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diff --git a/old/51521-0.txt b/old/51521-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index edc6e17..0000000 --- a/old/51521-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12330 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prolongation of Life, by Elie Metchnikoff - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Prolongation of Life - Optimistic Studies - -Author: Elie Metchnikoff - -Editor: Peter Chalmers Mitchell - -Release Date: March 21, 2016 [EBook #51521] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - —————————————————————————————————————————————————————— - Transcriber’s Note: - - The position of the footnote anchor 171 at page 229 is - a guess of the transcriber as the anchor was missing - in the original book. - —————————————————————————————————————————————————————— - - - - - THE PROLONGATION - OF LIFE - - OPTIMISTIC STUDIES - - BY - - ÉLIE METCHNIKOFF - - SUB-DIRECTOR OF THE PASTEUR INSTITUTE, PARIS - - THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION - - EDITED BY - - P. CHALMERS MITCHELL - - M.A., D.SC. OXON., HON. LL.D., F.R.S. - - _Secretary of the Zoological Society of London; Corresponding Member - of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_ - - G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - NEW YORK & LONDON - The Knickerbocker Press - 1908 - - - - -EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION - - -Élie Metchnikoff has carried on the high purpose of the Pasteur -Institute by devoting his genius for biological inquiry to the service -of man. Some years ago, in a series of Essays which were intended to -be provocative and educational, rather than expository, he described -the direction towards which he was pressing. I had the privilege of -introducing these Essays to English readers under the title _The Nature -of Man_, a Study in Optimistic Philosophy. In that volume, Professor -Metchnikoff recounted how sentient man, regarding his lot in the world, -had found it evil. Philosophy and literature, religion and folk-lore, -in ancient and modern times have been deeply tinged with pessimism. The -source of these gloomy views lies in the nature of man itself. Man has -inherited a constitution from remote animal ancestors, and every part -of his structure, physical, mental and emotional, is a complex legacy -of diverse elements. Possibly at one time each quality had its purpose -as an adaptation to environment, but, as man, in the course of his -evolution, and the environment itself have changed, the old harmonious -intercourse between quality and circumstances has been dislocated in -many cases. And so there have come into existence many instances of -what the Professor calls “disharmony,” persistences of structures, -or habits, or desires that are no longer useful, but even harmful, -failures of parallelism between the growth, maturity and decay of -physical and mental qualities and so forth. Religions and philosophies -alike have failed to find remedies or efficient anodynes for these -evils of existence, and, so far, man is justified of his historical and -actual pessimism. - -Metchnikoff, however, was able to proclaim himself an optimist, and -found, in biological science, for the present generation a hope, or, -at the least, an end towards which to work, and for future generations -a possible achievement of that hope. Three chief evils that hang over -us are disease, old age, and death. Modern science has already made -vast strides towards the destruction of disease, and no one has more -right to be listened to than a leader of the Pasteur Institute when he -asserts his confidence that rational hygiene and preventive measures -will ultimately rid mankind of disease. The scientific investigation -of old age shows that senility is nearly always precocious and -that its disabilities and miseries are for the most part due to -preventable causes. Metchnikoff showed years ago that there exists in -the human body a number of cells known generally as phagocytes, the -chief function of which is to devour intruding microbes. But these -guardians of the body may turn into its deadly enemies by destroying -and replacing the higher elements, the specific cells of the different -tissues. The physical mechanism of senility appears to be in large -measure the result of this process. Certain substances, notably the -poisons of such diseases as syphilis and the products of intestinal -putrefaction, stimulate the activity of the phagocytes and so encourage -their encroachment on the higher tissues. The first business of science -is to remove these handicaps in favour of the wandering, corroding -phagocytes. Specific poisons must be dealt with separately, by -prevention or treatment, and it is well known that Metchnikoff has -made great advances in that direction. The most striking practical -side of _The Nature of Man_, however, was the discussion of the cause -and prevention of intestinal putrefaction. Metchnikoff believes that -the inherited structure of the human large intestine and the customary -diet of civilised man are specially favourable to the multiplication -of a large number of microbes that cause putrefaction. The avoidance -of alcohol and the rigid exclusion from diet of foods that favour -putrefaction, such as rich meats, and of raw or badly cooked substances -containing microbes, do much to remedy the evils. But the special -introduction of the microbes which cause lactic fermentation has -the effect of inhibiting putrefaction. By such measures Metchnikoff -believes that life will be greatly prolonged and that the chief evils -of senility will be avoided. It may take many generations before the -final result is attained, but, in the meantime, great amelioration is -possible. There remains the last enemy, death. Metchnikoff shows that -in the vast majority of cases death is not “natural,” but comes from -accidental and preventable causes. When diseases have been suppressed -and the course of life regulated by scientific hygiene, it is probable -that death would come only at an extreme old age. Metchnikoff thinks -that there is evidence enough at least to suggest that when death comes -in its natural place at the end of the normal cycle of life, it would -be robbed of its terrors and be accepted as gratefully as any other -part of the cycle of life. He thinks, in fact, that the instinct of -life would be replaced by an instinct of death. - -Metchnikoff’s suggestion, then, was that science should be encouraged -and helped in every possible way in its task of removing the diseases -and habits that now prevent human life from running its normal course, -and his belief is that were the task accomplished, the great causes of -pessimism would disappear. - -In this new volume, _The Prolongation of Life_, the main thesis is -carried further, and a number of criticisms and objections are met. -The latter, so far as they relate to technical details, I need say -nothing of here, as Metchnikoff and his staff at the Pasteur Institute -are the most skilled existing technical experts on these matters, but -I cannot refrain from a word of comment on the brilliant treatment -of the objection to the suggested amelioration of human life that it -considered only the individual and neglected the just subordination -of the individual to society. In the sixth Part of this volume, -Metchnikoff discusses the relation of the individual to the species, -society or colony, from the general point of view of comparative -biology, and shows that as organisation progresses, the integrity of -the individual becomes increasingly important. Were orthobiosis, the -normal cycle of life, attained by human beings, there still would be -room for specialisation of individuals and for differentiation of the -functions of individuals in society, but instead of the specialisation -and differentiation making individuals incomplete throughout their -whole lives, they would be distributed over the different periods of -the life of each individual. - -As these lines are intended to be an introduction, not a commentary, I -will now leave the reader to follow the argument in the book itself. - - P. CHALMERS MITCHELL. - - LONDON, _August, 1907_. - - - - -PREFACE - - -It is now four years since I wrote a volume, the English translation -of which was called _The Nature of Man_, and which was an attempt to -frame an optimistic conception of life. Human nature contains many -very complex elements, due to its animal ancestry, and amongst these -there are some disharmonies to which our misfortunes are due, but also -elements which afford the promise of a happier human life. - -My views have encountered many objections, and I wish to reply to some -of these by developing my arguments. This was my first task in this -book, but I have also brought together a series of studies on problems -which closely affect my theory. - -Although it has been possible to support my conception by new facts, -some of which have been established by my fellow-workers, others -by myself, there still remain many sides of the subject where it -is necessary to fall back on hypotheses. I have accepted such -imperfections instead of delaying the publication of my book. - -Even at present there are critics who regard me as incapable of sane -and logical reasoning. The longer I postpone publication, the longer -would I leave the field open to such persons. What I have been saying -may serve also as a reply to the remark of one of my critics, that my -ideas have been “suggested by self-preoccupation.” - -It is, of course, quite natural that a biologist whose attention had -been aroused by noticing in his own case the phenomena of precocious -old age should turn to study the causes of it. But it is equally plain -that such a study could give no hope of resisting the decay of an -organism which had already for many years been growing old. If the -ideas which have come out of my work bring about some modification in -the onset of old age, the advantage can be gained only by those who are -still young, and who will be at the pains to follow the new knowledge. -This volume, in fact, like my earlier one on the “Nature of Man,” is -directed much more to the new generation than to that which has already -been subjected to the influence of the factors which produce precocious -old age. I think that thus the experience of those who have lived and -worked for long can be made of service to others. - -As this volume is a sequel to _The Nature of Man_, I have tried as much -as possible to avoid repetition of what was fully explained in the -earlier volume. - -Here I bring together the results of work that has been done since the -publication of _The Nature of Man_. Some of the chapters relate to -subjects upon which I have lectured, or which, in a different form, -have been printed before. For instance, the section on the psychic -rudiments of man appeared in the _Bulletin de l’Institut général -psychologique_ of 1904, the essay on Animal Societies was published in -the _Revue Philomatique de Bordeaux et du Sud-Ouest_ of 1904, and in -the _Revue_ of J. Finot of the same year, whilst a German translation -of it appeared in Prof. Ostwald’s _Annalen der Naturphilosophie_. The -chapter on soured milk first appeared as a pamphlet, published in -1905. The substance of my views on natural death was published in June -last in “Harper’s Monthly Magazine” of New York, while the chapter on -natural death in animals appeared in the first number of the _Revue du -Mois_ for 1906. - -I have to thank most sincerely the friends and pupils who have helped -me by bringing before me new facts, or other materials; the names -of these will appear in their proper places in the volume. I have -not mentioned by name, however, Dr. J. Goldschmidt, whose continual -encouragement and practical sympathy have made my work much easier. - -Finally, my special thanks are due to Drs. Em. Roux and Burnet, and -M. Mesnil, who have been so good as to correct my manuscript and the -proofs of this volume. - - É. M. - - PARIS, _Feb. 7, 1907_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION v - - PREFACE ix - - - PART I - - THE INVESTIGATION OF OLD AGE - - - I - - THE PROBLEMS OF SENILITY - - Treatment of old people in uncivilised - countries.—Assassination of old people in civilised - countries.—Suicide of old people.—Public assistance in - old age.—Centenarians.—Mme. Robineau, a lady of 106 - years of age.—Principal characters of old age.—Examples - of old mammals.—Old birds and tortoises.—Hypothesis of - senile degeneration in the lower animals 1 - - - II - - THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF SENILITY - - Hypothesis of the causation of senility.—Senility - cannot be attributed to the cessation of the power of - reproduction of the cells of the body.—Growth of the - hair and the nails in old age.—Inner mechanism of - the senescence of the tissues.—Notwithstanding the - criticisms of M. Marinesco, the neuronophags are true - phagocytes.—The whitening of hair, and the destruction - of nerve cells as arguments against a theory of old age - based on the failure of the reproductive powers of the - cells 15 - - - III - - MECHANISM OF SENILITY - - Action of the macrophags in destroying the higher - cells.—Senile degeneration of the muscular - fibres.—Atrophy of the skeleton.—Atheroma and arterial - sclerosis.—Theory that Old Age is due to alteration - in the vascular glands.—Organic tissues that resist - phagocytosis. 25 - - - PART II - - LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - - I - - THEORIES OF LONGEVITY - - Relation between longevity and size.—Longevity and - the period of growth.—Longevity and the doubling - in weight after birth.—Longevity and rate of - reproduction.—Probable relations between longevity and - the nature of the food 39 - - - II - - LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - Longevity in the lower animals.—Instances of long life - in sea-anemones and other vertebrates.—Duration of - life of insects.—Duration of life of “cold-blooded” - vertebrates.—Duration of life of birds.—Duration of - life of mammals.—Inequality of the duration of life - in males and females.—Relations between longevity and - fertility of the organism 47 - - - III - - THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the structure of - the digestive system.—The cæca in birds.—The - large intestine of mammals.—Function of the large - intestine.—The intestinal microbes and their agency in - producing auto-intoxication and auto-infection in the - organism.—Passage of microbes through the intestinal - wall 59 - - - IV - - MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the intestinal - flora.—Ruminants.—The horse.—Intestinal flora of - birds.—Intestinal flora of cursorial birds.—Duration - of life in cursorial birds.—Flying mammals.—Intestinal - flora and longevity of bats.—Some exceptions to the - rule.—Resistance of the lower vertebrates to certain - intestinal microbes 73 - - - V - - DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE - - Longevity of man.—Theory of Ebstein on the normal - duration of human life.—Instances of human - longevity.—Circumstances which may explain the long - duration of human life 84 - - - PART III - - INVESTIGATIONS ON NATURAL DEATH - - - I - - NATURAL DEATH AMONGST PLANTS - - Theory of the immortality of unicellular - organisms.—Examples of very old trees.—Examples of - short-lived plants.—Prolongation of the life of some - plants.—Theory of the natural death of plants by - exhaustion.—Death of plants from auto-intoxication 94 - - - II - - NATURAL DEATH IN THE ANIMAL WORLD - - Different origins of death in animals.—Examples of - natural death associated with violent acts.—Examples - of natural death in animals without digestive - organs.—Natural death in the two sexes.—Hypothesis as - to the cause of natural death in animals 109 - - - III - - NATURAL DEATH AMONGST HUMAN BEINGS - - Natural death in the aged.—Analogy of natural death and - sleep.—Theories of sleep.—Ponogenes.—The instinct - of sleep.—The instinct of natural death.—Replies to - critics.—Agreeable sensation at the approach of death 119 - - - PART IV - - SHOULD WE TRY TO PROLONG HUMAN LIFE? - - - I - - THE BENEFIT TO HUMANITY - - Complaints of the shortness of our life.—Theory of - “medical selection” as a cause of degeneration of the - race.—Utility of prolonging human life 132 - - - II - - SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE - - Ancient methods of prolonging human life.—Gerokomy.—The - “immortality draught” of the Taoists.—Brown-Séquard’s - method.—The spermine of Poehl.—Dr. Weber’s - precepts.—Increased duration of life in historical - times.—Hygienic maxims.—Decrease in cutaneous cancer 136 - - - III - - DISEASES THAT SHORTEN LIFE - - Measures against infectious diseases as aiding in the - prolongation of life.—Prevention of syphilis.—Attempts - to prepare serums which could strengthen the higher - elements of the organism 145 - - - IV - - INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION SHORTENS LIFE - - Uselessness of the large intestine in man.—Case of - a woman whose large intestine was inactive for six - months.—Another case where the greater part of the - large intestine was completely shut off.—Attempts to - disinfect the contents of the large intestine.—Prolonged - mastication as a means of preventing intestinal - putrefaction 151 - - - V - - LACTIC ACID AS INHIBITING INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION - - The development of the intestinal flora in - man.—Harmlessness of sterilised food.—Means - of preventing the putrefaction of food.—Lactic - fermentation and its anti-putrescent action.—Experiments - on man and mice.—Longevity in races which used - soured milk.—Comparative study of different soured - milks.—Properties of the Bulgarian Bacillus.—Means - of preventing intestinal putrefaction with the help of - microbes 161 - - - PART V - - PSYCHICAL RUDIMENTS IN MAN - - - I - - RUDIMENTARY ORGANS IN MAN - - Reply to critics who deny the simian origin of - man.—Actual existence of rudimentary organs.—Reductions - in the structure of the organs of sense in man.—Atrophy - of Jacobson’s organ and of the Harderian gland in the - human race 184 - - - II - - HUMAN TRAITS OF CHARACTER INHERITED FROM APES - - The mental character of anthropoid apes.—Their muscular - strength.—Their expression of fear.—The awakening of - latent instincts of man under the influence of fear 191 - - - III - - SOMNAMBULISM AND HYSTERIA AS MENTAL RELICS - - Fear as the primary cause of hysteria.—Natural - somnambulism.—Doubling of personality.—Some examples - of somnambulists.—Analogy between somnambulism and - the life of anthropoid apes.—The psychology of - crowds.—Importance of the investigation of hysteria for - the problem of the origin of man 200 - - - PART VI - - SOME POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL ANIMALS - - - I - - THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE - - Problem of the species in the human race.—Loss - of individuality in the associations of lower - animals.—Myxomycetes and Siphonophora.—Individuality in - Ascidians.—Progress in the development of the individual - living in a society 212 - - - II - - INSECT SOCIETIES - - Social life of insects.—Development and preservation of - individuality in colonies of insects.—Division of labour - and sacrifice of individuality in some insects 220 - - - III - - SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE HUMAN RACE - - Human societies.—Differentiation in the human - race.—Learned women.—Habits of a bee, Halictus - quadricinctus.—Collectivist theories.—Criticisms by - Herbert Spencer and Nietzsche.—Progress of individuality - in the societies of higher beings 223 - - - PART VII - - PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM - - - I - - PREVALENCE OF PESSIMISM - - Oriental origin of pessimism.—Pessimistic - poets.—Byron.—Leopardi.—Poushkin.—Lermontoff.—Pessimism - and suicide 233 - - - II - - ANALYSIS OF PESSIMISM - - Attempts to assign reasons for the pessimistic conception - of life.—Views of E. von Hartmann.—Analysis of - Kowalevsky’s work on the psychology of pessimism 239 - - - III - - PESSIMISM IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND AGE - - Relation between pessimism and the state of the - health.—History of a man of science who was pessimistic - when young and who became an optimist in old - age.—Optimism of Schopenhauer when old.—Development of - the sense of life.—Development of the senses in blind - people.—The sense of obstacles 247 - - - PART VIII - - GOETHE AND FAUST - - - I - - GOETHE’S YOUTH - - Goethe’s youth.—Pessimism of youth.—Werther.—Tendency - to suicide.—Work and love.—Goethe’s conception of life - in his maturity 261 - - - II - - GOETHE AND OPTIMISM - - Goethe’s optimistic period.—His mode of life - in that period.—Influence of love in artistic - production.—Inclinations towards the arts must be - regarded as secondary sexual characters.—Senile love - of Goethe.—Relation between genius and the sexual - activities 270 - - - III - - GOETHE’S OLD AGE - - Old age of Goethe.—Physical and intellectual vigour of - the old man.—Optimistic conception of life.—Happiness - in life in his last period 279 - - - IV - - GOETHE AND “FAUST” - - _Faust_ the biography of Goethe.—The three monologues in - the first Part.—Faust’s pessimism.—The brain-fatigue - which finds a remedy in love.—The romance with - Marguerite and its unhappy ending 283 - - - V - - THE OLD AGE OF FAUST - - The second Part of _Faust_ is in the main a description - of senile love.—Amorous passion of the old man.—Humble - attitude of the old Faust.—Platonic love for - Helena.—The old Faust’s conception of life.—His - optimism.—The general idea of the play 290 - - - PART IX - - SCIENCE AND MORALITY - - - I - - UTILITARIAN AND INTUITIVE MORALITY - - Difficulty of the problem of morality.—Vivisection - and anti-vivisection.—Enquiry into the possibility of - rational morality.—Utilitarian and intuitive theories of - morality.—Insufficiency of these 301 - - - II - - MORALITY AND HUMAN NATURE - - Attempts to found morality on the laws of human - nature.—Kant’s theory of moral obligation.—Some - criticisms of the Kantian theory.—Moral conduct must be - guided by reason 309 - - - III - - INDIVIDUALISM - - Individual morality.—History of two brothers brought - up in the same circumstances, but whose conduct was - quite different.—Late development of the sense of - life.—Evolution of sympathy.—The sphere of egoism in - moral conduct.—Christian morality.—Morality of Herbert - Spencer.—Danger of exalted altruism 316 - - - IV - - ORTHOBIOSIS - - Human nature must be modified according to an - ideal.—Comparison with the modification of the - constitution of plants and of animals.—Schlanstedt - rye.—Burbank’s plants.—The ideal of orthobiosis.—The - immorality of ignorance.—The place of hygiene in - the social life.—The place of altruism in moral - conduct.—The freedom of the theory of orthobiosis from - metaphysics 325 - - - - -THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE - - - -PART I - -THE INVESTIGATION OF OLD AGE - - - - -I - -THE PROBLEMS OF SENILITY - - Treatment of old people in uncivilised - countries—Assassination of old people in civilised - countries—Suicide of old people—Public assistance in - old age—Centenarians—Mme. Robineau, a lady of 106 years - of age—Principal characters of old age—Examples of old - mammals—Old birds and tortoises—Hypothesis of senile - degeneration in the lower animals - - -In the “Nature of Man” I laid down the outlines of a theory of the -actual changes which take place during the senescence of our body. -These ideas, on the one hand, have raised certain difficulties, and, on -the other, have led to new investigations. As the study of old age is -of great theoretical importance, and naturally is of practical value, I -think that it is useful to pursue the subject still further. - -Although there exist races which solve the difficulty of old age by -the simple means of destroying aged people, the problem in civilised -countries is complicated by our more refined feelings and by -considerations of a general nature. - -In the Melanesian Islands, old people who have become incapable of -doing useful work are buried alive. - -In times of famine, the natives of Tierra del Fuego kill and eat the -old women before they touch their dogs. When they were asked why they -did this, they said that dogs could catch seals, whilst old women could -not do so. - -Civilised races do not act like the Fuegians or other savages; they -neither kill nor eat the aged, but none the less life in old age often -becomes very sad. As they are incapable of performing any useful -function in the family or in the village, the old people are regarded -as a heavy burden. Although they cannot be got rid of, their death is -awaited with eagerness, and is never thought to come soon enough. The -Italians say that old women have seven lives. According to a Bergamask -tradition, old women have seven souls, and after that an eighth soul, -quite a little one, and after that again half a soul; whilst the -Lithuanians complain that the life of an old woman is so tough that it -cannot be crushed even in a mill. We may take it as an echo of such -popular ideas that murders of old people are extremely common even -in the most civilised European countries. I have been astonished in -looking through criminal records to see how many cases there are of the -murder of old people, specially of old women. It is easy to divine the -motives of these acts. A convict of the Island of Saghalien, condemned -for the assassination of several old persons, declared naïvely to the -prison doctor: “Why pity them? They were already old, and would have -died in any case in a few years.” - -In the celebrated novel of Dostoiewsky, “Crime and Punishment,” there -is a tavern scene where young people discuss all sorts of general -topics. In the middle of the conversation a student declares that he -would “murder and rob any cursed old woman without the least remorse.” -“If the truth were told,” he goes on to say, “this is how I look at -the thing. On the one hand a stupid old woman, childish, worthless, -ill-tempered, and in bad health; no one would miss her, indeed she is -a nuisance to everyone. She does not even herself know any reason why -she should live, and perhaps to-morrow death will make a good riddance -of her. On the other hand, there are fresh and vigorous young people -who are dying in their thousands, in the most senseless way, no one -troubling about them, and everywhere the same thing is going on.” - -Old people not only run the risk of murder; they very often end their -own lives prematurely by suicide. - -They prefer death to a life oppressed by material hardships or burdened -by diseases. The daily papers give many instances of old people who, -tired of suffering, asphyxiate themselves by their charcoal stoves. - -The frequency of suicide in the case of the old has been established -by numerous statistics, and the new facts which I now cite do no more -than confirm it. In 1878, in Prussia, amongst 100,000 individuals there -were 154 cases of suicide of men between the ages of 20 and 50, but -295, that is to say, nearly twice as many of men between the ages of 50 -and 80. In Denmark, a country in which suicide is notoriously common, a -similar proportion exists. Thus, in Copenhagen, in the ten years from -1886 to 1895, there were 394 suicides of men between 50 and 70. These -figures relate to 100,000 individuals. Of the suicides 36-1/2 per cent. -were those of people in the prime of life, 63-1/2 per cent. those of -the aged.[1] - -In such circumstances, it is natural that politicians and -philanthropists have made many attempts to ameliorate the old age of -the poor. In some countries laws have been passed to bring about this. -For instance, a Danish law of June 27th, 1891, established compulsory -aid for the aged, enacting that every person more than 60 years old was -to have the legal right to aid if required. In 1896 more than 36,000 -people (36,246) were pensioned under this law, at a cost of nearly -£200,000. In Belgium, the indigent old people are not pensioned until -they reach the age of 65. In France, until recently, the aged poor -could be supported at the public expense only by prosecuting them and -sending them to prison for begging. This state of affairs, however, -ceased with the application of the law of July 15th, 1905, according to -which any French subject without resources, unable to support himself -by work, and either more than 70 years of age, or suffering from some -incurable infirmity or disease, is to receive public assistance. - -It has been thought the proper course to make such laws, and to lay -the burden on the general population, without inquiring if it may not -be possible to retard the debility of old age to such an extent that -very old people might still be able to earn their livelihood by work. -Old age can be studied by the methods of exact science, and there may -yet be established some regimen by which health and vigour will be -preserved beyond the age where now it is generally necessary to resort -to public charity. With this object, a systematic investigation of -senescence should be made in institutions for the aged, where there -are always a large number of people from 75 to 90 years old, although -centenarians are extremely rare. I know many institutions for aged -men where, from their first foundation, there has been no case of an -inhabitant reaching the age of 100, and even in similar institutions -for women, although women live to much greater ages than men, -centenarians are very rare. At the Salpêtrière, for instance, where -there is always a large number of old women, it is the rarest chance to -find a centenarian. Opportunity for the study of the extremely aged is -to be found only in private families. - -Most of the centenarians whom I have been able to see have been so -defective mentally that all that can be studied in them are the -physical qualities and functions. A few years ago an old woman who -had reached her 100th year was the pride of the Salpêtrière. She was -bedridden and extremely feeble physically and mentally. She replied -briefly when she was asked questions, but apparently without any idea -of what they meant. - -Not long ago, a lady who lived in a suburb of Rouen reached her 100th -birthday. The local newspapers wrote exaggerated articles about her, -praising the integrity of her mind and her physical strength. I paid -a visit to her myself, hoping to make a detailed investigation, but -I found at once that the journalists had completely misrepresented -her condition. Although her physical health was fairly good, her -intelligence had degenerated to such an extent that I had to abandon -the idea of any serious investigation. - -The most interesting of all the centenarians with whom I have become -acquainted had reached an extremely advanced age, having entered upon -her 107th year. It is about two years ago that a journalist, Monsieur -Flamans, took me to see this Mme. Robineau who lived in a suburb of -Paris. I found her a very old-looking lady, rather short, thin, with a -bent back, and leaning heavily on a cane when she walked. The physical -condition (Mme. Robineau was born on January 12th, 1800), of this -woman of more than 106 years, showed extreme decay. She had only one -tooth; she had to sit down after every few steps, but, once comfortably -seated, she could remain in that position for quite a long time. She -went to bed early and got up very late. Her features displayed very -great age (see Fig. 1), although her skin was not extremely wrinkled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Mme. Robineau, a centenarian. From a photograph -taken on her one hundred and fifth birthday.] - -The skin of her hands had become so transparent that one could see -the bones, the blood-vessels, and the tendons. Her senses were very -feeble; she could see only with one eye; taste and smell were extremely -rudimentary; her hearing was her best means of relation with the -external world. None the less, Dr. Löwenberg, a well-known aurist, -had assured himself that her auditory organs showed in a most marked -degree, the usual signs of old age, such as complete insensibility to -high notes and slight deafness for low notes. Dr. Löwenberg attributed -these changes to senile degeneration of the ear which affected more -and more seriously the nervous mechanism although it had caused little -change in the conducting apparatus. Notwithstanding her physical -weakness, Mme. Robineau retained her intelligence fully, her mind -remained delicate and refined and the goodness of her heart was -touching. In contrast with the usual selfishness of old people, Mme. -Robineau took a vivid interest in those around her. Her conversation -was intelligent, connected, and logical. Examination of the physical -functions of this old lady revealed facts of great interest. Dr. -Ambard found that the sounds of the heart were normal, but perhaps a -little accentuated. The pulse was regular, 70 to 84 a minute, and its -tension was normal. The arterial pressure was 17. The lungs were sound. -All these facts testify to her general health. The most remarkable -circumstance was the absence of sclerosis of the arteries, although -such degeneration is usually believed to be a normal character of old -age. - -Analysis of the urine, made on several occasions, showed that the -kidneys were affected with a chronic disease, which, however, was not -serious.[2] - -Although the sense of taste was weak, Madame Robineau had a fair -appetite. She ate and drank little, but her diet was varied. She -took butcher’s meat or chicken extremely seldom, but ate eggs, fish, -farinaceous food, vegetables, and stewed fruit, and drank sweetened -water with a little white wine, and sometimes, after a meal, a small -glass of dessert wine. The processes of alimentary digestion and -excretion were normal. - -It has sometimes been thought that duration of life is a hereditary -property. There was no evidence for this in the present case. Madame -Robineau’s relatives had died comparatively early in life, and a -centenarian was unknown in her family. Her great age was an acquired -character. Her whole life had been extremely regular. She had married a -timber merchant, and had lived for many years in a suburb of Paris in -comfortable circumstances. Her character was gentle and affectionate; -she was thoroughly domesticated, and had been devoted to home life with -very few distractions. - -At the age of 106 years, her intelligence suddenly became weak. She -lost her memory almost completely, and sometimes wandered. But her -gentle and affectionate disposition remained unaltered. - -The appearance of aged persons is too well known to make detailed -description necessary. The skin of the face is dry and wrinkled and -generally pale; the hairs on the head and the body are white; the back -is bent, and the gait is slow and laborious, whilst the memory is weak. -Such are the most familiar traits of old age. Baldness is not a special -character; it often begins during youth and naturally is progressive, -but if it has not already appeared, it does not come on with old age. - -The stature diminishes in old age. As the result of a series of -observations, it has been established that a man loses more than an -inch (3·166 cm.), and a woman more than an inch and a half (4·3 cm.), -between the ages of fifty and eighty-five years. In extreme cases, -the loss may be nearly three inches. The weight also becomes less. -According to Quételet, males attain their maximum weights at the age of -forty, females at that of fifty. From the age of sixty years onwards, -the body becomes lighter, the loss at eighty being as much as thirteen -pounds. - -Such losses of height and weight are signs of the general atrophy of -the aged organism. Not merely the soft parts, such as the muscles and -viscera, but even the bones lose weight, in the latter case the loss -being of the mineral constituents. This process of decalcification -makes the skeleton brittle, and is sometimes the cause of fatal -accidents. - -The loss of muscular tissue is specially great. The volume diminishes, -and the substance becomes paler; the fat between the fibres is -absorbed, and may disappear completely. Movements are slower, and -the muscular force is abated. This progressive degeneration has been -examined by dynamometrical measurements of the hand and the trunk, and -is greater in males than in females. - -The volumes and weights of the visceral organs similarly become -smaller, but the diminution is not uniform. - -The old age of lower mammals presents characters similar to those found -in man. I can now give other instances than the case of the old dog -which I described in the “Nature of Man.” - -I will first take the case of old elephants, described by a competent -observer. “The general appearance is wretched, the skull being often -hardly covered with skin; there are deep abrasions under the eyes, and -smaller ones on the cheeks, whilst the skin of the forehead is very -often deeply fissured or covered with lumps. The eyes are usually dim, -and discharge an abnormal quantity of water. The margin of the ears, -specially on the lower side, is usually frayed. The skin of the trunk -is roughened, hard, and warty, so that the organ has lost much of its -flexibility. The skin on the body generally is worn and wrinkled; the -legs are thinner than in maturity, the huge mass of muscles being much -shrunken, whilst the circumference, especially just above the feet, is -considerably reduced. The skin round the toe-nails is roughened and -frayed. The tail is scaly and hard, and the tip is often hairless. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.—A Mare, thirty-seven years old.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.—A White Duck, which lived for more than a -quarter of a century.] - -Horses begin to grow old much sooner than elephants. I reproduce (Fig. -2) the photograph of a rare instance of longevity, a mare 37 years -old, which belonged to M. Métaine, in the department of Mayenne. The -skin, bare in places, but elsewhere covered with long hairs, shows -considerable atrophy. The general attitude reveals the feebleness -of the whole body. Many birds, on the other hand, show at similar -ages very slight external change, as may be seen from the photograph -of a duck more than 25 years old (Fig. 3) which belonged to Dr. -Jean Charcot. At a still greater age, as may be seen occasionally -in parrots, the general debility of the body reveals itself in the -attitude, in the condition of the feathers, and in the swelling of the -joints. On the other hand, the oldest reptiles which have been observed -do not differ in appearance from normal adults of the same species. I -have in my possession a male tortoise (_Testudo mauritanica_) given me -by my friends MM. Rabaud and Caullery, and which is at least 86 years -old. It shows no sign of old age, and in all respects behaves like -any other individual of this species. More than 31 years ago it was -wounded by a blow, the traces of which remain visible on the right side -of the carapace (Fig. 4). In the last three years the tortoise lived in -a garden at Montauban, along with two females which laid fertile eggs. -The old male, although, as I have said, probably at least 86 years of -age, was still sexually healthy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.—An Old Land-tortoise.] - -I have borrowed from the interesting volume of Prof. Sir E. Ray -Lankester[3] the figure (Fig. 5) and description of a giant tortoise -from the island of Mauritius, which is probably the oldest of all -living animals. It was brought to Mauritius from the Seychelles in -1764, and has lived since then in the garden of the Governor, and as it -has thus already been 140 years in captivity, its age must be at least -150 years, although we have not exact information. Notwithstanding -this, it shows no signs of old age. - -The examples which I have brought together show that often amongst -vertebrates there are some animals the organisms of which withstand -the ravages of time much better than that of man. I think it a fair -inference that senility, the precocious senescence which is one of -the greatest sorrows of humanity, is not so profoundly seated in the -constitution of the higher animals as has generally been supposed. It -is not necessary, therefore, to discuss at length the general question -as to whether senile degeneration is an inevitable event in living -organisms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—A Water-tortoise, more than 150 years old. - -(After Prof. Sir E. Ray Lankester.)] - -I have already shown, in the “Nature of Man,” the difference which -exists between senile degeneration in our own bodies and the phenomena -of senescence amongst Infusoria which, as M. Maupas described, are -followed by a process of rejuvenescence. According to the more recent -results of several investigators, the difference is still greater than -I had supposed. Enriquez[4] has been able to propagate Infusoria to -the 700th generation without any sign of senility being displayed. Here -we are far from the condition in the human race. - -R. Hertwig,[5] one of the best observers of the lower animals, has -recently attempted to show that the very simple animalculæ of the genus -_Actinosphærium_ are subject to true physiological degeneration. He -has several times seen cultures of this Rhizopod degenerate, until all -the individuals had died, notwithstanding the presence of abundant -food. Prof. Hertwig attributed this to the “constitution of the -_Actinosphærium_ having been weakened by too great vital activity -at an earlier stage.” I should have thought that it was a much more -natural explanation to suppose that the culture had undergone infection -by one of the contagious diseases which so often destroy cultures of -different kinds of lower animals and plants. As this idea had not -occurred to the observer, he had not searched for parasitic microbes -amongst the granulations which are always present in the body of an -_Actinosphærium_. However this may be, I cannot accept the facts -brought forward by this distinguished German as a valid proof of the -existence of senile degeneration in these lowly creatures. - -The facts that I have brought together in this chapter justify the -conclusion that human beings who reach extreme old age may preserve -their mental qualities notwithstanding serious physical decay. -Moreover, it is equally plain that the organism of some vertebrates is -able to resist the influence of time much longer than is the case with -man under present conditions. - -II - -THEORIES OF CAUSATION OF SENILITY - - Hypothesis of the causation of senility—Senility - cannot be attributed to the cessation of the power - of reproduction of the cells of the body—Growth of - the hair and the nails in old age—Inner mechanism of - the senescence of the tissues—Notwithstanding the - criticisms of M. Marinesco, the neuronophags are true - phagocytes—The whitening of hair and the destruction of - nerve cells, as arguments against a theory of old age - based on the failure of the reproductive powers of the - cells - - -Although it has not been proved that living matter must inevitably -undergo senile decrepitude, it is none the less true that man and his -nearest allies generally exhibit such degeneration. It is therefore -extremely important to recognise the real causes of our senescence. -There have been many hypotheses on the subject, but there are -comparatively few definite facts known. - -Bütschli has supposed that the life of cells is maintained by a -specific vital ferment which becomes feebler in proportion to the -extent of cellular reproduction, but I cannot regard this as more than -a pious opinion. The ferment has never been seen, and we do not know -of its actual existence. According to the better-known theory of Prof. -Weismann, old age depends on a limitation in the power of cells to -reproduce, so that a time comes when the body can no longer replace -the wastage of cells which is an inevitable accompaniment of life. As -old age appears at different times in different species and different -individuals, Weismann has concluded that the possible number of cell -generations differs in different cases. He has not found, however, -a solution of the problem as to why multiplication of cells should -cease in one individual, whereas it proceeds much further in other -individuals. Prof. Minot,[6] the American zoologist, has developed -a similar theory, and has employed an exact method to determine the -gradual diminution in the rate of growth of an animal from its birth -onwards. According to him, the power of reproduction of the cells -weakens progressively during life, until a point is necessarily reached -at which the organism, no longer capable of repairing itself, begins to -atrophy and degenerate. Dr. Buehler[7] has recently laid stress upon -this theory. - -There is no doubt that cells reproduce much more actively during the -embryonic period. The process becomes slower later on, but, none the -less, continues to display itself throughout the whole period of life. -Buehler attributes the difficulty with which certain wounds heal in the -case of old people to the insufficiency of cellular reproduction. He -thinks in particular that the proliferation of the cells of the skin, -to replace those which are worn off from the surface, becomes less -active with age. According to him, it is theoretically obvious that a -time must come when the replacement of the epidermic cells completely -ceases. As the superficial layers of the skin continue to dry up and -be cast off, it is plain that the epidermis must disappear completely. -Buehler thinks that there must be a similar fate for the genital -glands, the muscles, and all the other organs. - -These theoretical considerations, however, are not compatible with -certain well-known facts indicating that there is no general cessation -of the power of cell reproduction in old age. The hairs and the nails, -which are epidermic outgrowths, continue to grow throughout life, their -growth being due to the proliferation of their constituent cells. There -is no sign of any arrest in the development of these structures, even -in the most advanced old age. The reverse is true. It is well known -that the hairs on some parts of the body increase in number and in -length in old people. In some lower races, for instance in the Mongols, -the moustache and the beard grow vigorously in old age, whilst young -people of the same race have only very small moustaches and practically -no trace of beard. So also in white women the fine and almost invisible -down which covers the upper lip, the chin, and the cheeks in the young -may become replaced by long hairs which form a moustache or beard. - -Dr. Pohl, a specialist in the growth of hair, has measured the rate of -growth in different circumstances. He has shown that in an old man of -61 the hair on the temple grew 11 mm. in a month; on the other hand, -the hair on the same region in boys of 11 to 15 years old grew in -the same time only from 11 to 12 mm. Plainly, there is no case here -of a progressive diminution of cell-proliferation with age. The same -observer, it is true, has shown that the hair of young men of between -21 and 24 years grew at the rate of 15 mm. a month, whilst in the same -individuals, at the age of 61 years, the rate of growth was only 11 -mm.; but this diminution in the rate of growth is only apparent. The -first figure concerned the hair taken from different regions of the -scalp, whilst the second related only to the hair on the temples, and -Dr. Pohl himself has shown that, in the latter region, the hair grows -slower than in other regions. Moreover, in many boys of 11 to 15 years -old, studied by this observer, the rate of growth was always less than -15 mm., and often less even than the 11 mm. recorded in the old man of -61. - -I have been able to note that the nails grow even in very old people. -In the case of Mme. Robineau, the centenarian, the nail of the middle -finger of the left hand grew 2-1/2 mm. in three weeks. In the case of a -lady of 32 years old, the corresponding nail grew 3 mm. in two weeks, -the difference being out of all proportion to the enormous difference -in the age. The centenarian’s nails had to be cut from time to time. - -Although the hairs of old people grow, they become white, which is a -phenomenon of senile degeneration. Although they increase in length, -the colouring matter in them becomes reduced and finally disappears. -In the “Nature of Man” I described the process by which this blanching -takes place, and which may now be regarded as definitely proved. It is -useful as a means of interpreting the real nature of the process of -senescence. In several published works, I have explained my belief that -just as the pigment of the hair is destroyed by phagocytes, so also the -atrophy of other organs of the body, in old age, is very frequently -due to the action of devouring cells which I have called macrophags. -These are the phagocytes that destroy the higher elements of the body, -such as the nervous and muscular cells, and the cells of the liver and -kidneys. This part of my theory has encountered very strong criticism, -especially with regard to the part played by the macrophags in the -senescence of nervous tissue. - -Neurologists in particular, have criticised my interpretation. For -several years M. Marinesco[8] has attacked my theory of the atrophy -of the nerve-cells in old age. In the first place, he has stated that -in old people, and even if these are very old, it is rare to find -phagocytes surrounding and devouring the cells of the brain. In support -of this contention, he has been good enough to send me two preparations -made from the brains of two very old persons. After careful examination -I was convinced that my opponent had been inexact. In the brain of the -two centenarians (one of whom died at the age of 117 years) there were -very many nerve-cells surrounded by phagocytes and in process of being -destroyed by them. It happened, however, that as the sections were very -weakly stained, it was more difficult to observe the facts than in the -preparations upon which I had made my own observations. I have already -recorded this fact in the second and third French editions of the -“Nature of Man.” - -Without taking notice of my reply, M. Marinesco has published another -criticism of my theory in an article[9] entitled “Histological -Investigations into the Mechanism of Senility.” In that work, although -he himself had invented the designation “neuronophag” for a phagocyte -that devours nerve-cells, he denies the existence of such a power. -He thinks that nerve-cells atrophy independently of the cells that -surround them. The latter, the so-called neuronophags, only contribute -to the atrophy inasmuch as they press against the nerve-cells and -deprive them of nutrition. He is confident that the constituent parts -of nerve-cells are never found in the neuronophags. There is no -question of phagocytosis, of the existence of cells that devour their -neighbours. - -M. Léri has taken a similar view in a Report on the Senile Brain[10] -presented to a recent congress of alienists and neurologists. -According to him “the nuclei which surround some of the atrophying -nerve-cells do not play the part of neuronophags.” In his monograph -“La Neuronophagie,”[11] M. Sand elaborates the same view. He relies -on his observation that “neuronophags are usually either devoid -of protoplasm or display only a very thin layer of it. They never -exhibit protoplasmic outgrowths, and they never have granules in their -cellular bodies (p. 86).” Still more recently MM. Laignel-Lavastine and -Voisin[12] have taken the same view, maintaining that the neuronophags -do not display phagocytosis. - -Although I cannot undertake here to give a detailed reply to the -arguments of my critics, I may point out a fallacy that vitiates -their reasoning. The study of the intimate structure of nervous -tissue involves the treatment of that very delicate substance by -numerous active reagents. It is extremely important not to forget the -possibility of alterations which may be produced in the processes of -preparation and which are extremely difficult to avoid. A glance at -the figures given by my critics shows me that the neuronophags in -their preparations had been subjected to violent treatment. When M. -Léri speaks of “the nuclei which surround some of the nerve-cells,” -and M. Sand of “cells without protoplasm,” it is clear that they had -been observing cells destroyed by the processes of the laboratory. -The illustrations in the memoir of M. Marinesco show that in his -preparations, too, the neuronophags had been very greatly altered. - -It is well known that nuclei do not exist free in tissues, and that -when they appear devoid of protoplasm, there has been some defect in -the technical methods of preparing them for examination. As a matter -of fact, neuronophags do not consist of nuclei with at the most a -pellicle of protoplasm; like other cells, they have protoplasmic bodies -which, however, are frequently destroyed by the violent processes of -histological preparation. - -The arguments of my critics recall to me the words of a medical -student, who, on being asked to describe the microbe of tuberculosis, -said that it was a little red bacillus. The bacillus in question, like -most bacilli, is colourless, but it is usual to stain it so that it -may be visible under the microscope. The student, knowing it only in -particular preparations, had a false idea of its appearance. - -In well-made preparations, neuronophags are typical cells with abundant -protoplasm. When they have been preserved by a process that does -not dissolve their contents, they show granules like those found in -nerve-cells. - -To study neuronophagy, M. Manouélian,[13] in the laboratory of the -Pasteur Institute in Paris, set himself to improve the technical -methods of preparation. He succeeded in showing first that in the -destruction of nerve-cells that occurs in cases of hydrophobia, the -contents of these cells are absorbed by the surrounding neuronophags. -“My observations on the cerebro-spinal ganglia of human cases of -hydrophobia,” he wrote, “show clearly that the macrophags act as -phagocytes of the nerve-cells.” “Most of the cells in the nerve-ganglia -contain yellow, brown, and black pigmented granules, usually united -in small masses. What becomes of these granulations on the destruction -and disappearance of the nerve-cell? If, as M. Marinesco has it, there -is no phagocytosis by the surrounding cells, but merely a mechanical -interference, then the granules, on the destruction of the nerve-cells -that contained them, should be found lying in the interstitial tissue. -But this does not happen. The granules are ingested by cells which are -true macrophags.” - -By the aid of a very delicate mode of preparation, M. Manouélian has -shown that in the case of senile brains the granules of the nerve-cells -are absorbed by neuronophags. I have myself studied M. Manouélian’s -preparations and can testify to the accuracy of his observations (Figs. -6 and 7). - -Doubt is no longer possible. In senile degeneration the nerve-cells are -surrounded by neuronophags which absorb their contents and bring about -more or less complete atrophy. It has been supposed that in order to -devour their contents, the neuronophags must penetrate the nerve-cells, -and such an event has rarely been seen. But it is well known, the -phagocytosis of red blood corpuscles being a typical instance, that -to absorb a cell a phagocyte does not necessarily engulf it bodily or -penetrate it, but may gradually denude it of its contents merely by -resting in contact with it. - -There has been some discussion as to the condition of nerve-cells which -are on the point of being devoured by neuronophags. It has been noticed -that such cells may display a considerable amount of degeneration -without being devoured, whilst, on the other hand, cells apparently -normal have been found undergoing phagocytosis. As I cannot state -definitely what are the conditions that induce the phagocytosis of -nerve-cells, I shall not attempt a discussion of the problem. - -Although the destruction of nerve-cells by neuronophags is a general -occurrence in senile brains, one may conceive of cases where this does -not occur. And so, in old people who have preserved their faculties, -it may well be that the neuronophags have refrained from attacking the -nerve-cells. But as such instances are rare, so also phagocytosis is -usually found in senile brains, and I cannot accept M. Sand’s denial of -its existence, based on his study of two cases. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. - -FIGS. 6. & 7.—Two nerve-cells from the cortex of the brain of an old -dog aged fifteen years. - -The neuronophags surrounding the nerve-cells contain numerous -granulations. - -(From preparations made by M. Manouélian.)] - -The general result of my investigation into the criticisms that -have been published on this matter has confirmed me in my belief -that neuronophagy plays a most important part in senescence, and -recent observations that I have made with M. Weinberg have completely -supported this view. - -The bleaching of hair and the atrophy of the brain in old age thus -furnish important arguments against the view that senescence is the -result of arrest of the reproductive powers of cells. Hairs grow old -and become white without ceasing to grow. The cessation of the power of -reproduction cannot be the cause of the senescence of brain-cells, for -these cells do not reproduce even in youth. - -III - -MECHANISM OF SENILITY - - Action of the macrophags in destroying the higher - cells—Senile degeneration of muscular fibres—Atrophy - of the skeleton—Atheroma and arterial sclerosis—Theory - that old age is due to alteration in the vascular - glands—Organic tissues that resist phagocytosis - - -The instances which I have selected in attempting to describe the -mechanism of senescence of the tissues are not the only cases in which -the importance of phagocytosis is evident. The blanching of hair is -due to the destructive agency of chromophags; in atrophy of the brain -neuronophags destroy the higher nerve-cells. In addition to these -instances of phagocytosis, in which the active agents belong to the -category of macrophags, there are many other devouring cells, adrift -in the tissues of the aged, and ready to cause destruction of other -cells of the higher type. The phagocytic action is not so manifest as -in the case of infectious diseases, partly because it is the method of -macrophags to absorb the contents of the higher cells extremely slowly. -The mode of action is well seen in the atrophy of an egg-cell (Fig. 8), -where the surrounding macrophags gradually seize hold of the granules -within it and carry these off. As the process goes on, the ovum becomes -reduced to a shapeless mass, and finally leaves only a few fragments, -or disappears completely. M. Matchinsky[14] has studied the series of -events in my laboratory, and I am myself well assured of the importance -of the action of macrophags in the atrophy of the ovary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—Ovum of a Bitch in process of destruction by -Phagocytes, which are full of fatty granules. - -(After M. Matchinsky.)] - -The phenomena of atrophy in general and of senile decay afford other -cases of tissue destruction in which the phagocytic character of the -process is more modified and obscure than in nerve-cells and ova. - -It is well known that progressive muscular debility is an accompaniment -of old age. Physical work is seldom given to men over sixty years -of age, as it is notorious that they are less capable of it. Their -muscular movements are feebler and soon bring on fatigue; their actions -are slow and painful. Even old men whose mental vigour is unimpaired -admit their muscular weakness. The physical correlate of this -condition is an actual atrophy of the muscles, and has for long been -known to observers. More than half a century ago, Kölliker,[15] one of -the founders of histology, devoted some attention to this matter, and -described the senile modification of muscular tissue in the following -words:—“In old age there is a true atrophy of the muscles. The fibres -are much more slender; there are deposited in their substance numerous -yellow or brown granules and many globular nuclei. These nuclei are -frequently arranged in longitudinal series and present such signs of -active division as are found in embryonic tissue.” - -Other investigators afterwards made similar observations. Vulpian[16] -and Douaud[17] have stated that a multiplication of nuclei takes places -in the atrophying muscles of the old. - -As the senile degeneration of muscular tissue appeared to be important -in my study of the mechanism of senescence, M. Weinberg and I -examined several cases of muscular atrophy in old human beings and -lower animals. We were able to recognise the phenomena observed by -our predecessors. In senile atrophy the muscular fibres contain many -nuclei, and these, increasing rapidly, bring about an almost complete -disappearance of the contractile substance (Fig. 9). The fibres -preserve their striation for a certain time but eventually lose it and -appear to contain an amorphous mass with numerous, rapidly multiplying -nuclei. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Degeneration of striated muscle Fibres from the -auricular muscle of a man aged 87 years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -The investigators who had recorded these facts thought of them only as -curious. It is plain, in the first place, however, that this remarkable -and rapid multiplication is a proof that senile atrophy is not due to -failure of cell proliferation, although the latter has frequently been -suggested as the mechanism of senescence. In muscular atrophy, cell -multiplication, so far from failing, greatly increases. We may add -muscular atrophy to the blanching of hair and the decay of nerve-cells -as another instance showing that senile degeneration is not the result -of cells ceasing to be able to multiply. Just as in the atrophy -of the brain there is an increase in the volume of neuroglœa, -the substance in which the neuronophags are found, so also in the -atrophy of the muscles there is an increase of muscular nuclei. Along -with the increase of nuclei, however, there is an increase of the -protoplasmic substance of the fibres known as sarcoplasm. The latter -replaces the myoplasm, the specific striated substance of muscles, by -a process which must be regarded as parallel with phagocytosis. In a -normal muscle the two substances and the sarcoplasmic nuclei are in -equilibrium, but in old age the sarcoplasm and its nuclei increase at -the expense of the myoplasm. The equilibrium is destroyed with the -result that the muscular power is weakened. In these conditions the -sarcoplasm acts phagocytically with regard to the myoplasm, just as the -chromophag becomes the phagocyte of the pigment of the hair, or the -neuronophag devours the nerve-cell. - -The investigation of other cases of muscular atrophy, as, for instance, -that of the caudal muscles of frog-tadpoles, confirms the significance -of the process that I have observed in old age. In the two cases, what -takes place is the destruction of the contractile material of the -muscles by myophags, a special kind of phagocyte. - -It is one of the curiosities of senile atrophy that whilst there is -hardening or sclerosis of so many organs, the skeleton, the most -solid part of our frame-work, becomes less dense, so that the bones -are friable, the condition often leading to serious accidents in old -people. The bones become porous, and lose weight. It is difficult to -believe that macrophags, although they destroy softer elements such -as nerve-cells or muscle fibres, can be able to gnaw through a hard -material like bone impregnated with mineral salts. As a matter of fact, -the mechanism of bone atrophy must be placed in a different category -from the phagocytosis of other organs. It is brought about, however, -by the agency of cells very like some of the macrophags. These cells -contain many nuclei, and are known as osteoclasts. They form round -about the bony lamellæ and lead to their destruction, but are incapable -of breaking off fragments of bone and dissolving them in their -interiors. Although the intimate mechanism of this destructive action -is not thoroughly understood, it seems probable that the cells secrete -some acid which softens bone by dissolving the lime salts. The process -can be observed in the different varieties of caries of the bone, and -in the bony atrophy of old age as is represented in Fig. 10. - -By the action of the osteoclasts, which themselves are macrophags, part -of the lime in the skeleton is dissolved during old age and passes into -the general circulation. This is probably a source of the lime which is -deposited so readily in the different tissues of old people. Whilst the -bones become lighter, the cartilages become bony, the inter-vertebrate -discs in particular becoming impregnated with salts, so that the -well-known senile malformation of the backbone is produced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Destruction by osteoclasts of bony matter in -the sternum of a man aged 81 years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -As a result of this displacement of lime in old age, the blood-vessels -become modified in a distinctive fashion. Atheroma of the arteries -is not invariable in old people, but it occurs extremely frequently. -In this form of degeneration, lime salts are deposited in the walls -of the cells, so that they become hard and friable. Several others, -among whom I may mention Durand-Fardel and Sauvage, have laid stress -on the coincidence of atheromatous lesions of the arteries and senile -degeneration of the bones. The relations between the two alterations -are very evident in the skull; the meningeal artery becomes sinuous and -atheromatous, and the grooves on the inner side of the bones of the -skull in which it runs, flatten out, and become larger because of other -malformations.[18] - -There is no disharmony in the nature of old people so striking as this -transference of the lime salts from the skeleton to the blood-vessels, -producing as it does a dangerous softening of the former, and a -hardening of the latter that interferes with their function of carrying -nutrition to the organs. It is the manifestation of an extraordinary -disturbance of the properties of the cells that compose the body. The -atheromatous condition of the arteries is closely linked with arterial -sclerosis, an affection which is very common, although not constant, -in the aged. The whole question of these vascular alterations is -extremely complex, and before it can be cleared up, a number of special -investigations must be made. - -Probably diseases of the arteries of different kinds, and arising from -different causes, are grouped under the terms atheroma and sclerosis. -In some cases the lesions are inflammatory and are due to the poisons -of microbes. An example of such an origin is the case of syphilitic -sclerosis, in which the specific microbes (spirilla of Schaudinn) lead -to precocious senescence. In other cases the arteries show phenomena of -degeneration resulting in the formation of calcareous platelets which -interfere with the circulation of the blood. - -Investigations which have been made in recent years have led to very -interesting results concerning the origin of atheroma of the arteries. -In most cases, attempts to produce such lesions of the arteries by -experimental methods have not succeeded, but M. Josué[19] has been -able to produce true arterial atheroma in rabbits by injecting into -them adrenaline, the secretion of the supra-renal capsules. - -This experiment has been repeated many times and is now well known. -Later on, M. Boveri[20] obtained a similar result by injecting -nicotine, the poison of tobacco. It is obvious, therefore, that amongst -the arterial diseases which play so great a part in senescence, some -are chronic inflammations produced by microbes, whilst others are -brought about by poisons introduced from without. - -It is easy to understand, therefore, why these diseases of the arteries -are not always present in old age, although they are very common. - -The part played by the secretion of the supra-renal glands in the -production of arterial disease has brought renewed attention to a -theory which supposed that certain glandular organs in the body play -a preponderating part in senile degeneration. Dr. Lorand[21] in -particular has argued that “senility is a morbid process due to the -degeneration of the thyroid gland and of other ductless glands which -normally regulate the nutrition of the body.” It has long been noticed -that persons affected with myxodema, as a result of the degeneration -of the thyroid gland, look like very old people. Everyone who has seen -the cretins in Savoy, Switzerland, or the Tyrol, must have noticed the -aged appearance of these victims, although very often they are quite -young. The condition of cretinism, with its profound bodily changes, -is the result of degeneration of the thyroid gland. On the other hand, -it is well known that in old people the thyroid and the suprarenals -frequently show cystic degeneration. It is quite probable, therefore, -that these so-called vascular glands have their share in producing -senility. Many facts show that they destroy certain poisons which have -entered the body, and it is easy to see that, if they have become -functionless, the tissues are threatened with poisoning. It does not -follow, however, that their action in producing senility is exclusive, -or even preponderating. M. Weinberg, at the Pasteur Institute, made -special investigations on this point, and found that the thyroid gland -and the supra-renal capsules were almost invariably normal in old -animals (cat, dog, horse), although the latter showed unmistakable -signs of senility. Similarly in an old man of 80 years, who died from -pneumonia, the thyroid gland was quite normal. - -It must not be forgotten that the aged very often die from infectious -diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and erysipelas. In these -diseases the vascular glands generally, and the thyroid gland in -particular, are very often affected, with the result that what is due -to infection has been set down as a symptom of old age.[22] - -Although the appearance of patients from whom the thyroid gland has -been removed, or in whom it has degenerated spontaneously, recalls -that of old people, it is possible to exaggerate the similarity. In -the masterly accounts of such unfortunates, recently compiled by -the well-known surgeon Kocher[23] there are many points which are -characteristic, without being typical, of old people. - -Oedema of the skin which characterises thyroid patients is by no -means usual in old age. The loss of hair, normal in the patients, is -not a character of old age. In myxedematous women, menstruation is -very active; it ceases in old women. The great muscular development of -myxedematous patients distinguishes them from old people. - -Physiological investigation does not support the existence of any -strong affinity between old age and affection of the thyroid gland. It -is known that removal of the thyroid is followed by cachexia only in -young subjects, MM. Bourneville and Bricon[24] having shown that the -tendency to cachexia after extirpation of the thyroid ceases almost -abruptly at the age of thirty. That age may be taken as the limit of -youth, of the time when growth is vigorous and the function of the -thyroid most active. Cases of cachexia, where the thyroid gland has -been removed in old persons from fifty to seventy, are very rare. - -Rodents (rats, rabbits) support the removal of the thyroid extremely -well, without signs of cachexia, although these are normally -short-lived creatures. According to Horsley[25] extirpation of the -thyroid is not followed by cachexia in birds or rodents and is followed -by it only very slowly in ruminants and horses; it produces the -condition invariably but slightly in man and monkeys and extremely -seriously in carnivora. If this series be compared with the information -given in the next section of this volume on the relative ages which -the animals in question attain, it will be seen that there is no -correspondence. - -In short, whilst I do not deny that the vascular glands may take a -share in the causation of senility, in so far as they are destroyers -of poisons, I cannot agree with the theory of Dr. Lorand. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.—Testis tissue from a dog aged twenty-two years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -I think it indubitable that in senescence the most active factor is -some alteration in the higher cells of the body, accompanied by a -destruction of these by macrophags which gradually usurp the places of -the higher elements and replace them by fibrous tissue. Such a process -affects the organs of secretion (kidneys), the reproductive organs, and -in a modified form the skin, the mucous membranes, and the skeleton. -The testes are amongst the organs which resist invasion by macrophags. -I have already given an example (“The Nature of Man,” p. 98) of an old -man of 94 in whom active spermatozoa were produced. I know of a similar -case, the age being 103 years. Such cases are not rare, and not only -in old men, but in old animals, the testes continue to be active. Dr. -Weinberg and I have investigated these organs in a dog which died at -the age of 22 years after several years of pronounced senility. Many of -the organs of the animal exhibited serious invasions by macrophags but -the testes were extremely active, the cells being in free proliferation -and producing abundant spermatozoa (Fig. 11). In harmony with this -condition of the sexual organs, the sexual instincts of the animal -remained normal. We have investigated another dog which died at the age -of eighteen years. In this case the testes were cancerous and there was -no possibility of the production of spermatozoa. None the less, this -dog although markedly senile (Fig. 12) still showed sexual instincts -until shortly before it died. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.