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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6299bc6 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #51521 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51521) diff --git a/old/51521-0.txt b/old/51521-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index edc6e17..0000000 --- a/old/51521-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12330 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prolongation of Life, by Elie Metchnikoff - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Prolongation of Life - Optimistic Studies - -Author: Elie Metchnikoff - -Editor: Peter Chalmers Mitchell - -Release Date: March 21, 2016 [EBook #51521] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - —————————————————————————————————————————————————————— - Transcriber’s Note: - - The position of the footnote anchor 171 at page 229 is - a guess of the transcriber as the anchor was missing - in the original book. - —————————————————————————————————————————————————————— - - - - - THE PROLONGATION - OF LIFE - - OPTIMISTIC STUDIES - - BY - - ÉLIE METCHNIKOFF - - SUB-DIRECTOR OF THE PASTEUR INSTITUTE, PARIS - - THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION - - EDITED BY - - P. CHALMERS MITCHELL - - M.A., D.SC. OXON., HON. LL.D., F.R.S. - - _Secretary of the Zoological Society of London; Corresponding Member - of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia_ - - G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS - NEW YORK & LONDON - The Knickerbocker Press - 1908 - - - - -EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION - - -Élie Metchnikoff has carried on the high purpose of the Pasteur -Institute by devoting his genius for biological inquiry to the service -of man. Some years ago, in a series of Essays which were intended to -be provocative and educational, rather than expository, he described -the direction towards which he was pressing. I had the privilege of -introducing these Essays to English readers under the title _The Nature -of Man_, a Study in Optimistic Philosophy. In that volume, Professor -Metchnikoff recounted how sentient man, regarding his lot in the world, -had found it evil. Philosophy and literature, religion and folk-lore, -in ancient and modern times have been deeply tinged with pessimism. The -source of these gloomy views lies in the nature of man itself. Man has -inherited a constitution from remote animal ancestors, and every part -of his structure, physical, mental and emotional, is a complex legacy -of diverse elements. Possibly at one time each quality had its purpose -as an adaptation to environment, but, as man, in the course of his -evolution, and the environment itself have changed, the old harmonious -intercourse between quality and circumstances has been dislocated in -many cases. And so there have come into existence many instances of -what the Professor calls “disharmony,” persistences of structures, -or habits, or desires that are no longer useful, but even harmful, -failures of parallelism between the growth, maturity and decay of -physical and mental qualities and so forth. Religions and philosophies -alike have failed to find remedies or efficient anodynes for these -evils of existence, and, so far, man is justified of his historical and -actual pessimism. - -Metchnikoff, however, was able to proclaim himself an optimist, and -found, in biological science, for the present generation a hope, or, -at the least, an end towards which to work, and for future generations -a possible achievement of that hope. Three chief evils that hang over -us are disease, old age, and death. Modern science has already made -vast strides towards the destruction of disease, and no one has more -right to be listened to than a leader of the Pasteur Institute when he -asserts his confidence that rational hygiene and preventive measures -will ultimately rid mankind of disease. The scientific investigation -of old age shows that senility is nearly always precocious and -that its disabilities and miseries are for the most part due to -preventable causes. Metchnikoff showed years ago that there exists in -the human body a number of cells known generally as phagocytes, the -chief function of which is to devour intruding microbes. But these -guardians of the body may turn into its deadly enemies by destroying -and replacing the higher elements, the specific cells of the different -tissues. The physical mechanism of senility appears to be in large -measure the result of this process. Certain substances, notably the -poisons of such diseases as syphilis and the products of intestinal -putrefaction, stimulate the activity of the phagocytes and so encourage -their encroachment on the higher tissues. The first business of science -is to remove these handicaps in favour of the wandering, corroding -phagocytes. Specific poisons must be dealt with separately, by -prevention or treatment, and it is well known that Metchnikoff has -made great advances in that direction. The most striking practical -side of _The Nature of Man_, however, was the discussion of the cause -and prevention of intestinal putrefaction. Metchnikoff believes that -the inherited structure of the human large intestine and the customary -diet of civilised man are specially favourable to the multiplication -of a large number of microbes that cause putrefaction. The avoidance -of alcohol and the rigid exclusion from diet of foods that favour -putrefaction, such as rich meats, and of raw or badly cooked substances -containing microbes, do much to remedy the evils. But the special -introduction of the microbes which cause lactic fermentation has -the effect of inhibiting putrefaction. By such measures Metchnikoff -believes that life will be greatly prolonged and that the chief evils -of senility will be avoided. It may take many generations before the -final result is attained, but, in the meantime, great amelioration is -possible. There remains the last enemy, death. Metchnikoff shows that -in the vast majority of cases death is not “natural,” but comes from -accidental and preventable causes. When diseases have been suppressed -and the course of life regulated by scientific hygiene, it is probable -that death would come only at an extreme old age. Metchnikoff thinks -that there is evidence enough at least to suggest that when death comes -in its natural place at the end of the normal cycle of life, it would -be robbed of its terrors and be accepted as gratefully as any other -part of the cycle of life. He thinks, in fact, that the instinct of -life would be replaced by an instinct of death. - -Metchnikoff’s suggestion, then, was that science should be encouraged -and helped in every possible way in its task of removing the diseases -and habits that now prevent human life from running its normal course, -and his belief is that were the task accomplished, the great causes of -pessimism would disappear. - -In this new volume, _The Prolongation of Life_, the main thesis is -carried further, and a number of criticisms and objections are met. -The latter, so far as they relate to technical details, I need say -nothing of here, as Metchnikoff and his staff at the Pasteur Institute -are the most skilled existing technical experts on these matters, but -I cannot refrain from a word of comment on the brilliant treatment -of the objection to the suggested amelioration of human life that it -considered only the individual and neglected the just subordination -of the individual to society. In the sixth Part of this volume, -Metchnikoff discusses the relation of the individual to the species, -society or colony, from the general point of view of comparative -biology, and shows that as organisation progresses, the integrity of -the individual becomes increasingly important. Were orthobiosis, the -normal cycle of life, attained by human beings, there still would be -room for specialisation of individuals and for differentiation of the -functions of individuals in society, but instead of the specialisation -and differentiation making individuals incomplete throughout their -whole lives, they would be distributed over the different periods of -the life of each individual. - -As these lines are intended to be an introduction, not a commentary, I -will now leave the reader to follow the argument in the book itself. - - P. CHALMERS MITCHELL. - - LONDON, _August, 1907_. - - - - -PREFACE - - -It is now four years since I wrote a volume, the English translation -of which was called _The Nature of Man_, and which was an attempt to -frame an optimistic conception of life. Human nature contains many -very complex elements, due to its animal ancestry, and amongst these -there are some disharmonies to which our misfortunes are due, but also -elements which afford the promise of a happier human life. - -My views have encountered many objections, and I wish to reply to some -of these by developing my arguments. This was my first task in this -book, but I have also brought together a series of studies on problems -which closely affect my theory. - -Although it has been possible to support my conception by new facts, -some of which have been established by my fellow-workers, others -by myself, there still remain many sides of the subject where it -is necessary to fall back on hypotheses. I have accepted such -imperfections instead of delaying the publication of my book. - -Even at present there are critics who regard me as incapable of sane -and logical reasoning. The longer I postpone publication, the longer -would I leave the field open to such persons. What I have been saying -may serve also as a reply to the remark of one of my critics, that my -ideas have been “suggested by self-preoccupation.” - -It is, of course, quite natural that a biologist whose attention had -been aroused by noticing in his own case the phenomena of precocious -old age should turn to study the causes of it. But it is equally plain -that such a study could give no hope of resisting the decay of an -organism which had already for many years been growing old. If the -ideas which have come out of my work bring about some modification in -the onset of old age, the advantage can be gained only by those who are -still young, and who will be at the pains to follow the new knowledge. -This volume, in fact, like my earlier one on the “Nature of Man,” is -directed much more to the new generation than to that which has already -been subjected to the influence of the factors which produce precocious -old age. I think that thus the experience of those who have lived and -worked for long can be made of service to others. - -As this volume is a sequel to _The Nature of Man_, I have tried as much -as possible to avoid repetition of what was fully explained in the -earlier volume. - -Here I bring together the results of work that has been done since the -publication of _The Nature of Man_. Some of the chapters relate to -subjects upon which I have lectured, or which, in a different form, -have been printed before. For instance, the section on the psychic -rudiments of man appeared in the _Bulletin de l’Institut général -psychologique_ of 1904, the essay on Animal Societies was published in -the _Revue Philomatique de Bordeaux et du Sud-Ouest_ of 1904, and in -the _Revue_ of J. Finot of the same year, whilst a German translation -of it appeared in Prof. Ostwald’s _Annalen der Naturphilosophie_. The -chapter on soured milk first appeared as a pamphlet, published in -1905. The substance of my views on natural death was published in June -last in “Harper’s Monthly Magazine” of New York, while the chapter on -natural death in animals appeared in the first number of the _Revue du -Mois_ for 1906. - -I have to thank most sincerely the friends and pupils who have helped -me by bringing before me new facts, or other materials; the names -of these will appear in their proper places in the volume. I have -not mentioned by name, however, Dr. J. Goldschmidt, whose continual -encouragement and practical sympathy have made my work much easier. - -Finally, my special thanks are due to Drs. Em. Roux and Burnet, and -M. Mesnil, who have been so good as to correct my manuscript and the -proofs of this volume. - - É. M. - - PARIS, _Feb. 7, 1907_. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION v - - PREFACE ix - - - PART I - - THE INVESTIGATION OF OLD AGE - - - I - - THE PROBLEMS OF SENILITY - - Treatment of old people in uncivilised - countries.—Assassination of old people in civilised - countries.—Suicide of old people.—Public assistance in - old age.—Centenarians.—Mme. Robineau, a lady of 106 - years of age.—Principal characters of old age.—Examples - of old mammals.—Old birds and tortoises.—Hypothesis of - senile degeneration in the lower animals 1 - - - II - - THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF SENILITY - - Hypothesis of the causation of senility.—Senility - cannot be attributed to the cessation of the power of - reproduction of the cells of the body.—Growth of the - hair and the nails in old age.—Inner mechanism of - the senescence of the tissues.—Notwithstanding the - criticisms of M. Marinesco, the neuronophags are true - phagocytes.—The whitening of hair, and the destruction - of nerve cells as arguments against a theory of old age - based on the failure of the reproductive powers of the - cells 15 - - - III - - MECHANISM OF SENILITY - - Action of the macrophags in destroying the higher - cells.—Senile degeneration of the muscular - fibres.—Atrophy of the skeleton.—Atheroma and arterial - sclerosis.—Theory that Old Age is due to alteration - in the vascular glands.—Organic tissues that resist - phagocytosis. 25 - - - PART II - - LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - - I - - THEORIES OF LONGEVITY - - Relation between longevity and size.—Longevity and - the period of growth.—Longevity and the doubling - in weight after birth.—Longevity and rate of - reproduction.—Probable relations between longevity and - the nature of the food 39 - - - II - - LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - Longevity in the lower animals.—Instances of long life - in sea-anemones and other vertebrates.—Duration of - life of insects.—Duration of life of “cold-blooded” - vertebrates.—Duration of life of birds.—Duration of - life of mammals.—Inequality of the duration of life - in males and females.—Relations between longevity and - fertility of the organism 47 - - - III - - THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the structure of - the digestive system.—The cæca in birds.—The - large intestine of mammals.—Function of the large - intestine.—The intestinal microbes and their agency in - producing auto-intoxication and auto-infection in the - organism.—Passage of microbes through the intestinal - wall 59 - - - IV - - MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the intestinal - flora.—Ruminants.—The horse.—Intestinal flora of - birds.—Intestinal flora of cursorial birds.—Duration - of life in cursorial birds.—Flying mammals.—Intestinal - flora and longevity of bats.—Some exceptions to the - rule.—Resistance of the lower vertebrates to certain - intestinal microbes 73 - - - V - - DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE - - Longevity of man.—Theory of Ebstein on the normal - duration of human life.—Instances of human - longevity.—Circumstances which may explain the long - duration of human life 84 - - - PART III - - INVESTIGATIONS ON NATURAL DEATH - - - I - - NATURAL DEATH AMONGST PLANTS - - Theory of the immortality of unicellular - organisms.—Examples of very old trees.—Examples of - short-lived plants.—Prolongation of the life of some - plants.—Theory of the natural death of plants by - exhaustion.—Death of plants from auto-intoxication 94 - - - II - - NATURAL DEATH IN THE ANIMAL WORLD - - Different origins of death in animals.—Examples of - natural death associated with violent acts.—Examples - of natural death in animals without digestive - organs.—Natural death in the two sexes.—Hypothesis as - to the cause of natural death in animals 109 - - - III - - NATURAL DEATH AMONGST HUMAN BEINGS - - Natural death in the aged.—Analogy of natural death and - sleep.—Theories of sleep.—Ponogenes.—The instinct - of sleep.—The instinct of natural death.—Replies to - critics.—Agreeable sensation at the approach of death 119 - - - PART IV - - SHOULD WE TRY TO PROLONG HUMAN LIFE? - - - I - - THE BENEFIT TO HUMANITY - - Complaints of the shortness of our life.—Theory of - “medical selection” as a cause of degeneration of the - race.—Utility of prolonging human life 132 - - - II - - SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE - - Ancient methods of prolonging human life.—Gerokomy.—The - “immortality draught” of the Taoists.—Brown-Séquard’s - method.—The spermine of Poehl.—Dr. Weber’s - precepts.—Increased duration of life in historical - times.—Hygienic maxims.—Decrease in cutaneous cancer 136 - - - III - - DISEASES THAT SHORTEN LIFE - - Measures against infectious diseases as aiding in the - prolongation of life.—Prevention of syphilis.—Attempts - to prepare serums which could strengthen the higher - elements of the organism 145 - - - IV - - INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION SHORTENS LIFE - - Uselessness of the large intestine in man.—Case of - a woman whose large intestine was inactive for six - months.—Another case where the greater part of the - large intestine was completely shut off.—Attempts to - disinfect the contents of the large intestine.—Prolonged - mastication as a means of preventing intestinal - putrefaction 151 - - - V - - LACTIC ACID AS INHIBITING INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION - - The development of the intestinal flora in - man.—Harmlessness of sterilised food.—Means - of preventing the putrefaction of food.—Lactic - fermentation and its anti-putrescent action.—Experiments - on man and mice.—Longevity in races which used - soured milk.—Comparative study of different soured - milks.—Properties of the Bulgarian Bacillus.—Means - of preventing intestinal putrefaction with the help of - microbes 161 - - - PART V - - PSYCHICAL RUDIMENTS IN MAN - - - I - - RUDIMENTARY ORGANS IN MAN - - Reply to critics who deny the simian origin of - man.—Actual existence of rudimentary organs.—Reductions - in the structure of the organs of sense in man.—Atrophy - of Jacobson’s organ and of the Harderian gland in the - human race 184 - - - II - - HUMAN TRAITS OF CHARACTER INHERITED FROM APES - - The mental character of anthropoid apes.—Their muscular - strength.—Their expression of fear.—The awakening of - latent instincts of man under the influence of fear 191 - - - III - - SOMNAMBULISM AND HYSTERIA AS MENTAL RELICS - - Fear as the primary cause of hysteria.—Natural - somnambulism.—Doubling of personality.—Some examples - of somnambulists.—Analogy between somnambulism and - the life of anthropoid apes.—The psychology of - crowds.—Importance of the investigation of hysteria for - the problem of the origin of man 200 - - - PART VI - - SOME POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL ANIMALS - - - I - - THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE - - Problem of the species in the human race.—Loss - of individuality in the associations of lower - animals.—Myxomycetes and Siphonophora.—Individuality in - Ascidians.—Progress in the development of the individual - living in a society 212 - - - II - - INSECT SOCIETIES - - Social life of insects.—Development and preservation of - individuality in colonies of insects.—Division of labour - and sacrifice of individuality in some insects 220 - - - III - - SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE HUMAN RACE - - Human societies.—Differentiation in the human - race.—Learned women.—Habits of a bee, Halictus - quadricinctus.—Collectivist theories.—Criticisms by - Herbert Spencer and Nietzsche.—Progress of individuality - in the societies of higher beings 223 - - - PART VII - - PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM - - - I - - PREVALENCE OF PESSIMISM - - Oriental origin of pessimism.—Pessimistic - poets.—Byron.—Leopardi.—Poushkin.—Lermontoff.—Pessimism - and suicide 233 - - - II - - ANALYSIS OF PESSIMISM - - Attempts to assign reasons for the pessimistic conception - of life.—Views of E. von Hartmann.—Analysis of - Kowalevsky’s work on the psychology of pessimism 239 - - - III - - PESSIMISM IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND AGE - - Relation between pessimism and the state of the - health.—History of a man of science who was pessimistic - when young and who became an optimist in old - age.—Optimism of Schopenhauer when old.—Development of - the sense of life.—Development of the senses in blind - people.—The sense of obstacles 247 - - - PART VIII - - GOETHE AND FAUST - - - I - - GOETHE’S YOUTH - - Goethe’s youth.—Pessimism of youth.—Werther.—Tendency - to suicide.—Work and love.—Goethe’s conception of life - in his maturity 261 - - - II - - GOETHE AND OPTIMISM - - Goethe’s optimistic period.—His mode of life - in that period.—Influence of love in artistic - production.