stigma' ... f´">ϛ´ (Ϝ´)</ins>, which occupies the place of F in -the Latin alphabet, and stands for the old digamma or vau.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Writing.</span>—The wax-coated tablet which contains the foregoing -table was the usual appliance for writing. A writing lesson is shown -in the terracotta group (No. <span class="bhead">602</span>, fig. 236, <i>left</i>). The instrument -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>[pg 199]</span> -employed was a pointed implement, called by the Romans a <em>stilus</em>. -An example in ivory, here figured (No. <span class="bhead">609</span>; fig. 239), was found in -a tomb of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> at Eretria in Euboea. The broad -flat end was used for erasures, so that we find the Romans using the -phrase <em>vertere stilum</em>, "to turn the pen" in the sense of "to erase." -Numerous <em>stili</em> in bronze are shown in the Case, and some are -illustrated in fig. 240. The fifth example from the top in the -illustration is in silver bound with gold wire, probably from France -and of late Roman date. These tablets were not as a rule used -singly, but strung together, so that the waxen surface was protected -when the two or more leaves were closed. The present tablet was -composed of two leaves, one of which is in the Department of -Manuscripts with a writing exercise upon it. The arrangement -of several tablets in a fashion anticipating the form of the modern -book is well shown in the relief of the pork butcher (Case 41).</p> - -<div class="figcenter clear" style="width: 500px;"><a href="images/199a-1200.png"><img src="images/199a-500.png" width="500" height="339" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 238.—Tablet with Multiplication Table and Reading -Exercise (No. 606).</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/199b-1200.png"><img src="images/199b-600.png" width="600" height="74" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 239.—Ivory</span> <em>Stilus</em> <span class="sc">(No. 609)</span>. 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>For documents of a more permanent character paper was made -from the papyrus plant, whence it takes its name. It was manufactured -chiefly at Alexandria from the time of the foundation of -that town in the fourth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, and pen and ink were used to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>[pg 200]</span> -write on it. A specimen of Greek writing on papyrus is seen in the -Case (No. <span class="bhead">610</span>). It is a letter of the first century after Christ, -asking that a supply of drugs of good quality—"none of your rotten -stuff that won't pass muster in Alexandria"—should be sent to the -writer, Prokleios. Later on, parchment, prepared from the skins -of animals, and made principally at Pergamon, in Asia Minor, -began to rival papyrus as writing-material. Specimens of ancient -reed and bronze pens (No. <span class="bhead">611</span>) are given in the illustration above -(fig. 240), and a series of ancient inkpots is here figured (No. <span class="bhead">612</span>; -fig. 241). The pens, whose split nibs have a curiously modern -appearance, are all of Roman date. The reed pens come from -Behnesa, in Egypt, and one of the bronze pens was found in the -Tiber at Rome. The inkpots are also of Roman date. The middle -one of the lower row has its hinged cover still remaining, with the -inlaid vine-spray in silver round the rim. The one to the right -of it is in blue faïence, and was found in Egypt.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/200-1500.png"><img src="images/200-600.png" width="600" height="362" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 240.—Roman Pens and</span> <i>Stili</i>. 1:2.</p></div> - -<p>Writing was sometimes put directly upon wood. Such is the -case with the fragment of board from Egypt mentioned above. -The lawyer's tablet (No. <span class="bhead">612*</span>), of about the fifth century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>, -which deals with loans, etc., has the surface specially whitened -for the writing and a space for keeping the pen. Parts of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>[pg 201]</span> -two outer leaves, which contained between them eight inner leaves, -are shown in the Case.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">604</span>) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i>, 323; (<span class="bhead">605</span>) <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, XXVIII. (1908), -p. 123; cf. Dumont, <i>Inscriptions céramiques</i>, p. 405 (5); (<span class="bhead">608</span>) <i>Cat. of -Sculpt.</i>, III., 2192; (<span class="bhead">610</span>) <i>B.M. Papyri</i>, ccclvi.</p> - -<p>On Greek education generally, see Freeman, <i>Schools of Hellas</i>, and -the select bibliography there given. For ancient books, cf. E. M. Thompson, -<i>Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography</i>. For relics of Graeco-Egyptian -school-life, see <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i> -</p></blockquote> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/201-1200.png"><img src="images/201-600.png" width="600" height="438" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 241.—Roman Inkpots (No. 612).</span> Ca. 1:2.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Painting.</span>—Adjoining the objects connected with writing, -are illustrations of the art of painting in Roman times. They -include a series of ancient colours, pestles and mortars, some paintings -on wood, one, painted by the encaustic process, enclosed in its -ancient wooden frame. The colours, as may be seen, were kept -in a dry condition, and had to be pounded with pestle and mortar -before they were mixed for the use of the artist. A good number -of ancient colours are shown here, the blue (silicate of copper) being -particularly prominent. The six saucers (No. <span class="bhead">613</span>), found together -in a tomb of the Roman period at Hawara, Egypt, contain water-colour -paints. These are <em>dark red</em> (oxide of iron), <em>yellow</em> (ochre, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>[pg 202]</span> -oxide of iron), <em>white</em> (sulphate of lime), <em>pink</em> (organic colour, -probably madder, in sulphate of lime), <em>blue</em> (glass coloured by copper), <em>red</em> -(oxide of lead). The saucers were found piled by the side of the -owner's body. Pestles and mortars for pounding the colours -are shown in the Case. A favourite form of pestle is that which -resembles a bent leg or thumb, such as the one from Rhodes (No. <span class="bhead">614</span>), -inscribed with what is probably the owner's name. Near it is -the terracotta figure of a dwarf (No. <span class="bhead">615</span>), seated (apparently in a -violent passion) before a pestle and mortar. We may imagine -that he is a slave set to mix his master's colours.</p> - -<p>The methods of painting illustrated here are two, viz., painting -on a dry ground in water-colours, and what is known as "encaustic" -painting. For the first, water-colours were used, and the ground -material was generally a thin piece of wood, whitened to receive -the colours. Egypt has furnished many examples of this kind -of painting. Among them is the portrait of a woman from the -Fayum, wearing a fillet (No. <span class="bhead">616</span>). This no doubt comes from a -mummy of the Roman period, such as the one exhibited in Case 72 -next the entrance to the Gold Room Corridor, which has a similar -painted portrait (in encaustic, however) placed over the face. -Other water-colour paintings of Roman date from Egypt are shown -in Case J, such as the figures of Fortune and Venus painted in -several colours on a red ground (No. <span class="bhead">617</span>), and the fragmentary -figure (No. <span class="bhead">618</span>), wearing a jewel of gold and pearls, and inscribed -with the name of Sarapis (<ins title="Greek: SARAPI (see TN)"><span class="sans">ϹΑΡΑΠΙ</span></ins>). -The encaustic process was that employed in the case of the framed portrait (No. <span class="bhead">619</span>), -found at Hawara in Egypt. The frame is carefully made, the sides being -joined by tenons and mortises. There is a groove for a glass covering, -and the cord by which it was suspended still remains. The portrait -was painted in wax, by a process which can hardly have been other -than that called "encaustic" by Pliny.<a id="footnotetag80" name="footnotetag80"></a><a href="#footnote80"><sup>80</sup></a> The nature of this process -has been much disputed, but probably the colours were ground in -with the wax, which was fused by the heat of the sun or artificial -means, and then laid on by the brush. A stump (<em>cestrum</em>) was -also sometimes employed. Probably a box divided into compartments -was used for holding these wax-colours in their fluid state. -Such a receptacle may perhaps be recognised in the long terracotta -vessel, which has a groove in the middle for a brush (No. <span class="bhead">620</span>).</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">613</span>) Petrie, <i>Hawara</i>, p. 11; (<span class="bhead">619</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, p. 10. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1a"><a id="footnote80" name="footnote80"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag80">80:</a> Plin. <i>H.N.</i> xxxv. 122, 149.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>[pg 203]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXIII.—GAMES.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Table-Case J.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/203-1200.png"><img src="images/203-600.png" width="600" height="390" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 242.—Two Women Playing at Knucklebones.</span></p></div> - -<p>Herodotus has a curious story to the effect that the Lydians -invented dice, knucklebones, balls, and other playthings to help -them to pass a time of famine, by playing and eating on alternate -days.<a id="footnotetag81" name="footnotetag81"></a><a href="#footnote81"><sup>81</sup></a> -Draughts (<ins title="Greek: pessoi">πεσσοί</ins>) are expressly excepted from his list, -and were ascribed to the fertile invention of Palamedes at the time -of the Trojan war. Games played with knucklebones (small bones -forming part of the ankle-joint in cloven-footed animals) may be -described first, since they were, as may be judged from the number -of ancient knucklebones found (No. <span class="bhead">621</span> in this Case), extremely -common. We are told in the <em>Anthology</em> of a boy who gained eighty -knucklebones as a writing-prize.<a id="footnotetag82" name="footnotetag82"></a><a href="#footnote82"><sup>82</sup></a> Among women too they were -a favourite plaything. The illustration (fig. 242), from a painting -on marble found at Resina (the ancient Herculaneum), shows two -women engaged at knucklebones. (See also the terracotta group -D 161 in the Room of Terracottas, Case 32). This game was -called "five-stones" (<ins title="Greek: pentelithoi">πεντέλιθοι</ins>), a name still given by children -to a very similar game. The lexicographer Pollux describes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>[pg 204]</span> -the game thus: "The knucklebones are thrown up into the -air, and an attempt is made to catch them on the back of the -hand. If you are only partially successful, you have to pick up -the knucklebones which have fallen to the ground, without letting -fall those already on the hand.... It is, above all, a woman's -game."<a id="footnotetag83" name="footnotetag83"></a><a href="#footnote83"><sup>83</sup></a> This description makes the illustration clear. Each -woman has five knucklebones, and the one whose turn it is to -play has caught three on the back of her hand; the two which -are falling to the ground she would have to pick up without shaking -off those already on the hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/204-1200.png"><img src="images/204-600.png" width="600" height="380" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 243.—Knucklebones and Dice (Nos. 621-3).</span> 1:1.</p></div> - -<div class="figright" style="width:300px; padding-top: 3em;"><a href="images/205-540.png"><img src="images/205-270.png" width="270" height="320" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 244.—Bronze Dice-Box -(No. 624).</span> 4:5.</p></div> - -<p>Besides being used in various kinds of games, knucklebones -were also employed as dice. The four long faces of the knucklebone -differed from one another in form, one being convex, another -concave, another nearly flat, and the fourth sinuous and irregular. -The values assigned to these sides were: (<i>a</i>) to the flat side -(<ins title="Greek: chion">χῖον</ins>), 1; (<i>b</i>) -the sinuous side (<ins title="Greek: kôon">κῷον</ins>), 6; (<i>c</i>) the concave -(<ins title="Greek: hyption">ὕπτιον</ins>), 3; (<i>d</i>) -the convex (<ins title="Greek: prênes">πρηνές</ins>), 4. This is the order in which they are -shown in fig. 243, from left to right. Astragali thus required no -marks of value upon them, since their sides were naturally distinguished. -The ordinary cube-shaped dice, marked 1-6 (No. <span class="bhead">622</span>) -were also widely used by the Greeks and Romans (fig. 243). The -usual arrangement of numbers was, as now, 1 opposite 6, 2 opposite -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>[pg 205]</span> -5, and 3 opposite 4,<a id="footnotetag84" name="footnotetag84"></a><a href="#footnote84"><sup>84</sup></a> but other arrangements occur. Some dice -are interesting on account of their peculiar form, <i>e.g.</i>, the squatting -silver figures (No. <span class="bhead">623</span>, fig. 204), which are marked with the values -1-6 on different parts of the body. A Roman bronze dice-box -is shown in fig. 244 (No. <span class="bhead">624</span>). The ordinary materials -of dice were ivory, bone, or wood. Of the multifarious ways of playing -with dice known to the Greeks and Romans, the one most in vogue -may be mentioned. In this three dice were used, and the object was to throw the -highest number (<ins title="Greek: pleistobolinda">πλειστοβολίνδα</ins>). -The best throw, three sixes, became proverbial. In Aeschylos' <em>Agamemnon</em> -the watchman, when he saw the beacon-fire blaze forth which told -of Agamemnon's victorious return, exclaimed:——"I'll count my -master's fortunes fallen fair, now that my beacon watch has thrown -a triple six."<a id="footnotetag85" name="footnotetag85"></a><a href="#footnote85"><sup>85</sup></a> With astragali, on the -other hand, the best throw was 1, 3, 4, 6, and was called "the throw -of Venus." For this each bone had to present a -different face.<a id="footnotetag86" name="footnotetag86"></a><a href="#footnote86"><sup>86</sup></a> The worst throw was -the "Dogs," when four aces turned up.<a id="footnotetag87" name="footnotetag87"></a><a href="#footnote87"><sup>87</sup></a></p> - -<p>Dice of exceptional form are the twenty-sided one, inscribed with the -Greek letters <ins title="Greek: A"><span class="sans">Α</span></ins> to <ins title="Greek: Y"><span class="sans">Υ</span></ins> -(No. <span class="bhead">625</span>), a fourteen-sided one inscribed with Roman -numerals (No. <span class="bhead">626</span>), and an uninscribed -fourteen-sided crystal die from Naukratis. With these may be mentioned the triple -teetotum (No. <span class="bhead">627</span>) and the four-sided -triple die, one side of which has been left plain (No. <span class="bhead">628</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 3em;"><a href="images/206-1200.png"><img src="images/206-600.png" width="600" height="318" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 245.—Ivory Pieces from Games (Nos. 630-631).</span> 2:3.</p></div> - -<p>Of the rules governing other games, represented here by several -pieces, we are entirely ignorant. The plaster pawns (No. <span class="bhead">629</span>) -found at Panticapaeum (Kertch) in the Crimea, probably belonged -to some game analogous to our draughts. An interesting set of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>[pg 206]</span> -pieces is that of the ivory discs (No. <span class="bhead">630</span>; fig. 245), which bear on -their obverse a design in relief <i>e.g.</i> two Muses and the head of the -Sun-god, and on their reverse a number, from 1 to 15, in both Greek -and Latin figures, as well as a word descriptive of the design on the -obverse. Thus the two illustrated have on their reverse</p> - -<table summary="reverse"> -<tr> - <td class="center"><span class="sans">VI</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center"><ins title="Greek: MOUSAI"><span class="sans">ΜΟΥϹΑΙ</span></ins></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center"><ins title="Greek: TH"><span class="sans">Θ</span></ins></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center"><ins title="Greek: F"><span class="sans">ϛ</span></ins></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>and</p> - -<table summary="reverse"> - -<tr> - <td class="center"><span class="sans">II</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center"><ins title="Greek: HÊLIOS"><span class="sans">ΗΛΙΟϹ</span></ins></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="center"><ins title="Greek: B"><span class="sans">Β</span></ins></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>(<i>i.e.