—An old dog, aged eighteen years.] - -It is manifest that the tissues do not invariably degenerate in -old age, nor do all the organs that are modified in old age show -destruction by phagocytes and replacement by connective tissue. Organs -which produce phagocytes, such as the spleen, the spinal marrow and -the lymphatic glands, certainly show traces in old age of fibrous -degeneration but remain sufficiently active to produce macrophags which -destroy the higher cellular elements of the body. I have frequently -noticed cell division in such organs, and as an example may give the -case of the bone marrow taken from a man of 81 years (Fig. 13). - -The eye is an organ that is modified in old age without the action of -macrophags. Cataract and the senile arc which appears as a milky ring -at the edge of the cornea are frequent in old age. These modifications -are due to impregnation of the parts affected by fatty matter which -makes them opaque. This deposition of fat[26] has been attributed to -defective nutrition. In most organs such fatty degeneration is followed -by phagocytosis, but the cornea and the crystalline lens are exempt -from this consequence for anatomical reasons. Most organs possess in -addition to their higher elements a constant source of macrophags. -Such a source of phagocytosis is the neuroglœa in nervous tissues, -the sarcoplasm in muscular tissues; the bones contain osteoclasts and -the liver and the kidneys are readily invaded by phagocytes from the -blood. The lens and the cornea have no cells that are able to become -macrophags. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 13.—Bone marrow from the sternum of a man aged - eighty-one years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -Some infectious diseases bring about precocious senility. A syphilitic -child is “a miniature old man, with wrinkled face, skin dull and -discoloured and flabby and hanging in folds as if it were too -large.”[27] In such a case the active agent is the microbe of syphilis -which has poisoned the child on the breast of its mother. It is no -mere analogy to suppose that human senescence is the result of a slow -but chronic poisoning of the organism. Such poisons, if not completely -destroyed or eliminated, weaken the tissues, the functions of which -become altered or enfeebled, so that, amongst other changes, there -is deposition of fatty matter. The phagocytes resist the influence of -invading poisons better than any of the other cells of the body and -sometimes are stimulated by them. The general result of such conditions -is that there comes to be a struggle between the higher cells and the -phagocytes in which the latter have the advantage. - -The answer to the question as to whether our senescence can be -ameliorated must be approached from several points of view. This course -I shall now follow. - -PART II - -LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - - - -I - -THEORIES OF LONGEVITY - - Relation between longevity and size—Longevity and the - period of growth—Longevity and the doubling in weight - after birth—Longevity and rate of reproduction—Probable - relation between longevity and the nature of the food - - -The duration of the life of animals varies within very wide limits. -Some, as for instance, the males of certain wheel animalculæ (Rotifera) -complete their cycle of life from birth to death in 50 or 60 hours, -whilst others, like some reptiles, live more than 100 years, and quite -possibly may live for two or three centuries. - -Enquiry has been made for many years as to whether there are laws -governing these different durations of life. Even the most casual -observation of domesticated animals has shown that, as a general rule, -small animals do not live so long as large ones; mice, guinea pigs, and -rabbits for instance, have shorter lives than geese, ducks, and sheep, -whilst these again are survived by horses, deer, and camels. Of all the -mammals which have lived under the protection of man, the elephant is -at once the largest, and the most long-lived. - -However, it is not difficult to show that there is no absolute relation -between size and longevity, since parrots, ravens, and geese live much -longer than many mammals, and than some much larger birds. - -As a general rule it may be said that a large animal takes more time -than a small one to reach maturity, and it has been inferred from this -that the length of the periods of gestation and of growth were in -proportion to the longevity. Buffon[28] long ago stated his opinion -that the “total duration of life bore some definite relation to the -length of the period of growth.” Therefore, as the period of growth is, -so to say, inherent in the species, longevity would have to be regarded -as a very stable phenomenon. Just as any species has acquired a fixed -and practically invariable size, so it would have acquired a definite -longevity. Buffon, therefore, thought that the duration of life did -not depend on habits or mode of life, or on the nature of food, that, -in fact, nothing could change its rigid laws, except an excess of -nourishment. - -Taking as his standard the total period of development of the body, -Buffon came to the conclusion that the duration of life is six or seven -times that of the period of growth. Man, for instance, he said, who -takes 14 years to grow, can live 6 or 7 times that period, that is -to say, 90 or 100 years. The horse, which reaches its full size in 4 -years, can live 6 or 7 times that length of time, that is to say from -25 to 30 years. The stag takes 5 or 6 years to grow, and reckoned in -the same way, its longevity should be 35 to 40 years. - -Flourens[29] although supporting his principle, thought that Buffon -had been inexact in calculating the period of growth. In his opinion -a better result can be obtained by taking the limit of growth as that -age at which the epiphyses of the long bones unite with the bones -themselves. Using such a mode of computation, Flourens laid down that -an animal lived 5 times the length of its period of growth. Man, for -instance, takes 20 years to grow, and he can live for 5 times that -space, that is to say, 100 years; the camel takes 8 to grow, and lives -5 times as long, _i.e._, 40 years; the horse, 5 to grow, and lives 25 -years. - -However, even if we consider only the mammalia, it is impossible to -accept Flourens’ law, without considerable reserve. Weismann[30] has -referred to the case of the horse, which is completely adult at 4, but -lives not merely 5 times that period, but 10 or even 12 times. Mice -grow extremely quickly, so that they are able to reproduce at the age -of 4 months. Even if we take 6 months as their period of growth, their -longevity of 5 years is twice as long as it would be according to the -rule of Flourens. Amongst domesticated animals, the sheep is slow in -reaching maturity; it does not acquire its adult set of teeth until it -is 5 years old, and cannot be regarded as adult until then. None the -less, at the age of 8 or 10 years, it loses its teeth and begins to -grow old, whilst by 14 it is quite senile.[31] The longevity of the -sheep, therefore, is not quite three times its period of growth. - -If we turn to other vertebrates, the variations in the relation of -growth and the duration of life are still greater. Parrots, for -instance, the longevity of which is extremely great, grow very quickly. -At the age of 2 years, they have acquired the adult plumage and are -able to reproduce, whilst the smaller species are in the same condition -at the age of one. Incubation, moreover, is very short, not more than -25 days, and in some species not three weeks. None the less, parrots -are birds which enjoy a quite remarkable longevity. The incubation -period of domestic geese is 30 days, and their period of growth is -also short. However, they may reach a great age, cases of 80 years and -of 100 years being on record. In contrast with these, ostriches, the -incubation period of which is 42 to 49 days, and which take 3 years to -become adult, have a relatively short life. - -H. Milne-Edwards[32] many years ago contended that there was no -importance in the supposed law of relation between gestation and -longevity. He sums up his criticism as follows: “Although the period of -uterine life is longer in the horse, that animal does not live so long -as a human being; and some birds, the incubation of which only lasts a -few weeks, can live more than a century.” - -Bunge[33] has recently taken up the study of the relations between the -duration of growth and longevity, and has suggested a new means of -investigation. He has observed that the period in which the new-born -mammal doubles its weight is a good index of the rapidity of its -growth. He has shown that whilst a human child requires 180 days to -reach double its weight at birth, the horse, the longevity of which is -very much less, doubles its weight in 60 days; a calf takes only 47 -days for this; a kid 15 days; a pig 14 days; a cat 9-1/2; and a dog -only 9 days. Although these facts are very interesting, the exceptions -are too great to make it possible to base a law of longevity upon them. -The period of weight-doubling in the horse is nearly 7 times longer -than that in the dog, and yet the longevity of the horse is not more -than 3 times that of the dog. The goat, which takes much longer than -the dog to double its weight, has a shorter total life. - -I observed myself that new-born mice quadruple their weight in the -first 24 hours. The doubling of weight in their case requires a time -36 times less long than that of the cat, and yet the cat lives only 5 -times as long as the mouse. - -It is fair to say, however, that Bunge himself does not draw a definite -conclusion from these figures and has published them only to stimulate -interest in the subject. He is against the view of Flourens, and points -out that although the multiple 5 is valid for man, it is not so in the -case of the horse which finishes its growth in 4 years and yet reaches -the age of 40 much less often than human beings attain that of 100 -years. - -Although it is impossible to admit the existence of exact relations -between size and the period of growth on the one side, and longevity -on the other, in the mode which Buffon and Flourens have followed, -it is none the less true that there is something intrinsic in each -kind of animal which sets a definite limit to the length of years it -can attain. The purely physiological conditions which determine this -limit leave room for a considerable amount of variation in longevity. -Duration of life therefore, is a character which can be influenced by -the environment. Weismann in his well-known essay on the duration of -life, has laid stress on this side of the problem. Longevity, according -to him, although in the last resort depending on the physiological -properties of the cells of which the organism is composed, can be -adapted to the conditions of existence and influenced by natural -selection, like other characters useful for the existence of the -species. - -If a species is to remain in existence, its members must be able to -reproduce and the progeny must be able to reach adult life so that -they in their turn may reproduce. Now, it happens that there are some -animals the fecundity of which is extremely limited. Most birds which -are adapted to aerial life, and the weight of which is therefore to -be kept down, lay very few eggs. This happens in the case of birds -of prey, such as eagles and vultures. These birds nest only once a -year, and generally rear two or frequently only a single nestling. -In such circumstances the duration of life becomes a factor in the -preservation of the species, more important since eggs and chicks are -subject to many dangers. Eggs are devoured by many kinds of animals, -whilst unseasonable cold may kill the chicks. If the members of such -a species were incapable of living long, the unfavourable conditions -of life would soon lead to extinction. Those animals which reproduce -rapidly generally have a relatively brief duration of life. Mice, rats, -rabbits, and many other rodents seldom live more than 5 or 10 years, -but reproduce with enormous rapidity. It is almost possible to imagine -that there is some sort of intimate link, possibly physiological, -between longevity and low fertility. It is a current opinion that -reproduction wastes the maternal organism and that mothers of many -children grow old prematurely and seldom reach an advanced age. -This would seem to mean that fecundity was the cause of the short -duration of life. However, we must guard ourselves against such a -theory. Longevity, at least in the case of vertebrate animals, differs -extremely little in the two sexes, although the cost of the new -generation to the adult organism is very much greater in the case of -the female than of the male parent. None the less, females frequently -reach a great age, especially in the human race where women reach 100 -years, or live beyond that time, much more often than men. - -Low fertility, however, cannot itself be regarded as a cause of -longevity, as there are some very fertile animals which none the less -attain great ages. There are parrots which lay two or three times a -year, producing six to nine eggs in each clutch. The ducks (Anatidæ) -are distinguished for considerable longevity and very high fertility, -each nest containing rarely less than six and sometimes as many as -sixteen eggs. The common Sheldrake lays from twenty to thirty eggs. -Tame ducks, in some parts of the tropics, lay an egg daily throughout -the season. Wild ducks lay from seven to fourteen eggs in one nest. -Ducks and geese, none the less, frequently attain considerable ages, -ducks having been known to live for 29 years. Even the common fowl, -which is a notoriously prolific bird, may reach an age of twenty to -thirty years. - -It will be said, however, that these birds are exposed to many enemies -during youth. Chickens, ducklings, and goslings are ready prey for -hawks, foxes and small carnivora. The longevity is possibly to be -explained as an adaptation for the preservation of the species by -compensating for the great destruction of the young. Weismann explains -in this way the longevity of many aquatic birds and other creatures -that are much preyed on. It must be noted, however, that the longevity -cannot depend on the risks run by the young birds, but must have arisen -independently. If this had not occurred, creatures, the young of which -are destroyed in great numbers, would have ceased to exist, as many -species have disappeared in geological time. The longevity of prolific -animals, the young of which are destroyed in numbers, must be due to -some cause which is neither fertility nor the destruction of their -offspring. This cause must be sought in the physiological processes of -the organism and can be attributed neither to the length of the period -of growth nor to the size attained by the adults. - -After having discussed various theories of the cause of the duration of -life, M. Oustalet,[34] in a most interesting essay on the longevity of -vertebrates, came to the conclusion that diet was the chief factor. He -thinks that there is a “definite relation between diet and longevity. -For the most part herbivorous animals live longer than carnivorous -forms, probably because the former find their food with ease and -regularity, whilst the latter alternate between semi-starvation and -repletion.” There are certainly many instances which give support to -the view. Elephants and parrots, for instance, are vegetarian and reach -very great ages. On the other hand, there exist long-living carnivorous -animals. Many observations have made it certain that owls and eagles -reach great ages, and these birds live on animal food. Ravens, which -live on carrion, are also notorious for the duration of their lives. -There is no exact knowledge as to the ages reached by crocodiles, but -although these live on flesh, it is certain that their longevity is -great. - -We must seek elsewhere for the real factors that control duration of -life. Before stating my conclusion, I will review what is known as to -the duration of life of different animals. - - - - -II. - -LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - Longevity in the lower animals—Instances of long life - in sea-anemones and other invertebrates—Duration of - life of insects—Duration of life of “cold-blooded” - vertebrates—Duration of life of birds—Duration of life - of mammals—Inequality of the duration of life in males - and females—Relations between longevity and fertility of - the organism - - -It is wonderful to what an extent the duration of life varies amongst -animals, the slightest examination of the facts showing that very many -factors must be involved. - -As the higher animals are nearly always larger than invertebrates, if -there be a definite relation between longevity and size, one would -expect to find that vertebrates live longer than invertebrates. -However, this is not the case. Amongst animals of extremely simple -organisation, there are some which reach a great age. A striking -example of this is found in sea-anemones. These animals have a very -simple structure, without a separate digestive canal, and with a -badly developed, diffused nervous system, and yet have lived very -long in captivity. More than forty years ago, I remember having -seen in the possession of M. Lloyd, the Director of the Aquarium at -Hamburg, an anemone that he had kept alive for several dozen years in -a glass bowl. Another sea-anemone, belonging to the species _Actinia -mesembryanthemum_, is known to have lived 66 years. It was captured in -1828 by Dalyell, a Scottish zoologist, and was then quite adult, and -probably about 7 years old. It survived its owner for 36 years, and -died in Edinburgh in 1887, the cause of death being unknown. Although -they are thus capable of living so long, the rate of growth of members -of this species is rapid, and their fertility is very high. According -to Dalyell, these anemones reach the adult condition in 15 months. The -specimen in his possession, in the 20 years from 1828 to 1848 produced -334 larvæ, then after a period of sterility it gave birth, in one night -(1857) to 230 young anemones. This extraordinary prolificness decreased -with age, but even when it was 58 years old it used to produce from 5 -to 20 at a time. In the seven years from 1872 onwards, it gave birth to -150 young anemones.[35] This animal, which certainly was not more than -the fortieth or the fiftieth of the weight of an adult rabbit, lived -six or seven times as long. - -Ashworth and Nelson Annandale have published their observations on -another sea-anemone, of the species _Sagartia troglodytes_, which was -50 years old. It differed from younger examples only in being less -prolific. - -There are other polyps, such as _Flabellum_, which do not live more -than 24 years, although we have no knowledge as to the cause of the -different duration of life. - -The variation in the length of the life of molluscs and insects is -extremely great. Some species of gasteropods (_Vitrina_, _Succinea_) -live only a very few years, whilst others (_Natica heros_) can reach -thirty years. Some of the marine bivalves, as for instance, _Tridacna -gigas_, can live to sixty or a hundred years.[36] - -Insects are animals as variable in their duration of life as they are -in other respects. Some live only a few weeks; some of the plant-lice, -for instance, die in a month. In the same order of Insects, however, -(Hemiptera) there are species of cicada which live thirteen to -seventeen years, that is to say, much longer than such little Rodents -as rats, mice, and guinea-pigs. The larva of an American species spends -seventeen years buried in the ground in orchards, where it feeds on the -roots of apple trees, and the species is known as _Cicada septemdecim_, -because of this duration of life. In the adult stage the insect lives -little more than a month, just time enough to lay the eggs, and bring -into the world the new generation, which in its turn will not appear -above ground until after another period of seventeen years. - -Between these extremes of long and short life, there is to be found -amongst insects almost every gradation of longevity. Science, in its -present state, has failed to find any law governing these facts. Rules -which hold good up to a certain point in the case of the higher animals -break down in their application to insects. The large grasshoppers -and locusts, for instance, live a much shorter time than many minute -beetles. Queen bees, the fertility of which is very great, live two -or three years and may reach a fifth year, whilst worker bees, which -are infertile, die in the first year of their existence. Female ants, -although these are small and extremely prolific, reach the age of seven -years.[37] - -We know so little about the physiological processes of insects, that we -cannot as yet make even a guess at the cause of this great variation -in their longevity. It is more probable that we shall find some -explanation in the case of vertebrates concerning which we know much -more. - -Analysis of the facts shows that whilst in the evolution from fish to -mammal there has been a great increase in complexity of organisation, -there has at the same time been a reduction in the duration of life. -As a general rule, it may be laid down that the lower vertebrates live -longer than mammals. - -The facts about the longevity of fish are not very numerous, but it -seems clear that these animals reach a great age. The ancient Romans, -who used to keep eels in aquaria, have noted that these fish would -live for more than sixty years. There is reason to believe that salmon -can live for a century, whilst pike live much longer. There is, for -instance, the much quoted instance of the pike stated by Gessner to -have been captured in 1230 and to have lived for 267 years afterwards. -Carps are regarded as equally long lived, Buffon setting down their -period of life as 150 years. There is a popular idea that the carp in -the lakes at Fontainebleau and Chantilly are several centuries old, but -E. Blanchard throws doubt on the accuracy of this estimate, inasmuch -as during revolutionary times most of the carp were eaten when the -palaces were overrun by the populace. There is no doubt, however, that -the life of carp may be very long indeed. Not very much is known about -the duration of life in batrachians, but it is certain at least that -some small frogs may live twelve or sixteen years, and toads as many as -thirty-six years. - -More is known about the life of reptiles. Crocodiles and caymans, -which are large and which grow very slowly, attain great ages. In the -Paris Museum of Natural History there are crocodiles which have been -kept for more than forty years without showing signs of senescence. -Turtles, although they are smaller than crocodiles, live still longer. -A tortoise has lived for eighty years in the garden of the Governor -of Cape Town, and is believed to have reached the age of two hundred -years. Another tortoise, a native of the Galapagos Islands, is known to -be 175 years old, whilst a specimen in the London Zoological Gardens is -150 years old. A land tortoise (_Testudo marginata_) has been kept in -Norfolk, England, for a century. I am informed that in the Archbishop’s -palace at Canterbury, there is to be seen the carapace of a tortoise -which was brought to the Palace in 1623 and which lived there for -107 years.[38] Another tortoise, brought to Fulham by Archbishop -Laud, lived in the Palace for 128 years. I have already referred to a -specimen of _Testudo mauritanica_, the history of which is known for 86 -years, but which is probably much older. - -Very little is known as to the longevity of lizards and serpents, but -it may be inferred from what I have said about other reptiles that -reptiles as a class are able to reach great ages. - -It is an easy inference that the great duration of life in cold-blooded -animals is associated with the slowness of the physiological processes -in these creatures. The circulation, for instance, is so slow, that the -heart of a tortoise beats only 20 to 25 times in a minute. Weismann has -suggested that one of the factors influencing the duration of life is -the rapidity or slowness of the vital activities, the times taken by -the processes of absorption and nutrition. - -On the other hand, the blood is hot and the vital activities are rapid -in birds, and yet birds may attain great ages. Although in the last -chapter I gave a number of examples, the subject is so important that I -propose to go further into details. The possibility of this is due to -an admirable set of details brought together by Mr. J. H. Gurney.[39] -In his list, in which are included more than fifty species of birds, the -lowest figures are from eight and a half to nine years (_Podargus -cuvieri_, _Chelidon urbica_), and a duration of life so short is an -exception, a period of from fifteen to twenty years being more common. -Canaries have lived in captivity from 17 to 20 years, and goldfinches -up to 23 years. Field larks have lived for 24 years, the Lesser -Black-backed Gull 31 years and the Herring Gull 44 years. Birds of -medium size may live for several dozens of years, whether they live -on animal or on vegetable food, whether they are prolific or lay very -few eggs. I will quote only a few instances. Of forty parrots the -minimum and maximum ages were respectively 15 and 81 years, and the -average 43 years. Without accepting the truth of the story mentioned by -Humboldt according to which certain parrots survived an extinct race -of Indians, at least we may be certain that great ages have sometimes -been reached by these birds. Levaillant mentions a parrot (_Psittacus -erithaceus_) which lost its memory at the age of 60 years, its sight at -90 years, and which died aged 93 years. Another individual, probably -of the same species, is reported by J. Jennings to have reached the -age of 77. Jones, Layard, and Butler are the authorities for instances -of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos having reached respectively 30, 72 and -81 years. M. Abrahams states that an Amazon (_Chrysotis amasonica_) -lived 102 years. I myself have observed two cases of great longevity -in the same species of parrot. One of these birds died at the age of -82 years, apparently simply from old age, whilst the other, which was -in my possession for several years before it died at the age of 70 -to 75 years, was vigorous, showing no signs of senility, but died of -pneumonia. - -Mr. Gurney found that parrots were not the only birds capable of -reaching a great age. One raven reached 69 years and another 50, an -Eagle-owl (_Bubo maximus_) 68 years, another 53, a condor 52, an -imperial eagle 56, a common heron 60, a wild goose 80, and a common -swan 70 years. None of these examples approaches the legendary -three centuries attributed to the swan, but it is evident that many -different kinds of birds may attain great age. I can add some cases -to those of Mr. Gurney. In the Royal Park at Schönbrunn, near Vienna, -a white-headed vulture (_Neophron percnopterus_) died aged 118 years, -a golden eagle (_Aquila chrysaëtus_) aged 104, and another aged 80 -(according to Oustalet). Mr. Pycraft (_Country Life_, June 25th, 1904) -reported that a female eagle, captured in Norway in 1829, had been -brought to England and had lived for 75 years. In the last thirty years -of its life, it had produced ninety eggs. The same writer mentions the -case of a falcon having lived to 162 years. - -The collection of facts that I have passed in review make it manifest -that birds may have a great duration of life, but that reptiles surpass -them in this respect. Birds certainly do not reach the very great ages -of crocodiles and tortoises. - -Longevity, therefore, is reduced as we ascend in the scale of -vertebrate life. We find a still greater reduction when we turn from -birds to mammals. Some mammals, it is true, may live as long as birds. -Elephants are a good instance. It used to be thought that these -giant mammals could live three or four centuries, but I can find no -confirmation of the legend, which seems as mythical as that relating to -the life of swans. There are no exact data as to the ages reached by -wild elephants, but it has been stated that in captivity an elephant -rarely but occasionally has completed its century. In zoological -gardens and in good menageries, where elephants are well cared for, -they seldom live more than 20 to 25 years. Chevrette, an African -elephant presented to the Jardin des Plantes by Mehemet Ali, in 1825, -lived for only 30 years. In the official list of the Indian Government, -which gives the deaths of elephants, it appears that of 138 examples, -only one lived more than 20 years after it had been purchased (Brehm’s -_Mammals_). - -Flourens, using his own formula, assigned the age of 150 years to -elephants as their epiphyses do not fuse with the long bones until -the age of 30. So far, I know of no fact to support the conclusion, -although it seems fairly well established that occasionally an elephant -may reach a century. It is stated that one elephant was in service -throughout the whole period of more than 140 years in which Ceylon was -occupied by the Dutch. This elephant was found in the stables in 1656. -Natives with special knowledge of elephants set down their duration of -life as from 80 to 150 years, but say that they begin to grow old at -from 50 to 60 years of age. My general conclusion from the facts is -that the life of these very large mammals is about the same as that of -man who is very much smaller. - -Centenarians, extremely rare amongst elephants, do not appear to exist -in any other kind of mammals except man. The rhinoceros, another large -mammal which is a native of the same countries as the elephant, does -not reach a great age. According to Oustalet an Indian rhinoceros died -in the menagerie of the Paris Museum at about the age of 25 years, -and showed all the signs of senility. Another Indian rhinoceros lived -for 37 years in the London Zoological Gardens. Grindon has stated his -opinion that the rhinoceros may live for 70 or 80 years, but this -seems rather an inference from the slowness of growth than a statement -of observed fact. - -Horses and cattle are large animals, but do not enjoy very long lives. -The usual duration of life in horses is from 15 to 30 years. They begin -to grow old about 10 years, and in very rare cases may reach 40 or -more. A Welsh pony is said to have reached the age of sixty, but such a -case is excessively rare. Two other extreme cases are that of a horse -belonging to the Bishop of Metz which died at the age of 50 years, and -the charger of Field-Marshal Lacy which died at 46. - -The duration of life of cattle is still shorter. Domestic cattle show -the first sign of age, a yellow discoloration of the teeth, when five -years old. In the sixteenth to eighteenth year the teeth fall out, -or break, and the cow ceases to give milk, whilst the bull has lost -reproductive power. According to Brehm, cattle live for 25 to 30 -years or more. Although the duration of life is short, cattle are not -prolific. The gestation period of a cow approaches that of the human -race (242-287 days), and there is only one birth a year. The total -period of reproductivity lasts only a few years. - -The sheep, another domesticated Ruminant, has a life even shorter. -According to Grindon, sheep do not live longer than 12 years as a rule, -but may reach 14 years, which in their case would be extreme age, as -they generally lose their teeth at from 8 to 10 years. - -Some Ruminants, such as camels and deer, apparently live longer than -sheep or cattle, but I do not know exact facts about them. - -The short life of domesticated carnivorous animals is well known. Dogs -seldom live more than 16 or 18 years, and even before that, at an age -of from 10 to 12, they usually show plain signs of senility. Jonatt -has mentioned as an extreme rarity a dog of 22 years of age, and Sir E. -Ray Lankester (_Comparative Longevity_, p. 60) cites another instance, -in this case the age being 34 years. The oldest dog that I have been -able to procure died at the age of 22. - -It is generally believed that cats do not live so long as dogs. The -average age which they may attain is usually thought to be 10 or 12 -years, but certainly a cat of that age has not the decrepid appearance -of an old dog. Thanks to the kindness of M. Barrier, the Director of -the Ecole d’Alfort, I have had in my possession a cat 23 years old. It -appeared to be quite vigorous, and died from cancer in the liver. - -Most rodents, particularly the domesticated kinds, are extremely -prolific and very short lived. It is extremely rare for a rabbit to -reach the age of 10 years, whilst 7 years is the utmost limit for a -guinea-pig. Mice, so far as I can ascertain, do not live more than 5 or -6 years. - -It is plain from the facts that I have brought together, that mammals, -whether they are large or small, as a rule, have shorter lives than -birds. It is probable, therefore, that there is something in the -structure of mammals which has brought about a shortening in the -duration of their lives. - -Whilst most of the lower vertebrates, and all birds, reproduce by -laying eggs, the vast majority of mammals are viviparous. As the tax -on the parent organism is greater when the young are produced alive -than when eggs are laid, it might be thought that in this difference -lay the cause of the shorter life of mammals. It is well known that an -animal may be made feeble by too great fecundity, and it is conceivable -that the kind of parasitic life of the embryos within the body of the -mother may weaken her system. - -There are many facts, however, which make it impossible to accept such -a view. The longevity of mammals is nearly equal in the two sexes, -although the tax on the organism caused by reproduction is much greater -in the case of females than in males. Longevity, however, cannot -be regarded as a character stable in each species and necessarily -identical in the two sexes. The animal kingdom presents many cases of -disparity in this respect, the difference in longevity in the two sexes -being specially striking in species of insects. Generally, the females -live longer than the males, as, for instance, amongst the Strepsiptera, -where the females have 64 times the duration of life of the males. On -the other hand, amongst butterflies, there are cases (_e.g._, _Aglia -tau_) where the males live longer than the females. In the human race, -there is a difference in the longevity of the sexes, the females having -the advantage. - -As in most cases of disparity in the duration of life the female -lives longer than the male, it is plain that the difference cannot be -assigned to the drain on the organism caused by reproduction, which, of -course, is much greater in females. - -Moreover, a closer scrutiny of the facts shows that although mammals -do not live so long as birds, the reproductive drain is greater in the -case of birds. - -It is well known that the productivity of an animal is not necessarily -identical with its fecundity. Fish or frogs which lay thousands of -eggs at a time (a pike, for example, produces 130,000) are obviously -more prolific than, for instance, a sparrow which lays only 18 eggs in -a year, or than a rabbit, which in the same time gives birth to from -25 to 50. However, to produce this much smaller quantity of eggs or of -young, the sparrow and the rabbit (I have chosen the most prolific bird -and mammal) expend a much larger quantity of material than the frog or -the fish. The sparrow and the rabbit employ in producing their progeny -a bulk of material greater than the weight of their body, whilst the -enormous quantity of eggs laid by the frog does not weigh more than -one-seventh part of the body of the frog. It may be laid down, as a -general rule, that although fecundity, that is to say the number of -eggs or of young which are produced, diminishes as the organism becomes -more complex, the productivity on the other hand increases, expressed -in percentage of weight. The productivity, which is not more than 18 -per cent. in batrachia, reaches 50 per cent. in reptiles, 74 per cent. -in mammals, and 82 per cent. in birds. - -It is plain that if reproduction shortens the life of mammals by -weakening the organism, it must be the productivity, not the fecundity, -which is the important factor. I have just shown that productivity -is greater in birds than in mammals, and in consequence it cannot be -on account of any greater burden of reproduction that mammals have a -shorter life than birds. The shortness of mammalian life, again, cannot -be attributed to the fact that mammals give birth to young, whilst -the long-lived reptiles and birds produce eggs, because the longevity -of the males, which produce neither young nor eggs, is none the less -practically equal to that of the females of the same species. The -reason of the short life of mammals must be sought for elsewhere. - - - - -III - -THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the structure - of the digestive system—The Cæca in birds—The - large intestine of mammals—Function of the large - intestine—The intestinal microbes and their agency in - producing auto-intoxication and auto-infection in the - organism—Passage of microbes through the intestinal wall - - -We have seen that the duration of life in mammals is relatively shorter -than that in birds, and in the so-called “cold-blooded” vertebrates. -No indication as to the cause of this difference can be found in -the structure of the organs of circulation, respiration, or urinary -secretion, or in the nervous or sexual apparatus. The key to the -problem is to be found in the organs of digestion. - -In reviewing the anatomical structure of the digestive apparatus in the -vertebrate series, one soon comes to the striking fact that mammals -are the only group in which the large intestine is much developed. In -fish, the large intestine is the least important part of the digestive -tube, being little wider in calibre than the small intestine. Amongst -batrachia, where it is a relatively wide sack, it has begun to assume -some importance. In several reptiles it is still larger, and may be -provided with a lateral out-growth, which is to be regarded as a cæcum. -In birds, the large intestine still remains relatively badly developed; -it is short and straight. In most birds, at the point where the large -intestine passes into the small intestine, there is a pair of cæca, -more or less developed. These cæca are absent in climbing birds, such -as the wood-pecker, the oriole, and many others. They are reduced to -a pair of tiny outgrowths in the eagles, sparrow-hawks, and other -diurnal birds of prey, and in pigeons, and perching birds. These organs -are larger in the nocturnal birds of prey, in gallinaceous birds, and -in ducks, etc.[40] - -In the large running birds, such as ostriches, rheas, and tinamous, -the cæca are relatively largest. Thus, for instance, in a rhea (_Rhea -americana_) which I dissected, the cæca were nearly two-thirds as long -as the small intestine. The latter was 1·65 m. in length, whereas one -of the cæca was 1·01 m., and the other 0·95 m. The weight of the two -cæca with their contents was more than 10 per cent. of the total weight -of the bird. - -Notwithstanding the exceptions, which are relatively rare, the large -intestine is badly developed in the case of birds. On the other hand, -it reaches its largest size amongst mammals. In these animals, “only -the posterior portion of the latter, or rectum, which passes into the -pelvic cavity, corresponds to the large intestine of lower Vertebrates; -the remaining, and far larger part, must be looked upon as a neomorph, -and is called the colon.”[41] - -Gegenbaur,[42] another well-known authority on comparative anatomy, -writes as follows on this subject:—“The hind-gut is longest in the -Mammalia, where it forms the large intestine, and is distinguished -as such, from the mid-gut, or small intestine. Owing to its greater -length, it is arranged in coils, so that the terminal portion only has -the straight course taken by the hind-gut of other Vertebrata.” - -The two series of facts are not to be disputed. On the one hand mammals -are shorter lived than birds and lower vertebrates, on the other -hand the large intestine is much longer in them than in any other -vertebrates. Is there here any link of causality, binding the two -characters, or is it a mere coincidence? - -To answer the question we must turn to the function of the large -intestine in vertebrates. In the lower members of the group (fish, -batrachia, reptiles, birds, etc.), the large intestine is not more -than a mere reservoir for the waste matter in the food. It takes no -share in digestion, as that is the function of the stomach and the -small intestine. Only the cæcum can be thought to have some digestive -property. In reptiles, the lowest vertebrates in which the cæcum is -present, it is so little differentiated from the large intestine -itself, that it is difficult to assign to it any specialised function. -In very many birds, however, the cæca are well separated from the main -digestive tube. The food material passes into them in considerable -quantities, and is retained there sufficiently long for some digestive -process to take place. M. Maumus has found, in the cæca of birds, -secretions which can dissolve albumen and invert sugar cane, but he has -been unable to make out that the cæcal juice has any action upon fatty -matter. Such digestive power, however, is slight, and when M. Maumus -removed the cæca in fowls and ducks, no evil consequences followed. -As in many birds the cæca are rudimentary and in others absent, it -may be inferred that these organs are useless, and are in process -of degeneration in the class. The cæca can be regarded as playing -an important part in the organism only in the case of large running -birds, where they are very highly developed, but we have not precise -information as to their digestive function. - -The variations in the structure in the large intestine are greater -in mammals than in birds. In some mammals, the large intestine is a -simple prolongation of the small intestine, similar in calibre and -in structure. In these conditions it may fulfil a definite digestive -function. Th. Eimer[43] has determined that in insectivorous bats the -large intestine digests insects like the small intestine. Such cases, -however, are rare. In most mammals the large intestine is sharply -separated from the small intestine by a valve, and opens directly -into the cæcum which may be very large. In the horse, the cæcum is an -enormous bag, cylindrical and tapering, generally well filled, and -holding on an average 35 litres. It is equally large in many other -herbivorous animals, such as the tapir, the elephant, and most rodents. -In such cases, the food remains for a considerable time in the organ -and without doubt undergoes some digestive changes. In many other -mammals, particularly carnivorous forms, the cæcum may be quite absent, -whilst in some, as for instance, the cat and dog, it is very small; -in the latter cases its digestive function must be non-existent or -insignificant.[44] - -As for the large intestine itself, apart from the special cases, such -as bats, it cannot fulfil any notable digestive function. Th. Eimer was -unable to find a proof of any such action in rats and mice, and the -very many investigations that have been made in the case of man seem to -have established the absence of digestive power in the colon. - -Dr. Stragesco,[45] in a recent investigation carried out under the -direction of the famous Russian physiologist Pawloff, established that, -in normal conditions, digestion and assimilation of food are confined -almost exclusively to the small intestine in mammals, and that the -large intestine plays only the smallest part. It is only in certain -diseases of the digestive tract, in which, on account of increased -peristaltic action, the contents of the intestine with the digestive -juices are passed quickly from the small intestine to the large -intestine, that some digestive work is done in the latter organ. - -The large intestine (excluding the cæcum), then, cannot be regarded as -an organ of digestion, although absorption of the liquids which have -been formed in the small intestine, may take place within its walls. It -is known that in the large intestine the contents of the gut give up -their water and assume the solid form of fæcal matter. However, whilst -the mucous membrane of the large intestine rapidly absorbs water, it -has not a similar action on other substances. - -The question of the extent to which the large intestine can absorb -has been closely investigated, because of its practical importance. -It sometimes happens that invalids cannot take food by the mouth, so -that their life would be in danger if it were not possible to supply -them with food otherwise. Attempts have been made to inject nutritive -substances through the skin, or, and this is a more usual procedure, by -the rectum. By such means the organism can be kept alive for a certain -time, but the absorbing power of the large intestine is extremely -small. According to Czerny and Lautschenberger[46] the entire colon -of the human being can absorb no more than 6 grammes of albumen in 24 -hours, an amount which, from the point of view of nutrition, is very -small. It was thought that the large intestine might more rapidly -absorb albuminous material which had been previously digested and -transformed to peptones, but the experiments of Ewald[47] showed that -even in that case the absorption was very small. According to more -recent experiments of Heile,[48] carried out upon dogs which had cæcal -fistulas, and in the case of a man who had an artificial aperture in -the colon, the large intestine does not absorb undigested white of -egg, and absorbs water, cane sugar, and glucose only very imperfectly. -The only substances which are rapidly absorbed through the wall of -the colon are the alkaline fluids from fæcal matter. It is possible, -however, to nourish invalids by rectal injections of certain nutritious -substances, the most important of which is milk.[49] - -The large intestine, which has really very slight digestive properties -and cannot absorb any considerable bulk of nutriment, is an organ which -secretes mucus. The latter serves to moisten the solid fæcal material, -so aiding in its expulsion. - -We must conclude, therefore, that the large intestine, the organ so -highly developed in mammals, is an apparatus the general function -of which is the preparation and elimination of the waste products -of digestion. Why should such an organ be so much more developed in -mammals than in the other vertebrates? - -In answer to the question, I have formed the theory that the large -intestine has been increased in mammals to make it possible for -these animals to run long distances without having to stand still -for defæcation. The organ, then, would simply have the function of a -reservoir of waste matter. - -Batrachia and reptiles lead a very idle life, and can move slowly, -sometimes because they are protected by poison (toads, salamanders, -serpents), sometimes because they have a very hard shell (turtles), -sometimes because they are extremely powerful (crocodiles). Mammals, on -the other hand, have to move very actively to catch their prey, or to -escape from their enemies. Such activity has become possible because -of the high development of the limbs, and because the capacity of the -large intestine makes possible the accumulation of waste matter for a -considerable time. - -In order to void the contents of the intestines, mammals have to stand -still and assume some particular position. Each act of this kind is -a definite risk in the struggle for existence. A carnivorous mammal -which, in the process of hunting its prey, had to stop from time to -time, would be inferior to one which could pursue its course without -pausing. So, also, a herbivorous mammal, escaping from an enemy by -flight, would have the better chance of surviving the less it was -necessary for it to stand still. - -According to such a view, the extreme development of the large -intestine would supply a real want in the struggle for existence. M. -Yves Delage,[50] the well-known biologist, is unable to accept this -hypothesis. He thinks that the rectal enlargement would fulfil the -purpose, and adds that everyone has seen herbivorous animals pass their -excretions whilst running. The rectum of mammals, however, cannot -serve as a reservoir for waste matter, because as soon as such matter -reaches the rectum it excites the need of excretion. The waste matter -accumulates in the large intestine, from which it passes into the -rectum at intervals. When it has reached that region, a sensation is -caused which leads to defæcation. - -M. Delage is not quite definite when he speaks of mammals voiding their -excretions whilst they are in motion. A horse, harnessed to a vehicle, -may defæcate whilst it is walking or even running slowly. But these -animals cannot defæcate when in rapid motion, and competent observers -state that horses never do so whilst racing. In zoological gardens, -where animals have room to run about, they stand still before emptying -the rectum. M. Ch. Debreuil, who keeps antelopes in a very large park -at Melun, has noticed that the excreta are always to be found in masses -and not scattered about as if they had been discharged by animals -in motion. Antelopes, which are animals that run and leap extremely -actively, have to come to a standstill before discharging their small -pellets of deer-like excreta. - -In the struggle for existence, when a mammal is pursuing its prey or -escaping its enemy, there is no question of the leisurely movement -of a horse harnessed to an omnibus or cab, but the greatest possible -activity is necessary. In such circumstances the possession of an -organ within which the excreta could accumulate would be of real -importance. My theory of the origin of the mammalian large intestine is -intrinsically probable. - -Although the capacity of the large intestine may preserve a mammal in -emergencies, it is attended with disadvantages that may shorten the -actual duration of life. - -The accumulation of waste matter, retained in the large intestine -for considerable periods, becomes a nidus for microbes which produce -fermentations and putrefaction harmful to the organism. Although our -knowledge of the subject is far from complete, it is certain that the -intestinal flora contains some microbes which damage health, either by -multiplying in the organism, or by poisoning it with their secretions. -Most of our knowledge on this matter has come from the study of human -patients. - -Persons have been known who do not defæcate except at intervals of -several days, and who, none the less, do not seem to suffer in health. -But the opposite result is more common. The retention of fæcal matter -for several days very often brings harmful consequences. Organisms -which are in a feeble state from some other cause are specially -susceptible to damage of the kind referred to. Infants are frequently -seriously ill as the result of constipation. Dr. du Pasquier[51] -describes such cases in the following words:—“The infant is leaden -in hue, with sunken eyes, dilated pupils, and pinched nostrils. The -temperature may reach nearly 104° Fahr.; the pulse is rapid, feeble, -and often irregular. Restlessness, insomnia, sometimes convulsions, -stiffness of the neck and strabism show that the nervous system is -being poisoned by toxins, and even collapse may be reached. The foul -and dry tongue, the vomiting and fetid discharges show the disturbance -of the digestive tract. Very often an eruption appears, as described -by Hutinel, chiefly on the back and buttocks, the front of the thighs -and fore-arms.” The illness may lead to death but is generally cured by -simple purging. - -Women in pregnancy and child-birth frequently suffer much as the -result of retention of fæcal matter, and physicians are familiar -with the symptoms, which have been described as follows by M. -Bouchet[52]:—“After normal parturition, in the course of which the -usual antiseptic precautions have been fully pursued, and where -delivery has been complete and natural, occasionally the patient is -seized with chill and headache. The breath is fetid and the tongue -foul. The temperature, taken in the axilla, is nearly 101° Fahr. The -abdomen is inflated and painful in the umbilical region. Palpation in -the iliac fossæ reveals lumps or consolidations along the colon. Thirst -is intense, and there is complete anorexy. On questioning, it is found -that there has not been defæcation for several days. The treatment -consists of purgatives, enemas, and milk diet. In the next few days the -bowels are emptied freely, the abdominal pain ceases, the temperature -becomes lower, appetite is restored, and the patient recovers.” - -Those who suffer from affections of the heart, liver, or kidneys are -specially susceptible to the evil results of retained fæcal matter. In -such patients an error of diet or constipation may bring about most -serious consequences. - -Such facts are well known to physicians, and it has been established -that complete emptying of the lower bowels leads at once to favourable -symptoms. From the other side, it has been shown by experiment that -artificial retention of the fæces by ligature of the rectum puts the -body in a grave condition. - -If we collect our knowledge of all the facts, we cannot doubt but that -the cause of the evil is multiplication of microbes in the contents of -the large intestine. When the fæcal matter is free from microbes, as -is the case with the meconium of the fœtus or new-born infant, it -is not a source of danger to the organism. The waste of cells and the -secretions which are added to the undigested food cannot do any harm. -Amongst the microbes of the gut, there are some that are inoffensive, -but others are known to have pernicious properties. - -The ill-health which follows retention of fæcal matter is certainly -due to the action of some of the microbes of the gut. There are -difficulties, however, in determining the precise mode of action of -these microbes. It is generally believed that they form poisonous -substances which are absorbed by the walls of the intestine and so pass -into the system. The phrase auto-intoxication as applied to infants, -women in labour, and patients affected with diseases of the heart, -liver, or kidneys, is based on this interpretation of the morbid -processes involved. Attempts have been made to isolate and study the -poisons in question, but there are many difficulties in the way. To -distinguish between the actions of the poisons and of the microbes -themselves, the latter have been destroyed by heat or by antiseptics, -or been removed by filtration. Such methods, however, may alter the -poisons and so are inconclusive. MM. Charron and Le Play[53] have -tried to obtain exact results by heating the intestinal microbes to -a temperature of about 136° Fahr., a process which probably does not -seriously deteriorate the microbial poisons. Such material, injected -into the veins of rabbits in large quantities, rapidly produced death, -or in smaller quantities, proportionate ill-health. - -Kukula[54] has tried to produce this toxic action in animals, -employing microbial secretions obtained from cases of intestinal -obstruction. He succeeded in producing serious symptoms, such as -vomiting and curvature of the neck and back, in fact, precisely the -sequence of events familiar in cases of obstruction of the bowels or -other retentions of fæcal matter. - -Some of the products of the intestinal flora are undoubtedly toxic, -such as the benzol derivatives (phenol, etc.) ammonium and other -salts. Many of these toxins have been insufficiently studied, but it -is well known that certain of them can be absorbed by the wall of the -gut and act as poisons. A well known case is the toxin of botulism -which was isolated and studied by M. van Ermenghem.[55] The poison, -the product of a microbe which causes serious intestinal disturbance, -is so fatal that a single drop given to a rabbit produces death after -symptoms similar to those observed in cases of human beings poisoned by -stale food. Butyric acid and the products of albuminous putrefaction -are amongst the most pernicious of the microbial poisons produced -in the large intestine. It is familiar that digestive disturbance -is frequently associated with discharges of sulphuretted hydrogen -and putrid excreta, and there is no doubt but that the microbes of -putrefaction are the cause of these symptoms. - -It has been assumed for long that the retention of fæcal matter -tends to putrefactive changes in the intestines, and that the evil -consequences of constipation are due to this. Recently, however, -bacteriologists have criticised this accepted view, on account of the -small number of microbes found in the excreta of constipated persons. -Strasburger was the first to establish the fact, and his associate, -Schmidt, showed that putrefaction did not follow when readily -putrescible substances were infected with material taken from cases of -constipation. However, notwithstanding the exactness of these facts, -I cannot accept the inference which has been drawn from them. The -excreta discharged naturally in cases of constipation do not give a -correct indication of the conditions inside the gut; whilst such matter -contains few microbes, the substance removed after injection by an -enema is extremely rich in bacteria. Moreover, analysis of the urine, -in cases of constipation, shows an excess of the sulpho-conjugate -ethers which are known to be products of intestinal putrefaction. - -Not only is there auto-intoxication from the microbial poisons absorbed -in cases of constipation, but microbes themselves may pass through the -walls of the intestine and enter the blood. In the maladies that are -the result of constipation some of the symptoms recall those of direct -infection, and it is highly probable that, if special investigations -were made, microbes of intestinal origin would be found in the blood of -the sick children and the pregnant or parturient women whose symptoms I -have described above. - -The question as to the passage of microbes through the intestinal walls -is one of the most controversial of bacteriological problems, and there -is little agreement in the numerous publications regarding it. None the -less, it is far from impossible to get a general idea of what goes on -in an intestinal tract richly charged with microbes. - -Although the intestinal wall in an intact state offers a substantial -obstacle to the passage of bacteria, it is incontestable that some -of these pass through it into the organs and the blood. Numerous -experiments performed on different kinds of animals (horses, dogs, -rabbits, etc.) show that some of the microbes taken with food traverse -the wall of the alimentary canal and come to occupy the adjacent -lymphatic glands, the lungs, the spleen and the liver, whilst they -are occasionally found in the blood and lymph. Discussion has taken -place as to whether the passage takes place when the wall of the gut -is absolutely intact or only when it is injured to however small -an extent. It would be extremely difficult to settle the question -definitely, but it is easy to see that it has little practical bearing. -It is known that the wall of the gut is damaged extremely easily, so -that the bluntest sound can hardly be passed into the stomach without -making a wound through which microbes can pass into the tissues and -blood. In the ordinary course of life, the delicate wall of the gut -must often undergo slight wounding, and the frequent presence of -microbes in the mesenteric ganglia of healthy animals shows clearly -what takes place.[56] - -It is indubitable, therefore, that the intestinal microbes or their -poisons may reach the system generally and bring harm to it. I infer -from the facts that the more a digestive tract is charged with -microbes, the more it is a source of harm capable of shortening life. - -As the large intestine not only is the part of the digestive tube most -richly charged with microbes, but is relatively more capacious in -mammals than in any other vertebrates, it is a just inference that the -duration of life of mammals has been notably shortened as the result of -chronic poisoning from an abundant intestinal flora. - - - - -IV - -MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the intestinal - flora—Ruminants—The Horse—Intestinal flora of - birds—Intestinal flora of cursorial birds—Duration - of life in cursorial birds—Flying mammals—Intestinal - flora and longevity of bats—Some exceptions to the - rule—Resistance of the lower vertebrates to certain - intestinal microbes - - -In the actual state of our knowledge it is impossible to make a final -examination of my hypothesis, as there are many factors about which we -are incompletely informed. Nevertheless, it is possible to confront the -hypothesis with a large number of accurately established facts. - -Although the life of most mammals is relatively short, there are to be -found in the group some which live relatively long, as well as others -whose life is short. The elephant is an example of the long-lived -mammals, whilst ruminants are short-lived forms. In the last chapter, I -stated that sheep and cattle became senile at an early age, and did not -live long. They are striking exceptions to the rule according to which -the duration of life is in direct relation with the size and length of -the period of growth. The cow, which is much larger than a woman, and -the time of gestation of which is about the same, or a little longer, -acquires its teeth at four years old, and becomes senile at an early -age; it is quite old at between sixteen and seventeen, an age when a -woman is hardly adult; at the age of thirty, practically the extreme -limit for bovine animals, a woman is in full vigour. - -The precocious old age of ruminants, the constitution of which is -well understood, and which are carefully tended, coincides with an -extraordinary richness of the intestinal flora. Food remains for a long -time in the complicated stomach of these animals, and afterwards the -digested masses remain still longer in the large intestine. According -to Stohmann and Weiske,[57] in the case of sheep it is a week until -the remains of a particular meal have finally left the body of the -animal. The excreta of sheep, normally solid, do not betray any special -putrefaction in the intestine, but if the body is opened there is -abundant evidence of the process. The intestinal contents are richly -charged with microbes and give off a strong odour of putrefaction. It -is not surprising that under these conditions, the life of sheep should -be short. - -Another large herbivorous animal, the horse, also dies young, after a -premature old age. Although it does not ruminate and possesses a simple -stomach, the process of digestion is slow, and enormous masses of -nutritive material accumulate in the huge large intestine. Ellenberger -and Hofmeister[58] have shown that food remains in the alimentary canal -for nearly four days. It remains in the stomach and the small intestine -only 24 hours, but about three times as long in the large intestine. -This is remarkably different from what happens in the case of birds, -in which there is no stagnation during the passage of food through the -digestive canal. - -The structure of birds is adapted for flight, the body being as light -as possible, many of the bones and the cavities of the body containing -air-sacs. The absence of a bladder and of a true large intestine -prevents the accumulation of excreta, these being ejected almost as -rapidly as they are formed. The process of ejection, which takes place -often in birds, is not so inconvenient as in mammals. The hind limbs -are not used in flight, so that they offer no obstacle to evacuation. -Thus birds may discharge their droppings while flying. - -Such structure and habits make it not surprising that the alimentary -canal of many birds contains only a scanty intestinal flora. Parrots, -for instance, which are remarkably long-lived birds, harbour very few -microbes in the intestine. The small intestine contains almost none, -the rectum so few that the fæcal matter appears to be formed of mucus, -the waste of the food, and only a very few microbes. M. Michel Cohendy, -who has examined the intestinal flora at the Pasteur Institute, was -unable to isolate more than five different species of microbes living -in the alimentary canal of parrots. - -Even in birds of prey which feed upon putrid flesh, the number of -microbes in the intestine is remarkably limited. I have investigated -the case of ravens which I fed on flesh which was putrid and swarming -with microbes. The droppings contained very few bacteria, and it was -specially remarkable that the intestines had not the slightest smell of -putrefaction. Although the opened body of a herbivorous mammal, such as -a rabbit, gives off a strong smell of putrefaction, the body of a raven -with the digestive tube exposed has no unpleasant smell. This absence -of putrefaction in the intestine is probably the reason of the great -longevity of such birds as parrots, ravens, and their allies. - -It might be said, however, that the long duration of life in birds is -due to the organisation of these animals, rather than to the scantiness -of their intestinal flora. To meet this objection, it is necessary to -turn to the case of cursorial birds. - -There are some birds incapable of flight, the wings of which are -badly developed, but which have strong limbs, and can run with great -rapidity. Ostriches, cassowaries, rheas, and tinamous, are well known -examples of cursorial birds. They live on the surface of the ground, -and their habits resemble those of mammals. When they are attacked -by enemies, they escape by running so quickly that some of them -(ostriches and rheas) outstrip even a horse. However, like mammals, -they cannot discharge their secretions when they are running quickly. -Tinamous (_Rhynchotus rufescens_), which I have observed in captivity, -however quickly they may be running, stop abruptly to discharge their -excretions. M. Debreuil, at my request, made observations on this -matter, and assured me that the tinamous and rheas (_Rhea americana_) -in his park always stood still for this purpose. He has noticed that -the droppings, however abundant, were always deposited in heaps. -With regard to ostriches, M. Rivière, director of the experimental -Gardens at Hamma, Algeria, has been kind enough to give me the -following information. “The discharge of excreta,” he said in a letter -in January, 1901, “is less frequent than in other birds, but the -comparatively small size of the enclosures here makes it impossible for -me to assert that the animal could discharge its droppings if it were -running for a length of time; _a priori_ I should think that this did -not happen. Normally the bird stands still for defæcation, the tuft of -feathers on the tail is lifted up, and there is a violent contraction -of the abdominal muscles before the sphincters of the cloaca are -suddenly opened to discharge the excrement with violence.” - -I believe that the remarkable development of the large intestine in -these running birds has been acquired to obviate the danger which is -caused by the animal having to stop for defæcation. Although the huge -cæca of these birds have a digestive function, particularly on plants -rich in cellulose, I cannot think that the cæca of cursorial birds have -been developed for digestion. As a matter of fact, some birds which -are not cursorial live on the same kind of food (herbage, seeds, and -insects) and have much smaller cæca, the cæca indeed, in some, for -instance, the pigeons, being quite rudimentary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Intestinal microbes from the cæca of a Rhea.] - -It is not surprising that the accumulation of food material in the -large intestine of running birds is associated with the presence of -an extremely rich intestinal flora. Microscopic examination of the -excrement of such birds shows this at once. Although the intestinal -contents and excrement of many other birds show the presence of -very few microbes, belonging to a small number of species, the same -materials taken from running birds show enormous quantities of -microbes, belonging to a large number of species. In the cæcum of -the rhea (Fig. 14) there are bacterial threads, spirilla, bacilli, -vibrios, and many kinds of cocci. In the tinamous, the intestinal flora -is if possible even richer. According to the statistical investigations -of M. Michel Cohendy, the quantity of intestinal microbes in cursorial -birds is not less than that found in mammals, even in man. - -If I am correct in the view that I have been explaining, cursorial -birds, on account of their rich intestinal flora, ought to have a -shorter duration of life than that of flying birds. I will now turn to -this side of the question. Amongst cursorial forms, there are some of -the largest living birds, ostriches being actually the largest living -birds, whilst an extinct running bird, the _Aepyornis_ of Madagascar, -was the largest known bird. According to the rule that large animals -live longer than small animals, ostriches should be able to reach a -great age. The facts, however, are against this. M. Rivière, who rears -ostriches in Algeria, and has a great experience of them, writes to me -as follows: “I have no confidence in the stories about the longevity of -the ostrich which were told me in the Sahara; they rest on no facts. -My personal observation is not very large, but it is quite exact. Some -of the ostriches which have been hatched here have lived for 26 years. -I do not estimate the duration of life of this bird at more than 35 -years, and only one case of this age have I seen myself in 20 years. -The bird was a female, a good layer and sitter; she died of old age, -showing all the signs of decrepitude, the skin excoriated and lumpy, -the feathers degenerate and dry. The bird laid eggs until nearly the -end of her life, but at irregular intervals, and the shells were -granular instead of being smooth and polished.” - -In a farm near Nice, where ostriches are reared, there was recently an -old male called “Kruger,” which was supposed to be 50 years old.