—Inclinations towards the arts must be - regarded as secondary sexual characters.—Senile love - of Goethe.—Relation between genius and the sexual - activities 270 - - - III - - GOETHE’S OLD AGE - - Old age of Goethe.—Physical and intellectual vigour of - the old man.—Optimistic conception of life.—Happiness - in life in his last period 279 - - - IV - - GOETHE AND “FAUST” - - _Faust_ the biography of Goethe.—The three monologues in - the first Part.—Faust’s pessimism.—The brain-fatigue - which finds a remedy in love.—The romance with - Marguerite and its unhappy ending 283 - - - V - - THE OLD AGE OF FAUST - - The second Part of _Faust_ is in the main a description - of senile love.—Amorous passion of the old man.—Humble - attitude of the old Faust.—Platonic love for - Helena.—The old Faust’s conception of life.—His - optimism.—The general idea of the play 290 - - - PART IX - - SCIENCE AND MORALITY - - - I - - UTILITARIAN AND INTUITIVE MORALITY - - Difficulty of the problem of morality.—Vivisection - and anti-vivisection.—Enquiry into the possibility of - rational morality.—Utilitarian and intuitive theories of - morality.—Insufficiency of these 301 - - - II - - MORALITY AND HUMAN NATURE - - Attempts to found morality on the laws of human - nature.—Kant’s theory of moral obligation.—Some - criticisms of the Kantian theory.—Moral conduct must be - guided by reason 309 - - - III - - INDIVIDUALISM - - Individual morality.—History of two brothers brought - up in the same circumstances, but whose conduct was - quite different.—Late development of the sense of - life.—Evolution of sympathy.—The sphere of egoism in - moral conduct.—Christian morality.—Morality of Herbert - Spencer.—Danger of exalted altruism 316 - - - IV - - ORTHOBIOSIS - - Human nature must be modified according to an - ideal.—Comparison with the modification of the - constitution of plants and of animals.—Schlanstedt - rye.—Burbank’s plants.—The ideal of orthobiosis.—The - immorality of ignorance.—The place of hygiene in - the social life.—The place of altruism in moral - conduct.—The freedom of the theory of orthobiosis from - metaphysics 325 - - - - -THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE - - - -PART I - -THE INVESTIGATION OF OLD AGE - - - - -I - -THE PROBLEMS OF SENILITY - - Treatment of old people in uncivilised - countries—Assassination of old people in civilised - countries—Suicide of old people—Public assistance in - old age—Centenarians—Mme. Robineau, a lady of 106 years - of age—Principal characters of old age—Examples of old - mammals—Old birds and tortoises—Hypothesis of senile - degeneration in the lower animals - - -In the “Nature of Man” I laid down the outlines of a theory of the -actual changes which take place during the senescence of our body. -These ideas, on the one hand, have raised certain difficulties, and, on -the other, have led to new investigations. As the study of old age is -of great theoretical importance, and naturally is of practical value, I -think that it is useful to pursue the subject still further. - -Although there exist races which solve the difficulty of old age by -the simple means of destroying aged people, the problem in civilised -countries is complicated by our more refined feelings and by -considerations of a general nature. - -In the Melanesian Islands, old people who have become incapable of -doing useful work are buried alive. - -In times of famine, the natives of Tierra del Fuego kill and eat the -old women before they touch their dogs. When they were asked why they -did this, they said that dogs could catch seals, whilst old women could -not do so. - -Civilised races do not act like the Fuegians or other savages; they -neither kill nor eat the aged, but none the less life in old age often -becomes very sad. As they are incapable of performing any useful -function in the family or in the village, the old people are regarded -as a heavy burden. Although they cannot be got rid of, their death is -awaited with eagerness, and is never thought to come soon enough. The -Italians say that old women have seven lives. According to a Bergamask -tradition, old women have seven souls, and after that an eighth soul, -quite a little one, and after that again half a soul; whilst the -Lithuanians complain that the life of an old woman is so tough that it -cannot be crushed even in a mill. We may take it as an echo of such -popular ideas that murders of old people are extremely common even -in the most civilised European countries. I have been astonished in -looking through criminal records to see how many cases there are of the -murder of old people, specially of old women. It is easy to divine the -motives of these acts. A convict of the Island of Saghalien, condemned -for the assassination of several old persons, declared naïvely to the -prison doctor: “Why pity them? They were already old, and would have -died in any case in a few years.” - -In the celebrated novel of Dostoiewsky, “Crime and Punishment,” there -is a tavern scene where young people discuss all sorts of general -topics. In the middle of the conversation a student declares that he -would “murder and rob any cursed old woman without the least remorse.” -“If the truth were told,” he goes on to say, “this is how I look at -the thing. On the one hand a stupid old woman, childish, worthless, -ill-tempered, and in bad health; no one would miss her, indeed she is -a nuisance to everyone. She does not even herself know any reason why -she should live, and perhaps to-morrow death will make a good riddance -of her. On the other hand, there are fresh and vigorous young people -who are dying in their thousands, in the most senseless way, no one -troubling about them, and everywhere the same thing is going on.” - -Old people not only run the risk of murder; they very often end their -own lives prematurely by suicide. - -They prefer death to a life oppressed by material hardships or burdened -by diseases. The daily papers give many instances of old people who, -tired of suffering, asphyxiate themselves by their charcoal stoves. - -The frequency of suicide in the case of the old has been established -by numerous statistics, and the new facts which I now cite do no more -than confirm it. In 1878, in Prussia, amongst 100,000 individuals there -were 154 cases of suicide of men between the ages of 20 and 50, but -295, that is to say, nearly twice as many of men between the ages of 50 -and 80. In Denmark, a country in which suicide is notoriously common, a -similar proportion exists. Thus, in Copenhagen, in the ten years from -1886 to 1895, there were 394 suicides of men between 50 and 70. These -figures relate to 100,000 individuals. Of the suicides 36-1/2 per cent. -were those of people in the prime of life, 63-1/2 per cent. those of -the aged.[1] - -In such circumstances, it is natural that politicians and -philanthropists have made many attempts to ameliorate the old age of -the poor. In some countries laws have been passed to bring about this. -For instance, a Danish law of June 27th, 1891, established compulsory -aid for the aged, enacting that every person more than 60 years old was -to have the legal right to aid if required. In 1896 more than 36,000 -people (36,246) were pensioned under this law, at a cost of nearly -£200,000. In Belgium, the indigent old people are not pensioned until -they reach the age of 65. In France, until recently, the aged poor -could be supported at the public expense only by prosecuting them and -sending them to prison for begging. This state of affairs, however, -ceased with the application of the law of July 15th, 1905, according to -which any French subject without resources, unable to support himself -by work, and either more than 70 years of age, or suffering from some -incurable infirmity or disease, is to receive public assistance. - -It has been thought the proper course to make such laws, and to lay -the burden on the general population, without inquiring if it may not -be possible to retard the debility of old age to such an extent that -very old people might still be able to earn their livelihood by work. -Old age can be studied by the methods of exact science, and there may -yet be established some regimen by which health and vigour will be -preserved beyond the age where now it is generally necessary to resort -to public charity. With this object, a systematic investigation of -senescence should be made in institutions for the aged, where there -are always a large number of people from 75 to 90 years old, although -centenarians are extremely rare. I know many institutions for aged -men where, from their first foundation, there has been no case of an -inhabitant reaching the age of 100, and even in similar institutions -for women, although women live to much greater ages than men, -centenarians are very rare. At the Salpêtrière, for instance, where -there is always a large number of old women, it is the rarest chance to -find a centenarian. Opportunity for the study of the extremely aged is -to be found only in private families. - -Most of the centenarians whom I have been able to see have been so -defective mentally that all that can be studied in them are the -physical qualities and functions. A few years ago an old woman who -had reached her 100th year was the pride of the Salpêtrière. She was -bedridden and extremely feeble physically and mentally. She replied -briefly when she was asked questions, but apparently without any idea -of what they meant. - -Not long ago, a lady who lived in a suburb of Rouen reached her 100th -birthday. The local newspapers wrote exaggerated articles about her, -praising the integrity of her mind and her physical strength. I paid -a visit to her myself, hoping to make a detailed investigation, but -I found at once that the journalists had completely misrepresented -her condition. Although her physical health was fairly good, her -intelligence had degenerated to such an extent that I had to abandon -the idea of any serious investigation. - -The most interesting of all the centenarians with whom I have become -acquainted had reached an extremely advanced age, having entered upon -her 107th year. It is about two years ago that a journalist, Monsieur -Flamans, took me to see this Mme. Robineau who lived in a suburb of -Paris. I found her a very old-looking lady, rather short, thin, with a -bent back, and leaning heavily on a cane when she walked. The physical -condition (Mme. Robineau was born on January 12th, 1800), of this -woman of more than 106 years, showed extreme decay. She had only one -tooth; she had to sit down after every few steps, but, once comfortably -seated, she could remain in that position for quite a long time. She -went to bed early and got up very late. Her features displayed very -great age (see Fig. 1), although her skin was not extremely wrinkled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.—Mme. Robineau, a centenarian. From a photograph -taken on her one hundred and fifth birthday.] - -The skin of her hands had become so transparent that one could see -the bones, the blood-vessels, and the tendons. Her senses were very -feeble; she could see only with one eye; taste and smell were extremely -rudimentary; her hearing was her best means of relation with the -external world. None the less, Dr. Löwenberg, a well-known aurist, -had assured himself that her auditory organs showed in a most marked -degree, the usual signs of old age, such as complete insensibility to -high notes and slight deafness for low notes. Dr. Löwenberg attributed -these changes to senile degeneration of the ear which affected more -and more seriously the nervous mechanism although it had caused little -change in the conducting apparatus. Notwithstanding her physical -weakness, Mme. Robineau retained her intelligence fully, her mind -remained delicate and refined and the goodness of her heart was -touching. In contrast with the usual selfishness of old people, Mme. -Robineau took a vivid interest in those around her. Her conversation -was intelligent, connected, and logical. Examination of the physical -functions of this old lady revealed facts of great interest. Dr. -Ambard found that the sounds of the heart were normal, but perhaps a -little accentuated. The pulse was regular, 70 to 84 a minute, and its -tension was normal. The arterial pressure was 17. The lungs were sound. -All these facts testify to her general health. The most remarkable -circumstance was the absence of sclerosis of the arteries, although -such degeneration is usually believed to be a normal character of old -age. - -Analysis of the urine, made on several occasions, showed that the -kidneys were affected with a chronic disease, which, however, was not -serious.[2] - -Although the sense of taste was weak, Madame Robineau had a fair -appetite. She ate and drank little, but her diet was varied. She -took butcher’s meat or chicken extremely seldom, but ate eggs, fish, -farinaceous food, vegetables, and stewed fruit, and drank sweetened -water with a little white wine, and sometimes, after a meal, a small -glass of dessert wine. The processes of alimentary digestion and -excretion were normal. - -It has sometimes been thought that duration of life is a hereditary -property. There was no evidence for this in the present case. Madame -Robineau’s relatives had died comparatively early in life, and a -centenarian was unknown in her family. Her great age was an acquired -character. Her whole life had been extremely regular. She had married a -timber merchant, and had lived for many years in a suburb of Paris in -comfortable circumstances. Her character was gentle and affectionate; -she was thoroughly domesticated, and had been devoted to home life with -very few distractions. - -At the age of 106 years, her intelligence suddenly became weak. She -lost her memory almost completely, and sometimes wandered. But her -gentle and affectionate disposition remained unaltered. - -The appearance of aged persons is too well known to make detailed -description necessary. The skin of the face is dry and wrinkled and -generally pale; the hairs on the head and the body are white; the back -is bent, and the gait is slow and laborious, whilst the memory is weak. -Such are the most familiar traits of old age. Baldness is not a special -character; it often begins during youth and naturally is progressive, -but if it has not already appeared, it does not come on with old age. - -The stature diminishes in old age. As the result of a series of -observations, it has been established that a man loses more than an -inch (3·166 cm.), and a woman more than an inch and a half (4·3 cm.), -between the ages of fifty and eighty-five years. In extreme cases, -the loss may be nearly three inches. The weight also becomes less. -According to Quételet, males attain their maximum weights at the age of -forty, females at that of fifty. From the age of sixty years onwards, -the body becomes lighter, the loss at eighty being as much as thirteen -pounds. - -Such losses of height and weight are signs of the general atrophy of -the aged organism. Not merely the soft parts, such as the muscles and -viscera, but even the bones lose weight, in the latter case the loss -being of the mineral constituents. This process of decalcification -makes the skeleton brittle, and is sometimes the cause of fatal -accidents. - -The loss of muscular tissue is specially great. The volume diminishes, -and the substance becomes paler; the fat between the fibres is -absorbed, and may disappear completely. Movements are slower, and -the muscular force is abated. This progressive degeneration has been -examined by dynamometrical measurements of the hand and the trunk, and -is greater in males than in females. - -The volumes and weights of the visceral organs similarly become -smaller, but the diminution is not uniform. - -The old age of lower mammals presents characters similar to those found -in man. I can now give other instances than the case of the old dog -which I described in the “Nature of Man.” - -I will first take the case of old elephants, described by a competent -observer. “The general appearance is wretched, the skull being often -hardly covered with skin; there are deep abrasions under the eyes, and -smaller ones on the cheeks, whilst the skin of the forehead is very -often deeply fissured or covered with lumps. The eyes are usually dim, -and discharge an abnormal quantity of water. The margin of the ears, -specially on the lower side, is usually frayed. The skin of the trunk -is roughened, hard, and warty, so that the organ has lost much of its -flexibility. The skin on the body generally is worn and wrinkled; the -legs are thinner than in maturity, the huge mass of muscles being much -shrunken, whilst the circumference, especially just above the feet, is -considerably reduced. The skin round the toe-nails is roughened and -frayed. The tail is scaly and hard, and the tip is often hairless. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.—A Mare, thirty-seven years old.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.—A White Duck, which lived for more than a -quarter of a century.] - -Horses begin to grow old much sooner than elephants. I reproduce (Fig. -2) the photograph of a rare instance of longevity, a mare 37 years -old, which belonged to M. Métaine, in the department of Mayenne. The -skin, bare in places, but elsewhere covered with long hairs, shows -considerable atrophy. The general attitude reveals the feebleness -of the whole body. Many birds, on the other hand, show at similar -ages very slight external change, as may be seen from the photograph -of a duck more than 25 years old (Fig. 3) which belonged to Dr. -Jean Charcot. At a still greater age, as may be seen occasionally -in parrots, the general debility of the body reveals itself in the -attitude, in the condition of the feathers, and in the swelling of the -joints. On the other hand, the oldest reptiles which have been observed -do not differ in appearance from normal adults of the same species. I -have in my possession a male tortoise (_Testudo mauritanica_) given me -by my friends MM. Rabaud and Caullery, and which is at least 86 years -old. It shows no sign of old age, and in all respects behaves like -any other individual of this species. More than 31 years ago it was -wounded by a blow, the traces of which remain visible on the right side -of the carapace (Fig. 4). In the last three years the tortoise lived in -a garden at Montauban, along with two females which laid fertile eggs. -The old male, although, as I have said, probably at least 86 years of -age, was still sexually healthy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.—An Old Land-tortoise.] - -I have borrowed from the interesting volume of Prof. Sir E. Ray -Lankester[3] the figure (Fig. 5) and description of a giant tortoise -from the island of Mauritius, which is probably the oldest of all -living animals. It was brought to Mauritius from the Seychelles in -1764, and has lived since then in the garden of the Governor, and as it -has thus already been 140 years in captivity, its age must be at least -150 years, although we have not exact information. Notwithstanding -this, it shows no signs of old age. - -The examples which I have brought together show that often amongst -vertebrates there are some animals the organisms of which withstand -the ravages of time much better than that of man. I think it a fair -inference that senility, the precocious senescence which is one of -the greatest sorrows of humanity, is not so profoundly seated in the -constitution of the higher animals as has generally been supposed. It -is not necessary, therefore, to discuss at length the general question -as to whether senile degeneration is an inevitable event in living -organisms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.