</i>, VI.—Nine (<ins title="Greek: (th')">θ´)</ins> Muses—6, and II.—Helios—2) -respectively. It seems pretty clearly established that these discs -were used as pieces in a game, which probably resembled draughts -or backgammon. Fifteen of these pieces have been found together -in a child's tomb at Panticapaeum. The game appears to have -been popular in the first and second centuries after Christ, and -probably had its origin in Alexandria. It seems likely that it bore -a resemblance to the Roman game called <em>duodecim scripta</em> ("twelve -lines"), played with fifteen pieces on either side. The moves -were determined by the throw of the dice, as in our backgammon. -Another set of pieces belonging to a game are the label-shaped -ivories (No. <span class="bhead">631</span>; fig. 245), inscribed on one side with words, -often of an abusive character, such as <em>male (e)st</em> ("bad luck"), -<em>fur</em> ("thief"), <em>nugator</em> ("trifler"), <em>stumacose</em> ("ill-tempered fellow"), -etc., and on the other with numbers. The pieces mentioned have the -numbers <span class="sans">XXIII</span>, <span class="sans">A</span>, <span class="sans">II</span>, -<span class="sans">I</span>, and <span class="sans">II A</span> -respectively on their reverse sides (see fig. 245). The whole series of numbers on these ivories runs -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>[pg 207]</span> -from 1 to 25, and includes in addition 30 and 60; it is noteworthy -that the highest numbers have inscriptions of a complimentary -character, <i>e.g.</i>, <em>felix</em> and <em>benigne</em>. -The pieces may have been used in the Roman game called "the game of soldiers" -(<em>ludus latrunculorum</em>).<a id="footnotetag88" name="footnotetag88"></a><a href="#footnote88"><sup>88</sup></a></p> - -<p>At the top of Cases 57-58 is an oblong marble board (No. <span class="bhead">632</span>), -inscribed with six words of six letters each. It was found in a tomb -near the Porta Portese, Rome. The words are—</p> - -<div class="poem width18"> <div class="stanza"> -<p><span class="sans">CIRCVS PLENVS</span></p> -<p><span class="sans">CLAMOR INGENS</span></p> -<p><span class="sans">IANVAE TE</span> |̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅<span style="margin-left: 3em;">? <em>te(nsae)</em></span></p> - </div> </div> - -<p>"Circus full," "Great shouting," "Doors bursting (?)."</p> - -<p>Each word is separated from that opposite it by a flower within -a circle. Many such stones are known, always with six words of six -letters, so that it seems clear that they were used as boards for a -game, possibly the <em>duodecim scripta</em> already mentioned. The pieces -used were probably the so-called "contorniates," bronze discs -of coin form, with designs in relief on either side within a raised -rim and a circular depression. Two examples of these contorniates -(in electrotype) are exhibited below the stone board (No. <span class="bhead">633</span>). -The pieces are of late Imperial date, of about the time of Constantine. -Many have subjects closely connected with the circus, -a fact which harmonizes well with the inscription on the board -described. One of the two exhibited has a head of Alexander -and a representation of a chariot race, the other a head of Nero -and a water organ (see below, p. <a href="#page216">216</a>).</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">630</span>) Cf. <i>Röm. Mitt.</i>, 1896, p. 238 ff.; <i>Rev. Arch.</i>, 4th Series V. (1905), -p. 110 ff.; (<span class="bhead">631</span>) <i>Röm. Mitt.</i>, 1896, p. 227 ff.; (<span class="bhead">632</span>) Cf. <i>Num. Chron.</i> -(4th Series), VI., p. 232 ff.; <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1887, p. 118.</p> - -<p>On ancient toys and games generally, see Becq de Fouquières, <i>Les -jeux des anciens</i>; Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Ludus</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote81" name="footnote81"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag81">81:</a> -Herodot., i. 94.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote82" name="footnote82"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag82">82:</a> -<i>Anth. Pal.</i> vi. 308:</p> - -<div class="poem1"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: Nikêsas tous paidas, epei kala grammat' egrapsen,"> -Νικήσας -τοὺς παῖδας, -ἐπεὶ καλὰ -γράμματ' -ἔγραψεν,</ins></p> -<p class="i2"><ins title="Greek: Konnaros ogdôkont' astragalous elaben."> -Κόνναρος -ὀγδώκοντ' -ἀστραγάλους -ἔλαβεν.</ins></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote83" name="footnote83"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag83">83:</a> -Pollux, ix. 126 (reading <ins title="Greek: ephistatai"><span class="foo">ἐφίσταται</span></ins> -and omitting <ins title="Greek: ê"><span class="foo">ἤ</span></ins>).</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote84" name="footnote84"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag84">84:</a> -Cf. <i>Anth. Pal.</i> xiv. 8:</p> - -<div class="poem1"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: hex, hen, pente, dyo, tria, tessara kybos elaunei.">ἕξ, ἕν, πέντε, -δύο, τρία, -τέσσαρα κῦβος -ἐλαύνει.</ins></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote85" name="footnote85"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag85">85:</a> -Aesch., <i>Agam.</i> 32:</p> - -<div class="poem1"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: ta despotôn gar eu pesonta thêsomai,"> -τὰ δεσποτῶν -γὰρ εὖ -πεσόντα -θήσομαι,</ins></p> -<p><ins title="Greek: tris hex balousês têsde moi phryktôrias."> -τρὶς ἕξ -βαλούσης -τῆσδέ μοι -φρυκτωρίας.</ins></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote86" name="footnote86"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag86">86:</a> -Mart., xiv. 14:</p> - -<div class="poem2"><div class="stanza"> -<p>Cum steterit nullus vultu tibi talus eodem,</p> - <p class="i2">Munera me dices magna dedisse tibi.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote87" name="footnote87"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag87">87:</a> Prop., iv. 8, 45 f.:</p> - -<div class="poem2"><div class="stanza"> -<p>Me quoque per talos Venerem quaerente secundos,</p> - <p class="i2">Semper damnosi subsiluere canes.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote88" name="footnote88"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag88">88:</a> <i>Latro</i> originally meant "a mercenary soldier."</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXIV.—MARRIAGE.<a name="page207a" id="page207a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Case 53.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Greek Marriage.</span>—Though neither Greek nor Roman marriage -was definitely associated with the religion of the state, it was, -however, among both peoples closely associated with religious -rites of a domestic character. Plato in his <em>Laws</em> makes it the -distinguishing mark of the legally wedded wife that "she had -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>[pg 208]</span> -come into the house with gods and sacred marriage rites." These rites -are sometimes represented upon Greek vases, as may be seen from the -objects and illustrations placed in this Case. The ceremonies may be -conveniently divided into those concerning (<em>a</em>) the preparation of -the bride; (<em>b</em>) the removal of the bride from the house of her father -to that of her husband; (<em>c</em>) the reception at that house; and (<em>d</em>) -the presents given on the day following the marriage (<ins title="Greek: epaulia">ἐπαύλια</ins>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/208-1500.png"><img src="images/208-600.png" width="600" height="117" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 246.—Decking of a Greek Bride (No. 635).</span></p></div> - -<p>(<em>a</em>) On the day before her wedding the bride not infrequently made an -offering of the playthings of her childhood to some deity, presenting -her toys to Artemis in particular. On the day before marriage, too, -water for the bridal bath was brought in procession in the special -form of tall vase called a <ins title="Greek: loutrophoros">λουτροφόρος</ins>; -a small model is seen in Case 59 (No. <span class="bhead">634</span>). -The vase is also seen standing on the chest in the room of the bride -here depicted (No. <span class="bhead">635</span>; fig. 246). The scene is taken from the design -on a toilet box of the fifth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (E 774), which shows the -bride being adorned for her marriage. Besides the tall amphora already -mentioned, two vases called "marriage bowls" (<ins title="Greek: lebêtes gamikoi">λέβητες -γαμικοί</ins>) -are seen standing on tall stems before the door, on the -further side of which one of the bride's friends is turning the magic -wheel intended to inspire the bridegroom with a greater longing of -love. So Theocritus sings:</p> - -<div class="poem width18"> <div class="stanza"> -<p>"Draw to my home, O mystic wheel,</p> -<p class="i2"> the man that I long for."<a id="footnotetag89" name="footnotetag89"></a><a href="#footnote89"><sup>89</sup></a></p> - </div> </div> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>[pg 209]</span></p> - -<p>(<em>b</em>) The arrival of the husband, who comes to fetch the bride to -his home, may probably be recognised in the design on the fifth-century -vase No. <span class="bhead">636</span>. It is, however, a special and sacred occasion -which is here represented. The bride, who is seated and holds a -sceptre, is probably the Basilinna, wife of the Basileus, the magistrate -at Athens who was charged with the supervision of the state-religion. -She turns back to look at the bridegroom, who is none other -than the wine-god Dionysos, holding his thyrsos or staff crowned -with the pine-cone. Two love-gods fly towards the pair with wedding -gifts, while on the right approaches a Victory holding lighted -torches, which served to light the night-procession to the bridegroom's -house. The subject is explained by a ceremony which -took place at the Attic wine-festival of the Anthesteria, celebrated -annually in February and March. On the second day of the festival -there was a mystic marriage between the wine-god Dionysos and -the wife of the Basileus,<a id="footnotetag90" name="footnotetag90"></a><a href="#footnote90"><sup>90</sup></a> and it can hardly be doubted that the -present design refers to this.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/209-1200.png"><img src="images/209-600.png" width="600" height="332" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 247.—The Wedded Pair Driving to the Bridegroom's Home -(No. 637).</span></p></div> - -<p>(<em>c</em>) The actual progress of the bride to her husband's home is -depicted on the black-figured vase No. <span class="bhead">637</span>, of sixth-century date -(fig. 247). The departure took place at nightfall by torch-light, and -the bride and bridegroom usually (as in the present instance) made -the journey in a mule-car, attended by a friend called the <em>parochos</em>. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>[pg 210]</span> -On the vase (fig. 247) the bride and bridegroom are seen in front of -the mule-car, and the <em>parochos</em> is seated behind. When the pair -reached their home, they were welcomed by the father and mother of the -bridegroom, and a procession was formed to the hearth-altar. This is a -scene depicted on No. <span class="bhead">638</span>, a reproduction of a painting on a -toilet-box in the Third Vase Room (D 11, on Case F). The bridegroom -leads the bride by the hand towards the hearth-altar, by the side of -which stands the hearth-goddess Hestia, holding a sceptre and what is -probably a fig, an allusion to the figs, dates and other fruits -showered over the wedded pair as they reached the hearth, and thence -called <ins title="Greek: katachysmata">καταχύσματα</ins> -(down-pourings). Before the pair go a boy playing on the double-flutes and two women holding torches, who -probably move round the altar, as well as another woman, who perhaps -leads the way to the bridal chamber (figs. 248 and 249).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"><a href="images/210a-730.png"><img src="images/210a-350.png" width="350" height="260" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 248.—Toilet-Box with Wedding -Procession.</span></p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/210b-1500.png"><img src="images/210b-600.png" width="600" height="111" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 249.—Bridegroom Leading Bride to Hearth-Altar.</span> -Design on the toilet-box (No. 638).</p></div> - -<p>(<em>d</em>) Upon the day following the marriage the relations and friends brought presents to the -house (<ins title="Greek: epaulia">ἐπαύλια</ins>).<a id="footnotetag91" name="footnotetag91"></a><a href="#footnote91"><sup>91</sup></a> -The presents consisted chiefly in objects likely to be useful to the bride, such -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>[pg 211]</span> -as vases, articles of toilet, spinning implements, etc. The subject -was a favourite one with the Greek vase-painters, probable examples -being the designs on E 188 in Case 47 and the toilet-box E 773 in -Case H in the Third Vase Room. A still better instance occurs -on the restored "marriage vase" E 810 in Case H in the same -room.</p> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Roman Marriage.</span>—Roman practice recognised various -methods of lawful marriage. The illustrations and objects shown -in this Case deal only with certain ceremonies which were common -to all of them. They concern (<em>a</em>) the betrothal; (<em>b</em>) the actual -wedding rites; and (<em>c</em>) the escorting (<em>deductio</em>) of the bride to -the house of the bridegroom.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/211-1200.png"><img src="images/211-600.png" width="600" height="309" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 250.—Roman Wedding Ceremony (No. 641).</span></p></div> - -<p>(<em>a</em>) The betrothal took the form of a solemn contract between -the fathers and guardians on either side. In all Roman contracts -it was customary that a pledge should be given, and this pledge -often consisted in a ring. It was fitting, therefore, that a ring -given to the woman by her betrothed should come to be a sign -of the betrothal contract. It is natural to identify these rings -with a series of Roman rings which have for their design two -clasped right hands. An example in gold of about the third -century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">639</span>) is shown in this Case.</p> - -<p>(<em>b</em>) The actual ceremony of marriage consisted in the solemn -clasping of hands (<em>dextrarum iunctio</em>), an action seen on the relief -on the sepulchral chest (No. <span class="bhead">640</span>) placed in this Case. The -inscription shows that the chest was dedicated by a freedman -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>[pg 212]</span> -and imperial scribe named Vitalis to the memory of his wife -Vernasia Cyclas. The ceremony is only shown in an abbreviated -form on this chest, but it appears in more detail on a relief from -a sarcophagus (No. <span class="bhead">641</span>; fig. 250). The husband and wife clasp -hands, and between them stands the <em>pronuba</em> or matron-friend of -the bride, placing a hand on the shoulder of each. On the left -of the group stands a man, perhaps the bride's father. To left and -right of this scene of everyday Roman life we have the mythological -personages whose attendance at the wedding may be supposed -to be of good augury—Mars, Victory and Fortune. The clasping -of hands was followed by a sacrifice to Jupiter, and this closed the -actual wedding ceremonies. The sacrifice is represented in the -illustration (fig. 251) taken from a Roman sarcophagus.<a id="footnotetag92" name="footnotetag92"></a><a href="#footnote92"><sup>92</sup></a> The -bride, and bridegroom stand by the burning altar, upon which the -latter pours a libation. Behind the pair stands <em>Juno pronuba</em>, the -presiding goddess of the wedding rites. On the right a bull is -being led up to sacrifice, and on the left stand Venus, Hymenaeus -and the Graces.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/212-1200.png"><img src="images/212-600.png" width="600" height="218" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 251.—Roman Wedding Sacrifice.</span></p></div> - -<p>(<em>c</em>) When night had fallen there followed the procession, in -which the bride was escorted from her father's house to that of -the bridegroom, a procession described in one of the most splendid -of the poems of Catullus.<a id="footnotetag93" name="footnotetag93"></a><a href="#footnote93"><sup>93</sup></a> Torch-bearers and flute-players led -the way, and the wedding train was accompanied by a crowd, -the boys in which chanted rude jesting verses and petitioned -the bridegroom for nuts.