[59] -Countess Stackelberg has been good enough to try to get information -for me about this, and informs me that although they have not exact -knowledge at the farm, they believe that it must be 50 years old. M. -Rivière thinks this statement very surprising, and has nothing in his -own long experience to confirm it. - -The facts which I have been able to get together do not attribute a -long life to other running birds. Gurney mentions that a cassowary -(_Casuarius westermanni_) lived 26 years in the Zoological Gardens of -Rotterdam, and that three Australian emus (_Dromaeus novae-hollandiae_) -had lived in the same Gardens for 28, 22, and 20 years. M. Oustalet -(_Ornis_, 1899, vol. x, p. 62) mentions another emu of the same -species which died in London at the age of over 23 years. The rhea -(_Rhea americana_), another large running bird, does not live so long. -“Boecking thinks that its duration of life should be set down at from -14 to 15 years. According to him, many of these birds die of old age.” -(Brehm, _Oiseaux_, vol. ii, p. 517). - -It is striking to compare the short life of cursorial birds, which -nevertheless thrive and reproduce in captivity, with the remarkable -longevity of so many other birds (parrots, birds of prey) which, -although they are much smaller, have been kept alive for from 80 to -100 years. It would be difficult to find a more striking argument in -favour of the view that richness of the intestinal flora shortens life. -When birds become adapted to terrestrial life and acquire a huge large -intestine in which microbes can abound, their duration of life is -diminished. - -Just as some birds, losing the aerial mode of life, have come to -resemble mammals, so also some mammals have become flying animals, -provided with wings and in some respects resembling birds. Bats are -the most familiar instance. The large intestine, which is extremely -useful to running animals, not only ceases to be an advantage but is -harmful to flying creatures, insomuch as it increases the weight of -the body uselessly. Bats, accordingly, have no cæcum whilst the large -intestine is changed in structure and function. Instead of being a -capacious tube, serving as a reservoir for the refuse of the food, the -large intestine of bats has the same diameter as the small intestine. -Its structure is nearly identical. It is provided with glands, and -as I have already mentioned in the last chapter, it digests the food -in the same way as the small intestine. In fact, the large intestine -has become simply a part of the small intestine, the total length of -the gut being reduced. Bats, therefore, can no longer retain their -secretions but have to empty the intestine almost as often as most -birds. I find that Indian fruit bats (_Pteropus medius_) discharge -their excreta very often. Microscopic examination shows that there -is an absence of microbes quite unusual in the case of a mammal. -The alimentary canal of bats is nearly aseptic, containing only a -few single bacteria. I have fed these fruit bats with the same food -(carrots) which I have given to rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice; whilst -the bats accomplished the process of digestion in 1-1/2 hours, and -deposited excreta containing fragments of carrot, the rodents took -very much longer for digestion and large quantities of waste matter -accumulated in the cæca. The intestinal flora too, although the food -in each case was the same, showed remarkable differences in these -animals. It was almost absent in the bats, whilst in the rabbits, -guinea-pigs and mice it consisted of a mass of microbes of different -species. The excrement of the bats had no unpleasant odour, and the -digestive canal of these bird-like mammals was free from putrefaction. -Fruit bats fed upon fruit discharged excreta with a pleasant odour of -apples and bananas. We have seen that birds which live a life similar -to that of mammals acquire a rich intestinal flora and do not live so -long as aerial birds. It would be extremely interesting to ascertain -the duration of life of bats, mammals which live like birds and have -a very scanty intestinal flora. I have been unable to get any exact -information as to the duration of life of the true bats, that is to -say, the insectivorous bats, as all the requests that I have addressed -to specialists have proved fruitless. It appears, however, that it is -a popular belief that bats live long. There is a Flemish phrase: “as -long-lived as a bat,” and a similar phrase is common in Little Russia. - -As for the fruit-eating bats, I have been able to ascertain that even -in captivity, where the conditions are unfavourable to them, the -duration of life is relatively long. I have had in my own possession a -fruit bat (_Pteropus medius_) which was bought in Marseilles 14 years -ago. It showed no signs of old age, and the teeth were in perfect -condition. It died of some acute disease accidentally contracted. I -know of another bat of the same species which lived in captivity for -more than 15 years, and I have been informed that[60] in the London -Zoological Gardens, a fruit bat has lived for 17 years. If these bats -were adult when caught, it would be necessary to add something to the -known figures. - -Although I do not know the exact duration of the life of bats, it is -clearly relatively long for mammals no bigger than guinea-pigs. The -difference is remarkable if we compare it with the life of sheep, dogs -and rabbits, mammals very much larger in size, but possessed of a rich -intestinal flora. - -The series of facts that I have been discussing strengthens my -conviction that the intestinal flora is an extremely important factor -in the causation of senility. It must not be supposed, however, that -all the known facts can be explained equally easily on this hypothesis. -The harm done by microbes cannot always be measured by their abundance -in the alimentary canal. In the first place, it must be remembered -that some microbes are useful; moreover, microbes, even although their -products are very dangerous, may exist in quantities in an organism, -and yet do no harm if the organism has the power of resisting bacterial -poisons. Thus, for instance, the bacillus of tetanus, which thrives -in the alimentary canal, and which can endanger life if the wall of -the gut is wounded, does not harm a crocodile or a tortoise, as these -animals are extremely resistant to the poison of tetanus. Dr. Favorsky, -by experiments at the Pasteur Institute, has shown that the poison of -botulism can be absorbed with impunity by some birds, and by tortoises, -although death follows if a very small quantity of it be introduced -into the alimentary canal of a mammal. - -The bodies of man and of higher animals are possessed of a complex -mechanism which resists the harmful action of bacteria and their -poisons. The various parts of this mechanism may act differently, with -the result that there is great variation in the power of resistance. -Thus, however abundant microbes may be in the intestine, they may -bring little harm to an organism that has a high power of destruction -or neutralisation of the toxins, or when these harmful products are -unable to pass through the intestinal wall. It is in this way that I -explain some exceptions to the general rule, which are exceptions only -in appearance. Such a case is that of the nocturnal birds of prey. -Although the diurnal birds of prey (eagles, vultures, etc.) have very -short cæca, in which the food is never found, owls have very large -cæca, which may be as long as 10 cm. (Eagle-Owl, _Bubo maximus_). These -long cæca, however, contain debris of the food only in the enlarged -terminal portion, and the food masses contain a very small number of -microbes. Notwithstanding a great difference in the length of the cæca -between the owls and the eagles, these two groups of birds do not -differ greatly in longevity. But the difference in the cæca does not -imply a corresponding difference in the intestinal flora which appears -to be very scanty in both cases. - -It is possible that the elephant is a more real exception to the rule. -Here is a case of a mammal with an enormous large intestine and a -capacious cæcum, and which none the less is capable of surviving for a -century. I have had no opportunity of investigating the elephant from -this point of view, and have no explanation to suggest. - -Monkeys and man differ from most mammals in so far as they possess -a long duration of life, although their large intestines are very -capacious. I have been unable to get exact information as to the -longevity of monkeys, but I understand that these animals live longer -than domesticated mammals, such as the ox, sheep, dog, and cat. -Anthropoid apes are supposed to be able to reach the age of 50 years. -The only other mammal with a longevity similar to that of the elephant -is man. - - - - -V - -DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE - - Longevity of man—Theory of Ebstein on the normal - duration of human life—Instances of human - longevity—Circumstances which may explain the long - duration of human life - - -Man has inherited from his mammalian ancestors his organisation and -qualities. His life is notably shorter than that of many reptiles, but -longer than that of many birds and most other mammals. None the less -he has inherited a capacious large intestine in which a most abundant -intestinal flora flourishes. - -Gestation and the period of growth are long in the human race, and -from the point of view of theoretical considerations, human longevity -should be longer than it generally is. Haller, a distinguished Swiss -physiologist of the 18th century, thought that man ought to live to 200 -years; Buffon was of the opinion that when a man did not die from some -accident or disease he would reach 90 or 100 years. - -According to Flourens, man takes 20 years to grow and ought to live 5 -times 20, that is to say, 100 years. - -The actual longevity is much below these figures, which are based -on theory. I have shown, moreover, that even if the rule based on -the theory of growth can be accepted as generally true, it cannot be -applied in every case, as the factors controlling duration of life are -very variable. - -Statistics show that the highest human mortality occurs in the earliest -years of life. In the first year after birth alone, one quarter of the -children die. After this period of maximum mortality, the death-rate -slowly falls until the age of puberty, and then rises again slowly and -continuously. It reaches a second maximum between the ages of 60 and -75, and then slowly falls again to the extreme limit of longevity. - -Bodio,[61] an Italian man of science, holds the view that the great -mortality of infants is a natural adaptation to prevent too great an -increase of the human race. This view, however, cannot be supported, -and rational hygiene readily brings about a great diminution in the -mortality of children. The cause of mortality is in most cases maladies -of the intestinal canal, produced by erroneous diet, and with the -advance of civilisation, infant mortality has been very greatly reduced. - -I find it impossible to accept the view that the high mortality between -the ages of 70 and 75 indicates a natural limit of human life. As -a result of investigations into mortality in most of the European -countries, Lexis came to the conclusion that the normal duration of -human life was not more than 75 years. Dr. Ebstein[62] accepts this -statistical result and announces that “we now know the normal limit set -by nature to the life of mankind. This limit is at the age of maximum -mortality. If man dies before then, his death is premature. Everyone -does not reach the normal limit; life ends generally before it, and -only in rare cases after it.” - -The fact that many men of from 70 to 75 years old are well preserved, -both physically and intellectually, makes it impossible to regard that -age as the natural limit of human life. Philosophers such as Plato, -poets such as Goethe and Victor Hugo, artists such as Michael Angelo, -Titian and Franz Hals, produced some of their most important works -when they had passed what Lexis and Ebstein regard as the limit of -life. Moreover, deaths of people at that age are rarely due to senile -debility. In Paris, for instance, in 1902, of cases of deaths between -the ages of 70 and 74, only 8·5 per cent. were due to old age.[63] -Infectious diseases, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, diseases of the -heart and the kidneys, and cerebral hæmorrhage, caused most of the -deaths of these old people. Such cases of death, however, can often be -avoided and must be regarded as accidental rather than natural. - -Confirmation of the view that the natural limit is not at 70 to 75 -years is to be found in the fact that so many men reach a greater age. -Centenarians are really not rare. In France, for instance, nearly one -hundred and fifty people die every year, after having reached the age -of 100 or more. In 1836, in a population of thirty-three millions and -a half (33,540,910), there were 146 centenarians, that is to say, one -in about 220,000 inhabitants. In some other countries, particularly in -Eastern Europe, the number of centenarians is still greater. In Greece, -for instance, there is a centenarian for each set of 25,641 living -persons, that is to say, nine times as many as in France.[64] - -What age can be reached by the human species? Formerly it was supposed -that individuals might live for several centuries; to say nothing -of Methuselah, whose age of 969 years, mentioned in the Bible, is -the result of a mistake in calculation, I may mention Nestor, who, -according to Homer, lived for three human ages, that is to say, 300 -years, or Dando, the Illyrian, and the King of the Lacedaemon, -who were supposed to have reached ages of five or six centuries. These -ancient records are, of course, quite incorrect. Much more confidence -can be placed in some facts relating to more modern times, according to -which the extreme old age reached by man was 185 years. Kentigern, the -founder of the Cathedral of Glasgow, known by the name of St. Mungo, -died at the age of 185, on Jan. 5th, 600.[65] Another astonishing case -of longevity is related from Hungary, where an agriculturist, Pierre -Zortay, born in 1539, died in 1724. The Hungarian records of the 18th -century contain other cases of death at ages between 147 and 172 years. - -The case of Drakenberg is still more authentic; he was born in Norway -in 1626 and died in 1772, at the age of 146. He was known as the Old -Man of the North. He had been captured by African pirates and was held -by them for fifteen years, and was engaged as a sailor for ninety-one -years. His romantic history attracted contemporary attention, and the -journals of the time (_Gazette de France_, 1764, _Gazette d’Utrecht_, -1767, etc.)[66] contain information regarding him. The well-known -instance of Thomas Parr appears to rest on good authority. Parr was -a poor Shropshire peasant, who did hard work until he was 130 years -old, and who died in London at the age of 152 years and 9 months. The -celebrated Harvey examined the body after death and was unable to -discover organic disease; even the cartilages of the ribs were not -ossified and were elastic as in a young man. The brain, however, was -hard and resisting to the touch, as its blood-vessels were thickened -and dry. Parr was buried in Westminster Abbey.[67] - -It appears, then, that human beings may reach the age of 150, but such -cases are certainly extremely rare, and are not known from the records -of the last two centuries. I cannot accept without a good deal of -reserve the statements as to two persons who died in the beginning of -the 19th century at the ages of 142 and 145. On the other hand, cases -of duration of life from 100 to 120 years are not very rare. - -Extreme longevity is not limited to the white races. According to -Prichard,[68] negroes have lived respectively to 115, 160, and 180 -years. In the course of the 19th century there have been observed, in -Senegal, eight negroes ranging from 100 to 121 years old. M. Chemin[69] -saw himself in 1898 at Foundiougne an old man, whom the natives stated -to be 108 years of age; although he was in good health, he had been -blind for several years. The same author, on the authority of the _New -York Herald_ of June 13th, 1895, mentions the case of a coloured woman -in North Carolina, who was more than 140 years old, and of a man 125 -years old. - -Women more frequently become centenarians than men, although the -difference is not very great. For instance, in Greece, in 1885, in a -population of nearly two millions (1,947,760), there were 278 persons -aged from 95 to 110 years, of whom 133 were male and 145 female. - -In the seven years, from 1833 to 1839 inclusive, according to Chemin, -there were in Paris twenty-six men over the age of 95, and forty-five -women. Such facts, and many others, support the general proposition -that male mortality is always greater than that of the other sex. - -In most cases centenarians are notably healthy and of strong -constitution. There are instances, however, of abnormal people having -reached a great age. A woman, called Nicoline Marc, died in 1760, at -the age of 110. Since she was two years old, her left arm was crippled. -Her hand was bent under the arm like a hook. She was a hunch-back, and -so bent that she appeared to be no more than four feet high. A Scotch -woman, Elspeth Wilson, died at the age of 115 years. She was quite -a dwarf, being only a little over two feet high. On the other hand, -although they usually have a very short life, giants have been known to -reach the age of 100. - -Haller, in the eighteenth century, remarked that centenarians often -occurred in the same family, as if longevity were a hereditary -quality. It is certainly the case that the descendants of centenarians -frequently reach extreme age. Thomas Parr, for instance, left a son -who died in 1761, at the age of 127 years, having retained his mental -faculties until death. In M. Chemin’s list of centenarians, there -are eighteen cases of extreme old age having been reached by their -relations. As all innate characters can be transmitted, the influence -of heredity and longevity must be admitted. At the same time, it -is necessary to remember the important influence of the similarity -of conditions in the case of parents and children. Many cases of -tuberculosis and leprosy, which used to be assigned to heredity, are -now known to be due to infection in the same conditions of life, and -some of the examples of the attaining of a great age by more than one -member of a family may be explained by the influence of surrounding -circumstances. Very frequently the husband and wife, although not -related by blood, both attain extremely advanced age. I found 22 cases -of this kind in M. Chemin’s list; I will give a few of them. A widow, -Anne Barak, died at the age of 123, in Moravia; her husband died at the -age of 118. In 1896, there was alive in Constantinople, M. Christaki, -a retired army doctor of the age of 110; his wife was 95 years old. -In 1886, M. et Mme. Gallot, aged respectively 105 years and 4 months, -and 105 years and one month, died within two days of each other at -Vaugirard, 54, Rue Cambronne. Lejoncourt mentions a South American of -143 years old, whose wife had lived to the age of 117. - -It is worth enquiring if there be any relation between longevity and -locality. There are some countries in which very many of the natives -reach old age. It appears that Eastern Europe (Balkan States, and -Russia), although its civilisation is not high, contains many more -centenarians than Western Europe. I have already mentioned that Dr. -Ornstein had shown the existence of many extremely old people in -Greece. M. Chemin states that in Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania there -were more than 5,000 centenarians (5,545) living in 1896. “Although -these figures appear to be exaggerated,” wrote M. Chemin, “it is -undoubtedly the case that the pure and keen air of the Balkans, and -the pastoral or agricultural life of the natives, predisposes to old -age.” The same author mentions several localities in France, notable -for the numbers of very old people. In 1898 in the commune of Sournia -(Pyrénées-Orientales) the total population was 600, amongst which there -was one woman of 95 years, a man of 94, a woman of 89, two men of 85, -two of 84, and two of 83, three women of 82, and two men of 80. At St. -Blimont in the Department of the Somme, amongst the 400 inhabitants -alive in 1897, there were six men between the ages of 85 and 93 years -and one woman in her 101st year. - -It cannot be accepted that it is the keen air which lengthens the life, -because Switzerland, a mountainous country, is notable for the rarity -of centenarians. It is more likely that some circumstance in the mode -of living influences longevity. - -It has been noticed that most centenarians have been people who were -poor, or in humble circumstances, and whose life has been extremely -simple. There are instances of rich centenarians, such as Sir Moses -Montefiore who died at the age of 101, but such are extremely rare. -It may well be said that great riches do not bring a very long life. -Poverty generally brings with it sobriety, especially in old age, and -it has been often said that most centenarians have lived an extremely -sober life. They have not all followed the example of the celebrated -Cornaro, who brought himself to subsist on a daily diet of no more than -twelve ounces of solid food, and fourteen ounces of wine, and who, -although his constitution was weak, lived for about a century. He has -left extremely interesting Memoirs, and retained his intelligence until -his death on the 26th April, 1566 (Lejoncourt, p. 146). - -In M. Chemin’s list I have counted twenty-six centenarians, -distinguished by their frugal life. Most of them did not drink wine, -and many of them limited themselves to bread, milk and vegetables. - -Sobriety is certainly favourable to long life, but it is not necessary, -because quite a number of centenarians have drunk freely. Several of -those who are catalogued by Chemin, drank wine and spirits even to -excess. Catherine Reymond, for instance, who died in 1758 at the age of -107 years, drank much wine, and Politiman, a surgeon who lived from -1685 to 1825, was in the habit, from his twenty-fifth year onwards, of -getting drunk every night, after having attended to his practice all -day. Gascogne, a butcher of Trie (Hautes-Pyrénées), died in 1767 at the -age of 120, and had been accustomed to get drunk twice a week. A most -curious example is that of the Irish land-owner Brawn, who lived to the -age of 120, and who had an inscription put upon his tombstone that he -was always drunk, and when in that condition was so terrible that even -death had been afraid of him. Some districts, even, are distinguished -at once for the longevity of their inhabitants and for the large local -consumption of alcohol. In 1897, village of Chailly in the Côte-d’Or -had no less than twenty octogenarians amongst 523 inhabitants. This -village is one of the localities in France where most alcohol is -consumed, and the old people are very far from being distinguished from -their younger fellows by any special sobriety. - -In some cases centenarians have been much addicted to the drinking -of coffee. The reader will recall Voltaire’s reply when his doctor -described the grave harm that comes from abuse of coffee which acts as -a real poison. “Well,” said Voltaire, “I have been poisoning myself for -nearly 80 years.” There are centenarians who have lived longer than -Voltaire, and have drunk still more coffee. Elisabeth Durieux, a native -of Savoy, reached the age of 114. Her principal food was coffee, of -which she took daily as many as forty small cups. She was jovial and a -boon table companion, and used black coffee in quantities that would -have surprised an Arab. Her coffee-pot was always on the fire, like the -tea-pot in an English cottage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147). - -It has been noticed that many centenarians do not smoke, but this like -all other traits is not universal. M. Ross, who gained a prize for -longevity in 1896 at the age of 102, was an inveterate smoker. In 1897, -a widow named Lazennec, died at La Carrière, in Kérinou, Finistère, at -the age of 104. She lived in a hovel on charity, and she had smoked a -pipe ever since she was quite young. - -It is plain that any factor to which long duration of life has been -attributed disappears when many cases are examined. Naturally a sound -constitution and a simple and sober life are favourable to longevity, -but apart from these, there is something unknown which tends to long -life. The celebrated physiologist of Bonn, Pflüger,[70] came to -the conclusion that the chief condition of longevity is something -“intrinsic in the constitution,” something which cannot be defined -exactly, and which must be set down to inheritance. - -In the present state of knowledge, we cannot denote the chief cause of -human longevity, but the proper course will be to seek it out as we -would seek out that of animal longevity. As human longevity is often -local in its character, and is exhibited by married people who have -nothing in common except their mode of life, we may enquire into the -intestinal flora and the mechanism by which the organism resists its -harmful effect as factors which influence the duration of life. It is -reasonable to suppose that in persons living in the same district or -under the same roof, the intestinal flora may be similar. The problem -can be settled only by a series of laborious researches which have yet -to be made. At present I can do no more than bring together a large -number of facts regarding the duration of life in man and in animals, -with the hope of suggesting the lines for future investigation. - - - - -PART III - -INVESTIGATIONS ON NATURAL DEATH - - - - -I - -NATURAL DEATH AMONG PLANTS - - Theory of the immortality of unicellular - organisms—Examples of very old trees—Examples of - short-lived plants—Prolongation of the life of some - plants—Theory of the natural death of plants by - exhaustion—Death of plants from auto-intoxication - - -It must surprise my readers to find how little science really knows -about death. Although death has a preponderating place in religions, -systems of philosophy, literature and folk-lore, scientific works pay -little attention to it. This unfortunate fact explains, although it may -not justify, the bitter attack made on science on the grounds that it -is occupied with minutiæ and neglects the great problems of human life, -such as death. When Tolstoi was absorbed by the problem and searched -for some solution in the writings of scientific men, he found that the -explanations were trivial or inexact. In consequence he was extremely -indignant with the men who devoted themselves to the investigation of -what seemed to him useless problems (such as the insect world, or the -structure of cells and tissues) and who were yet unable to say what the -destiny of man or death might be. - -I am far from claiming to solve these problems; I can do little more -than describe the actual state of the question of natural death. I hope -in this way at least to prepare for scientific investigation, and to -call attention to it as the most important problem of humanity. - -By the use of the phrase “natural death” I mean to denote a phenomenon -that is intrinsic in the nature of an organism and that is not the mere -result of an external accident. Popular phraseology includes under -natural death all cases due to diseases. But as such deaths can be -avoided and are not due to qualities inherent in the organism, it is -erroneous to include them in the category “natural death.” - -In nature, death comes so frequently by accident that there is -justification for asking if natural death really occurs. It used to be -thought that death was the inevitable end of life and that the living -principle contained within itself the germ of death. Accordingly, -it was a surprising discovery that many low organisms die only by -accident, and that if such accident be avoided, death does not fall on -them. Unicellular organisms (such as infusoria, many other protozoa -and low plants) multiply by simple division, the organism thus giving -rise to two new organisms; the parent so to speak loses itself in its -offspring without undergoing death. To criticisms of this mode of -presentment of the facts, Weismann, who has attracted most attention -to the view, replied as follows:—“In cultures of Infusoria, these -little animals continually multiply by division and no dead bodies are -found. The individual life is short, but it ends not in death but in -transformation to two new individuals.” - -Max Verworn,[71] a physiologist of repute, objected that Weismann had -overlooked the occurrence within the organism of a process of partial -destruction, and that under certain conditions a complete organ of -the infusorian body (the nucleus) dies and is absorbed. Such death of -a part, however, is not followed by death of the whole, and as the -continuous destruction of some of the cells in our own bodies is not -regarded as our death, the criticism of the German physiologist cannot -be accepted. - -It is not only the extremely short-lived microscopic organisms that -escape death. Some of the higher plants, which may attain to gigantic -size, encounter death only by accidents. There is nothing to be found -in the nature of their organisation which would seem to indicate that -death is the inevitable or even probable result of their constitutions. - -The longevity of some trees has long been notorious, as these appear to -live for many centuries and to die only when they are overwhelmed by -the ravages of a storm or killed by human agency. - -When the Canary Islands were discovered, in the beginning of the -fifteenth century, the early explorers were struck with the gigantic -size of a dragon tree which was venerated by the natives as their -tutelary deity. The tree stood in a Garden at Orotava in Teneriffe, -and even in these early days, its huge trunk contained a gigantic -hollow. The tree did not reward the worship of the natives, who -were annihilated by the Spaniards, and it survived them for nearly -four centuries. At the end of the eighteenth century it was seen -by Humboldt,[72] who found that the trunk was forty-five feet in -circumference, and who attributed to it a great age because dragon -trees grow extremely slowly. Early in the nineteenth century (1819) a -furious tempest swept over Orotava and with a gigantic crash nearly -a third of the crown of leaves and branches fell on the ground. -Notwithstanding this shock, the monster survived for fifty years. -Berthelot,[73] who visited it in 1839, described it as follows:—“A -dragon tree stood in front of my dwelling, grotesque in form, gigantic -in size, which a storm had smitten without overwhelming. Ten men would -have much ado to girdle its vast trunk, fifty feet in circumference at -the ground. The huge column had a deep cave within it, hollowed by the -ages; a rustic porch gave access to the interior, and the lofty dome, -although half had been destroyed by a storm, still bore an enormous -crown of branches.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.—The Dragon-tree of the villa Orotava.] - -The famous dragon-tree got more and more damaged, and was finally -overthrown by a storm in 1868. A few years after the catastrophe (in -1871) I myself saw the remains of the colossus, lying on the ground as -a huge grey mass like some antediluvian monster. No accurate estimate -of its age can be formed, but it must have lived several thousand years. - -Trees have been known which were still older than the dragon-tree of -Teneriffe. One of the best known is the baobab of Cape Verd, described -by Adanson. “This remarkable tree was thirty feet in diameter when the -famous French naturalist measured and described it. Three centuries -earlier, some English sailors had cut an inscription on it, and -Adanson laid this bare by removing three hundred layers of wood. On -his observations Adanson based an estimate of 5,150 years as the age -of the tree.[74] The old cypresses of Mexico are thought to be still -older. A. de Candolle[75] concluded that the cypress of Montezuma was -2,000 years old when he saw it, and that the cypress at Oazaca was much -older than the tree described by Adanson. In California, trees of the -species _Sequoia gigantea_ are three thousand years old, and Sargent, -an American botanist, attributes to some of them an age of at least -five thousand years. - -The question of the nature of individuality in the vegetable world -has been raised in connection with the longevity of trees. It has -been asked if a tree is to be regarded as a single individual or as -a colony of many plants like a branching polyp. It is a difficult -question, but only of secondary importance from the point of view of -this discussion. A. de Candolle,[76] having paid special attention to -the subject, came to the conclusion that trees do not die of old age, -that, in the real sense of the phrase, there is no natural end of their -existence. Many botanists agree with him. Naegeli[77] holds that a tree -several thousand years old dies only from external accidents. - -It is plain that amongst the lower plants and the higher plants there -are cases where natural death does not exist. Theoretically, life would -have an unlimited duration, subject to the continuous replacement of -the substance of the organism in the normal metabolism. It must not be -inferred, however, that there is no such occurrence as natural death -amongst plants. There are numerous cases where death comes quite apart -from the agency of external forces. Even amongst closely related plants -there are some cases where natural death does not occur, and others -where it is normal. The lower fungi offer a good instance. Some of -these pass through a longer or shorter vegetative stage and then the -living mass breaks up into spores (_Myxomycetes_). The whole bulk of -matter is not transformed, but the remnant consists only of cuticular -secretions, not living cells. In other fungi, only some of the cells -transform to spores, the others dying naturally. - -One stage of the life history of some lower plants is of short -duration. The prothalli of some cryptogams (_Marsiliaceæ_) live only a -few hours, just long enough for the appearance of the sexual organs. -When these are ripe the body of the prothallus and all its constituent -cells fall a prey to natural death. In such cases there is a “corpse,” -composed of dead cells and protoplasm. Even amongst the higher plants -there are instances of an extremely short duration of life. _Amaryllis -lutea_ passes through all the stages of its life-history in ten days, -the minimum time necessary for the sprouting of the leaves and flowers -and the production of the seeds, after which it dies naturally.[78] It -is interesting to find that in the same family there are other plants -notable for long duration of life. The Agave requires a century to -produce its flowers before death comes naturally. - -Everyone is familiar with the so-called “annual” plants which live -only a few months, from the time when they sprout, until, after the -production of seed, death comes to them naturally. The life of annuals, -however, can be preserved for two or for several years. Rye is normally -an annual, but some varieties are able to live for two years and -produce two crops. The Cossacks of the Don have established this fact, -and have cultivated a biennial variety of rye for many years.[79] -Beetroot[80] is normally biennial, but has been changed to a plant -which lives for from three to five years. Such instances are by no -means unique. - -Natural death can be postponed if the plant be prevented from seeding. -Professor Hugo de Vries has prolonged the life of the Oenotheras he -cultivates, by cutting the flowers before fertilisation. Under ordinary -conditions the stem dies after producing from forty to fifty flowers, -but, if cutting be practised, new flowers are produced until the winter -cold intervenes. By cutting the stem sufficiently early, the plants are -induced to develop new buds at the base, and these buds survive winter, -and resume growth in the following spring.” (Extract from a letter of -Prof. H. de Vries.) - -The grass of lawns is usually mowed before it begins to flower, so as -to prevent the ripening of the seeds and the death of the plant. When -this is done, the grass remains continually green, and its life lasts -for several years. - -The connection between the seeding of plants and their natural death -has been recognised for long, and is usually explained as being due to -the exhaustion of the plant. - -As I am not a botanist, and was anxious to know the views of botanists -on natural death, I wrote to Prof. de Vries, as a universally accepted -authority. The distinguished botanist replied to me as follows. “Your -question is extremely difficult. I do not think that much is known as -to the exact cause of the death of annual plants, but it is customary -to attribute it to exhaustion.” All the botanists who have expressed -opinions on this matter appear to hold a similar view. Hildebrand,[81] -the author of a memoir on the duration of life in plants, stated this -view again and again. According to him “the life of annuals is usually -short because they are exhausted by their extensive production of seeds -(p. 116).” “Even amongst plants which produce seeds for several years, -there are some which are prematurely exhausted by fructification and -which die spontaneously” (p. 67). In the prothallus of many of the -higher cryptogams, the formation of a single embryo is followed by -natural death; as Goebel[82] points out, the embryo completely absorbs -the prothallus. - -As plants generally obtain their food with ease, it is natural to ask -what is the cause of the exhaustion after seeding. When a plant which -cannot resist cold dies after it has produced its seeds in the end of -the summer, the event is natural enough. But how can we explain the -death of an annual plant which is growing in a rich soil, and which -seeds in the beginning of the summer, as being due to exhaustion long -before the winter cold. It frequently happens that after harvest new -shoots spring up from grains which have fallen. The soil which can -support this new vegetation cannot have been exhausted by the cereal -in question; and there has been enough warmth for the new crop. It -cannot be the external conditions which have caused the death of -the parent plant. The explanation of this apparent contradiction -has been sought in the constitution of the plant itself. Hildebrand -remarks that “certain species have a constitution which tends to early -fructification. As soon as the seeds have been set, the strength of the -plant is exhausted in the swelling of the grains, so that the plant -dies.” “Other species, on the contrary, are so constituted that they -vegetate for a long time, before fruiting, after which, however, they -also die. A third set of plants have such a constitution that “they -do not die after seeding, that they can seed often and live for many -years” (p. 113). - -Being unable to indicate exactly the intrinsic mechanism of these -different “constitutions,” several botanists explain them by a kind of -teleological predestination. According to Hildebrand “the nutritive -processes of a plant have no other purpose than to make it capable of -reproduction; this final end, however, can be reached in different -modes and after different periods of time” (p. 132). Goebel sets -down similar views. “In heterosporous plants the whole course of the -development of prothalli is predetermined. The prothalli, so far as -we actually know, to use the phrase of theologians, are predestined; -their fate is determined once for all” (p. 403). M. Massart[83] -expresses the same kind of view, when he says that “sometimes cells -die because their work is finished, and they have no longer any reason -for existing.” - -Such an interpretation of the facts is quite opposed to determinism, -and makes the problem of natural death in the plant world more -difficult but more interesting. - -The modern scientific conception of the universe excludes the idea -of predestination. The relations between fructification and natural -death must be regulated by the law of selection, according to which no -organism survives if its reproduction is impossible. It occasionally -happens that children are born without organs which are indispensable -to life. Such monsters of different kinds being non-viable, cannot be -said to be predestined to death, as they die because of defects in -their structure. Others are born with all that is necessary for life, -and survive for that reason, not because they are predestined to life. -So also species of plants which develop incompletely and which die -before they have produced spores or seeds, cannot survive; whilst those -which die after having given birth to the next generation survive in -their descendants. However quickly death follow the production of seed, -the species will survive equally well. The cause of the natural death -of plants must be sought, therefore, not in predestination, but in the -mechanism of the organic processes. - -Nothing seems more probable than that a plant should die when all its -organic forces have been exhausted. It would be interesting, however, -to ascertain the mechanism of that exhaustion, and this especially -because it is often very difficult to imagine a cause for it. Many -plants exist which produce several generations each season, in the same -soil, without exhausting it. In perennial plants, some parts, such -as the flowers, die periodically, although the plant itself is not -exhausted. Everyone has seen that in geraniums some of the flowers -wither whilst others are blooming, the process going on throughout the -season. We can scarcely attribute such a natural death of the flowers -to any exhaustion of the plant which continues to produce new flowers. - -The fairly frequent prolongation of the life of plants is also -out of harmony with the theory of natural death as the result of -exhaustion. It sometimes happens that male plants produce female -flowers abnormally; cases of this kind have been observed in willows, -stinging-nettles, hops, and especially in maize.[84] Here we have -to deal with a kind of monstrosity, differing, however, from the -non-viable monsters of the human race, in the respect that the -production of female flowers on the male branches results in the -prolongation of their lives. Generally the male branches die a natural -death as soon as the pollen has been shed, and therefore some time -before the death of the female flowers. If, however, a male branch -bears a female flower which becomes fertilised, then the life of the -branch is prolonged until the seeds ripen. If the natural death of the -male flowers is the result of exhaustion due to the development of the -pollen, how can we reconcile this with the prolongation of life in a -case where the male branch has also female flowers to nourish and seeds -to mature? - -It is quite clear that natural death, in such cases, is the result of a -mechanism more complex than simple exhaustion. - -Prof. de Vries has already noted that the duration of life in plants -depends on their vital processes. That view implies that there are some -qualities inherent in its organisation which can prolong or shorten -the life of a plant, and it is here that we ought to find the key -to the problem of natural death in the vegetable world. However, to -gain exact knowledge of such factors, it would be necessary to have -information on many points in plant physiology which unfortunately are -very imperfectly known. In this respect, the vital conditions of the -simplest plants, such as yeasts and bacteria, have been investigated -much more fully. It is true that such low organisms reproduce freely -either by division or by budding, so that they are amongst the -organisms in which natural death is not inevitable. None the less, in -their lives phenomena occasionally present themselves which can be -interpreted as cases of natural death. - -At a time when it was still unknown that all fermentation was due -to the action of microscopic plants, it had been observed that, in -certain conditions, fermentation ceased much more quickly than in -other conditions. For instance, when sugar is being transformed to -lactic acid, it is useful to add chalk, as otherwise the fermentation -stops before the greater part of the sugar has been acted upon. When, -in 1857, Pasteur made his great discovery of the lactic acid microbe, -he showed that that little organism, although it could produce lactic -acid, was interfered with by an excess of the acid. To secure complete -fermentation, it was necessary to neutralise the acid by the addition -of chalk. - -When the action of lactic acid is continued too long, it not only -arrests the process of fermentation but definitely kills the microbe. -It is for that reason that it has been found difficult to preserve the -lactic acid ferment for a long time in a living condition. Amongst the -ferments which have been isolated from Egyptian ‘leben’ by MM. Rist and -Khoury[85] there is one which is extremely delicate. - -When it is inoculated deep in a nutritive medium, it dies in a few -days, death, without doubt, being due to the lactic acid produced by -the microbe from the sugar and not neutralised. As this transformation -of sugar into lactic acid is a fundamental property of the microbe, -depending on its constitution, the arrest of the fermentation and the -death of the ferment in these definite conditions can be interpreted -only as natural death due to auto-intoxication, that is to say to -poisoning by a product of the physiological activity of the microbe -itself. As death takes place at a time when the medium still contains -enough sugar for the nutrition of the microbe, it is certain that -it cannot be the result of exhaustion. This case of the lactic acid -ferment is not unique. The microbe which produces butyric acid is -also interfered with by the acid it secretes. M. G. Bertrand, who has -examined carefully the microbe which produces fermentation in sorbose -(sugar extracted from fruit of the service-tree) (_Sorbus domestica_) -has informed me that this fermentation, too, ceases under the influence -of the secretions of the microbes, and that the microbes undergo -natural death at a time when the medium is far from exhausted of the -nutritive material. The yeast which produces alcohol is also interfered -with by an excess of alcohol, and as soon as a certain limit of -alcoholic strength has been reached, fermentation stops. When the yeast -is grown in media rich in nitrogen and poor in sugar, the plant takes -the nitrogenous material and produces salts of ammonia. These alkalies -damage the yeast and cause its death by auto-intoxication.[86] - -In the examples that I have given, natural death was a result of -the activity of the microbes, and was in correlation with their -organisation. Such death can be avoided by changing the external -conditions, and, if the acids or alkalies produced by these bacteria -are neutralised, the bacteria survive. The facts are in harmony with -those that I described in the case of the higher plants. By preventing -the ripening of seed, the life of many annual plants may be preserved -and the plants changed to biennials or perennials. In such cases death, -although the result of the constitution of the plant, may be postponed. - -We may ask then if the natural death of higher plants, usually -attributed to exhaustion, cannot be explained more simply as the -result of poisons produced in their metabolism. Many plants produce -poisons which are fatal to animals and man. May they not also produce -substances fatal to themselves? There is nothing improbable in the -supposition that some of the poisons may develop when the seeds are -ripening. By preventing the latter process, the ripening of the whole -organism may also be prevented. Such a theory would explain the many -cases of natural death which occur whilst the cell is far from having -reached exhaustion. The equally numerous cases of partial death, such -as that of flowers, whilst the same stem is still producing other -flowers (_e.g._ geraniums) would be explained by a local action of the -poisons not strong enough to kill the whole plant. - -I must insist that this theory, that natural death of the higher -plants, is the result of auto-intoxication, is a mere hypothesis -which future investigations may disprove. If, however, it comes to be -confirmed, it would explain the coincidence of death and fructification -more simply than the hypothesis of predestination. - -The higher plants may be subjects of auto-intoxication in the same -fashion as bacteria and yeasts. If these poisons were produced before -the ripening of the seeds, the plants would remain sterile, leaving -no descendants, so that the race would become extinct. The production -of poisons at the time of fructification would not interfere with the -succession of generations, and the race would be preserved. As the -poisoning is not necessary, it is easy to understand why many plants -survive seeding and escape natural death. The Dragon-tree, baobab, and -the cedars, which I spoke of earlier, would be examples of such escape. - -Although the existence of auto-intoxication in the higher plants is -still only a hypothesis, the natural death of bacteria and yeasts by -poisons which they themselves produce is an ascertained fact. - -In the plant world, therefore, there are examples of natural death -(bacteria and yeasts) due to auto-intoxication, and there are other -cases where high or low plants escape natural death. - - - - -II - -NATURAL DEATH IN THE ANIMAL WORLD - - Different origins of natural death in animals—Examples - of natural death associated with violent acts—Examples - of natural death in animals without digestive - organs—Natural death in the two sexes—Hypothesis as to - the cause of natural death in animals - - -The cases of natural death amongst animals differ from those found in -the vegetable world by their greater variety and complexity. As M. -Massart has shown for plants, so also natural death must have become -established independently in different groups of animals. In some -cases, the characters presented are strange and almost paradoxical. - -It is usual to contrast natural death with violent death on account of -the difference between the two. None the less, natural death may occur -in the animal kingdom, that is to say death resulting directly from the -constitution, and yet in intimate association with violent acts. I will -give some examples. - -Small, helmet-shaped organisms, transparent and graceful, are common on -the surface of the sea. These have been described by zoologists under -the name _Pilidium_. The organisation is simple. The body wall is a -delicate pellicle, through which, on the lower surface, a mouth leads -into a capacious stomach. Continual movements of waving cilia direct -small particles of food through the mouth to the digestive stomach. -As there are no organs of reproduction, it was assumed that these -creatures were not adults, but floating larvæ of some marine animal, -and, after a good deal of trouble, it was found that the Pilidia were -the young stages of ribbon-shaped worms of the group of Nemertines. -At a definite stage in the life-history, a fœtus begins to develop -round about the stomach of the Pilidium, and eventually completely -encloses it and detaches it by violent muscular contractions. The end -of the story is that the fœtus abandons the body of the Pilidium -carrying off with it the stomach, an organ necessary to the maintenance -of life. The remnant of the Pilidium swims about in the sea-water, but -soon dies as the result of the mortal wound caused by the removal of -the digestive organs. - -The act by which the Nemertine separates from its mother is violent, -and yet the death of the Pilidium must be regarded as natural. It is -the result of agencies within the body and not, as in most cases of -accidental death, of violence from without. - -The group of Nematode worms contains many common intestinal parasites -of man, such as _Ascaris_, _Trichina_, _Trichocephalus_, _Oxyuris_, -&c., but also others that live free in soil or water or in such fluids -as vinegar. They are protected by a strong cuticle, and some of them -are viviparous, that is to say, instead of laying eggs they give -birth to young worms already well grown and capable of independent -activity. Amongst the human Nematode parasites, the _Trichinæ_ give -birth to swarms of small larvæ which easily escape from the body of -the mother by the female generative aperture. In the case of some -free-living Nematodes, however, the female aperture is too small to -give passage to the rather stout larvæ. More than forty years ago, when -I was investigating the life-history[87] of one of these Nematodes -(_Diplogaster tridentatus_) I was struck by the fact that the larvæ -could leave the body of the mother only by violence and after they had -devoured most of its substance. These larvæ develop from eggs produced -within the maternal body. As the external reproductive aperture of -the female is minute, the larvæ cannot escape through it, but wander -amongst the tissues tearing and absorbing them. The mother soon dies, -and although her death is violent, it must be included in the category -of natural death. - -From the teleological point of view it might be said that Pilidium -and Diplogaster cease to live because they have fulfilled their -function of giving rise to a Nemertine or young Nematodes. Their -natural death would thus be predestined. There is no ground for such -an interpretation. On the other hand, it is certain that this death, -coming after the birth of the new generation, is in no way against the -preservation of the species in which the extraordinary natural death -by violence occurs. If the female orifice of Diplogaster were slightly -larger, the larvæ would emerge without difficulty and without causing -the death of the mother which none the less would have fulfilled her -purpose. - -All the cases of natural death amongst animals are not so brutal as -those of the Pilidium and the Nemertine worms. In many instances the -death is peaceful. As very frequently it is difficult to establish -definitely that the death is natural, I shall select clear cases. - -Animals are occasionally found which are devoid of some organ necessary -for prolonged life. The absence of a digestive tract in an animal that -lives in an environment rich in dissolved nutritive material (as for -instance tapeworms living in the intestinal tract) is not surprising. -But when creatures of the sea or of fresh water have no digestive -tract, their life can be maintained only at the expense of nutritive -material stored within them during embryonic life. The death which -comes eventually is truly natural. The best cases, that is to say those -which can be studied most completely, of such natural death occur -amongst the Rotifera. These are minute creatures of fresh or sea water, -at one time confused with the Infusoria, but possessed of a much more -complex organisation. They have a well-developed digestive tube, organs -of excretion, nervous system, and organs of sense. The animals are -diœcious; in each species both males and females exist. Whilst the -females have the complete structure of the species, the males are much -reduced, and are devoid of a digestive canal. The cuticle is fairly -stout, and they are unable to absorb dissolved nutriment through it; as -they have no organs of digestion, their life must be short. - -To study in detail the life and death of these creatures, I selected a -species sent to me by M. Haffkine. So far as I can judge, the species -in question is a hitherto unknown member of the genus _Pleurotrocha_, -and I propose for it the name _Pleurotrocha haffkini_. This rotifer is -convenient to study as it thrives in vessels containing fresh-water to -which some bread-crumb has been added (in the proportion of a gram of -bread to 500 grams of water). - -The sexes of the little rotifer can be distinguished from the earliest -age, for eggs that are to become females are much larger than those -from which males develop. It is easy to isolate the male eggs and to -follow the life-history up to the moment of natural death. The whole -course of life from the laying of the egg until death lasts only about -three days, and is probably the shortest duration of life in the animal -kingdom. Although some Ephemeridæ live only a few hours in the adult -state, their total life-cycle is much longer than that of the rotifers, -as the larval stages last for months or even for years. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Male _Pleurotrocha haffkini_.] - -The little males (Fig. 16) begin to swim soon after hatching, the -wheel-apparatus and the musculature being vigorous. They seek out -the females, as their reproductive organs are mature almost at the -moment of hatching. The transparent body, which is devoid of digestive -apparatus, swarms with mobile spermatozoa. As soon as the male has -seized a female, he discharges the contents of his body. It might be -supposed that such an evacuation would cause a violent perturbation of -the system leading to the death of the organism. There is no question -of this however. The males are able to live for twenty-four hours after -having accomplished their function, and the period represents a third -of their total duration of life. Moreover, I have isolated males from -females without any prolongation of their lives. In one experiment, I -isolated two males and placed a third in company with two females. It -was the third specimen that lived longest. - -The natural death of the males is foreshadowed by a weakening of the -movements; although the muscles and cilia remain mobile, the whole -animal moves only spasmodically; sometimes the muscles of the head -contract, sometimes those of the tail, but no locomotion occurs. -Occasionally there is a violent effort of ciliary motion as if the -attempt were being made to overcome the immobility of the body. Such -a condition lasts for several hours and is followed by death. The -spermatozoa inside the body retain activity last of all. - -Towards the crisis, bacteria, which abound in the medium occupied by -the rotifers, begin to attack the males. Some cluster round the head, -others round the tail, although none of them can effect entrance to -the body. The death of the males cannot be attributed to microbial -infection, but comes from some intrinsic cause. - -Is it inanition that is the cause of death? I do not think so, because -up to the time of death the tissues appear to be unmodified. In the -case of the females I have sometimes seen phenomena of inanition. In -old and exhausted cultures the starved females become thin, flattened -and quite transparent, and the tissues lose their granular appearance. -No such changes are visible in the dying males, the tissues of which, -on the contrary, retain a normal aspect. - -The most probable explanation is that death comes from poisoning by the -secretions of the tissues themselves. The large size of the organs of -excretion indicates that in the course of metabolism waste matter is -produced some of which is got rid of. If, after a time, the secretions -are insufficiently eliminated, the tissues must be poisoned. As death -is preceded by a spasm of uncoordinated movement, it appears as if the -fatal intoxication of the males affected the nervous system first. The -vibrating cilia and the muscles are attacked later. - -There can be no doubt but that the death of these male rotifers is -natural in the fullest sense. The females, however, although they are -provided with complete digestive organs, do not escape a similar fate. -Their life is longer and more complex than that of the males, and so -is subject to many more chances. The females therefore may come to die -from starvation or from other external, accidental causes. But, if they -are kept in favourable conditions, they may live for about fifteen -days, towards the end of which they die naturally, exhibiting the -symptoms that I have described in the case of the males (Fig. 17). - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Female _Pleurtrocha haffkini_, which has died -a natural death.] - -Rotifers are not the only animals which undergo natural death in a -fashion quite unlike the violent end of Pilidium and Diplogaster. There -are other cases amongst invertebrates, but I shall limit myself to -describing one that is well ascertained. - -More than fifty years ago, Dana, the American naturalist, discovered a -pelagic marine creature with characters so curious that he gave to it -the name _Monstrilla_. It is a little crustacean akin to the _Cyclops_ -of lakes. But although the latter is endowed with the organs necessary -to capture and digest food, _Monstrilla_ has neither organs of -prehension nor a digestive canal. It is a highly muscular animal with -organs of sense and reproduction and a nervous system; but it is devoid -of apparatus for prolonging life by nutrition. _Monstrilla_ therefore -is a creature doomed to natural death. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.—_Monstrilla._ (After M. Malaquin.)] - -The detailed observations of M. Malaquin[88] have supplied full -information regarding this strange life-history. _Monstrilla_ passes -a portion of its life as a parasite on Annelid worms. In that stage -it accumulates the necessary material for the growth of the sexual -products (ova and spermatozoa) and for free life in the sea whilst the -young are developing. It is not only the males which have no digestive -apparatus. The females also lack it, which is the more surprising as -they carry about the eggs attached to the body (as is done by many -other Crustacea, such as crayfish and lobsters) until the young are -ready to hatch (Fig. 18). M. Malaquin thinks that the Monstrillas die -of starvation. - -“As they are without a digestive tube or organs of prehension or -mastication,” M. Malaquin says (p. 192), “the Monstrillas, which have -no means of nutrition, are doomed to death from inanition after a short -pelagic life. This is a logical inference from their structure.” - -In support of his view, M. Malaquin states that before death the -tissues and organs show plain signs of degeneration. - -“The eyes first show traces of degeneration. The pigment spreads and -disappears little by little and then the visual elements fade out.” - -“Finally, individuals, usually females, show complete degeneration. -A female taken in a fine-meshed net showed no trace of organs in the -head; the eyes, the brain and the intestinal tract had disappeared -almost completely. The antennæ were reduced to stumps consisting of the -lowest joint and a portion of the second. These were clear indications -of the senility that precedes death” (p. 194). - -Such evidence not only supports the hypothesis that the natural -death of Monstrilla is due to inanition, but is opposed to a similar -interpretation being applied to the case of male rotifers, in which -death is not preceded by wasting of the organs. The death of some -insects, which comes rapidly after the adult stage has been reached, -cannot readily be attributed to starvation. In the strange butterflies -known as psychids (_Solenobia_) some of the females lay eggs without -having been fertilised,[89] and their life in the adult condition lasts -only a day. On the other hand, other females of the same butterfly -are fertilised before laying their eggs and in this case survive for -more than a week although they take no food. The rapid death of the -first-mentioned set cannot be attributed to inanition. - -In some Ephemeridæ, which supply good cases of natural death, the end -comes after a few hours of adult life without any sign of degeneration -of the organs. As in others (_Chloë_), life lasts for several days -without food having been taken, it is clear that inanition is not -the cause of the swift arrival of death in the first set. It is much -more probable that the natural death is due to an auto-intoxication -which takes effect at different intervals of time in different -circumstances.[90] - -In the higher animals such as vertebrates the conditions are less -favourable than in the case of insects for the investigation of the -causes of natural death. Vertebrates have always well-developed organs -of digestion and so live a relatively longer time and encounter a -greater number of chances of accident, with the result that in most -cases death comes from external accidental causes. Vertebrates usually -perish from hunger or cold, or are devoured by their enemies or killed -by the attacks of parasites or diseases. There remains only the human -race amongst the more highly developed animals, in which to study -the onset of natural death. And in the human race cases which may be -designated as natural are extremely rare. - - - - -III - -NATURAL DEATH AMONGST HUMAN BEINGS - - Natural death in the aged—Analogy of natural death and - sleep—Theories of sleep—_Ponogenes_—The instinct - of sleep—The instinct of natural death—Replies to - critics—Agreeable sensation at the approach of death - - -The death of old people, which has often been described as natural -death, is in most cases due to infectious diseases, particularly -pneumonia (which is extremely dangerous) or to attacks of apoplexy. -True natural death must be very rare in the human race. Demange[91] -has described it as follows:—“Arrived at extreme old age, and still -preserving the last flickers of an expiring intelligence, the old man -feels weakness gaining on him from day to day. His limbs refuse to obey -his will, the skin becomes insensitive, dry, and cold; the extremities -lose their warmth; the face is thin; the eyes hollow and the sight -weak; speech dies out on his lips which remain open; life quits the -old man from the circumference towards the centre; breathing grows -laboured, and at last the heart stops beating. The old man passes away -quietly, seeming to fall asleep for the last time.” Such is the course -of what properly speaking is natural death. - -The natural death of human beings cannot be regarded as due to -exhaustion from reproduction or from inanition, as in the case -of _Monstrilla_. It is much more likely that it is due to an -auto-intoxication of the organism. The close analogy between natural -death and sleep supports this view, as it is very probable that sleep -is due to poisoning by the products of organic activity. - -It is more than fifty years since sleep was explained as the result -of auto-intoxication. Obersteiner, Binz, Preyer, and Errera are among -the competent men of science who have taken this view. The first two -attributed sleep to an accumulation in the brain of the products of -exhaustion which are carried away by the blood during repose. The -attempt has been made even to discover the nature of these narcotic -substances. Some investigators think that an acid, produced during -the activity of the organs, is stored up in quantities that cannot be -tolerated. During sleep, the organism gets rid of this excess of acid. - -Preyer[92] tried to put the problem upon a more exact basis by the -theory that the activity of all the organs gives rise to substances -which he called _ponogenes_ and which he regarded as producing the -sensation of fatigue. According to him these substances accumulate -during the waking hours, and are destroyed by oxidation during sleep. -Preyer thinks that lactic acid is the most important of the ponogenes, -and lays stress on its narcotic effect. If his theory were correct, -there would be a remarkable analogy between the auto-intoxication by -lactic acid in the cases of man and animals, and the case of bacteria -which produce the same acid and the fermenting activity of which is -arrested as the acid accumulates. Just as sleep may be transformed -to natural death, so also the arrest of lactic fermentation may be -followed by the death of the bacteria which form the acid. - -So far, however, there has been no confirmation of Preyer’s theory. -Errera[93] has brought forward against it another theory according -to which the cause of sleep is not acid products, but certain -alkaline substances described by M. Armand Gautier under the name of -_leucomaines_. Gautier laid down that these substances act on the -nervous centres and produce fatigue and sleepiness. According to Errera -they might very well be the cause of sleep, as that comes on at a -time when there is the greatest accumulation of these leucomaines in -the body. He thinks that their action in producing sleep is a direct -intoxication of the nerve centres. During sleep they are removed, and -the disturbance which was produced in the organism is arrested. - -If it were possible to accept Errera’s theory, a kind of analogy could -be established between sleep and natural death on the one hand, and -the arrest of development and death of yeast grown in nitrogenous -media on the other hand, because in the latter case the poisoning is -produced by an alkaline salt of ammonia. It must be confessed, however, -that the actual state of our knowledge does not allow of a definite -view of the real mechanism of the sleep-producing intoxication. Our -ideas regarding leucomaines in general are still incomplete, and, -recently, one of them, _adrenaline_, the product of the supra-renal -capsules, has been investigated. Adrenaline is an alkaloid[94] which is -produced in the supra-renal bodies and is discharged into the blood. -It has the power of contracting arteries strongly, and has been used -to control blood-pressure. When it is given in large quantities or -in frequent doses, it acts as a true poison, whilst, in small doses, -it produces anæmia of the organs and has a special influence on the -nervous centres. Dr. Zeigan[95] has shown that a milligramme of -adrenaline, mixed with five grammes of normal salt solution injected -into the brain of cats, produces a soporific action. “About a minute -after the injection, the animal appears to be plunged into deep sleep -which lasts from 30 to 50 minutes. During this time, the sensitiveness -of the animal has completely ceased throughout the body, and for some -time after that it is much decreased. When they awake the animals -seem to have been drunk with sleep for some time.” Sleep is generally -associated with anæmia of the brain, and as adrenaline can actually -produce such anæmia, it might be supposed that this narcotic substance -is the most important of the organic products which give rise to sleep. -Against this hypothesis, however, some weight must be given to recent -investigations on fatigue and its causes. - -Each stage in the advance of knowledge has had its influence on -the study of the interesting and complex problem of sleep. When it -was thought that alkaloids (ptomaines) were of great importance in -infectious diseases, it was attempted to explain sleep as due to the -action of similar bodies. Now, when we believe that in such diseases -the chief part is played by poisons of extremely complex chemical -composition, the attempt is made to explain fatigue and sleep by -similar bodies. - -Weichardt[96] has recently made the best known investigations in this -direction. This young man maintains with ardour the view that during -the activity of organs there is an accumulation of special materials -which are neither organic acids nor leucomaines, but which are much -more like the toxic products of pathogenic bacteria. - -Weichardt made animals in his laboratory go through fatiguing -movements for hours and then killed them. The extract from muscles of -such animals had a powerful toxic effect when it was injected into -normal animals, producing lassitude and sometimes death within 20 to -40 hours. As all attempts to determine the exact chemical nature of -this fatigue-producing substance were baffled, it is impossible to get -an exact account of it. Amongst its properties there is one of great -interest. When it has passed into the circulation of normal animals in -quantities insufficient to produce death, it excites the formation of -an anti-toxin in the same way as a poison of diphtheria stimulates the -production of a diphtheria anti-toxin. - -When Weichardt injected into animals a mixture of the poison which -produces fatigue with small doses of the serum antidote, no results -followed. The neutralising effect of the antidote was apparent -even when it was introduced by the mouth. Towards the end of his -investigations, Weichardt supposed that it would be possible to obtain -a material that would prevent fatigue. - -Although it is still impossible to specify exactly the nature of the -substances which accumulate during the activity of organs and which -produce fatigue and sleep, it is becoming more and more probable that -such substances exist, and that sleep is really an auto-intoxication -of the organism. So far, such a theory has not been shaken by any -argument. Recently M. E. Claparède,[97] a psychologist of Geneva, -has argued against the current theory of sleep. He thinks that it -is contradicted by the fact that new-born infants sleep a great -deal, whilst very old people sleep very little. This fact, however, -can readily be explained by the greater sensibility of the nerve -centres of infants, as shown with regard to many harmful agencies. The -other objections of Claparède, such as the fact that sleepiness is -induced by exercise in the open air, or that excess of sleep itself -produces sleepiness, are not really incompatible with the theory of -auto-intoxication. They are facts of secondary importance probably -depending on some complication which the present state of our knowledge -makes it difficult to indicate exactly. The insomnia of neurasthenia, -which Claparède brings forward as another objection, can readily be -explained as due to hyperæsthesia of the nervous tissues which lose -part of their sensitiveness to poisons. - -On the other hand, there are many well established facts in agreement -with the theory of auto-intoxication. Leaving out of the question -sleep induced by narcotics, I may mention in this connection the -so-called “sleeping sickness.” It has been proved that this disease -is caused by a microscopic parasite, the _Trypanosoma gambiense_ of -Dutton, which develops in the blood and spreads to the liquid of the -membranes surrounding the central nervous system. One of the most -typical symptoms of the advanced stages of this disease is continual -drowsiness. “The drowsiness increases progressively, and the habitual -attitude becomes characteristic; the head is bent on the breast; the -eyelids are closed; in earlier stages the invalid can be aroused -easily, but, after a time, incurable attacks of sleep overcome the -patient in all circumstances, but especially after meals. These -fits of sleepiness become longer and deeper, until they reach a -comatose condition from which it is almost impossible to arouse the -patient.”[98] The total result of medical knowledge of this disease -is that it is impossible to doubt that the sleepiness is due to -intoxication produced by the poison of the trypanosome. - -Claparède has opposed what he calls an “instinctive” theory to -the toxic theory of sleep. According to this theory, sleep is the -manifestation of an instinct “the object of which is to arrest -activity; we do not sleep because we are intoxicated or exhausted, but -to prevent ourselves from falling into such a condition.” However, in -order to bring this narcotic instinct into play, certain conditions -are necessary, one of which certainly would be the intoxication of -the nerve centres. M. Claparède supposes that sleep is an active -phenomenon, induced when waste matter begins to accumulate in the -organism. “To bring about sleep, the nerve centres must be influenced -by waste matter, and this influence can readily be regarded as a kind -of intoxication.” - -Hunger is an instinctive sensation as much as sleepiness, but it does -not appear until our tissues are in a condition of exhaustion, the -exact nature of which cannot as yet be indicated. There is no real -contradiction between the toxic and instinctive theories of sleep. The -two theories represent different sides of a special condition of the -organism. - -The analogy between sleep and natural death is in favour of the -supposition that the latter, also, is due to an intoxication much more -profound and serious than that which results in sleep. Therefore, as -natural death in human beings has been studied only very superficially, -it is impossible to do more than frame theories regarding it. - -It would be natural if, just as in sleep there is an instinctive -desire for rest, so also the natural death of man were preceded by an -instinctive wish for it. As I have already discussed this subject in -the “Nature of Man” (chap. xi) I need not deal with it at length here. -I should like, however, to add some information which I have recently -obtained. - -The most striking fact in favour of the existence of the instinct for -natural death in man appears to me to have been related by Tokarsky -in regard to an old woman. While Tokarsky was alive I asked one of -his friends to obtain for me further details of this very interesting -case. Unfortunately Tokarsky could add nothing to what he had already -published in his article. I think that I have discovered the source of -his information. In his famous book on the _Physiology of Taste_[99] -Brillat-Savarin relates as follows:—“A great-aunt of mine died at -the age of 93. Although she had been confined to bed for some time -her faculties were still well preserved, and the only evidence of her -condition was the decrease in appetite and weakening of her voice. -She had always been very friendly to me, and once when I was at her -bedside, ready to tend her affectionately, although that did not -hinder me from seeing her with the philosophical eye that I always -turned on everything about me, ‘Is it you, my nephew?’ she said in -her feeble voice. ‘Yes, Aunt, I am here at your service, and I think -you will do very well to take a drop of this good old wine.’ ‘Give it -me, my dear; I can always take a little wine.’ I made ready at once, -and gently supporting her, gave her half a glass of my best wine. She -brightened up at once, and turning on me her eyes which used to be so -beautiful, said: ‘Thank you very much for this last kindness; if you -ever reach my age you will find that one wants to die just as one wants -to sleep.’ These were her last words, and in half an hour she fell into -her last sleep.” The details make it certain that this was a case of -the instinct of natural death. The instinct showed itself at an age -not very great in the case of a woman who had preserved her mental -faculties. Generally, however, it seems not to appear till much later, -for old men usually exhibit a keen wish to live. - -It is a well-known saying that the longer a man has lived the more -he wishes to live. Charles Renouvier,[100] a French philosopher who -died a few years ago, has left a definite proof of the truth of the -saying. When he was eighty-eight years old, and knew that he was -dying, he recorded his impressions in his last days. Let me quote from -what he wrote four days before his death. “I have no illusions about -my condition; I know quite well that I am going to die, perhaps in a -week, perhaps in a fortnight. And I have still so much to say on my -subject.” “At my age I have no longer the right to hope: my days are -numbered, and perhaps my hours. I must resign myself.” “I do not die -without regrets. I regret that I cannot foresee in any way the fate -of my views.” “And I am leaving the world before I have said my last -word. A man always dies before he has finished his work, and that -is the saddest of the sorrows of life.” “But that is not the whole -trouble, when a man is old, very old, and accustomed to life, it is -very difficult to die. I think that young men accept the idea of dying -more easily, perhaps more willingly than old men. When one is more -than eighty years old, one is cowardly and shrinks from death. And -when one knows and can no longer doubt that death is coming near, deep -bitterness falls on the soul.” “I have faced the question from all -sides in the last few days; I turn the one idea over in my mind; I -_know_ that I am going to die, but I cannot _persuade_ myself that I -am going to die. It is not the philosopher in me that protests. The -philosopher does not fear death; it is the _old man_. The old man has -not the courage to submit, and yet I have to submit to the inevitable.” - -I know a lady, a hundred and two years old, who is so oppressed by -the idea of death, that those about her have to conceal from her the -death of any of her acquaintances. Mde. Robineau, however, when between -one hundred and four and one hundred and five years old, became quite -indifferent to the close approach of her own death. She often expressed -a wish for it, thinking herself useless in the world. - -M. Yves Delage[101] in an analysis of my “Nature of Man” doubted the -existence of an instinct for death. “Animals,” said he, “cannot have -the instinct for death, because they do not know of death. In their -case, we must consider that what happens is an apathy tending to the -abolition of the sense of self-preservation. In man, the knowledge -of death implies that the indifference to its approach cannot be an -instinct.” “There may be developed, at the end of life, a special state -of mind which accepts death with indifference or with pleasure, but -such a state cannot be designated as an instinct.” M. Delage, however, -does not suggest what the state of mind in question is to be called. -As the aunt of Brillat-Savarin compared her sensations just before -death with the desire to sleep, and as this desire is an instinctive -manifestation, I think that the cheerful acquiescence in death, -exhibited by extremely old people, is also a kind of instinct. However, -the important matter is that the sentiment exists, and not what we are -to call it. M. Delage is far from denying its existence. - -Dr. Cancalon,[102] another of my critics, cannot admit the existence -of an instinct of death, “because of the theory of evolution. Of what -good would it have been, as M. Metchnikoff tells us that natural death -is very rare; how could it have been transmitted, as it comes into -existence long after the age of reproduction, and how could it have -aided the survival of the species? If its existence were proved as -the result of biological evolution, it would be a contradiction of -adaptation and an argument in favour of final causes.” I cannot agree -in any way with these opinions. In the first place, it is well known -that men and animals have many harmful instincts that do not tend -to the survival of the species. I need recall only the disharmonic -instincts which I described in the “Nature of Man,” such as the -anomalies of the sexual instinct, the instinct which drives parents to -devour their young or which attracts insects to flames. The instinct -of natural death is far from being harmful, and may even have many -advantages. If men were convinced that the end of life were natural -death accompanied by a special instinct like that of the need for -sleep, one of the greatest sources of pessimism would disappear. Now -pessimism is the cause of the voluntary death of a certain number of -people and of many others refraining from reproduction. The instinct -of natural death would contribute to the maintenance of the life of -the individual and of the species. On the other hand, there is no -difficulty in admitting the existence of instincts hostile to the -preservation of the species, especially in the case of man, in whom -individualism has reached its highest development. As man is the only -animal with a definite notion of death, there is nothing extraordinary -if it is in man that the instinctive wish for death develops. M. -Cancalon denies the possibility that death can be pleasant, as it is -the arrest of the physiological functions; but as sleep and syncope -are often preceded by very pleasant sensations, why may not this also -happen in natural death? Several facts prove it beyond dispute. It is -even probable that the approach of natural death is one of the most -pleasant sensations that can exist. - -It is indubitable that in a large number of cases of death, the -cessation of life is associated with very painful sensations. One has -only to see the horror shown in the faces o£ many dying people to be -convinced of this, but there are diseases and serious accidents in -which the approach of death does not arouse sorrowful sensations. I -myself, in a crisis of intermittent fever, in which the temperature -descended in a very short time from about 106° Fahr. to below normal, -experienced a feeling of extraordinary weakness, certainly like that -at the approach of death. This sensation was much more pleasant than -painful. In two cases of serious morphia poisoning, my sensations were -more agreeable; I felt a pleasant weakness, associated with a sensation -of lightness of the body, as if I were floating in the air. - -Those who have noted the sensations of persons rescued from death have -related similar facts. Prof. Heim, of Zurich, has described a fall -in the mountains which nearly killed him, as well as several similar -accidents to Alpine tourists. In all these cases he states that there -was a sensation of pleasure.[103] Dr. Sollier has told of a young woman -addicted to morphia, who had been convinced that she was at the point -of death. On recovering from a most serious attack of syncope, from -which she was restored only by giving another dose of morphia, she -cried: “I seem to come from far away; how happy I was!” Another of -Dr. Sollier’s patients, a lady who had an attack of peritonitis from -which she expected to die, felt herself “suffused with a feeling of -well-being, or rather the absence of all pain.” In a third Case of Dr. -Sollier, a young woman suffering from puerperal fever, feeling herself -at the point of death, had a similar sensation “of physical well-being -and of detachment from everything.”[104] - -As a sensation of happiness occurs even in cases of pathological death, -it is much more likely to occur in natural death. If natural death be -preceded by the loss of the instinct of life and by the acquisition of -a new instinct, it would be the best possible end compatible with the -real organisation of human nature. - -I do not pretend to give the reader a finished study on natural death. -This chapter of Thanatology, the science of death, only opens the -subject; but it is already apparent that study of the circumstances of -natural death in plants, in the animal world, and in human beings, may -give facts of the highest interest to science and humanity. - - - - -PART IV - -SHOULD WE TRY TO PROLONG HUMAN LIFE? - - - - -I - -THE BENEFIT TO HUMANITY - - Complaints of the shortness of our life—Theory of - “medical selection” as a cause of degeneration of the - race—Utility of prolonging human life - - -Although the duration of the life of man is one of the longest amongst -mammals, men find it too short. From the remotest times the shortness -of life has been complained of, and there have been many attempts to -prolong it. Man has not been satisfied with a duration of life notably -greater than that of his nearest relatives, and has wished to live at -least as long as reptiles. - -In antiquity, Hippocrates and Aristotle thought that human life was too -short, and Theophrastus, although he died at an advanced age (he lived -probably seventy-five years) lamented when he was dying “that nature -had given to deer and to crows a life so long and so useless, and to -man only one that was often very short.”[105] - -Seneca (_De brevitate vitæ_) and later, in the 18th century, Haller, -strove in vain against such complaints, which have lasted until our own -days. Whilst animals have no more than an instinctive fear of danger, -and cling to life without knowing what death is, men have acquired an -exact idea of death, and their knowledge increases their desire to live. - -Ought we to listen to the cry of humanity that life is too short and -that it would be well to prolong it? Would it really be for the good -of the human race to extend the duration of the life of man beyond its -present limits? Already it is complained that the burden of supporting -old people is too heavy, and statesmen are perturbed by the enormous -expense which will be entailed by State support of the aged. In -France, in a population of about 38 millions, there are two millions -(1,912,153) who have reached the age of 70, that is to say, about five -per cent. of the total. The support of these old people absorbs a -sum of nearly £6,000,000 per annum.[106] However generous may be the -views of the members of the French Parliament, many of them hesitate -at the idea of so great a burden. Without doubt, men say, the cost of -maintaining the aged will become still heavier if the duration of life -is to be prolonged. If old people are to live longer, the resources of -the young will be reduced. - -If the question were merely one of prolonging the life of old people -without modifying old age itself, such considerations would be -justified. It must be understood, however, that the prolongation of -life would be associated with the preservation of intelligence and -of the power to work. In the earlier parts of this book I have given -many examples which show the possibility of useful work being done -by persons of advanced years. When we have reduced or abolished such -causes of precocious senility as intemperance and disease, it will no -longer be necessary to give pensions at the age of sixty or seventy -years. The cost of supporting the old, instead of increasing, will -diminish progressively. - -If attainment of the normal duration of life, which is much greater -than the average life to-day, were to overpopulate the earth, a very -remote possibility, this could be remedied by lowering the birth-rate. -Even at the present time, while the earth is far from being too quickly -peopled, artificial limitation of the birth-rate takes place perhaps to -an unnecessary extent. - -It has long been a charge against medicine and hygiene that they tend -to weaken the human race. By scientific means unhealthy people, or -those with inherited blemishes, have been preserved so that they can -give birth to weak offspring. If natural selection were allowed free -play, such individuals would perish and make room for others, stronger -and better able to live. Haeckel has given the name “medical selection” -to this process under which humanity degenerates because of the -influence of medical science. - -It is clear that a valuable existence of great service to humanity is -compatible with a feeble constitution and precarious health. Amongst -tuberculous people, those with inherited or acquired syphilis, and -those with a constitution unbalanced in other ways, that is to say, -amongst so-called degenerates, there have been individuals who have had -a large share in the advance of the human race. I need only instance -the names of Fresnel, Leopardi, Weber, Schumann and Chopin. It does -not follow that we ought to cherish diseases and leave to natural -selection the duty of preserving the individuals which can resist them. -On the other hand, it is indispensable to try to blot out the diseases -themselves, and, in particular, the evils of old age, by the methods -of hygiene and therapeutics. The theory of medical selection must be -given up as contrary to the good of the human race. We must use all -our endeavours to allow men to complete their normal course of life, -and to make it possible for old men to play their parts as advisers and -judges, endowed with their long experience of life. - -To the question propounded at the beginning of this section of my book, -I can make only one answer: Yes, it is useful to prolong human life. - - - - -II - -SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE - - Ancient methods of prolonging human life—Gerokomy—The - “immortality draught” of the Taoists—Brown-Séquard’s - method—The spermine of Poehl—Dr. Weber’s - precepts—Increased duration of life in historical - times—Hygienic maxims—Decrease in cutaneous cancer - - -Men of all times have attempted all manner of devices to bring about an -increase of years, although they have not considered the problem in its -general bearing. - -In Biblical times it was believed that contact with young girls would -rejuvenate and prolong the life of feeble old men. In the first Book of -Kings it is related as follows:— - -“Now King David was old and stricken in years; and they covered him -with clothes, but he gat no heat. - -“Wherefore his servants said unto him, Let there be sought for my Lord -the king a young virgin; let her stand before the king and let her -cherish him, and let her lie in thy bosom, that my lord the king may -get heat” (Kings I., chap. i.). - -This device, afterwards called _gerokomy_, was employed by the Greeks -and Romans, and has had followers in modern times. Boerhave, the -famous Dutch physician (1668-1738), “recommended an old burgomaster of -Amsterdam to lie between two young girls, assuring him that he would -thus recover strength and spirits.” After quoting this, Hufeland, the -well-known author of “Macrobiotique” in the eighteenth century, made -the following reflection:—“If it be remembered how the exhalations -from newly opened animals stimulate paralysed limbs, and how the -application of living animals soothes a violent pain, we cannot refuse -our approval to the method.”[107] - -Cohausen, a doctor of the eighteenth century, published a treatise on -a Roman, Hermippus, who had died aged a hundred and fifteen years. He -had been a master in a school for young girls, and his life, passed in -their midst, was greatly prolonged. “Accordingly,” commented Hufeland -(p. 6), “he gives the excellent advice to breathe the air of young -girls night and morning, and gives his assurance that by so doing the -vital forces will be strengthened and preserved, as adepts know well -that the breath of young girls contains the vital principle in all its -purity.” - -In the Eastern half of the world equal ingenuity was exercised in -the attempt to rejuvenate the body and renew the forces of man. The -successors of Lao-Tsé searched for a beverage that would confer -immortality and have recounted extraordinary matters concerning it. - -The Emperor of China, Chi-Hoang-Ti (221-209 B.C.), displayed extreme -friendliness to the Taoists, believing that these had the secret of -long life and immortality. In his reign, Su-Chi, a Taoist magician, -persuaded him that eastwards of China there lay fortunate islands -inhabited by genii whose pleasure it was to give their guests to -drink of a beverage conferring immortality. Chi-Hoang-Ti was so -delighted with the news that he equipped an expedition to discover the -islands.[108] - -Later on, in the dynasty of the Tchengs (618-907), when Taoism -had again become a religion in favour at court, efforts were made -to obtain imperial patronage for the draught of immortality, and -magicians were in high favour. The Taoist writers called this drink -_Tan_ or _Kin-Tan_, the “golden elixir.” According to Mayers, the -chief ingredients of this marvellous compound were “cinnabar, the -red sulphate of mercury, and a red salt of arsenic, potassium and -mother-of-pearl. The preparation of it required nine months, and it -passed through nine changes. One who had drunk of it was changed to a -crane, and in this form could ascend to the dwellings of the genii, -there to abide with them.”[109] - -The Taoists represent their saints, in the shade of willows, seeking -the elixir of life, and in Chinese Buddhist temples there are placed -votive cakes shaped like the tortoise, a sacred animal and the symbol -of long life. Worshippers let stones of divination fall on these cakes -and so ascertained if their lives were to be prolonged, promising for -each subsequent year as many cakes as the divinity might demand. - -The mysticism of the East reached Europe in the Middle Ages, and then, -and even in modern times, drugs were used to prolong life. Cagliostro, -the celebrated quack of the eighteenth century, boasted that he had -discovered an elixir of life by the use of which he had survived for -many thousand years. - -There still exists, in some modern pharmacopœias, an “elixir ad -longam vitam” compounded of aloes and other purgatives. Analogous -preparations are known, such as the “vital essence of Augsburg” which -is a mixture of purgatives and resins. - -Serious physicians have rejected such preparations of the quacks. -They have abandoned the search for a specific, and, in their efforts -to prolong human life, have relied on common rules of hygiene, such -as cleanliness, exercise, fresh air, and general sobriety. In our own -days, Brown-Séquard is an isolated instance of a seeker for a specific -against senescence. This distinguished physiologist, setting out from -the view that the weakness of old men is due partly to diminution of -the secretions of the testes, hoped to find a remedy in the employment -of subcutaneous injections of emulsions of the testes of animals -(dogs and guinea-pigs). Brown-Séquard,[110] then aged 72 years, gave -himself several such injections, and declared that he found himself -reinforced and rejuvenated. Since then, numbers of persons have -undergone the treatment which for a time was in vogue. The observations -of physicians, made on old men and sick persons, have not justified the -hopes which were entertained of the mode of treatment. Fürbringer,[111] -in particular, working in Germany, has discredited the injections of -Brown-Séquard. However, instead of following exactly the original -prescription, Fürbringer employed a testicular emulsion which had -been previously raised to the boiling-point. Brown-Séquard’s method -has not resisted scientific investigation, and although it is still -occasionally employed in France, it has been given up in many countries. - -Brown-Séquard laid stress on the efficacy of emulsions of testis -as opposed to chemical substances prepared from the gland. Other -scientific men, on the other hand, have attached value to such -substances and in particular to an organic alkali the salt of which is -known as spermine. That salt, made by Poehl of St. Petersburg, has been -largely used. Several observers declare that its employment, injected -in solution or even absorbed directly as a powder, has been followed by -a strengthening of bodily power enfeebled by age or labour. - -As I have no personal experience of spermine, I shall quote from -Professor Poehl[112] some indications of its efficacy. Several -physicians (Drs. Maximovitch, Bukojemsky, Krieger and Postoeff) have -given injections of spermine to enfeebled old men who had lost appetite -and sleep, and have noted improvement lasting for months. From the -instances given, I have selected that of an old lady of ninety-five -years, afflicted with severe sclerosis of the arteries, with no -appetite, a bad digestion and constipation. This patient had complained -for several years of sacral pains, and moreover was nearly quite deaf -and suffered from periodic attacks of malarial fever. The injections of -spermine, given for a period of fifteen months, restored the old lady -to such an extent that she recovered her power of hearing and felt the -sacral pains only slightly and after a long walk. Her general condition -was highly satisfactory. - -Spermine, as it has been used medically, is prepared not only from the -testes of animals but from the prostate gland, ovary, pancreas, thyroid -gland and spleen. The substance is not specially associated with -spermatozoa but has a wide distribution in the mammalian body. - -In the medical treatment of the evils of old age, testicular emulsions -or spermine have not been so favoured as general hygienic measures. Dr. -Weber,[113] a London medical man, has recently summarised more general -measures, and his evidence is the more important as he has been able -to test the efficacy of his precepts in his own case. Dr. Weber is 83 -years old, and in his practice has cared for many other old men. - -The following are the precepts which Dr. Weber formulated: All the -organs must be preserved in a condition of vigour. It is necessary to -recognise and subdue any morbid tendencies whether these be hereditary -or have been acquired during life. It is necessary to be moderate in -food and drink, and in all other physical pleasures. The air should -be pure in the dwelling and in the vicinity. It is necessary to take -exercise daily, whatever be the weather. In many cases the respiratory -movements must be specially exercised, and exercise on level ground and -up-hill should be taken. The persons should go to bed early and rise -early, and not sleep for more than six or seven hours. A bath should -be taken daily and the skin should be well rubbed, the water used -being hot or cold, according to taste. Sometimes it is advantageous -to use hot and cold water. Regular work and mental occupation are -indispensable. It is useful to stimulate the enjoyment of life so -that the mind may be tranquil and full of hope. On the other hand, -the passions must be controlled and the nervous sensations of grief -avoided. Finally, there must be a resolute intention to preserve the -health, to avoid alcohol and other stimulants as well as narcotics and -soothing drugs. - -By following his own precepts, Dr. Weber has enjoyed a vigorous and -happy old age. A Mde. Nausenne, who died on March 12th, 1756, at the -age of 125 years, in the Dinay Infirmary (Côtes-du-Nord) explained the -secret of her still greater longevity as follows: “Extreme sobriety, no -worry, body and mind quite calm” (Chemin, _op. cit._, p. 101). - -Hygienic measures have been the most successful in prolonging life and -in lessening the ills of old age. - -Although until quite recently hygiene has rested upon a very small -number of scientifically established facts, and although its precepts -have not been followed rigidly, none the less it has already succeeded -in increasing the duration of human life. This becomes evident if we -compare the mortality tables of the present day with those of the past. - -There is reason to state definitely that the mortality in civilised -countries has decreased on the whole in the last one or two centuries. -I have taken some facts regarding this from the valuable monograph -of M. Westergaard.[114] That author came to the conclusion that the -mortality rate in the 19th century in civilised countries was “much -lower than in most earlier centuries.” This diminution has been chiefly -in infantile mortality. According to Mallet, the mortality rate of -infants in the first year of their life was, in Geneva, 26 per cent. -in the 16th century, and fell gradually to 16-1/2 per cent. at the -beginning of the 19th century. A similar change has been reported from -Berlin, Holland, Denmark and other places. However, it is not only very -young infants that have shown a diminution in the death-rate. The life -of old people has been prolonged to an extent equally remarkable. The -following are some of the facts which support this statement. Whilst -the old Protestant clergymen of Denmark at ages varying from 74-1/2 to -89-1/2 years had a mortality rate of 22 per cent. in the second half -of the 18th century, the rate had sunk to 16·4 per cent. by the middle -of the 19th century. This is not an isolated fact. The old clergymen -of England (65 to 95 years) have also come to live longer, because -in the 18th century the mortality rate was 11·5 per cent. and in the -19th century (1800-1860) only 10·8 per cent. There has been a similar -decrease in the mortality rate in the members of both sexes of the -Royal Houses of Europe (Westergaard, p. 284). - -From 1841 to 1850, in England and Wales 162·81 individuals out of every -thousand of both sexes died annually, but the corresponding figure for -the period 1881 to 1890 was decreased to 153·67 per thousand. - -Westergaard (p. 296) has displayed in a most useful table the mortality -in the chief countries of Europe and in the State of Massachusetts, in -two periods of time. In the case of old persons from 70 to 75 years, -there has been a constant decrease in the death-rate, without any -exceptions. The exact statistics collected by Pension Bureaus and Life -Assurance Companies exhibit the same general tendency. - -It cannot be disputed then that there has been a general increase -in the duration of life, and that old people live longer at the -present time than in former ages. This fact, however, cannot be taken -absolutely, and it is still possible that in particular cases there may -have been more centenarians hitherto than at present. - -The prolongation of life which has come to pass in recent centuries -must certainly be attributed to the advance of hygiene. The general -measures for the preservation of health, although they were not -specially directed to old people, have had an effect of increasing -their longevity. As in the 18th century and for the greater part of -the 19th, the science of hygiene was in a very rudimentary condition, -we may well believe that improvement in cleanliness and in the general -conditions have contributed largely to the prolongation of life. It is -now a long time since Liebig said that the amount of soap used could -be taken as a measure of the degree of civilisation of a people. As -a matter of fact, cleanliness of the body brought about in the most -simple way, by washing with soap, has had a most important effect -in lessening disease and mortality from disease. In this connection, -the fact recently published by Prof. Czerny,[115] a well-known German -surgeon, has a special interest. Although cancer, the special scourge -of old age, has increased in recent times, one form of the disease, -cancer of the skin, has diminished notably. “Cancers of the skin,” -Prof. Czerny says, “are met with almost exclusively on uncovered -regions of the body, or on parts accessible to the hands. They develop -especially where the susceptibility is increased by ulcers or scars -which are easily soiled. And so it happens that in the classes where -care is taken as to cleanliness cancer of the skin is very rare and -certainly much more rare than it used to be.” - -M. Westergaard thinks that vaccination against small-pox has been of -considerable importance in lowering the death-rate in the 19th century. -This, however, can have had little effect on the duration of life in -old people, as deaths due to small-pox in the old are excessively -rare. For instance, in the second half of the 18th century, that is -to say before the introduction of Jenner’s method, the mortality from -small-pox at Berlin was 9·8 per cent. of all the deaths, but of these -only 0·6 per cent. were cases of persons more than fifteen years old. -The rest, that is to say, 99·3 per cent. fell on children under that -age. It may be supposed that most of the old people at that time were -already protected by previous attacks of small-pox, contracted when -they were young. - -If hygiene were able to prolong life when it was little developed, as -was the case until recently, we may well believe that, with our greater -knowledge of to-day, a much better result will be obtained. - - - - -III - -DISEASES THAT SHORTEN LIFE - - Measures against infectious diseases as aiding in the - prolongation of life—Prevention of syphilis—Attempts to - prepare serums which could strengthen the higher elements - of the organism - - -Attacks of infectious diseases incurred during life frequently shorten -its duration and it has been observed that most centenarians have -enjoyed good health throughout their lives. Syphilis is the most -important of these diseases. It is not really a cause of death itself, -but it predisposes the organism to the attacks of other diseases, -amongst the latter being some particularly fatal to old people, -such as diseases of the heart and blood-vessels (angina pectoris -and aneurism of the aorta) and some malignant tumours, especially -cancer of the tongue and of the mouth. To lengthen human life, it -is a fundamental necessity to avoid infection by syphilis. To reach -this result everything must be done to spread medical knowledge about -such diseases. It is absolutely necessary to overcome the deeply -rooted prejudice in favour of concealing everything relating to -sexual matters. Complete information should be widely spread as to -the means of protecting humanity against this awful scourge. It has -now been possible to apply experimental methods to the investigation -of this disease, and science has obtained a series of results of the -highest practical utility. Prof. Neisser of Breslau, one of the most -distinguished of modern venereal physicians, has summed up the present -state of knowledge of these matters in the following lines.[116] “It is -our duty as medical men,” he says, “to recommend strongly as a means of -disinfection in all possible cases of contagion the calomel ointment -which Metchnikoff and Roux have advised.” It is to be hoped that future -generations, by following this advice, will see an enormous diminution -in the number of cases of syphilis. - -Syphilis, however, although a very important factor, is not alone -in shortening the life of man. A very large number of persons die -prematurely although they have not contracted that disease. We do not -know the duration of human life before the arrival of syphilis in -Europe, but there is no reason to think that it was very different -from what it is to-day. We must, therefore, try to prevent as many -infectious diseases as possible, and recent advances in medicine -have made this task much less difficult. Pneumonia, it is true, the -most common infectious disease amongst the old, cannot yet be easily -avoided. All the anti-pneumonic serums which have hitherto been -prepared have turned out to have little efficacy; but there is no -reason to give up the hope that this problem will yet be solved. - -Diseases of the heart, which are common in extreme old age, are -particularly difficult to avoid, because in most cases we do not know -sufficiently well their primary causes. In so far as they depend upon -intemperance or infectious diseases such as syphilis, they can be -avoided by the employment of suitable measures. - -As the higher elements of the body in old people become weaker and are -devoured by the macrophags, it seems probable that the destruction or -deterioration of these voracious cells would tend to the prolongation -of life. However, as the macrophags are indispensable in the struggle -against the microbes of infectious diseases, and particularly of -chronic disease, such as tuberculosis, it is necessary to preserve -them. We must turn rather to the idea of a remedy which could -strengthen the higher elements and make them a less ready prey to the -macrophags. - -In the “Nature of Man” (Chap. III.) in discussing the simian origin -of mankind, I touched on the existence of animal serums that have the -power of dissolving the blood corpuscles of other species of animals. -There is now, in biological science, a new chapter upon such serums, -which have been called cytotoxic serums because they are able to poison -the cells of organs. - -The blood and blood serum of some animals act as poisons when they -are introduced into an organism. Eels and snakes, even non-poisonous -snakes, are cases in point. A small quantity of the blood of a snake, -an adder for instance, injected into a mammal (rabbit, guinea-pig, or -mouse) soon brings about death. The blood of some mammals is poisonous -to other mammals, although in a lesser degree than that of snakes. The -dog is specially notable from the fact that its blood is poisonous to -other mammals, whilst, on the other hand, the blood and blood serum -of the sheep, goat, and horse have generally little effect on other -animals and on man. It is for this reason that these animals, and -particularly the horse, are used in the preparation of the serums -employed in medicine. - -Now, these harmless serums become poisonous when they have been taken -from animals which have been first treated with the blood or the -organs of other species of animals. For instance, the blood serum of -a sheep which has been treated with the blood of a rabbit becomes -poisonous because it has acquired the power of dissolving the red blood -corpuscles of the rabbit. It is a poison in the case of the rabbit, -but is harmless to most other animals. The injection of the rabbit’s -blood into the sheep has conferred on the sheep a new property which -comes into operation only with regard to the red blood corpuscles -of the rabbit. We have here to do with something analogous to what -has been observed in the cases of serums used to arrest infectious -disease. When the bacilli of diphtheria, or their products, have been -injected into horses, there is produced an anti-diphtheric serum, -capable of curing diphtheria, but powerless against tetanus or plague. -After M. J. M. Bordet of the Pasteur Institute had made his discovery -of serums that had acquired the power of dissolving the red blood -corpuscles of other animals, the attempt was made to prepare similar -serums directed against all the other elements of the body, such as -white blood corpuscles, renal and nervous cells. In the course of -these investigations it was proved to be necessary to employ a certain -dose of the serum in order to obtain the poisonous result. If smaller -quantities of the poisonous dose were used, the reverse effect was -produced. Thus a serum, strong doses of which dissolved the red blood -corpuscles and so made them less numerous in the blood, increased the -number of these when given in very small doses. - -M. Cantacuzène was the first to establish this fact in the case of -the rabbit, whilst M. Besredka and I myself did it in the case of -man.[117] Since then M. Bélonovsky of Cronstadt has confirmed the -result on anæmic patients, treating them with small quantities of -serum. He has been able to produce in them an increase in the number -of the red blood corpuscles, and in the quantity of the red colouring -matter (hæmoglobin) in the blood. Later on M. André[118] devoted much -attention to this matter at Lyons. He prepared a serum by injecting -human blood into animals and made use of it in the case of several -persons who suffered from anæmia from different causes. In the case -of patients, the anæmic condition of which had hitherto remained -stationary, Dr. André found a sudden increase in the number of red -corpuscles after injecting small doses of the serum. M. Besredka, -in the case of laboratory animals, increased the number of white -corpuscles by injecting them with a small quantity of a serum, strong -doses of which destroyed these cells. - -These facts are only a special case of the general rule that small -doses of poisons increase the activity of the elements that are killed -by large doses. In order to increase the activity of the heart, medical -men give successfully small doses of cardiac poisons such as digitalis. -As a commercial process, the activity of yeasts is increased by -submitting them to weak doses of substances (fluoride of sodium) which, -given in larger quantities, would kill them. - -My general conclusion from these facts is that it is logical to lay -down the principle that the higher elements of our body could be -strengthened by subjecting them to the action of small doses of the -appropriate cytotoxic serums. There is, however, much difficulty in -putting this into practice. It is quite easy to obtain human blood -to inject into animals with the object of preparing a serum which -can increase the number of red corpuscles. On the other hand, it is -extremely difficult to get human bodies sufficiently fresh to use them -for a practical purpose. According to law, _post mortem_ examinations -can be made only after an interval of time in course of which the -tissues have changed; besides, the organs obtained in this way are -frequently affected by injuries or diseases militating against their -use. Even in Paris, with its three million inhabitants, it is extremely -rare that there is a good opportunity for the preparation of human -cytotoxic serums. In two or three years, during which Dr. Weinberg has -collected the organs from human bodies fairly fresh, he has been unable -to obtain sufficiently active serums. - -The best results have been obtained from new-born infants which have -been killed by some accident in the process of child-birth, as in them -the organs are in a normal state. However, owing to the advance in -the practice of obstetrics, such accidents, already infrequent, are -becoming extremely rare. In such conditions we may have to wait long -before getting a positive result, unless the future will find some -method of obtaining the necessary materials for this difficult and -interesting purpose. - -As it is so difficult to prepare a remedy which can strengthen the -weakened higher elements of the body, it may be easier to find a means -of preventing the weakening which interferes so much with our desire to -live long. As the products of microbes are the most active agents in -deteriorating our tissues, we must look towards them for the solution -of the problem. - - - - -IV - -INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION SHORTENS LIFE - - Uselessness of the large intestine in man—Case of - a woman whose large intestine was inactive for six - months—Another case where the greater part of the - large intestine was completely shut off—Attempts to - disinfect the contents of the large intestine—Prolonged - mastication as a means of preventing intestinal - putrefaction - - -The general measures of hygiene directed against infectious diseases -play a part in prolonging the lives of old people, but, in addition to -the microbes which invade the body from outside, there is a rich source -of harm in the microbes which inhabit the body. The most important of -these belong to the intestinal flora, which is abundant and varied. - -The intestinal microbes are most numerous in the large intestine. This -organ, which is useful to mammals the food of which consists of rough -bulky vegetable matter, and which require a large reservoir for the -waste of the process of digestion, is certainly useless in the case -of man.[119] In the “Nature of Man” I have dealt with this question -at length, as it was an important example of what I regard as the -disharmonies of the human constitution. A case upon which I have always -laid great stress is that of a woman who lived for thirty-seven years, -although her large intestine was atrophied and inactive, as this seems -to be a remarkable proof of the uselessness of the organ in the human -body. The small size or complete absence of the large intestine in -many vertebrates confirms my conclusion. None the less, some of my -critics think that my argument is incomplete. To strengthen it, I may -call their attention to a medical observation which is as valuable as -if it had been an experiment. It relates to a woman, sixty-two years -old, a patient of Prof. Kocher at Berne. She had been suffering from a -strangulated hernia associated with gangrene of part of the intestine, -and had to be operated upon suddenly. - -The gangrenous portion of the ileum having been removed, the healthy -part was implanted in the skin so as to form an artificial aperture -through which waste matter from the food passed to the exterior -without traversing the large intestine. Although the patient was old -and seriously ill, the operation, performed by M. Tavel, was quite -successful. Six months later, in a new operation, the small intestine -was rejoined to the large intestine so that the fæces were again able -to pass to the exterior by the natural channel. In this case, then, the -large intestine was thrown out of use for half a year, not only without -injury to the general health, but with the result that the patient was -completely cured and gained in weight. MM. Macfadyen, Nencki, and Mde. -Sieber[120] studied the digestive processes in the small intestine -and the nutritive metabolism, and determined that these were active -and healthy, the absence of intestinal putrefaction, that evil of the -constitution, being specially favourable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Diagram of the lower bowel in a female patient. - -_A.C.N._, Artificial anus: _A.S._, Insertion of the ileum to the colon. - -(After M. Mauclaire.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Diagram of the lower bowel, after a third -operation, on the case in Fig. 19. - -(After M. Mauclaire.)] - -In six months of non-action, the part played by an organ can be -satisfactorily estimated. M. Mauclaire,[121] however, has put on record -a case the history of which was longer. In 1902 he operated on a young -woman and produced an artificial anus, there being no escape of fæcal -matter by the ordinary channel. Ten months later M. Mauclaire operated -a second time and shut off a portion of the intestine. He left the -artificial anus, but cut across the lower end of the small intestine -and inserted it near the iliac end of the descending colon (Fig. 19). -For several days after the operation the fæces were passed by the -normal aperture, as the small intestine now communicated directly with -the large intestine, near the rectum. This condition, however, did not -persist, for the fæcal matter began to flow back through the excluded -portion of the large intestine, so reaching the artificial anus, and -causing inconvenience. Giving up the hope that this would cease, M. -Mauclaire performed a third operation twenty months later. He cut -across the large intestine near the point where the small intestine -had been artificially led into it (Fig. 20), so dividing the digestive -tube into two parts, one of which remained in communication with the -natural anus, whilst the other, consisting of nearly the whole of -the large intestine, communicated with the exterior by the artificial -anus. In the new state of affairs, the food refuse passed directly -into the terminal portion of the large intestine, and thence, by way -of the rectum, to the exterior through the normal anus without being -able to pass up the large intestine towards the artificial anus. In -this last operation about a yard of the small intestine and the greater -part of the large intestine, the cæcum, and ascending, transverse and -descending colons were removed from activity. - -By the kindness of M. Mauclaire, I have been able to watch his patient -during the last four years. I satisfied myself that after the supposed -exclusion of the large intestine, food dejecta ascended the colon and -emerged by the artificial anus. There was such an accumulation of -waste in the large intestine that fragments did not emerge until three -weeks after the meal of which they had formed part. It was only after -the final operation, that in which the large intestine was separated, -that the dejecta escaped only by the natural anus, whilst a little -mucus containing microbes was passed through the artificial aperture. -Even three years after the operation, mucus continued to escape by the -latter aperture, it being shown thus that after the large intestine had -ceased to be a channel for the fæces, its walls continued to secrete -although otherwise it had lost its function completely. Nevertheless -the condition of this patient improved and she lived perfectly well -without a functional large intestine. She takes food well but has to go -to stool three or four times a day and has a tendency to diarrhœa. -The excreta are smooth and often nearly liquid, especially after fruit -has been eaten. - -The case I have been describing, and which I am still keeping under -observation, demonstrates once more the uselessness of the human large -intestine; it should convert the most sceptical critic. But it also -shows that the suppression of nearly the entire large intestine for -several years does not completely get rid of the intestinal flora. Even -without this evidence, however, I do not suggest that removal of the -large intestine can be thought of as a means to prevent the pernicious -effect of the intestinal flora. - -Is it possible, without operative interference, to take direct action -against the intestinal flora by the use of antiseptics? Consideration -of this is already ancient history. When the theory that the intestine -was a source of auto-intoxication was propounded, M. Bouchard[122] made -the attempt to cure such cases by disinfecting the digestive tube with -[Greek: b]-naphthol. He found, however, that that antiseptic, like -many others, not only did not completely disinfect the intestine but -sometimes had a harmful effect on the body. - -M. Stern[123] has shown, in an elaborate memoir, that such antiseptics -as calomel, salol, [Greek: b]-naphthol, naphthaline, and camphor, when -administered in quantities compatible with health, do not disinfect -the digestive tube at all. More recently M. Strasburger[124] has shown -that when naphthaline has been given in quantities sufficient to impart -its odour to the fæces, the intestinal microbes, so far from being -diminished, are even increased in numbers. On the other hand, after -meals consisting of milk to which there has been added an antiseptic -in the proportion of a quarter of a gram to the litre, the intestinal -microbes are really reduced in number. Strasburger obtained his best -results with tanocol. Two persons who used, according to this method, -three to six grams of tanacol per day, displayed a notable reduction in -quantity of the intestinal flora. - -Strasburger’s conclusion was that “the attempt to destroy the -intestinal microbes by the use of chemical agents has little chance of -success.” It cannot be denied that under special circumstances it is -possible to decrease the number of microbes, especially in the small -intestine. But this result is small and may be followed by the contrary -effect, for the natural means of defence of the intestine against -microbes are weakened, and the intestine itself may be harmed more than -the microbes. - -Strasburger, moreover, is no convinced advocate of the use of -purgatives. The diminution of the sulpho-conjugate ethers in the -urine, which certainly may follow the use of purgatives, does not -necessarily indicate reduced putrefaction in the intestine, but may -point only to a lessened absorption of the bacterial products. Such an -interpretation is supported by an observed fact; in the case of a dog -belonging to Strasburger, which had a fistula of the small intestine, -the diarrhœa induced by calomel was accompanied by an indubitable -increase in the total quantity of intestinal microbes. - -Strasburger thinks that the most favourable results can be obtained -by aiding the intestine in the discharge of its normal function. If -it can be brought to digest the food more completely, there is the -less pabulum left for the microbes. A similar result can be reached by -lowering the amount of food taken, and to this course the beneficial -effects of starvation in acute diseases of the intestine may be -attributed. - -The general conclusion, reached after many experiments on the -disinfection of the intestine, is unfavourable. Very little is to be -expected from the method. None the less I cannot regard the matter -as definitely settled. Cohendy has investigated the effect on the -intestinal flora of thymol which was administered in several cases with -the object of destroying parasites. From nine to twelve grammes of -thymol were administered to each patient in the space of three days, -and there was a notable antiseptic effect, Cohendy believing that the -quantity of microbes had been reduced to a thirteenth. - -Such facts prove only that the antiseptic treatment is available -up to a certain point. To attain the results, however, such large -quantities must be used that the treatment can be applied only in -special cases and at long intervals. More use can be made of simple -purgatives which do not kill the microbes but eliminate them by the -normal channel. It has been urged repeatedly that calomel, which is -often used as a purgative, acts also as an intestinal antiseptic; -but it is probable that its influence in reducing the intestinal -flora is merely mechanical. It has been shown that calomel, like -some other purgatives, lessens intestinal putrefaction, the evidence -being the decrease in the sulpho-conjugate ethers in the urine. But -although the diarrhœa induced by purgatives generally has such a -result, spontaneous diarrhœas such as those of typhoid fever and of -intestinal tuberculosis are associated with increased putrefaction.[125] - -It is clear, however these matters may be settled, that regular -activity of the bowels, increased by the occasional use of purgatives, -must diminish the formation of intestinal poisons, and therefore also -the damage done by these to the higher elements of the body. - -When I asked the relatives of Mde. Robineau if they could tell me of -any special circumstance which in their opinion had contributed to -the extreme duration of the life of this old lady, they replied as -follows:—“We are convinced that a slight bodily derangement, present -for the last fifty years, has tended to prolong the life of the old -lady. It cannot be said that she has suffered from diarrhœa, but -she has been often subject to frequent calls of nature.” It was most -remarkable that the old lady showed no traces of sclerosis of the -arteries. I may mention the strongly contrasting case of one of my -old colleagues to whom a natural desire to empty the bowels came only -once a week. A more frequent call was a sign of illness in his case. -Now sclerosis of the arteries appeared in so marked a form that he -died from it before he had reached the age of fifty years. This may be -added to the list of facts which point to a close association between -sclerosis of the arteries and the functions of the digestive tube. - -Recently, at the suggestion of Mr. Fletcher,[126] the advantage of -eating extremely slowly has been recognised, the object being to -prepare for the utilisation of the food materials, and to prevent -intestinal putrefaction. Certainly the habit of eating quickly favours -the multiplication of microbes round about the lumps of food which have -been swallowed without sufficient mastication. It is quite harmful, -however, to chew the food too long, and to swallow it only after it -has been kept in the mouth for a considerable time. Too complete a -use of the food material causes want of tone in the intestinal wall, -from which as much harm may come as from imperfect mastication. In -America, where Fletcher’s theory took its origin, there has already -been described under the name of “Bradyfagy” a disease arising from the -habit of eating too slowly. Dr. Einhorn,[127] a well-known specialist -in the diseases of the digestive system, has found that several cases -of this disease were rapidly cured when the patients made up their -minds to eat more quickly again. Comparative physiology supplies us -with arguments against too prolonged mastication. Ruminants, which -carry out to the fullest extent Mr. Fletcher’s plan, are notable for -extreme intestinal putrefaction and for the short duration of their -lives. On the other hand, birds and reptiles, which have a very poor -mechanism for breaking up food, enjoy much longer lives. - -Prolonged mastication, then, cannot be recommended as a preventative -of intestinal putrefaction any more than the surgical removal of the -large intestine or the disinfection of the digestive tube. The field -lies open for other means which may probably solve the problem more -completely and more practically. - - - - -V - -LACTIC ACID AS INHIBITING INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION - - The development of the intestinal flora in - man—Harmlessness of sterilised food—Means of - preventing the putrefaction of food—Lactic fermentation - and its anti-putrescent action—Experiments on - man and mice—Longevity in races which use soured - milk—Comparative study of different soured - milks—Properties of the Bulgarian _Bacillus_—Means - of preventing intestinal putrefaction with the help of - microbes - - -At birth the human intestine is full, but contains no microbes. -Microbes very soon appear in it, because the meconium, the contents -of the intestines of new-born children, composed of bile and cast-off -intestinal mucus cells, is an excellent culture medium for them. In the -first hours after birth, microbes begin to reach the intestine. In the -first day, before the child has taken any food whatever, there is to -be found in the meconium a varied flora, composed of several species -of microbes. Under the influence of the mother’s milk this flora is -reduced and comes to be composed almost entirely of a special microbe -described by M. Tissier and called by him _Bacillus bifidus_. - -The food, therefore, has an influence on the microbes of the intestine. -If the child be fed with cow’s milk, the flora is richer in species -than in the case of a child suckled by its mother. Later on, also, -the flora varies with the food, as has been proved by MM. Macfadyen, -Nencki, and Mde. Sieber in the case of a woman with an intestinal -fistula. The dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food makes -it possible to adopt measures to modify the flora in our bodies and -to replace the harmful microbes by useful microbes. Unfortunately, -our actual knowledge of the intestinal flora is still very imperfect -because of the impossibility of finding artificial media in which it -could be grown. Notwithstanding this difficulty, however, a rational -solution of the problem must be sought. - -Man, even in the savage condition, prepares his food before eating it. -He submits much of it to the action of fire, thus notably lessening the -number of microbes. Microbes enter the digestive tube in vast numbers -with raw food, and in order to lessen the number of species in the -intestines, it is important to eat only cooked food and to drink only -liquids that have been previously boiled. In that way, although we -cannot destroy all the microbes in the food, because some of them can -withstand the temperature of the boiling point of water, we can kill -the great majority of them. - -It has sometimes been supposed that cooked or completely sterilised -food (that is to say food that has been subjected to a temperature of -from 248°-284° Fahr.) is harmful to the organism and that much of it -is not well digested. From this point of view protests have been made -against the feeding of infants with sterilised milk or even with boiled -milk. Although in certain cases sterilised milk is not well supported -by infants, it cannot be doubted but that boiled milk and cooked -food are generally successful. The large number of children brought -up successfully on boiled cow’s milk and the health of travellers in -arctic regions are ample proof of this. I have been told by M. Charcot -that in his voyage to the antarctic regions, he and his companions -lived entirely on sterilised food, or on cooked food such as the flesh -of seals and penguins. As they had no green food nor fresh fruit, the -only raw food that they ate was a little cheese. Living under these -conditions, all the members of the expedition enjoyed good health, -and there was no case of digestive disturbance in the whole period of -sixteen months. - -It is obvious that abstaining from raw food, and so reducing largely -the entrance of new microbes, by no means causes the disappearance -of the intestinal flora already existing. We must reckon with that -and with the evil that it does by weakening the higher cells of the -tissues. As the part of the flora that does most damage consists of -microbes which cause putrefaction of the contents of the intestine and -harmful fermentations, particularly butyric fermentation, it is against -these that our efforts must be directed. - -Long before the science of bacteriology was in existence, men had -turned their attention to methods of preventing putrefaction. Food, -especially if it be kept in a warm place or in a moist atmosphere, soon -begins to putrefy and to become unpleasant to the taste and dangerous -to the health. Everyone has known cases of poisoning from putrid flesh -or other food material. Foà,[128] the explorer of Central Africa, has -related that once, when they were starving, he and his men came on the -putrefying body of an elephant. The negroes rushed to lay hold of the -carrion, but Foà tried to dissuade them, explaining that to eat flesh -in such a state was as bad as taking poison. All did not listen to him, -and three negroes, who had taken pieces of the body, swallowed them -before they had been properly cooked. All three died in a few days, -with the neck and throat swollen, the tongue almost paralysed, and the -abdomen inflated. - -In another case, sausages made of putrid horse flesh caused an epidemic -at Rohrsdorf, in Prussia, in 1885.[129] About forty people fell ill -after having eaten the sausages, which, according to witnesses, were -green in colour, smelt badly, and had a revolting appearance. One -person died, whilst the others recovered after cholera-like symptoms. -It is true that all putrefying food does not produce the same effect. -MM. Tissier and Martelly[130] found no digestive trouble after having -eaten food that was quite putrid. Everyone knows that the Chinese -prepare a dish particularly pleasant to gourmets by allowing eggs -to putrefy. Some decaying cheeses are harmful to the health, but -others can be eaten with impunity. The reason of this is that whilst -putrefying food may contain microbes and dangerous toxins, it does -not contain them in all cases. On the other hand, we must take into -account the different susceptibilities of people to the harmful action -of microbes and their products. Some can swallow without any evil -result a quantity of microbes which in the case of other individuals -would produce a fatal attack of cholera. Everything depends upon the -resistance offered to the microbes by the invaded organism. - -Experiments on animals fed on putrefying food have also given varied -results. Some animals eat it without any harm resulting, others have -attacks of vomiting and show such a repugnance that it is impossible to -continue the experiment. - -Not only flesh and other animal substances, but vegetables can undergo -putrefaction and fermentation (butyric) which make it dangerous -to eat them. Many accidents have occurred in man as the result of -deteriorated preserved fruit. Vegetables, preserved in silos to feed -cattle, sometimes go wrong. “If, for instance, rainy days come after -sunny days, so that the uncovered fodder is wetted again, the resulting -ensilage is poor and has an extremely unpleasant butyric odour, so that -the animals turn from it.” Sometimes the fodder grows black in the -silo, and acquires a special smell. “The animals will take it only in -the absence of other food; their excreta become black, and if they are -kept on such a diet for a time they waste in a marked manner.”[131] - -In popular practice, the value of acids for preserving animal -and vegetable food and for preventing putrefaction has long been -recognised. Meats of all kinds, fish and vegetables have been -“marinated” with vinegar, as the acetic acid in that substance, the -product of bacteria, wards off putrefaction. If the materials which -it is desired to preserve give off acids themselves, the addition of -vinegar may be unnecessary. For this reason some animal products such -as milk, or vegetables rich in sugar become acid spontaneously and so -can be preserved. Soured milk can be made into many kinds of cheese, -and these last for longer or shorter times. Many vegetables can undergo -a natural process of souring, when they “keep” without difficulty. -Thus cabbage becomes “sauerkraut” and beetroot and cucumbers pass -into an acid state. In many countries, as for instance in Russia, the -use of acidified vegetables is of great importance in the food-supply -of the populace. Fresh fruit and vegetables cannot be obtained in the -long winters, during which the people consume large quantities of -cucumbers, melons, apples, and other fruits which have undergone an -acid fermentation in which lactic acid is the chief product. During -summer, milk, which acidifies readily, is the chief source of acid -materials for consumption. The chief beverage is “kwass,” of which -black bread is the main ingredient, and this passes through not only an -alcoholic fermentation, but an acidifying change in which lactic acid -is the most important product. - -Rye bread, the chief food of the populace, is also a product of -fermentations amongst which the lactic acid fermentation is most -important, but in other kinds of bread also there is a fermentation in -which some of the sugar is transformed to lactic acid. - -Soured milk, because of the lactic acid in it, can impede the -putrefaction of meat. In certain countries, accordingly, meat is -preserved in acid skimmed milk with the result that putrefaction -is prevented. Lactic acid fermentation is equally important in the -food supply of cattle. It is the chief agent that, in the process of -preserving vegetation in silos, hinders putrefaction. Finally, the same -fermentation serves in distilleries to preserve the must from which -alcohol is prepared. - -This short review is in itself enough to show the great importance of -lactic fermentation as a means of stopping putrefaction and butyric -fermentation, both of which hinder the preservation of organic -substances and are capable of exciting disturbances in the organism. - -As lactic fermentation serves so well to arrest putrefaction in -general, why should it not be used for the same purpose within the -digestive tube? - -It is a matter of common knowledge that putrefaction and butyric -fermentation are arrested in the presence of sugar. Whereas meat -preserved without special care soon putrefies, milk in exactly the -same conditions does not putrefy, but becomes sour, the reason being -that meat is poor in sugar whereas milk contains a good deal of it. -However, the scientific explanation of this fundamental fact is -difficult. It has been shown conclusively that sugar itself cannot -prevent putrefaction. Milk, for instance, however rich in sugar it -may be, readily putrefies in certain conditions. Sugar preserves -organic matter from putrefaction only because it can readily undergo -lactic fermentation, and this fermentation is the work of the microbes -described fifty years ago by Pasteur. That great discovery proved the -part played by microbes in fermentation and founded bacteriology, a -science equally rich in theory and in practice. - -I need not pause to develop the theme that the anti-putrescent action -of the lactic fermentation depends on the production of lactic acid by -microbes, because I have explained the matter at length in the tenth -chapter of the “Nature of Man.” If the lactic acid be neutralised, -the organic matter soon putrefies, notwithstanding the presence of -the lactic microbes. The most important point is as to whether lactic -fermentation really arrests intestinal putrefaction. Several sets of -observations have been made upon this matter. Dr. Herter,[132] of -New York, injected directly into the small intestine of a number of -dogs quantities of different microbes. To test the action of these on -intestinal putrefaction, he investigated the sulpho-conjugate ethers -in the urine, as he believed, in accordance with current and well -justified opinion, that these substances are the best proofs of the -existence of putrefaction. He found that whilst the introduction of -quantities of _Bacillus coli_ or _Bacillus proteus_ increased the -intestinal putrefaction, lactic bacilli notably lessened it. Herter -found a notable diminution of sulpho-conjugate ethers in the urine of -dogs which had been treated with the lactic microbes. - -The experiments which Dr. M. Cohendy[133] performed upon himself during -a period of nearly six months are still more interesting. - -When Dr. Cohendy had proved that much intestinal putrefaction occurred -during a period of 25 days, in which he lived on an ordinary mixed -diet, he began to take pure cultures of lactic bacillus, taken from -yahourth. In a period of 74 days, he took quantities varying from 280 -to 350 grams of the culture. - -Analysis of the urine during the progress of the experiment showed -that intestinal putrefaction had notably decreased whilst the lactic -bacilli were being taken, and that the diminution persisted seven weeks -after the taking of the bacilli ceased. Dr. Cohendy gives it as the -direct result of his experiment that the introduction of lactic ferment -into the intestine definitely arrests putrefaction. He obtained this -result on a diet consisting of 400 grams of soup, 150 of meat, 700 of -grain-food, 400 of green vegetables, 300 of fruits and dessert and a -litre of water. He came to the conclusion that the elimination of meat -from the diet was unnecessary, as the particular kind of lactic ferment -he employed was extremely active in inhibiting the proteolytic ferments. - -Later experiments made by Dr. Cohendy showed that the lactic bacillus -became so acclimatised in the human intestine that it was to be found -there several weeks after it had been swallowed. - -Dr. Pochon, assistant to Professor Combe[134] at Lausanne, has repeated -on himself the experiments of Cohendy. He took for several weeks -milk curdled with pure cultures of lactic acid microbes and obtained -“results that were quite definite as to intestinal putrefaction.” -Analysis of his urine showed that there was a marked diminution of -indol and phenol, substances which are certain indexes of intestinal -putrefaction. - -In addition to such observations on lactic bacilli there is a good deal -of knowledge as to the effect of lactic acid taken in bulk. The result -of the various observations[135] shows that the acid lessens intestinal -putrefaction and lowers the quantity of sulpho-conjugate ethers in the -urine. This fact explains why favourable results follow the use of -lactic acid in many intestinal diseases such as infantile diarrhœa, -tuberculous enteritis and even Asiatic cholera. The addition of this -remedy to practical therapeutics is due chiefly to Professor Hayem. -It is employed not only in the treatment of diseases of the digestive -system (dyspepsia, enteritis and colitis), but is indicated also in -diabetes and is used locally in tuberculous ulcerations of the larynx. -As quantities up to twelve grams can be given by the mouth daily, it is -plain that the system is tolerant of this acid. It is either oxidised -in the tissues or excreted with the urine. In the case of a diabetic -woman who had taken 80 grams of lactic acid in four days, Nencki and -Sieber[136] found no traces of it in the urine. On the other hand, -Stadelmann[137] found a notable quantity of the acid in another -diabetic patient who had been taking over four grams daily. - -The general interpretation of the benefits gained from the use of -lactic acid ferments is that they depend solely on the action of the -lactic acid which they produce in preventing the multiplication of -the microbes which cause putrefaction. Recent investigations made by -Dr. Bélonowsky, at the Pasteur Institute, show that a lactic ferment -isolated from yahourth and described as the Bulgarian bacillus owes -its antiseptic powers not only to lactic acid but to another substance -which it secretes. Dr. Bélonowsky has studied the effects of this -bacillus upon mice, by adding to their previously sterilised food -quantities of this lactic microbe. As control experiments he fed -other mice on food to which lactic acid had been added in quantities -corresponding to the quantity produced by the Bulgarian bacillus, or -which had been mixed with other kinds of bacilli. Another set of mice -were given normal food without the addition of either microbes or -lactic acid. - -Out of these groups of mice, those which had been given the Bulgarian -bacillus thrived best and had most progeny. Their droppings showed -fewest microbes, particularly microbes of putrefaction. - -The next stage in Dr. Bélonowsky’s experiments was to feed mice not -with living quantities of the Bulgarian bacillus, but with cultures -which had been sterilised by heat (120°-140° Fahr.). These mice lived -as well as those to which living cultures had been supplied, and -notably better than those supplied with pure lactic acid. It is evident -therefore that there is some other product of this bacillus which -favours life by preventing intestinal putrefaction. - -Dr. Bélonowsky showed, moreover, that the Bulgarian bacillus cures a -special intestinal disease known as mouse typhus. - -The experiments which I have described show that intestinal -putrefaction is to be combated not by lactic acid itself, but by the -introduction into the organism of cultures of the lactic bacilli. -The latter become acclimatised in the human digestive tube as they -find there the sugary material required for their subsistence, and by -producing disinfecting bodies benefit the organism which supports them. - -From time immemorial human beings have absorbed quantities of lactic -microbes by consuming in the uncooked condition substances such as -soured milk, kephir, sauerkraut, or salted cucumbers which have -undergone lactic fermentation. By these means they have unknowingly -lessened the evil consequences of intestinal putrefaction. In the Bible -soured milk is frequently spoken of. When Abraham entertained the three -angels he set before them soured milk and sweet milk and the calf which -he had dressed (Genesis xviii. 8). In his fifth book, Moses enumerates -amongst the food which Jehovah had given his people to eat “Soured milk -of kine and goat’s milk, with fat of lambs and rams of the breed of -Bashan, and goats with the fat of kidneys” (Deut. xxxii. 14).[138] - -A food known as “Leben raib,” which is a soured milk, prepared from -the milk of buffaloes, kine or goats, has been used in Egypt from -the remotest antiquity. A similar preparation known as “yahourth” is -familiar to the populations of the Balkan Peninsula. The natives of -Algiers make a kind of “leben” not identical with the Egyptian form. - -Soured milk is consumed in great quantities in Russia in two forms, -“prostokwacha,” which is raw milk spontaneously coagulated and soured, -and “varenetz,” which is boiled milk soured with a yeast. - -The chief food of many natives of tropical Africa consists of soured -milk. The staple diet of the Mpeseni is “a curdled milk, almost -solidified.” “Meat is eaten only on ceremonial occasions.” According -to Foà, a tribe of the Nyassa-Tanganyika plateau, like the Zulus, take -milk only in the form of a raw cheese mixed with salt and pepper. - -Dr. Lima of Mossamedes, in West Africa, has told me that the natives -of many regions south of Angola live almost entirely on milk. They -employ the cream as an ointment for the skin, whilst the milk, soured -and curdled, is their staple food. M. Nogueira reported the same -circumstances nearly fifty years ago after his journey in the province -of Angola. - -Just as cheeses vary in different countries, so curdled milk varies -slightly according to the nature of the flora of microbes. Taking all -the soured milks that are produced by natural processes, it may be said -that the greater number of them contain not only microbes that produce -lactic acid, but also yeasts that cause alcoholic fermentations. -Kephir, which is prepared from the milk of kine, and koumiss, which -is a product of mares’ milk, are notably alcoholic. Koumiss is the -well-known national beverage of the Kirghises, Tartars and Kulmucks, -nomads of Asiatic Russia who are famous horse breeders, whilst kephir -is the native drink of the mountaineers of the Caucasus, the Ossetes, -and some other tribes. - -It has been supposed that the chief merit of kephir was that it was -more easy to digest than milk, as some of its casein is dissolved in -the process of fermentation. Kephir, in fact, was supposed to be partly -digested milk. This view has not been confirmed. Professor Hayem thinks -that the good effects of kephir are due to the presence of lactic acid -which replaces the acid of the stomach and has an antiseptic effect. -The experiments of M. Rovighi, which I spoke of in _The Nature of Man_, -have confirmed the latter fact, which now may be taken as certain. The -action of kephir in preventing intestinal putrefaction depends on the -lactic acid bacilli which it contains. - -Kephir, although in some cases certainly beneficial, cannot be -recommended for the prolonged use necessary if intestinal putrefaction -is to be overcome. It is produced by combined lactic and alcoholic -fermentations, and as it contains up to one per cent. of alcohol, its -use as a food for years would involve the absorption of considerable -quantities of alcohol. The yeasts which produce it can be acclimatised -in the human digestive tract, in which, however, they are harmful, as -they are favourable to the germs of infectious diseases such as the -bacillus of typhoid fever, and the vibrio of Asiatic cholera. - -Kephir has also the disadvantage that its flora varies considerably and -is not well known. There has been little success in producing it by -pure cultures as would be necessary were it to be brought into general -use. When it is prepared from a dried remnant there is the risk of -stray microbes being included, and these may bring about pernicious -fermentations. Professor Hayem prohibits its use in the case of -persons in whom food is retained for long in the stomach. “When it -is retained in the stomach, kephir goes on fermenting, and there are -developed in the contents butyric and acetic acids which aggravate the -digestive disturbances.”[139] - -As it is the lactic and not the alcoholic fermentation on which the -valuable properties of kephir depend, it is correct to replace it by -soured milk that contains either no alcohol or merely the smallest -traces of it. - -The fact that so many races make soured milk and use it copiously is -an excellent testimony to its usefulness. M. Nogueira has written -to me to say how much he was astonished, on revisiting after a long -period of absence the district of Mossamedes, to find the natives so -well preserved and displaying so few traces of senility. Dr. Lima has -stated that amongst the natives of the region south of Angola “many -individuals of extraordinary longevity are to be found.” Although they -are thin and withered, these old people are very active and can make -long journeys. - -Mr. Wales, a lawyer at Binghampton, U.S.A., has been so good as to -make me acquainted with some extremely interesting facts taken from a -work by James Riley which is now a bibliographical rarity.