—A Water-tortoise, more than 150 years old. - -(After Prof. Sir E. Ray Lankester.)] - -I have already shown, in the “Nature of Man,” the difference which -exists between senile degeneration in our own bodies and the phenomena -of senescence amongst Infusoria which, as M. Maupas described, are -followed by a process of rejuvenescence. According to the more recent -results of several investigators, the difference is still greater than -I had supposed. Enriquez[4] has been able to propagate Infusoria to -the 700th generation without any sign of senility being displayed. Here -we are far from the condition in the human race. - -R. Hertwig,[5] one of the best observers of the lower animals, has -recently attempted to show that the very simple animalculæ of the genus -_Actinosphærium_ are subject to true physiological degeneration. He -has several times seen cultures of this Rhizopod degenerate, until all -the individuals had died, notwithstanding the presence of abundant -food. Prof. Hertwig attributed this to the “constitution of the -_Actinosphærium_ having been weakened by too great vital activity -at an earlier stage.” I should have thought that it was a much more -natural explanation to suppose that the culture had undergone infection -by one of the contagious diseases which so often destroy cultures of -different kinds of lower animals and plants. As this idea had not -occurred to the observer, he had not searched for parasitic microbes -amongst the granulations which are always present in the body of an -_Actinosphærium_. However this may be, I cannot accept the facts -brought forward by this distinguished German as a valid proof of the -existence of senile degeneration in these lowly creatures. - -The facts that I have brought together in this chapter justify the -conclusion that human beings who reach extreme old age may preserve -their mental qualities notwithstanding serious physical decay. -Moreover, it is equally plain that the organism of some vertebrates is -able to resist the influence of time much longer than is the case with -man under present conditions. - -II - -THEORIES OF CAUSATION OF SENILITY - - Hypothesis of the causation of senility—Senility - cannot be attributed to the cessation of the power - of reproduction of the cells of the body—Growth of - the hair and the nails in old age—Inner mechanism of - the senescence of the tissues—Notwithstanding the - criticisms of M. Marinesco, the neuronophags are true - phagocytes—The whitening of hair and the destruction of - nerve cells, as arguments against a theory of old age - based on the failure of the reproductive powers of the - cells - - -Although it has not been proved that living matter must inevitably -undergo senile decrepitude, it is none the less true that man and his -nearest allies generally exhibit such degeneration. It is therefore -extremely important to recognise the real causes of our senescence. -There have been many hypotheses on the subject, but there are -comparatively few definite facts known. - -Bütschli has supposed that the life of cells is maintained by a -specific vital ferment which becomes feebler in proportion to the -extent of cellular reproduction, but I cannot regard this as more than -a pious opinion. The ferment has never been seen, and we do not know -of its actual existence. According to the better-known theory of Prof. -Weismann, old age depends on a limitation in the power of cells to -reproduce, so that a time comes when the body can no longer replace -the wastage of cells which is an inevitable accompaniment of life. As -old age appears at different times in different species and different -individuals, Weismann has concluded that the possible number of cell -generations differs in different cases. He has not found, however, -a solution of the problem as to why multiplication of cells should -cease in one individual, whereas it proceeds much further in other -individuals. Prof. Minot,[6] the American zoologist, has developed -a similar theory, and has employed an exact method to determine the -gradual diminution in the rate of growth of an animal from its birth -onwards. According to him, the power of reproduction of the cells -weakens progressively during life, until a point is necessarily reached -at which the organism, no longer capable of repairing itself, begins to -atrophy and degenerate. Dr. Buehler[7] has recently laid stress upon -this theory. - -There is no doubt that cells reproduce much more actively during the -embryonic period. The process becomes slower later on, but, none the -less, continues to display itself throughout the whole period of life. -Buehler attributes the difficulty with which certain wounds heal in the -case of old people to the insufficiency of cellular reproduction. He -thinks in particular that the proliferation of the cells of the skin, -to replace those which are worn off from the surface, becomes less -active with age. According to him, it is theoretically obvious that a -time must come when the replacement of the epidermic cells completely -ceases. As the superficial layers of the skin continue to dry up and -be cast off, it is plain that the epidermis must disappear completely. -Buehler thinks that there must be a similar fate for the genital -glands, the muscles, and all the other organs. - -These theoretical considerations, however, are not compatible with -certain well-known facts indicating that there is no general cessation -of the power of cell reproduction in old age. The hairs and the nails, -which are epidermic outgrowths, continue to grow throughout life, their -growth being due to the proliferation of their constituent cells. There -is no sign of any arrest in the development of these structures, even -in the most advanced old age. The reverse is true. It is well known -that the hairs on some parts of the body increase in number and in -length in old people. In some lower races, for instance in the Mongols, -the moustache and the beard grow vigorously in old age, whilst young -people of the same race have only very small moustaches and practically -no trace of beard. So also in white women the fine and almost invisible -down which covers the upper lip, the chin, and the cheeks in the young -may become replaced by long hairs which form a moustache or beard. - -Dr. Pohl, a specialist in the growth of hair, has measured the rate of -growth in different circumstances. He has shown that in an old man of -61 the hair on the temple grew 11 mm. in a month; on the other hand, -the hair on the same region in boys of 11 to 15 years old grew in -the same time only from 11 to 12 mm. Plainly, there is no case here -of a progressive diminution of cell-proliferation with age. The same -observer, it is true, has shown that the hair of young men of between -21 and 24 years grew at the rate of 15 mm. a month, whilst in the same -individuals, at the age of 61 years, the rate of growth was only 11 -mm.; but this diminution in the rate of growth is only apparent. The -first figure concerned the hair taken from different regions of the -scalp, whilst the second related only to the hair on the temples, and -Dr. Pohl himself has shown that, in the latter region, the hair grows -slower than in other regions. Moreover, in many boys of 11 to 15 years -old, studied by this observer, the rate of growth was always less than -15 mm., and often less even than the 11 mm. recorded in the old man of -61. - -I have been able to note that the nails grow even in very old people. -In the case of Mme. Robineau, the centenarian, the nail of the middle -finger of the left hand grew 2-1/2 mm. in three weeks. In the case of a -lady of 32 years old, the corresponding nail grew 3 mm. in two weeks, -the difference being out of all proportion to the enormous difference -in the age. The centenarian’s nails had to be cut from time to time. - -Although the hairs of old people grow, they become white, which is a -phenomenon of senile degeneration. Although they increase in length, -the colouring matter in them becomes reduced and finally disappears. -In the “Nature of Man” I described the process by which this blanching -takes place, and which may now be regarded as definitely proved. It is -useful as a means of interpreting the real nature of the process of -senescence. In several published works, I have explained my belief that -just as the pigment of the hair is destroyed by phagocytes, so also the -atrophy of other organs of the body, in old age, is very frequently -due to the action of devouring cells which I have called macrophags. -These are the phagocytes that destroy the higher elements of the body, -such as the nervous and muscular cells, and the cells of the liver and -kidneys. This part of my theory has encountered very strong criticism, -especially with regard to the part played by the macrophags in the -senescence of nervous tissue. - -Neurologists in particular, have criticised my interpretation. For -several years M. Marinesco[8] has attacked my theory of the atrophy -of the nerve-cells in old age. In the first place, he has stated that -in old people, and even if these are very old, it is rare to find -phagocytes surrounding and devouring the cells of the brain. In support -of this contention, he has been good enough to send me two preparations -made from the brains of two very old persons. After careful examination -I was convinced that my opponent had been inexact. In the brain of the -two centenarians (one of whom died at the age of 117 years) there were -very many nerve-cells surrounded by phagocytes and in process of being -destroyed by them. It happened, however, that as the sections were very -weakly stained, it was more difficult to observe the facts than in the -preparations upon which I had made my own observations. I have already -recorded this fact in the second and third French editions of the -“Nature of Man.” - -Without taking notice of my reply, M. Marinesco has published another -criticism of my theory in an article[9] entitled “Histological -Investigations into the Mechanism of Senility.” In that work, although -he himself had invented the designation “neuronophag” for a phagocyte -that devours nerve-cells, he denies the existence of such a power. -He thinks that nerve-cells atrophy independently of the cells that -surround them. The latter, the so-called neuronophags, only contribute -to the atrophy inasmuch as they press against the nerve-cells and -deprive them of nutrition. He is confident that the constituent parts -of nerve-cells are never found in the neuronophags. There is no -question of phagocytosis, of the existence of cells that devour their -neighbours. - -M. Léri has taken a similar view in a Report on the Senile Brain[10] -presented to a recent congress of alienists and neurologists. -According to him “the nuclei which surround some of the atrophying -nerve-cells do not play the part of neuronophags.” In his monograph -“La Neuronophagie,”[11] M. Sand elaborates the same view. He relies -on his observation that “neuronophags are usually either devoid -of protoplasm or display only a very thin layer of it. They never -exhibit protoplasmic outgrowths, and they never have granules in their -cellular bodies (p. 86).” Still more recently MM. Laignel-Lavastine and -Voisin[12] have taken the same view, maintaining that the neuronophags -do not display phagocytosis. - -Although I cannot undertake here to give a detailed reply to the -arguments of my critics, I may point out a fallacy that vitiates -their reasoning. The study of the intimate structure of nervous -tissue involves the treatment of that very delicate substance by -numerous active reagents. It is extremely important not to forget the -possibility of alterations which may be produced in the processes of -preparation and which are extremely difficult to avoid. A glance at -the figures given by my critics shows me that the neuronophags in -their preparations had been subjected to violent treatment. When M. -Léri speaks of “the nuclei which surround some of the nerve-cells,” -and M. Sand of “cells without protoplasm,” it is clear that they had -been observing cells destroyed by the processes of the laboratory. -The illustrations in the memoir of M. Marinesco show that in his -preparations, too, the neuronophags had been very greatly altered. - -It is well known that nuclei do not exist free in tissues, and that -when they appear devoid of protoplasm, there has been some defect in -the technical methods of preparing them for examination. As a matter -of fact, neuronophags do not consist of nuclei with at the most a -pellicle of protoplasm; like other cells, they have protoplasmic bodies -which, however, are frequently destroyed by the violent processes of -histological preparation. - -The arguments of my critics recall to me the words of a medical -student, who, on being asked to describe the microbe of tuberculosis, -said that it was a little red bacillus. The bacillus in question, like -most bacilli, is colourless, but it is usual to stain it so that it -may be visible under the microscope. The student, knowing it only in -particular preparations, had a false idea of its appearance. - -In well-made preparations, neuronophags are typical cells with abundant -protoplasm. When they have been preserved by a process that does -not dissolve their contents, they show granules like those found in -nerve-cells. - -To study neuronophagy, M. Manouélian,[13] in the laboratory of the -Pasteur Institute in Paris, set himself to improve the technical -methods of preparation. He succeeded in showing first that in the -destruction of nerve-cells that occurs in cases of hydrophobia, the -contents of these cells are absorbed by the surrounding neuronophags. -“My observations on the cerebro-spinal ganglia of human cases of -hydrophobia,” he wrote, “show clearly that the macrophags act as -phagocytes of the nerve-cells.” “Most of the cells in the nerve-ganglia -contain yellow, brown, and black pigmented granules, usually united -in small masses. What becomes of these granulations on the destruction -and disappearance of the nerve-cell? If, as M. Marinesco has it, there -is no phagocytosis by the surrounding cells, but merely a mechanical -interference, then the granules, on the destruction of the nerve-cells -that contained them, should be found lying in the interstitial tissue. -But this does not happen. The granules are ingested by cells which are -true macrophags.” - -By the aid of a very delicate mode of preparation, M. Manouélian has -shown that in the case of senile brains the granules of the nerve-cells -are absorbed by neuronophags. I have myself studied M. Manouélian’s -preparations and can testify to the accuracy of his observations (Figs. -6 and 7). - -Doubt is no longer possible. In senile degeneration the nerve-cells are -surrounded by neuronophags which absorb their contents and bring about -more or less complete atrophy. It has been supposed that in order to -devour their contents, the neuronophags must penetrate the nerve-cells, -and such an event has rarely been seen. But it is well known, the -phagocytosis of red blood corpuscles being a typical instance, that -to absorb a cell a phagocyte does not necessarily engulf it bodily or -penetrate it, but may gradually denude it of its contents merely by -resting in contact with it. - -There has been some discussion as to the condition of nerve-cells which -are on the point of being devoured by neuronophags. It has been noticed -that such cells may display a considerable amount of degeneration -without being devoured, whilst, on the other hand, cells apparently -normal have been found undergoing phagocytosis. As I cannot state -definitely what are the conditions that induce the phagocytosis of -nerve-cells, I shall not attempt a discussion of the problem. - -Although the destruction of nerve-cells by neuronophags is a general -occurrence in senile brains, one may conceive of cases where this does -not occur. And so, in old people who have preserved their faculties, -it may well be that the neuronophags have refrained from attacking the -nerve-cells. But as such instances are rare, so also phagocytosis is -usually found in senile brains, and I cannot accept M. Sand’s denial of -its existence, based on his study of two cases. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. - -FIGS. 6. & 7.—Two nerve-cells from the cortex of the brain of an old -dog aged fifteen years. - -The neuronophags surrounding the nerve-cells contain numerous -granulations. - -(From preparations made by M. Manouélian.)] - -The general result of my investigation into the criticisms that -have been published on this matter has confirmed me in my belief -that neuronophagy plays a most important part in senescence, and -recent observations that I have made with M. Weinberg have completely -supported this view. - -The bleaching of hair and the atrophy of the brain in old age thus -furnish important arguments against the view that senescence is the -result of arrest of the reproductive powers of cells. Hairs grow old -and become white without ceasing to grow. The cessation of the power of -reproduction cannot be the cause of the senescence of brain-cells, for -these cells do not reproduce even in youth. - -III - -MECHANISM OF SENILITY - - Action of the macrophags in destroying the higher - cells—Senile degeneration of muscular fibres—Atrophy - of the skeleton—Atheroma and arterial sclerosis—Theory - that old age is due to alteration in the vascular - glands—Organic tissues that resist phagocytosis - - -The instances which I have selected in attempting to describe the -mechanism of senescence of the tissues are not the only cases in which -the importance of phagocytosis is evident. The blanching of hair is -due to the destructive agency of chromophags; in atrophy of the brain -neuronophags destroy the higher nerve-cells. In addition to these -instances of phagocytosis, in which the active agents belong to the -category of macrophags, there are many other devouring cells, adrift -in the tissues of the aged, and ready to cause destruction of other -cells of the higher type. The phagocytic action is not so manifest as -in the case of infectious diseases, partly because it is the method of -macrophags to absorb the contents of the higher cells extremely slowly. -The mode of action is well seen in the atrophy of an egg-cell (Fig. 8), -where the surrounding macrophags gradually seize hold of the granules -within it and carry these off. As the process goes on, the ovum becomes -reduced to a shapeless mass, and finally leaves only a few fragments, -or disappears completely. M. Matchinsky[14] has studied the series of -events in my laboratory, and I am myself well assured of the importance -of the action of macrophags in the atrophy of the ovary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.—Ovum of a Bitch in process of destruction by -Phagocytes, which are full of fatty granules. - -(After M. Matchinsky.)] - -The phenomena of atrophy in general and of senile decay afford other -cases of tissue destruction in which the phagocytic character of the -process is more modified and obscure than in nerve-cells and ova. - -It is well known that progressive muscular debility is an accompaniment -of old age. Physical work is seldom given to men over sixty years -of age, as it is notorious that they are less capable of it. Their -muscular movements are feebler and soon bring on fatigue; their actions -are slow and painful. Even old men whose mental vigour is unimpaired -admit their muscular weakness. The physical correlate of this -condition is an actual atrophy of the muscles, and has for long been -known to observers. More than half a century ago, Kölliker,[15] one of -the founders of histology, devoted some attention to this matter, and -described the senile modification of muscular tissue in the following -words:—“In old age there is a true atrophy of the muscles. The fibres -are much more slender; there are deposited in their substance numerous -yellow or brown granules and many globular nuclei. These nuclei are -frequently arranged in longitudinal series and present such signs of -active division as are found in embryonic tissue.” - -Other investigators afterwards made similar observations. Vulpian[16] -and Douaud[17] have stated that a multiplication of nuclei takes places -in the atrophying muscles of the old. - -As the senile degeneration of muscular tissue appeared to be important -in my study of the mechanism of senescence, M. Weinberg and I -examined several cases of muscular atrophy in old human beings and -lower animals. We were able to recognise the phenomena observed by -our predecessors. In senile atrophy the muscular fibres contain many -nuclei, and these, increasing rapidly, bring about an almost complete -disappearance of the contractile substance (Fig. 9). The fibres -preserve their striation for a certain time but eventually lose it and -appear to contain an amorphous mass with numerous, rapidly multiplying -nuclei. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.