<a id="footnotetag94" name="footnotetag94"></a><a href="#footnote94"><sup>94</sup></a> When the doorway of the house -was reached, the bridegroom carefully lifted the bride over the -threshold, that there might be no ill-omened stumbling. "Carry -the gilded feet across the threshold," sings Catullus, "that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>[pg 213]</span> -omen may be favourable." This moment is illustrated by a scene -from a Roman comedy (No. <span class="bhead">54</span>), taken from a lamp exhibited -on Table-Case K (see above, p. <a href="#page28">28</a>, fig. 17). The bride is being -carried on the back of a man, while a Cupid waits at the door to -receive her. Within the house she received a gift of fire and -water, elements so necessary to the performance of the housewife's -duties, and on the day following the wedding she did sacrifice -at her husband's altar.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">635</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, III., E 774; Furtwängler and Reichhold, <i>Griech. -Vasenmalerei</i>, I., pl. 57 (3); (<span class="bhead">637</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, II., B 485; (<span class="bhead">638</span>) <i>Cat. -of Vases</i>, III., D 11; <i>Ath. Mitt.</i>, XXXII., 1907, p. 80 ff.; (<span class="bhead">639</span>) <i>Cat. of -Rings</i>, 276; (<span class="bhead">640</span>) <i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i> 2379; (<span class="bhead">641</span>) <i>Journ. of Hellenic Studies</i>, -XXXVI., p. 85.</p> - -<p>See also Daremberg and Saglio, s.v. <i>Matrimonium</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote89" name="footnote89"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag89">89:</a> -Theocr. ii. 17: <ins title="Greek: iunx, helke ty tênon emon poti dôma ton andra"><span class="foo">ἴυγξ, -ἕλκε τὺ -τῆνον -ἐμὸν -ποτὶ -δῶμα -τὸν ἄνδρα.</span></ins></p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote90" name="footnote90"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag90">90:</a> -Cf. Aristot. <ins title="Greek: Ath. Pol.">Ἀθ. Πολ.</ins> 3, 5; Dem. <i>c. Neaer.</i>, c. 76; Mommsen, <i>Feste -d. Stadt Athen</i>, p. 393 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote91" name="footnote91"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag91">91:</a> -See <i>Jahrb. d. arch. Inst.</i>, 1900, p. 144 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote92" name="footnote92"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag92">92:</a> -<i>Mon. dell' Inst.</i> iv., pl. 9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote93" name="footnote93"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag93">93:</a> -No. lxi.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote94" name="footnote94"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag94">94:</a> -<i>Ibid.</i>, l. 131 f.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXV.—MUSIC AND DANCING.<a name="page213a" id="page213a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 54-56.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Music.</span>—The Greek term <ins title="Greek: mousikê">μουσική</ins> -(music) included much more than we mean by music. It was applied to the education -of the mind as opposed to <ins title="Greek: gymnastikê">γυμναστική</ins> -(gymnastics), the education of the body. In the narrower sense, however, it corresponded to -the modern term, and to this the Greeks from early times attached -a high importance. It was the effect of music upon the character -which appealed to them above all things, and it was this which -caused Plato to banish from his ideal state certain modes of music -which would, he thought, be injurious to its well-being. These -modes or "harmonies" were named after race-divisions. We find -the Dorian, the Aeolic, the Ionic, the Lydian, and the Phrygian. -The Dorian was universally approved for its manly qualities, but -Plato rejected the Lydian as useless and effeminate.<a id="footnotetag95" name="footnotetag95"></a><a href="#footnote95"><sup>95</sup></a></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a href="images/214a-430.png"><img src="images/214a-200.png" width="200" height="455" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 252. Apollo playing on a Kithara.</span></p></div> - -<p>Of the stringed instruments used among the Greeks, the lyre -was the most prominent. There were two varieties of this, the -kithara and the lyre proper. The kithara, an instrument with a -large wooden sounding board and upright arms, was played chiefly -by professional musicians, such as the kitharist represented on a -fine vase in the Third Vase Room, who has won a victory at one -of the great musical contests (E 460; Pedestal 7). The illustration -(fig. 252), taken from an amphora of the fifth century (E 256, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>[pg 214]</span> -Case H, Third Vase Room), shows Apollo playing on the kithara, -which is supported by a band passing round his left wrist, but -leaving the fingers of the left hand free to play on the strings. In -his right hand he holds the <em>plectrum</em>, which is attached by a cord -to the instrument. The <em>plectrum</em> was of various forms, but its -most essential part was the tooth for catching and sounding the -wires. The lyre proper (fig. 253) is distinguished by its curving -arms and sounding board of tortoiseshell (hence called <em>chelys</em>). The -wooden framework and parts of the shell of a Greek lyre found in -a tomb near Athens are shown in Case 56 (No. <span class="bhead">642</span>). As the -popular instrument, the lyre was naturally taught in schools. Two interesting Greek vases -(Nos. <span class="bhead">643</span> and <span class="bhead">644</span>), exhibited in these Cases, -give pictures of boys receiving music lessons at a school. In one instance a boy is learning -the lyre, in another the boy is playing the flutes, while the master, who holds a <em>plectrum</em>, -is playing on a lyre. Domestic animals are freely admitted, and the discipline seems far from severe.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;"><a href="images/214b-210.png"><img src="images/214b-100.png" width="100" height="181" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 253. Lyre.</span></p></div> - -<p>As the school scene shows, flute-playing, though condemned -by Plato and Aristotle,<a id="footnotetag96" name="footnotetag96"></a><a href="#footnote96"><sup>96</sup></a> was commonly -taught at Athens. Ancient flutes are distinguished from the modern -instruments by the vibrating reed which formed the mouthpiece, and by -the fact that they were always played in pairs. Hence the frequency -with which pairs of ancient flutes are found. Two of sycamore wood -(No. <span class="bhead">645</span>; Case 56) were discovered in the same tomb (near -Athens) as the lyre described above (No. <span class="bhead">642</span>). Another pair of -flutes (in bronze) from Italy (No. <span class="bhead">646</span>; fig. 254) have their mouthpieces -in the form of busts of Maenads. A terracotta shows a pair -of female musicians (No. <span class="bhead">647</span>) playing with a drum and double -flutes. To assist the playing of the two flutes together a -mouth-band was often worn, as may be seen from designs on -vases, <i>e.g.</i>, on a cup of Epiktetos (E 38; Third Vase Room), and -on some of the Cypriote sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room -passage.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>[pg 215]</span></p> - -<p>A framed impression from a Greek hymn to Apollo inscribed -on stone is here exhibited (No. <span class="bhead">648</span>). Musical notes, indicated -by letters of the Greek alphabet in various positions, are placed at -intervals over the letters to guide the singer. The inscription was -found at Delphi, where other inscriptions of a similar character -have come to light.</p> - -<p>Flute-playing was very popular with the Romans, among -whom it was considered the proper accompaniment of every kind -of ceremony.<a id="footnotetag97" name="footnotetag97"></a><a href="#footnote97"><sup>97</sup></a> -For military purposes they used several other -wind instruments. Two bronze mouthpieces (No. <span class="bhead">649</span>) in -Case 55 may perhaps come from long straight trumpets (<em>tubae</em>). -The Roman curved horn (<em>cornu</em>) is represented by two large -specimens in bronze (No. <span class="bhead">650</span>) placed at the top of Cases 55, 56. -The terracotta bugle in Case 55 is probably a model of the Roman -<i>bucina</i> (No. <span class="bhead">651</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/215-1200.png"><img src="images/215-600.png" width="600" height="335" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 254.—Bronze Flutes and Cymbals (Nos. 646, 654).</span> -1:3.</p></div> - -<p>The simplest of all ancient wind instruments is the rustic -Pan's pipe (<em>syrinx</em>), usually formed of seven or eight hollow reeds -fastened together with wax. The Greek Pan's pipe has the reeds -of equal length, the different notes being produced by the different -positions of the natural joints of the reed. An example may be -seen among the Cypriote sculptures in the Gold Ornament Room -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>[pg 216]</span> -passage. The Roman <em>syrinx</em> had its lower edge sloping, the result -of cutting off the reeds immediately below the natural joints. A -terracotta statuette in Case 55 (No. <span class="bhead">652</span>) represents a shepherd -boy playing on a Pan's pipe of the Roman kind, and a marble -relief from Ephesus at the top of Case 54 (No. <span class="bhead">653</span>) shows a beardless -man seated with a large <em>syrinx</em> in his hands. The Greek inscription -tells us that the relief was dedicated by Ebenos, a "first flute," to -Hierokles his piper.</p> - -<p>It was the Pan's pipe which gave Ktesibios of Alexandria -(third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>; cf. p. 120) the model on which he constructed -his water-organ, an instrument which became popular with the -Romans. A Roman "contorniate" shown in Case 58 has one of -these water-organs represented upon it. The air was supplied by -water pressure and the notes were played by means of a key-board.</p> - -<p>Cymbals were largely used by the Greeks and Romans in -religious ceremonies of an ecstatic character, such as the mysteries -of Demeter and Kore and the worship of Kybele. Among the -cymbals in Case 56 is an interesting pair (No. <span class="bhead">654</span>; fig. 254) -inscribed in Greek with the name of Oata their owner (<ins title="Greek: Oatas eimi">Ὠάτας -εἰμί</ins>). -They were originally joined together by a chain, part of which -still remains. In the lower part of Cases 55-56 is a considerable -variety of bells in bronze (No. <span class="bhead">655</span>).</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">643</span>) and (<span class="bhead">644</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, III., E 171, 172; (<span class="bhead">645</span>) For the -structure of the ancient flute, cf. especially Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler</i>, s.v. -<i>Flöten;</i> (<span class="bhead">648</span>) <i>Bull. de Corr. Hell.</i>, XVIII., pl. 21; (<span class="bhead">652</span>) For the <i>syrinx</i>, -cf. Tillyard in <i>Journ. Hell. Stud.</i>, XXVII. (1907), p. 167 ff.; (<span class="bhead">653</span>) <i>Cat. of -Sculpt.</i>, II., 1271.</p> - -<p>See in general, <i>Camb. Comp. to Gk. Stud.</i>, pp. 370-374; Daremberg -and Saglio, s.v. <i>Musica</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="space-above3"><span class="bhead">Dancing.</span>—Dancing among the Greeks and Romans differed -in many ways from our own. In the first place dances (which -were generally accompanied by the flutes) were largely associated -with religion. Plato in his <em>Laws</em> gave it as his opinion that, in -imitation of the Egyptian example, all dancing should be made to -take a religious character.<a id="footnotetag98" name="footnotetag98"></a><a href="#footnote98"><sup>98</sup></a> This ceremonial side of Greek dancing -is illustrated by a primitive stone vessel from Cyprus (No. <span class="bhead">655</span>), -which represents three draped women dancing in a ring. Among -the Romans the processions of the Salii or dancing priests of Mars -are among the best-known examples of religious dancing.</p> - -<p>In private life dancing was regarded by the Greeks rather as -an entertainment to be provided by hired performers than as a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>[pg 217]</span> -recreation in which guests could take their part.<a id="footnotetag99" name="footnotetag99"></a><a href="#footnote99"><sup>99</sup></a> Hence with -them men and women did not dance together as in the modern -fashion. The demand for dancing girls to entertain the guests at -banquets led to the training of large numbers of this class. A -vase (No. <span class="bhead">656</span>), placed in the lower part of Case 54, shows dancing -girls being instructed in their art. They repeatedly appear on -Greek vases dancing before the feasting guests (<i>e.g.</i> on E 68 in -Case E in the Third Vase Room, the interior of a cup in the style of -Brygos). These girls often carried castanets when dancing, as may -be seen on the lekythos (No. <span class="bhead">657</span>) and in the relief from Melos -(No. <span class="bhead">658</span>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/217-1200.png"><img src="images/217-600.png" width="600" height="449" alt="" /> -</a><p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 255.—Greek Women Dancing.</span> Ca. 2:7.</p></div> - -<p>Greek women sometimes danced in private among themselves, -especially on the occasion of some domestic festival.<a id="footnotetag100" name="footnotetag100"></a><a href="#footnote100"><sup>100</sup></a> It is with -this kind of dancing that we should probably associate the terracotta -figurines (fig. 255). They illustrate the important part played -by the arms and the drapery in ancient dancing, which was largely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>[pg 218]</span> -mimetic. Ovid notes that supple arms are one of the principal -qualifications for a good dancer.<a id="footnotetag101" name="footnotetag101"></a><a href="#footnote101"><sup>101</sup></a> This tradition was undoubtedly -inherited from Greek dancing, for (religious rites apart) the Romans -regarded the art as an unseemly one, so much so that Cicero -remarked "that practically no one except a madman danced when -sober."<a id="footnotetag102" name="footnotetag102"></a><a href="#footnote102"><sup>102</sup></a></p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">656</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, III., E 185; (<span class="bhead">657</span>) <i>Ibid.</i>, E 642: (658) <i>Cat. of -Terracottas</i>, B 370. For Greek dancing in general, cf. Emmanuel, <i>La -danse grecque</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote95" name="footnote95"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag95">95:</a> -Plat., <i>Rep.</i> iii. 398-9.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote96" name="footnote96"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag96">96:</a> -Plato, <i>Rep.</i> iii. 399 <span class="all-sc">D</span>; Arist., <i>Pol.</i> viii. 6, 5 ff.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote97" name="footnote97"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag97">97:</a> -Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, vi. 659 f.:</p> - -<div class="poem2"><div class="stanza"> -<p>cantabat fanis, cantabat tibia ludis,</p> - <p class="i2">cantabat maestis tibia funeribus.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote98" name="footnote98"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag98">98:</a> -Plat., <i>Leg.</i> 799 <span class="all-sc">A</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote99" name="footnote99"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag99">99:</a> -Cf. the famous story of Hippokleides (Herodot., vi. 129), whose dancing lost him a bride.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote100" name="footnote100"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag100">100:</a> -Aristoph., <i>Lys.</i> 408; Athen., xv. 668 <span class="all-sc">D</span>.</p> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote101" name="footnote101"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag101">101:</a> -<i>Ars. Amat.</i> i. 595:</p> -<div class="poem2"><div class="stanza"> -<p>si vox est, canta; si mollia bracchia, salta.</p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote102" name="footnote102"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag102">102:</a> -<i>Pro Mur.</i> 6; cf. Nepos, <i>Epam.</i> 1.</p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXVI.—DOMESTIC AND PET ANIMALS; FLOWERS.<a name="page218a" id="page218a"></a><br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 57-58.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p>The upper part of Wall-Cases 57, 58 contains a number of representations -of domesticated and pet animals. The series includes -cattle, goats, pigs, dogs, cats, pigeons and poultry. Often, but not -always, the animal is associated with some human actor, as when -the child rides on a dog, pig, or goat, or when the large cock tries -to peck at the bunch of grapes in a child's hand (No. <span class="bhead">659</span>).