[140] In the -narrative of a shipwreck of the vessel on which he made a voyage in -1815, James Riley states that the wandering Arabs of the desert live -almost wholly on the milk of camels, fresh or soured. - -On this diet they enjoy excellent health, display great vigour and -reach advanced ages. Riley estimated that some of the old men must have -lived for two to three hundred years. No doubt these figures are much -too high, but it is probable that the Arabs Riley encountered lived -really unusually long. - -Mr. Wales has examined Riley’s work critically, and is of the opinion -that that author was a well-informed, sagacious and conscientious -observer. - -M. Grigoroff, a Bulgarian student at Geneva, has been surprised by -the number of centenarians to be found in Bulgaria, a region in which -yahourth, a soured milk, is the stable food. Some of the centenarians, -described by M. Chemin in his memoir, lived chiefly on a milk diet. -Marie Priou, for example, who died in the Haute-Garonne in 1838 at the -age of 158 years, had lived for the last ten years of her life entirely -on cheese and goat’s milk (_op. cit._ p. 100). Ambroise Jantet, a -labourer of Verdun, who died in 1751 at the age of 111 years, “ate -nothing but unleavened bread and drank nothing but skimmed milk” (p. -133). Nicole Marc, who died aged 110 years, at the chateau of Colemberg -(Pas-de-Calais), a hunch-back and cripple, “lived only on bread and -milk-food. It was only towards the end of her life and after much -persuasion that she took a little wine” (Chemin, p. 139). - -I owe to the kindness of M. Simine, an engineer in the Caucasus, the -following communication, taken from the newspaper _Tiflissky Listok_, -Oct. 8th, 1904. “In the village of Sba, in the district of Gori, there -is an old Ossete woman, Thense Abalva, whose age is supposed to be -about 180 years (?). This woman is still quite capable and looks after -her household duties and sews. Although she is bent, she walks firmly -enough. Thense has never taken alcoholic liquors. She rises early in -the morning, and her chief food is barley bread and butter milk, taken -after the churning of the cream. Butter milk is a liquid containing -very many lactic microbes. - -Mrs. Jenny Read, an American, has written to me that her father, -eighty-four years old, “owes his health to the curdled milk which he -has taken for the last 40 years.” - -Curdled milk and the other products of milk to which I have referred -are the work of the lactic microbes which produce lactic acid at the -expense of milk sugar. As many different kinds of soured milk have been -consumed on a vast scale and have proved to be useful, it might be -supposed that any of them is suitable for regular consumption with the -object of preventing intestinal putrefaction. - -From the point of view of flavour I find that soured milk, prepared -from raw milk, is much the more agreeable. However, when a food is to -be selected for consumption during a long period of time, we must keep -hygiene strictly in view. It is certain, therefore, that the Russian -“prostokwacha,” as well as any other soured raw milk, must be rejected. -Raw milk contains a large assortment of microbes, and frequently some -of these are harmful. The bacillus of bovine tuberculosis, as well -as other pernicious microbes, may be found in it. According to the -investigations of Heim[141] the vibrios of Asiatic cholera, when placed -in raw milk, survive even when the milk has become quite soured. In -similar conditions the bacillus of typhoid fever remains alive for 35 -days and dies only after it has been kept for 48 days in completely -soured milk. - -As raw milk nearly always contains traces of fæcal matter from the -cow, it sometimes happens that pernicious microbes are introduced from -that source, and remain alive notwithstanding the acid coagulation of -the milk. The lactic microbes certainly prevent the multiplication -of other microbes, as, for instance, those of putrefaction, but are -incapable of destroying them. Moreover, raw milk often contains fungi -(yeasts, torulas, and oïdia) the presence of which is favourable to the -development of such pernicious microbes as the cholera vibrio and the -bacillus of typhoid fever. - -Prolonged consumption of raw milk increases the risk of introducing -dangerous microbes into the organism, and this possibility drives me to -recommend soured milk prepared after heating. Theoretically, it would -be best to sterilise the milk completely so that all the contained -microbes would be destroyed. This, however, requires heating the milk -to a temperature of from 226° to 248° Fahr., by which it acquires an -unpleasant flavour. On the other hand, the pasteurising of milk at a -temperature of about 140° Fahr. is not sufficient to get rid entirely -of the bacilli of tuberculosis and the spores of the butyric bacilli. -We have, therefore, to fall back on a middle course, and be content -with boiling the milk for several minutes. By so doing we certainly -kill the tubercle bacilli and the spores of some of the butyric -bacilli,[142] there being left only some butyric spores and the spores -of _Bacillus subtilis_, to destroy which a much higher temperature is -necessary. - -As some kinds of soured milk, such as “varenetz,” “yahourth,” “leben,” -etc., are prepared from boiled milk, it might be supposed that -they fulfil the conditions necessary for prolonged use. A closer -examination, however, makes us reject them. - -Boiled milk, to make it undergo the lactic fermentation properly, -must have added to it a prepared ferment. What is necessary is not -merely rennet, as was formerly supposed, but a number of organised -ferments, that is to say, microbes. In the preparation of these soured -milks, a leaven is employed, one of the names of which is “Maya,” -and which contains not only lactic microbes, but several others. MM. -Rist and Khoury[143] have come to the conclusion that the Egyptian -“leben” contained a flora composed of five species, three of which -are bacteria and two yeasts. The bacteria produce lactic acid and the -yeasts alcohol. Although the result is that “leben” is a nearly solid -substance, whilst kephir is a liquid, the two are closely similar. -In both cases we have to do with coincident lactic and alcoholic -fermentations, and my remarks regarding kephir apply equally well to -the Egyptian “leben.” - -Through the agency of Prof. Massol of Geneva, I have obtained a -specimen of the Bulgarian “yahourth.” Working with his pupil, M. -Grigoroff, M. Massol[144] has isolated several microbes from this milk, -amongst these being a very active lactic bacillus. The same soured -milk has been studied in my laboratory by Drs. M. Cohendy[145] and -Michelson. They found in it a very powerful lactic ferment, which has -been named the Bulgarian bacillus. This was the microbe employed in the -experiments of M. Bélonowsky, to which I have already referred. More -recently, it has been carefully investigated from the chemical point of -view by MM. G. Bertrand and Weisweiler[146] at the Pasteur Institute. -It proved to be an extremely active producer of lactic acid, supplying -25 grammes per litre of milk. The other acids which this bacillus -produces, such as succinic and acetic acids, are formed only in very -small quantities (about 50 centigrams a litre). Formic acid is produced -only in traces. On the other hand, the Bulgarian bacillus forms neither -alcohol nor acetone, two frequent products of bacterial fermentation. -The bacillus also differs from other lactic ferments inasmuch as it -has no action on albuminoids (casein, etc.), nor on fats. All these -qualities make the Bulgarian bacillus much the most useful of the -microbes which can be acclimatised in the digestive tube for the -purpose of arresting putrefactions and pernicious fermentations, such -as the butyric fermentation. - -As in all the known soured milks (yahourth, leben, prostokwacha, -kephir, and koumiss) the lactic bacilli are associated with a rich -flora in which pernicious microbes may be met (such as the red torula, -a microbe which predisposes to cholera and typhoid fever, which I found -in the leaven of yahourth, bought in Paris), it is necessary to work -out a method by which good curdled milk can be produced with the aid of -pure cultures of the lactic microbes. - -It was the obvious course to begin with the Bulgarian bacillus, as -that is known to be the best producer of lactic acid. It coagulates -milk rapidly, giving it a strongly acid flavour, but it often also -gives a disagreeable taste of tallow. It is true that after it has been -kept for a long time in the laboratory in the form of pure cultures -in sterilised milk, the bacillus loses to a large extent its power -of saponifying fats, the taste of the curdled milk being then more -agreeable. If necessary, therefore, soured milk prepared exclusively -with the Bulgarian bacillus can be used. In practice, however, it -is useful to associate with it another lactic microbe, known as the -paralactic bacillus, as the latter, although producing less lactic acid -than the Bulgarian bacillus, does not break up the fats and gives the -curdled milk a very pleasant flavour. - -As it is undesirable to absorb too much fatty matter, it is necessary -to prepare curdled milk for regular use from skimmed milk. After the -milk has been boiled and rapidly cooled, pure cultures of the lactic -microbes are sown in it, in sufficient quantities to prevent the -germination of spores already in the milk and not destroyed in the -process of boiling. The fermentation lasts a number of hours, varying -according to the temperature, and finally produces a sour curdled milk, -pleasant to the taste and active in preventing intestinal putrefaction. -This milk, taken daily in quantities of from 300 to 500 cubic -centimetres, controls the action of the intestine, and stimulates the -kidneys favourably.[147] It can therefore be recommended in many cases -of disorder of the digestive apparatus, of the kidneys, and in several -skin diseases. - -The Bulgarian bacillus taken from yahourth or from soured milk, -prepared from pure cultures of lactic microbes, can live in warm -temperatures, and, as has been shown by Dr. Cohendy, is able to take -its place in the intestinal flora of man. - -Soured milk, prepared according to the receipt which I have given, has -been analysed by M. Fouard, an assistant at the Pasteur Institute. -When it was ready to be taken, M. Fouard found in it about 10 grammes -of lactic acid per litre. Moreover, a large proportion (nearly -38 per cent.) of the casein had been rendered soluble during the -fermentation, which shows that its albuminous matter is prepared for -digestion much as in kephir. Of the phosphate of lime (which is the -chief mineral substance of milk) 68 per cent. was rendered soluble -during the fermentation. These facts all confirm the utility of the -soured milk prepared from pure cultures of lactic bacteria. - -Those persons who, from some reason or other, cannot take milk, may -swallow the bacilli in a pure culture without milk. However, as the -microbes need sugar to produce lactic acid, it is necessary to take -with them a certain quantity of sweet food (jam, sweet-meats, and -especially beetroot). - -The Bulgarian bacillus produces lactic acid not only from milk sugar, -but also from many other sugars, for instance, cane sugar, maltose, -levulose and especially glucose. - -Cultures of the bacillus can be made not only in milk, but in vegetable -broths, or broths of animal peptone to which sugar has been added. The -cultures can be taken in a dry form (powders or tabloids), or in the -liquid in which the bacilli had themselves been developed. - -A reader who has little knowledge of such matters may be surprised -by my recommendation to absorb large quantities of microbes, as the -general belief is that microbes are all harmful. This belief, however, -is erroneous. There are many useful microbes, amongst which the lactic -bacilli have an honourable place. Moreover, the attempt has already -been made to cure certain diseases by the administration of cultures -of bacteria. M. Brudzinsky[148] has used cultures of lactic microbes -in certain intestinal diseases of infants, whilst Dr. Tissier[149] has -used them in similar affections of infants and adults. - -From the general point of view of this book, the course recommended -consists of the absorption either of soured milk prepared by a group of -lactic bacteria, or of pure cultures of the Bulgarian bacillus, but in -each case taking at the same time a certain quantity of milk sugar or -saccharose. - -For more than eight years I took, as a regular part of my diet, soured -milk at first prepared from boiled milk, inoculated with a lactic -leaven. Since then, I have changed the method of preparation and have -adopted finally the pure cultures which I have been describing. I am -very well pleased with the result, and I think that my experiment -has gone on long enough to justify my view. Several of my friends, -some of whom suffered from maladies of the intestine or kidneys, have -followed my example, and have been well satisfied. I think, therefore, -that lactic bacteria can render a great service in the fight against -intestinal putrefaction. - -If it be true that our precocious and unhappy old age is due to -poisoning of the tissues (the greater part of the poison coming from -the large intestine inhabited by numberless microbes), it is clear -that agents which arrest intestinal putrefaction must at the same time -postpone and ameliorate old age. This theoretical view is confirmed by -the collection of facts regarding races which live chiefly on soured -milk, and amongst which great ages are common. However, in a question -so important, the theory must be tested by direct observations. For -this purpose the numerous infirmaries for old people should be taken -advantage of, and systematic investigations should be made on the -relation of intestinal microbes to precocious old age, and on the -influence of diets which prevent intestinal putrefaction in prolonging -life and maintaining the forces of the body. It can only be in the -future, near or remote, that we shall obtain exact information upon -what is one of the chief problems of humanity. - -In the meantime, those who wish to preserve their intelligence as -long as possible and to make their cycle of life as complete and as -normal as is possible under present conditions, must depend on general -sobriety and on habits conforming to the rules of rational hygiene. - - - - -PART V - -PSYCHICAL RUDIMENTS IN MAN - - - - -I - -RUDIMENTARY ORGANS IN MAN - - Reply to critics who deny the simian origin of - man—Actual existence of rudimentary organs—Reductions - in the structure of the organs of sense in man—Atrophy - of Jacobson’s organ and of the Harderian gland in the - human race - - -Several critics of _The Nature of Man_ have protested against my -theory of the simian origin of man. Some of these found my arguments -unsatisfactory and unconvincing. Others have attacked generally my -suggestion that some anthropoid had been suddenly transformed to a -primitive human being. - -It is true that so long as we have little palæontological evidence as -to the actual descent of man, we cannot discuss the subject without -the aid of hypotheses. I think, however, that recent additions to -knowledge confirm the theory of the descent of man in a way that ought -to influence the most resolute opponents. I have in mind chiefly -the arguments supplied by the embryology of anthropoid apes, and by -the investigation of their blood. None the less, there are still -many authors who maintain their opposition. One of my critics, Dr. -Jousset,[150] enumerates certain differences in the structure of the -skeleton in man and apes, and concludes that these radically separate -man from apes. - -No one has ever doubted that man was not identical in structure with -the anthropoid apes, or that he differs from them in several characters -of the skeleton and of many other organs. The differences, however, -do not justify any radical separation of the two. The unusual length -of arm, upon which my opponents throw so much weight, is in harmony -with the mode of life of apes, as these climb on trees and walk on all -four limbs. The difference between apes and Europeans in length of arm -is certainly considerable, but is much less in the case of some lower -races, such as the Veddahs. In the Akkas of Central Africa, the arms -are so long that the hands nearly reach the knees. The fœtus of -Europeans also shows an unusual length of arm, probably an ancestral -feature. It is only after birth that the arms become relatively shorter. - -All the other characters different in man and the apes, are equally -secondary. On the other hand, just as apes differ amongst themselves, -so also, the different races show differences often strongly marked. -M. Michaelis,[151] in a comparative study of the muscular systems -of monkeys, has made known many details of the musculature in the -orang-outan and the chimpanzee, and it appears from his investigations -that, although there are some differences between these two apes, they -are both closely similar to man. - -There are many variations in the muscular structure of man, and these -find parallels in the muscles of apes. This is also the case with other -abnormalities of structure, some of which resemble the condition in -mammals much lower than apes. An example of this is the presence of -additional pairs of nipples, arranged symmetrically on the sides of the -chest and occasionally found in human beings. A similar abnormality -has been found in some monkeys, and the best explanation of such an -occurrence is that monkeys, like man, are descended from mammals which -possessed several pairs of mammary glands. - -The large number of abnormalities and rudimentary organs which may -be found in man affords important evidence in favour of the descent -of man from lower animals. Some authors, however, have tried to -dispute this view and even deny the existence of rudimentary organs. -M. Brettes,[152] amongst my opponents, has brought together most -facts upon this matter, with the object of proving that such organs -fulfil some function indispensable to the body and bear witness to the -existence of a general plan of organisation. My opponent, however, -confines himself to general propositions, laying much stress on a law -of “the subordination of organs” without proving that rudimentary -organs have an actual function. In _The Nature of Man_ I remarked on -the uselessness of the wisdom teeth, which are not cut until long -after childhood and which are useless in mastication. In many human -beings these teeth never cut through the gum, and their absence is -no disadvantage. This is a typical case of a rudimentary organ. To -maintain the contrary it would be necessary to prove that the wisdom -teeth fulfil an indispensable function and that their absence was in -some way harmful to the organism. No one has been able to show this. - -The mammary glands in males are another case of rudimentary organs. The -function of these, of course, is well known in females, but it is only -in the rarest cases that they are active in males. - -The organs of sense supply many cases of rudimentary structures. -Animals which live in caves, in the dark, do not discern objects by -sight, and in these cases the eyes are rudimentary. It is quite -impossible to deny the existence of rudimentary organs. They are -extremely important guides to us in our investigation of the past -history of the human race. The comparative study of the organs which -are rudimentary in man and more or less well developed in lower animals -is of fundamental importance in the problem of our origin. - -The higher apes, or anthropoids, display reduction in some parts of -the organs of sense. The organ of smell, for instance, is much less -developed in them than in many other animals. Man has inherited the -imperfect condition of this organ, and his sense of smell is much -less developed than that of mammals which are lower in the scale of -life. Man, however, because of his intelligence, has been able to tame -domestic animals, such as dogs, ferrets, and pigs, and to make use -of their acute sense of smell for tracking game or obtaining edible -plants. The imperfect condition of the sense of smell in man in other -cases is well replaced by his mental powers. He no longer recognises -the approach of an enemy by the sense of smell, in order that he may -take flight, because he has better means of defence than those of -animals. It is not surprising, therefore, that the olfactory apparatus -of man is much reduced as compared with that of lower mammals. In apes -and man the nasal region of the head is much smaller than in their -mammalian ancestors, and in the deep-lying parts of the system there -are corresponding differences. Most mammals, for instance, and the dog -in particular, have four turbinal bones, the purpose of which is to -increase the surface of the mucous membrane of the nose, whilst in man -there are only three, one of which is rudimentary. - -The olfactory apparatus in most mammals contains a well-developed -portion known as the organ of Jacobson, the probable function of -which is to appreciate the flavour of food in the mouth. In man, this -organ is in a rudimentary condition and cannot fulfil its function, -as it is devoid of its proper nerve. This remnant, now useless, gives -us information as to the evolution of the organ of smell in man. In -the human fœtus, Jacobson’s organ is not only better developed than -in adult man, but it is also provided with a stout nerve trunk, which -disappears towards the end of embryonic life. The organ, however, -cannot perform any olfactory function. The human fœtus, moreover, -possesses five turbinals which later on become reduced to three, and of -these only two develop completely. - -The history of the evolution of the organ of smell, as it has been made -out by comparative anatomy and embryology, links this apparatus in -man with the corresponding organs of other mammals by means of these -useless rudiments, which, however, are important evidence in scientific -theory. - -The auditory apparatus also has become reduced in man. Many animals, -in the struggle for existence, require a very acute sense of hearing, -more so than man or some of the most intelligent mammals. We have all -seen how horses raise their ears to hear better when there is the -slightest sound near them. Monkeys and man have lost this power, and -man sometimes tries to supply the defect by artificial means. When a -lecturer, for instance, is not speaking sufficiently loud some of the -audience put their hands to their ears, making a kind of trumpet which -serves to catch the sound. The human external ear is supplied with -muscles, but in most cases these are too feeble to move it. In very -rare cases persons can move their ears, the muscles inserted to the -shell in most of us being mere rudiments of those that existed in our -ancestors. - -In the organ of sight, the little fold in the inner angle of the eye, -known as the semilunar fold, is of special interest. This membrane -is a useless vestige of a structure much better developed in lower -mammals. In the dog it is present as a small third eyelid, supported -by a special cartilage provided with a secreting gland, known as the -Harderian gland. In birds, reptiles and frogs, the corresponding -structures are much better developed. Everyone has seen the delicate -membrane which, in the case of a bird, may shoot out from the inner -angle of the eye and cover the whole of the exposed part of the eyeball -(nictitating membrane). In these animals, the eye is protected by this -third lid, which has its own muscles. As in the dog, this third eyelid -of birds and lower vertebrates is generally provided with a large -Harderian gland, which produces a liquid secretion like tears. - -In most monkeys, this apparatus is much reduced. Many of them have -still a small Harderian gland and a weak third eyelid. In man, as I -have already said, there are only vestiges of these organs, the gland -being almost atrophied and the third eyelid represented only by an -insignificant crescentic fold. In the lower races the fold sometimes -contains a small cartilage. Giacomini found it twelve times in sixteen -negroes, whilst in 548 white people it was found only in three cases. - -The interpretation of these facts is not doubtful. This little fold is -the last vestige in use of an organ which was useful only in our remote -ancestors. - -The organs of reproduction in the human race also show a number of -rudiments. There remain even traces of a hermaphrodite condition, -a very low degree of organisation, going back to extremely -remote ancestors. The evidence given by the very large number of -abnormalities that are found in these organs makes it clear that, in -the long period of the evolution of the human race, they have been -subjected to a series of modifications. Thus, for instance, there is -occasionally present in women a form of uterus resembling that of the -lower mammals, or even the double uterus of marsupials. - -The evolution of man has been dominated by the great development of -the brain and of the intelligence, and man, accordingly, has lost many -organs and functions which were of use in his more or less remote -ancestors. - - - - -II - -HUMAN TRAITS OF CHARACTER INHERITED FROM APES - - The mental character of anthropoid apes—Their muscular - strength—Their expression of fear—The awakening of - latent instincts of man under the influence of fear - - -The facts of which I have given a résumé serve to show that evolution -always leaves definite traces indicating its successive stages in -the form of rudiments. It is probable, therefore, that the pre-human -mental functions or psycho-physiological qualities, which have so long -a history behind them, have also left more or less appreciable traces. -These, however, must be more difficult to find than rudimentary organs -which can be made visible by dissection. - -If we turn first to the animals most nearly related to man, we find -that the living anthropoid apes show in the clearest way their close -relationship with the human race, and suggest that their kinship with -our remoter ancestors must be even greater. - -The anthropoid apes alive to-day are animals inhabiting chiefly virgin -forests, and feeding on fruits and shoots, although they do not despise -eggs or even little birds. To satisfy their wants, they climb with the -greatest ease. Orang-outans and chimpanzees climb slowly and carefully, -whilst gibbons show a greater agility and more perfect acrobatic power. -They may be seen throwing themselves from branch to branch across -spaces of forty feet with the greatest precision. They play at the top -of very tall trees, hardly grasping the branches through which they -pass, making leaps of from twelve to eighteen feet for hours together -with little apparent exertion. - -To give an idea of the dexterity and swiftness of gibbons, Martin -took the case of a female which he observed in captivity. One time -she hurled herself from a perch across a space at least twelve feet -wide, against a window which one would have thought would have been -immediately broken. To the great surprise of the spectators it was not -broken. The gibbon seized with her hands the narrow board between the -panes, and then in an instant twisted herself round and jumped back to -the cage she had left, performing this manœuvre with great strength -and the most marvellous precision. - -The muscular force implied in the above narrative is possessed by all -the anthropoid apes. Battel, an English sailor who gave the first -description of the gorilla in the beginning of the 17th century, stated -that the strength of that animal was so great that ten men could hardly -master an adult specimen. The other anthropoids, although not so strong -as the gorilla, nevertheless display surprising force. - -Edouard, the young male chimpanzee which I used in my experiments -on syphilis, struggled so much at the least touch that it took four -men to master him. I had to give up allowing him to leave his cage -because there was no way of getting him back to it. Even quite young -chimpanzees, females not yet two years old, cannot be handled easily. -Although they are very friendly, my specimens used to resist with all -their strength when it was necessary to put them back in their cages -for the night. Two men had much ado to shut them up. - -Notwithstanding this great muscular force, the anthropoid apes are -cowardly. They have no idea of their strength, but fly from the -approach of the slightest imagined danger. My young chimpanzees, -although their teeth and muscles were already formidable weapons, -showed the greatest fear when I put with them animals even so weak and -harmless as guinea-pigs, pigeons and rabbits. Mice frightened them -very much at first, and it took them a considerable time before they -got over their fear of so insignificant an enemy. When living in a -state of nature the anthropoid apes scarcely ever assume the offensive. -“Though possessed of immense strength,” wrote Huxley,[153] “it is rare -for the Orang to attempt to defend itself, especially when attacked -with fire-arms. On such occasions he endeavours to hide himself, or -to escape along the topmost branches of the trees, breaking off and -throwing down the boughs as he goes.” Savage[154] wrote of chimpanzees -that “they do not appear ever to act on the offensive, and seldom, -if ever really, on the defensive.” When a female was surprised on a -tree with her young ones “her first impulse was to descend with great -rapidity and make off into the thicket.”[155] - -The gorilla, the strongest and most ferocious of the apes, has -sometimes been observed to take the offensive. Savage, quoted by -Huxley, said that “they are exceedingly ferocious, and always offensive -in their habits, never running from man, as does the chimpanzee. -The females and young, at the first cry, quickly disappear. He (the -male) then approaches the enemy in great fury, pouring out his horrid -cries in quick succession.”[156] Only males take the offensive, -nor can this be of frequent occurrence, as one of the most recent -observers, Koppenfels,[157] states that “the gorilla never attacks man -spontaneously; he tries to avoid him, and, as a rule, takes to flight -as soon as he sees a man, uttering peculiar guttural cries.” - -Which of these characters are preserved in the human race? Man is -naturally feebler and less of a gymnast than the great apes, but his -disposition is cowardly. One of the earliest signs of mental activity -in an infant is the fear of surrounding circumstances. The smallest -change in its balance or its being put in a bath cause it to show -signs of real terror. Later on, it is alarmed when it sees any kind of -animal, exactly in the fashion of a young chimpanzee. The most harmless -spider is enough to frighten it. - -Although mental culture subdues fear to a large extent, fear reveals -itself more or less strongly from time to time, and it is on such -occasions that we may find in the human being psychological relics of -his ancestors. An analysis of fear is of special interest. - -The first result of the emotion of fear is flight. Consciousness of -danger sets our limbs in motion, and our instinctive desire to escape -displays itself even when flight is more dangerous than what we wish -to avoid. At the first alarm of fire in a public building, people rush -towards the exits and in so doing often perish from their wish to -escape. Even in the extreme of terror, the desire of flight is one of -the earliest impulses. Mosso, a well-known Italian physiologist, in a -monograph on fear, relates that when a Calabrian brigand was sentenced -to death “he uttered a sharp cry, heart-rending and terrible, looked -around him as if he were eagerly seeking for something, and then -stepped backwards as if to fly, and threw himself against the wall of -the court, writhing, with arms outstretched, scratching at the wall as -if he were trying to break through it.” - -Although in such a case it was futile and often is harmful, the -instinct of flight from danger is inherited from ancestors from a -time when it served to save life. Attempts to escape are not the -only signs of fear. There is often a trembling fit which would make -flight impossible. In Mosso’s case of the Calabrian brigand, “after -his struggles, cries and contortions, he fell on the ground in a -motionless heap, like a wet rag; he became pale and trembled more than -I have seen any other person tremble; his muscles seemed changed into -a soft and quivering jelly.” This condition of trembling inertia is -another legacy from animals. Quivering of the muscles often manifests -itself in terrified animals. Darwin[158] wrote of it, “trembling is of -no service, often of much disservice, and cannot at first have been -acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association -with any emotion.” The phenomenon seemed to him obscure and difficult -to explain, a view shared by Mosso. The trembling of the musculature of -the body is a generalised and exaggerated form of the movements of the -cutaneous muscles in the condition known popularly as “goose-skin.” The -latter, however, is a relic of an adaptation useful to some animals. -The hedgehog rarely takes to flight at the approach of danger, but -stands still, and using strongly developed muscles, rolls itself into a -ball. In birds and many mammals, the muscles of the skin cause erection -of the feathers or hairs. These movements often are performed during -fright, and according to Darwin, serve not only to warm the skin, -but sometimes to make the animal appear larger and more terrifying to -enemies. - -Fear and cold alike cause contraction of the superficial blood-vessels, -and, in man, excite the contraction of the minute rudimentary muscles -inserted to the roots of the hairs. “Goose-skin” is caused by the -contraction of these muscles, the condition being a functional -rudiment, no longer serving to warm the skin nor to make the body -appear larger. In a few exceptional cases, “goose-skin” can be produced -voluntarily. In the normal condition, the rudimentary cutaneous muscles -of man are immobile, and it requires some special stimulation to set -them in action. - -Fear, which is occasionally able to excite the contraction of the -involuntary muscles, also stimulates other muscles against the will. -Under the influence of emotions that powerfully affect the nervous -system, and particularly under that of fear, contractions of the -bladder and intestines may be so violent that it is impossible to -prevent the voiding of their contents. Accidents of this kind are not -infrequent in the case of youthful candidates at examinations. Mosso -relates of a friend, a volunteer in the war of 1866, that he was seized -with terror during a battle and that the utmost efforts of his will -failed to make his body endure the terrible spectacle. - -The involuntary action of the bladder and intestines during fear is -a legacy from animals. The phenomenon is common in dogs and monkeys. -Chimpanzees, when laid hold of, discharge their urine and fæces. At -Madeira I had an unusually cowardly _Cercopithecus_ monkey which when -at all alarmed discharged the contents of the rectum. Quite possibly -such a mechanism was useful for the preservation of the individual. The -emission of various kinds of excretions is of use in the struggle for -existence. In that way the fox drives the badger from its earth and -takes possession of it, whilst polecats and skunks defend themselves -against more powerful carnivorous animals by discharging on them -fœtid secretions. - -Instinctive fear is therefore a very powerful stimulant, awakening -functions which are rudimentary and almost completely extinct. -Sometimes it sets in operation mechanisms which have long been -paralysed. Pausanias gives an example of a dumb young man who recovered -his speech when he was terrified by seeing a lion. Herodotus relates -that the son of Crœsus, who was dumb, on seeing a Persian about to -kill his father, cried out: “You must not kill Crœsus,” and from -that time onwards was able to talk. These ancient narratives have been -confirmed by many modern observations. A woman, for instance, who had -been dumb for several years, on seeing a fire, was terrified and cried -out suddenly “Fire!” after which her speech was restored. Such are -cases of the awakening of a function which has been arrested only for -several years. But fear can bring into activity other mechanisms which -have been inactive from time immemorial. - -Many different kinds of animals can swim instinctively. This is true -in the case of most birds and mammals. There are some species which -show a repugnance to water, but none the less swim well enough if they -are thrown into it. Cats shun water as much as possible, but, none -the less, can swim quite easily. Historians relate that Hannibal had -great difficulty in getting his elephants to cross the Rhone. Some -females were ferried across first, upon which the other elephants threw -themselves into the water to pursue them and swam across the river -without any difficulty (Lenthéric, _Le Rhône_, 1892, p. 81). - -The lower monkeys can swim without being taught, but the anthropoid -apes have lost this power, and man also is without it. M. Volz[159] -states that the different species of gibbons which live in Sumatra are -separated by rivers. Their inability to swim makes these a complete -barrier. It is probable that the lower races, in this respect, are -better endowed than we are. It is said that in the case of negroes, -children run to the sea or to rivers almost as soon as they leave the -cradle, and learn to swim almost as quickly as to walk.[160] In the -case of white people, many find it very difficult to learn to swim, -and it is at least certain that swimming is not instinctive as in the -case of our animal ancestors. Christmann,[161] the author of a treatise -on swimming, states that the reason of man is a worse guide than the -infallible instinct of the animal. Fear is able to stifle reason and -to allow the instinct to come into play. It is known that children or -adults may be taught to swim by throwing them into the water. Under the -influence of fear, the instinctive mechanism inherited from animals -awakens, and man soon becomes a swimmer. There are some teachers of -swimming who use this method successfully. I have myself known an -individual who learnt the art in that way, and M. Troubat, librarian at -the International Library, has informed me that one of his friends, a -journalist who died at Noyon several years ago, bathed in the Seine one -evening at Neuilly when he could not swim. Unexpectedly finding himself -beyond his depth, a sudden movement of fear saved him. Since then, he -said, he knew how to swim. - -Just as there are cases in which terror provokes flight, and others in -which it causes an arrest of motion, so also fear may do a disservice -to a swimmer. Those who employ fear as a means of teaching to swim, -know that they must intervene if there is real danger. It is true, none -the less, that up to a certain point fear can awaken functions which -have been atrophied for numberless generations, and that we can learn -from it something as to the evolution of the human race. - - - - -III - -SOMNAMBULISM AND HYSTERIA AS MENTAL RELICS - - Fear as the primary cause of hysteria—Natural - somnambulism—Doubling of personality—Some examples of - somnambulists—Analogy between somnambulism and the life - of anthropoid apes—The psychology of crowds—Importance - of the investigation of hysteria for the problem of the - origin of man - - -The study of fear is interesting in other respects than those with -which I have been dealing. It is also a primary cause of the obscure -and complicated phenomena of hysteria. - -Thus, for instance, amongst twenty-two hysterical women observed by -Georget[162] the primary causes were: terror, 13 cases; extreme grief, -7 cases; extreme annoyance, one case. A patient of M. Pitres, of -Bordeaux, first exhibited hysteria after being extremely terrified. A -man with a tame bear had come to the village. The patient went to see -the performance and elbowed her way through the crowd until she got -to the front row. The bear, whilst dancing, passed so close that its -cold muzzle touched the cheek of the young girl. Marie—for that was -the patient’s name—was terrified. She ran quickly home, and almost -on her arrival fell on her bed in an attack of convulsion and extreme -delirium. Since then the attacks have been repeated many times, and the -delirium associated with them always turns upon the terror caused by -the bear touching her. - -A hysterical woman at the Salpétrière is haunted by terrifying dreams. -She thinks someone is trying to murder her, or to cut her throat, or -that she is falling into water, and she keeps crying for help.[163] - -Some of the most curious phases of hysteria are the paradoxical and -extraordinary cases of so-called natural somnambulism, in which the -patients, whilst asleep, perform all sorts of acts of which they -remember nothing in their waking hours. Cases of duplication of -personality are also known, in which the patients live in two different -states without, in one of these, having the slightest remembrance of -what takes place in the other. One of the most curious observations was -that of the somnambulist who became _enceinte_ whilst in her second -state. In her first, or normal condition, she was ignorant of the -reason of her physical changes, although in the second state she knew -about it quite well and spoke freely of it (Pitres, _op. cit._ II, 215). - -In the state of natural somnambulism the patients generally reproduce -the normal acts of their daily life which they have acquired the habit -of performing unconsciously. Artisans devote themselves to their manual -work, sempstresses begin to sew, maid servants brush shoes or clothes, -lay the table and so forth. Educated persons devote themselves to -intellectual work to which they are accustomed. Clergymen have been -known to compose their sermons in the somnambulistic condition, and to -read them over to correct mistakes in style or in spelling. - -However, besides somnambulists who during slumber simply repeat the -usual acts of their life, there are others who do special things to -which they are unaccustomed. - -It is these cases which are most interesting from my point of view. -I shall take one case which has been specially well reported. A -hysterical patient, a girl of 24 years of age, was admitted as an -in-patient to the hospital Laënnec. One Sunday, she got up about one -o’clock in the morning. The night watchman, who was alarmed, went for -the night doctor, who witnessed the following scene. “The patient went -to the staircase leading to the nurses’ quarters, then suddenly turned -round and walked towards the wash-house. The door of that being closed, -she then groped for a time and turned towards the women’s dormitory -in which she had formerly slept. She went up to the top of the house -where this dormitory was, and when she got on the landing, opened a -window leading to the roof, went out of the window, walked along the -gutter, under the horrified eyes of the nurse who followed her and who -did not dare to speak to her, went in again by another window and went -down the stairs.” “It was at this moment that I saw her,” said the -night doctor; “she was walking noiselessly, her gait was automatic, her -arms hanging by her sides, a little bent, the head erect and fixed, -her hair disordered, her eyes wide open; she seemed like some strange -apparition.”[164] This is obviously the case of a hysterical subject, -who in a normal condition was not accustomed to climb upon roofs and -walk along the gutters. - -Another observation, reported by Charcot, related to a young man, -seventeen years old, the son of a large manufacturer, and of good -address. Tired out by working for his final examination, he had gone -to bed early. Some time later he rose from the bed in his college -dormitory, went out by a window, and without accident climbed on the -roof and took a long and dangerous walk along the gutters. He was -awakened before any accident occurred (Feinkind, p. 70). - -A case observed by Dr. Mesnet and M. Mottet was still more interesting. -A lady thirty years old and extremely hysterical got out of bed in the -night, “dressed herself, completed her toilet without help, removed the -furniture in her way without stumbling against it. She was indifferent -and idle by day, but strenuous at night in performing the most varied -acts. I have seen her walking about in her rooms, opening doors, going -down to the garden, leaping on seats with the utmost agility, running -about, in fact doing all these things much better than in her waking -hours, in which she got about only slowly and with aid” (Feinkind, p. -84). - -Horst has related an extraordinary incident which took place in the -sixteenth century. “A soldier walked in his sleep to a window, and with -the help of a rope climbed a high tower, secured a jackdaw’s nest with -its young birds, and regained his bed, where he remained asleep until -the morning.”[165] Unfortunately there are not sufficiently detailed -facts regarding this incident, and for fully described cases we must -return to modern times. Dr. Guinon has related one case in ample -detail. A man thirty-four years of age, by occupation an interpreter, -was taken into hospital for hysterical attacks. “One night soon after -he came under the care of the physicians, this patient, towards one -o’clock in the morning, suddenly arose from bed, threw open a window -and jumped across the sill into the courtyard of the hospital. The -attendants on duty ran after him, and saw him hurrying away, undressed -and carrying a pillow in his arms. He traversed a series of gardens -and walks, with the topography of which he was unacquainted, climbed a -ladder and got on the roof of the hydrotherapeutic establishment, up -and down which he proceeded to run with the greatest agility. Sometimes -he stopped in his flight and rocked the pillow he was carrying, kissing -and soothing it as if it were a child. Then he retraced the route he -had taken.” On being questioned next morning, he had not the faintest -remembrance of his nocturnal exploit. “A similar fit came on him five -or six times” (Feinkind, p. 108). - -The same patient, “after having turned over in bed several times, -seized a pillow and held it to his breast. He then got out of bed, -and, in his nightgown, ran through the dormitory to a door leading to -the lavatories. He opened the door, readily but with violence, and -entered one of the closets. Then, still holding the pillow against his -chest with one arm, by a gymnastic feat both difficult and dangerous, -yet which he performed with the utmost precision, using his feet and -the free arm, he got hold of the edge of the frame of an open window, -through which he swung himself to the sill, alighting on both feet, -after which, preserving the pillow carefully from contact or shocks, -he jumped to the ground (the infirmary ward was on the ground floor). -He then ran quickly to the opposite corner of the courtyard, passing -the whole length of the great building at full speed, holding the -pillow carefully. By a path which led round the building, he reached a -corner where there was a tower supporting a great water-tank. A kind of -metallic ladder, placed almost vertically and with rounded steps, led -up the side of the tower to a sort of observation-landing which at one -point was adjacent to the edge of the roof of the bath-house. - -“The patient set himself to climb this ladder without any hesitation, -holding on by his free hand and placing his naked feet on the rounded -steps with extreme precision. When he reached the nearest point to -the roof of the bath-house he leapt upon that, and at a running pace -climbed the zinc roof to the crest, looking round him from time to time -to see if his imaginary pursuers were near. He ran along the crest -which was so narrow that his feet had to be placed alternately on -either side on the slopes of the steep-pitched roof, a performance so -dangerous that none of the officials would follow him, and which none -the less he performed with complete assurance and without a single slip. - -“When he reached the middle of the building he sat down on the crest -of the roof, leaning against a ventilating chimney. He then took the -pillow which he had been carrying carefully, placed it on his knees -with a corner against his shoulder, and began to rock it as if it -were a child, crooning to it, stroking it with his hand or with his -cheek that he pressed gently against the corner. From time to time his -eyebrows contracted and his looks hardened, and he gazed around him as -if he were being pursued or watched, then gave a growl of rage, and -took to flight again, carrying the pillow on his dangerous path. All -the time he kept speaking, but we could not hear what he said. He saw -nothing that was not in his dream; he did not understand when his name -was called aloud; but he could hear, for at the slightest sound near -him he rushed off again as if his pursuers were upon him. This episode -lasted about two hours, during which he had climbed over all the roofs -in the vicinity, defying our pursuit of him” (Feinkind, pp. 106-112). - -I could give other similar cases, but I think that I have shown -sufficiently that man, when in the condition of natural somnambulism, -exhibits qualities that he does not possess in the normal state, -becoming strong, adroit, and a good gymnast, like his anthropoid -ancestors. The close resemblance between the manœuvres of Martin’s -gibbon, which I described earlier in this chapter, and the dangerous -exploits of some sleep walkers is most striking. - -The impulses to climb on roofs and poles, to run along in rain gutters, -to climb a tower to take a bird’s nest, are characteristic examples of -the instinctive actions of climbing animals, like the anthropoid apes. -Dr. Barth[166] defines somnambulism as “a dream with exaltation of the -memory and automatic action of the nervous centres, without voluntary -and conscious control.” “The striking exaltation of the memory is the -dominating condition. The extreme exactness of the memory of places -displayed by the somnambulist makes us understand how he performs -his nocturnal wanderings, doing almost without the aid of his senses -numberless deeds of which he would be practically incapable in a -waking condition.” However, as such a patient performs new acts which -he has never accomplished before in his own individual life, we must -suppose that the exaltation of memory includes extremely ancient facts, -dating perhaps from the pre-human period. Man has inherited from his -ancestors a number of mechanisms of the brain, the activity of which -is inhibited by restraints which have been developed later. Just as -man possesses mammary glands which under ordinary conditions cannot -secrete milk, so also, in his brain, there are contained groups of -cells which are inactive in the normal condition, but, also, just as in -some exceptional cases man and the males of several species of mammals -are able to give milk, so also in abnormal conditions the atrophied -mechanisms of other nervous centres begin to act. - -The secretion of milk by males is a return to an extremely ancient -condition in which both sexes were able to nourish the young; so, also, -the gymnastic feats and the extraordinary strength of somnambulists are -a return to a normal condition much less remote from us than lactation -in males. - -It is curious to find that, in some cases, natural somnambulism -is associated with power to move the shell of the ear. I know two -brothers, who, when they were young, used to walk in their sleep in -the most typical way. One of them, a chemist, used to climb on a high -cupboard, or simply walk about in the room. The other brother, a -sailor, in a fit of somnambulism, climbed to the top mast of a sailing -ship. These brothers, who were somnambulists, had the cutaneous muscles -extremely well developed and were able to move their ears voluntarily. - -In this case the abnormality was hereditary in the family, and the -two daughters of one of the brothers were also somnambulistic and had -control over the muscles of the ears. Here, then, is a case of the -simultaneous recurrence of two characters of our ancestors: mobility -of the ear and agility in gymnastic feats. M. Barth characterises the -somnambulist as “a living automaton in whom conscious will is for the -time being destroyed.” According to him, the somnambulist “acts at -the suggestion of circumstances, and what seem most extraordinary in -what he does are in reality instinctive reactions.” This description -agrees well with my view that in natural somnambulism the instincts -of our pre-human ancestors are awakened, instincts which under normal -conditions are latent and rudimentary. - -Sometimes, under the stimulus of fear, the instinctive mechanism of -swimming is awakened in man. It would be extremely interesting to know -if a similar occurrence took place in somnambulists. I have been unable -to find in literature any sufficient facts upon this subject. I can -quote only one case, and that with all reserve, which was published -in the article “Somnambulism” in the _Dictionnaire des Sciences -Médicales_. “It is related that a somnambulist who took to swimming -during one of his fits was called by his name several times, and became -so frightened when he awoke that he was drowned.” It would be extremely -interesting to collect more numerous facts on the instincts shown by -somnambulists. - -I have given a good deal of attention to natural somnambulism with -the idea that I should find in it traits recalling those of the life -of anthropoid apes. I think that the extremely varied phenomena of -hysteria could supply us with other facts, useful in investigating -the psycho-physiological history of man. Perhaps some of the facts of -so-called “lucidity” which are well established could be explained -as the awakening of special sensations atrophied in the human race, -but present in animals. It is known that in vertebrate anatomy organs -are found which have the structures of organs of sense, but which are -absent or quite rudimentary in the human body. On the other hand, -it is known that animals perceive some phenomena of the surrounding -world, for the perception of which man has no organs of sense. Fish, -for instance, appreciate gradations in the depth of water, birds and -mammals have a sense of orientation and can anticipate changes in the -weather more exactly than our meteorological science. When under the -influence of hysteria, man may possibly be able to recover these senses -of our remote ancestors, and to know things of which he is ignorant in -the normal condition. - -Hysteria is common to man and animals. Amongst the numerous chimpanzees -which I have owned, several have shown signs of hysteria. Some, -when they were in the slightest degree annoyed, lay on the ground, -screaming terribly, and rolling about like children in a fit of -passion. One young chimpanzee used to pull out its hair when it was in -a fit of temper. The view that hysteria is a relapse to the condition -of our animal ancestors is supported by the conception of hysterical -phenomena, suggested by Dr. Babinsky.[167] This well-known neurologist -thinks that “the phenomena of hysteria have two special characters, -the one being that they can be reproduced by suggestion in some cases -with the most complete fidelity, and the other that they can disappear -under the sole influence of persuasion.” M. Babinsky thinks that “the -hysteric patient is neither unconscious nor completely conscious, but -is in a state of special consciousness.” In my opinion the latter -condition corresponds to the state of mind of our more or less remote -ancestors. - -Occasionally a man, under some sudden impulse, falls into a condition -of extreme violence, and, being unable to control himself, commits -acts of which he repents immediately afterwards. It is the custom to -say that at such times the brute has awakened in the man. This is -more than a metaphor. (Probably some nervous mechanism from a remote -ancestor has come into action, at the call of some stimulation.) As our -anthropoid ancestors and primitive man lived in tribes, it is natural -that when men are grouped together, certain savage instincts should -awaken. In this connection it is interesting to study the psychology -of crowds. When man is surrounded by a great many of his fellows, -he becomes particularly responsive to suggestion. This condition is -characterised as follows by M. G. Le Bon,[168] the author of a study -on the psychology of crowds: “The most careful observations seem to -prove that an individual immerged for some length of time in a crowd -in action soon finds himself—either in consequence of the magnetic -influence given out by the crowd, or from some other cause of which we -are ignorant—in a special state, which much resembles the state of -fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds himself in the -hands of the hypnotiser. The activity of the brain being paralysed -in the case of the hypnotised subject, the latter becomes the slave -of all the unconscious activities of his spinal cord, which the -hypnotiser directs at will. The conscious personality has entirely -vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and thoughts -are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser” (p. 11). Man, -under the influence of the crowd, gets into a condition like that of -a hysterical patient and displays a state of mind identical with that -of our ancestors. “Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms part of -an organised crowd, a man descends several rungs in the ladder of -civilisation. Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a crowd, -he is a barbarian—that is, a creature acting by instinct” (p. 13). - -It is quite natural to find relics of our prehistoric past in all kinds -of hysterical phenomena. We could reach extremely interesting facts -regarding the tribal and sexual life of apes, if we tried to compare -with them the phenomena of human hysteria. The passionate gestures -which are characteristic of some hysterical cases could probably be -explained in this way quite simply, and the wild cries uttered by -patients in acute hysteria would be similarly explicable. - -I think that just as anatomists seek for points of comparison between -man and animals, as palæontologists make excavations to discover the -buried remains of creatures intermediate between man and apes, so -also, psychologists and doctors should investigate the rudimentary -psycho-physical functions with the object of building up the history of -the evolution of our psychical life. It cannot be doubted that in this -branch of science new arguments would be found to support the already -well founded theory of the simian origin of the human race. - - - - -PART VI - -SOME POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL ANIMALS - - - - -I - -THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE - - Problem of the species in the human race—Loss - of individuality in the associations of lower - animals—Myxomycetes and Siphonophora—Individuality in - Ascidians—Progress in the development of the individual - living in a society - - -In the following pages I shall try to reply to the criticism on _The -Nature of Man_ that in that book I only considered the individual -without thinking of the interests of society or of the race. I have -been reproached for having lost sight of the truth that in the general -course of evolution the interests of the individual must yield to the -higher interests of the community. It was asserted, in fact, that by -advising orthobiosis, that is to say, the most complete cycle of human -life, ending in extreme old age, I was suggesting something to the -detriment of humanity as a whole. - -This objection rests on a misunderstanding which it will be interesting -to clear up. I think that the complete development of the individual -not only would not injure the community but would be of great advantage -to it. Moreover, we must not lose sight of the fact that the individual -has rights which must not be ignored. - -In the attack on my theory many facts were brought forward which show -that in the animal and vegetable kingdoms the individual is always -sacrificed to the advantage of the race. There is no doubt as to this, -and in the course of this book I have given exact facts bearing on it. -I instanced plants such as the Agave and some Cryptogams which die as -soon as they have reproduced; I have also spoken of the small female -round worms (_Nematoda_) which are brutally torn in pieces and devoured -by their progeny. It would be difficult to find better cases of the -sacrifice of the individual to the species. The rule, however, does not -apply to man, who, in this respect, stands in a special position. - -Since the arrival of man, several species of animals have disappeared -from the earth. Man has played a large part in the destruction of the -Moa (_Aepyornis_) of Madagascar, the largest member of the class of -birds. He destroyed the Dodo of the Island of Mauritius and Steller’s -sea cow (_Rhytina stelleri_), a harmless relative of the Manatee, from -the shores of the Aleutian Archipelago. Man is about to cause the -extinction of several species of harmful carnivorous animals, such -as the wolf and the bear, and possibly it will not be long before -automobiles have replaced the horse, which would then become extremely -rare. However, although he has destroyed so many other species, man has -taken good care of himself. The progress already made by civilisation -has considerably reduced our mortality. Every year, a large number -of young infants are kept alive by the aid of hygiene and medicine. -The decrease of war and of assassination has also played a part in -maintaining the race. The position which man has acquired in the world -makes it more likely that what we have to fear is too great an increase -of population, and although the theory of Malthus has not been -verified in all its details, it is still true that man could multiply -on the face of the earth too abundantly. It is already clear that -almost in the proportion that humanity stops the effusion of its blood -in war, it tends to limit the propagation of the race. - -As the future of the species seems to be safe, it is natural to -consider in the first place that of the individual. In this respect the -facts of general biology are of special interest. - -Man is not the only social animal on the earth. Long before his -appearance other living beings existed in organised societies. -The splendid colonies of Siphonophora float on the surface of the -seas, whilst in the ocean depths there are societies of corals of -extraordinary variability, whilst again, on land, many kinds of insects -live in highly organised societies. - -This social life has been developed without external assistance, and -without any code to regulate the conduct of the individuals united for -a common purpose. - -It will be interesting to give a slight survey of the fundamental -principles of such societies; I intend to draw special attention to -one of the essential points in the societies of animals, hoping to -elucidate the relations between the individuals and society. - -In the organisation of human society the most difficult points are -the extent to which the society may encroach on the individual and -the degree to which the individual may preserve his rights and his -independence. Disputes on these have been interminable, and I do not -propose to discuss the theories according to which an individual must -be sacrificed for the good of the community to which he belongs. -I shall limit myself to reviewing the fate of the individuals in -societies of beings much inferior to man. - -There are examples of societies composed of many individuals, even -amongst living things on the borderland between the animal and -vegetable kingdoms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Isolated individuals of a Myxomycete. - -(After Zopff.) - -_a_, spore; _b-f_, escape of the zoospores.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Myxomycete individuals united to form a -plasmodium. - -(After Zopff.)] - -There may be found in woods, on dead leaves or on decaying timber, -minute plants resembling tiny mushrooms. These are Myxomycetes, and -the visible portions are minute sacs filled with microscopical rounded -bodies, known as spores. When one of the spores is moistened, there -emerges a minute organism with a mobile appendage by which it can be -impelled through water. A drop of water on a leaf or on a fragment of -timber may be filled with numbers of these tiny swimming bodies (Fig. -21). Their free life as individuals, however, is of brief duration. -When they come into contact, their bodies fuse, forming a gelatinous -mass which may be quite large (Fig. 22). This mass is called a -plasmodium, and is composed of a living substance which can move slowly -over leaves and which exhibits streaming movements in the interior, so -that the whole resembles in some respects the lava from a volcano. - -The plasmodia may be regarded as societies in the constitution of which -the individuality of the members has been completely sacrificed. The -ideal of those philosophers who have urged that man should renounce -his individuality and merge himself in the community has been realised -in the fullest way at the lower end of the scale of life, at an epoch -inconceivably remote from the appearance of the human race. - -Amongst animals, even the most lowly, there are no societies in which -the members are sacrificed so completely to the whole. Individuality -is always preserved to a greater or lesser extent. Consider the -polyps, colonies of which form reefs in the sea and may even become -islands. These creatures live in aggregations, the members of which -are incapable of living an independent life. They are united by living -substance and resemble double monsters, such as Doodica and Radica, who -were so much talked of some years ago when M. Doyen operated upon them. -The peritoneal cavities of these twins were in free communication, -and the blood-vessels were united so that the blood of the one passed -freely into the body of the other. In another double monster, the two -Tscheck girls, Rosa and Josepha, the intestinal tracts communicate, -both leading to a common rectum. In these, who are still alive, the -peritoneum is joined and there is a single urethra. - -In the case of the coral polyps, the fusion of the individuals of the -colony is nearly always much more complete. Each individual has its -own mouth and stomach, whilst the other organs cannot be assigned to -individuals but must be regarded as common to the whole. - -In the swimming polyps or Siphonophora, the loss of individuality -is still more remarkable. These graceful and transparent creatures, -sometimes large in size, live in the sea and may appear on its -surface in great numbers. They possess many whip-like filaments -provided with tentacles, swimming bells and stomachs. There can be -no doubt as to their colonial nature (Fig. 23), but it is difficult -to decide as to whether each piece of the colony, each swimming -bell, stomach and so forth, is to be regarded as an individual or -an organ, different zoologists having taken different views on the -question. One interpretation is that colonial life has brought with -it such modifications that of each individual there remains only a -single organ. Some individuals have been reduced to simple stomachs, -attached to the central stem, whilst others have lost all organs -except that of locomotion which has become one of the swimming bells -of the colony. Other zoologists, and I myself amongst them, think -that the Siphonophora are colonies of organs in which there has been -as yet practically no development of individuality. A living chain of -Siphonophora is simply a number of organs such as stomachs, tentacles, -swimming bells and so forth, united on a common stem. I need not -discuss the disputed point further, for the only matter pertinent to -my argument is that in the Siphonophora the loss of individuality, -the sacrifice of the parts to the whole, is not so great as in the -Myxomycetes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.—One of the Siphonophora. - -(After Chun.) - -_pn_, pneumatic chamber; _clh_, swimming bells; _stl_, stolon.] - -In support of my view, I must recall the small forms of Siphonophora -known as _Eudoxia_. These are detached pieces of the common trunk -which swim freely in the sea and have a remarkable structure (Fig. -24). Their mobility is due to a bell provided with strong muscular -fibres. The bell is a portion of an individual which possesses organs -of reproduction but which is devoid of the means to capture or digest -food. These two functions are performed by a second individual which -is closely united with the first. The nutrient individual has a long -tentacle by which the prey is captured, and a capacious stomach in -which it is digested. The products of digestion pass by channels into -the reproductive individual, carrying as it were a ready-made blood. -_Eudoxia_ in fact is a double being composed of an individual incapable -of locomotion or of reproduction, but adapted for prehension and -digestion, and of a second individual which can reproduce and which is -mobile. _Eudoxia_ is an association resembling that of the blind man -and the paralytic, in Florian’s fable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.—_Eudoxia._ - -(After Chun.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.—_Botryllus_ colonies. - -_o_, mouth ; _A_, common cloaca.] - -Advance in the organisation of social animals is plainly incompatible -with complete loss of individuality, and this becomes the more apparent -the higher we reach in the scale of life. In the social Ascidians, -each member retains all the organs necessary to life. Animals of the -genus _Botryllus_ (Fig. 25), perhaps the most interesting of these -Ascidians, occur in the form of circular colonies. The individuals -which compose the colony are grouped radially around a common centre -which is occupied by the cloaca. Each individual has its own mouth -and digestive tube, but the latter opens into a cloaca, common to all -the individuals, by which the excreta are voided. There is, in fact, -a single anus, as in the case of Rosa and Josepha which I have just -mentioned. - - - - -II - -INSECT SOCIETIES - - Social life of insects—Development and preservation of - individuality in colonies of insects—Division of labour - and sacrifice of individuality in some insects - - -Hitherto I have dealt with associations of animals the members of -which are linked by an actual material bond. In the insect world there -are many cases of highly developed colonies. But the organisation of -insects is high, and is incompatible with the existence of actual -physical connection between the members of the society. - -In early stages of the development of the social instinct in bees, -fully formed and similar individuals join together with the object -of securing the safety of their individual lives. Sometimes they act -together to drive away a common enemy, sometimes, as in winter, they -cling in a mass to maintain their temperature. In such primitive -societies, the young are not reared in common. It is only in much more -highly developed colonies, such as those of some bees and wasps, and of -ants and termites, that the chief object of the common action is care -of the progeny. Such an extreme development of the colony is attained -only by sacrificing the individuality of the members. There is a -far-reaching division of labour, so that the queens, for instance, are -mere machines for laying eggs. In hive-bees the queen can no longer -judge of what is good for the colony, her intellectual functions being -degenerate. She is enclosed in her cell and supported by the workers, -who see in her the future of the race. In times of want the worker-bees -sacrifice their own lives and give the queen the last remnants of -the food-supply so that she survives them. The males are incomplete -individuals and are tolerated only so long as they are required, after -which the workers kill them remorselessly. - -The workers, which take such pains for the well-being of the hive, -are incomplete individuals. Their brains are well developed and they -are well equipped with organs for making wax and collecting food, but -their reproductive organs are reduced to mere vestiges incapable of -fulfilling their functions. - -Here then is a case of loss of individual characters increasing with -the perfection of the colony. Amongst ants and termites, the social -life of which arose quite independently of that of bees, the same -course of events has been repeated. High intelligence and skill -are confined to the workers, in which the reproductive organs are -atrophied. The soldiers have powerful jaws used in defence of the camp, -but they, too, are sexually incomplete. The females and males, in which -the reproductive organs have attained huge proportions so that the -bodies are little more than sacs containing the sexual elements, have -no intelligence and very little skill. - -An extremely curious specialisation, consisting in the formation of -honey-bearing workers, occurs in some Mexican ants. Some of the workers -of these races absorb so much honey that their bodies become swollen -honey-bags. The limbs can no longer support the expanded body, and the -insects, reduced to immobility, do not quit the burrows. Normal life -has become impossible for these individuals, who soon die for the good -of the community. When the normal workers or the sexual individuals -are hungry, they approach the honey-bearers and take honey from their -mouths. The honey-bearers have become no more than animated cupboards -(Fig. 26). - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.