—Degeneration of striated muscle Fibres from the -auricular muscle of a man aged 87 years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -The investigators who had recorded these facts thought of them only as -curious. It is plain, in the first place, however, that this remarkable -and rapid multiplication is a proof that senile atrophy is not due to -failure of cell proliferation, although the latter has frequently been -suggested as the mechanism of senescence. In muscular atrophy, cell -multiplication, so far from failing, greatly increases. We may add -muscular atrophy to the blanching of hair and the decay of nerve-cells -as another instance showing that senile degeneration is not the result -of cells ceasing to be able to multiply. Just as in the atrophy -of the brain there is an increase in the volume of neuroglœa, -the substance in which the neuronophags are found, so also in the -atrophy of the muscles there is an increase of muscular nuclei. Along -with the increase of nuclei, however, there is an increase of the -protoplasmic substance of the fibres known as sarcoplasm. The latter -replaces the myoplasm, the specific striated substance of muscles, by -a process which must be regarded as parallel with phagocytosis. In a -normal muscle the two substances and the sarcoplasmic nuclei are in -equilibrium, but in old age the sarcoplasm and its nuclei increase at -the expense of the myoplasm. The equilibrium is destroyed with the -result that the muscular power is weakened. In these conditions the -sarcoplasm acts phagocytically with regard to the myoplasm, just as the -chromophag becomes the phagocyte of the pigment of the hair, or the -neuronophag devours the nerve-cell. - -The investigation of other cases of muscular atrophy, as, for instance, -that of the caudal muscles of frog-tadpoles, confirms the significance -of the process that I have observed in old age. In the two cases, what -takes place is the destruction of the contractile material of the -muscles by myophags, a special kind of phagocyte. - -It is one of the curiosities of senile atrophy that whilst there is -hardening or sclerosis of so many organs, the skeleton, the most -solid part of our frame-work, becomes less dense, so that the bones -are friable, the condition often leading to serious accidents in old -people. The bones become porous, and lose weight. It is difficult to -believe that macrophags, although they destroy softer elements such -as nerve-cells or muscle fibres, can be able to gnaw through a hard -material like bone impregnated with mineral salts. As a matter of fact, -the mechanism of bone atrophy must be placed in a different category -from the phagocytosis of other organs. It is brought about, however, -by the agency of cells very like some of the macrophags. These cells -contain many nuclei, and are known as osteoclasts. They form round -about the bony lamellæ and lead to their destruction, but are incapable -of breaking off fragments of bone and dissolving them in their -interiors. Although the intimate mechanism of this destructive action -is not thoroughly understood, it seems probable that the cells secrete -some acid which softens bone by dissolving the lime salts. The process -can be observed in the different varieties of caries of the bone, and -in the bony atrophy of old age as is represented in Fig. 10. - -By the action of the osteoclasts, which themselves are macrophags, part -of the lime in the skeleton is dissolved during old age and passes into -the general circulation. This is probably a source of the lime which is -deposited so readily in the different tissues of old people. Whilst the -bones become lighter, the cartilages become bony, the inter-vertebrate -discs in particular becoming impregnated with salts, so that the -well-known senile malformation of the backbone is produced. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.—Destruction by osteoclasts of bony matter in -the sternum of a man aged 81 years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -As a result of this displacement of lime in old age, the blood-vessels -become modified in a distinctive fashion. Atheroma of the arteries -is not invariable in old people, but it occurs extremely frequently. -In this form of degeneration, lime salts are deposited in the walls -of the cells, so that they become hard and friable. Several others, -among whom I may mention Durand-Fardel and Sauvage, have laid stress -on the coincidence of atheromatous lesions of the arteries and senile -degeneration of the bones. The relations between the two alterations -are very evident in the skull; the meningeal artery becomes sinuous and -atheromatous, and the grooves on the inner side of the bones of the -skull in which it runs, flatten out, and become larger because of other -malformations.[18] - -There is no disharmony in the nature of old people so striking as this -transference of the lime salts from the skeleton to the blood-vessels, -producing as it does a dangerous softening of the former, and a -hardening of the latter that interferes with their function of carrying -nutrition to the organs. It is the manifestation of an extraordinary -disturbance of the properties of the cells that compose the body. The -atheromatous condition of the arteries is closely linked with arterial -sclerosis, an affection which is very common, although not constant, -in the aged. The whole question of these vascular alterations is -extremely complex, and before it can be cleared up, a number of special -investigations must be made. - -Probably diseases of the arteries of different kinds, and arising from -different causes, are grouped under the terms atheroma and sclerosis. -In some cases the lesions are inflammatory and are due to the poisons -of microbes. An example of such an origin is the case of syphilitic -sclerosis, in which the specific microbes (spirilla of Schaudinn) lead -to precocious senescence. In other cases the arteries show phenomena of -degeneration resulting in the formation of calcareous platelets which -interfere with the circulation of the blood. - -Investigations which have been made in recent years have led to very -interesting results concerning the origin of atheroma of the arteries. -In most cases, attempts to produce such lesions of the arteries by -experimental methods have not succeeded, but M. Josué[19] has been -able to produce true arterial atheroma in rabbits by injecting into -them adrenaline, the secretion of the supra-renal capsules. - -This experiment has been repeated many times and is now well known. -Later on, M. Boveri[20] obtained a similar result by injecting -nicotine, the poison of tobacco. It is obvious, therefore, that amongst -the arterial diseases which play so great a part in senescence, some -are chronic inflammations produced by microbes, whilst others are -brought about by poisons introduced from without. - -It is easy to understand, therefore, why these diseases of the arteries -are not always present in old age, although they are very common. - -The part played by the secretion of the supra-renal glands in the -production of arterial disease has brought renewed attention to a -theory which supposed that certain glandular organs in the body play -a preponderating part in senile degeneration. Dr. Lorand[21] in -particular has argued that “senility is a morbid process due to the -degeneration of the thyroid gland and of other ductless glands which -normally regulate the nutrition of the body.” It has long been noticed -that persons affected with myxodema, as a result of the degeneration -of the thyroid gland, look like very old people. Everyone who has seen -the cretins in Savoy, Switzerland, or the Tyrol, must have noticed the -aged appearance of these victims, although very often they are quite -young. The condition of cretinism, with its profound bodily changes, -is the result of degeneration of the thyroid gland. On the other hand, -it is well known that in old people the thyroid and the suprarenals -frequently show cystic degeneration. It is quite probable, therefore, -that these so-called vascular glands have their share in producing -senility. Many facts show that they destroy certain poisons which have -entered the body, and it is easy to see that, if they have become -functionless, the tissues are threatened with poisoning. It does not -follow, however, that their action in producing senility is exclusive, -or even preponderating. M. Weinberg, at the Pasteur Institute, made -special investigations on this point, and found that the thyroid gland -and the supra-renal capsules were almost invariably normal in old -animals (cat, dog, horse), although the latter showed unmistakable -signs of senility. Similarly in an old man of 80 years, who died from -pneumonia, the thyroid gland was quite normal. - -It must not be forgotten that the aged very often die from infectious -diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and erysipelas. In these -diseases the vascular glands generally, and the thyroid gland in -particular, are very often affected, with the result that what is due -to infection has been set down as a symptom of old age.[22] - -Although the appearance of patients from whom the thyroid gland has -been removed, or in whom it has degenerated spontaneously, recalls -that of old people, it is possible to exaggerate the similarity. In -the masterly accounts of such unfortunates, recently compiled by -the well-known surgeon Kocher[23] there are many points which are -characteristic, without being typical, of old people. - -Oedema of the skin which characterises thyroid patients is by no -means usual in old age. The loss of hair, normal in the patients, is -not a character of old age. In myxedematous women, menstruation is -very active; it ceases in old women. The great muscular development of -myxedematous patients distinguishes them from old people. - -Physiological investigation does not support the existence of any -strong affinity between old age and affection of the thyroid gland. It -is known that removal of the thyroid is followed by cachexia only in -young subjects, MM. Bourneville and Bricon[24] having shown that the -tendency to cachexia after extirpation of the thyroid ceases almost -abruptly at the age of thirty. That age may be taken as the limit of -youth, of the time when growth is vigorous and the function of the -thyroid most active. Cases of cachexia, where the thyroid gland has -been removed in old persons from fifty to seventy, are very rare. - -Rodents (rats, rabbits) support the removal of the thyroid extremely -well, without signs of cachexia, although these are normally -short-lived creatures. According to Horsley[25] extirpation of the -thyroid is not followed by cachexia in birds or rodents and is followed -by it only very slowly in ruminants and horses; it produces the -condition invariably but slightly in man and monkeys and extremely -seriously in carnivora. If this series be compared with the information -given in the next section of this volume on the relative ages which -the animals in question attain, it will be seen that there is no -correspondence. - -In short, whilst I do not deny that the vascular glands may take a -share in the causation of senility, in so far as they are destroyers -of poisons, I cannot agree with the theory of Dr. Lorand. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.—Testis tissue from a dog aged twenty-two years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -I think it indubitable that in senescence the most active factor is -some alteration in the higher cells of the body, accompanied by a -destruction of these by macrophags which gradually usurp the places of -the higher elements and replace them by fibrous tissue. Such a process -affects the organs of secretion (kidneys), the reproductive organs, and -in a modified form the skin, the mucous membranes, and the skeleton. -The testes are amongst the organs which resist invasion by macrophags. -I have already given an example (“The Nature of Man,” p. 98) of an old -man of 94 in whom active spermatozoa were produced. I know of a similar -case, the age being 103 years. Such cases are not rare, and not only -in old men, but in old animals, the testes continue to be active. Dr. -Weinberg and I have investigated these organs in a dog which died at -the age of 22 years after several years of pronounced senility. Many of -the organs of the animal exhibited serious invasions by macrophags but -the testes were extremely active, the cells being in free proliferation -and producing abundant spermatozoa (Fig. 11). In harmony with this -condition of the sexual organs, the sexual instincts of the animal -remained normal. We have investigated another dog which died at the age -of eighteen years. In this case the testes were cancerous and there was -no possibility of the production of spermatozoa. None the less, this -dog although markedly senile (Fig. 12) still showed sexual instincts -until shortly before it died. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.—An old dog, aged eighteen years.] - -It is manifest that the tissues do not invariably degenerate in -old age, nor do all the organs that are modified in old age show -destruction by phagocytes and replacement by connective tissue. Organs -which produce phagocytes, such as the spleen, the spinal marrow and -the lymphatic glands, certainly show traces in old age of fibrous -degeneration but remain sufficiently active to produce macrophags which -destroy the higher cellular elements of the body. I have frequently -noticed cell division in such organs, and as an example may give the -case of the bone marrow taken from a man of 81 years (Fig. 13). - -The eye is an organ that is modified in old age without the action of -macrophags. Cataract and the senile arc which appears as a milky ring -at the edge of the cornea are frequent in old age. These modifications -are due to impregnation of the parts affected by fatty matter which -makes them opaque. This deposition of fat[26] has been attributed to -defective nutrition. In most organs such fatty degeneration is followed -by phagocytosis, but the cornea and the crystalline lens are exempt -from this consequence for anatomical reasons. Most organs possess in -addition to their higher elements a constant source of macrophags. -Such a source of phagocytosis is the neuroglœa in nervous tissues, -the sarcoplasm in muscular tissues; the bones contain osteoclasts and -the liver and the kidneys are readily invaded by phagocytes from the -blood. The lens and the cornea have no cells that are able to become -macrophags. - -[Illustration: - - FIG. 13.—Bone marrow from the sternum of a man aged - eighty-one years. - -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)] - -Some infectious diseases bring about precocious senility. A syphilitic -child is “a miniature old man, with wrinkled face, skin dull and -discoloured and flabby and hanging in folds as if it were too -large.”[27] In such a case the active agent is the microbe of syphilis -which has poisoned the child on the breast of its mother. It is no -mere analogy to suppose that human senescence is the result of a slow -but chronic poisoning of the organism. Such poisons, if not completely -destroyed or eliminated, weaken the tissues, the functions of which -become altered or enfeebled, so that, amongst other changes, there -is deposition of fatty matter. The phagocytes resist the influence of -invading poisons better than any of the other cells of the body and -sometimes are stimulated by them. The general result of such conditions -is that there comes to be a struggle between the higher cells and the -phagocytes in which the latter have the advantage. - -The answer to the question as to whether our senescence can be -ameliorated must be approached from several points of view. This course -I shall now follow. - -PART II - -LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - - - -I - -THEORIES OF LONGEVITY - - Relation between longevity and size—Longevity and the - period of growth—Longevity and the doubling in weight - after birth—Longevity and rate of reproduction—Probable - relation between longevity and the nature of the food - - -The duration of the life of animals varies within very wide limits. -Some, as for instance, the males of certain wheel animalculæ (Rotifera) -complete their cycle of life from birth to death in 50 or 60 hours, -whilst others, like some reptiles, live more than 100 years, and quite -possibly may live for two or three centuries. - -Enquiry has been made for many years as to whether there are laws -governing these different durations of life. Even the most casual -observation of domesticated animals has shown that, as a general rule, -small animals do not live so long as large ones; mice, guinea pigs, and -rabbits for instance, have shorter lives than geese, ducks, and sheep, -whilst these again are survived by horses, deer, and camels. Of all the -mammals which have lived under the protection of man, the elephant is -at once the largest, and the most long-lived. - -However, it is not difficult to show that there is no absolute relation -between size and longevity, since parrots, ravens, and geese live much -longer than many mammals, and than some much larger birds. - -As a general rule it may be said that a large animal takes more time -than a small one to reach maturity, and it has been inferred from this -that the length of the periods of gestation and of growth were in -proportion to the longevity. Buffon[28] long ago stated his opinion -that the “total duration of life bore some definite relation to the -length of the period of growth.” Therefore, as the period of growth is, -so to say, inherent in the species, longevity would have to be regarded -as a very stable phenomenon. Just as any species has acquired a fixed -and practically invariable size, so it would have acquired a definite -longevity. Buffon, therefore, thought that the duration of life did -not depend on habits or mode of life, or on the nature of food, that, -in fact, nothing could change its rigid laws, except an excess of -nourishment. - -Taking as his standard the total period of development of the body, -Buffon came to the conclusion that the duration of life is six or seven -times that of the period of growth. Man, for instance, he said, who -takes 14 years to grow, can live 6 or 7 times that period, that is -to say, 90 or 100 years. The horse, which reaches its full size in 4 -years, can live 6 or 7 times that length of time, that is to say from -25 to 30 years. The stag takes 5 or 6 years to grow, and reckoned in -the same way, its longevity should be 35 to 40 years. - -Flourens[29] although supporting his principle, thought that Buffon -had been inexact in calculating the period of growth. In his opinion -a better result can be obtained by taking the limit of growth as that -age at which the epiphyses of the long bones unite with the bones -themselves. Using such a mode of computation, Flourens laid down that -an animal lived 5 times the length of its period of growth. Man, for -instance, takes 20 years to grow, and he can live for 5 times that -space, that is to say, 100 years; the camel takes 8 to grow, and lives -5 times as long, _i.e._, 40 years; the horse, 5 to grow, and lives 25 -years. - -However, even if we consider only the mammalia, it is impossible to -accept Flourens’ law, without considerable reserve. Weismann[30] has -referred to the case of the horse, which is completely adult at 4, but -lives not merely 5 times that period, but 10 or even 12 times. Mice -grow extremely quickly, so that they are able to reproduce at the age -of 4 months. Even if we take 6 months as their period of growth, their -longevity of 5 years is twice as long as it would be according to the -rule of Flourens. Amongst domesticated animals, the sheep is slow in -reaching maturity; it does not acquire its adult set of teeth until it -is 5 years old, and cannot be regarded as adult until then. None the -less, at the age of 8 or 10 years, it loses its teeth and begins to -grow old, whilst by 14 it is quite senile.