</p> - -<p>More than one of the pigeons wears a <em>bulla</em> round its neck -(No. <span class="bhead">660</span>) to avert the evil eye (see p. <a href="#page136">136</a>), and a cock is decked with -a wreath of ivy leaves (No. <span class="bhead">661</span>). On a vase (No. <span class="bhead">662</span>) a girl has -tied a string to the hind leg of a tortoise, and dangles it before her -dog; on another (No. <span class="bhead">663</span>) two children are making a dog jump -through a hoop. In a relief already mentioned (p. <a href="#page198">198</a>, No. <span class="bhead">603</span>) -the dog seeks the notice of its studious mistress, little Avita. In -the scene of the music school (No. <span class="bhead">643</span> in Case 55) the boy plays with -the cat behind the master's chair. Another form of amusement is -illustrated by the kylix, No. <span class="bhead">664</span>. A boy is seated, and holds on -his knee a cage containing a bird, probably a quail. Quail-fighting -was a very popular amusement at Athens, where odds were freely -betted on the result of the encounter. The wooden instrument, -seen above the boy, would be used to provoke the quails to fight with one another. -The game of quail-striking (<ins title="Greek: ortugokopia">ὀρτυγοκοπία</ins>) -was another variety of sport with quails. In this the object was -to prove the endurance of the quail by striking it with the -fingers or pulling out its feathers. A Roman lamp (No. <span class="bhead">665</span>; -fig. 256) gives an interesting view of an itinerant with his troop of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>[pg 219]</span> -performing animals. On his right is an ape, on his left a cat climbing -a ladder. Above are two hoops for the animals to jump through.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"><a href="images/219-860.png"><img src="images/219-330.png" width="330" height="461" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 256.—Itinerant with Performing Animals (No. 665).</span> -2:3.</p></div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Flowers.</span>—In Cases 57-58 will be seen a set of funeral wreaths -(No. <span class="bhead">666</span>; cf. p. 226), found at Hawara, in Egypt. Among the -flowers which can be identified in those wreaths are the rose, -narcissus, sweet marjoram, and immortelle. We know, from an -epigram of Martial,<a id="footnotetag103" name="footnotetag103"></a><a href="#footnote103"><sup>103</sup></a> that Egypt cultivated roses with such success -that she exported them from Alexandria to Rome during the winter, -though at the time when the poet wrote (latter part of first -century <span class="all-sc">A.D.</span>), Italy was, according to him, in a position to export -roses to Egypt. In their gardens the Romans devoted most of -their attention to their trees, which they cut into fantastic shapes -by the agency of the landscape gardener (<em>topiarius</em>). The species -of flowers known to them were decidedly limited in number, but we -find gardens of singular beauty depicted on their wall-paintings, -notably on one found at Prima Porta near Rome.<a id="footnotetag104" name="footnotetag104"></a><a href="#footnote104"><sup>104</sup></a></p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">659</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, C 539; (<span class="bhead">662</span>) <i>Cat. of Vases</i>, IV., F 101; -(<span class="bhead">665</span>) <i>Cat. of Lamps</i>, 679; (<span class="bhead">666</span>) Petrie, <i>Hawara</i>, p. 47. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote1"><a id="footnote103" name="footnote103"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag103">103:</a> vi. 80.</p> - -<p class="footnote1b"><a id="footnote104" name="footnote104"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag104">104:</a> <i>Ant. Denkmäler</i>, I., pl. 11.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>[pg 220]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>XXVII.—METHODS OF BURIAL.<br /> -<span class="less2">(Wall-Cases 58-64.)</span></h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="bhead">Greece.</span>—In the prehistoric period known as Mycenaean, -the inhabitants of Greek lands probably buried their dead and did not -cremate them. It is possible, however, that a partial burning was in -vogue in this and the succeeding periods in Greece. In the case of the -more wealthy Mycenaean dead, the bodies were elaborately decked with -gold ornaments. Oval plates of gold were tied over the forehead and -mouth of the corpse, in the latter case (where the impression of the -lips can be seen) perhaps with the idea of keeping out evil spirits. -The window-cases in the Gold Ornament Room contain many examples of -these funeral diadems and mouthpieces from Cyprus. In the Homeric -poems we find the bodies of the dead burnt upon a pyre and the ashes -buried beneath a mound.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px; margin-top: -1em;"><a href="images/220-400.png"><img src="images/220-180.png" width="180" height="474" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 257. Funeral Lekythos.</span> Ht. 15<b>¼</b> in.</p></div> - -<p>Scenes representing the preparation of the body for cremation or -burial are frequently depicted on Greek vases. They occur on the large -"Dipylon" vases, made specially for standing outside the tomb (see -examples in the First Vase Room), and on black-figure vases, where the -body is seen lying on the bier surrounded by mourners. It is, however, -upon the white lekythi of the fifth century (No. <span class="bhead">668</span>; fig. 257), one -of which is here illustrated, that funeral scenes are most commonly -found. We know from Greek literature that these vases were expressly -made for putting in tombs. A speaker in the <em>Ekklesiazusae</em> of -Aristophanes talks of "the man who paints the lekythi for the -dead."<a id="footnotetag105" name="footnotetag105"></a><a href="#footnote105"><sup>105</sup></a> On the vase -here figured a woman is making offerings at the tombstone. These -offerings were made by the relatives from time to time, and consisted -mainly of sashes, wreaths, and vases, as may be seen from the vases -placed in the Case. The Greek funeral monuments of the best -period are characterised by their restrained beauty. Examples of -the different types will be found in the Phigaleian Room downstairs -and in the Gallery of Casts. In the Cases 59-60, the only tombstones -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>[pg 221]</span> -are the archaic one of Idagygos of Halikarnassos (No. <span class="bhead">669</span>; fig. 258) -found in Cyprus, inscribed with an elegiac couplet in which he is -called "the squire of Ares,"<a id="footnotetag106" name="footnotetag106"></a><a href="#footnote106"><sup>106</sup></a> -and a round stone (No. <span class="bhead">670</span>) with a -late inscription showing that the tomb was that of Menestratos, -a Corinthian buried in Attic soil. The Greek tombs were generally -ranged on either side of the main roads leading from the city gates.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"><a href="images/221-620.png"><img src="images/221-280.png" width="280" height="449" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 258.—Inscribed Tombstone of -Idagygos (No. 669).</span> Ht. 5 ft. 8 in.</p></div> - -<p>A terracotta urn of about the third century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span> (No. <span class="bhead">671</span>) in Case 60 -serves as an example of the vases used to contain the calcined remains -of the dead. It holds a number of burnt bones, among them part of a -jaw-bone, with a silver obol adhering to it. The coin was placed in -the mouth of the corpse as the fee of the ferryman Charon for piloting -the dead across Acheron. The gilded figure of a Siren found in this -vase is emblematic of the spirit world.</p> - -<p>Two later monuments with Greek inscriptions are the marble chests in -Cases 61-62. Each has a lock-plate (cf. those in Case G), carved in -front in low relief. No. <span class="bhead">672</span> is the cinerary chest of Metras Tryphon, -who had been publicly crowned by the people of Ephesus, and has this -crown represented on his urn. The second chest (No. <span class="bhead">673</span>), from the -temple of Kybele at Sardes, is inscribed with the name of Metrodoros, -who is called a "sprinkler" (<ins title="Greek: perirantês">περιράντης</ins>) -no doubt with reference to an office held by him in the temple service. -Below this chest is a marble cup from Rhodes (No. <span class="bhead">674</span>), bearing the -inscription: "The burying-place of those who have lost their ancestral -tomb." This cup, which is ornamented above with flying birds and has -holes for a metal attachment, seems to have been set on a column as a -boundary mark.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>[pg 222]</span></p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 340px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/222-750.png"><img src="images/222-340.png" width="340" height="365" alt="" /> -</a><p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 259.—Italian Hut-Urn (No. 675).</span> -Ca. 1:4.</p></div> - -<p class="space-above2"><span class="bhead">Italy.</span>—In the earliest period inhumation was the custom in -Italy, but cremation gradually became more and more common. -The Twelve Tables (450 <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) show both practices prevailing side -by side. The hut-urns (Nos. <span class="bhead">675</span> and <span class="bhead">676</span>; fig. 259) found at -Monte Albano, near Rome, are evidence of cremation having -been practised at a very early date in Italy (eighth to seventh -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>). They served as receptacles for the ashes of the -dead, and are an instance of the custom of making the last resting-place -of the deceased as like as possible to his habitation during -life. They represent rude wattled huts, in which the roof-beams -of rough branches can be clearly distinguished. The Etruscan -tomb-chambers, one of which is shown in a picture in Case 59, furnish -a later instance (seventh to sixth century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) of sepulchres built -in imitation of living-rooms. A small model (in Case 59) of an -Etruscan built tomb shows the skeleton in armour, with painted vases -placed about it (No. <span class="bhead">677</span>). The Etruscan cinerary urns are -distinguished by the frequent introduction of the portrait. The -"Canopic" urns, which take the shape of jars roughly in the form of a -human body and head, are especially noteworthy. The example -illustrated (No. <span class="bhead">678</span>, fig. 260), probably of the -seventh century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, has the face pierced with numerous holes, most -likely for the attachment of a mask. Two Etruscan sepulchral -masks (No. <span class="bhead">679</span>) in terracotta, of about the end of the sixth -century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, are exhibited near the Canopic urn and are shown -in fig. 261. These remarkable masks are covered with incised -designs, most likely of magic significance, intended to avert evil -from the dead. A separate half-mask (No. <span class="bhead">680</span>) of this type is exhibited -here, and another will be found with the objects illustrating -superstition in Case 106. In these masks we can see the innate -Italian tendency to preserve the features of the dead, and we may -perhaps recognise in them the origin of the waxen portrait masks -of his ancestors which the Roman noble set up in his hall. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>[pg 223]</span> -portrait is again found on the lid of the sixth-century Etruscan -funeral urn (No. <span class="bhead">681</span>; fig. 262) in Case 59. Here a draped woman -lies on a couch of elaborate form, decorated below with a relief of -two lions devouring a bull. A kindred type of Etruscan funeral -monument will be seen in the two large terracotta sarcophagi in the -Terracotta Room.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a href="images/223a-620.png"><img src="images/223a-280.png" width="280" height="450" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 260.—Canopic Urn (No. 678).</span> -Ht. 1 ft. 11 in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/223b-1000.png"><img src="images/223b-600.png" width="600" height="273" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 261.—Etruscan Funeral Masks (No. 679).</span> Ca. 1:6.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/224a-1000.png"><img src="images/224a-500.png" width="500" height="306" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 262.—Etruscan Funeral Urn (No. 681).</span> L. 1 ft. -11<b>½</b> in.</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px; margin-top: 2em;"><a href="images/224b-840.png"><img src="images/224b-380.png" width="380" height="452" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 263.—Roman Funeral Urn (No. 682).</span> Ht. 1 ft. 5<b>½</b> -in.</p></div> - -<p>With rare exceptions (conspicuously in the case of members of the -noble families of the Cornelian house and all infants) the Romans, -during the period of the Republic, burned their dead. This system -continued under the early Empire, but gradually gave way to burial -under the influence of Christianity. Several examples of Roman -cinerary urns and sepulchral relief are here shown. These urns are of -various shapes, but the altar-form (No. <span class="bhead">682</span>; -fig. 263) was specially favoured. The inscription gives the names -of L. Dexius Clymenus and C. Sergius Alcimus. The latter, a child -of three and a quarter, is stated to have received his portion of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>[pg 224]</span> -corn on the tenth day at the office of distribution numbered -XXXIX, a curious side-light on the practice of free distribution -of corn under the Roman Empire, already noticed above (p. <a href="#page11">11</a>). -Other Roman funeral urns which may be mentioned are the vase -(No. <span class="bhead">683</span>) with the remains of L. Laelius Victor, a soldier of the -fourteenth city cohort, and the alabaster caskets numbered <span class="bhead">684</span> -and <span class="bhead">685</span>. These urns of the wealthier classes were generally -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>[pg 225]</span> -deposited in a vault underneath a monument placed at the side of -one of the great roads leading from the city gates. Those, however, -who could not afford such expensive monuments subscribed -for a joint tomb (<em>columbarium</em>), a large chamber containing in -its walls numerous niches for the urns. An interesting tablet -(No. <span class="bhead">686</span>) in Case 62 throws light on the arrangements adopted -in the case of these joint tombs. It is inscribed with the name of -P. Sontius Philostorgus and marked the niche in which the urn -<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>[pg 226]</span> -containing his ashes was placed. The inscription reads: "Lot I -in block III." From other inscriptions of the same character it -appears that the niches were arranged in five horizontal rows of -thirty-six, and that each of the members of the burial club was -allotted one place in each of the five rows.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a href="images/225-1500.png"><img src="images/225-600.png" width="600" height="333" alt="" /></a> -<p class="center"><span class="sc">Fig. 264.—Tombstone of Aurelius Hermia and His Wife (No. -687).</span> Width 3 ft. 5 in.</p></div> - -<p>Another noteworthy monument is (No. <span class="bhead">687</span>) an inscribed relief -of the first century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>, belonging to Aurelius Hermia, a butcher -from the Viminal hill, and his wife Aurelia Philematio(n), who are -seen clasping hands (fig. 264). The husband praises the virtues of -his wife, and the wife those of her husband, her fellow-freedman, -who had been more than a father to her. Other interesting inscriptions -from tombstones are No. <span class="bhead">688</span>, on a hunting dog named -Margarita, a great favourite with her master and mistress, who -died in giving birth to puppies, and No. <span class="bhead">689</span>, which sheds light on -the memorial ceremonies after burial. A testator here leaves -seven twenty-fourths of the rent accruing from a block of flats to -his freedmen and freedwomen, on condition that they celebrate his -memory four times in a year—on his birthday, the Day of Roses, -the Day of Violets, and the feast of the Parentalia, the last the -Roman All Souls' Day, held publicly in February, but privately on -the anniversary of the day of death. A lighted lamp, with incense, -was to be placed on the tomb on the Kalends, Nones, and Ides, -the three dividing days of each month.</p> - -<p>The funeral wreaths from Hawara (Cases 57, 58; No. <span class="bhead">666</span>, see -p. 219) are an instance of offerings at tombs belonging to the Roman -period. They have been so thoroughly preserved in the dry -climate of Egypt that the different varieties of flowers can still be -distinguished.</p> - -<blockquote><p> -(<span class="bhead">668</span>) Cf. Murray and Smith, <i>White Athenian Vases in the B.M.</i>; -(<span class="bhead">669</span>) <i>B.M. Inscr.