—A Honey-ant. - -(After Brehm.)] - -The termites belong to quite another class of the group Insecta, but -in their case a similar sacrifice of the individual to the state -is practised. The females become transformed to shapeless bags of -eggs. They cannot move, but remain secluded in the recesses of the -“ant”-hill, where they lay as many as 80,000 eggs a day. The soldiers -have become provided with jaws so enormous that these unsexed insects -can perform no function other than defence of the colony. - -The partial reduction of individuality in social insects never goes -so far as in the cases of the lower animals I have described. It -may be stated as a general rule that increase in the perfection of -organisation brings with it a more or less complete preservation of -individuality in the members of a community. - -I shall now examine to what extent this law can be applied in the case -of man. - - - - -III - -SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE HUMAN RACE - - Human societies—Differentiation in the human - race—Learned women—Habits of a bee, _Halictus - quadricinctus_—Collectivist theories—Criticisms by - Herbert Spencer and Nietzsche—Progress of individuality - in the societies of higher beings - - -Social life is for the most part little developed amongst vertebrate -animals. The birds and fishes which live in communities present no -organisation of society even comparable with that found amongst -insects. There is little advance in this respect in the case of -mammals, and it is not until we come to man that highly organised -societies are to be found. Man is the first vertebrate to develop an -organised social life. But, whilst in the insect world, instincts are -of supreme importance in the regulation of the community, there is -little instinctive action in human communities. The consciousness of -individuality, or egoism, is very powerful in human beings, and perhaps -for that reason our ancestors made little progress in the development -of social relations. - -Anthropoid apes adhere in little groups or in families without any true -social organisation. Love of the neighbour, or altruism, appears to be -a recent and feeble human acquisition. - -Although the organisation of human society is far advanced and -division of labour very complete, there is no differentiation of the -individuals comparable with what is found amongst insects. Although in -animals so different as Siphonophora, bees, wasps, and termites the -development of the community, proceeding along different lines, has -brought into existence non-sexual individuals, there is no trace of -this specialisation amongst human beings. - -Certain abnormalities in the condition of the sexual organs are -occasionally found in men and women, but these cannot be compared with -the production of sexless individuals that has taken place amongst -other social creatures. I cannot accept the view that we are to see -something analogous to the case of worker bees in the prohibition of -sexual relations imposed by some religious systems on a certain number -of individuals. But in any event there is little importance in this -occurrence, which is rapidly becoming rarer. - -In recent times, both in Europe and the United States of America, there -has been an active development of a femininist movement impelling women -towards higher education. Women, no longer content with the avocations -of mother and housewife, have pressed into professions such as law and -medicine. There is a steady increase in the number of women who study -at the Universities, and countries like Germany, which have tried to -exclude women from higher studies, will soon have to yield before an -irresistible pressure. - -Can we regard the results of this movement as analogous to the -production of sexless workers which has taken place amongst social -insects? I think not. It is undoubtedly true that a certain number -of young women, who, for some reason or other are unlikely to marry, -devote themselves to scientific study. In these cases, however, -celibacy is the cause, not the result of the increased intellectual -activity. On the other hand, it must be remembered that many women -students of science eventually marry. In St. Petersburg, for instance, -there were 1,091 women in the Medical School; of these 80 were already -married and 19 were widows. Of the remaining 992, 436 or 44 per cent. -married during the course of their studies. - -Observation of the femininist movement, which has lasted for more than -forty years, shows that in most cases there is no tendency towards the -formation of individuals resembling the infertile worker insects. Most -lady doctors and learned women would like nothing better than to be the -founders of a family. Even the women who have been most distinguished -in the scientific world are no exception to the rule. In this relation -it is very interesting to follow the details of the life of Sophie -Kowalevsky, one of the most notable of learned women. In her youth, -when she began to study mathematics, she would not admit that feelings -of love had any importance. Later on, however, when she felt herself -growing old, these sentiments awoke in her to such an extent that on -the day when the prize of the Academy of Sciences was bestowed on her, -she wrote to one of her friends, “I am getting innumerable letters of -congratulation, but by the strange irony of fate, I have never felt so -unhappy.” - -The cause of this discontent reveals itself in the words which she -addressed to her most intimate woman friend. “Why is it,” she said, -“that no one loves me? I could give more than most women, and while the -most ordinary women are loved, as for me, I am not loved.”[169] - -It is, in fact, impossible to regard the celibacy of persons devoted -to religion or to scientific studies as the beginning of a special -organisation analogous to that of worker bees. - -However, it is still probable that in the human race a special -differentiation has been established for the accomplishment of -different and essential functions. - -The organisation of human societies has certainly not followed the path -by which social insects attained the formation of sexless individuals. -It much more closely resembles what has taken place in some isolated -animal types. A solitary bee, named _Halictus quadricinctus_ (Fig. 27), -is characterised by the fact that the female does not die when she has -laid her last eggs, as generally happens amongst insects, but remains -alive to cherish her offspring. This final portion of her life does not -last long, and the bee cannot play the prominent part of governess in a -society of insects organised by this specialisation of elderly females. -In the human race the individual life lasts longer and a division of -labour takes place in the fashion suggested by _Halictus quadricinctus_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.—_Halictus quadricinctus._ - -(After Buffon.)] - -An ordinary woman ceases to be fertile at between forty and fifty years -old, that is to say, at a time when, according to statistics, she has -still on the average twenty years to live. During this long period, -she can perform an extremely useful function in society, a function -resembling that of the old mothers of _Halictus quadricinctus_, and -consisting chiefly in the bringing up and education of the children. -Who does not know the extraordinary devotion of grandmothers, and, as -a general rule, of old women, who are extremely useful in bringing up -children. And none the less, it must not be forgotten that, actually, -old age begins too soon, that it is not what it ought to be under -normal conditions, and that human life itself does not last nearly so -long as it ought to do in ideal conditions. We may predict that when -science occupies the preponderating place in human society that it -ought to have, and when knowledge of hygiene is more advanced, human -life will become much longer and the part of old people will become -much more important than it is to-day. - -The members of human society are not divided into sexual and neuter -individuals as amongst insects, but the active life of every individual -can be divided into two periods, the first one of productive activity, -and the second of sterility but none the less devoted to work useful -to the community. The essential difference between the two cases may -be reduced to the contrast that whilst the individuals of which animal -societies are composed are structurally incomplete, in human societies -the individual preserves his integrity. - -We come, then, to the result that the more highly organised a social -being may be, so also the more highly developed is his individuality. -It follows that amongst the theories which seek to control social -life, those are the best which leave a field sufficiently wide and -free for the development of individual initiative. The ideal which -has been so often advocated and according to which the individual -is to be sacrificed as completely as possible to society, cannot be -regarded as in harmony with the general law of organic associations. -Special conditions exist in social life in which great sacrifices are -inevitable, but such an arrangement cannot be considered as general -and permanent. We may predict that the more human beings succeed in -advancing communal life, the fewer cases there will be in which the -individual has to be sacrificed. - -In the hope of subduing the egoism rooted in human nature, moralists -have preached renunciation of individual happiness and the need of -subordinating it to the good of the community. Very often such -doctrine has borne little fruit, but there are cases where it has been -embraced with such ardour that men and, still more, young women have -been led to sacrifice their well-being for what they have taken to be -the common good. However it may involve self-abnegation, there has been -continued insistence on the duty of sacrificing the individual to the -community. - -The existing great inequalities in the distribution of wealth have -revived doctrines the object of which is to redress such injustice. -For more than a century, different forms of socialism have claimed -to formulate rules for the amelioration of mankind. They agree in -a verdict against existing conditions, but follow different paths -in their proposals for the reformation of society. The varieties of -socialism are so numerous that it is difficult even to define the -word. Although collectivist theories have lost much of their early -thoroughness, they are still far from admitting the just claims of -the individuals constituting the society. At socialist assemblies and -congresses the resolutions adopted frequently proclaim aggressively the -sacrifice of the rights of the individual. The members of one socialist -party have been seen refusing the collaboration of newspapers which are -not the official organs of the party, or declining any co-operation -with a government they have proscribed. In strikes organised by -socialists, work is forbidden to men who ardently desire it. Recently -printers have refused to set up newspapers the opinions of which they -did not share, and even doctors have been known to decline to treat -those belonging to another political party. - -It is no new charge against collectivists that they would encroach -too much on individual liberty. They reply that “in social-democratic -society of the future, tyranny and oppression will be impossible. The -secret of the bond will reside in a discipline totally different from -the inanimate obedience of the soldier, a discipline depending on a -willing submission of the individual to the group because of the common -object.”[170] But such discipline and submission may go so far that the -conscience of the individual is seriously offended. And so amongst the -socialists themselves there has arisen a small group which declines to -accept this submergence of the individual in the whole. This group is -composed of anarchists, who, in the name of liberty and the individual, -attack the property and sometimes the lives of their opponents. - -It appears that there has been a notable evolution of collectivist -theories in the century or more in which the abolition of human misery -has been an accepted problem. Whilst there was formerly advocated -the total abolition of private property and the establishment of -phalansteries for communal life, at the present time the demand is -limited to the nationalisation of the means of production, leaving -housing and food to be provided by individual property.[171] - -Through a publication, of M. Kautsky, one of their best known -representatives, the social democrats have announced that “the -nationalisation of the land does not necessarily bring with it the -abolition of private dwellings. The customary attachment of the -dwelling to agricultural employment will cease, but there is no reason -why the peasants’ houses should become collective property.” “Modern -socialism does not exclude individual property in food. One of the -most important, perhaps the most important factor, in making human -life happy and adding to its pleasures is the possible attainment of -a private house. Collective ownership of the land does not exclude -this.” It is very difficult to separate house and garden, especially -from the point of view of considering the pleasures of life. A -garden furnishes the opportunity for endless improvements, many of -which cannot be separated from the idea of individual property. The -concessions which collectivists have been compelled to make show -conclusively the importance of private property. - -Notwithstanding such modifications, many voices have been raised -against the prospect of the socialisation of the means of production -and the concomitant limitations of individual enterprise. The great -English philosopher, Herbert Spencer,[172] against whom narrowness -of view or conservatism could be urged, energetically attacked -collectivist doctrines as tending to reduce human individuality to -a dead level. By a series of cogent instances, he showed the evil -results of the best intentioned efforts to equalise opportunities -and to abolish poverty. He foretold that slavery would be the real -outcome if the State interfered too much in spheres that ought to be -left to individual enterprise. He believed that the institution of a -collectivist State would bring great dangers. - -Nietzsche has attacked socialism with his customary exaggeration. -“Socialism,”[173] he wrote, “is the fanatical younger brother of dying -despotism, whose goods he wishes to inherit; his efforts are, in the -deepest sense of the word, reactionary. He wishes a wealth of power in -the State greater than despotism ever enjoyed, but he goes beyond all -the past inasmuch as he strives absolutely to stifle the individual; -for him the individual is a useless efflorescence of nature to be -tamed into a useful organ of the community.” Further, “Socialism at -least teaches brutally and convincingly the danger of concentrating -power in the State, for it is a covert attack on the State itself. -When its harsh voice raises the war-cry ‘Let the State control as much -as possible,’ the cry will at first become louder; but soon another -phrase will grow equally clamant, ‘Let the State control as little as -possible.’” - -It is most probable that no shade of socialism will be able to -solve the problem of social life with a sufficient respect for the -maintenance of individual liberty. None the less the progress of human -knowledge will inevitably bring about a great levelling of human -fortunes. Intellectual culture will lead men to give up many things -that are superfluous or even harmful, and that are still thought -indispensable by most people. The conceptions that the greatest good -fortune consists in the complete evolution of the normal cycle of human -life and that this goal can be reached most easily by plain and sober -habits will convince men of the folly of much of the luxury that now -shortens human existence. Whilst the rich will choose a simpler mode of -life and the poor will be able to live better, none the less, private -property, acquired or inherited, may be maintained. Evolution must -be gradual and much effort and new knowledge is required. Sociology, -a new-born science, must learn of biology, her older sister. Biology -teaches us that in proportion that the organisation becomes more -complex, the consciousness of individuality develops, until a point is -reached at which individuality cannot be sacrificed to the community. -Amongst low creatures such as _Myxomycetes_ and _Siphonophora_, the -individuals disappear wholly or almost wholly in the community; -but the sacrifice is small, as in these creatures the consciousness -of individuality has not appeared. Social insects are in a stage -intermediate between that of the lower animals and man. It is only in -man that the individual has definitely acquired consciousness, and for -that reason a satisfactory social organisation cannot sacrifice it on -pretext of the common good. To this conclusion the study of the social -evolution of living beings leads me. - -It is plain that the study of human individuality is a necessary step -in the organisation of the social life of human beings. - - - - -PART VII - -PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM - - - - -I - -PREVALENCE OF PESSIMISM - - Oriental origin of pessimism—Pessimistic - poets—Byron—Leopardi—Poushkin—Lermontoff—Pessimism - and suicide - - -In the attempt to formulate a pessimistic theory of human nature, we -are naturally led to ask why it is that so many famous men have come to -a purely pessimistic conception of human life. - -Pessimism, although it has been most prominent in modern times, is -extremely old. Everyone knows the pessimistic wail of Ecclesiastes, -written nearly ten centuries before our era: “Vanity of Vanities, all -is vanity.” Solomon, the supposed author, states that he “hated life, -because the work that is wrought under the sun is grievous unto me, for -all is vanity and vexation of spirit” (Eccl. ii., 17). - -Buddha raised pessimism to the rank of a doctrine. All life seemed to -him sorrow. “Birth is sorrow, old age is sorrow, disease is sorrow, -union with one whom we do not love is sorrow, separation from one whom -we love is sorrow, not to gratify desire is sorrow, in short, our five -bonds with the things of the earth are sorrow.”[174] This Buddhistic -pessimism has been the source of most of the modern pessimistic -theories. - -Pessimism arose in the East and was much in vogue in India even apart -from Buddhism. In the poems known under the name of Bhartrihari, and -dating from the beginning of the Christian era, human life has been -commiserated in the following fashion. “One hundred years are the -limit of the life of man; night takes half of them, half of the other -half is childhood and old age, the rest is filled with diseases, with -separations and the misfortunes that come from them, with working for -others and with wasting one’s time. Where can happiness be found in an -existence most like to the bubbles in broken water?” “Man’s health is -destroyed by every kind of care and disease. When fortune comes to him, -evil follows as if by an open door. Death takes all human beings, one -after the other, and they can offer no resistance to their fate. What -is there assured amongst all that the mighty Brahma has created?”[175] - -Pessimistic theories spread from the Asiatic East to Egypt and Europe. -Three centuries before the Christian era, there arose the philosophy of -Hegesias, which maintained that experience was generally deceptive and -that enjoyment was quickly followed by satiety and disgust. According -to him, the sum of pain surpassed the sum of pleasure in life, so that -happiness was unattainable, and in reality never existed. It was vain -to seek pleasure and happiness, as these could not be realised. It was -better to try to be indifferent, dulling feeling and desire. In fact, -life was no better than death, and it was often preferable to end it -by suicide. Hegesias was called _Pisithanatos_, the adviser of death. -“Listeners thronged around him, his doctrine spread rapidly, and his -disciples, persuaded by his voice, gave themselves to death. Ptolemy -was perturbed by it, and fearing that the dislike of life would become -contagious, closed the school of Hegesias and exiled its master.”[176] - -The pessimistic tendency sometimes appears in the writings of many -Greek and Latin philosophers and poets. Seneca wrote: “The spectacle of -human life is lamentable. New misfortunes overwhelm you before you have -freed yourself from the old ones.”[177] - -It is in modern days, however, that there has been the greatest spread -of pessimism. - -Besides the philosophical theories of the last century, those -of Schopenhauer, von Hartmann and Mailaender, which I discussed -sufficiently in _The Nature of Man_, poets have formulated a -pessimistic view of life. Even Voltaire was a pessimist in the -following lines: - - Alas! what are the course and the goal of life? - Only follies and then the darkness. - Oh Jupiter! in creating us you made - A heartless jest. - -In _The Nature of Man_ I described Byron’s expression of his conception -of the evils of human life. Soon after the death of the great English -poet, a celebrated Italian poet, Giacomo Leopardi, sounded a note of -abandoned pessimism. - -Here are words which he addressed to his own heart[178]: “Be quiet for -ever, you have beaten enough, nothing is worthy of your beating and the -earth is not worthy of your sighs. Life is nothing but bitterness and -weariness, there is nothing else in it. The world is nothing but mire. -Repose from now onwards. Be in despair for ever. Destiny has given us -nothing but death. Despise henceforth yourself and nature, and the -shameful concealed power which decrees the ruin of all and the infinite -variety of all.” - -Leopardi makes his readers witnesses of his distraction and his grief: -“I shall study the blind truth”—he wrote in a poem dedicated to -Charles Pépoli—“I shall study the blind fates of things mortal and -immortal. Why humanity came into existence, and was burdened with pain -and sorrow, to what final end destiny and nature are driving it, for -whose pleasure or advantage is our great pain, what order, what laws -rule this mysterious universe which wise men cover with praise, and I -am content to wonder at” (_ibid._, p. 15). - -Quite a school of poets has been developed, singing the pain of the -world, the “Weltschmerz” of German authors, amongst whom Heine and -Nicolas Lenau are specially distinguished. - -Russian poetry was born under the influence of Byronism, and its best -exponents, Poushkin and Lermontoff, often laboured over the problem of -the object of human existence, finding only sad answers. Poushkin, who -is justly regarded as the father of lyric poetry in Russia, stated his -pessimistic conception in the following lines:— - - Useless gift, gift of chance, - Life, why wert thou given me? - And why from the beginning art thou doomed - Irrevocably to death? - - What unfriendly power - Has drawn me from the darkness, - Has filled my soul with passion, - And breathed doubt into my soul? - - There is no goal for me, - My heart and my soul are empty; - And the dull emotion of life - Has filled me with black care. - -Recently, Mde. Ackermann, in a series of short poems, has given voice -to the grief caused to her by the world and life as they are, although -she does not state exactly the reason of her bitter complaints. - -Whilst pessimistic philosophers and poets reflect the thoughts and -feelings of their contemporaries, it is certain that they also -seriously influence their readers. And so there has come into existence -a deeply rooted conviction that the miseries of human life are far -from being countervailed by its happiness. Probably such ideas have -influenced the number of suicides. We do not know with any certainty -the real motives of most cases of self-destruction, but it cannot be -denied that the trend of modern thought has played an important part. -According to statistics, the chief causes of suicide are “hypochondria, -melancholia, weariness of life, and unbalancing of the mind.” Thus from -the Danish statistics it appears (and Denmark is the country in which -suicide is most prevalent) that of 1,000 cases of suicides of males, -between 1866 and 1895, 224, or one-quarter, were referred to the causes -I have just mentioned. In the case of women, the corresponding figures -are higher, amounting to nearly one-half (403 out of 1,000). The second -most common cause of male suicides is alcoholism (164 in 1,000).[179] -It is very probable that pessimism was the determining condition in -most of the suicides referred to these two categories of causes. -Leaving out of the question the true cases of mental alienation, -amongst the victims of melancholia, hypochondria and weariness of life, -in whom the mental condition was not pathological in the strict sense -of the word, there must have been many who killed themselves because -their view of life was pessimistic. And amongst the victims of drink, -there are many who take to alcohol because they are convinced that -life is not worth preserving. - -The progressive increase in the numbers of suicides in modern times -is an index of the great influence of pessimism. There have been even -societies for the promotion of suicide. In such a society, founded in -Paris in the beginning of last century, members placed their names -in an urn, to be drawn by chance. He whose name was drawn had to -kill himself in the presence of the other members. According to its -rules, this society admitted only persons of honour who must have had -experience of “the injustice of man, the ingratitude of a friend, the -infidelity of a wife or mistress, and who, moreover, for many years -had had a void in their souls and a distaste of what this world can -offer.”[180] - -Although such societies no longer exist, individuals continue to put -their lives to an end, in greater numbers every year. - - - - -II - -ANALYSIS OF PESSIMISM - - Attempts to assign reasons for the pessimistic conception - of life—Views of E. von Hartmann—Analysis of - Kowalevsky’s work on the Psychology of Pessimism - - -In view of the facts I brought together in my last chapter, there -is occasion to inquire if it be possible to discover the intimate -mechanism by which men arrive at a conception of life as an evil to be -got rid of as quickly as possible. Why do so many think that man is -less happy than the beasts, and that cultured and intelligent men are -more unhappy than those who are ignorant or feeble-minded ? - -I have related how in a society of friends of suicide, injustice and -unfaithfulness were regarded as prime factors in arousing a distaste -for life. Shakspeare made Hamlet exclaim that if it were possible to -put an end to our days no one would continue to live:— - - For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, - The oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely? - -For Byron, besides diseases, death and slavery, the evils that we see, -there are others:— - - And worse, the woes we see not—which throb through - The immedicable soul, with heart-aches ever new. - -In many of his works he insists on the feeling of satiety which was -almost continually upon him. Every sensation of pleasure that came to -him was rapidly succeeded by a still stronger feeling of disgust. - -Heine thought that existence was evil and saw - - ... across the hard surfaces of the rocks - The homes of men and the hearts of men— - In the one as in the others, lies, imposture and misery. - -As I urged in _The Nature of Man_, consciousness of the shortness of -human life has been an important factor in exciting pessimism, and we -find this theme recurring in pessimistic writers. Leopardi returns to -it again and again in his poems. “Falling in peril of death from some -mysterious disease,” he said in his _Souvenirs_, “I lamented over my -sweet youth and the flower of my poor days which was to fall so soon, -and often in the midnight hours wove from my sorrows, by the pale light -of my lamp, a sad poem, and in the silence of the night wept over my -fleeting life, and half fainting, sang to myself my funeral song” -(_loc. cit._, p. 28). The bas-relief on an ancient tomb, representing -the departure of a young girl who took farewell of her friends, -suggested to Leopardi the following thoughts: “Mother, who from their -birth makes her family of living beings tremble and weep, Nature, -monster unworthy of our praise, who brings into the world and nurtures -only to kill, if the premature death of a mortal be evil, why do you -bring it on so many innocent heads? If it be a good, why do you make it -sad for those who go and for those left behind? Why is it the hardest -grief to console? The only relief from our woes is death, death, the -inevitable end, the immutable law which you have established for human -beings. Why, alas, after the sad voyage of life, do you not make the -arrival joyful? This certain end, this end which is in our souls all -our lives, which alone can soothe our troubles, why do you drape it in -black and surround it with mournful shades? Why do you make the harbour -more terrible than the open seas?” (_loc. cit._, p. 55). - -The three chief grievances—injustice, disease, and death—often come -together. From the anthropomorphic point of view fate is represented as -a sort of wicked being who commits injustice by visiting all kinds of -evils on mankind. - -A pessimistic conception of life is arrived at by a complex -psychological process in which both feelings and reflection are -involved, and hence it is difficult to analyse it satisfactorily. -Formerly, therefore, writers were content with general and very vague -estimates of the process by which we may become pessimists. Ed. von -Hartmann has tried to deal more exactly with this inner process of -the human mind. In the first place, he lays stress on the fact that -pleasures always bring less satisfaction than pains bring grief. -False notes in music, for instance, are more painful than the best -music is delightful. The pain of toothache is much more violent -than the pleasure when relief comes. So also with all diseases. In -love, according to Hartmann, the pleasure is always very greatly -over-balanced by the pain. Muscular work brings pleasure only in a very -small degree, and devotion to science and art and intellectual work in -general brings more pain than pleasure to the votaries. As the result -of an analysis, Hartmann is convinced that there is much more pain than -pleasure in the world. Pessimism is founded upon the essential nature -of human feelings. - -M. Kowalevsky,[181] a German philosopher at Koenigsberg, adopting the -modern habit of measuring mental processes as exactly as possible, has -recently published an attempt to analyse pessimism psychologically. -Although this has not solved the problem, it is extremely interesting -as an instance of the application of the methods now being adopted in -modern psychology. - -M. Kowalevsky took advantage of all the known methods of estimating the -relative values of our emotions; he tried to make use of the notes of -Munsterberg, another living psychologist who kept a journal in which -he set down daily his psychical and psycho-physical impressions. The -object of the work had no relation to the question of pessimism, and -for that reason Kowalevsky thought that it was specially important in -his investigations. - -Munsterberg was not content with the existing classification of -emotions as agreeable or painful. He subdivided them much further. He -recognised, for instance, emotions of tranquillity and excitement, -serious and pleasant impressions. Having completed the reckoning, -Kowalevsky came to the conclusion that his colleague, who was by -no means a pessimist, but a psychologist of well-balanced mind, -experienced many more painful emotions (about 60 per cent. as compared -with 40 per cent.) than agreeable emotions. “Such a result is in favour -of pessimism,” concluded Kowalevsky. - -However, he went beyond the foregoing enquiry. By several other -methods, he tried to gain an exact idea of the value of our emotions. -He visited elementary schools in order to investigate the pleasures -and pains of the scholars. In the case of 104 boys, of eleven to -thirteen years of age, he found that pain was much more deeply felt -than corresponding pleasure. Thus, while in 88 cases illness was set -down as an evil, only in 21 was health reckoned as a good. One-third of -the pupils noted down war amongst evils, whilst only one noted peace -amongst the good things. Poverty was written down thirteen times as an -evil, against twice in which riches were put down as a good. In another -series of investigations, Kowalevsky took notes on the pleasures and -pains felt by pupils of the two sexes attending the same school. The -result was that the greatest evil, according to them, was illness, -noted 43 times, then death 42 times, after which came fire 37 times, -hunger 23 times, floods 20 times. Amongst the good things, the first -place was given, as might have been expected, to games (30) and the -second to presents. - -As Kowalevsky did not find that such investigations could solve the -problem, he tried to discover a more exact method. With this object, -he turned to different sensations, such as those of smell, hearing and -taste, to which he applied methods of exact measurement. In the case of -taste, for instance, he determined the minimum quantity of different -substances which could excite definitely pleasant or unpleasant -sensations. In his experiments, Kowalevsky found that doses which -gave bad tastes were not balanced by those which gave good tastes. -For instance, to neutralise the unpleasant taste of quinine, it was -necessary to employ a much larger quantity of sugar. He was specially -pleased with one experiment. Four persons were given definite mixtures -of sugar and quinine in order to discover the proportion of the two -substances necessary to obtain a neutral sensation. He found that to -take away the bad taste of quinine, it was necessary to double the -quantity of sugar given. Similarly with smells, he found that those -which were unpleasant were appreciated much more strongly than those -which were pleasant. Here, then, was a series of scientific results -supporting the view of the pessimists. Must we really conclude from -them that the world is very badly arranged? The analysis of good and -bad temper made by Kowalevsky is in favour of such an interpretation. -In order to estimate these conditions of mind, he measured the gait, -that is to say, the number of steps taken in a minute. This method -depended upon the following idea. It is an accepted view that the -condition of mind is shown by the rapidity of the human walk; we -have only to compare the slow pace of a man in deep grief with the -rapid steps of a man in a state of joy. Pain, as a general rule, -depresses, while joy stimulates voluntary movements. The result of -the measurements taken according to this method give a new argument -in favour of pessimism. However, it is useless to attempt to analyse -these figures on which Kowalevsky had to employ the integral calculus, -because the principle of his method cannot be supported. As a matter of -fact, the rapidity of walking is an index of the degree of excitation, -and not of the happy or unhappy condition of the mind. When a person -suddenly undergoes a strong impression, either pleasant or unpleasant, -he takes to walking actively about in his room, and may even want to -go out of doors to walk more quickly. A letter which has been received -and which gives some unexpected news, as for instance of the infidelity -of a person one loves, or of an inheritance which one did not expect, -produces a condition of excitement shown chiefly by rapid walking. Many -orators and professors have to make gestures and to walk about in the -course of their lectures. A man of science to whom some new idea comes -and who wishes to think it out, rises from his chair and begins to -walk. But not only on such pleasant occasions, but when one has to face -an insult or an act of defiance which makes one very angry, the need to -walk actively is felt. It is therefore impossible to utilise records of -movements in the study of the pessimistic state of mind. - -M. Kowalevsky employed still another mode of attacking the problem. -He examined the recollection of painful or pleasant impressions. He -asked the children of both sexes, whom he was investigating, questions -which gave him indications as to whether pleasures or pains made -the more lasting impression on the memory, and he registered the -answers. The result, which agreed with what had already been obtained -by Mr. Colegrove, an American psychologist, was unfavourable to the -pessimistic view. He found, in fact, that in the majority of cases (70 -per cent.) recollection of pleasant impressions predominated. However, -in such investigations there is a facile source of error arising from -the condition of mind of those who are being questioned. It is probable -that Kowalevsky made his enquiry in school during recreation time, when -most of the pupils were free from the boredom of the actual class. When -we are happy the tendency exists in us to recall pleasant impressions -of the past. If the enquiry had been made during a difficult or -wearying lesson, or on children shut up in a hospital, or undergoing -punishment, it is probable that the result would have been reversed. - -It is evident that all such attempts to solve a problem so complex as -that of pessimism, even by the so-called exact methods of physiological -psychology, cannot lead to any convincing result. Thus Kowalevsky’s -different investigations led to contradictory conclusions. Whilst some -of his series of facts supported the pessimistic conception, others -were opposed to it, and he obtained no definite general conclusion. -How can one expect to apply a method of measurement to sensations and -emotions so different, not only from the qualitative point of view, -but also in relation to their intensity? Take, for instance, the case -of an individual who has experienced in one day nine sensations which -were painful and one which was agreeable. According to the valuation -of experimental psychologists, he ought to have reason to become a -pessimist. However, this may be far from the case, if the nine painful -impressions were much weaker than the single happy impression. The -first were provoked by small wounds to his pride, fleeting pains of no -importance, and small losses of money, whilst the happy emotion came -from receiving a love letter. The sum of the ten impressions would be a -happy one, and might well put him in an optimistic frame of mind. The -learned attempts of experimental psychologists must be abandoned, as -incapable of illuminating the problem. If, however, the human spirit -still seeks some means of explaining the psychology of pessimism, there -remains only the less subtle method given by the biographical study of -human beings. - - - - -III - -PESSIMISM IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND AGE - - Relation between pessimism and the state of the - health—History of a man of science who was pessimistic - when young, and who became an optimist in old - age—Optimism of Schopenhauer when old—Development of - the sense of life—Development of the senses in blind - people—The sense of obstacles - - -Animals and children in good health are generally cheerful and of -optimistic temperament. As soon as they fall ill they become sad -and melancholy until their recovery. We may infer from this that an -optimistic view is correlated with normal health, whilst pessimism -arises from some physical or mental disease. And so in the case of -the prophets of pessimism, we may seek for the origin of their views -in some affliction. The pessimism of Byron has been attributed to his -club-foot, and that of Leopardi to tuberculosis, these two nineteenth -century exponents of pessimism having died whilst young. Buddha and -Schopenhauer, on the other hand, reached old age, whilst Hartmann died -when sixty-four years old. Their diseases at the time when they formed -their theories could not have been very dangerous, and none the less -they took a most gloomy view of human existence. The recent historical -investigations of Dr. Iwan Bloch[182] make it very probable that -Schopenhauer, in his youth, contracted syphilis. There has been found -a note-book of the great philosopher in which he wrote down the details -of the severe mercurial treatment which he had to undergo. The disease, -however, was not contracted until several years after the appearance of -his great pessimistic work. - -Although we must attach due weight to the connection between disease -and pessimism, we can assure ourselves that the problem is more complex -than it appears at first sight. It is well known that blind people -often enjoy a constant good humour, and, amongst the apostles of -optimism, there has been the philosopher Duering,[183] who lost his -sight during his youth. - -Moreover, it has been noticed that persons affected with chronic -diseases frequently have a very optimistic conception of life, whilst -young people in full strength may become sad, melancholic, and -abandoned to the most extreme pessimism. Such a contrast has been -well described by Émile Zola in his novel _La Joie de Vivre_, where a -rheumatic old man, tried by severe attacks of gout, maintained his good -humour, whilst his young son, although vigorous and in good health, -professed extreme pessimism. - -I have a cousin who lost his sight in early youth. When he grew up he -formed a most enviable judgment of life. He lived in his imagination -and everything in life seemed to him good and beautiful; he married, -and pictured his wife to himself as the most beautiful woman in the -world, and thus he feared nothing more than the recovery of his sight. -He had adapted himself to live without sight, and was convinced that -the reality was much lower than his imagination. He feared that if he -were able to see his wife she would appear to him less beautiful. - -I know a girl twenty-six years old, blind from her birth, the subject -of infantile paralysis and liable to fits of epilepsy. She is nearly an -idiot, lives in a carriage, and sees life from its best side. She is -certainly the most happy member of all her family. - -The good humour and megalomania of those affected with general -paralysis of the insane also is well known. All such examples show that -pessimism cannot be explained as depending on bad health. - -Examination of the state of mind of a pessimist may throw some light on -the subject. There has been within my own circle a typical case of a -person who went through a phase of life in which everything seemed as -gloomy as possible. My intimate knowledge of him makes it possible to -apply my observations to the matter under discussion. - -The subject was born of parents of good health and in comfortable -circumstances, so that, from the beginning of his life, he was -surrounded by a favourite environment. He lived in the country and -escaped the diseases of childhood, so that he reached maturity in good -health, and passed well through college and the university. Science -attracted him, and he had the ambition to become a distinguished -investigator. He threw himself into a scientific career with zeal and -ability. His ardent disposition, although certainly favourable to work, -was the cause of many troubles. He wished to succeed too quickly, and -the obstacles he encountered embittered him. As he thought himself -naturally talented, he conceived it to be the duty of his seniors to -aid his development. And so, when he met with natural and very common -indifference from those who had already become successful, the young -man thought that there was a plot against him, to bring to nothing his -scientific talents. From this view, many quarrels and difficulties -arose, and as he could not overcome these sufficiently quickly, he -fell into a mood of pessimism. In this life, he said to himself, the -main thing is to adapt oneself to external conditions. According to -Darwin’s law of natural selection, the individuals who do not succeed -in adapting themselves go to the wall. The survivors are not the -best but only the most cunning. In the history of the earth it has -been seen that many lower animals have long survived creatures much -higher in organisation and general evolution. Whilst so many of the -higher mammals, the nearest relatives of man, have been crushed out of -existence, simpler animals, such as evil-smelling cockroaches, have -survived from the remotest times, and multiply in the neighbourhood of -man in despite of his efforts to exterminate them. The animal series -and human evolution itself show that delicacy of the nervous system, -with its concomitant extreme development of the sensibilities, hinders -the power of adaptation and brings with it insuperable evils. The -least blow to his pride, or a slighting word from a comrade, threw -this pessimist into a most painful condition. No, he would cry, it -would be better to be without friends, if one is to be wounded so -deeply by them. It would be best to seclude oneself in some remote -spot and be engrossed in one’s work. He was very impressionable and a -lover of music, and from his visits to the opera, he retained in his -mind an air from the “Flûte enchantée.” “Were I as small as a snail, -I would hide myself in my shell.” His moral hypersensibility was -associated with physical hyperæsthesia. Noises of all kinds, such as -the whistling of railway-trains, the cries of street-vendors, or the -barking of dogs, excited extremely painful sensations. The least trace -of light prevented him from sleeping at night. The unpleasant flavour -of most drugs made it impossible for him to take medicine. He agreed -thoroughly with the pessimistic philosophers who declare that the ills -of life far surpass the good things. He required no experiments on the -sense of taste to convince him. He believed that the organisation of -his body prevented him from becoming adapted to external conditions and -that he would have to disappear like the mammoth and the anthropoid -apes. - -The course of his life confirmed the convictions of our pessimist. -He had no private fortune and married a woman who became affected -with tuberculosis, and so was confronted with the greatest evils of -existence. A young lady, hitherto in good health, contracted influenza -in some northern town. It was a mere nothing, said the doctors; -influenza is everywhere and no one escapes it; after a little patience -and rest, she will be well again. However the “influenza” persisted -and brought with it feebleness and wasting. The doctors then found -that there was a little dullness in the apex of the left lung, but as -there was no bad family history, there was nothing to fear. I need not -describe the familiar course of events. The trifling influenza was -replaced by degeneration of the left lung, and brought death after four -years of great suffering. Towards the end, when there was no hope, the -patient found her only solace in morphine. Under the influence of that -drug, she passed hours free from pain and in relative calm, but her -excited imagination passed almost into hallucination. - -It is not surprising that the death of his wife was a severe shock -to the husband. His pessimism became complete. He was a widower at -the age of twenty-eight years, and, in his condition of mental and -physical exhaustion, took to morphine like his wife. He knew that -it was a poison which would complete the ruin of his constitution -and make his work impossible. But what was the value of his life? -As his organisation was too nervous for him to adapt himself to -external conditions, was it not as well to come to the aid of natural -selection and so make room for others? As it happened, a large dose of -morphia did not solve the problem. It produced in him a condition of -extraordinary happiness combined with extreme physical weakness. Little -by little the instinct of life awoke in him, and he resumed his work. -Pessimism, however, remained the fundamental quality in his character. -Life was not worth the pains necessary to protect it. It would be -a true crime to bring into the world other living beings doomed to -elimination by natural selection. Moral and physical sensibility, as -they continued to develop, brought with them so much evil that there -could be no good end. The “injustice” of those who were unwilling to -“understand” him made life painful to the man himself and to those -about him. The closest absorption and hard work made his existence more -tolerable, but his pessimistic conception was not in the least altered. -Thus, he was easily driven to morphia for consolation, when he suffered -from some act of “injustice” or vexation. A severe fit of poisoning, -however, stopped this excess. - -Years passed. When he discussed with his friends the problem of -the goal of human life and similar topics, he was always ardent in -supporting the point of view of pessimism. However, he occasionally -wondered if his pleading for this were really sincere. As his nature -was honest and frank, this question which he put to his conscience -appeared most curious to him. Analysis of what passed in his mind -revealed to him a change. It was not that his conceptions had changed -in the course of years, but rather his feelings and sensations. As -he was now in full maturity, between forty-five and fifty years old, -he found that there was a great change in the intensity of these -last. Disagreeable sounds did not trouble him to the same extent as -formerly, and he was undisturbed by the caterwauling of cats or by -harsh street cries. As his hypersensibility diminished his character -became more tolerant. Even the injustices or wounds to his pride which -formerly drove him to morphia, no longer provoked in him any painful -reaction. He could easily conceal the bad effect of these upon him, -and no longer felt them with the same intensity. Thus his character -had become much more supportable to those with him, and much better -balanced. - -“It is old age which is come upon me,” he cried; “I feel painful -impressions much less acutely and pleasant impressions have less -effect on me. The relative proportions of the two remain as before, -that is to say, unpleasant things still impress me much more strongly -than pleasant things.” By analysing and comparing his emotions, he -discovered something new, in fact that some impressions were, so to -speak, neutral. As he was less sensitive to unharmonious sounds, and -at the same time less affected by music itself, he found himself in -a more tranquil condition. Awakening in the middle of the night, he -experienced a kind of happiness which reminded him of that formerly -produced by morphine, and which was characterised by his hearing no -sound, either pleasant or unpleasant. He became less disgusted by -drugs, but at the same time indifferent to the pleasures of the table -which he had appreciated in his youth. He also delighted in consuming -more and more simple food. A piece of black bread and a glass of water -became real treats to him. Insipid dishes, which he formerly despised, -were now specially agreeable to him. - -Just as in the evolution of art, violent coloration has yielded to the -low tones of Puvis de Chavannes, as views of fields and meadows are -preferred to those of mountains and lakes; just as in literature, -tragic and romantic studies have been successfully replaced by scenes -of daily life, so the psychical development of my friend displayed -a similar change. Instead of taking his pleasure in mountains or in -places famed for their picturesqueness, he was content to watch the -budding of the leaves of the trees of his garden, or a snail overcoming -its fears and putting out its horns. The simplest occurrences, such -as the lisping or the smile of a baby or the first words of a child, -became sources of real delight to this elderly man of science. What -was the meaning of these changes which took so many years to be -accomplished? It was the growth of his sense of life. The instinct of -life is little developed in youth. Just as a young woman gets more -pain than pleasure from the earlier part of her married life, just as -a new-born baby cries, so the impressions from life, especially when -they are very keenly felt, bring more pain than pleasure during a long -period of human life. The sensations and feelings are not stable; they -undergo evolution, and when that takes place more or less normally, it -brings about a state of psychical equilibrium. - -And thus my friend, formerly so entrenched in pessimism, came to share -my optimistic view of life. The discussions that we had had for so many -years ended in complete agreement. “However,” said he, “to understand -the value of life, one must have lived long; otherwise one is in the -position of a man blind from his birth to whom are recounted the -beauties of colours.” In a word, my friend towards the end of his life -changed from abject pessimism to complete optimism. - -Such a transformation or evolution cannot be regarded as unusual. -In _The Nature of Man_, I showed that most of the great pessimistic -writers had been young men. Such were Buddha, Byron, Leopardi, -Schopenhauer, Hartmann, and Mailaender, and there might be added many -other names of less well known men. - -The question has often been asked why Schopenhauer, who was certainly -sincere in his philosophy and who extolled Nirvana as the perfect -state, came to have a strong attachment to life, instead of putting -it to a premature end as was done later on by Mailaender. The reason -was that the philosopher of Frankfort lived long enough to acquire a -strong instinct of life. M. Moebius,[184] a well-known authority on -madness, has made a close investigation of Schopenhauer’s biography, -and has established the fact that towards the end of his life his views -were tinged with optimistic colours. On his seventieth anniversary, he -took pleasure in the consoling idea of the Hindoo Oupanischad and of -Flourens that the span of man’s life might reach a century. As Moebius -put it, “Schopenhauer as an old man enjoyed life and was no longer a -pessimist” (p. 94). Not long before his death he still hoped to survive -yet another twenty years. It is true that Schopenhauer never recanted -his early pessimistic writings, but that was probably because he did -not fully realise his own mental evolution. - -In looking through the work of modern psychologists, I cannot -find recognition of the cycle of evolution of the human mind. In -Kowalevsky’s able and conscientious study of pessimism, I was specially -struck by one phrase. “Evils such as hunger, disease, and death are -equally terrible at all stages of life and in every rank of society” -(p. 95) said that author. I notice here a failure to recognise the -modification of the emotions in the course of life which, none the -less, is one of the great facts of human nature. Fear of death is by -no means equally great at all stages of life. A child is ignorant of -death and has no conscious aversion from it. The youth and the young -man know that death is a terrible thing, but they have not the horror -of it that comes to a mature man in whom the instinct of life has -become fully developed. And we see that young men are careless of the -laws of hygiene, whilst old men devote to them sedulous attention. -This difference is probably a notable cause of pessimism in young men. -In his studies of the mind, Moebius[185] has stated his view that -pessimism is a phase of youth which is succeeded by a serener spirit. -“One may remain a pessimist in theory,” he says, “but actually to be -one, it is necessary to be young. As years increase, a man clings more -firmly to life.” “When an old man is free from melancholia, he is not -a pessimist at heart.” “We cannot yet explain clearly the psychology -of the pessimism of the young, but at least we can lay down the -proposition that it is a disease of youth” (p. 182). - -The cases of Schopenhauer and of the man of science whose psychical -history I have sketched fully confirm the view of the alienist of -Leipzig. - -The conception that there is an evolution of the instinct of life in -the course of the development of a human being is the true foundation -of optimistic philosophy. It is so important that it should be examined -with the minutest care. Our senses are capable of great cultivation. -Artists develop the sense of colour far beyond the point attained -by ordinary men, and distinguish shades that others do not notice. -Hearing, taste, and smell also can be educated. Wine tasters have an -appreciation of wine much more acute than that of other men. A friend -of mine, who does not drink wine, can distinguish burgundy from claret -only by the shapes of the bottles, but is devoted to tea and has a very -fine palate for different blends. I do not know if a good palate is a -natural gift, but however this may be, it is certain that the palate -can be brought to a high condition of perfection. - -The development of the senses is specially notable in the case of the -blind in whom other powers become extremely acute. As I thought that -investigation of the educability of other senses in blind persons very -important from the point of view of the development of the sense of -life, I have tried to obtain the best available information on the -question. The perfection of touch in the blind is accepted so generally -as a truth that one would have expected to find convincing facts in its -favour. However, it is not true. Griesbach,[186] using a well-known -method for estimating tactile discrimination, found that the sense of -touch is not more acute in the blind than in normal persons. Blind -persons distinguished the points of a pair of compasses as separate, -only when they were at least as far apart as in case of normal persons. -Dr. Javal,[187] a well-known oculist who himself became blind, stated -his surprise at finding that “tactile discrimination is quite notably -less acute in the case of the blind than in the case of those with -unimpaired vision. For instance, the index finger of a blind man who -was a great reader got separate sensations from the points of a pair -of compasses only when these were three millimetres apart, whilst a -man with normal sight had the double sensation at a distance of two -millimetres” (p. 123). Griesbach goes still farther, stating that -neither hearing nor smell is better developed in the blind than -amongst normal people. Although these senses may come to replace to a -certain extent the sense of sight, this occurs merely because the blind -person uses impressions which the clear-sighted person hardly notices. -As we see what is going on around us, we do not concentrate our -attention on the different sounds and smells or other such phenomena. -The blind person, on the other hand, not being absorbed by impressions -of sight, gives attention to the others. Such and such a sound tells -him that the garden gate of his neighbour has been opened to let out a -carriage which he must avoid. A particular smell lets him recognise the -place where he is, as stable or kitchen. - -From the present point of view, it is not exactly the acuteness of the -senses which is most important. The acuteness might be equal in a blind -person and in a normal person. It might even be greater in the latter, -and yet it is only the blind person who can decipher without difficulty -raised points so as to understand their meaning as well as when a -normal person reads a printed book. This power of the blind person is -developed only after a long period of learning, and depends on the -appreciation of very delicate tactile impressions. I must point out, -moreover, that the method of deciding by means of a pair of compasses -gives information only with regard to one side of the tactile sense. - -However, although we admit that blind people do not really gain -anything in the four remaining senses, there is developed in them a -special kind of sensibility, which is spoken of in their case as a -sixth sense, the “sense of obstacles.” Blind people, especially those -who have lost their sight in youth, acquire a surprising habit of -avoiding obstacles and of recognising at a distance objects round -about them. Blind children, for instance, can play in a garden, without -knocking themselves against the trees. - -Dr. Javal[188] states that some blind people, when passing in front -of a house, can count the ground floor windows. A professor, who had -been blind from the age of four years, could walk in the garden without -striking against a tree or post. He appreciated a wall at a distance -of two metres from it. One day, going for the first time into a large -apartment, he recognised the presence of a big piece of furniture in -the middle, which he took to be a billiard table. - -Another blind man, walking in the street, could distinguish houses from -shops and could count the number of doors and windows. The existence -of this sense of obstacles rests upon so many exact facts that it is -indubitable. The opinions as to the mechanism by which it operates, -however, are very varied. Dr. Zell[189] thinks that it is not a sense -peculiar to blind people and “that those of normal sight could equally -well acquire it by practice, because it exists in nearly everyone -without being noticed.” None the less, there are some blind people who, -even in the course of years, do not acquire it. M. Javal, for instance, -learnt to read with his fingers extremely well, but was never able to -distinguish obstacles at a distance. - -The most probable hypothesis refers this sixth sense to the action of -the tympanic membrane and the auditory apparatus. It is known that -loud noise makes it more difficult to perceive obstacles, and snow, -by dulling the sound of steps, has a precisely similar effect. Blind -tuners, in whom the sense of hearing is well developed, have the sixth -sense very marked. - -The examples I have given show that the human body possesses senses -which come into operation only in special conditions, and which -require a special education. The “sense of life” to a certain -extent comes within this category. In some persons it develops very -imperfectly, generally revealing itself only late in life, but -sometimes a disease or the danger of losing life stimulates its earlier -development. Occasionally in persons who have tried to commit suicide, -a strong instinct of life wakens suddenly, and impels them to make -frantic efforts to escape. - -It happens, therefore, that the sense of life develops sometimes in -healthy people, sometimes in those who suffer from acute or chronic -disease. These variations are parallel with the development of the -sexual instinct, which in some women is completely absent and in others -develops only very late. In certain cases, it is awakened only by -special conditions, such as child-birth, or even some defect of health. - -As the sense of life can be developed, special pains ought to be taken -with it, just as with the making perfect of the other senses in the -blind. Young people who are inclined to pessimism ought to be informed -that their condition of mind is only temporary, and that according to -the laws of human nature it will later on be replaced by optimism. - - - - -PART VIII - -GOETHE AND FAUST - - - - -I - -GOETHE’S YOUTH - - Goethe’s youth—Pessimism of youth—Werther—Tendency to - suicide—Work and love—Goethe’s conception of life in - his maturity - - -There can be drawn from analysis of the lives of great men information -that is very important in the study of the constitution of man. I have -chosen Goethe for several reasons. He was a man of genius distinguished -by the comprehensive character of his ability. He was a poet and -dramatist of the highest rank, his mind was stored with the most -varied knowledge, and he contributed to the advancement of natural -science. As minister of state and as the director of a theatre, he was -occupied with practical affairs. He reached the age of eighty-three -years, and he passed through the phases of life in relatively normal -circumstances; in his many writings there are most valuable facts which -throw a keen light on his life and nature. The Goethe cult in Germany -has brought about the existence of fuller biographical details than -exist regarding any other great man. He aspired to lead “the higher -life,” and, throughout his existence, he occupied himself with the most -serious problems of humanity. - -It is not surprising that Goethe became a subject of investigation for -me, but as the main facts as to his history are widely known I need not -elaborate them here. - -Goethe was reared in circumstances that were favourable in every -respect, and from his earliest years showed remarkable traits. As his -memory was good and his imagination vast, the study of ancient and -modern languages and the routine curriculum of a classical education -were little more than an amusement to him. The rich library of his -father placed all sorts of books at his disposal, and whilst he was -still young he devoted himself to reading with the enthusiasm and -passion that were the chief qualities of his character. When he was -fifteen years old he began to write verses, although he was still -unconscious of his destiny as a poet. He intended to be a learned man, -and looked forward to the career of a professor. - -At the age of sixteen, he entered the University of Leipzig with the -intention of studying natural science seriously. Law and philosophy -interested him but little; he turned to natural science and medicine, -although his actual study was rather superficial. His disposition was -lively and restless; he made many friends, frequented the theatre -and plunged into all kinds of gaiety. Extracts from letters he wrote -during this period show the kind of life he led. When he was a student, -eighteen years old, he wrote to a friend, “And so good-night; I am -drunk as a hog.” A month later, to the same friend, he summed up his -life as a “delirium in the arms of Jetty.” - -He graduated in law at Strassburg, and became a barrister, but -realising that such a career was unsuitable, he became a man of -letters, encouraged by the success of his first literary efforts. - -From the point of view of a writer, he sought all kinds of experiences. -He devoted himself to literature and science, including even the -occult sciences, and frequented the theatre and society. He was -specially attracted by the imaginative side and gave little thought to -the problems of science. “I must have movement,” he wrote in one of his -note-books. - -When he was young, his temper was violent and he fell into fits of -passionate rage. His contemporaries have related that when he was in -such a condition he would destroy the illustrations and tear up the -books on his work-table. These experiences have been vividly described -in his famous romance, _The Sorrows of Werther_. I shall give a few -extracts to show the exact state of mind of the young pessimist. “It is -the fate of some men not to be understood.” “Human life is a dream; I -am not the first to say that, but the idea haunts me. When I reflect on -the narrow limits which circumscribe the powers of man, his activities -and intelligence; when I see how we exhaust our forces in satisfying -our wants and that these wants are for no more than the prolongation -of a miserable existence; that our acquiescence in so much is merely -resignation engendered by dreams, like that of a prisoner who has -covered the walls of his cell with pictures and new landscapes; such -things, my friend, plunge me into silence.” “Our learned teachers -all agree that children do not know why they have desires; but that -grown men should move on the earth like children, and, like these, be -ignorant whence they have come and whither they go, like these strive -little for real things, but be ruled by cakes and sweets and rods; no -one will believe such things, though their truth is patent. I admit -readily (for I know what you will say) that they are the happiest men -who live from day to day like children, who play with their dolls, -dress them and undress them, who reverence the cupboard where mamma -keeps the gingerbread, and who, when they have got what they wish, -cry, with their mouths full, ‘How happy we are!’” - -Werther proclaimed his pessimism before his romance with Charlotte, and -it was his view of life that made his love-affair turn out unhappily. -But the fame of Goethe’s _Werther_ was due, not to the tragic fate -of the young lover, but to the general views which were in harmony -with the conception of the world held by the best minds of the time. -Byronism was born before Byron. - -_Werther_ affords a good illustration of the disharmonies in the -development of man’s psychical nature. Inclination and desires develop -extremely strongly and before will. Just as in the development of -the reproductive functions, as I showed in _The Nature of Man_, the -different factors develop unequally and unharmoniously, so there is -inequality and disharmony in the order of the appearance of the higher -psychical faculties. Sexual appreciation and a vague attraction to -the other sex appear at a time when there can be no possibility of -the normal physical side of sex, with the result that many evils come -about in the long period of youth. The precocious development of -sensibility brings about a kind of diffused hyperæsthesia which may -lead to trouble. The infant wishes to lay hold of everything he sees -before him; he stretches out his arms to grasp the moon and suffers -from his inability to gratify his desires. In youth there is still -well-marked disharmony. Young people cannot realise the true relations -of things, and formulate their desires before they understand that -their will-power is not strong enough to gratify them, as will is the -latest of the human powers to develop. - -Werther fell in love with a kindred spirit and gave way to his passion -without consideration of the difficulties, Charlotte being already -betrothed to another. This is the plot of the tragedy of the young -man, who committed suicide, having given way to pessimism. He had not -the will-power to conquer his sentiments and so fell into a state of -lassitude, until, weary of life, he could see no other end than to blow -out his brains. - -I need not linger over the last phase of the story of Werther, for it -is the character of Goethe himself that is of interest. Goethe was -able to subdue his passion for Lotte, and, after many amorous woes, -consoled himself with another woman. Notwithstanding this difference, -it is certain that in _Werther_, Goethe was telling part of the story -of his own youth. Goethe himself is a witness to this, for in a letter -to Kestner he wrote that “he was at work on the artistic reproduction -of his own case.” The letter was written in July, 1773, whilst Goethe, -then a writer twenty-four years old, was relating the sorrows of young -Werther. - -The general tendency of _Werther_ has been described excellently -by Carlyle.[190] “_Werther_,” he wrote, “is but the cry of that -dim, rooted pain, under which all thoughtful men of a certain age -were languishing; it paints the misery, it passionately utters the -complaint; and heart and voice, all over Europe, loudly and at once -responded to it.” Werther was “the first thrilling peal of that -impassioned dirge which, in country after country, men’s ears have -listened to, till they were deaf to all else.” - -In the pessimistic period of his life, Goethe often cherished the idea -of suicide. In his biography he relates that at this time he used to -have, by his bedside, a poisoned dagger, and that he had repeatedly -tried to plunge it in his bosom. Of these times he wrote to his friend -Zelter[191]—“I know what it has cost me in effort to resist the waves -of death.” The suicide which was the subject of the end of his romance -made a deep impression upon him. Although he overcame his passion -for Charlotte, his view of life remained tinged with pessimism for -many years; in a note-book of 1773, for instance, he wrote “I am not -made for this world.”[192] These words are the more striking as they -date from a period when exact ideas regarding the adaptation of the -organism and the character to the environment did not exist. Goethe, -with his too delicate sensibility, felt himself out of harmony with his -environment. - -It is very interesting to trace Goethe’s subsequent development and -the transformation of a youthful pessimist into a convinced optimist. -Goethe found a remedy for his crises of grief in work, poetical -creation and love. He declared that the mere describing his woes on -paper brought assuagement. The tears that they shed console women and -children; and the poetry in which he expresses his suffering consoles -the poet. Goethe’s romance with Charlotte was not quite at an end when -he found himself ready to love her sister Helen. He wrote to Kestner in -December, 1772:—“I was about to ask you if Helen had arrived, when I -got the letter telling me of her return.” “To judge from her portrait -she must be charming, even more charming than Charlotte. Well, I am -free and I am thirsting for love.” “I am here at Frankfort again with -new plans and new dreams, and all will be well if I find someone to -love.” Soon afterwards, in another letter to Kestner, he wrote:—“Tell -Charlotte that I have found here a girl whom I love with all my heart; -if I wanted to marry, I should choose her before anyone else.” - -As he had not yet realised his true vocation, Goethe became a court -minister at Weimar. He devoted himself to his duties with an -enthusiasm that carried him far beyond the usual affairs of state. -He wished to deepen his knowledge of such administrative problems as -the construction of roads and the management of mines, and he studied -geology and mineralogy with a real zest. Forest administration and -agriculture led him seriously into botany, and as he had the direction -of a school of design, he thought it necessary to learn anatomy. -Such varied work gave him a real taste for science. It was no longer -the superficial interest that characterised his work at Leipzig and -Strassburg but a true devotion which led him to important discoveries, -some of which have become classic. - -Even such varied occupations did not absorb his prodigious genius. In -his leisure he wrote poetry and prose. Engrossed in so much work, he -was happy. His discovery of the human intermaxillary bone suffused him -with joy. His intense activity was strengthened by his love for Madame -von Stein, a love that he declared was “a life-belt supporting him in -the sea.” A few hours with her in the evenings set free his soul. - -The powerful influence of love on the life of Goethe was specially -prominent in this period when he was passing from pessimistic youth to -optimistic maturity. Being forced to separate from Madame von Stein, -he gave way to grief that plunged him again in the worst hours of his -life. At the age of thirty-seven he fell back into a crisis like that -of the days of _Werther_. “I have discovered,” he said in 1786, “that -the author of _Werther_ would have done well to blow out his brains -when he had finished his work.” Soon afterwards he wrote that “death -would have been better than the last years of his life.” - -This relapse into pessimism was shorter and less acute than his first -experience. He began to find that frequently his delight in existence -and sense of life were proved by his fear of death. When he was little -more than thirty years old, he began to take precautions against the -chance of his death. He wrote to Lavater:—“I have no time to lose; I -am already getting on in years, and it may be that fate will destroy -me in the midst of my life.” On all sides his wish to live and his -shrinking from death reveal themselves. It was at this time, a few -days after his thirty-first birthday, that he wrote those famous -lines, counted amongst the finest of his poetry, on the summit of -the Gickelhahn, on the wall of a small room, and which end with the -presentiment of his own death, “Before long, you also will be at rest.” - -The crisis through which he passed at the age of thirty-seven, as the -immediate result of his separation from Madame von Stein, but perhaps -also partly due to brain fatigue, brought about his sudden departure -from Weimar and his long sojourn in Italy. There he came to life again, -and everything interested him, archæology, art and nature. The joy of -life came back to him, and he soon consoled himself for the lost love -of the blue-stocking Baroness in the arms of a pretty, blue-eyed girl -of Milan. This girl, whose name was Maddalena Riggi, like Charlotte, -was already betrothed, a circumstance, however, that had a different -result. Even after she had given up the man to whom she had been -engaged, Goethe avoided any permanent bond and soon abandoned her -definitely. He chose to associate with Faustine, another Italian girl, -with whom he lived during the last period of his stay at Rome. This -affair, which was less ideal and much simpler than his love for Madame -von Stein, he has described in his _Roman Elegies_, which throw a vivid -light on his temperament. I shall give some characteristic extracts. - -“A sacred enthusiasm inspires me on this classic soil; the old world -and the world around me raise their voices and draw me to them. -Here I follow the ideas and turn over the pages of the ancient -writers, giving myself no rest whilst day lasts and ever reaching new -delights. By night love calls me to other cares; and if I am only half -a philosopher, I am twice happy. But may I not say that I am also -learning when my eye follows the contours of a loving breast, when with -my hand I trace the lines of her form? It is then that I understand -marble, I think and compare, I see with an eye that touches and touch -with a hand that sees.” “Often I have made verses in her arms; often -my playful finger has softly beaten out my hexameters on her back. As -she breathes in her sweet sleep, her breath burns me to my innermost -soul.”