[31] The longevity of the -sheep, therefore, is not quite three times its period of growth. - -If we turn to other vertebrates, the variations in the relation of -growth and the duration of life are still greater. Parrots, for -instance, the longevity of which is extremely great, grow very quickly. -At the age of 2 years, they have acquired the adult plumage and are -able to reproduce, whilst the smaller species are in the same condition -at the age of one. Incubation, moreover, is very short, not more than -25 days, and in some species not three weeks. None the less, parrots -are birds which enjoy a quite remarkable longevity. The incubation -period of domestic geese is 30 days, and their period of growth is -also short. However, they may reach a great age, cases of 80 years and -of 100 years being on record. In contrast with these, ostriches, the -incubation period of which is 42 to 49 days, and which take 3 years to -become adult, have a relatively short life. - -H. Milne-Edwards[32] many years ago contended that there was no -importance in the supposed law of relation between gestation and -longevity. He sums up his criticism as follows: “Although the period of -uterine life is longer in the horse, that animal does not live so long -as a human being; and some birds, the incubation of which only lasts a -few weeks, can live more than a century.” - -Bunge[33] has recently taken up the study of the relations between the -duration of growth and longevity, and has suggested a new means of -investigation. He has observed that the period in which the new-born -mammal doubles its weight is a good index of the rapidity of its -growth. He has shown that whilst a human child requires 180 days to -reach double its weight at birth, the horse, the longevity of which is -very much less, doubles its weight in 60 days; a calf takes only 47 -days for this; a kid 15 days; a pig 14 days; a cat 9-1/2; and a dog -only 9 days. Although these facts are very interesting, the exceptions -are too great to make it possible to base a law of longevity upon them. -The period of weight-doubling in the horse is nearly 7 times longer -than that in the dog, and yet the longevity of the horse is not more -than 3 times that of the dog. The goat, which takes much longer than -the dog to double its weight, has a shorter total life. - -I observed myself that new-born mice quadruple their weight in the -first 24 hours. The doubling of weight in their case requires a time -36 times less long than that of the cat, and yet the cat lives only 5 -times as long as the mouse. - -It is fair to say, however, that Bunge himself does not draw a definite -conclusion from these figures and has published them only to stimulate -interest in the subject. He is against the view of Flourens, and points -out that although the multiple 5 is valid for man, it is not so in the -case of the horse which finishes its growth in 4 years and yet reaches -the age of 40 much less often than human beings attain that of 100 -years. - -Although it is impossible to admit the existence of exact relations -between size and the period of growth on the one side, and longevity -on the other, in the mode which Buffon and Flourens have followed, -it is none the less true that there is something intrinsic in each -kind of animal which sets a definite limit to the length of years it -can attain. The purely physiological conditions which determine this -limit leave room for a considerable amount of variation in longevity. -Duration of life therefore, is a character which can be influenced by -the environment. Weismann in his well-known essay on the duration of -life, has laid stress on this side of the problem. Longevity, according -to him, although in the last resort depending on the physiological -properties of the cells of which the organism is composed, can be -adapted to the conditions of existence and influenced by natural -selection, like other characters useful for the existence of the -species. - -If a species is to remain in existence, its members must be able to -reproduce and the progeny must be able to reach adult life so that -they in their turn may reproduce. Now, it happens that there are some -animals the fecundity of which is extremely limited. Most birds which -are adapted to aerial life, and the weight of which is therefore to -be kept down, lay very few eggs. This happens in the case of birds -of prey, such as eagles and vultures. These birds nest only once a -year, and generally rear two or frequently only a single nestling. -In such circumstances the duration of life becomes a factor in the -preservation of the species, more important since eggs and chicks are -subject to many dangers. Eggs are devoured by many kinds of animals, -whilst unseasonable cold may kill the chicks. If the members of such -a species were incapable of living long, the unfavourable conditions -of life would soon lead to extinction. Those animals which reproduce -rapidly generally have a relatively brief duration of life. Mice, rats, -rabbits, and many other rodents seldom live more than 5 or 10 years, -but reproduce with enormous rapidity. It is almost possible to imagine -that there is some sort of intimate link, possibly physiological, -between longevity and low fertility. It is a current opinion that -reproduction wastes the maternal organism and that mothers of many -children grow old prematurely and seldom reach an advanced age. -This would seem to mean that fecundity was the cause of the short -duration of life. However, we must guard ourselves against such a -theory. Longevity, at least in the case of vertebrate animals, differs -extremely little in the two sexes, although the cost of the new -generation to the adult organism is very much greater in the case of -the female than of the male parent. None the less, females frequently -reach a great age, especially in the human race where women reach 100 -years, or live beyond that time, much more often than men. - -Low fertility, however, cannot itself be regarded as a cause of -longevity, as there are some very fertile animals which none the less -attain great ages. There are parrots which lay two or three times a -year, producing six to nine eggs in each clutch. The ducks (Anatidæ) -are distinguished for considerable longevity and very high fertility, -each nest containing rarely less than six and sometimes as many as -sixteen eggs. The common Sheldrake lays from twenty to thirty eggs. -Tame ducks, in some parts of the tropics, lay an egg daily throughout -the season. Wild ducks lay from seven to fourteen eggs in one nest. -Ducks and geese, none the less, frequently attain considerable ages, -ducks having been known to live for 29 years. Even the common fowl, -which is a notoriously prolific bird, may reach an age of twenty to -thirty years. - -It will be said, however, that these birds are exposed to many enemies -during youth. Chickens, ducklings, and goslings are ready prey for -hawks, foxes and small carnivora. The longevity is possibly to be -explained as an adaptation for the preservation of the species by -compensating for the great destruction of the young. Weismann explains -in this way the longevity of many aquatic birds and other creatures -that are much preyed on. It must be noted, however, that the longevity -cannot depend on the risks run by the young birds, but must have arisen -independently. If this had not occurred, creatures, the young of which -are destroyed in great numbers, would have ceased to exist, as many -species have disappeared in geological time. The longevity of prolific -animals, the young of which are destroyed in numbers, must be due to -some cause which is neither fertility nor the destruction of their -offspring. This cause must be sought in the physiological processes of -the organism and can be attributed neither to the length of the period -of growth nor to the size attained by the adults. - -After having discussed various theories of the cause of the duration of -life, M. Oustalet,[34] in a most interesting essay on the longevity of -vertebrates, came to the conclusion that diet was the chief factor. He -thinks that there is a “definite relation between diet and longevity. -For the most part herbivorous animals live longer than carnivorous -forms, probably because the former find their food with ease and -regularity, whilst the latter alternate between semi-starvation and -repletion.” There are certainly many instances which give support to -the view. Elephants and parrots, for instance, are vegetarian and reach -very great ages. On the other hand, there exist long-living carnivorous -animals. Many observations have made it certain that owls and eagles -reach great ages, and these birds live on animal food. Ravens, which -live on carrion, are also notorious for the duration of their lives. -There is no exact knowledge as to the ages reached by crocodiles, but -although these live on flesh, it is certain that their longevity is -great. - -We must seek elsewhere for the real factors that control duration of -life. Before stating my conclusion, I will review what is known as to -the duration of life of different animals. - - - - -II. - -LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM - - Longevity in the lower animals—Instances of long life - in sea-anemones and other invertebrates—Duration of - life of insects—Duration of life of “cold-blooded” - vertebrates—Duration of life of birds—Duration of life - of mammals—Inequality of the duration of life in males - and females—Relations between longevity and fertility of - the organism - - -It is wonderful to what an extent the duration of life varies amongst -animals, the slightest examination of the facts showing that very many -factors must be involved. - -As the higher animals are nearly always larger than invertebrates, if -there be a definite relation between longevity and size, one would -expect to find that vertebrates live longer than invertebrates. -However, this is not the case. Amongst animals of extremely simple -organisation, there are some which reach a great age. A striking -example of this is found in sea-anemones. These animals have a very -simple structure, without a separate digestive canal, and with a -badly developed, diffused nervous system, and yet have lived very -long in captivity. More than forty years ago, I remember having -seen in the possession of M. Lloyd, the Director of the Aquarium at -Hamburg, an anemone that he had kept alive for several dozen years in -a glass bowl. Another sea-anemone, belonging to the species _Actinia -mesembryanthemum_, is known to have lived 66 years. It was captured in -1828 by Dalyell, a Scottish zoologist, and was then quite adult, and -probably about 7 years old. It survived its owner for 36 years, and -died in Edinburgh in 1887, the cause of death being unknown. Although -they are thus capable of living so long, the rate of growth of members -of this species is rapid, and their fertility is very high. According -to Dalyell, these anemones reach the adult condition in 15 months. The -specimen in his possession, in the 20 years from 1828 to 1848 produced -334 larvæ, then after a period of sterility it gave birth, in one night -(1857) to 230 young anemones. This extraordinary prolificness decreased -with age, but even when it was 58 years old it used to produce from 5 -to 20 at a time. In the seven years from 1872 onwards, it gave birth to -150 young anemones.[35] This animal, which certainly was not more than -the fortieth or the fiftieth of the weight of an adult rabbit, lived -six or seven times as long. - -Ashworth and Nelson Annandale have published their observations on -another sea-anemone, of the species _Sagartia troglodytes_, which was -50 years old. It differed from younger examples only in being less -prolific. - -There are other polyps, such as _Flabellum_, which do not live more -than 24 years, although we have no knowledge as to the cause of the -different duration of life. - -The variation in the length of the life of molluscs and insects is -extremely great. Some species of gasteropods (_Vitrina_, _Succinea_) -live only a very few years, whilst others (_Natica heros_) can reach -thirty years. Some of the marine bivalves, as for instance, _Tridacna -gigas_, can live to sixty or a hundred years.[36] - -Insects are animals as variable in their duration of life as they are -in other respects. Some live only a few weeks; some of the plant-lice, -for instance, die in a month. In the same order of Insects, however, -(Hemiptera) there are species of cicada which live thirteen to -seventeen years, that is to say, much longer than such little Rodents -as rats, mice, and guinea-pigs. The larva of an American species spends -seventeen years buried in the ground in orchards, where it feeds on the -roots of apple trees, and the species is known as _Cicada septemdecim_, -because of this duration of life. In the adult stage the insect lives -little more than a month, just time enough to lay the eggs, and bring -into the world the new generation, which in its turn will not appear -above ground until after another period of seventeen years. - -Between these extremes of long and short life, there is to be found -amongst insects almost every gradation of longevity. Science, in its -present state, has failed to find any law governing these facts. Rules -which hold good up to a certain point in the case of the higher animals -break down in their application to insects. The large grasshoppers -and locusts, for instance, live a much shorter time than many minute -beetles. Queen bees, the fertility of which is very great, live two -or three years and may reach a fifth year, whilst worker bees, which -are infertile, die in the first year of their existence. Female ants, -although these are small and extremely prolific, reach the age of seven -years.[37] - -We know so little about the physiological processes of insects, that we -cannot as yet make even a guess at the cause of this great variation -in their longevity. It is more probable that we shall find some -explanation in the case of vertebrates concerning which we know much -more. - -Analysis of the facts shows that whilst in the evolution from fish to -mammal there has been a great increase in complexity of organisation, -there has at the same time been a reduction in the duration of life. -As a general rule, it may be laid down that the lower vertebrates live -longer than mammals. - -The facts about the longevity of fish are not very numerous, but it -seems clear that these animals reach a great age. The ancient Romans, -who used to keep eels in aquaria, have noted that these fish would -live for more than sixty years. There is reason to believe that salmon -can live for a century, whilst pike live much longer. There is, for -instance, the much quoted instance of the pike stated by Gessner to -have been captured in 1230 and to have lived for 267 years afterwards. -Carps are regarded as equally long lived, Buffon setting down their -period of life as 150 years. There is a popular idea that the carp in -the lakes at Fontainebleau and Chantilly are several centuries old, but -E. Blanchard throws doubt on the accuracy of this estimate, inasmuch -as during revolutionary times most of the carp were eaten when the -palaces were overrun by the populace. There is no doubt, however, that -the life of carp may be very long indeed. Not very much is known about -the duration of life in batrachians, but it is certain at least that -some small frogs may live twelve or sixteen years, and toads as many as -thirty-six years. - -More is known about the life of reptiles. Crocodiles and caymans, -which are large and which grow very slowly, attain great ages. In the -Paris Museum of Natural History there are crocodiles which have been -kept for more than forty years without showing signs of senescence. -Turtles, although they are smaller than crocodiles, live still longer. -A tortoise has lived for eighty years in the garden of the Governor -of Cape Town, and is believed to have reached the age of two hundred -years. Another tortoise, a native of the Galapagos Islands, is known to -be 175 years old, whilst a specimen in the London Zoological Gardens is -150 years old. A land tortoise (_Testudo marginata_) has been kept in -Norfolk, England, for a century. I am informed that in the Archbishop’s -palace at Canterbury, there is to be seen the carapace of a tortoise -which was brought to the Palace in 1623 and which lived there for -107 years.[38] Another tortoise, brought to Fulham by Archbishop -Laud, lived in the Palace for 128 years. I have already referred to a -specimen of _Testudo mauritanica_, the history of which is known for 86 -years, but which is probably much older. - -Very little is known as to the longevity of lizards and serpents, but -it may be inferred from what I have said about other reptiles that -reptiles as a class are able to reach great ages. - -It is an easy inference that the great duration of life in cold-blooded -animals is associated with the slowness of the physiological processes -in these creatures. The circulation, for instance, is so slow, that the -heart of a tortoise beats only 20 to 25 times in a minute. Weismann has -suggested that one of the factors influencing the duration of life is -the rapidity or slowness of the vital activities, the times taken by -the processes of absorption and nutrition. - -On the other hand, the blood is hot and the vital activities are rapid -in birds, and yet birds may attain great ages. Although in the last -chapter I gave a number of examples, the subject is so important that I -propose to go further into details. The possibility of this is due to -an admirable set of details brought together by Mr. J. H. Gurney.[39] -In his list, in which are included more than fifty species of birds, the -lowest figures are from eight and a half to nine years (_Podargus -cuvieri_, _Chelidon urbica_), and a duration of life so short is an -exception, a period of from fifteen to twenty years being more common. -Canaries have lived in captivity from 17 to 20 years, and goldfinches -up to 23 years. Field larks have lived for 24 years, the Lesser -Black-backed Gull 31 years and the Herring Gull 44 years. Birds of -medium size may live for several dozens of years, whether they live -on animal or on vegetable food, whether they are prolific or lay very -few eggs. I will quote only a few instances. Of forty parrots the -minimum and maximum ages were respectively 15 and 81 years, and the -average 43 years. Without accepting the truth of the story mentioned by -Humboldt according to which certain parrots survived an extinct race -of Indians, at least we may be certain that great ages have sometimes -been reached by these birds. Levaillant mentions a parrot (_Psittacus -erithaceus_) which lost its memory at the age of 60 years, its sight at -90 years, and which died aged 93 years. Another individual, probably -of the same species, is reported by J. Jennings to have reached the -age of 77. Jones, Layard, and Butler are the authorities for instances -of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos having reached respectively 30, 72 and -81 years. M. Abrahams states that an Amazon (_Chrysotis amasonica_) -lived 102 years. I myself have observed two cases of great longevity -in the same species of parrot. One of these birds died at the age of -82 years, apparently simply from old age, whilst the other, which was -in my possession for several years before it died at the age of 70 -to 75 years, was vigorous, showing no signs of senility, but died of -pneumonia. - -Mr. Gurney found that parrots were not the only birds capable of -reaching a great age. One raven reached 69 years and another 50, an -Eagle-owl (_Bubo maximus_) 68 years, another 53, a condor 52, an -imperial eagle 56, a common heron 60, a wild goose 80, and a common -swan 70 years. None of these examples approaches the legendary -three centuries attributed to the swan, but it is evident that many -different kinds of birds may attain great age. I can add some cases -to those of Mr. Gurney. In the Royal Park at Schönbrunn, near Vienna, -a white-headed vulture (_Neophron percnopterus_) died aged 118 years, -a golden eagle (_Aquila chrysaëtus_) aged 104, and another aged 80 -(according to Oustalet). Mr. Pycraft (_Country Life_, June 25th, 1904) -reported that a female eagle, captured in Norway in 1829, had been -brought to England and had lived for 75 years. In the last thirty years -of its life, it had produced ninety eggs. The same writer mentions the -case of a falcon having lived to 162 years. - -The collection of facts that I have passed in review make it manifest -that birds may have a great duration of life, but that reptiles surpass -them in this respect. Birds certainly do not reach the very great ages -of crocodiles and tortoises. - -Longevity, therefore, is reduced as we ascend in the scale of -vertebrate life. We find a still greater reduction when we turn from -birds to mammals. Some mammals, it is true, may live as long as birds. -Elephants are a good instance. It used to be thought that these -giant mammals could live three or four centuries, but I can find no -confirmation of the legend, which seems as mythical as that relating to -the life of swans. There are no exact data as to the ages reached by -wild elephants, but it has been stated that in captivity an elephant -rarely but occasionally has completed its century. In zoological -gardens and in good menageries, where elephants are well cared for, -they seldom live more than 20 to 25 years. Chevrette, an African -elephant presented to the Jardin des Plantes by Mehemet Ali, in 1825, -lived for only 30 years. In the official list of the Indian Government, -which gives the deaths of elephants, it appears that of 138 examples, -only one lived more than 20 years after it had been purchased (Brehm’s -_Mammals_). - -Flourens, using his own formula, assigned the age of 150 years to -elephants as their epiphyses do not fuse with the long bones until -the age of 30. So far, I know of no fact to support the conclusion, -although it seems fairly well established that occasionally an elephant -may reach a century. It is stated that one elephant was in service -throughout the whole period of more than 140 years in which Ceylon was -occupied by the Dutch. This elephant was found in the stables in 1656. -Natives with special knowledge of elephants set down their duration of -life as from 80 to 150 years, but say that they begin to grow old at -from 50 to 60 years of age. My general conclusion from the facts is -that the life of these very large mammals is about the same as that of -man who is very much smaller. - -Centenarians, extremely rare amongst elephants, do not appear to exist -in any other kind of mammals except man. The rhinoceros, another large -mammal which is a native of the same countries as the elephant, does -not reach a great age. According to Oustalet an Indian rhinoceros died -in the menagerie of the Paris Museum at about the age of 25 years, -and showed all the signs of senility. Another Indian rhinoceros lived -for 37 years in the London Zoological Gardens. Grindon has stated his -opinion that the rhinoceros may live for 70 or 80 years, but this -seems rather an inference from the slowness of growth than a statement -of observed fact. - -Horses and cattle are large animals, but do not enjoy very long lives. -The usual duration of life in horses is from 15 to 30 years. They begin -to grow old about 10 years, and in very rare cases