</i> 971; (<span class="bhead">670</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, 102; (<span class="bhead">671</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, C 12 -and 13; (<span class="bhead">672</span>) <i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i>, II., 1277; (<span class="bhead">674</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, III., 2400; (<span class="bhead">675</span>) -Cf. Walters, <i>Hist. of Anc. Pottery</i>, II., p 288; (<span class="bhead">678</span>) <i>ibid.</i> II., p. 304 ff; -(<span class="bhead">679</span>) Benndorf, <i>Ant. Gesichtshelme</i>, p. 42, pl. xi; (<span class="bhead">681</span>) <i>Cat. of Terracottas</i>, -B 629; (<span class="bhead">682</span>) <i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i>, III., 2359; (683) <i>ibid.</i>, 2402; (<span class="bhead">684</span>) and -(<span class="bhead">685</span>) <i>ibid.</i>, 2420 and 2425; (<span class="bhead">686</span>) Dessau, <i>Inscr. Lat. Selectae</i>, 7892 a; -(<span class="bhead">687</span>) <i>Cat. of Sculpt.</i>, III., 2274; (<span class="bhead">688</span>) <i>C.I.L.</i> VI., 29,896; (<span class="bhead">689</span>) -<i>C.I.L.</i> VI., 10,248.</p> - -<p>On Greek tombstones, see Conze, <i>Attische Grabreliefs</i>; P. Gardner, -<i>Sculptured tombs of Hellas</i>. On Roman monuments, Altmann, <i>Röm. -Grabaltäre</i>. -</p></blockquote> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote105" name="footnote105"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag105">105:</a> -Aristoph., <i>Ekkl.</i> 996:</p> - -<div class="poem1"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: hos tois nekroisi zôgraphei tas lêkythous">ὃς τοῖς -νεκροῖσι -ζωγραφεῖ -τὰς -ληκύθους.</ins></p> -</div></div> - -<p class="footnote"><a id="footnote106" name="footnote106"></a><a class="footnote" href="#footnotetag106">106:</a> </p> - -<div class="poem1 width27"><div class="stanza"> -<p><ins title="Greek: enthade moiran echôn Halikarnêsseus Idagygos"> -ἐνθάδε μοῖραν -ἔχων -Ἁλικαρνησσεὺς -Ἰδάγυγος</ins></p> -<p class="i2"><ins title="Greek: keitai, Aristokleos pais, Areos therapôn."> -κεῖται, -Ἀριστοκλέος -παῖς, Ἄρεος -θεράπων.</ins></p> -</div></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>[pg 227]</span></p> - -<hr class="clear" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>INDEX.</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><i>The numbers refer to the pages of the Guide.</i></p> - -<p class="center"> -<a href="#a">A</a> | <a href="#b">B</a> | <a href="#c">C</a> | <a href="#d">D</a> | -<a href="#e">E</a> | <a href="#f">F</a> | <a href="#g">G</a> | <a href="#h">H</a> | -<a href="#i">I</a> | <a href="#j">J</a> | <a href="#k">K</a> | <a href="#l">L</a> | -<a href="#m">M</a> | <a href="#n">N</a> | <a href="#o">O</a> | <a href="#p">P</a> | -<a href="#q">Q</a> | <a href="#r">R</a> | <a href="#s">S</a> | <a href="#t">T</a> | -<a href="#u">U</a> | <a href="#v">V</a> | <a href="#w">W</a> | <a href="#z">Z</a> -</p> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="top"><a name="a" id="a"></a><span class="sc">Acrobats</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page218">218</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Actors</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page31">31</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Aeginetan weight-system</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page159">159</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Altars</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page39">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Altar-urns</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page223">223</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Amphorae</span>, on weights, <a class="ask" href="#page159">159</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>for wine, <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Anatomical model</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page47">47</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Ankle-pieces</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page89">89</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Aphrodite</span>, dedication to, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>in shrine, <a class="ask" href="#page43">43</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Apis-bull</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page50">50</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Arithmetic</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Arm-guard</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page89">89</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Armed-race</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page60">60</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Armour</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page74">74</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Dacian, <a class="ask" href="#page92">92</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Arrowheads</span>, Mycenaean, <a class="ask" href="#page97">97</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Greek and Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page107">107</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Artemis Brauronia</span>, garments dedicated to, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">As</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page20">20</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page22">22</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Asklepiadae</span>, school of, <a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Astragalos</span>, on weights, <a class="ask" href="#page159">159</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>in games, <a class="ask" href="#page203">203</a>.</li></ul></li> -<li><i>See also</i> <span class="sc">Knuckle-bones</span></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Athletes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page59">59</a></li> - -<li>"<span class="sc">Athletes' rings</span>," <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Atrium</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page109">109</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Augury</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page43">43</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Aurelius Hermia</span>, tombstone of, <a class="ask" href="#page226">226</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Axe</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page108">108</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Axe-head</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page50">50</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="b" id="b"></a><span class="sc">Baetylic image</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page44">44</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bakers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page117">117</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Balances</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page25">25</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page161">161</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Basket</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page46">46</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Baths</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page118">118</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Beasts</span> in the arena, <a class="ask" href="#page69">69</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bell</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page51">51</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Belt</span>, metal, <a class="ask" href="#page87">87</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Betrothal ring</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page211">211</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Birds</span>, actors as, <a class="ask" href="#page28">28</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bistouries</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bits</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page172">172</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Board</span>, inscribed for school use, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Boats</span>, terracotta, <a class="ask" href="#page34">34</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bona Dea</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page39">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Boots</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page129">129</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Boxes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page139">139</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page153">153</a>, -<a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page189">189</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Boxing</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page58">58</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Boxing-gloves</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page62">62</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bracelets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page135">135</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Braziers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page118">118</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bread-making</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page117">117</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Breisean Mystae</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bricks</span>, Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page167">167</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bridal procession</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page210">210</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bucina</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page215">215</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bulla</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page136">136</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page218">218</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Bulls</span>, bronze votive, <a class="ask" href="#page50">50</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Burial</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page220">220</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="c" id="c"></a><span class="sc">Caduceus</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page9">9</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Caldron</span>, given as prize, <a class="ask" href="#page63">63</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Calthrop</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page108">108</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Candelabra</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Candlesticks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page114">114</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cangue</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page13">13</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Canopic urns</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page222">222</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Caracalla</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page39">39</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>[pg 228]</span></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Carts</span>, models of, <a class="ask" href="#page171">171</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page179">179</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page193">193</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Chair</span>, Infant's, <a class="ask" href="#page193">193</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Charioteers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page71">71</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>dress of, <a class="ask" href="#page71">71</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page170">170</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Chariot-racing</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page70">70</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page169">169</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Chariots</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page169">169</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Charon's fee</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page221">221</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Chests</span>, funeral, <a class="ask" href="#page221">221</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Chiton</span>, Dorian, <a class="ask" href="#page123">123</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Ionian, <a class="ask" href="#page124">124</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Chlamys</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page126">126</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Circus</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page70">70</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Citizenship</span>, Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page9">9</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cloth</span>, pieces of ancient, <a class="ask" href="#page147">147</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Coin-balance</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page25">25</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page165">165</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Coins</span>, Greek, <a class="ask" href="#page14">14</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page19">19</a>;</li> -<li>special uses, <a class="ask" href="#page24">24</a>;</li> -<li>false, <a class="ask" href="#page24">24</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Colonization</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page3">3</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Columbarium</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page224">224</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Combs</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page138">138</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Comedy</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page26">26</a>-33</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Comic Chorus</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page26">26</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Compasses</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page191">191</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Consuls</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page3">3</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Contorniates</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page207">207</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Corn largesses</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page11">11</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page223">223</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Couch</span>, bronze, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cradles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page193">193</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Crests</span>, on helmets, <a class="ask" href="#page83">83</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Crocodile Syrup</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page42">42</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cuirass</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page85">85</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cupping-vessel</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page188">188</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Curses</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cutler's forge</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page156">156</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page158">158</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cutler's shop</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page157">157</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page158">158</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cutlery</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page148">148</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cymbals</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page216">216</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Cypriote dedication</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page46">46</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="d" id="d"></a><span class="sc">Daggers</span>, early and Mycenaean, <a class="ask" href="#page94">94</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Italian, <a class="ask" href="#page98">98</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dancing</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page216">216</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dedications</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page7">7</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page24">24</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page38">38</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Defixiones</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Defrutum</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dextrarum