[193] - -His stay in Italy brought Goethe definitely to maturity. On this -important stage in his life let us hear his biographer, Bielschowsky. -“The voyage to Italy made a new man of him. His sickliness and -nervousness disappeared. The melancholy which led him to think of early -death and made him regard death as better than the former conditions -of his life was replaced by a sublime serenity and joy in living. The -taciturn and preoccupied man who in no society abandoned his grave -thoughts had become happy as a child” (vol. i, p. 412). “From this -time on, in calm and enviable security, he passed through the cycle of -life which seemed so mysterious to others. Goethe became the serene -Olympian, the wonder of posterity, whilst many of his contemporaries no -longer saw in him the passionate pilgrim” (_ibid._, p. 417). - -It was after reaching the age of forty years that Goethe entered on the -optimistic phase of his life. - - - - -II - -GOETHE AND OPTIMISM - - Goethe’s optimistic period—His mode of life - in that period—Influence of love in artistic - production—Inclinations towards the arts must be - regarded as secondary sexual characters—Senile love of - Goethe—Relation between genius and the sexual activities - - -The moral equilibrium of the great writer was not established once -for all. In the course of his life, Goethe had several relapses into -pessimism which, however, were ephemeral, and after which he became a -man as complete and harmonious as was possible in the circumstances of -his life. He reached a serene old age, and his activity did not relax -until after his eightieth year, when he died. - -As I have already said, Goethe realised the value of life in good -time. Having become an optimist, he experienced the joy of existence -and coveted as much of it as possible. When he was an old man, he -declared that life, like the Sibylline books, became more valuable -the fewer of them were left. There appeared in him a normal phase of -human nature. The conditions under which he lived, however, were far -from ideal. His health was indifferent. In his youth he suffered from -severe hæmorrhage, probably tuberculous, and throughout his life he was -subject to various more or less serious maladies, such as gout, colic, -nephritis, and intestinal troubles. His habits were unwholesome. He -was brought up in a region of vineyards, and in his youth he acquired -the habit of drinking wine in quantities certainly harmful. This he -himself realised, and when he was thirty-one years old, after he had -acquired the instinct of life, he gave it serious attention. “I wish I -could abstain from wine,” he wrote in his note-book. Some weeks later -he wrote, “I now drink almost no wine.”[194] - -But he had not the strength of character to remain temperate, and soon -after his decision, he had fits of bleeding at the nose, which he -attributed to “having taken some glasses of wine.”[195] To his last -day, he took wine regularly, and sometimes to excess. J. H. Wolff, -who dined with him at Weimar, when he was in his eightieth year, was -surprised by his appetite and by the quantity of wine he drank. “In -addition to other food, he ate an enormous portion of roast goose, and -drank a bottle of red wine.”[196] In Eckermann’s interesting narrative -of the last ten years of Goethe’s life (1822-1832) there is repeated -mention of wine. Goethe seized every occasion to drink it. Sometimes -it was the visit of a stranger, sometimes a present of some famous -vintage. It was said that he drank from one to two bottles of wine -daily (Moebius). None the less, he was convinced that wine was not good -for intellectual work. He had remarked that when his friend Schiller -had drunk more than usual, to increase his strength and stimulate his -literary activity, the result was deplorable. He said to Eckermann -(March 11, 1828), “He will ruin his health and will spoil his work. -That is why he has made the faults the critics have pointed out.” In -another conversation (March 11, 1828) he stated that what was written -under the influence of wine was abnormal and forced, and ought to be -deleted. - -Love was the great stimulus of Goethe’s genius. The love affairs, -the histories of which fill his biography, are well known. Many have -been shocked by them; others have tried to justify them. It has been -suggested that his disposition made it necessary for him to impart his -ideas and obtain sympathy for them, and that his love for women was the -expression of a purely artistic feeling and had nothing in common with -the ordinary passion. - -The truth is that artistic genius and perhaps all kinds of genius are -closely associated with sexual activity. I agree with the proposition -formulated by Dr. Moebius[197] that “artistic proclivities are probably -to be regarded as secondary sexual characters.” Just as the beard -and some other male characters are developed as means of attracting -the female sex, so also bodily strength, strong voice and many of -the talents must be regarded as due to the need to fulfil the sexual -relations. In primitive conditions woman worked more than man; man’s -superior force served him principally in fighting with other males, the -object of the combats usually being possession of a woman. Just as a -victorious combatant covets the presence of a woman as witness of his -prowess, so an orator speaks better in the presence of a woman to whom -he is devoted. Singers and poets are stimulated in their arts by the -love they awaken. Poetic genius is intimately associated with sexual -power and castration inhibits it. Just as castrated animals retain -their physical strength, but become changed in character, losing in -particular their combative nature, so a man of genius loses much of -his quality with the sexual function. Amongst the eunuchs on record, -Abelard is the only poet, but Abelard was forty years old when he -ceased to be a man, and at the same time he ceased to be a poet. Many -singers have been eunuchs, but they have been merely executants, and -have taken no part in musical creation. Some musical composers have -been eunuchs, but these were of mediocre ability and their names have -been forgotten. When castration has taken place at an early age, it -has a much more powerful influence in modifying the secondary sexual -characters. - -From the point of view of a naturalist, I cannot agree with the -moralists who have blamed Goethe for his sexuality, nor do I share the -views of those defenders of him who have wished to deny the facts or to -explain them away by the suggestion that they did not relate to sexual -love. - -Extracts from the _Roman Elegies_ show quite clearly what was the -nature of Goethe’s love affairs. His feelings towards the Baroness von -Stein have been taken as revealing merely idealistic love. But some of -his letters to her are clear evidence that their relations were erotic -(Moebius, _Goethe_, vol. ii, p. 89). The love which he bore for Minna -Herzlieb, the girl who inspired him to write _Elective Affinities_ -(_Wahlverwandschaften_), has been described by Goethe himself in a poem -so crudely erotic that it has been impossible to publish it (Lewes, -vol. ii, p. 314). - -A fact to which I specially desire to call attention is that Goethe’s -amorous temperament survived until the end of his life, and all the -world has been astonished by the vigour of his poetic genius in extreme -old age. - -Goethe has been the subject of derision because at the age of -seventy-four years he fell deeply in love with Ulrique de Lewetzow, who -was quite a young girl. This incident, however, merits close attention -as it is a typical case of senile love in a man of genius. - -Whilst he was at Carlsbad, Goethe became acquainted with a pretty girl -seventeen years old, with beautiful blue eyes, brown hair, and of an -ardent, good-humoured and happy disposition. In the first two seasons -nothing in particular happened. But in the third summer, at Marienbad, -Goethe became passionately enamoured of Ulrique, who was then nineteen -years old and in the full bloom of her young womanhood. His love made -him young again; he passed long hours with her and took to dancing with -her. “I am quite certain,” he wrote to his son, “that it is many years -since I have enjoyed such health of body and mind” (Aug. 30, 1823). His -passion became so serious that the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, on behalf -of his friend, made a formal proposal of marriage for Mademoiselle de -Lewetzow. The mother gave an evasive answer, and the matter rested -in suspense for long, and ended in a refusal. Goethe withdrew to his -family, but encountered there strong opposition to his project of -marriage. - -This misadventure troubled the old poet so seriously that he fell ill. -He suffered from pain in the region of the heart and from profound -mental disturbance. He complained to Eckermann “that he could do -nothing, that he could get to work on nothing, and that his mind had -lost its power.” “I can no longer work,” he said. “I cannot even read, -and it is only in rare and fortunate moments that I can think, feeling -myself partially soothed” (Eckermann, Nov. 16, 1823). Eckermann makes -the following reflection on the state of mind of the great old man. -“His trouble seems to be not merely physical. The passionate desire -which he acquired for a young lady at Marienbad this summer, and -against which he is still struggling, must be regarded as the chief -cause of his illness” (Nov. 17, 1823). - -As in all earlier crises, Goethe sought consolation in poetry and -love. He left Marienbad in a carriage and began to set down verses -astonishingly vigorous for so old a man. His Marienbad elegy is held to -be one of the best of his poetical achievements. The following extracts -will give an idea of his state of mind at that period. - -“I am lost in unconquerable desire; there is nothing left but -everlasting tears. Let them flow, let them flow unceasingly. But they -can never extinguish the fire that burns me. My heart rages; it is -torn in pieces, this heart where life and death meet in a horrible -combat.” “I have lost the universe, I have lost myself, I who until now -have been the favourite of the gods; they have put me to the question, -they offered me Pandora, rich in treasure and still richer in perilous -seductions; they made me drunken with the kisses of her mouth, which -gave me its sweets; they have torn me from her arms, and have struck me -with death.” - -Goethe concealed his elegy for some time, guarding it as something -sacred, but eventually handed it over to Eckermann. Poetic creation -soothed his mind only for a time. His nature demanded some more -efficacious consolation. A few weeks after the separation he began to -complain bitterly of the absence of the Countess Julie von Egloffstein, -whom he wanted very much. “She cannot know what she is keeping from me -and what she makes me lose, nor can she know how I love her and how -she engrosses my mind.” He derived a little comfort from the visits of -Madame Szymanowska, whom he admired “not only as a great artist, but -as a pretty woman” (Eckermann, Nov. 3, 1823). “I am deeply grateful -to this charming woman,” he said to the chancellor, “for her beauty, -her sweetness, and her art have soothed my passionate heart” (Bode, p. -151). He also renewed his relations with Marianne Jung, the retired -actress and dancer. “When Goethe had to turn his thoughts from Ulrique, -the image of the pretty owner of Gerbermühle again occupied his mind. A -visit to her, and intimate correspondence with her, restored peace to -his heart so greedy of love” (Bielschowsky, vol. ii, p. 487). - -His devotion to Ulrique was Goethe’s last acute attack of love; but -until the end of his days he felt the need of being surrounded by -pretty women. As director of the theatre, he came in contact with many -young women who wished engagements. He confessed to Eckermann that he -required much strength of mind to resist feminine charms which tempted -him to be unjustly favourable to the prettiest of those who sought -employment. “If I allowed myself to fall into an intrigue of gallantry, -I would become like a demagnetised needle as soon as the girl found a -real lover” (Eckermann, March 22, 1825). - -His daughter-in-law’s sister has related that Goethe liked to have -young girls in his study whilst he was at work. They had to sit -quietly, neither working nor talking, often a difficult task for them -(Bode, p. 155). - -Even on the last day of his life, whilst in delirium, he cried out, -“What a pretty woman’s head with black curls on a black ground” (Lewes, -vol. ii, p. 372). After uttering several other more or less incoherent -phrases, he drew his last breath. - -The facts which I described in the chapter of this book dealing with -old age have made clear how long sexuality persists in men. As the -testes resist atrophy better than other organs, and even in extreme old -age still form active spermatozoa, it is natural that their condition -should be reflected on the organism generally, and that feelings of -love should still be excited. If by some accident Goethe had become -a eunuch early in life, he would have been a different being. The -moralists who have been shocked by his amorous intrigues would have -been satisfied, but the world would have lost a great poet. Moreover, -Goethe is no exceptional case amongst writers. The temperament of -Victor Hugo and his devotion to women up to the end of his days are -well known. More recently, after the death of Ibsen, a profound -sensation was made by the revelation of his love for Mademoiselle -Bardach, who inspired his genius during the last period of his life. - -Not only poetic creation but other forms of genius are intimately -associated with the sexual function. The philosopher Schopenhauer, who -was no ascetic, wrote as follows, at the age of twenty-five, when he -was in full creative activity, “In the days and at the hours when the -voluptuous instinct is strongest, when it is a burning covetousness, -it is then that the greatest forces of the mind and the greatest -stores of knowledge are ready for the most intense activity.” “At -such moments life is truly at its strongest and most active, for its -two poles are then operating most actively; and this is plain in the -man of the highest intelligence. In these hours one sees more than in -years of passivity” (quoted in Moebius’ _Schopenhauer_, p. 55). “This -means that in Schopenhauer intellectual creation was linked with erotic -excitement” (_ibid._, p. 57). - -It was facts of such a nature that led Brown-Séquard to his idea of -strengthening cerebral activity by injections of the substance of -testes. To obtain the same effect, he prescribed another means, the -value of which was proved in the case of two individuals aged from -forty-five to fifty years, the observations being continued over -several years. “By my advice,” he said, “when these had to perform -any great physical or intellectual work, they got themselves into a -condition of sexual excitement.” “The testes being in this way thrown -into functional activity, there was soon produced the desired increase -in the power of the nerve centres.”[198] - -Although I insist on the existence of a close relation between -intellectual activity and the sexual function, I do not mean to assert -that there have not existed exceptions to the rule. - -Now that I have described certain important factors in the genius of -Goethe, I shall pass on to a study of his state of mind in the last -period of his life, the splendour and harmony of which have been so -often admired. - - - - -III - -GOETHE’S OLD AGE - - Old age of Goethe—Physical and intellectual vigour of - the old man—Optimistic conception of life—Happiness in - life in his last period - - -Drinkers of wine may take the case of Goethe as an argument against -temperance. Although he was not healthy in his youth, his large -consumption of wine did not prevent him from enjoying an old age full -of force and intellectual work. Eckermann, who was his intimate and -constant companion in the last ten years of his life, was never weary -of expressing his surprise and delight at the physical and moral vigour -of the distinguished old man. He found Goethe on his return to Jena, -at the age of seventy-four, in a condition “very pleasant to see; he -was in good health and robust, so that he could walk for hours” (Sept. -15, 1823). His eyes were “brilliant and clear and his whole expression -was that of joy, vigour and youth” (Oct. 29). In walks with Eckermann, -Goethe forced the pace and showed strength which filled his companion -with delight (March, 1824). His voice was full of character and of -force (March 30, 1824), and every word showed his vitality (July 9, -1827). - -In a conversation that Eckermann had with Goethe when the latter was -seventy-nine years old “the sound of his voice and the fire in his eyes -were of such strength as would have been normal in the full flush -of youth” (Mar. 11, 1828). Such characters were preserved until the -end of the life of the great man, and a few months before his death -Eckermann jotted in his book that he saw him every day in full vigour -and freshness, looking as if his health might be prolonged indefinitely -(Dec. 21, 1831). In the beginning of the following spring, Goethe -caught a feverish cold, possibly pneumonic, and died, probably from -weakness of the heart. His illness lasted a week. If he had not been a -drinker of wine he would have been able to withstand this attack and to -live still longer. - -The intellectual vigour of Goethe was even greater and more remarkable -than his physical strength. His interests were extremely wide, and his -thirst for knowledge was never appeased. Once, when he was absorbed -by the interest of hearing d’Alton describe in detail the skeleton of -rodents, Eckermann states his surprise that a man not far short of -eighty years old “did not give up seeking for and gaining knowledge.” -But in these matters he never lost his interest. He wished always to go -further and further, always to learn, so showing himself to be a man -of eternal and undying youth (April 16, 1825). Goethe’s aptitude for -understanding and his memory were most unusual. When he was more than -eighty, he surprised those who heard him “by the incessant flow of his -ideas and by his extraordinary fertility in invention” (Oct. 7, 1828). - -“The old age of Goethe is the most striking proof of the extreme force -of his constitution,” said his medical biographer, Dr. Moebius. Works -which were written in his last years are for the most part beyond -praise, both because of their finished form, and by their wisdom and -feeling. What other man of eighty has written anything of the same -character? From the physiological point of view I am more surprised -at his works when he was old than at those of his youthful activity” -(Moebius, _Goethe_, i, 200, 201). - -Although Goethe’s character, which was fiery and intense in his youth, -became much more calm with age, there still came to him moments when -he was carried away. He had certain eccentricities of an old man, and -in particular was often very despotic, and this trait has been the -occasion of many stories. His temper, however, became much more certain -in his old age, and his general conceptions much more optimistic. -Apart from certain short crises, he was happy in his life. In 1828, he -settled down at Dornburg and there passed a tranquil existence. “I stay -out of doors nearly all day and engage in private conversations with -the tendrils of the vine which communicate their excellent ideas to -me, ideas about which I shall have marvellous things to tell you”—he -wrote to Eckermann on June 15, 1828—“I am composing verses which are -quite good, and I hope that it will be given to me to live long in -this condition. I am quite contented,” he said to his collaborator, -“at the beginning of spring, when I see the first green leaves, I am -pleased to watch how, from week to week, one leaf after another appears -on the stem. I am delighted in May, when I see a flower-bud; I feel -really happy, when in June the rose offers to me its splendour and its -perfume” (Eckermann, April 27, 1825). His delight in life at this epoch -is also revealed in many letters. “I wish to whisper this in your ear,” -he wrote to Zelter on April 29, 1830. “I am delighted to find that even -at my great age, ideas come to me the pursuit and development of which -would require a second life.” - -His conception of life had changed enormously since the epoch of -_Werther_. Goethe himself said: “When one is old, one thinks many -things about this world quite different from when one was young” -(Eckermann, Dec., 1829). The youthful sensitiveness which had brought -him so much suffering was notably dulled. Eckermann was astonished -at the way he accepted wounds to his pride. It happened that his -design for the new theatre at Weimar was abandoned while it was being -constructed, and replaced by another not his own work. Eckermann -was much disturbed by this, and went to see Goethe in a state of -apprehension. “I was afraid,” he said, “that so unexpected a step -would profoundly wound Goethe. Well, there was nothing of the sort; -I found him in the best of tempers, quite calm, absolutely above all -feelings in the matter.” When he had reached his eighty-fourth year, -Goethe had no weariness of life. In his last illness, he showed not -the smallest desire to die. He expected to get better, and thought -that the approach of summer would restore his strength. The desire to -live was strong in him. None the less, he recognised that his cycle of -life was finished, and although he had no weariness of life, he felt -a kind of satisfaction that life was over. “When, like me, a man has -lived eighty years,” he said, “he has hardly the right to live, but -ought to be ready every day to die, and to think of putting his house -in order” (Eckermann, May 15, 1831). None the less, he continued his -work, in particular revising the last two chapters of the second part -of _Faust_. When he had finished them, Goethe was extremely pleased. “I -can consider,” he said, “any days which come to me yet as a real gift, -as it is a matter of no moment if I write anything more or what such -work should be” (Eckermann, June 1, 1831). - -Goethe gave Faust one hundred years of life, and it is probable that he -thought of that period as his own span. Although he did not reach it, -he approached it, after having lived a most active life, full of most -valuable lessons for posterity. - - - - -IV - -GOETHE AND “FAUST” - - _Faust_ the biography of Goethe—The three monologues - in the first Part—Faust’s pessimism—The brain-fatigue - which finds a remedy in love—The romance with Marguerite - and its unhappy ending - - -“Goethe was Faust, Faust Goethe,” said the biographer of the great -poet (Bielschowsky, vol. ii, p. 645). Most people admit that in -_Faust_ Goethe gave his autobiography on a more detailed scale than -in _Werther_. Why then should I follow my analysis of Goethe himself, -which was based on exact facts, with an analysis of Faust? I do so -because in addition to the biographical details in _Faust_, there are -many ideas which illuminate the poet’s conception of life. Goethe’s -life explains _Faust_, and _Faust_ explains the soul of its author. -And I am convinced that an accurate study of so great a man is of high -importance in the investigation of human nature. - -The two Parts of _Faust_ correspond with two distinct periods in -Goethe’s life. In the first Part, Faust was pessimistic, in the second -optimistic. Although many of the high problems that occupy humanity are -raised and discussed in _Faust_, love is the centre on which the drama -turns. - -In the first Part, conceived and for the most part written during -his youth, the chief theme is the love of a young man for a pretty -and attractive girl towards whom the hero acts in a fashion opposed -to conventional morality. As in most of his principal works, Goethe -has made an episode in his own life the basis of _Faust_. It is the -well-known story of Frederique, the daughter of a clergyman, for -whom the brilliant young author conceived a violent passion and who -returned his affection with a deeper and more enduring feeling. Goethe -was alarmed at the possibility of definitely settling his future, and -deserted the poor victim of love in an unfortunate state. Later on, he -confessed to the Baroness von Stein that he had abandoned Frederique -at a time when his desertion was likely to cause the death of the poor -girl. “I had wounded to the quick,” he wrote (Bielschowsky, vol. i, p. -135), “the best heart in the world, and I had to repent of it long and -almost unendurably.” As an atonement, he made Frederique the heroine -of “Goetz” and of “Clavigo,” but not thinking these worthy of her, he -immortalised her as the Marguerite of _Faust_. - -A learned doctor, skilled in all human knowledge, but who had found -no satisfaction in his studies, found consolation in the beauty and -charm of a young girl with whom he fell passionately in love. It will -be interesting to trace the psychological process which induced him to -leave the scene of his scientific studies for the streets and resorts -where he found Marguerite. - -Although Faust was represented as an old man, who had had time enough -to absorb all human learning, his image bears the stamp of green youth. -“Discontented with all his knowledge, he wished to know the secret -entrails of the world, to be a witness of the centre of all activity, -to unveil the principle of life.”[199] These are the demands of a young -man seeking to resolve the most intricate problems at one stroke. The -speech in question dates from the period of _Werther_, when Goethe -was twenty-five years old, and for that reason leaves no very serious -impression.[200] The second monologue, which ends with the attempt to -take poison, is later, and is absent in the edition of 1790 (Fragment). -It was revised when Goethe had reached his fiftieth year, and displays -a riper maturity. Although lacking exactness, it depicts in an -interesting fashion the miseries of life. - - Some alien substance more and more is cleaving - To all the mind conceives of grand and fair; - When this world’s Good is won by our achieving, - The Better, then, is named a cheat and snare. - The fine emotions, whence our lives we mould, - Lie in the earthly tumult dumb and cold. - If hopeful Fancy once, in daring flight, - Her longings to the Infinite expanded, - Yet now a narrow space contents her quite, - Since Time’s wild wave so many a fortune stranded. - Care at the bottom of the heart is lurking; - Her secret pangs in silence working, - She, restless, rocks herself, disturbing joy and rest; - In newer masks her face is ever drest, - By turns as house and land, as wife and child, presented,— - As water, fire, as poison, steel; - We dread the blows we never feel, - And what we never lose is yet by us lamented.[201] - -Fear of the evils which lie in wait for us and against which we can -make no provision render life insupportable. Faust’s frame of mind as -described in these lines recalls Schopenhauer, who was always afraid of -something; fear, sometimes of thieves, sometimes of diseases, tormented -him. He would never go to a barber’s to be shaved, and always carried -his own drinking cup with him. - -“Is it not better to end such a life, and to kill oneself, even if it -mean annihilation?” asked Faust. He took up the poisoned goblet and -put it to his lips, but, arrested by singing and the sound of bells -outside, he refrained, and life laid hold of him. Not religious faith, -however, but memories of childhood, “the happy sports of youth and the -gay festivals of spring” were the agencies that recalled Faust to the -earth. He went out of doors, mingled with the crowd, tried to amuse -himself amongst men, and savoured the beauty of the new-born spring, -but all these could not make him forget the evil of life. He met his -pupil, talked with him, and again displayed his pessimism. - - O happy he, who still renews - The hope, from Error’s deeps to rise for ever! - That which one does not know, one needs to use; - And what one knows, one uses never.[202] - -Then follows the celebrated monologue of Faust over which so many -commentators have lost their heads and wasted oceans of ink. - - Two souls, alas! reside within my breast, - And each withdraws from, and repels, its brother. - One with tenacious organs holds in love - And clinging lust the world in its embraces; - The other strongly sweeps, this dust above, - Into the high ancestral spaces.[203] - -On this passage has been built up a whole theory of “double natures” -with which has been incorporated the dualism of Manicheism, the two -natures of Christ and what not besides.[204] - -There exists in literature no better expression of human disharmony -than this monologue “of the two souls.” It portrays the unbalanced -condition so frequent in youth and is a valuable indication of the real -youth of Faust. - -On his return to his study, Faust again revealed his pessimism. - - But ah! I feel, though will thereto be stronger, - Contentment flows from out my breast no longer. - Why must the stream so soon run dry and fail us, - And burning thirst again assail us? - Therein I’ve borne so much probation![205] - -It is at this point that Faust addresses the Spirit “that denies” and -that is called “sin” and “evil.” This spirit invokes before his eyes -“the fairest images of dreams,” that is to say, a woman’s body in its -beautiful nudity. Faust declares himself - - Too old to play with passion, - Too young to be without desire.[206] - -Pursued by desire - - ... when night descends, how anxiously - Upon my couch of sleep I lay me. - There, also, comes no rest to me; - But some wild dream is sent to fray me.[207] - -So that - - Death is desired, and Life a thing unblest. - O fortunate, for whom, when victory glances, - The bloody laurels on the brow he bindeth! - Whom, after rapid, maddening dances, - In clasping maiden-arms he findeth![208] - -Faust thus reached the ecstasy of passion. Soon afterwards in the -Witches’ kitchen, he saw in a mirror a “heavenly form” and cried:— - - O lend me, Love, the swiftest of thy pinions, - And bear me to her beauteous field. - - A woman’s form, in beauty shining! - Can woman, then, so lovely be? - And must I find her body, there reclining; - Of all the heavens, the bright epitome? - Can Earth with such a thing be mated?[209] - -Discontent with life, sense of the insufficiency of human knowledge -and the most gloomy pessimism lead to the passion of love which, -eventually, after many devious paths, throws Faust into the arms of -Marguerite. The story is one of the world’s great romances and everyone -knows it. Faust all unconsciously was following the prescription of -Brown-Séquard. Brain-fatigue had made the continuation of the study -which caused it impossible. The condition is plainly stated in the -following lines:— - - The thread of Thought at last is broken, - And knowledge brings disgust unspoken. - Let us the sensual deeps explore.[210] - -The brain has refused to work, and blind instinct, in the guise of -dreams, whispers that there is in the organism something that can -restore the intellectual forces. This something, however, is what is -called sin, and much courage is needed to plunge into it. Without this -evil, life cannot last. Faust has to choose between love and death, and -chooses love. - -The end of the romance of Goethe and Frederique was bad, and that of -Faust and Marguerite was still worse. The poet painted it in the most -sombre colours. Marguerite killed her child, poisoned her mother, -became crazy, and was beheaded. Faust’s cup of misery was filled to the -brim; he blamed his evil genius, he made desperate efforts to save the -poor woman, and cried “O that I had never been born.” - -To sum up: in the first Part, Faust is a young, learned man who -expects too much from science and life, and whose genius requires -extra-conjugal love as a stimulant; he is unbalanced and inevitably -pessimistic. It is not surprising that his life goes badly, and that -his conduct leaves him much to repent of. But although, at first, -a vague general discontent nearly drives him to suicide, later on -the terrible evil which he had wrought on a poor creature he loved -passionately did no more than plunge him into misery that was bitter -but far from mortal. His mind had developed far in the direction of -optimism. The crisis through which he passed, serious as it was, ended -by his return to a life of great activity and enterprise. - - - - -V - -THE OLD AGE OF FAUST - - The second Part of _Faust_ is in the main a description - of senile love—Amorous passion of the old man—Humble - attitude of the old Faust—Platonic love for Helena—The - old Faust’s conception of life—His optimism—The general - idea of the play - - -The first Part of _Faust_ was acclaimed by the world almost as soon as -it appeared, but the second Part met a very cold reception. Everyone -knows and reads the first Part; the second Part has few readers, and -these chiefly poets and dramatists. No doubt it has more effect on the -stage than when it is read, but this is due to subsidiary features in -which it resembles a fine ballet. There is general agreement that the -real meaning of the second Part is obscure, complex and difficult to -interpret. Many literary critics have racked their brains in the effort -to discover the author’s central idea. When Eckermann, who persuaded -Goethe to revise and finish the second Part, asked what was the meaning -of some of the scenes in it, Goethe evaded the question and played the -sphinx. Thus, with regard to the famous “mothers” Goethe answered, -with a mysterious air:—“You have the manuscript; study it, and see -what you can make of it” (January 10, 1830). G. H. Lewes, although -one of Goethe’s most resolute admirers, admitted the impossibility -of grasping the sense of the second Part. The Wanderjahre and the -second Part of _Faust_ were arsenals of symbols, and it pleased the -old poet to see acute critics labouring to interpret them whilst he -was silent and refused to help them. Lewes thought that Goethe, so far -from showing the smallest wish to clear up their difficulties, took -a pleasure in giving them new problems to puzzle over. Lewes himself -thought that the second Part was poor in idea and execution, and -admitted that he had failed after repeatedly trying to get a conception -of it that would reveal its beauties. In writing about it, he contented -himself with giving a summary of it. Now this second Part, although its -general lines had been laid down for long, was actually written during -several years in the last period of the poet’s life. The fact that it -was composed out of the regular sequence of the Acts and Scenes gives -us an important clue. The third Act and then the second Part of the -fifth Act were put on paper first. Next followed the first Act and part -of the second; the classical Walpurgis night was written in 1830, the -fourth Act in 1831, and last of all the beginning of the fifth Act. - -As the second Part of _Faust_ is a crowded motley, containing many -subjects, obviously of minor importance, such as the volcanic theory -of the earth and the disquisition on paper-money, the key-note may be -found in the portions which were first composed. Now Act III. contains -the story of Helena, and the second part of Act V. Faust’s activity for -the general welfare. - -Setting out from the conception that the works of Goethe reflect the -acts and incidents of his own life, I shall try to explain on that -basis the meaning of the most obscure of his writings. - -I have already stated that love was the stimulus of Goethe’s activity -in youth and age; it is the scarlet thread running through his -history. There was no difficulty in his using his love for Frederique -as material for a play; that a young man should love a young girl -was natural enough. The story of an old man enamoured of a young -beauty was quite another matter. It was said that one of the reasons -that prevented his marriage with Ulrique de Lewetzow was the fear of -ridicule (Lewes, _op. cit._, ii, p. 345), a fear that plays a large -part in human affairs. It is easy to understand that the old poet was -in a difficulty when he came to write of senile love. Faust’s love for -Helena was not that of a supposed old man who became young by doffing -his beard and changing his cloak, but of a real old man whom no mystery -nor magic was to make young again. And yet old Faust’s love was a true -passion, and Goethe has written no finer lines than those describing it. - -When the second Part begins, Faust has passed through the terrible -crisis of the first Part. Wearied and restless, he seeks a new mode of -life. - - Life’s pulses now with fresher force awaken - To greet the mild ethereal twilight o’er me; - This night, thou, Earth! hast also stood unshaken, - And now thou breathest, new-refreshed before me, - And now beginnest, all thy gladness granting, - A vigorous resolution to restore me, - To seek that higher life for which I’m panting.[211] - -The invoked image of the most beautiful woman in the history of the -world transforms Faust’s desire of love into an overwhelming passion. - - Have I still eyes? Deep in my being springs - The fount of Beauty, in a torrent pouring! - A heavenly gain my path of terror brings. - The world was void, and shut to my exploring,— - And, since my priesthood, how hath it been graced! - Enduring 'tis, desirable, firm-based. - And let my breath of being blow to waste, - If I for thee unlearn my sacred duty! - The form, that long erewhile my fancy captured, - That from the magic mirror so enraptured, - Was but a frothy phantom of such beauty! - 'Tis Thou, to whom the stir of all my forces, - The essence of my passion's courses,— - Love, fancy, worship, madness,—here I render.[212] - -In the throes of this passion, Faust is tortured by jealousy when he -sees the lovely woman clinging to and kissing a young man. He desires -her at all costs. - - Am I nothing here? To stead me, - Is not this key still shining in my hand? - Through realms of terror, wastes and waves it led me, - Through solitudes, to where I firmly stand, - Here foothold is! Realities here centre! - The strife with spirits here the mind may venture, - And on its grand, its double lordship enter! - How far she was, and nearer, how divine! - I’ll rescue her and make her doubly mine. - Ye Mothers! Mothers! Crown this wild endeavour! - Who knows her once must hold her, and for ever.[213] - -The disappearance of the beautiful woman so moved Faust that he fainted -and fell into a prolonged sleep. As soon as he recovered consciousness -he asked: “Where is she?” and set out to seek for her. When he learned -that Chiron had already carried off Helena on his back Faust cried -out:— - - Her didst thou bear? - - _Chiron_: This back she pressed. - - _Faust_: Was I not wild enough, before; - And now such seat, to make me blest! - O, I scarcely dare - To trust my senses!—tell me more! - She is my only Aspiration! - Whence didst thou bear her—to what shore?[214] - - Thou saw’st her once; _to-day_ I saw her beam, - The dream of Beauty, beautiful as Dream! - My soul, my being, now is bound and chained; - I cannot live, unless she be attained.[215] - -Chiron found this attitude of passionate emotion so strange that he -advised Faust to take care of his health. - -After many wanderings and difficulties Faust again met the woman he -coveted and spoke to her as follows:— - - What else remains, but that I give to thee - Myself, and all I vainly fancied mine? - Let me, before thy feet, in fealty true, - Thee now acknowledge, Lady, whose approach - Won thee at once possession and the throne![216] - -This language, so very different from what the same man had formerly -addressed to Marguerite, is much more like that of an old lover to a -young beauty whom he admires. When Helena invited Faust to sit on the -throne beside her, he replied:— - - First, kneeling, let the dedication be - Accepted, lofty Lady! Let me kiss - The gracious hand that lifts me to thy side. - Confirm me as co-regent of thy realm, - Whose borders are unknown, and win for thee - Guard, slave and worshipper, and all in one![217] - -The old man in the throes of a passion so great that he was wholly -absorbed by it did not dare to address the beloved woman except in the -most humble terms. - -Helena made no declaration of love, but was complacent to him, and when -Faust suggested: “Now let our throne become a bower unblighted,” Helena -agreed to follow him to a secluded and green bower. There they remained -alone for some time, cared for by an old servant. - -The result of this union was not a child like that to which Marguerite -gave birth and afterwards killed. It was a strange and peculiar being; -a boy who immediately after his birth began to leap about and to alarm -his parents by the activity of his movements. - -Although Goethe preserved an obstinate silence when he was asked to -explain many of the scenes in the second Part, he had no hesitation in -explaining the significance of this astonishing child. “The child was -not a human being but an allegory, in which was personified poetry, -which is not bound to any time, to any place, or to any person” -(Eckermann, December 20, 1829). Struck by the tragic fate of Byron, -Goethe made the son of Faust and Helena a symbol of the English poet. - -Literary critics, setting out from the categorical explanation of -Goethe himself, have declared that the union of Faust and Helena -was meant to denote the alliance of romanticism and classicism, a -marriage from which was born modern poetry, personified in its highest -representative, Byron. This, however, cannot be the idea of Goethe, who -himself was far from an enthusiast about classicism and romanticism. -“What,” he said, “is all this noise about the classic and the romantic? -The essential thing is that a piece of work should be wholly good and -serious; then it will also be classic” (Eckermann, October 17, 1828). -It is much more probable that Goethe intended poetry to spring from the -relations between the old Faust and his adorable companion, relations -of a kind to be included in so-called platonic love. Such love inspires -the creation of perfect work even in an old poet, when he is stimulated -by a beautiful woman. - -When Faust and Helena emerged from the grotto with their son, Helena -said:— - - _Helena_: Love, in human wise to bless us, - In a noble pair must be; - - But divinely to possess us, - It must form a precious Three. - - _Faust_: All we seek has therefore found us; - I am thine and thou art mine! - So we stand as love hath bound us; - Other fortune we resign.[218] - -After the death of her son, Helena abandoned Faust, leaving him her -garments:— - - _Helena_: Also in me, alas! an old word proves its truth, - That Bliss and Beauty ne’er enduringly unite. - Torn is the link of Life, no less than that of Love; - So, both lamenting, painfully I say: Farewell! - And cast myself again,—once only,—in thine arms.[219] - -After this crisis the old Faust sought to console himself in the bosom -of nature, just as after the terrible catastrophe with Marguerite the -contemplation of nature had given him the strength to live. On this -occasion he reached the summit of a high mountain from which he watched -the changing vapours of a cloud which seemed to him to assume the form -of female beauty. But Faust was old, and now saw only memories of love. -He cried out:— - - Yes! mine eyes not err!— - On sun-illumined pillows beauteously reclined, - Colossal, truly, but a godlike woman-form, - I see! The like of Juno, Leda, Helena, - Majestically lovely, floats before my sight! - Ah! now ’tis broken! Towering broad and formlessly, - It rests along the east like distant icy hills, - And shapes the grand significance of fleeting days. - Yet still there clings a light and delicate band of mist - Around my breast and brow, caressing, cheering me. - Now light, delaying, it soars and higher soars, - And folds together.—Cheats me an ecstatic form, - As early-youthful, long-foregone and highest bliss? - The first glad treasures of my deepest heart break forth; - Aurora’s love, so light of pinion, is its type, - The swiftly-felt, the first, scarce-comprehended glance, - Outshining every treasure, when retained and held. - - Like Spiritual Beauty mounts the gracious Form, - Dissolving not, but lifts itself through ether far, - And from my inner being bears the best away.[220] - -This state of mind resembles Goethe’s condition after the rupture with -Ulrique. - -Love and poetry alike were over for him. None the less his craving for -the higher life was not yet weakened. The desire to live was still -very strong in the old Faust. But now he no longer as in the days -of his youth dreamed of an ideal which could not be attained. When -Mephistopheles asked him ironically:— - - Then might one guess whereunto thou hast striven? - Boldly-sublime it was, I’m sure. - Since nearer to the moon thy flight was driven, - Would now thy mania that realm secure? - - _Faust_: Not so! This sphere of earthly soil - Still gives us room for lofty doing. - Astounding plans e’en now are brewing: - I feel new strength for bolder toil.[221] - -Such optimistic language, extraordinarily different from Faust’s -lamentations in the first Part, becomes still more marked. When he was -approaching his centenary he made the following profession of faith:— - - I only through the world have flown: - Each appetite I seized as by the hair; - What not sufficed me, forth I let it fare, - And what escaped me, I let go. - I’ve only craved, accomplished my delight, - Then wished a second time, and thus with might - Stormed through my life: at first ’twas grand, completely, - But now it moves most wisely and discreetly. - The sphere of Earth is known enough to me; - The view beyond is barred immutably: - A fool, who there his blinking eyes directeth, - And o’er his clouds of peers a place expecteth! - Firm let him stand, and look around him well! - This World means something to the Capable. - Why needs he through Eternity to wend? - He here acquires what he can apprehend.[222] - -When he had reached the maturity of his wisdom, Faust organised -drainage works, the object of which was to increase the area of land -that could be utilised:— - - To many millions let me furnish soil, - Though not secure, yet free to active toil; - Green, fertile fields. - A land like Paradise here, round about. - Yes! to this thought I hold with firm persistence; - The last result of wisdom stamps it true: - He only earns his freedom and existence, - Who daily conquers them anew. - Thus here, by dangers girt, shall glide away - Of childhood, manhood, age, the vigorous day: - And such a throng I fain would see, - Stand on free soil among a people free! - Then dared I hail the Moment fleeing: - “_Ah, still delay—thou art so fair!_” - The traces cannot, of mine earthly being, - In æons perish,—they are there!— - In proud fore-feeling of such lofty bliss, - I now enjoy the highest Moment,—this![223] - -These were the last words of the wise centenarian. It has been said -that they contain the quintessence of Goethe’s moral philosophy, and -that they preach the sacrifice of the individual for the benefit of -society. Lewes, for instance, takes this view, holding that Faust was -the exposition of a man who had conquered the vanity of individual -aspirations and joys, and had come to the knowledge of the great truth -that man must live for man, and can find lasting happiness only in -work for the benefit of humanity. For my own part, it seems to me that -according to Goethe’s _Faust_ man must dedicate a large part of his -life to the complete development of his own individuality, and that -it is only in the second half of his life, when he has grown wise by -experience and feels satisfied as an individual, that he should use -his activity for the good of mankind. It was no part either of the -ideas of Goethe or of the nature of his work to preach the sacrifice of -individuality. - -Goethe was thus absorbed in _Faust_ by the problem of the conflict -between certain actions and guiding principles. The misdeeds of the -hero in the first Part of his life had to be redeemed. He said to -Eckermann that “the key to the salvation of Faust was to be found in -the Angels’ Chorus”:— - - The noble spirit now is free, - And saved from evil scheming: - Whoe’er aspires unweariedly - Is not beyond redeeming.[224] - -However, that of which he did not speak, and which none the less was -most important in Faust and in Goethe himself, is the action of love as -a stimulant to artistic creation, and it was probably to this that he -referred at the end of his tragedy. The mystical chorus sent up prayers -in a religious and erotic ecstasy, and their mysterious song is:— - - The Indescribable, - Here it is done; - The Woman-Soul leadeth us - Upward and on![225] - -Although these verses have been interpreted as love which sacrifices or -even love which leads to the grace of God (Bode, p. 149), it is much -more probable that it is love for feminine beauty, a love which makes -possible the execution of wonderful things. Such an interpretation -agrees with the fact that the verses are spoken by a _mystic_ choir -which speaks of the _indescribable_ (_das Unbeschreibliche_) in -which we must see the amorous passion of the old man. In such an -interpretation the whole of _Faust_ (and especially the second Part) is -an eloquent pleading for the importance of love in the higher activity -of man, in accordance with the law of human nature, which is a much -better justification of Goethe’s conduct than all the arguments of his -interpreters and admirers. - -I do not agree with the common idea that the two Parts of _Faust_ are -two distinct works, but regard them as complementary. In the first Part -we see the young pessimist, full of ardour and of desires, ready to -make an end of his days and stopping at nothing to satisfy his thirst -for love. In the second Part we have a mature old man still loving -women, but in a different way, a man who is wise and optimistic, and -who, having satiated the wants of his individual life, dedicates the -rest of his days to mankind, and who, having reached a century, dies -extremely happy, in fact almost exhibiting the instinct of natural -death. - - - - -PART IX - -SCIENCE AND MORALITY - - - - -I - -UTILITARIAN AND INTUITIVE MORALITY - - Difficulty of the problem of morality—Vivisection - and anti-vivisection—Enquiry into the possibility of - rational morality—Utilitarian and intuitive theories of - morality—Insufficiency of these - - -In the course of this book I have from time to time approached -subjects closely related with the problem of morality. For instance, -in considering the prolongation of human life, it was necessary to -show that extension of longevity far beyond the reproductive period of -man in no way is opposed to the principles of the highest morality, -although there exist races who find the sacrifice of old people in -harmony with their conception of morality. - -Experimental biology, which lies at the root of most of the doctrines -exposed in this work, depends on vivisection of animals. There are, -however, very many persons who regard it as immoral to operate on -living animals when it is not for the direct benefit of these. The -attempts which have been made in France and Germany to prevent or to -limit vivisection in laboratories have not succeeded, but in England -there is a severe law controlling operations on animals and submitting -them to oppressive regulations to which many of the scientific men in -the country are opposed. - -The question of experiments upon human beings is still more delicate. -Just as formerly the examination of a human corpse could be made only -in secret, so at the present time, if the slightest experiment is to be -made upon a human being, it can be only by devious ways. People who are -hardly shocked at all at the numberless accidents caused by automobiles -and other means of transit, or in field sports, make the strongest -protest against any proposal to try some new method of treatment upon a -human being. - -A large number of people, amongst them even men of science, regard -as immoral any attempt to prevent the spread of venereal diseases. -Recently, in connection with the investigations into the action of -mercurial ointment as a means of preventing syphilis, the members of -the Faculty of Medicine in France made a public protest, declaring -that it would be “immoral to let people think that they could indulge -in sexual vice without danger,” and that it was “wrong to give to the -public a means of protection in debauch.”[226] None the less, other men -of science, equally serious, were convinced that they were performing -an absolutely moral work in attempting to find a prophylactic against -syphilis which would preserve many people, including children and other -innocent persons who, if no preventive measures existed, would suffer -from the terrible disease. - -Such examples show the reader what confusion exists in the problem of -morality. Although at every moment, in every act of human conduct, the -precepts of morality must be reckoned with, even the most authoritative -persons are far from agreeing as to what rules to follow. About a -year ago in a Parisian journal[227] an enquiry into the subject of -rational morality was directed to distinguished authors. The object -was to discover if, at the present time, moral conduct could be based -not on religious dogma, which binds only those who believe in it, but -on rational principles. The answers were most contradictory. Some -denied the possibility of rational morality, others admitted it, but -in very different fashions. Whilst one philosopher, M. Boutroux, -held that “morality must be founded on reason and could have no -other foundation,” a poet, M. Sully-Prudhomme, turned to feeling and -conscience as the basis of morality. According to him, “in the teaching -of morality, it is the heart and not the mind which is at once master -and pupil.” In the contradictions which I mentioned in the beginning -of this chapter, these two views appear. When antivivisectionists -are protesting against experiments on animals, they are inspired by -sympathy for poor creatures which cannot defend themselves. Guided by -conscience, they think immoral any suffering inflicted upon a living -being for the benefit of another being, whether human or animal. I -know distinguished physiologists who have determined to limit their -experiments to animals with little sensibility, such as frogs. The -great majority of scientific men, however, would have no scruple in -opening bodies and subjecting their victims to severe suffering in the -hope of clearing up some scientific problem which sooner or later would -increase the happiness of human beings and animals. If vivisection -had not been performed, or if it had been restricted, the great laws -of infectious diseases would not have been discovered, nor would -the discovery of many valuable remedies have been made. To justify -investigation, men of science set out from the utilitarian theory of -morality, which approves everything that is useful to the human race. -The antivivisectionists, on the other hand, rely on the intuitive -theory, according to which conduct is controlled by the spontaneous -activity of our conscience. - -In the case which I have selected the problem is easy to solve. It is -plain that vivisection is inevitable in the experimental investigation -of vital processes, as it is the only means by which serious progress -can be made. None the less, very many people cannot accept this -necessity, because of the intensity of their love for animals. - -In the question of the prevention of syphilis, the moral problem is -still more easy to settle. Whilst in the case of vivisection a real -suffering may be inflicted upon animals, in preventive measures against -syphilis, the evil is more or less intricate and very problematic. -The certainty of safety from this disease might render extra-conjugal -relations more frequent, but if we compare the evil which might come -from that with the immense benefit gained in preventing so many -innocent persons from becoming diseased, it is easy to see to which -side the scale dips. The indignation of those who protest against the -discovery of preventive measures can never either arrest the zeal of -the investigators or hinder the use of the measures. This example -again shows that reasoning is necessary in the solution of most moral -questions. - -However, the problems which arise in actual life are often very much -more complicated than the two cases I have taken as an introduction. -It is easy to prove the high utility of the work of vivisectors and -of those who are seeking means of preventing syphilis, whilst their -adversaries have nothing to invoke but their feelings. The situation is -quite different in many questions which border on morality. The sexual -life abounds in extremely difficult problems, in which it is almost -impossible to determine what is right. Let me recall the vagaries -in the life of Goethe, whose great genius was so often in conflict -with the morality of his time. Was he wrong in giving up Frederique -and Lili from the fear that a permanent bond would damage his poetic -productivity? Then there is the moral question of the marriage of -men affected with syphilis, or other diseases which might influence -the offspring. The problems of the continence of young people before -marriage, of prostitution and of means of preventing conception are -without doubt questions of great importance, the solution of which is -extremely difficult from the point of view of morality. Differences of -opinion are revealed in nearly everything relating to punishment. The -question of the death penalty is much in dispute and requires numerous -investigations of different kinds. Statistics have been collected to -give information as to the utility or inutility of the death penalty. -According to some results, capital punishment does not diminish the -number of crimes, whilst according to others it has a real preventive -effect. Punishments less violent than death, and particularly the -punishments of children, are equally troublesome, and schoolmasters -have difficulty in finding a solution. - -The utilitarian theory of morality often finds it impossible to prove -the advantage of the conduct it prescribes, and this the more because -in many cases we do not exactly know who is to profit by it. Is the -utility of any particular act to be considered so far as it affects -relatives, members of the same religion, of the same country, or of the -same race, or all humanity? - -In face of these difficulties, many moral philosophers have given up -the utilitarian theory and declared for an intuitive theory. The basis -of morality is to be found in a feeling innate in every man, a sort of -social instinct urging him to do good to his neighbour, and which, by -the voice of his own conscience, dictates how he ought to act much more -precisely than could be done by any comprehension of the utility of his -conduct. - -It is certainly true that man is an animal living in society because -of his need for association with other human beings. But whilst in -the animal world the members of societies are actuated by an instinct -which is blind and generally very precise, in man we find nothing of -the kind. The social instinct appears in him in endless variety. In -some of us love of neighbours is extremely highly developed, so that -some persons are only happy when sacrificing themselves for the public -good. They give all that they have to the poor, and often die for some -ideal which is necessarily altruistic. Such examples are rare. Many -men, however, profess an affection for some of their kind, devote -themselves to their relations, their friends, or their compatriots, -and remain practically indifferent to all others. Other individuals, -again, have an even narrower sphere of affection, and take advantage -of their fellows, either in their own interest or in that of their own -family. Still more rare are the really wicked persons who have no love -for anyone but themselves and who take pleasure in doing harm to those -about them. Notwithstanding this diversity in the development of the -social instinct, all men have to live together. - -If it were possible to know the inner motives of men, these might be -used as a basis for classifying conduct. Those acts might be described -as moral which were inspired by neighbourly love, and those as immoral -the motive of which was egoism. But it is seldom that the real motives -are discovered; they lie deep down in the individual mind, sometimes -unknown even to the man himself. We can nearly always harmonise our -acts with the dictates of our consciences and find reasons for the -harm we inflict upon others. It is only rare natures that possess a -conscience so delicate as to be always tormented lest they are not -doing good to their neighbours. - -In the course of life, men are disposed to attribute bad motives to -their opponents. Such an attitude makes criticism easier and panders -to the common wish to speak evil of one’s neighbours. Notwithstanding -the numerous precedents for such an attitude amongst politicians and -journalists, it must be discarded from any serious study of morality. - -The motives and the conscience are elusive elements of little use -in any attempt to value human conduct. We have to fall back on the -consequences of action. Now it is easy to show that the social instinct -often leads to action which is not good. It frequently happens that -men, acting with the highest and best intentions, do much harm. -Schopenhauer long ago pointed out that morality based on sentiment is a -mere caricature of real morality. Impelled by the altruistic wish to do -good, men often lavish unreflecting charity and do harm to others and -to themselves. In _Timon of Athens_ Shakespeare depicted - - A most incomparable man; breathed, as it were, - To an untirable and continuate goodness, - -and who gave away to the right and the left, creating around him a -cloud of parasites. He finally ruined himself and became a hopeless -misanthrope. Shakespeare put his verdict in the mouth of Flavius:— - - Undone by goodness. Strange, unusual blood, - When man’s worst sin is, he does too much good. - -Morality, founded purely on sentiment, has inspired the attacks on -vivisectors which in all confidence spread evil amongst men. - -It is a surprising result of the great complexity of human affairs, -that society is sometimes better served by wicked acts than by acts -inspired by the most generous feelings. Thus extremely rigorous -measures of repression are often more successful than the half-measures -employed by humane and charitable administrators. - -The intuitive theory of morality has had no greater success than -utilitarianism. Even if the sentiment of society were a true basis of -moral conduct, it fails in actual practice. On the other hand, although -utility is the object of all morality, it is in most cases so difficult -to determine what is really useful, that utilitarianism breaks down as -the foundation of morality. - -We must look elsewhere for principles which can guide us towards right -conduct. - - - - -II - -MORALITY AND HUMAN NATURE - - Attempts to found morality on the laws of human - nature—Kant’s theory of moral obligation—Some - criticisms of the Kantian theory—Moral conduct must be - guided by reason - - -Even in antiquity, there were efforts to find a basis for morality -other than the precepts of religion based on revelation, but the -failure of such attempts has long been admitted. In the first chapter -of _The Nature of Man_, I described such efforts to find a basis -for morality in human nature itself. The Epicureans and the Stoics, -although their doctrines were opposed, each claimed to set out from -human nature. The principle is too vague for practical use, as human -nature can be interpreted in very different fashions. - -When several attempts to find a rational basis for morality had failed, -Kant’s theory appeared and was hailed by many as a real advance. None -the less, it has not met with general approval and may be taken as a -supreme instance of the failure to solve the great problem of morality -by reason. I do not wish to deal with it at length, but a review of its -main outlines is pertinent to my argument. - -According to Kant, morality cannot be founded on the feeling of -sympathy, nor can it have as its object the happiness of men. Nature -would have been an unskilful workman were her object the happiness of -human beings, for many lower animals have much more happiness. An inner -law is the force compelling us to morality, and without that we should -have to seek our guide in happiness. - -Kant’s doctrine is an intuitive theory of morality. It is based neither -on sympathy nor on any inherent charity, which would make us covet -happiness for our fellows, but solely on the consciousness of duty. -Kant thought that the action of a man who wished to do good to his -fellows was devoid of merit. Conduct was moral only in so far as it was -obedience to the inner sense of duty. Schiller’s epigram has thrown -into relief this part of the great philosopher’s theory, “When I take -pleasure in doing good to my neighbour, I am uneasy, as I fear that I -have been lacking in virtue.” - -In his criticism of Kant’s system, Herbert Spencer drew a picture of -a world inhabited by men who had no sympathy for their fellows and -who did good to them against their natural instincts and only from -a pure sense of duty. Spencer thought that such a world would be -uninhabitable. Clearly, moral conduct, on the Kantian basis, could -be followed only by exceptional persons, for most men follow their -inclinations rather than any sense of duty. People of lower culture -would accept kindnesses from others without caring whether the motive -were kindness or a sense of duty, but highly civilised people would not -endure service from those whom they knew to be acting against their -instincts in obedience to a sense of duty. And so men would be driven -to hide the real motives of their conduct, lest they should offend the -sensibility of those towards whom their moral conduct was directed. -Such cases, where the real motive is concealed, show how impossible -it is to judge of conduct from the motives which may be supposed to -have inspired it. As it is generally impossible to know whether some -altruistic conduct has been inspired by kindness or has been performed -as a duty, it is better to give up any attempt to appraise the springs -of moral conduct. - -Kant himself realised the need of some other standard for appraising -human conduct. With such a purpose he arrived at his well-known -maxim:—“Let your conduct be such that your motive might serve as a -standard of universal application.” To explain the maxim he gave a -number of examples. A man who is without money and cannot pay a debt -is in doubt as to whether he should promise to repay his creditor. -According to Kant, he ought to ask himself what would be the result -if such a promise were to be made under similar circumstances by -everyone. It is plain that if such false promises became universal, -they would cease to be believed and so would be impracticable in -actual life. Kant’s formula, therefore, would supply a rational basis -for the discrimination of immoral conduct. In the case of theft it -would operate as follows: if it became the custom for everyone to take -whatever he wanted, private property and theft would simultaneously -cease to exist. So also suicide is immoral, since if it became general -the human race would cease to exist. - -Kant, however, was looking at only one side of the problem. Moral -conduct is frequently limited to an individual, and cannot be -generalised for all humanity. Thus, for instance, if one about to -sacrifice his life for the good of his fellows were to estimate his -action according to Kant’s formula, he would reach a conclusion similar -to that in the case of suicide; if everyone were to sacrifice his life -for others, no one would remain alive, and so, according to Kant, the -sacrifice of one’s life for the good of others would be an immoral act. - -It is plain that in his search for a rational basis of morality, Kant -found only a hollow form, void of any substantial body of morality. -It is not enough that a moral man should take his consciousness of -duty as a guide. He must know what would be the result of his acts. -If it is immoral to make a false promise, it is because people would -lose confidence in such promises, and confidence is necessary to our -well-being. When the formula of Kant condemns theft, it is because, if -theft became general, there could be no private property, and property -is regarded as necessary to the well-being of men. Suicide is immoral, -according to Kant, because it would lead to the disappearance of the -human race, and human life is of course a good. - -Kant tried to found his theory of morality on a rational basis which -excluded the idea of the general good, but it was impossible for him to -avoid it. His “practical reason,” when it raised the consciousness of -duty to a principle, should have pointed the goal towards which moral -acts were to be directed. In this matter, I find that Kant’s ideas are -very vague, although extremely interesting. - -The innate feeling of duty implies the _will_ to pursue moral conduct. -This will is independent of the circum-ambient conditions. Kant in his -nebulous language explains this consideration as follows:—“Our reason -informs us of a law to which all our maxims are subject, as if our will -had created its own natural order of things. This law, then, is in -the sphere of a nature which we do not know empirically but which the -freedom of the will makes possible, a nature which is supra-sensible, -but which from the practical point of view we make objective, because -it is created by our will in virtue of our existence as rational -beings. The difference between the laws of a nature to which the will -is subject and a nature subject to the will subsists in this, that -in the first the objects must be the causes which determine the will, -whilst in the second, the will itself causes the objects so that the -causality of the will resides exclusively in pure reason, pure reason -being thus practical reason” (_Critique of Practical Reason_). - -So far as I can follow the argument of Kant, it seems to me to imply -that rational morality cannot be bound by human nature as it exists. I -may perhaps interpret Kant’s thought as if he had the intuition that -the moral will was capable of modifying nature by subjecting it to its -own laws. - -On the other hand, several critics of Kant have attempted to improve -his theory of morality by reconciling it with human nature as it -actually exists. Vacherot,[228] for instance, has taken such an -attitude in the most definite fashion. He insists that Kant “did not -appreciate the capital importance of the object of the moral law. The -problem which under the designation _summum bonum_ absorbed the schools -of antiquity plays a minor part in the Kantian theory. Kant should have -recognised that human destiny is not limited to duty but must include -happiness” (p. 316). - -But what is this “happiness” which is to be the standard of human -actions? To answer this Vacherot places himself in the position of -those ancient philosophers whom I discussed in _The Nature of Man_. He -makes his point absolutely clear. “What is the ‘good’ for any being? -The attaining of its purpose. What is the purpose of a being? The -simple development of its nature. Apply this to man and morality. When -human nature is known by observation and analysis, the deduction can be -made as to what is the purpose, and the good, and therefore the law of -man. For the conception of the good necessarily involves the idea of -duty and of law to be imposed on the will. We have to fall back, then, -on knowledge of man, but it must be complete knowledge, a recognition -of the faculties, feelings, and inclinations that are peculiar to him -and that distinguish him from animals” (p. 319). Here is a summary -of this doctrine:—“Develop all our natural powers, subordinating -those which are subsidiary to those which form the peculiar quality -of human beings; this is the true economy of the little world we call -human life; this is its purpose and this its law. The formula states -in the most scientific and least doubtful form a very old truth, the -foundation of all morality and the test of all its applications. If we -seek to know what are justice, duty and virtue, we must look in the -world itself, and not above or below it” (Op. 301). - -Professor Paulsen, a more recent critic of Kant, comes to a similar -conclusion.