may reach 40 or -more. A Welsh pony is said to have reached the age of sixty, but such a -case is excessively rare. Two other extreme cases are that of a horse -belonging to the Bishop of Metz which died at the age of 50 years, and -the charger of Field-Marshal Lacy which died at 46. - -The duration of life of cattle is still shorter. Domestic cattle show -the first sign of age, a yellow discoloration of the teeth, when five -years old. In the sixteenth to eighteenth year the teeth fall out, -or break, and the cow ceases to give milk, whilst the bull has lost -reproductive power. According to Brehm, cattle live for 25 to 30 -years or more. Although the duration of life is short, cattle are not -prolific. The gestation period of a cow approaches that of the human -race (242-287 days), and there is only one birth a year. The total -period of reproductivity lasts only a few years. - -The sheep, another domesticated Ruminant, has a life even shorter. -According to Grindon, sheep do not live longer than 12 years as a rule, -but may reach 14 years, which in their case would be extreme age, as -they generally lose their teeth at from 8 to 10 years. - -Some Ruminants, such as camels and deer, apparently live longer than -sheep or cattle, but I do not know exact facts about them. - -The short life of domesticated carnivorous animals is well known. Dogs -seldom live more than 16 or 18 years, and even before that, at an age -of from 10 to 12, they usually show plain signs of senility. Jonatt -has mentioned as an extreme rarity a dog of 22 years of age, and Sir E. -Ray Lankester (_Comparative Longevity_, p. 60) cites another instance, -in this case the age being 34 years. The oldest dog that I have been -able to procure died at the age of 22. - -It is generally believed that cats do not live so long as dogs. The -average age which they may attain is usually thought to be 10 or 12 -years, but certainly a cat of that age has not the decrepid appearance -of an old dog. Thanks to the kindness of M. Barrier, the Director of -the Ecole d’Alfort, I have had in my possession a cat 23 years old. It -appeared to be quite vigorous, and died from cancer in the liver. - -Most rodents, particularly the domesticated kinds, are extremely -prolific and very short lived. It is extremely rare for a rabbit to -reach the age of 10 years, whilst 7 years is the utmost limit for a -guinea-pig. Mice, so far as I can ascertain, do not live more than 5 or -6 years. - -It is plain from the facts that I have brought together, that mammals, -whether they are large or small, as a rule, have shorter lives than -birds. It is probable, therefore, that there is something in the -structure of mammals which has brought about a shortening in the -duration of their lives. - -Whilst most of the lower vertebrates, and all birds, reproduce by -laying eggs, the vast majority of mammals are viviparous. As the tax -on the parent organism is greater when the young are produced alive -than when eggs are laid, it might be thought that in this difference -lay the cause of the shorter life of mammals. It is well known that an -animal may be made feeble by too great fecundity, and it is conceivable -that the kind of parasitic life of the embryos within the body of the -mother may weaken her system. - -There are many facts, however, which make it impossible to accept such -a view. The longevity of mammals is nearly equal in the two sexes, -although the tax on the organism caused by reproduction is much greater -in the case of females than in males. Longevity, however, cannot -be regarded as a character stable in each species and necessarily -identical in the two sexes. The animal kingdom presents many cases of -disparity in this respect, the difference in longevity in the two sexes -being specially striking in species of insects. Generally, the females -live longer than the males, as, for instance, amongst the Strepsiptera, -where the females have 64 times the duration of life of the males. On -the other hand, amongst butterflies, there are cases (_e.g._, _Aglia -tau_) where the males live longer than the females. In the human race, -there is a difference in the longevity of the sexes, the females having -the advantage. - -As in most cases of disparity in the duration of life the female -lives longer than the male, it is plain that the difference cannot be -assigned to the drain on the organism caused by reproduction, which, of -course, is much greater in females. - -Moreover, a closer scrutiny of the facts shows that although mammals -do not live so long as birds, the reproductive drain is greater in the -case of birds. - -It is well known that the productivity of an animal is not necessarily -identical with its fecundity. Fish or frogs which lay thousands of -eggs at a time (a pike, for example, produces 130,000) are obviously -more prolific than, for instance, a sparrow which lays only 18 eggs in -a year, or than a rabbit, which in the same time gives birth to from -25 to 50. However, to produce this much smaller quantity of eggs or of -young, the sparrow and the rabbit (I have chosen the most prolific bird -and mammal) expend a much larger quantity of material than the frog or -the fish. The sparrow and the rabbit employ in producing their progeny -a bulk of material greater than the weight of their body, whilst the -enormous quantity of eggs laid by the frog does not weigh more than -one-seventh part of the body of the frog. It may be laid down, as a -general rule, that although fecundity, that is to say the number of -eggs or of young which are produced, diminishes as the organism becomes -more complex, the productivity on the other hand increases, expressed -in percentage of weight. The productivity, which is not more than 18 -per cent. in batrachia, reaches 50 per cent. in reptiles, 74 per cent. -in mammals, and 82 per cent. in birds. - -It is plain that if reproduction shortens the life of mammals by -weakening the organism, it must be the productivity, not the fecundity, -which is the important factor. I have just shown that productivity -is greater in birds than in mammals, and in consequence it cannot be -on account of any greater burden of reproduction that mammals have a -shorter life than birds. The shortness of mammalian life, again, cannot -be attributed to the fact that mammals give birth to young, whilst -the long-lived reptiles and birds produce eggs, because the longevity -of the males, which produce neither young nor eggs, is none the less -practically equal to that of the females of the same species. The -reason of the short life of mammals must be sought for elsewhere. - - - - -III - -THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the structure - of the digestive system—The Cæca in birds—The - large intestine of mammals—Function of the large - intestine—The intestinal microbes and their agency in - producing auto-intoxication and auto-infection in the - organism—Passage of microbes through the intestinal wall - - -We have seen that the duration of life in mammals is relatively shorter -than that in birds, and in the so-called “cold-blooded” vertebrates. -No indication as to the cause of this difference can be found in -the structure of the organs of circulation, respiration, or urinary -secretion, or in the nervous or sexual apparatus. The key to the -problem is to be found in the organs of digestion. - -In reviewing the anatomical structure of the digestive apparatus in the -vertebrate series, one soon comes to the striking fact that mammals -are the only group in which the large intestine is much developed. In -fish, the large intestine is the least important part of the digestive -tube, being little wider in calibre than the small intestine. Amongst -batrachia, where it is a relatively wide sack, it has begun to assume -some importance. In several reptiles it is still larger, and may be -provided with a lateral out-growth, which is to be regarded as a cæcum. -In birds, the large intestine still remains relatively badly developed; -it is short and straight. In most birds, at the point where the large -intestine passes into the small intestine, there is a pair of cæca, -more or less developed. These cæca are absent in climbing birds, such -as the wood-pecker, the oriole, and many others. They are reduced to -a pair of tiny outgrowths in the eagles, sparrow-hawks, and other -diurnal birds of prey, and in pigeons, and perching birds. These organs -are larger in the nocturnal birds of prey, in gallinaceous birds, and -in ducks, etc.[40] - -In the large running birds, such as ostriches, rheas, and tinamous, -the cæca are relatively largest. Thus, for instance, in a rhea (_Rhea -americana_) which I dissected, the cæca were nearly two-thirds as long -as the small intestine. The latter was 1·65 m. in length, whereas one -of the cæca was 1·01 m., and the other 0·95 m. The weight of the two -cæca with their contents was more than 10 per cent. of the total weight -of the bird. - -Notwithstanding the exceptions, which are relatively rare, the large -intestine is badly developed in the case of birds. On the other hand, -it reaches its largest size amongst mammals. In these animals, “only -the posterior portion of the latter, or rectum, which passes into the -pelvic cavity, corresponds to the large intestine of lower Vertebrates; -the remaining, and far larger part, must be looked upon as a neomorph, -and is called the colon.”[41] - -Gegenbaur,[42] another well-known authority on comparative anatomy, -writes as follows on this subject:—“The hind-gut is longest in the -Mammalia, where it forms the large intestine, and is distinguished -as such, from the mid-gut, or small intestine. Owing to its greater -length, it is arranged in coils, so that the terminal portion only has -the straight course taken by the hind-gut of other Vertebrata.” - -The two series of facts are not to be disputed. On the one hand mammals -are shorter lived than birds and lower vertebrates, on the other -hand the large intestine is much longer in them than in any other -vertebrates. Is there here any link of causality, binding the two -characters, or is it a mere coincidence? - -To answer the question we must turn to the function of the large -intestine in vertebrates. In the lower members of the group (fish, -batrachia, reptiles, birds, etc.), the large intestine is not more -than a mere reservoir for the waste matter in the food. It takes no -share in digestion, as that is the function of the stomach and the -small intestine. Only the cæcum can be thought to have some digestive -property. In reptiles, the lowest vertebrates in which the cæcum is -present, it is so little differentiated from the large intestine -itself, that it is difficult to assign to it any specialised function. -In very many birds, however, the cæca are well separated from the main -digestive tube. The food material passes into them in considerable -quantities, and is retained there sufficiently long for some digestive -process to take place. M. Maumus has found, in the cæca of birds, -secretions which can dissolve albumen and invert sugar cane, but he has -been unable to make out that the cæcal juice has any action upon fatty -matter. Such digestive power, however, is slight, and when M. Maumus -removed the cæca in fowls and ducks, no evil consequences followed. -As in many birds the cæca are rudimentary and in others absent, it -may be inferred that these organs are useless, and are in process -of degeneration in the class. The cæca can be regarded as playing -an important part in the organism only in the case of large running -birds, where they are very highly developed, but we have not precise -information as to their digestive function. - -The variations in the structure in the large intestine are greater -in mammals than in birds. In some mammals, the large intestine is a -simple prolongation of the small intestine, similar in calibre and -in structure. In these conditions it may fulfil a definite digestive -function. Th. Eimer[43] has determined that in insectivorous bats the -large intestine digests insects like the small intestine. Such cases, -however, are rare. In most mammals the large intestine is sharply -separated from the small intestine by a valve, and opens directly -into the cæcum which may be very large. In the horse, the cæcum is an -enormous bag, cylindrical and tapering, generally well filled, and -holding on an average 35 litres. It is equally large in many other -herbivorous animals, such as the tapir, the elephant, and most rodents. -In such cases, the food remains for a considerable time in the organ -and without doubt undergoes some digestive changes. In many other -mammals, particularly carnivorous forms, the cæcum may be quite absent, -whilst in some, as for instance, the cat and dog, it is very small; -in the latter cases its digestive function must be non-existent or -insignificant.[44] - -As for the large intestine itself, apart from the special cases, such -as bats, it cannot fulfil any notable digestive function. Th. Eimer was -unable to find a proof of any such action in rats and mice, and the -very many investigations that have been made in the case of man seem to -have established the absence of digestive power in the colon. - -Dr. Stragesco,[45] in a recent investigation carried out under the -direction of the famous Russian physiologist Pawloff, established that, -in normal conditions, digestion and assimilation of food are confined -almost exclusively to the small intestine in mammals, and that the -large intestine plays only the smallest part. It is only in certain -diseases of the digestive tract, in which, on account of increased -peristaltic action, the contents of the intestine with the digestive -juices are passed quickly from the small intestine to the large -intestine, that some digestive work is done in the latter organ. - -The large intestine (excluding the cæcum), then, cannot be regarded as -an organ of digestion, although absorption of the liquids which have -been formed in the small intestine, may take place within its walls. It -is known that in the large intestine the contents of the gut give up -their water and assume the solid form of fæcal matter. However, whilst -the mucous membrane of the large intestine rapidly absorbs water, it -has not a similar action on other substances. - -The question of the extent to which the large intestine can absorb -has been closely investigated, because of its practical importance. -It sometimes happens that invalids cannot take food by the mouth, so -that their life would be in danger if it were not possible to supply -them with food otherwise. Attempts have been made to inject nutritive -substances through the skin, or, and this is a more usual procedure, by -the rectum. By such means the organism can be kept alive for a certain -time, but the absorbing power of the large intestine is extremely -small. According to Czerny and Lautschenberger[46] the entire colon -of the human being can absorb no more than 6 grammes of albumen in 24 -hours, an amount which, from the point of view of nutrition, is very -small. It was thought that the large intestine might more rapidly -absorb albuminous material which had been previously digested and -transformed to peptones, but the experiments of Ewald[47] showed that -even in that case the absorption was very small. According to more -recent experiments of Heile,[48] carried out upon dogs which had cæcal -fistulas, and in the case of a man who had an artificial aperture in -the colon, the large intestine does not absorb undigested white of -egg, and absorbs water, cane sugar, and glucose only very imperfectly. -The only substances which are rapidly absorbed through the wall of -the colon are the alkaline fluids from fæcal matter. It is possible, -however, to nourish invalids by rectal injections of certain nutritious -substances, the most important of which is milk.[49] - -The large intestine, which has really very slight digestive properties -and cannot absorb any considerable bulk of nutriment, is an organ which -secretes mucus. The latter serves to moisten the solid fæcal material, -so aiding in its expulsion. - -We must conclude, therefore, that the large intestine, the organ so -highly developed in mammals, is an apparatus the general function -of which is the preparation and elimination of the waste products -of digestion. Why should such an organ be so much more developed in -mammals than in the other vertebrates? - -In answer to the question, I have formed the theory that the large -intestine has been increased in mammals to make it possible for -these animals to run long distances without having to stand still -for defæcation. The organ, then, would simply have the function of a -reservoir of waste matter. - -Batrachia and reptiles lead a very idle life, and can move slowly, -sometimes because they are protected by poison (toads, salamanders, -serpents), sometimes because they have a very hard shell (turtles), -sometimes because they are extremely powerful (crocodiles). Mammals, on -the other hand, have to move very actively to catch their prey, or to -escape from their enemies. Such activity has become possible because -of the high development of the limbs, and because the capacity of the -large intestine makes possible the accumulation of waste matter for a -considerable time. - -In order to void the contents of the intestines, mammals have to stand -still and assume some particular position. Each act of this kind is -a definite risk in the struggle for existence. A carnivorous mammal -which, in the process of hunting its prey, had to stop from time to -time, would be inferior to one which could pursue its course without -pausing. So, also, a herbivorous mammal, escaping from an enemy by -flight, would have the better chance of surviving the less it was -necessary for it to stand still. - -According to such a view, the extreme development of the large -intestine would supply a real want in the struggle for existence. M. -Yves Delage,[50] the well-known biologist, is unable to accept this -hypothesis. He thinks that the rectal enlargement would fulfil the -purpose, and adds that everyone has seen herbivorous animals pass their -excretions whilst running. The rectum of mammals, however, cannot -serve as a reservoir for waste matter, because as soon as such matter -reaches the rectum it excites the need of excretion. The waste matter -accumulates in the large intestine, from which it passes into the -rectum at intervals. When it has reached that region, a sensation is -caused which leads to defæcation. - -M. Delage is not quite definite when he speaks of mammals voiding their -excretions whilst they are in motion. A horse, harnessed to a vehicle, -may defæcate whilst it is walking or even running slowly. But these -animals cannot defæcate when in rapid motion, and competent observers -state that horses never do so whilst racing. In zoological gardens, -where animals have room to run about, they stand still before emptying -the rectum. M. Ch. Debreuil, who keeps antelopes in a very large park -at Melun, has noticed that the excreta are always to be found in masses -and not scattered about as if they had been discharged by animals -in motion. Antelopes, which are animals that run and leap extremely -actively, have to come to a standstill before discharging their small -pellets of deer-like excreta. - -In the struggle for existence, when a mammal is pursuing its prey or -escaping its enemy, there is no question of the leisurely movement -of a horse harnessed to an omnibus or cab, but the greatest possible -activity is necessary. In such circumstances the possession of an -organ within which the excreta could accumulate would be of real -importance. My theory of the origin of the mammalian large intestine is -intrinsically probable. - -Although the capacity of the large intestine may preserve a mammal in -emergencies, it is attended with disadvantages that may shorten the -actual duration of life. - -The accumulation of waste matter, retained in the large intestine -for considerable periods, becomes a nidus for microbes which produce -fermentations and putrefaction harmful to the organism. Although our -knowledge of the subject is far from complete, it is certain that the -intestinal flora contains some microbes which damage health, either by -multiplying in the organism, or by poisoning it with their secretions. -Most of our knowledge on this matter has come from the study of human -patients. - -Persons have been known who do not defæcate except at intervals of -several days, and who, none the less, do not seem to suffer in health. -But the opposite result is more common. The retention of fæcal matter -for several days very often brings harmful consequences. Organisms -which are in a feeble state from some other cause are specially -susceptible to damage of the kind referred to. Infants are frequently -seriously ill as the result of constipation. Dr. du Pasquier[51] -describes such cases in the following words:—“The infant is leaden -in hue, with sunken eyes, dilated pupils, and pinched nostrils. The -temperature may reach nearly 104° Fahr.; the