iunctio</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page211">211</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dice</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page204">204</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dikastae</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page6">6</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dioscuri</span> at Theoxenia, <a class="ask" href="#page43">43</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>dedications to <a class="ask" href="#page49">49</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page51">51</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page61">61</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Diploma</span>, Roman bronze, <a class="ask" href="#page9">9</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Diskos</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page60">60</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dog's epitaph</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page226">226</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dolls</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page194">194</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Domestic animals</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page218">218</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dowels</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page167">167</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dragon-standard</span> (Dacian), <a class="ask" href="#page92">92</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Drama</span>, Greek and Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page25">25</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Draughts</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page203">203</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page206">206</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Dress</span>, Greek, <a class="ask" href="#page123">123</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page127">127</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Drill-bow</span>, surgical, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Drug-box</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page189">189</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Duodecim scripta</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page206">206</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="e" id="e"></a><span class="sc">Ear-picks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page142">142</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Earrings</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page136">136</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Education</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page197">197</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Enamel decoration</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page134">134</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Encaustic painting</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page202">202</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Epinetron</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page145">145</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page196">196</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Eyes</span>, painted on ships, <a class="ask" href="#page35">35</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="f" id="f"></a><span class="sc">False money</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page24">24</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Fasces</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page12">12</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Feronia</span>, dedication to, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Fetters</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page13">13</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Fibulae</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page131">131</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Figure-head</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page35">35</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Finger-rings</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page135">135</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Fisherman</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page37">37</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Fish-plates</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page116">116</a></li> - -<li>"<span class="sc">Five-stones</span>," <a class="ask" href="#page203">203</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Flowers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page219">219</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Flues</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page122">122</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Flutes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page214">214</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Food</span>, from Pompeii, <a class="ask" href="#page116">116</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Foot-race</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page60">60</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Foot-rules</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page191">191</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Forceps</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Fountain-jets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page121">121</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Frame</span>, for picture, <a class="ask" href="#page202">202</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Funeral diadems</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page220">220</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Furniture</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>(toy), <a class="ask" href="#page193">193</a></li></ul></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="g" id="g"></a><span class="sc">Games</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page203">203</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>[pg 229]</span></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Gems</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page184">184</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Geta</span>, name of, erased from inscriptions, <a class="ask" href="#page39">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Gladiators</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page64">64</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>armour of, <a class="ask" href="#page68">68</a>;</li> -<li>discharge tickets of, <a class="ask" href="#page69">69</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Gnostics</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Grape-gathering</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Greaves</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page88">88</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="h" id="h"></a><span class="sc">Hair</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page48">48</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Half-masks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page222">222</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hands</span>, magical, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Harbours</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page37">37</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hare</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page49">49</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Harness</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page171">171</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Heating of houses</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page122">122</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Helmets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page74">74</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Aegean, <a class="ask" href="#page79">79</a>;</li> -<li>Attic, <a class="ask" href="#page77">77</a>;</li> -<li>Corinthian, <a class="ask" href="#page74">74</a>;</li> -<li>Etruscan, <a class="ask" href="#page81">81</a>;</li> -<li>Gladiatorial, <a class="ask" href="#page68">68</a>;</li> -<li>Inscribed, <a class="ask" href="#page76">76</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page81">81</a>;</li> -<li>Italian, <a class="ask" href="#page80">80</a>;</li> -<li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page81">81</a>;</li> -<li>votive, from Kyme, <a class="ask" href="#page7">7</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page81">81</a>;</li> -<li>Parade vizor-masks, <a class="ask" href="#page82">82</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Helmet-crests</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page83">83</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hera</span>, axe-head dedicated to, <a class="ask" href="#page50">50</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hieron</span>, helmet dedicated by, <a class="ask" href="#page7">7</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page81">81</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Himation</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page124">124</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hinges</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page168">168</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hippokrates</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page186">186</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hooks</span>, surgical, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Horse-shoes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page173">173</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">House</span>, Greek and Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page109">109</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Huntsmen</span>, dedications by, <a class="ask" href="#page49">49</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Hut-urns</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page222">222</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="i" id="i"></a><span class="sc">Inkpots</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page200">200</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Inlay</span>, ivory, <a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Internal organs</span>, model of, <a class="ask" href="#page47">47</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Inventories</span>, temple, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Isis</span>, worship of, <a class="ask" href="#page57">57</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="j" id="j"></a><span class="sc">Jason</span>, relief of the physician, <a class="ask" href="#page189">189</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Javelin-throwing</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page61">61</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Jewellery</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page135">135</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Jumping-weights</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page59">59</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Juno</span>, dedication to, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Jupiter</span>. <i>See</i> <span class="sc">Zeus</span>.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Jupiter Dolichenus</span>, silver plaques dedicated to, <a class="ask" href="#page52">52</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Jupiter Poeninus</span>, dedication to, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Jury-tickets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page6">6</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="k" id="k"></a><span class="sc">Keys</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page149">149</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Temple, <a class="ask" href="#page42">42</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Kiln</span>, potter's, <a class="ask" href="#page182">182</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Kinyras</span>, legend of, <a class="ask" href="#page34">34</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Kitchen</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page115">115</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Kithara</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page213">213</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Knives</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page148">148</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Knockers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page167">167</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Knucklebones</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page197">197</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page203">203</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Ktesibios of Alexandria</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page120">120</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page216">216</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="l" id="l"></a><span class="sc">Labels</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page156">156</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lamp-fillers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page114">114</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lamps</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page112">112</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>combined with altar, <a class="ask" href="#page40">40</a>;</li> -<li>moulds for, <a class="ask" href="#page184">184</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lanterns</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page114">114</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lares</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lathe</span>, use of, <a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lawyer's tablet</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page200">200</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lead figurines</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Leg</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page48">48</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Legionary</span>, armour of, <a class="ask" href="#page88">88</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page91">91</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lekythi</span>, white funeral, <a class="ask" href="#page220">220</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Letter</span> on papyrus, <a class="ask" href="#page200">200</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Libra</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page160">160</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Light-house</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page37">37</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lighting</span>, methods of, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Litra</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page160">160</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lock</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page149">149</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lock-plates</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page152">152</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page221">221</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Loom</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page145">145</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Loom-weights</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page146">146</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Ludus latrunculorum</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page207">207</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Lyre</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page213">213</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="m" id="m"></a><span class="sc">Magic</span> symbols, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>wheel, <a class="ask" href="#page208">208</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mantle.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="sc">Himation</span>.