[229] He thinks that Kant should have modified his formula -in some such way as follows:—“The laws of morality are rules which -might serve for a natural legislation for human life; in other words, -rules that, when they guided conduct according to natural law, would -result in the preservation and supreme development of human life.” - -From whatever side we examine the problem of morality, we come to -submit conduct to the laws of human nature. Sutherland, a modern author -who discusses morality by the scientific method, defines morality -as “conduct guided by rational sympathy.” Such sympathy would not -subordinate the chief good of others to an advantage less important but -more immediate. Thus a mother may sympathise with her child when it has -to take some unpleasant medicine; but if her sympathy be rational she -will not let it interfere with the health of the child. - -In the foregoing case, sympathy has to be controlled by medical -knowledge. In moral conduct generally, reason must be the determining -factor, whatever be the inspiring motive of the conduct, whether it -come from sympathy or from the sense of duty. And thus morality in the -last resort must be based on scientific knowledge. - - - - -III - -INDIVIDUALISM - - Individual morality—History of two brothers brought - up in same circumstances, but whose conduct was - quite different—Late development of the sense of - life—Evolution of sympathy—The sphere of egoism in - moral conduct—Christian morality—Morality of Herbert - Spencer—Danger of exalted altruism - - -Although moral conduct refers specially to the relations between men, -there exists a morality of the individual. As this latter is simpler, I -shall consider it first in my investigation of rational morality. - -When a man, seeking his individual happiness, gives way to his -inclinations without restraint, he often comes to behave in a way that -is generally regarded as immoral. Following his inclination, he may -become idle and drunken. Idleness may depend on some irregularity of -the brain, and may thus be as natural as is the wish to take drink -in the case of a man to whom alcohol brings a feeling of well-being -and gaiety. Why is it that idleness and alcoholism are immoral? Is -it because they prevent the living of life in its completest and -widest sense, according to the theory of Herbert Spencer? But it is -precisely in this way that the adherents of the theory justify all -kinds of excess without which fullness and width of life seem to them -impossible. - -Whilst vices such as idleness and drunkenness arise directly from -qualities of the human constitution, they must be regarded as immoral -because they prevent the completion of the ideal cycle of human -life. I knew two brothers, almost the same age, subject to the same -influences, and brought up in the same environment. None the less, -their tastes and conduct were very different. The older brother, -although very intelligent, during his college career devoted himself -eagerly to bodily exercises and indulged in every way his inclination -for pleasure. “As the chief end of life is happiness,” he said, “one -must try to get as much of it as possible,” and so he got into the -habit of visiting places where there was most amusement. Cards, good -living, and women furnished for him the means of pleasure. As his -ability was unusual, he passed his examinations almost without having -worked. The example of his younger brother, always a devoted student, -did not attract him. “It is all very well for you,” he said, “as you -find your happiness in work; as for me, I detest books, and I am happy -only when I am giving myself up to pleasure. Everyone must take his -own road to the goal of life.” As a result, the health of the older -brother was seriously affected by his mode of life. He acquired some -disease of the circulatory system, had to face the end, and died at -the age of fifty-six. The last years of his life were very unhappy, -as the instinct of life developed in him extremely strongly. He was a -victim of his own ignorance because when he was young he did not know -that the sense of life would develop later on, and would become much -stronger than in his youth. His brother was equally unaware of this -fact, but, absorbed in scientific study, he kept himself apart from the -indulgences of youth and lived a sober life. In this way he found that -his strength and activity were fully preserved at a time of life when -his older brother was already a physical wreck. - -I have quoted this example, not to repeat the banal idea that a sober -life is followed by a healthier old age than an intemperate life, but -because I wish to insist on the importance of the development of the -instinct of life in the course of each individual life. I see that -this idea is very little known. I was present at the last moments of -my older brother (he was called Ivan Ilyitch, and he was the subject -of the famous story of Tolstoi: _The Death of Ivan Ilyitch_). Knowing -that he was going to die from pyemia, at the age of forty-five, my -brother preserved his great intelligence in all its clearness. As I -sat by his bedside he told me his reflections in the most objective -fashion possible. The idea of his death was for long very terrible to -him, but “as we all die” he came to “resign himself, saying that after -all there was only a quantitative difference between death at the age -of forty-five and later on.” This reflection, which relieved the moral -sufferings of my brother, is none the less untrue. The sense of life is -very different at different ages, and a man who lives beyond the age of -forty-five experiences many sensations which he did not know before. -There is a great evolution of the mind during the advance of age. - -Even if we do not accept the existence of an instinct of natural -death as the crown of normal life, we cannot deny that youth is only -a preparatory stage and that the mind does not acquire its final -development until later on. This conception should be the fundamental -principle of the science of life and the guide for education and -practical philosophy. - -Individual morality consists of conduct permitting the accomplishment -of the normal cycle of life and ending in a feeling of satisfaction as -complete as possible and which can be reached only in advanced age. And -so, when we see a man wasting his health and strength and youth, and -thus making himself incapable of feeling the most complete pleasure in -life, we call him immoral. - -A man entirely isolated does not exist in nature. We are born weak -and incapable of satisfying our needs and at once come into relations -with the human being who feeds us and protects us. The child, although -egoistic, becomes attached to his protector, and in this way the -feeling of sympathy is born. Guided by this feeling as well as by the -sense of his own interest, the child soon begins to employ his will -in restraining some of his instincts, which, none the less, are quite -natural. Thus, the fear of being deprived of food makes him obedient -to his protectors. The child cannot complete his normal cycle without -pursuing a certain moral conduct. - -When he becomes adult, man experiences the instinctive need of -relations with someone of the other sex. This need lays certain duties -on him, and although the love of a young man is less egoistical -than that of the child, it is far from presenting the characters of -self-abnegation and sacrifice. - -A young woman, after having passed through the usual cycle of life -with her mother and with a man, becomes herself a mother. Maternal -instinct furnishes her with certain rules of conduct, but this natural -instinct is not enough to fulfil its object, that is to say, to rear -the child until an age when it can live independently. Directed by a -feeling of sympathy for her child, the young mother learns from women -with more experience to ward off dangers from her child. In the first -years, moral conduct on the part of the mother consists almost entirely -in bringing up the child in a healthy way. For this purpose she must -acquire much knowledge. If she remains ignorant, her conduct must be -regarded as immoral. - -So far as concerns the bringing up of a child, the moral problem is -quite simple, because we are all agreed that the object is to rear -the child to maturity in the healthiest possible condition. When the -child exhibits any habits harmful to this object, although due to -natural instincts, the mother applies her knowledge to restrain them -without paying attention to the theory that happiness consists in the -fulfilment of everything that is natural. When a child has passed -through the perilous first period of its life, the mother has to ask -what general object she is to follow in its education. She wishes her -child to be as happy as possible. Here the conception of orthobiosis -will serve her, and it will teach her that the greatest happiness -consists in the normal evolution of the sense of life, leading to -serene old age, and finally reaching the fulness of satiety of life. -Man, who has passed his apprenticeship to life from his birth, with his -protectors, and, later on, with persons of the other sex, inevitably -acquires certain elements necessary for social life. Persuaded that -in order to succeed in his individual life he must have help from his -fellows, he learns to subdue his anti-social tendencies, at first -in his own interests. Let me take an example of this. When a man -has reached a certain stage of civilisation, it generally becomes -impossible to him to supply his bodily wants without the help of -persons less cultured than himself. He takes into his house one or more -servants, with whom he enters into definite relations. He wishes for -himself and those about him a normal life, such as I have described -in _The Nature of Man_. To attain this it is indispensable in his own -interest and in that of his family, that his domestic servants should -be well treated. The health of the family very often depends on the -conduct of the servants, who will follow conscientiously the hygienic -rules only if they themselves are living in good conditions. The custom -according to which the masters live in luxuriously furnished rooms, -while their servants have mean quarters in the attics, is immoral from -the point of view of the well-being of the masters themselves. The -crowded servants’ quarters are a nest of all sorts of infection, which -may spread in the families of the masters. Very often people who think -that they are following the rules of exact hygiene contract diseases -without knowing that the infection has come from their servants. - -Anger gives us another example. It is certainly harmful to the health, -and so should be controlled in the interest of the bad-tempered -person himself. Fits of rage are frequently followed by ruptures of -blood-vessels, and by diabetes, and even cataracts have developed after -some violent passion. - -Luxurious habits are also well known to be harmful to the health. Heavy -meals, evenings passed in the theatre and in society may seriously -affect activity of the organs. Moreover, the luxury of some people -is often the cause of misery to others. The knowledge that luxurious -habits shorten life and prevent man from reaching the greatest -happiness may warn people against luxury better than the appeal to the -feeling of sympathy. - -As it is a fact that most men guide their lives generally from egoistic -motives, any theory of morality which is to be put into practice must -reckon seriously with this factor. All other systems have recognised -it. In the Sermon on the Mount, which is a summary of Christian -morality, each moral act is recognised on the ground that it will -bring some reward or obviate some punishment. “Rejoice,” said Jesus, -“and be exceeding glad; for great is your reward in heaven” (Matt. v., -12). “Take heed that ye do not your alms before men, to be seen of -them; otherwise ye have no reward of your Father which is in heaven” -(Matt. vi., 1). “That thine alms may be in secret; and thy Father -which seeth in secret himself shall reward thee openly” (Matt. vi., -4). “Judge not, that ye be not judged” (Matt. vii., 1). “But if ye -forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your -trespasses” (Matt. vi., 15). Jesus had no high opinion of the influence -of altruism on human conduct. - -Herbert Spencer in his treatise on morality (_The Data of Ethics_) -also insists that laws of conduct, to be of general application, must -not require men to make too great sacrifices, as otherwise the best -teaching would remain a dead letter. He imagines, however, that in the -future the human race will be so much improved that moral conduct will -become instinctive, needing no compulsion. The English philosopher -presents a view of the future of the human race totally at variance -with the Kantian conception. Instead of human beings becoming filled -with a sense of duty opposed to their natural instincts, the world will -be peopled with men acting morally from inclination, so making the -world delightful. - -The ideal is so far removed from existing conditions that the -possibility of its attainment is hardly worth considering. It is -probable that a world whose inhabitants had the feeling of sympathy -very highly developed would not be so delightful. For sympathy is -generally a reaction against evil. When evil disappears, sympathy would -be not merely useless, but annoying and harmful. - -George Eliot in _Middlemarch_ describes a young woman enthusiastically -anxious to do good to her fellows. When she came to live in a village, -she made great plans to succour its poor. Her disillusion and annoyance -were great when she found that the villagers were quite comfortably -off, and had no need of her charity. - -John Stuart Mill in his _Autobiography_ relates that when he was young -he dreamed of reforming society and making everyone happy. But when he -asked himself if the accomplishment of his beautiful ideas would make -him happy, he was compelled to answer “No!” and this discovery plunged -the young philosopher into a lamentable condition. He described himself -as quite overcome, all that supported him in life crumbling away. His -happiness could lie only in the constant pursuit of his object, and -the charm seemed broken, because if attainment were not to please him, -how could the means be of any interest to him? It seemed to him that -nothing was left to which he could dedicate his life. - -As it is highly probable that with the advance of civilisation -the greatest evils of humanity will become lessened, and may even -disappear, the sacrifices to be made will also become less. Now that -there is a serum which protects against plague, there is no room for -the heroism of the doctors who used to incur the greatest danger in -fighting epidemics. Until lately doctors used to risk their life in -treating the throats of diphtheric patients. A young doctor who was -a friend of mine, of high ability and promise, died from diphtheria -contracted under these conditions. He met his death, in isolation from -his friends in case of infecting them, with the utmost heroism. Now -that the anti-diphtheric serum has been discovered, such heroism would -be unnecessary. The advance of science has removed the occasion of such -sacrifices. - -It is now very long since there has been opportunity for the heroism -which steeled the hand of Abraham to sacrifice his only son to his -religion. Human sacrifice, based on the highest morality, has become -more and more rare, and will finally disappear. Rational morality, -although it may admire such conduct, has no use for it. So also, it -may foresee a time when men will be so highly developed that instead -of being delighted to take advantage of the sympathy of their fellows, -they will refuse it absolutely. Neither the Kantian idea of virtue, -doing good as a pure duty, nor that of Herbert Spencer, according to -which men have an instinctive need to help their fellows, will be -realised in the future. The ideal will rather be that of men who will -be self-sufficient and who will no longer permit others to do them -good. - - - - -IV - -ORTHOBIOSIS - - Human nature must be modified according to an - ideal—Comparison with the modification of the - constitution of plants and of animals—Schlanstedt - rye—Burbank’s plants—The ideal of orthobiosis—The - immorality of ignorance—The place of hygiene in the - social life—The place of altruism in moral conduct—The - freedom of the theory of orthobiosis from metaphysics - - -As I have shown in _The Nature of Man_, the human constitution as it -exists to-day, being the result of a long evolution and containing a -large animal element, cannot furnish the basis of rational morality. -The conception which has come down from antiquity to modern times, of -a harmonious activity of all the organs, is no longer appropriate to -mankind. Organs which are in course of atrophy must not be reawakened, -and many natural characters which perhaps were useful in the case of -animals must be made to disappear in men. - -Human nature, which, like the constitutions of other organisms, is -subject to evolution, must be modified according to a definite ideal. -Just as a gardener or stock raiser is not content with the existing -nature of the plants and animals with which he is occupied, but -modifies them to suit his purposes, so also the scientific philosopher -must not think of existing human nature as immutable, but must try to -modify it for the advantage of mankind. - -As bread is the chief article in human food, attempts to improve -cereals have been made for a very long time. Rimpau made one of the -greatest steps in this direction when he introduced into cultivation a -variety of rye known as Schlanstedt rye, now fairly abundant in France -and Germany. Rimpau set himself the task of producing a variety with -the longest ears and containing many and heavy grains. Having conceived -his ideal, he began to seek out what was nearest to it in a very large -number of examples of rye. After patient and continued labour, using -careful selection and cross-fertilisation, Rimpau succeeded in making -the new variety, and so did a great service to mankind. - -Burbank,[230] an American horticulturist, has recently gained a wide -reputation because of his improvements of useful plants. He has -produced a new kind of potato which has raised the value of potato -crops in the United States by about £3,500,000 per annum. Burbank -cultivated great numbers of fruit trees, flowers, and all kinds of -plants, with the object of increasing their utility. One of his objects -was to produce varieties which could resist dry conditions, which -reproduced rapidly and so forth. He has modified the nature of plants -to such an extent that he has cactus plants and brambles without -thorns. The succulent leaves of the former provide an excellent food -for cattle, whilst the absence of thorns in the latter makes their -pleasant fruit more suitable for gardens. Burbank has enormously -improved the production of stoneless plums, and has very much reduced -the price of many bulbs and lilies by increasing their productivity. - -To obtain such results much knowledge and a long period of time -were necessary. To modify the nature of plants it was necessary to -understand them well. To frame the new ideal of the plant it was -necessary not only to have an exact conception of what was wanted, but -to find out if the qualities of the plants in question furnished any -hope of realising it. - -The methods which have been successful in the case of plants and -animals must be much modified for application to the human race. In -the case of human beings the selection and cross-breeding which were -imposed upon rye and plum trees are not possible, but, at the same -time, the ideal of human nature, towards which mankind ought to press, -may be formed. In our opinion this ideal is orthobiosis, that is to -say, the development of the human life so that it passes through a long -period of old age in active and vigorous health, leading to the final -period in which there shall be present a sense of satiety of life, -and a wish for death. I do not think that the ideal should be that of -Herbert Spencer, a simple prolongation of human life. When the instinct -of death comes at a not very late period of life, there would be no -inconvenience in shortening the life, if death did not come soon after -the appearance of the instinct. Probably this would be the only case -where suicide was justified in the conception of orthobiosis. - -The foregoing is the case of an action in conformity with the -ideal, but quite contrary to human nature as it is at present. A -similar contradiction appears in reproduction. Man came from animals -amongst which unlimited reproduction was an important factor in the -preservation of the species, as it allowed the species to survive under -all sorts of bad conditions, such as diseases, combats, attacks of -enemies, and changes of climate. Although man, according to the laws of -human nature, is capable of reproducing extremely rapidly, the ideal -of his happiness makes a restriction of this power necessary. Thus -orthobiosis, based upon knowledge of human nature, would set limits to -a function which is perhaps the most natural of all. The restriction -which is already partially adopted will come more and more into -operation as the struggle against diseases, the prolongation of human -life, and the suppression of war make progress. It will be one of the -chief means of diminishing the most brutal forms of the struggle for -existence, and of increasing moral conduct amongst mankind. - -Just as Rimpau began to study the nature of plants before trying to -realise his ideal, so also varied and profound knowledge is the first -requisite for the ideal of moral conduct. It is necessary not only to -know the structure and function of the human organism, but to have -exact ideas on human life as it is in society. Scientific knowledge -is so indispensable for moral conduct that ignorance must be placed -among the most immoral acts. A mother who rears her child in defiance -of good hygiene, from want of knowledge, is acting immorally towards -her offspring, notwithstanding her feeling of sympathy. And this also -is true of a Government which remains in ignorance of the laws which -regulate human life and human society. - -It must be well understood that I am not here thinking of written -knowledge, set down in treatises and volumes. Rimpau and Burbank went -outside manuals of botany to obtain their knowledge. Besides books, -wide ideas on the practice of life are required to direct aright the -conduct of men. A doctor who has just finished his studies at the -hospital, notwithstanding all his knowledge, is not yet sufficiently -trained to be a good practitioner. He must acquire the habit of -treating patients, and for this years are required. So also is it with -regard to the practical applications of the principles of morality. -The regulation of conduct requires profound knowledge both theoretical -and practical, and men selected to frame or to apply laws of morality -must have this double qualification. If the human race come to adopt -the principles of orthobiosis, a considerable change in the qualities -of men of different ages will follow. Old age will be postponed so -much that men of from sixty to seventy years of age will retain their -vigour, and will not require to ask assistance in the fashion now -necessary. On the other hand, young men of twenty-one years of age will -no longer be thought mature or ready to fulfil functions so difficult -as taking a share in public affairs. The view which I set forth in -_The Nature of Man_ regarding the danger which comes from the present -interference of young men in political affairs has since then been -confirmed in the most striking fashion. - -It is easily intelligible that in the new conditions such modern idols -as universal suffrage, public opinion, and the _referendum_, in which -the ignorant masses are called on to decide questions which demand -varied and profound knowledge, will last no longer than the old idols. -The progress of human knowledge will bring about the replacement -of such institutions by others, in which applied morality will be -controlled by the really competent persons. I permit myself to suppose -that in these times, scientific training will be much more general than -it is just now, and that it will occupy the place which it deserves in -education and in life. - -It is equally clear that if a mother is to act morally with regard to -her child, she must teach herself properly. In place of mythology and -literature, she must learn hygiene and all that relates to the rational -rearing of children. So, also, in the education of men, the study of -the exact sciences must occupy by far the most important place. Then -only will moral conduct and scientific knowledge begin to unite. An -ignorant mother will bring up a child very badly notwithstanding all -her good will and her affection. A doctor, however imbued with strong -sympathy for his patients, could do them much harm if he had not the -appropriate knowledge. Are not politicians open to the reproach from -the point of view of morality that very often through ignorance they -do the very worst evil in public administration? With the progress of -knowledge, moral conduct and useful conduct will become more and more -closely identified. - -I have been reproached because in my system the health of the body -occupies too large a place. It cannot be otherwise, because health -certainly plays the chief part in existence. Notwithstanding his -pessimism, Schopenhauer was convinced that health was the greatest -treasure, a treasure before which everything else yielded. In many -religions care of the health is laid down amongst the chief duties. -Although many scientific men do not hold the opinion that circumcision -was ordained for hygienic reasons, it is certain that hygiene was -extremely important in the Jewish religion. It is only in Christianity, -which despises the human body, that hygiene is excluded from the -religious code, as in the words of Jesus:- - -“Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall -drink; nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life -more than meat, and the body than raiment?” (Matt. vi., 25). As for -long ages hygiene was very imperfectly known, it is not surprising -that it played a small part in human affairs. Probably the objection -to the importance that I assign to it in orthobiosis is a relic from -the old order of things. Now, however, the situation is different. -Bacteriology has placed hygiene on a scientific foundation, so that the -latter is now one of the exact sciences. It has now become necessary -to give it the chief place in applied morality as it is the branch of -knowledge that teaches how men ought to live. - -It has been objected that I have left no place for altruism in my -system.[231] Certainly I have tried to find an egoistic basis for -moral conduct, as I have shown above. I think, however, that the wish -to live according to the ideal of orthobiosis and to make others live -a normal life would be a powerful agency in improving social life, in -preventing mutual damage, and promoting mutual help. Such a motive, -within the reach of persons whose altruistic feelings are not specially -strong, must largely extend moral conduct amongst human beings, and -even although in future such manifestations of high morality as the -sacrifice of life and health will become wholly or nearly wholly -useless, I think that for the present there is still room for altruism. -The practical application of scientific knowledge already gained admits -much self-denial and good feeling. Struggle against prejudices of -all kinds and the development and diffusion of sound ideas require a -conduct very highly altruistic. - -The fears of my opponents are still less justified when we reflect that -the feelings of sympathy and of cohesion must play a large part in the -business of helping the evolution of man towards the goal of normal -life. - -Although our actual knowledge already provides a basis of rational -morality, it may be admitted that in the future, if science continues -its forward march, the rules of moral conduct will become still more -improved. There will be no ground for reproaching me for a blind faith -in the all-powerfulness of science. Much more trust can be given to -one who has faithfully carried out his promises, than to one who has -promised much and fulfilled nothing. Science has already justified the -hopes which have been placed in it. It has saved people from the most -terrible diseases, and has made life much easier. On the other hand, -religions, which demand an uncritical faith as the means of curing the -ills which afflict humanity, have not fulfilled their promises. - -The reproach that I preach blind faith in the progress of science, -destined to replace religious faith, is unjust, because my faith -depends on a confidence that science has already deserved. Equally -unjust is the reproach that I have built my system on a partly -metaphysical principle. According to M. Parodi,[232] the hypothesis of -physiological old age and of natural death seem to “involve the idea -of a natural duration of human life, which, however, from accidental -reasons man does not complete at present. M. Metchnikoff repeatedly -uses the expression ‘normal cycle.’ Now do we not see here the -surreptitious repetition of the old teleological conception of nature, -although at first he so energetically disavowed it? It is the belief -that the species is a necessary reality, corresponding to a definite -type of its own, in fact a special design of nature; that nature, -to guide herself, had an ideal which circumstances could mistake or -degrade, but which had to be restored to its perfect form? Otherwise, -why does he insist that there must be a condition of perfect and stable -equilibrium between individual and environment? that there is a normal -cycle and that it must be possible to harmonise the disharmonies?” - -I can show easily that all these objections rest upon a simple -misunderstanding. I have never conceived of the existence of any ideal -of nature or of the inevitable necessity of transforming disharmonies -to harmonies. I have no knowledge of the “designs” and “motives” of -nature; I have never taken my stand on metaphysical ground. I have not -the remotest idea if nature has any ideal and if the appearance of -man on the earth were a part of such an ideal. What I have spoken of -is the ideal of man corresponding to the need to ward off the great -evils of old age as it is now, and of death as we see it around us. -I have said, moreover, that human nature, that collection of complex -features of multiple origin, contains certain elements which may be -used to modify it according to our human ideal. I have done nothing -but what the horticulturist does when he finds in the nature of plants -elements which suggest to him to try and make new and improved races. -Just as the constitution of some plum trees contains elements which -make it possible to produce plums without stones which are pleasanter -to eat, so also in our own nature there exist characters which make -it possible to transform our disharmonious nature into a harmonious -one, in accordance with our ideal, and able to bring us happiness. I -have not the smallest idea what ideal nature may have on the subject -of plums, but I know very well that man has such designs and such -an ideal as form a point of departure for the transformation of the -nature of plums. Substitute man for the plum tree and you are at my -point of view. When I have spoken of the normal cycle of life or of -physiological old age, I have used the words normal and physiological -only in relation to our ideal of the human constitution. I might just -as well have said that a cactus without thorns is the normal cactus in -the conditions where it was desired to obtain a succulent plant useful -as food for cattle. The words “normal” and “physiological” seemed to -me more convenient than such a phrase as “in correspondence with human -ideals.” - -I am so little convinced of the existence of any disposition of nature -to transform our ills into goods, and our disharmonies into harmonies, -that it would not surprise me if such an ideal were never reached. Even -in unmetaphysical circles it is said that nature has the intention of -preserving the species at the expense of the individual. The ground -of this is that the species survives the individual. On the other -hand, very many species have completely disappeared. Amongst these -species were animals very highly organised, such as some anthropoid -apes (_Dryopithecus_, etc.). As nature has not spared these, how can -we be certain that she is not ready to deal with the human race in the -same way. It is impossible for us to know the unknown, its plans and -motives. We must leave nature on one side and concern ourselves with -what is more congruous with our intelligence. - -Our intelligence informs us that man is capable of much, and for -this reason we hope that he may be able to modify his own nature and -transform his disharmonies into harmonies. It is only human will that -can attain this ideal. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Westergaard, _Mortalitaet u. Morbilitaet_, 2nd. Edit., 1901, pp. -653-655. - -[2] The volume of the urine excreted in 24 hours (in January 1905) -was 500 c.c., with a density of 1019. There was no albumen or sugar. -The quantity, per litre, of urea was 11·50 gr., of chlorides 9 gr., -of phosphates 1·15 gr. The sediment contained crystals of uric acid, -some pavement epithelium cells, a very few cells from the tubules, some -hyaline platelets and isolated white corpuscles. - -[3] _Extinct Animals_, London, 1905, pp. 28, 29. - -[4] _Rendiconti d. Accad. d. Lincei_, 1906, vol. xiv. pp. 351, 390. - -[5] _Ueb. d. physiologische Degeneration bei Actinosphærium -eichhornii._ Jena, 1904. - -[6] “Senescence and Rejuvenation,” _Journal of Physiology_, 1891, t. -xii. - -[7] _Biologisches Centralblatt_, 1904, pp. 65, 81, 113. - -[8] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences_, 23 April, 1900. - -[9] _Revue générale des sciences_, 30 Dec., 1904, p. 1116. - -[10] _Le Bulletin médical_, 1906, p. 721; _Le Cerveau sénile_, Lille, -1906, pp. 64-69. - -[11] _Mémoires couronnés publiés par l’Académie royale de Belgique_, -Bruxelles, 1906. - -[12] _Revue de Médecine_, Nov., 1906, p. 870. - -[13] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, Oct. 1906, p. 859. - -[14] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1900, vol. xiv. p. 113. - -[15] _Eléments d’histologie humaine_, French translation, 1856, p. 222. - -[16] _Leçons sur la physiologie du système nerveux_, 1866. - -[17] _De la dégenérescence graisseuse des muscles chez des vieillards._ -Paris, 1867. - -[18] Demange, _Étude sur la vieillesse_, 1886, p. 118. - -[19] _C. R. de la Société de Biologie_, 14 November, 1903. - -[20] _Clinica medica_, 1905, _n._ 6. - -[21] _Bulletins de la Société royale des sciences-medicales de -Bruxelles_, 1905, _n._ 4, p. 105. - -[22] Sarbach, _Mittheilungen a. d. Grenzgeb. d. Med. u. Chir._, vol. -xv. 1906. - -[23] _Verhandlungen d. Kongr. f. innere Medicin._ Wiesbaden, 1906, pp. -59, 98. - -[24] _Archives de Neurologie_, 1886. - -[25] Die Function d. Schilddrüse, _Virchow’s Festschrift_, vol. i. -1891, p. 369. - -[26] Fuss, Der Greisenbogen, in _Virchow’s Archiv_, 1905, vol. clxxxii. -p. 407; S. Toufesco, _Sur le cristallin_, Paris, 1906. - -[27] Edmond Fournier, _Stigmates dystrophiques de l’hérédosyphilis_, -Paris, 1898, p. 4. - -[28] _Histoire naturelle générale et particulière_, vol. ii. Paris, -1749. - -[29] _De la longévité humaine et de la quantité de vie sur le globe_, -Paris, 1855. - -[30] _Ueber die Dauer des Lebens_, Jena, 1882, p. 4. - -[31] Brehm, _La vie des animaux, Mammifères_, vol. ii. p. 623. - -[32] _Leçons sur la physiologie et l’anatomie comparée_, vol. ix. 1870, -p. 446. - -[33] _Archiv f. die gesammte Physiologie_, Bonn, 1903, vol. xcv. p. 606. - -[34] _La Nature_, May 12, 1900, p. 378. - -[35] Ashworth and Annandale, _Proceedings of the R. Society of -Edinburgh_, vol. xxv. part iv. 1904. - -[36] _Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen des Thierreichs_, vol. iii. p. 466. - -[37] Weismann, _The Duration of Life_, in “Essays on Heredity” (English -translation), Oxford, 1889. - -[38] Oustalet, “_La Longévité chez les Animaux vertébrés_,” _La -Nature_, May 12, 1900, p. 378. - -[39] “_On the Comparative Ages to which Birds live_,” _The Ibis_, Jan., -1899, vol. v. p. 19. - -[40] J. Maumus, “Les cæcums des oiseaux,” _Annales des sciences -naturelles_, 902. See also P. Chalmers Mitchell, “On the Intestinal -Tract of Birds,” _Trans. Linnæan Soc. of London_, vol. viii. part 7, -1901. - -[41] Weidersheim, _Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates_, -translated by W. Newton Parker, p. 236, 1886. - -[42] _Elements of Comparative Anatomy_, English translation by F. -Jeffrey Bell, B.A., London, 1878, p. 562. - -[43] _Virchow’s Archiv_, 1869, vol. xlviii. p. 151. - -[44] P. Chalmers Mitchell, “On the Intestinal Tract of Mammals,” -_Trans. Zool. Soc. of London_, vol. xvii. part 5, 1905. - -[45] _Travaux de la Société des médecins russes à Saint-Pétersbourg._ -September-October, 1905, p. 18 (in Russian). - -[46] _Virchow’s Archiv_, 1874, vol. lix, p. 161. - -[47] _Zeitschrift f. klinische. Medicin_, 1887, vol. xii. - -[48] _Mittheilungen a. d. Grenzgebieten d. Medicin u. Chirurgie_, 1905, -vol. xiv. - -[49] Aldor, _Centralblatt f. innere Medicin_, 1898, p. 161. - -[50] _L’année biologique_, 7th year, 1902. Paris, 1903, p. 590. - -[51] _Gazette des Hôpitaux_, 1904, p. 715. - -[52] _Accidents dus à la Constipation pendant la Grossesse, -l’Accouchement et les Suites des Couches._ Thèse, Paris, 1902, p. 32. - -[53] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, Paris, 1905, 10 July, -p. 136. - -[54] _Archiv. f. klinische Chirurgie_, 1901, vol. lxiii, p. 773. - -[55] Kolle u. Wassermann, _Handb. d. pathogenen Mikro-organismen_, vol. -ii, 1903, p. 678. - -[56] Ficker, in the _Archiv. für Hygiene_, vol. lii, p. 179, has -recently published the results of an investigation into this. - -[57] Quoted by Frédericq et Nuel, _Eléments de physiologie humaine_, -4th edition, 1899, p. 256. - -[58] Quoted by Frédericq et Nuel, _op. cit._ - -[59] _L’aviculture_ (a fortnightly Russian journal), Oct. 1st, 1904, -No. 19, p. 3. - -[60] _Country Life_, 1905. - -[61] Quoted by Ebstein, _Die Kunst d. mensch. Leben zu verlängern_, -1891. - -[62] _Op. cit._, p. 12. - -[63] _Annuaire statistique de la ville de Paris_, 23rd year, 1904, p. -164-171. - -[64] Ornstein, Virchow’s _Archiv._, 1891, vol. cxxv, p. 408. - -[65] Ebstein, _op. cit._, p. 70. - -[66] Lejoncourt, _Galerie des centenaires_, Paris, 1842, p. 96-98. - -[67] Lejoncourt, _op. cit._, p. 101. - -[68] _Researches into the Physical History of Mankind_, 1836, vol. i, -p. 1157. - -[69] I owe to the kindness of M. Chemin a memoir in which he has -brought together the ancient and new records on the centenarians of all -countries up to the end of the nineteenth century. M. Chemin was unable -to find a publisher, but has given me his manuscript, extending to 182 -pages. - -[70] _Ueber die Kunst d. Verlängerung d. mensch. Lebens_, Bonn, 1890, -p. 23. - -[71] _Physiologie générale_, 1900, p. 381. - -[72] _Tableaux de la nature_ (French translation), 1808, vol. ii, p. -109. - -[73] Webb and Berthelot, _Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries_, 1839, -vol. i, part 2, pp. 97-98. - -[74] _Bibliothèque universelle de Genève_, 1839, vol. xlvi, p. 387. - -[75] _Ibid._, p. 392. - -[76] _Bibliothèque universelle de Genève_, vol. xlvii, p. 49. - -[77] _Entstehung u. Begriff d. naturhistorischen Art_, 2nd edit., -Munich, 1865, p. 37. - -[78] Griesebach, _Die Vegetation der Erde_. - -[79] Batalin, _Acta Horti Petropolitani_, vol. xi, no. 6, 1890, p. 289. - -[80] I am indebted to Prof. Hugo de Vries for this and other instances -of the prolongation of life in plants. - -[81] Engler’s _Botanische Jahrbücher_, Leipzig, 1882, vol. ii, p. 51. - -[82] _Organographie der Pflanzen_, Iéna, 1898-1901. - -[83] _Bulletin du jardin botanique de Bruxelles_, vol. i, no. 6, 1905. - -[84] Hugo de Vries, _Jahrbücher für wissensch. Botanik_, 1890, vol. -xxii, p. 52. - -[85] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1902, p. 71. - -[86] Duclaux, _Microbiologie_, vol. iii, 1900, p. 460. - -[87] _Archiv. für Anatomie und Physiologie_, 1864. - -[88] _Archives de Zoologie expérimentale_, 1901, vol. ix, p. 81. - -[89] Observations of Dr. Speyer, quoted by Weismann. - -[90] See _The Nature of Man_. - -[91] _Étude clinique sur la vieillesse_, Paris, 1886, p. 145. - -[92] _Revue scientifique_, 1877, p. 1173. - -[93] _Revue scientifique_, 1887, 2nd part, p. 105. - -[94] Gabriel Bertrand, _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1904, p. 672. - -[95] _Therapeutische Monatshefte_, 1904, p. 193. - -[96] _Münchener medicinische Wochenschrift_, 1904, No. 1; -_Verhandlungen der physiologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, Dec. 5th, -1904. - -[97] _Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles_, Geneva, March, -1905, vol. xvii; _Archives de physiologie_, vol. iv, p. 245. - -[98] Laveran and Mesnil, _Trypanosomes et Trypanosomiases_, Paris, -1904, p. 328. - -[99] Paris, 1834, 4th edition, vol. ii, p. 118. - -[100] _Revue de métaphysique et de morale_, March, 1904. - -[101] _Année biologique_, vol. vii, p. 595. - -[102] _Revue occidentale_, July 1st, 1904, vol. xxx, p. 87. - -[103] Egger, “_Le moi des mourants_,” Revue philosophique, 1896, i, p. -27. - -[104] _Ibid._, pp. 303-307; v. also _Bulletin de l’Institut général -phycholog._, 1903, p. 29. - -[105] Cicero, _Tusculanes_, chap, xxviii. - -[106] Rapport de M. Bienvenu-Martin à la Chambre des députés, Paris, -1903. - -[107] _L’Art de prolonger la vie humaine_ (French translation), -Lausanne, 1809, p. 5. - -[108] A. Réville, _Histoire des religions_, vol. iii, Paris, 1889, p. -428. - -[109] A. Réville, _loc. cit._, p. 455. - -[110] _Comptes rendus de la Societé de Biologie_, 1899, p. 415. - -[111] _Deutsche medicin. Wochenschrift_, 1891, p. 1027. - -[112] _Die physiologisch-chemisch. Grundlagen d. Spermintheorie_, -Berlin, 1898. - -[113] _British Medical Journal_, 1904; _Deutsche Mediz. Wochenschr._, -1904, Nos. 18-21. - -[114] _Die Lehre von d. Mortalitaet u. Morbilitaet_, 2nd edition, Jena, -1901. - -[115] _Medizinische Klinik_, 1905, No. 22. - -[116] _Die experimentelle Syphilisforschung_, Berlin, 1906, p. 82. - -[117] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1900, pp. 369-413. - -[118] _Les sérums hemolytiques_, Lyon, 1903. - -[119] According to a recent publication of M. Ellenberger (_Archiv. f. -Anatomie u. Physiologie, Physiologische Abtheilung_, 1906, p. 139), -the cæca of the horse, pig and rabbit, play an active part in the -digestion of vegetable matter, which is rich in cellulose. At the end -of his treatise, Ellenberger insists that the vermiform appendix of the -cæcum is not a rudimentary organ. The reason why the appendix can be -removed in the case of man without disturbance to the functions of the -body, is that this work can be performed by the Peyer’s patches of the -intestine. The existence of the appendix is not necessary to the normal -processes of the body, and is a real danger to health and sometimes to -life. Comparative study of the cæca in birds shows that these organs -are in process of degeneration. - -[120] _Archiv. für experimentelle Pathologie_, vol. xxviii, p. 311. - -[121] _Sixième Congrès de Chirurgie_, Paris, 1903, p. 86. - -[122] _Leçons sur les auto-intoxications_, Paris, 1886. - -[123] _Zeitschrift für Hygiene_, 1892, vol. xii, p. 88. - -[124] _Zeitschrift für klinische Medicin_, 1903, vol. xlviii, p. 491. - -[125] There is a summary of this question in Gerhardt’s work on -intestinal putrefaction, in _Ergebnisse der Physiologie_, 3rd year, -section 1, Wiesbaden, 1904, pp. 107-154. - -[126] _The A B C of our Nutrition_, New York, 1903; Dr. Regnault, Nov. -1, “L’art de manger,” _La Revue_, 1906, p. 92. - -[127] _Zeitschr. f. diatetische u. physikal. Therapie_, t. viii, 1904, -1905. - -[128] _Du Cap au lac Nyassa_, Paris, 1897, pp. 291-294. - -[129] Gaffky and Paak, in _Arbeiten d. k. Gesundheitsamtes_, vol. vi, -1890. - -[130] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1903. - -[131] Cormouls-Houlès, _Vingt-sept années d’agriculture pratique_, -Paris, 1899, pp. 57-58. - -[132] _British Medical Journal_, 1897, Dec. 25th, p. 1898. - -[133] _Comptes rendus de la Soc. de Biologie_, 1906, March 17th. - -[134] Dr. Combe, _L’auto intoxication intestinale_, Paris, 1906. This -valuable work contains much useful information on the subject. - -[135] Grundzach, _Zeitschrift für klinische Medezin_, 1893, p. 70; -Schmitz, _Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie_, 1894, vol. xix, p. -401; Singer, _Therapeutische Monatshefte_, 1901, p. 441. - -[136] _Journal für praktische Chemie_, 1882, vol. xxvi, p. 43. - -[137] _Archiv. für experimentelle Pathologie_, 1883, vol. xvii, p. 442. - -[138] In the English authorised version as in the translation of -Osterwald the word “butter” is used in place of “soured milk.” -Professor Metchnikoff follows the translation given by Ebstein in his -work on the Medicine of the Old Testament. - -[139] _Presse médicale_, 1904, p. 619. - -[140] “An authentic narrative of the loss of the American brig -_Commerce_ wrecked on the western coast of Africa in the month of -August, 1815, with an account of the sufferings of the surviving -officers and crew, who were enslaved by the wandering Arabs on the -African desert or Zaharah; and observations historical, geographical, -etc.” by James Riley. Hartford, S. Andrus and Son, 1854. - -[141] _Arbeiten a. d. k. Gesundheitsamte_, 1889, vol. v, pp. 297-304. - -[142] See Grasberger and Schattenfroh, _Archiv. für Hygiene_, 1902, -vol. xlii, p. 246. - -[143] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1902, p. 65. - -[144] _Revue médicale de la Suisse romande_, 1905, p. 716. - -[145] _Comptes rendus de la Soc. Biologique_, March 17th, 1906. - -[146] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1906, p. 977. - -[147] Soured milk can be taken at any time of the day, with or in -between meals. - -[148] _Jahrbuch für Kinderheilkunde, N. F. 12 Ergænsungsheft_, 1900. - -[149] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1905, p. 295; _Tribune -médicale_, Feb. 24th, 1906. - -[150] _La nature humaine et la philosophie optimiste_, Paris, 1904. - -[151] _Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Anatom. Abtheil_, 1903, p. 205. - -[152] _L’univers et la vie_, p. 592. - -[153] Huxley, _Man’s Place in Nature_. Collected Essays, vol. vii, p. -54. - -[154] _Ibid._, p. 60. - -[155] _Ibid._, p. 62. - -[156] _Ibid._, p. 67. - -[157] Ménégaux, _Les Mammifères_, p. 24. - -[158] Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals_, 1873, p. -67. - -[159] _Biologisches Centralblatt_, 1904, p. 475. - -[160] J. de Fontenelle, _Nouveau manuel complet des nageurs_, Paris, -1837, p. 2. - -[161] _La natation et les bains_, Paris, 1887. - -[162] Quoted by M. Pitres in _Leçons cliniques sur l’hystérie_, 1891, -vol. i. - -[163] Bourneville et Regnard, _Iconographie photographique de la -Salpétrière_, 1879-1880, vol. iii, p. 50. - -[164] Stéphanie Feinkind, _Du somnambulisme dit naturel_, Paris, 1893, -p. 55. - -[165] _Dictionnaire des sciences médicales_, 1821, vol. lii, p. 119. - -[166] _Du Sommeil non naturel_, Paris, 1886. - -[167] _Conférence faite à la Société de l’Internat_, June 28th, 1906. - -[168] _The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind._ English translation, -London, 1896. - -[169] _Souvenirs d’enfance de S. Kowalevsky_, 1895, pp. 301-311. - -[170] W. Herzberg, _Sozialdemokratie und Anarchismus_, 1906, p. 17. - -[171] _Le problème agraire_, 1905, p. 147. - -[172] “The Coming Slavery” in _Man versus the State_, 1888, p. 18. - -[173] _Human, too Human._ French translation, 1899, pp. 405-407. A -German critic has reproached me for my ignorance of Nietzsche’s works. -I have read several of them, but the mixture of genius and madness in -them makes them difficult to use. In this connection Moebius’ volume, -_Ueber das Pathologische bei Nietzsche_ (Wiesbaden, 1902), is of -interest. - -[174] Quoted by Oldenberg, _Le Bouddha_, French translation, Paris, -1894, p. 214. - -[175] P. Régnaud, “Le pessimisme brahmanique,” in _Annales du Musée -Guimet_, 1880, vol. i, pp. 110-111. - -[176] Guyau, _La Morale d’Epicure_, 4th edition, 1904, p. 116. - -[177] _Ad Marciam_, chap. x. - -[178] _Poésies et œuvres morales_, by Leopardi. Translated into -French 1880, p. 49. - -[179] These facts are taken from Westergaard, 2nd edit., 1901, p. 649. - -[180] Dieudonné, _Archiv für Kulturgeschichte_, 1903, vol. i, p. 357. - -[181] Kowalevsky, _Studien zur Psychologie des Pessimismus_, Wiesbaden, -1904. - -[182] _Medicinische Klinik_, 1906, n. 25 and 26. - -[183] _Der Werth des Lebens._ - -[184] _Ueber Schopenhauer_, Leipzig, 1899. - -[185] Moebius, _Goethe_, vol. i, Leipzig, 1903. - -[186] V. Kunz, “Zur Blindenphysiologie,” _Wiener medicin. -Wochenschrift_, 1902, No. 21. - -[187] _Physiologie de la Lecture et de l’Écriture_, Paris, 1905. - -[188] _Entre aveugles_, Paris, 1903. - -[189] _Der Blindenfreund_, Feb. 15th, 1906. - -[190] _Critical and Miscellaneous Essays_, vol. i, pp. 164-5, in the -Essay on _Goethe_. - -[191] _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter._ Letter of Dec. 3, 1812. - -[192] Quoted in Moebius’ _Goethe_, vol. ii, p. 80. - -[193] _The Fifth Roman Elegy_, Blaze’s French translation, 1873 p. 186. -Some of Goethe’s biographers, and amongst them G. H. Lewes, maintain -that these lines relate to Christine, Goethe’s wife. This is erroneous; -they refer to Faustine (see Bielschowsky, i, p. 517). - -[194] Moebius’ _Goethe_, vol. ii, pp. 84-87. - -[195] Moebius’ _Goethe_, vol. ii, pp. 84-87. - -[196] Quoted by Bode _in Goethe’s Lebenskunst_, Berlin, 1905, p. 59. - -[197] _Ueber die Wirkungen d. Castration_, Halle, 1903, p. 82. - -[198] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 1889, p. 420. - -[199] The word _Samen_ of the original is the expression of the -alchemists for the “principle of life.” - -[200] Erich Schmidt, Goethe’s _Faust in ursprünglicher Gestalt_, 6th -edit., Weimar, 1905, p. 1. - -[201] _Faust_, Bayard Taylor’s translation. London: Warne & Co., pp. -20-21. - -[202] _Op. cit._, p. 32. - -[203] _Op. cit._, pp. 33, 34. - -[204] Details of this will be found in Kuno Fischer’s _Goethe’s Faust_, -pp. 328-330. - -[205] _Op. cit._, pg. 36. - -[206] _Op. cit._, pg. 45. - -[207] _Op. cit._, p. 46. - -[208] _Op. cit._, p. 46. - -[209] _Op. cit._, p. 71. - -[210] _Op. cit._, p. 51. - -[211] _Op. cit._, p. 151. - -[212] _Op. cit._, p. 203. - -[213] _Op. cit._, p. 205. - -[214] _Op. cit._, p. 230. - -[215] _Op. cit._, p. 231. - -[216] _Op. cit._, p. 284. - -[217] _Op. cit._, p. 287. - -[218] _Op. cit._, p 298. - -[219] _Op. cit._, p. 305. - -[220] _Op. cit._, p. 309. - -[221] _Op. cit._, p. 313. - -[222] _Op. cit._, p. 351. - -[223] _Op. cit._, pp. 354-355. - -[224] _Op. cit._, p. 365. - -[225] _Op. cit._, p. 370. - -[226] _V. Tribune médicale_, 1906, p. 449. - -[227] _La Revue_, Nov. 15th and Dec. 1st. - -[228] _Essais de Philosophie critique_, Paris, 1864. - -[229] _System der Ethik_, 7th and 8th editions, vol. i, p. 199. Berlin -1906. - -[230] De Vries, in _Biologisches Centralblatt_, 1906, Sept. 1st, p. 609. - -[231] Dr. Grasset, “La fin de la vie” in the _Revue de philosophie_, -Aug. 1st, 1903. - -[232] “Morale et biologie,” _Revue philosophique_, 1904, vol. lviii, p. -125. - - - - -INDEX - - - Abelard, 273 - - Abraham, use of soured milk, 171 - - Ackermann, Mde., 237 - - _Actinosphærium_, degeneration in, 14 - - Adanson, on age of Baobab-tree, 98 - - Adrenaline, effect of, 121 - - Agave, duration of life of, 100 - - Aged, treatment of in uncivilised countries, 1, 2 - - Alcohol and longevity, 91, 92 - - Algeria, ostriches at, 76, 78, 79 - - Altruism, 331 - - Ambard, Dr., on Mde. Robineau, 7 - - Anæmia, of brain, and sleep, 122 - use of serums in, 149 - - André, M., use of serums in anæmia, 149 - - Anger, 321 - - Annandale, Nelson, on age of anemones, 48 - - Annuals, change to biennials or perennials, 100 - death of, 102 - - Antelopes, excreta of, 66 - - Anthropoids, mental characters of, 191 _et seq._ - - Antiseptics, use of, in intestinal putrefaction, 156 - - Ants, 220, 221 - - Apes, anthropoid, mental characters of, 191 _et seq._ - relationship to man, 184, 185 - - Arabs, use of milk by, 174 - - Aristotle, 132 - - Arteries, sclerosis of, in the aged, 31 - - Ascidians, social, 219 - - Ashworth, Mr., on age of anemones, 48 - - Atheroma, in the aged, 30 - - Atrophy, of cells, 26 - of muscles, 28 - - Auditory apparatus, rudimentary organism, 188 - - Augsburg, elixir of life, 138 - - Auto-intoxication, from intestinal putrefaction, 69 - in plants, 107 - sleep, due to, 120 - - - Babinsky, Dr., hysteria a relic from apes, 209 - - Balkan States, centenarians frequent in, 90 - - Baobab-tree, age of, 98 - - Barth, Dr., definition of somnambulism, 206 - - Batrachia, longevity of, 50 - - Bats, intestinal flora of, 80, 81 - - Bees, 49, 220, 226 - - Beetroot, perennial variety of, 100 - - Belgium, old age pensions, 4 - - Bélonovsky, M., on serums in anæmia, 148 - - Bélonowsky, Dr., on Bulgarian bacillus, 170 - - Berthelot, on dragon-tree of Orotava, 96 - - Bertrand, M. G., on sorbose fermentation, 106 - - Bertrand and Weisweiler, on _Bacillus bulgaris_, 179 - - Besredka, M., on blood serums, 148, 149 - - Bielschowsky, biographer of Goethe, 269 - - Blanchard, E., on age of carp, 50 - - Birds, intestinal flora of, 76, 79 - longevity of, 52 - - Blindness, 248, 257 - - Bloch, Dr. I., on Schopenhauer, 247 - - Blood-vessels, hardening of, in the old, 31 - - Bodio, on infant mortality, 85 - - Boerhave, on gerokomy, 136 - - Bones, degeneration of, 29, 30 - - Bordet, M. J. M., on serums, 148 - - Botulism, poison of, 70, 82 - - Bouchard, M., on disinfection of intestines, 156 - - Bouchet, M., on constipation after parturition, 68 - - Bourneville, M., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, 34 - - Boveri, M., produced atherana by nicotine, 32 - - Bone, marrow, in old age, 37 - - _Botryllus_, 219 - - Boutroux, definition of morality, 303 - - Bradyfagy, 159 - - Brain, anæmia of, as cause of sleep, 122 - - Brehm, on age of cattle, 55 - - Brettes, criticism of “rudimentary organs,” 186 - - Bricon, M., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, 34 - - Brigand, Calabrian, fear of death, 194, 195 - - Brillat-Savarin, quotation from, 126 - - Brown-Séquard, specific for long life, 139, 277 - - Brudzinsky, M., on use of lactic microbes, 181 - - Buddha, on pessimism, 233, 247 - - Buehler, Dr., on cause of old age, 16 - - Buffon, on duration of life, 40, 50 - - Bulgarian bacillus, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182 - - Bunge, on relation between growth and longevity, 42 - - Burbank, American horticulturist, 326, 328 - - Butterflies, longevity of, 57 - - Bütschli, O., on life of cells, 15 - - Byron, 239, 247, 295 - - - Cachexia, after extirpation of thyroid gland, 34 - - Caeca, of vertebrates, 60 _et seq._ - - Cagliostro, elixir of life, 138 - - Calomel, as an intestinal antiseptic, 158 - and syphilis, 146 - - Camphor, as an intestinal antiseptic, 156 - - Canary Islands, 96 - - Cancalon, Dr., on instinct of death, 128, 129 - - Cancer, and cleanliness, 144 - - Candolle, A. de, on cypresses of Mexico, 98 - on age of trees, 99 - - Cantacuzène, M., on blood serums, 148 - - Capital punishment, 305 - - Carlyle, on “Werther,” 265 - - Castration, effects of, 272 - - Cats, longevity of, 56 - - Cattle, longevity of, 55 - - Celibacy, and education of women, 224 - - Cell reproduction, rate of, 16 - - Centenarians, 4, 5, 86, 88, 89, 175, 176 - - Charcot, on sterilised food, 162, 163 - on hysteria, 202 - - Charron, M., on putrefactive poisons, 69 - - Chemin, M., on centenarians, 88, 89 - - Chimpanzee, 185, 192, 193 - - China, Emperor Chi-Hoang-Ti and immortality, 137 - - Chopin, a degenerate, 134 - - Christian morality, 321, 330 - - Chromophags, action of, 25 - - Claparède, E., on theory of sleep, 123, 124, 125 - - Cleanliness, and increase of life, 144 - - Clergymen, increasing duration of life of, 142 - - Coffee and longevity, 92 - - Cohausen, on gerokomy, 137 - - Cohendy, Dr. M., on Bulgarian bacillus, 178 - on intestinal flora, 78, 79 - on intestinal putrefaction, 168 - on thymol as a disinfectant, 157 - - Collectivism, 228 - - Colon, absorption in, 64 - - Constipation, evil results of, 67, 68, 69 - - Cooking, effect of, on microbes in food, 162 - - Copenhagen, suicide in, 3 - - Coral polyps, 216 - - Cornaro, 91 - - Cossacks, and biennial rye, 100 - - Cretinism, compared with senility, 32 - - Crœsus, 197 - - Cryptogams, life of, 99 - - Cursorial birds, intestinal flora of, 76 - - Cypress, age of, 98 - - Czerny, M., on absorption in colon, 64 - on cancer, 144 - - - D’Alton, and Goethe, 280 - - Dalyell, old anemone of, 48 - - Dana, on _monstrilla_, 115 - - Darwin, on fear, 195 - - David, King, 136 - - Death, instinct of, 128, 129 - natural, 94, 109, 119 - sensations at approach of, 126, 127, 130 - - Debreuil, Ch., on defecation in rheas, 76 - on excreta of antelopes, 66 - - Degenerates, famous, 134 - - Delage, Yves, criticism of instinct of death, 128 - on function of large intestines, 65, 66 - - Demange, M., on old age, 119 - - Denmark, suicide in, 3, 237 - - Descent of man, 184 - - Despotism, and socialism, 230 - - de Vries, H., on duration of life of plants, 104 - on prolongation of life of plants, 100 - on natural death in plants, 101 - - Diet and longevity, 46 - - Digestive system and senility, 59 - - _Diplogaster_, mother killed by larvæ, 111 - - Diphtheria, 323 - - Disease, and shortening of life, 145 _et seq._ - - Doctors, lady, 225 - - Dodo, 213 - - Dogs, longevity of, 55 - - Dostoiewsky, quotation from, 2 - - Doyen, M., operation on double monsters, 216 - - Dragon-tree, of Orotava, 96, 97, 98 - - Drakenberg, age of, 87 - - Drunkenness, and morality, 317 - - _Dryopithecus_, 334 - - Ducks, old, 11 - - Duering, on pessimism, 248 - - Durand-Fardel, M., on atheroma, 30 - - Duration of life, in animals, 39 _et seq._, 133 - - - Eagles, intestinal flora of, 82 - - Ecclesiastes, quotation from, 233 - - Eckermann, narrative of Goethe’s last years, 271, 274, 279 - - Egoism, 227, 306, 331 - - Egyptian milk, 105 - - Eimer, Th., on intestines of bats &c., 62, 63 - - Einhorn, Dr., on bradyfagy, 159 - - _Elective Affinities_, Goethe’s, 273 - - Elephants, 9, 54, 83, 197 - - Eliot, George, 322 - - _Elixir vitæ_, 138 - - Ellenberger, on digestion in horse, 78 - - Enriquez, on infusoria, 13 - - Ephemeridæ, duration of life of, 113, 118 - - Epicureans, 309 - - Epiphyses of bones, as giving period of growth, 40 - - Ermenghem, van, on botulism, 70 - - Errera, Dr., on cause of sleep, 121 - - _Eudoxia_, 218 - - Ewald, on absorption in colon, 64 - - Exhaustion, as cause of plant death, 104, 107 - - Extinction of animals, 213 - - Eye, in old age, 36 - - - Fatigue, Weichardt on cause of, 123 - - “_Faust_” and Goethe, 283 _et seq._ - - Favorsky, Dr., on botulism, 82 - - Fear, analysis of, 194 - - Fecundity and duration of life, 43, 44, 45, 57, 58 - - Feinkind, case of somnambulism quoted from, 204 - - Femininist movement, 224 - - Fermentation, cause of, 105 - - Fertility and longevity, 44, 45 - - Fish, longevity of, 50 - - Flamans, M., 5 - - Fletcher, on chewing, 159 - - Flora, of intestines, poisonous effect of, 70, 73 _et seq._, 151 - _et seq._ - - Flourens, on duration of life, 40, 84 - - Foà, on use of soured milk in Africa, 172 - - Food, evil effects of putrefaction in, 163 - - Fouard, M., on soured milk, 180 - - Fürbbinger, on Brown-Séquard’s emulsions, 139 - - - Gautier, A., on leucomaines, 121 - - Gegenbaur, on intestinal tract, 60, 61 - - Genius and sexual power, 272 - - Gerokomy, 136 - - Gessner, on age of pike, 50 - - Gestation and longevity, 42 - - Giacomini, on Harderian gland, 189 - - Gibbons, 192, 198 - - Goebel, on duration of life of prothalli, 101, 102 - - Goethe, 260-300, 305 - - “Goose-skin,” 196 - - Gorilla, strength of, 192 - - Griesbach, on sense of touch in blind, 257 - - Grigoroff, on Bulgarian yahourth, 175, 178 - - Grindon, on age of sheep, 55 - - Guinon, Dr., on a case of hysteria, 203 - - Gurney, J. H., on longevity of birds, 51, 79 - - - Haeckel, on medical selection, 134 - - Haffkine, M., 112 - - Hair, 17, 18 - - _Halictus_, a solitary bee, 226 - - Haller, on human longevity, 84, 132 - - _Hamlet_, quotation from, 239 - - Hannibal, his elephants swim the Rhone, 197 - - Harderian gland, 189 - - Hartmann, 235, 241 - - Harvey, on Parr, 87 - - Hayem, Prof., on use of lactic acid, 169, 173 - - Heart, diseases of, and syphilis, 145, 146 - - Hegesias, and suicide, 234 - - Heile, on absorption in colon, 64 - - Heim, on microbes in milk, 176 - - Heim, Prof., on Alpine accidents, 130 - - Heine, 236, 240 - - Hermippus, and gerokomy, 137 - - Herter, Dr., experiments on lactic acid in dogs, 167 - - Hertwig, R., on _Actinosphærium_, 14 - - Hildebrand, on duration of life of plants, 101, 102 - - Hippocrates, 132 - - Hofmeister, on digestion in horse, 74 - - Honey-ant, 222 - - Horse, cæcum, 62 - digestion, 74 - use of serum, 147 - - Horsley, Sir V., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, 34 - - Horst, on a somnambulistic soldier, 203 - - Hufeland, quotation from “Macrobiotique,” 137 - - Hugo, V., and sexuality, 277 - - Humboldt, on dragon-tree of Orotava, 96 - on longevity of parrots, 52 - - Hunger, compared with sleep, 125 - - Huxley, on character of Orang, 193 - - Hygiene, and old age, 141, 142, 143 - - Hypnotism, of a crowd on individuals, 210 - - Hysteria, analysis of, 200 _et seq._ - in monkeys, 208 - - - Ibsen, and sexuality, 277 - - Idleness, 316 - - Immortality, Chinese beverage for, 137, 138 - - Incubation, duration of, compared with longevity, 41, 42 - - India, government of, and age of elephants, 54 - - Individualism, 316 - - Individuality, 212 _et seq._ - - Infusoria, death of, 95 - senescence of, 13 - - Insects, ages of, 49 - social, 220 _et seq._ - - Instinct, of death, 128, 129 - maternal, 319, 320, 329 - social, 306 - - Intestine, large, 59, 65, 67, 151 - - Intuitive theory of morality, 305 - - - Jacobson, organ of, 187 - - Javal, Dr., on characters of the blind, 257, 259 - - Jenner, effect of vaccination on mortality rate, 144 - - Josué, M., artificial production of atheroma, 32 - - Jousset, Dr., on difference between man and apes, 184 - - - Kant, 309, 310 - - Kautsky, on socialism, 229, 230 - - Kentigern, age of, 87 - - Kephir, 171, 172, 173 - - Khoury, M., on ferment of Egyptian milk, 105 - - Kocher, Dr., on effects of extirpation of thyroid gland, 33 - - Kocher, Prof., case of removal of large intestine, 152, 153 - - Kölliker, on degeneration of muscles, 27 - - Koppenfels, on character of gorilla, 194 - - Koumiss, 172 - - Kowalevsky, Sophie, 225 - - Kowalevsky, analysis of pessimism, 241, 255 - - Kukula, experiments on intestinal poisons, 69, 70 - - Kwass, 166 - - - Lactic bacilli, and putrefaction in intestine, 168 - - Laignel-Lavastine, M., criticism of neuronophagy, 20 - - Lankester, Sir E. Ray, on longevity, 12, 56 - - Lao-Tsé, and immortality, 137 - - Laud, Archbishop, old tortoise of, 51 - - Lautschenberger, on absorption in colon, 64 - - Lavater, Goethe’s letter to, 268 - - Laws aiding the aged, 3, 4 - - “Leben,” Egyptian, 105, 171, 177, 178 - - Le Bon, G., on hysteria in crowds, 209 - - Lenau, M., 236 - - Lenthéric, on elephants swimming, 197 - - Leopardi, G., pessimistic poet, 235, 236, 247 - - Le Play, M., on putrefactive poisons, 69 - - Léri, M., on senile brain, 20 - - Lermontoff, 236 - - Leucomaines, as cause of sleep, 121 - - Levaillant, on longevity of parrots, 52 - - Lewes, G. H., on Goethe, 273, 290, 292, 298 - - Lexis, on duration of human life, 85 - - Life, duration of, in animals, 39 _et seq._ - - Life, prolongation of human, 132, _et seq._ - “sense” of, 260 - - Lima, Dr., on use of soured milk in Africa, 172, 174 - - Lloyd, M., old anemone of, 47 - - Loewenberg, Dr., on Mde. Robineau, 7 - - London Zoological Gardens, 51, 81 - - Longevity, in animal kingdom, 47 _et seq._ - human, 84 _et seq._ - rules for, 141 - in sexes, 44 - theories of, 39 - - Lorand, Dr., on ductless glands, 32 - - Love, Goethe and, 272 - - Luxury, 321 - - - Macfadyen, Nencki and Mde. Sieber, on digestion, 153, 161 - - Macrophags, 25, 147 - - Mailaender, 235, 255 - - Malaquin, M., on _Monstrilla_, 116, 117 - - Male rotifers, death of, 114, 115 - - Malthus, theory of, 214 - - Mammals, longevity of, 53 - - Mammary glands, in males, 186 - - Man, compared with apes, 184, 185 - natural death of, 119 _et seq._ - longevity of, 84 _et seq._ - - Manouélian, M., on neuronophagy, 21, 22 - - Marinesco, M., on neuronophogs, 19 - - Marrow of the bones, in old age, 37 - - _Marsiliaceæ_, duration of life of prothallus, 99 - - Martin, on Gibbons, 192 - - Massart, on cause of death in plants, 102, 109 - - Massol, Prof., 178 - - Mastication, and intestinal putrefaction, 160 - - Matchinsky, M., on atrophy of ovary, 26 - - Maternal instinct, 319, 320 - - Mauclaire, M., operations on large intestine, 153, 154, 155 - - Maumus, M., on digestion in cæca, 61 - - Mauritius, giant tortoise from, 12 - - Maupas, M., on infusoria, 13 - - Maya, 178 - - Mayers, on Chinese elixir, 138 - - Meconium, appearance of microbes in, 161 - - Medical selection, 134 - - Mesnet and Mottet, Drs., cases of hysteria, 203 - - Mice, duration of life, 41, 43, 56 - - Michaelis, on muscles of monkeys, 185 - - Microbes, as cause of senility, 73 - in food, 162, 163 - passage through intestinal walls, 71 - - _Middlemarch_, G. Eliot’s, 322 - - Milk, importance of boiling, 177, 178 - microbes of disease in, 177 - putrefaction and fermentation of, 167 - use of soured milk, 181, 182 - - Mill, J. S., 323 - - Milne-Edwards, H., on laws of duration of life, 42 - - Minot, Prof., on cause of old age, 16 - - Moa, 213 - - Moebius, on Goethe, 271 - on Schopenhauer, 255 - - Molluscs, ages of, 48 - - Mongols, hair in old, 17 - - Monkeys, longevity of, 83 - - Monsters, double, 216 - - _Monstrilla_, life-history of, 115, 116, 117 - - Montefiore, Sir M., 91 - - Morality, Christian, 321 - definitions of, 303 - Kantian, 309, 310, 311, 312 - science and, 301 _et seq._ - - Mortality rates of old persons, 142, 143 - - Moses, use of soured milk, 171 - - Mosso, on fear, 194, 196 - - Muscles, degeneration of, 9, 26, 27 - - Myxomycetes, 215 - - - Naegeli, on age of trees, 99 - - Nails, growth of, in the old, 18 - - Naphthaline, as an intestinal antiseptic, 156 - - Nature, human, 325 - - Nausenne, Mde., cause of longevity, 141 - - Negroes, longevity of, 88 - - Neisser, Prof., on protection against syphilis, 146 - - Nematodes, death of, 111 - - _Nemertines_, life-history of _Pilidium_ of, 109 _et seq._ - - Nencki and Sieber, on digestion, 153, 161, 169 - - Neuronophags, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 - - Nicotine, use of in experimental production of atheroma, 32 - - Nietzsche, criticism of Socialism, 230 - - Nogueira, M., on use of soured milk in Africa, 172, 174 - - - Obstacles, sense of, 258 - - Old age, Goethe and, 279 _et seq._ - - Olympian, Goethe as an, 269 - - Optimism, foundation of, 256 - Goethe’s transformation to, 269, 270 _et seq._ - - Orang-outan, 185, 193 - - Orotava, dragon-tree of, 96 - - Orstein, Dr., on centenarians in Greece, 90 - - Orthobiosis, 212, 325 _et seq._ - - Ossetes, use of soured milk, 173 - - Osteoclasts, 30 - - Ostrich, defecation of, 76 - - Oustalet, M., on longevity of vertebrates, 46 - - Ovary, atrophy of, 26 - - Owls, intestinal flora of, 83 - - Ownership, collective, 229, 230 - - - Parodi, on old age, 332 - - Parr, Thomas, 87 - - Parrots, duration of life, 41 - scanty intestinal flora of, 79 - - Pasquier, Dr. du, on constipation, 67 - - Pasteur, discovery of lactic microbe, 105, 167 - - Paulsen, criticism of Kant, 314 - - Pensions, old age, 3, 4, 133 - - Pessimism, 129, 233, 234, 239, 241, 249, 266 - - Pessimist, study of life-history of a, 249 _et seq._ - - Pflüger, on longevity, 93 - - Phagocytes, 18, 19 - - Phagocytosis, examples of, 25, 37 - - Phalansteries, 229 - - _Pilidium_, 109 _et seq._ - - Pitres, M., hysteric patients of, 200 - - Plague, 323 - - Plants, death of, 99, 103 - - Plasmodia, of Myxomycetes, 215, 216 - - _Pleurotrocha haffkini_, 112, 113 - - Pochon, Dr., experiments on use of lactic bacilli, 169 - - Poehl, Dr., on spermine, 139, 140 - - Pohl, Dr., on growth of hair, 17, 18 - - _Ponogenes_, as cause of sleep, 120 - - Potatoes, improved by Burbank, 326 - - Poushkin, 236 - - Predestination, and plants, 103 - - Preyer, Dr., on _Ponogenes_, 120 - - Prichard, on longevity of negroes, 88 - - Productivity compared with fecundity, 57, 58 - - Prostokwacha, 172, 176 - - Prolongation of life, 132 _et seq._ - - Prothalli, life of, 99 - - Psychids, death of, 117 - - Ptolemy, fear of Hegesias’ philosophy, 235 - - Punishment, capital, 305 - - Purgatives, use of, in intestinal putrefaction, 157 - - Putrefaction, intestinal, 151 _et seq._, 161, 163, 164 - - - Quételet, on stature of the aged, 9 - - - Rabbit, fecundity of, 58 - - Ravens, absence of putrefaction in intestines of, 75 - - Reagents, action of, in distorting tissues, 20 - - Renouvier, C., on his own death, 127 - - Reproduction, organs of, rudiments in, 189 - - Reptiles, longevity of, 50 - - Rhea, cæca of, 60, 77 - - Rhinoceros, longevity of, 54 - - _Rhytina_, 213 - - Riley, James, on food of Arabs, 174 - - Rimpau, on cultivation of rye, 326, 328 - - Rist and Khoury, on milk, 178 - - Rist, M., on ferment of Egyptian milk, 105 - - Rivière, M., on defecation in ostriches, 76, 78, 79 - - Robineau, Mde., 5, 6, 7, 8, 128, 159 - - “_Roman Elegies_,” Goethe’s, 268, 273 - - Rotifera, duration of life, 39 - death of, 112 - - Roux, anti-syphilitic ointment, 146 - - Rovighi, on Kephir, 173 - - Rudimentary organs, 185 _et seq._ - - Rye, duration of life of, 100 - Rimpau’s improvement of, 326 - - - Salpétrière, hysterical patients at, 201 - old women in the, 4, 5 - - Sand, M., on senile brain, 20 - - Sargent, on age of Sequoia, 98 - - Sauer-kraut, 165, 171 - - Sauvage, M., on atheroma, 30 - - Savage, on character of anthropoids, 193 - - Saxe-Weimar, Grand Duke of, and Goethe, 274 - - Schaudinn, spirillum of syphilis, 31 - - Schiller, Goethe on, 271 - - Schiller, on moral conduct, 310 - - Schlanstedt, rye of, 326 - - Schmidt, on microbes in constipation, 70 - - Schopenhauer, 235, 247, 255, 277, 330 - - Schumann, a degenerate, 134 - - Science, and morality, 301 _et seq._ - - Sclerosis, in the aged, 31 - - Sea-anemones, longevity of, 47, 48 - - Sea-cow, 213 - - Selection, medical, 134 - - Seneca, 132, 235 - - Senescence, Brown-Séquard’s specific against, 139 - mechanism of, 25 - phagocytosis as cause of, 35 - - Senility, characters of, 8, 14 - and digestive system, 59 - theories of causation of, 15 _et seq._ - - Sensation, analysis of, with regard to pain and pleasure, 243 - - Sense of life, 26 - of obstacles, 258 - - Sense, organs of, rudimentary structures in, 186, 187 - - “Sermon on the Mount,” 321 - - Serums, cytotoxic, 147, 148, 149 - - Servants, care of, 321 - - Sex, and longevity, 57 - - Sexuality, Goethe and, 273 _et seq._ - and old age, 276 - moral problems of, 305 - - Sexual organs, abnormalities of, 224 - - Sexual power and genius, 272 - - Shakespeare, quotations, 239, 307 - - Sheep, digestion of, 74 - longevity, 55 - - Sight, rudimentary organs of, 189 - - Silos, 165 - - Siphonophora, 217 - - Skeleton, atrophy of, in the aged, 29 - - Sleep, and anæmia of brain, 122 - and auto-intoxication, 120 - and death compared, 125 - - Sleepiness, compared with hunger, 125 - - Sleeping-sickness, 124 - - Small-pox, and mortality rates, 144 - - Smell, analysis of, 243 - - Smell, rudimentary organs of sense of, 187 - - Smoking and longevity, 93 - - Social animals, 214, 220 _et seq._ - - Socialism, 228, 229 - - Society _v._ the individual, 223 _et seq._ - - Society, and morality, 306 - - Sociology, dependent on biology, 231 - - Sollier, Dr., on sensations at death, 130 - - Solomon, quotation from “Ecclesiastes,” 233 - - Somnambulism, analysis of, 200 _et seq._ - - Sorbose, fermentation of, 106 - - Soured milk, use of, 171, 181, 182 - - Sparrow, fecundity of, 58 - - Spencer, Herbert, criticism of Kant, 310 - criticism of socialism, 230 - theory of morality, 316, 322, 324, 327 - - Spermatozoa, in old age, 35 - - Spermine, 139, 140 - - Stadelmann, on lactic acid in diabetes, 170 - - Statistics on suicide, 3 - - Stature, in old age, 8, 9 - - Stein, Mde. von, 267, 268, 273 - - Steller’s sea-cow, 213 - - Stern, M., on disinfection of intestine, 156 - - Stohmann, on digestion in sheep, 74 - - Stoics, 309 - - Stragesco, Dr., on digestion in mammals, 63 - - Strasburger, on disinfection of intestine, 156, 157 - on microbes in constipation, 70 - - Suicide, 3, 4, 237, 238, 265, 311 - - Sully-Prudhomme, definition of morality, 303 - - Suprarenal capsules, and atheroma, 32 - - Swimming, instinctive power of, 197, 198, 207 - - Syphilis, 31, 37, 145, 146, 302, 304 - - Switzerland, centenarians rare in, 91 - - - Tanacol, as an intestinal antiseptic, 156 - - Taoism and immortality, 137, 138 - - Taste, analysis of, 243 - - Tavel, M., operations on large intestine, 152 _et seq._ - - Taylor, Bayard, translation of _Faust_, 285 - - Termites, 220, 221 - - Testis, emulsion of, as used by Brown-Séquard, 139 - resistance of, to senescence, 35 - - Thanatology, 131 - - Theophrastus, 132 - - Thymol, as an intestinal antiseptic, 157 - - Thyroid, effects of extirpation of, 32, 33, 34 - - _Timon of Athens_, quotation from, 307 - - Tissier, Dr., on _Bacillus bifidus_, 161 - on use of lactic microbes, 181 - - Tissier, and Martelly, on putrid food, 164 - - Tobacco and longevity, 93 - - Tokarsky, on natural death, 126 - - Tolstoi, and death, 94 - “Death of Ivan Ilyitch,” 318 - - Tortoise, 11, 12, 13, 51 - - Touch, sense of, in the blind, 257 - - Troubat, M., on instinctive swimming, 198 - - Trees, age and death of, 96, 97, 98 - - _Trypanosoma_, 124 - - - Unicellular organisms, death of, 95 - - Urine, analysis of, in a centenarian, 7 - - Utilitarianism, 305 - - - Vacherot, criticism of Kant, 313 - - Varenetz, 172 - - Vascular glands, relation to old age, 33, 34 - - Verworn, Max, on death in infusoria, 95 - - Vinegar, in preservation of food, 165 - - Vivisection, 301 - - Voisin, M., criticism of neuronophagy, 20 - - Voltaire, 92, 235 - - Volz, on swimming power of gibbons, 198 - - - Wales, Mr., quotation from Riley, 174 - - Weber, Dr., on regimen for old age, 140, 141 - - Weichardt, on cause of fatigue, 122, 123 - - Weinberg, Dr., on preparation of human serums, 150 - on thyroid gland in aged, 33 - - Weiske, on digestion in sheep, 78 - - Weismann, A., on cause of old age, 15, 16 - on death in infusoria, 95 - on duration of life, 41, 43, 45, 51 - - “Weltschmerz,” in German poetry, 236 - - _Werther_, Goethe’s, 263, 267 - - Westergaard, statistics of mortality, 142, 144 - - Wiedersheim, on intestinal tract, 60 - - Wine, Goethe and, 271, 279 - - Wolff, J. H., Goethe’s friend, 271 - - Women, education, 224 _et seq._ - - - Yahourth, use in intestinal putrefaction, 168, 170, 175, 177, 178 - - Yeast, conditions of growth, 106 - - - Zeigan, Dr., on adrenaline, 122 - - Zell, Dr., on blind persons, 259 - - Zelter, Goethe’s friend, 265 - - Zola, “La Joie de Vivre,” 248 - - Zoological Gardens of London, 51, 81 - - Zortay, Pierre, age of, 87 - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Prolongation of Life, by Elie Metchnikoff - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE *** - -***** This file should be named 51521-0.txt or 51521-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/5/2/51521/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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