pulse is rapid, feeble, -and often irregular. Restlessness, insomnia, sometimes convulsions, -stiffness of the neck and strabism show that the nervous system is -being poisoned by toxins, and even collapse may be reached. The foul -and dry tongue, the vomiting and fetid discharges show the disturbance -of the digestive tract. Very often an eruption appears, as described -by Hutinel, chiefly on the back and buttocks, the front of the thighs -and fore-arms.” The illness may lead to death but is generally cured by -simple purging. - -Women in pregnancy and child-birth frequently suffer much as the -result of retention of fæcal matter, and physicians are familiar -with the symptoms, which have been described as follows by M. -Bouchet[52]:—“After normal parturition, in the course of which the -usual antiseptic precautions have been fully pursued, and where -delivery has been complete and natural, occasionally the patient is -seized with chill and headache. The breath is fetid and the tongue -foul. The temperature, taken in the axilla, is nearly 101° Fahr. The -abdomen is inflated and painful in the umbilical region. Palpation in -the iliac fossæ reveals lumps or consolidations along the colon. Thirst -is intense, and there is complete anorexy. On questioning, it is found -that there has not been defæcation for several days. The treatment -consists of purgatives, enemas, and milk diet. In the next few days the -bowels are emptied freely, the abdominal pain ceases, the temperature -becomes lower, appetite is restored, and the patient recovers.” - -Those who suffer from affections of the heart, liver, or kidneys are -specially susceptible to the evil results of retained fæcal matter. In -such patients an error of diet or constipation may bring about most -serious consequences. - -Such facts are well known to physicians, and it has been established -that complete emptying of the lower bowels leads at once to favourable -symptoms. From the other side, it has been shown by experiment that -artificial retention of the fæces by ligature of the rectum puts the -body in a grave condition. - -If we collect our knowledge of all the facts, we cannot doubt but that -the cause of the evil is multiplication of microbes in the contents of -the large intestine. When the fæcal matter is free from microbes, as -is the case with the meconium of the fœtus or new-born infant, it -is not a source of danger to the organism. The waste of cells and the -secretions which are added to the undigested food cannot do any harm. -Amongst the microbes of the gut, there are some that are inoffensive, -but others are known to have pernicious properties. - -The ill-health which follows retention of fæcal matter is certainly -due to the action of some of the microbes of the gut. There are -difficulties, however, in determining the precise mode of action of -these microbes. It is generally believed that they form poisonous -substances which are absorbed by the walls of the intestine and so pass -into the system. The phrase auto-intoxication as applied to infants, -women in labour, and patients affected with diseases of the heart, -liver, or kidneys, is based on this interpretation of the morbid -processes involved. Attempts have been made to isolate and study the -poisons in question, but there are many difficulties in the way. To -distinguish between the actions of the poisons and of the microbes -themselves, the latter have been destroyed by heat or by antiseptics, -or been removed by filtration. Such methods, however, may alter the -poisons and so are inconclusive. MM. Charron and Le Play[53] have -tried to obtain exact results by heating the intestinal microbes to -a temperature of about 136° Fahr., a process which probably does not -seriously deteriorate the microbial poisons. Such material, injected -into the veins of rabbits in large quantities, rapidly produced death, -or in smaller quantities, proportionate ill-health. - -Kukula[54] has tried to produce this toxic action in animals, -employing microbial secretions obtained from cases of intestinal -obstruction. He succeeded in producing serious symptoms, such as -vomiting and curvature of the neck and back, in fact, precisely the -sequence of events familiar in cases of obstruction of the bowels or -other retentions of fæcal matter. - -Some of the products of the intestinal flora are undoubtedly toxic, -such as the benzol derivatives (phenol, etc.) ammonium and other -salts. Many of these toxins have been insufficiently studied, but it -is well known that certain of them can be absorbed by the wall of the -gut and act as poisons. A well known case is the toxin of botulism -which was isolated and studied by M. van Ermenghem.[55] The poison, -the product of a microbe which causes serious intestinal disturbance, -is so fatal that a single drop given to a rabbit produces death after -symptoms similar to those observed in cases of human beings poisoned by -stale food. Butyric acid and the products of albuminous putrefaction -are amongst the most pernicious of the microbial poisons produced -in the large intestine. It is familiar that digestive disturbance -is frequently associated with discharges of sulphuretted hydrogen -and putrid excreta, and there is no doubt but that the microbes of -putrefaction are the cause of these symptoms. - -It has been assumed for long that the retention of fæcal matter -tends to putrefactive changes in the intestines, and that the evil -consequences of constipation are due to this. Recently, however, -bacteriologists have criticised this accepted view, on account of the -small number of microbes found in the excreta of constipated persons. -Strasburger was the first to establish the fact, and his associate, -Schmidt, showed that putrefaction did not follow when readily -putrescible substances were infected with material taken from cases of -constipation. However, notwithstanding the exactness of these facts, -I cannot accept the inference which has been drawn from them. The -excreta discharged naturally in cases of constipation do not give a -correct indication of the conditions inside the gut; whilst such matter -contains few microbes, the substance removed after injection by an -enema is extremely rich in bacteria. Moreover, analysis of the urine, -in cases of constipation, shows an excess of the sulpho-conjugate -ethers which are known to be products of intestinal putrefaction. - -Not only is there auto-intoxication from the microbial poisons absorbed -in cases of constipation, but microbes themselves may pass through the -walls of the intestine and enter the blood. In the maladies that are -the result of constipation some of the symptoms recall those of direct -infection, and it is highly probable that, if special investigations -were made, microbes of intestinal origin would be found in the blood of -the sick children and the pregnant or parturient women whose symptoms I -have described above. - -The question as to the passage of microbes through the intestinal walls -is one of the most controversial of bacteriological problems, and there -is little agreement in the numerous publications regarding it. None the -less, it is far from impossible to get a general idea of what goes on -in an intestinal tract richly charged with microbes. - -Although the intestinal wall in an intact state offers a substantial -obstacle to the passage of bacteria, it is incontestable that some -of these pass through it into the organs and the blood. Numerous -experiments performed on different kinds of animals (horses, dogs, -rabbits, etc.) show that some of the microbes taken with food traverse -the wall of the alimentary canal and come to occupy the adjacent -lymphatic glands, the lungs, the spleen and the liver, whilst they -are occasionally found in the blood and lymph. Discussion has taken -place as to whether the passage takes place when the wall of the gut -is absolutely intact or only when it is injured to however small -an extent. It would be extremely difficult to settle the question -definitely, but it is easy to see that it has little practical bearing. -It is known that the wall of the gut is damaged extremely easily, so -that the bluntest sound can hardly be passed into the stomach without -making a wound through which microbes can pass into the tissues and -blood. In the ordinary course of life, the delicate wall of the gut -must often undergo slight wounding, and the frequent presence of -microbes in the mesenteric ganglia of healthy animals shows clearly -what takes place.[56] - -It is indubitable, therefore, that the intestinal microbes or their -poisons may reach the system generally and bring harm to it. I infer -from the facts that the more a digestive tract is charged with -microbes, the more it is a source of harm capable of shortening life. - -As the large intestine not only is the part of the digestive tube most -richly charged with microbes, but is relatively more capacious in -mammals than in any other vertebrates, it is a just inference that the -duration of life of mammals has been notably shortened as the result of -chronic poisoning from an abundant intestinal flora. - - - - -IV - -MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF SENILITY - - Relations between longevity and the intestinal - flora—Ruminants—The Horse—Intestinal flora of - birds—Intestinal flora of cursorial birds—Duration - of life in cursorial birds—Flying mammals—Intestinal - flora and longevity of bats—Some exceptions to the - rule—Resistance of the lower vertebrates to certain - intestinal microbes - - -In the actual state of our knowledge it is impossible to make a final -examination of my hypothesis, as there are many factors about which we -are incompletely informed. Nevertheless, it is possible to confront the -hypothesis with a large number of accurately established facts. - -Although the life of most mammals is relatively short, there are to be -found in the group some which live relatively long, as well as others -whose life is short. The elephant is an example of the long-lived -mammals, whilst ruminants are short-lived forms. In the last chapter, I -stated that sheep and cattle became senile at an early age, and did not -live long. They are striking exceptions to the rule according to which -the duration of life is in direct relation with the size and length of -the period of growth. The cow, which is much larger than a woman, and -the time of gestation of which is about the same, or a little longer, -acquires its teeth at four years old, and becomes senile at an early -age; it is quite old at between sixteen and seventeen, an age when a -woman is hardly adult; at the age of thirty, practically the extreme -limit for bovine animals, a woman is in full vigour. - -The precocious old age of ruminants, the constitution of which is -well understood, and which are carefully tended, coincides with an -extraordinary richness of the intestinal flora. Food remains for a long -time in the complicated stomach of these animals, and afterwards the -digested masses remain still longer in the large intestine. According -to Stohmann and Weiske,[57] in the case of sheep it is a week until -the remains of a particular meal have finally left the body of the -animal. The excreta of sheep, normally solid, do not betray any special -putrefaction in the intestine, but if the body is opened there is -abundant evidence of the process. The intestinal contents are richly -charged with microbes and give off a strong odour of putrefaction. It -is not surprising that under these conditions, the life of sheep should -be short. - -Another large herbivorous animal, the horse, also dies young, after a -premature old age. Although it does not ruminate and possesses a simple -stomach, the process of digestion is slow, and enormous masses of -nutritive material accumulate in the huge large intestine. Ellenberger -and Hofmeister[58] have shown that food remains in the alimentary canal -for nearly four days. It remains in the stomach and the small intestine -only 24 hours, but about three times as long in the large intestine. -This is remarkably different from what happens in the case of birds, -in which there is no stagnation during the passage of food through the -digestive canal. - -The structure of birds is adapted for flight, the body being as light -as possible, many of the bones and the cavities of the body containing -air-sacs. The absence of a bladder and of a true large intestine -prevents the accumulation of excreta, these being ejected almost as -rapidly as they are formed. The process of ejection, which takes place -often in birds, is not so inconvenient as in mammals. The hind limbs -are not used in flight, so that they offer no obstacle to evacuation. -Thus birds may discharge their droppings while flying. - -Such structure and habits make it not surprising that the alimentary -canal of many birds contains only a scanty intestinal flora. Parrots, -for instance, which are remarkably long-lived birds, harbour very few -microbes in the intestine. The small intestine contains almost none, -the rectum so few that the fæcal matter appears to be formed of mucus, -the waste of the food, and only a very few microbes. M. Michel Cohendy, -who has examined the intestinal flora at the Pasteur Institute, was -unable to isolate more than five different species of microbes living -in the alimentary canal of parrots. - -Even in birds of prey which feed upon putrid flesh, the number of -microbes in the intestine is remarkably limited. I have investigated -the case of ravens which I fed on flesh which was putrid and swarming -with microbes. The droppings contained very few bacteria, and it was -specially remarkable that the intestines had not the slightest smell of -putrefaction. Although the opened body of a herbivorous mammal, such as -a rabbit, gives off a strong smell of putrefaction, the body of a raven -with the digestive tube exposed has no unpleasant smell. This absence -of putrefaction in the intestine is probably the reason of the great -longevity of such birds as parrots, ravens, and their allies. - -It might be said, however, that the long duration of life in birds is -due to the organisation of these animals, rather than to the scantiness -of their intestinal flora. To meet this objection, it is necessary to -turn to the case of cursorial birds. - -There are some birds incapable of flight, the wings of which are -badly developed, but which have strong limbs, and can run with great -rapidity. Ostriches, cassowaries, rheas, and tinamous, are well known -examples of cursorial birds. They live on the surface of the ground, -and their habits resemble those of mammals. When they are attacked -by enemies, they escape by running so quickly that some of them -(ostriches and rheas) outstrip even a horse. However, like mammals, -they cannot discharge their secretions when they are running quickly. -Tinamous (_Rhynchotus rufescens_), which I have observed in captivity, -however quickly they may be running, stop abruptly to discharge their -excretions. M. Debreuil, at my request, made observations on this -matter, and assured me that the tinamous and rheas (_Rhea americana_) -in his park always stood still for this purpose. He has noticed that -the droppings, however abundant, were always deposited in heaps. -With regard to ostriches, M. Rivière, director of the experimental -Gardens at Hamma, Algeria, has been kind enough to give me the -following information. “The discharge of excreta,” he said in a letter -in January, 1901, “is less frequent than in other birds, but the -comparatively small size of the enclosures here makes it impossible for -me to assert that the animal could discharge its droppings if it were -running for a length of time; _a priori_ I should think that this did -not happen. Normally the bird stands still for defæcation, the tuft of -feathers on the tail is lifted up, and there is a violent contraction -of the abdominal muscles before the sphincters of the cloaca are -suddenly opened to discharge the excrement with violence.” - -I believe that the remarkable development of the large intestine in -these running birds has been acquired to obviate the danger which is -caused by the animal having to stop for defæcation. Although the huge -cæca of these birds have a digestive function, particularly on plants -rich in cellulose, I cannot think that the cæca of cursorial birds have -been developed for digestion. As a matter of fact, some birds which -are not cursorial live on the same kind of food (herbage, seeds, and -insects) and have much smaller cæca, the cæca indeed, in some, for -instance, the pigeons, being quite rudimentary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.—Intestinal microbes from the cæca of a Rhea.] - -It is not surprising that the accumulation of food material in the -large intestine of running birds is associated with the presence of -an extremely rich intestinal flora. Microscopic examination of the -excrement of such birds shows this at once. Although the intestinal -contents and excrement of many other birds show the presence of -very few microbes, belonging to a small number of species, the same -materials taken from running birds show enormous quantities of -microbes, belonging to a large number of species. In the cæcum of -the rhea (Fig. 14) there are bacterial threads, spirilla, bacilli, -vibrios, and many kinds of cocci. In the tinamous, the intestinal flora -is if possible even richer. According to the statistical investigations -of M. Michel Cohendy, the quantity of intestinal microbes in cursorial -birds is not less than that found in mammals, even in man. - -If I am correct in the view that I have been explaining, cursorial -birds, on account of their rich intestinal flora, ought to have a -shorter duration of life than that of flying birds. I will now turn to -this side of the question. Amongst cursorial forms, there are some of -the largest living birds, ostriches being actually the largest living -birds, whilst an extinct running bird, the _Aepyornis_ of Madagascar, -was the largest known bird. According to the rule that large animals -live longer than small animals, ostriches should be able to reach a -great age. The facts, however, are against this. M. Rivière, who rears -ostriches in Algeria, and has a great experience of them, writes to me -as follows: “I have no confidence in the stories about the longevity of -the ostrich which were told me in the Sahara; they rest on no facts. -My personal observation is not very large, but it is quite exact. Some -of the ostriches which have been hatched here have lived for 26 years. -I do not estimate the duration of life of this bird at more than 35 -years, and only one case of this age have I seen myself in 20 years. -The bird was a female, a good layer and sitter; she died of old age, -showing all the signs of decrepitude, the skin excoriated and lumpy, -the feathers degenerate and dry. The bird laid eggs until nearly the -end of her life, but at irregular intervals, and the shells were -granular instead of being smooth and polished.” - -In a farm near Nice, where ostriches are reared, there was recently an -old male called “Kruger,” which was supposed to be 50 years old.