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Marathon</span>, weapons from, <a class="ask" href="#page101">101</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Marbles</span>, specimens of, <a class="ask" href="#page168">168</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Marriage</span>, Greek, <a class="ask" href="#page207">207</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>[pg 230]</span> -<ul class="index1"><li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page211">211</a>;</li> -<li>military, <a class="ask" href="#page9">9</a>;</li> -<li>vases used in, <a class="ask" href="#page208">208</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Masks</span>, dramatic, <a class="ask" href="#page31">31</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>sepulchral, <a class="ask" href="#page222">222</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Measures</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page191">191</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Medicine</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Merchant-ship</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page33">33</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Metal-work</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page180">180</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mirrors</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page140">140</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>with magical symbols, <a class="ask" href="#page57">57</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mithras</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page54">54</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mortars</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page118">118</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mosaics</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page169">169</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Moulds</span>, for cooking, <a class="ask" href="#page116">116</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>for counters, <a class="ask" href="#page180">180</a>;</li> -<li>for vases and terracottas, <a class="ask" href="#page184">184</a>;</li> -<li>for weights, <a class="ask" href="#page180">180</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mouth-band</span>, for flutes, <a class="ask" href="#page214">214</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Mouth-pieces</span>, funeral, <a class="ask" href="#page220">220</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Multiplication-table</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Music</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page213">213</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Music-lessons</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page214">214</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Musical notation</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page215">215</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Muzzles</span>, for horses, <a class="ask" href="#page173">173</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="n" id="n"></a><span class="sc">Nail-files</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page142">142</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Nails</span>, magical, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Necklaces</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page36">136</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Needle-case</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page148">148</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Needles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page147">147</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Netting-needles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page147">147</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Neurospasta</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page195">195</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="o" id="o"></a><span class="sc">Obol</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page221">221</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Oculist-stamps</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page189">189</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Oil-flasks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page119">119</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Oil-press</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page178">178</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Olive-gathering</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page176">176</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Onos.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="sc">Epinetron</span>.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Oscan</span> dedicatory tablet, <a class="ask" href="#page44">44</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Ostracism</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page7">7</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="p" id="p"></a><span class="sc">Padlocks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page152">152</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Painting</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page201">201</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>of vases, <a class="ask" href="#page183">183</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Panathenaic Games</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page60">60</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pankration</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page59">59</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pan's pipe</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page215">215</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Papyrus</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page199">199</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Parchment</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page200">200</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Parentalia</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page225">225</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pastes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page184">184</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pens</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page200">200</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pentathlon</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page59">59</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Performing animals</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page218">218</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Persephone</span>, dedications to, <a class="ask" href="#page46">46</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pestles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page118">118</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Philip</span> (Emperor), <i>diploma</i> granted by, <a class="ask" href="#page9">9</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>seal with name of, <a class="ask" href="#page55">55</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Phlyakes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page28">28</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pig</span>, as sacrificial animal, <a class="ask" href="#page40">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pilum</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page103">103</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pins</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page137">137</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page147">147</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>pin dedicated to Aphrodite, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pivots</span> from doors, <a class="ask" href="#page168">168</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Plating</span> of cuirass, <a class="ask" href="#page86">86</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Plautus</span>, <i>Casina</i>, <a class="ask" href="#page29">29</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Plectrum</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page214">214</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Plough</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page174">174</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Plummets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page166">166</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pnyx</span>, votive reliefs from, <a class="ask" href="#page47">47</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pork-butcher's shop</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page158">158</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Potter's wheel</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page181">181</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pottery</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page181">181</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Prayer</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page42">42</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Prize vases</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page60">60</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page63">63</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Probes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Proportional compasses</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page191">191</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Prow</span> of trireme, <a class="ask" href="#page35">35</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Proxenia</span>, decrees of, <a class="ask" href="#page3">3</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Pumps</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page120">120</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="q" id="q"></a><span class="sc">Quail-fighting</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page218">218</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="r" id="r"></a><span class="sc">Racing-chariots</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page70">70</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page169">169</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Raeda</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page171">171</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Rag-doll</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page196">196</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Rattles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page193">193</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Razors</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page141">141</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Reading</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Religion</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page39">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Reprisals</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page2">2</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Rings</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page135">135</a><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>[pg 231]</span></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Rivets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page183">183</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Rose-day</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page226">226</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="s" id="s"></a><span class="sc">Sabazius</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sacrifices</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page40">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sacrificial implements</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page40">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Safety-pins.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="sc">Fibulae</span>.</li> - -<li><span class="sc">Salii</span>, dances of, <a class="ask" href="#page216">216</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Salve-pots</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page190">190</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sandals</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page129">129</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Saw</span>, surgical, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Scissors</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page147">147</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Scourge</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page13">13</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Scruple</span> (weight), <a class="ask" href="#page160">160</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page190">190</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sculpture</span>, unfinished, <a class="ask" href="#page169">169</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Seal-boxes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page155">155</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Seal-locks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page154">154</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Seals</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page154">154</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Septimius Severus</span>, altar dedicated for return of, <a class="ask" href="#page39">39</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Set-squares</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page166">166</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Shields</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page90">90</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Shin-guards</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page89">89</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Ships</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page33">33</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Shoes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page89">89</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page129">129</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Shops</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page158">158</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Shrines</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page43">43</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Shuttle</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page146">146</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sickle</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page175">175</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Siren</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page221">221</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sistrum</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page57">57</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Slave badge</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page12">12</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Slavery</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page12">12</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Slaves</span>, dedicated to temple-service, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>in drama, <a class="ask" href="#page32">32</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Slingshot</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page101">101</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page107">107</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Soles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page130">130</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Solonian weights</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page159">159</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Sower</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page175">175</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Spatulae</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Spears</span>, classical, <a class="ask" href="#page102">102</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Italian, <a class="ask" href="#page99">99</a>;</li> -<li>Mycenaean, <a class="ask" href="#page97">97</a>;</li> -<li>primitive, <a class="ask" href="#page94">94</a>;</li> -<li>votive, <a class="ask" href="#page9">9</a>;</li> -<li>butts of, <a class="ask" href="#page103">103</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Spindles</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page143">143</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Spoons</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page117">117</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Spurs</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page174">174</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Stamps</span> for moulds, <a class="ask" href="#page184">184</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>for other purposes, <a class="ask" href="#page167">167</a>, -<a class="ask" href="#page189">189</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page192">192</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Standards</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page92">92</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Statuette</span>, pierced, <a class="ask" href="#page42">42</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Steelyards</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page161">161</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Stili</span> (pens), <a class="ask" href="#page199">199</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Stones</span>, sacred, <a class="ask" href="#page44">44</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Stool</span>, bronze, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>votive, <a class="ask" href="#page46">46</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Stop-cocks</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page121">121</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Strainers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page116">116</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Strigils</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page119">119</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Strong-box</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page153">153</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Studs</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page136">136</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Suovetaurilia</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page40">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Surgeries</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page186">186</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Surgical instruments</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Swords</span>, Mycenaean, <a class="ask" href="#page95">95</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Greek, <a class="ask" href="#page100">100</a> ff;</li> -<li>Italian, <a class="ask" href="#page99">99</a>;</li> -<li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page104">104</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Syrinx.</span> <i>See</i> <span class="sc">Pan's pipe</span>.</li> - -<li class="top"><a name="t" id="t"></a><span class="sc">Table</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page40">40</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Table-leg</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tablets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page192">192</a>, -<a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page200">200</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tabula Iliaca</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Teetotum</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page205">205</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Temple-inventories</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page45">45</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Temple-weights</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page160">160</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tensa</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page171">171</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Terracottas</span>, method of making, <a class="ask" href="#page183">183</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Theoxenia</span>, festival of, <a class="ask" href="#page42">42</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Thigh-piece</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page89">89</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Thimble</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page147">147</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tiberius</span>, sword of (so-called), <a class="ask" href="#page104">104</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tickets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page6">6</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page11">11</a>, -<a class="ask" href="#page12">12</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page69">69</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tile-stamps</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page166">166</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tiles</span>, Greek, <a class="ask" href="#page166">166</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page167">167</a>;</li> -<li>from Palaestra at Olympia, <a class="ask" href="#page64">64</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Titurus</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page178">178</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Toga</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page127">127</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Toilet</span>, articles of, <a class="ask" href="#page138">138</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>on votive reliefs, <a class="ask" href="#page46">46</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Toilet-boxes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page139">139</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tombs</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page220">220</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tools</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page166">166</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Toys</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page193">193</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tragedy</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page25">25</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>[pg 232]</span> -<ul class="index1"><li>chorus in, <a class="ask" href="#page26">26</a>;</li> -<li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page54">54</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Treaties</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page2">2</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tripods</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page110">110</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Triremes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page34">34</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Trophies</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page91">91</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tunic</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page123">123</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Tweezers</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page142">142</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="u" id="u"></a><span class="sc">Uncia</span> (coin), <a class="ask" href="#page20">20</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>weight, <a class="ask" href="#page160">160</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Unknown God</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page46">46</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Urn</span>, funeral, <a class="ask" href="#page223">223</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Uvula forceps</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page187">187</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="v" id="v"></a><span class="sc">Vase-shapes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page122">122</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Vintage</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Violet-day</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page226">226</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Votive offering</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page7">7</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page44">44</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page194">194</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="w" id="w"></a><span class="sc">Wall-paintings</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page169">169</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">War-vessels</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page33">33</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Water-organ</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page216">216</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Water-pipes</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page121">121</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Water-supply</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page120">120</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wax-tablets</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Weapons</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page94">94</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Weaving</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page145">145</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wedding-sacrifice</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page212">212</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Weights</span>, Greek, <a class="ask" href="#page158">158</a>; -<ul class="index1"><li>Roman, <a class="ask" href="#page160">160</a>;</li> -<li>hanging, <a class="ask" href="#page161">161</a>;</li> -<li>medical, <a class="ask" href="#page190">190</a></li></ul></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wheels</span>, votive, <a class="ask" href="#page51">51</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Whipping-tops</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page196">196</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Whorls</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page143">143</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wine-press</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Winnowing-basket</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page177">177</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Women gladiators</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page66">66</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wood</span>, paintings on, <a class="ask" href="#page202">202</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Woodworking</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page185">185</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wreaths</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page219">219</a>, <a class="ask" href="#page226">226</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Wrestling</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page61">61</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Writing</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page198">198</a></li> - -<li class="top"><a name="z" id="z"></a><span class="sc">Zeus Lykaeos</span>, votive offering to, <a class="ask" href="#page50">50</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Zeus Sabazius</span>, <a class="ask" href="#page56">56</a></li> - -<li><span class="sc">Zeus the Highest</span>, votive offerings to, <a class="ask" href="#page47">47</a></li> -</ul> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center space-above1">LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,<br /> -DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. 1, AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W. 1.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="tn"> - -<h4>Transcriber's Note<a name="transcriber_note"></a></h4> - -<p>| inserted by the author to represent the end of a line of carving - on a document or monument. Sometimes | occurs in the middle of a - word, indicating the word has been split by a line-break.</p> - -<p>In the all-caps Greek text, the book preserves some different Greek -letter-forms.</p> -<p>Compare the capital theta with a cross <img src="images/077a-theta-plus-12.png" width="12" height="12" alt="theta with cross" /> -at the top of p. 77, and theta with a dot <img src="images/077a-theta-dot-12.png" width="12" height="12" alt="theta with dot" /> -at the bottom of p. 130.</p> -<p>There is a <span class="sans">V</span>-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 7: -<img src="images/077_olymp-11h.png" width="56" height="11" alt="OLYMP-helmet inscription" />, -and <span class="sans">Y</span>-like upsilon on p. 77, l. 12: <ins title="Greek: DASIMOS PYRRHOU"><span class="sans"> -ΔΑΣΙΜΟΣ -ΠΥΡΡΟΥ</span></ins>.</p> - -<p>There is a capital lunate sigma: <span class="sans">Ϲ</span>, and an alpha with a v-shaped crossbar on -p. 202: <img src="images/202-cap_a-11.png" width="11" height="11" alt="cap_a" /> ... -<img src="images/202_sarapi.png" width="60" height="11" alt="Sarapi, with old letter-forms" /> ... -and on p. 161, as a marking in silver on an ounce weight, <img src="images/161s-40.png" width="40" height="19" alt="inscription" />, -with another symbol <img src="images/202-x_on_v-11.png" width="11" height="14" alt="x_on_v" />.</p> - -<p>And there is the zeta like a rotated H: <img src="images/006z-15.png" width="15" height="11" alt="Ancient Zeta" /> on p. 6, -upper case <span class="sans">Ϙ</span> and lower case <span class="sans">ϙ</span> Koppa (Qoppa) (Footnote 24 etc.), -and the Digamma (wau, stigma) <span class="sans">Ϝ</span>, <span class="sans">ϝ</span>, <span class="bhead">ϛ</span> (<i>see below</i>). -</p> - -<p>C.I.L. is abbreviation for '_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_'.</p> - -<p>'Inscrr.', 'reff.': a double consonant signifies plural.</p> - -<p>Some missing or damaged punctuation has been repaired.</p> - -<p>Any illustration which intersected a paragraph, e.g., at a page turn, has been -moved to a more convenient position. Some illustrations have been moved closer to their descriptive text, -for better on-line and Ebook clarity.</p> - -<p>Page 4, Footnote 2: χαλκόν corrected to χαλκὸν</p> -<p>Page 5, Footnote 3: τὸν δέ corrected to τὸν δὲ</p> - -<p>Page 6: -From Wikipedia: "Many local variants of the Greek alphabet were employed in ancient Greece -during the archaic and early classical periods, until they were replaced by the classical 24-letter alphabet -that is the standard today, around 400 BC. All forms of the Greek alphabet were originally based on the -shared inventory of the 22 symbols of the Phoenician alphabet,...<br /> -(https ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets#Summary_table)</p> - -<p>The Ancient (before the 5th century <span class="all-sc">B.C.</span>) letter for Zeta resembled an H on its side - -(<img src="images/006z-15.png" width="15" height="11" alt="Ancient Zeta" /> -= <span class="sans1">Ζ</span>).</p> - -<p class="ind">"No. <span class="bhead">10</span>, the ticket of Thukydides of Upper Lamptrae (fig. 4). -He belonged to the sixth section -(<img src="images/006z-15.png" width="15" height="11" alt="Ancient Zeta" /> -= <span class="sans1">Ζ</span> = 6). -The ticket bears the symbols of an owl within an olive wreath, and a Gorgoneion."</p> - -<p>Page 20: ( <span class="bhead">.··</span> ) corrected to ( <span class="bhead">···</span> ), for consistency.</p> - -<p>Page 56: 'suppose' corrected to 'supposed'.</p> - -<p class="ind">"... <em>defixiones</em>, because they were supposed to fix down, as it were, the -hated enemy."</p> - -<p>Page 77 (and Footnote 40): ... in lettering which belongs probably to the end of the -sixth century <span class="sc">b.c.</span></p> -<p class="footnote1b"><img src="images/077a-480.png" width="480" height="25" alt="inscription on helmet" /></p> - -<p class="ind1"><ins title="Greek: TARG[EI]OI ANETHEN TOI DIFI TON QORINTHOTHEN"><span class="sans"> -ΤΑΡΓ[ΕΙ]ΟΙ -ΑΝΕΘΕΝ -ΤΟΙ ΔΙϜΙ ΤΟΝ -ϘΟΡΙΝΘΟΘΕΝ</span></ins></p> - -<p class="footnote2"> Footnote 40: -<ins title="Greek: Targeioi anethen tôi Diwi tôn Korinthothen.">Τἀργεῖοι -ἀνέθεν -τῶι Διϝὶ τῶν -Κορινθόθεν.</ins></p> - -<p>Page 103: Spearbutts; p. 104: Spear-Butts. Both retained.</p> - -<p>Page 111: Superfluous 'a' removed.</p> -<p class="ind">"The stem may be fluted, or.... "</p> - -<p>Page 114: 'emall' corrected to 'small'.</p> -<p class="ind">"Just below the lantern is a small bronze statuette,..."</p> - -<p>Page 145: Loom Weight; loom-weights ... various spellings; all retained.</p> - -<p>Numerous other instances of words being sometimes hyphenated and sometimes un-hyphenated appear in the text. All have been retained.</p> - -<p>Page 150: 'to' corrected to 'so'. -"... then turned, and drawn back so as to lift up the pegs.... "</p> - -<p>Page 160: 1<b>½</b>oz. corrected to <b><small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small>12</small></b> oz.</p> - -<p>"... <b><small><sup>1</sup></small>⁄<small>12</small></b> oz. = 2 scruples;"</p> - -<p>Page 190: extra 'a' removed. -"These salves were pounded on the stone into a paste." -</p> - -<p>Page 192: 'Nos.' corrected to 'No.'. -"An example of a rare form is the rolling stamp with the name of -Alexander (No. <span class="bhead">584</span>; fig. 229)."</p> - -<p>Page 198: From Wikipedia (https: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma):</p> - -<p class="ind">Digamma, waw, or wau (uppercase: <span class="bhead"><span class="sans">Ϝ</span></span>, -lowercase: <span class="bhead"><span class="sans">ϝ</span></span>, numeral: <span class="bhead">ϛ</span> -is an archaic letter of the Greek alphabet. It originally stood for the sound /w/ -but it has principally remained in use as a Greek numeral for 6. Whereas it was -originally called waw or wau, its most common appellation in classical Greek is -digamma; as a numeral, it was called episēmon during the Byzantine era and is -now known as stigma after the value of the Byzantine ligature combining <span class="bhead">σ-τ</span> as -<span class="bhead">ϛ</span> .... <br /> -In modern Greek, this is often replaced by the digraph <span class="bhead">στ</span>.</p> - -<p>Page 205, Footnote 85: τρίς corrected to τρὶς</p> - -<p>Page 220, Footnote 105: ὅς τοῖς corrected to ὃς τοῖς</p> - -</div> - -<p><a href="#top">Return to Top</a></p> - -<hr /> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating -Greek and Roman Life, by British Museum - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION *** - -***** This file should be named 52081-h.htm or 52081-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/0/8/52081/ - -Produced by deaurider, Lesley Halamek and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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