[59] -Countess Stackelberg has been good enough to try to get information -for me about this, and informs me that although they have not exact -knowledge at the farm, they believe that it must be 50 years old. M. -Rivière thinks this statement very surprising, and has nothing in his -own long experience to confirm it. - -The facts which I have been able to get together do not attribute a -long life to other running birds. Gurney mentions that a cassowary -(_Casuarius westermanni_) lived 26 years in the Zoological Gardens of -Rotterdam, and that three Australian emus (_Dromaeus novae-hollandiae_) -had lived in the same Gardens for 28, 22, and 20 years. M. Oustalet -(_Ornis_, 1899, vol. x, p. 62) mentions another emu of the same -species which died in London at the age of over 23 years. The rhea -(_Rhea americana_), another large running bird, does not live so long. -“Boecking thinks that its duration of life should be set down at from -14 to 15 years. According to him, many of these birds die of old age.” -(Brehm, _Oiseaux_, vol. ii, p. 517). - -It is striking to compare the short life of cursorial birds, which -nevertheless thrive and reproduce in captivity, with the remarkable -longevity of so many other birds (parrots, birds of prey) which, -although they are much smaller, have been kept alive for from 80 to -100 years. It would be difficult to find a more striking argument in -favour of the view that richness of the intestinal flora shortens life. -When birds become adapted to terrestrial life and acquire a huge large -intestine in which microbes can abound, their duration of life is -diminished. - -Just as some birds, losing the aerial mode of life, have come to -resemble mammals, so also some mammals have become flying animals, -provided with wings and in some respects resembling birds. Bats are -the most familiar instance. The large intestine, which is extremely -useful to running animals, not only ceases to be an advantage but is -harmful to flying creatures, insomuch as it increases the weight of -the body uselessly. Bats, accordingly, have no cæcum whilst the large -intestine is changed in structure and function. Instead of being a -capacious tube, serving as a reservoir for the refuse of the food, the -large intestine of bats has the same diameter as the small intestine. -Its structure is nearly identical. It is provided with glands, and -as I have already mentioned in the last chapter, it digests the food -in the same way as the small intestine. In fact, the large intestine -has become simply a part of the small intestine, the total length of -the gut being reduced. Bats, therefore, can no longer retain their -secretions but have to empty the intestine almost as often as most -birds. I find that Indian fruit bats (_Pteropus medius_) discharge -their excreta very often. Microscopic examination shows that there -is an absence of microbes quite unusual in the case of a mammal. -The alimentary canal of bats is nearly aseptic, containing only a -few single bacteria. I have fed these fruit bats with the same food -(carrots) which I have given to rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice; whilst -the bats accomplished the process of digestion in 1-1/2 hours, and -deposited excreta containing fragments of carrot, the rodents took -very much longer for digestion and large quantities of waste matter -accumulated in the cæca. The intestinal flora too, although the food -in each case was the same, showed remarkable differences in these -animals. It was almost absent in the bats, whilst in the rabbits, -guinea-pigs and mice it consisted of a mass of microbes of different -species. The excrement of the bats had no unpleasant odour, and the -digestive canal of these bird-like mammals was free from putrefaction. -Fruit bats fed upon fruit discharged excreta with a pleasant odour of -apples and bananas. We have seen that birds which live a life similar -to that of mammals acquire a rich intestinal flora and do not live so -long as aerial birds. It would be extremely interesting to ascertain -the duration of life of bats, mammals which live like birds and have -a very scanty intestinal flora. I have been unable to get any exact -information as to the duration of life of the true bats, that is to -say, the insectivorous bats, as all the requests that I have addressed -to specialists have proved fruitless. It appears, however, that it is -a popular belief that bats live long. There is a Flemish phrase: “as -long-lived as a bat,” and a similar phrase is common in Little Russia. - -As for the fruit-eating bats, I have been able to ascertain that even -in captivity, where the conditions are unfavourable to them, the -duration of life is relatively long. I have had in my own possession a -fruit bat (_Pteropus medius_) which was bought in Marseilles 14 years -ago. It showed no signs of old age, and the teeth were in perfect -condition. It died of some acute disease accidentally contracted. I -know of another bat of the same species which lived in captivity for -more than 15 years, and I have been informed that[60] in the London -Zoological Gardens, a fruit bat has lived for 17 years. If these bats -were adult when caught, it would be necessary to add something to the -known figures. - -Although I do not know the exact duration of the life of bats, it is -clearly relatively long for mammals no bigger than guinea-pigs. The -difference is remarkable if we compare it with the life of sheep, dogs -and rabbits, mammals very much larger in size, but possessed of a rich -intestinal flora. - -The series of facts that I have been discussing strengthens my -conviction that the intestinal flora is an extremely important factor -in the causation of senility. It must not be supposed, however, that -all the known facts can be explained equally easily on this hypothesis. -The harm done by microbes cannot always be measured by their abundance -in the alimentary canal. In the first place, it must be remembered -that some microbes are useful; moreover, microbes, even although their -products are very dangerous, may exist in quantities in an organism, -and yet do no harm if the organism has the power of resisting bacterial -poisons. Thus, for instance, the bacillus of tetanus, which thrives -in the alimentary canal, and which can endanger life if the wall of -the gut is wounded, does not harm a crocodile or a tortoise, as these -animals are extremely resistant to the poison of tetanus. Dr. Favorsky, -by experiments at the Pasteur Institute, has shown that the poison of -botulism can be absorbed with impunity by some birds, and by tortoises, -although death follows if a very small quantity of it be introduced -into the alimentary canal of a mammal. - -The bodies of man and of higher animals are possessed of a complex -mechanism which resists the harmful action of bacteria and their -poisons. The various parts of this mechanism may act differently, with -the result that there is great variation in the power of resistance. -Thus, however abundant microbes may be in the intestine, they may -bring little harm to an organism that has a high power of destruction -or neutralisation of the toxins, or when these harmful products are -unable to pass through the intestinal wall. It is in this way that I -explain some exceptions to the general rule, which are exceptions only -in appearance. Such a case is that of the nocturnal birds of prey. -Although the diurnal birds of prey (eagles, vultures, etc.) have very -short cæca, in which the food is never found, owls have very large -cæca, which may be as long as 10 cm. (Eagle-Owl, _Bubo maximus_). These -long cæca, however, contain debris of the food only in the enlarged -terminal portion, and the food masses contain a very small number of -microbes. Notwithstanding a great difference in the length of the cæca -between the owls and the eagles, these two groups of birds do not -differ greatly in longevity. But the difference in the cæca does not -imply a corresponding difference in the intestinal flora which appears -to be very scanty in both cases. - -It is possible that the elephant is a more real exception to the rule. -Here is a case of a mammal with an enormous large intestine and a -capacious cæcum, and which none the less is capable of surviving for a -century. I have had no opportunity of investigating the elephant from -this point of view, and have no explanation to suggest. - -Monkeys and man differ from most mammals in so far as they possess -a long duration of life, although their large intestines are very -capacious. I have been unable to get exact information as to the -longevity of monkeys, but I understand that these animals live longer -than domesticated mammals, such as the ox, sheep, dog, and cat. -Anthropoid apes are supposed to be able to reach the age of 50 years. -The only other mammal with a longevity similar to that of the elephant -is man. - - - - -V - -DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE - - Longevity of man—Theory of Ebstein on the normal - duration of human life—Instances of human - longevity—Circumstances which may explain the long - duration of human life - - -Man has inherited from his mammalian ancestors his organisation and -qualities. His life is notably shorter than that of many reptiles, but -longer than that of many birds and most other mammals. None the less -he has inherited a capacious large intestine in which a most abundant -intestinal flora flourishes. - -Gestation and the period of growth are long in the human race, and -from the point of view of theoretical considerations, human longevity -should be longer than it generally is. Haller, a distinguished Swiss -physiologist of the 18th century, thought that man ought to live to 200 -years; Buffon was of the opinion that when a man did not die from some -accident or disease he would reach 90 or 100 years. - -According to Flourens, man takes 20 years to grow and ought to live 5 -times 20, that is to say, 100 years. - -The actual longevity is much below these figures, which are based -on theory. I have shown, moreover, that even if the rule based on -the theory of growth can be accepted as generally true, it cannot be -applied in every case, as the factors controlling duration of life are -very variable. - -Statistics show that the highest human mortality occurs in the earliest -years of life. In the first year after birth alone, one quarter of the -children die. After this period of maximum mortality, the death-rate -slowly falls until the age of puberty, and then rises again slowly and -continuously. It reaches a second maximum between the ages of 60 and -75, and then slowly falls again to the extreme limit of longevity. - -Bodio,[61] an Italian man of science, holds the view that the great -mortality of infants is a natural adaptation to prevent too great an -increase of the human race. This view, however, cannot be supported, -and rational hygiene readily brings about a great diminution in the -mortality of children. The cause of mortality is in most cases maladies -of the intestinal canal, produced by erroneous diet, and with the -advance of civilisation, infant mortality has been very greatly reduced. - -I find it impossible to accept the view that the high mortality between -the ages of 70 and 75 indicates a natural limit of human life. As -a result of investigations into mortality in most of the European -countries, Lexis came to the conclusion that the normal duration of -human life was not more than 75 years. Dr. Ebstein[62] accepts this -statistical result and announces that “we now know the normal limit set -by nature to the life of mankind. This limit is at the age of maximum -mortality. If man dies before then, his death is premature. Everyone -does not reach the normal limit; life ends generally before it, and -only in rare cases after it.” - -The fact that many men of from 70 to 75 years old are well preserved, -both physically and intellectually, makes it impossible to regard that -age as the natural limit of human life. Philosophers such as Plato, -poets such as Goethe and Victor Hugo, artists such as Michael Angelo, -Titian and Franz Hals, produced some of their most important works -when they had passed what Lexis and Ebstein regard as the limit of -life. Moreover, deaths of people at that age are rarely due to senile -debility. In Paris, for instance, in 1902, of cases of deaths between -the ages of 70 and 74, only 8·5 per cent. were due to old age.[63] -Infectious diseases, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, diseases of the -heart and the kidneys, and cerebral hæmorrhage, caused most of the -deaths of these old people. Such cases of death, however, can often be -avoided and must be regarded as accidental rather than natural. - -Confirmation of the view that the natural limit is not at 70 to 75 -years is to be found in the fact that so many men reach a greater age. -Centenarians are really not rare. In France, for instance, nearly one -hundred and fifty people die every year, after having reached the age -of 100 or more. In 1836, in a population of thirty-three millions and -a half (33,540,910), there were 146 centenarians, that is to say, one -in about 220,000 inhabitants. In some other countries, particularly in -Eastern Europe, the number of centenarians is still greater. In Greece, -for instance, there is a centenarian for each set of 25,641 living -persons, that is to say, nine times as many as in France.[64] - -What age can be reached by the human species? Formerly it was supposed -that individuals might live for several centuries; to say nothing -of Methuselah, whose age of 969 years, mentioned in the Bible, is -the result of a mistake in calculation, I may mention Nestor, who, -according to Homer, lived for three human ages, that is to say, 300 -years, or Dando, the Illyrian, and the King of the Lacedaemon, -who were supposed to have reached ages of five or six centuries. These -ancient records are, of course, quite incorrect. Much more confidence -can be placed in some facts relating to more modern times, according to -which the extreme old age reached by man was 185 years. Kentigern, the -founder of the Cathedral of Glasgow, known by the name of St. Mungo, -died at the age of 185, on Jan. 5th, 600.[65] Another astonishing case -of longevity is related from Hungary, where an agriculturist, Pierre -Zortay, born in 1539, died in 1724. The Hungarian records of the 18th -century contain other cases of death at ages between 147 and 172 years. - -The case of Drakenberg is still more authentic; he was born in Norway -in 1626 and died in 1772, at the age of 146. He was known as the Old -Man of the North. He had been captured by African pirates and was held -by them for fifteen years, and was engaged as a sailor for ninety-one -years. His romantic history attracted contemporary attention, and the -journals of the time (_Gazette de France_, 1764, _Gazette d’Utrecht_, -1767, etc.)[66] contain information regarding him. The well-known -instance of Thomas Parr appears to rest on good authority. Parr was -a poor Shropshire peasant, who did hard work until he was 130 years -old, and who died in London at the age of 152 years and 9 months. The -celebrated Harvey examined the body after death and was unable to -discover organic disease; even the cartilages of the ribs were not -ossified and were elastic as in a young man. The brain, however, was -hard and resisting to the touch, as its blood-vessels were thickened -and dry. Parr was buried in Westminster Abbey.[67] - -It appears, then, that human beings may reach the age of 150, but such -cases are certainly extremely rare, and are not known from the records -of the last two centuries. I cannot accept without a good deal of -reserve the statements as to two persons who died in the beginning of -the 19th century at the ages of 142 and 145. On the other hand, cases -of duration of life from 100 to 120 years are not very rare. - -Extreme longevity is not limited to the white races. According to -Prichard,[68] negroes have lived respectively to 115, 160, and 180 -years. In the course of the 19th century there have been observed, in -Senegal, eight negroes ranging from 100 to 121 years old. M. Chemin[69] -saw himself in 1898 at Foundiougne an old man, whom the natives stated -to be 108 years of age; although he was in good health, he had been -blind for several years. The same author, on the authority of the _New -York Herald_ of June 13th, 1895, mentions the case of a coloured woman -in North Carolina, who was more than 140 years old, and of a man 125 -years old. - -Women more frequently become centenarians than men, although the -difference is not very great. For instance, in Greece, in 1885, in a -population of nearly two millions (1,947,760), there were 278 persons -aged from 95 to 110 years, of whom 133 were male and 145 female. - -In the seven years, from 1833 to 1839 inclusive, according to Chemin, -there were in Paris twenty-six men over the age of 95, and forty-five -women. Such facts, and many others, support the general proposition -that male mortality is always greater than that of the other sex. - -In most cases centenarians are notably healthy and of strong -constitution. There are instances, however, of abnormal people having -reached a great age. A woman, called Nicoline Marc, died in 1760, at -the age of 110. Since she was two years old, her left arm was crippled. -Her hand was bent under the arm like a hook. She was a hunch-back, and -so bent that she appeared to be no more than four feet high. A Scotch -woman, Elspeth Wilson, died at the age of 115 years. She was quite -a dwarf, being only a little over two feet high. On the other hand, -although they usually have a very short life, giants have been known to -reach the age of 100. - -Haller, in the eighteenth century, remarked that centenarians often -occurred in the same family, as if longevity were a hereditary -quality. It is certainly the case that the descendants of centenarians -frequently reach extreme age. Thomas Parr, for instance, left a son -who died in 1761, at the age of 127 years, having retained his mental -faculties until death. In M. Chemin’s list of centenarians, there -are eighteen cases of extreme old age having been reached by their -relations. As all innate characters can be transmitted, the influence -of heredity and longevity must be admitted. At the same time, it -is necessary to remember the important influence of the similarity -of conditions in the case of parents and children. Many cases of -tuberculosis and leprosy, which used to be assigned to heredity, are -now known to be due to infection in the same conditions of life, and -some of the examples of the attaining of a great age by more than one -member of a family may be explained by the influence of surrounding -circumstances. Very frequently the husband and wife, although not -related by blood, both attain extremely advanced age. I found 22 cases -of this kind in M. Chemin’s list; I will give a few of them. A widow, -Anne Barak, died at the age of 123, in Moravia; her husband died at the -age of 118. In 1896, there was alive in Constantinople, M. Christaki, -a retired army doctor of the age of 110; his wife was 95 years old. -In 1886, M. et Mme. Gallot, aged respectively 105 years and 4 months, -and 105 years and one month, died within two days of each other at -Vaugirard, 54, Rue Cambronne. Lejoncourt mentions a South American of -143 years old, whose wife had lived to the age of 117. - -It is worth enquiring if there be any relation between longevity and -locality. There are some countries in which very many of the natives -reach old age. It appears that Eastern Europe (Balkan States, and -Russia), although its civilisation is not high, contains many more -centenarians than Western Europe. I have already mentioned that Dr. -Ornstein had shown the existence of many extremely old people in -Greece. M. Chemin states that in Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania there -were more than 5,000 centenarians (5,545) living in 1896. “Although -these figures appear to be exaggerated,” wrote M. Chemin, “it is -undoubtedly the case that the pure and keen air of the Balkans, and -the pastoral or agricultural life of the natives, predisposes to old -age.” The same author mentions several localities in France, notable -for the numbers of very old people. In 1898 in the commune of Sournia -(Pyrénées-Orientales) the total population was 600, amongst which there -was one woman of 95 years, a man of 94, a woman of 89, two men of 85, -two of 84, and two of 83, three women of 82, and two men of 80. At St. -Blimont in the Department of the Somme, amongst the 400 inhabitants -alive in 1897, there were six men between the ages of 85 and 93 years -and one woman in her 101st year. - -It cannot be accepted that it is the keen air which lengthens the life, -because Switzerland, a mountainous country, is notable for the rarity -of centenarians. It is more likely that some circumstance in the mode -of living influences longevity. - -It has been noticed that most centenarians have been people who were -poor, or in humble circumstances, and whose life has been extremely -simple. There are instances of rich centenarians, such as Sir Moses -Montefiore who died at the age of 101, but such are extremely rare. -It may well be said that great riches do not bring a very long life. -Poverty generally brings with it sobriety, especially in old age, and -it has been often said that most centenarians have lived an extremely -sober life. They have not all followed the example of the celebrated -Cornaro, who brought himself to subsist on a daily diet of no more than -twelve ounces of solid food, and fourteen ounces of wine, and who, -although his constitution was weak, lived for about a century. He has -left extremely interesting Memoirs, and retained his intelligence until -his death on the 26th April, 1566 (Lejoncourt, p. 146). - -In M. Chemin’s list I have counted twenty-six centenarians, -distinguished by their frugal life. Most of them did not drink wine, -and many of them limited themselves to bread, milk and vegetables. - -Sobriety is certainly favourable to long life, but it is not necessary, -because quite a number of centenarians have drunk freely. Several of -those who are catalogued by Chemin, drank wine and spirits even to -excess. Catherine Reymond, for instance, who died in 1758 at the age of -107 years, drank much wine, and Politiman, a surgeon who lived from -1685 to 1825, was in the habit, from his twenty-fifth year onwards, of -getting drunk every night, after having attended to his practice all -day. Gascogne, a butcher of Trie (Hautes-Pyrénées), died in 1767 at the -age of 120, and had been accustomed to get drunk twice a week. A most -curious example is that of the Irish land-owner Brawn, who lived to the -age of 120, and who had an inscription put upon his tombstone that he -was always drunk, and when in that condition was so terrible that even -death had been afraid of him. Some districts, even, are distinguished -at once for the longevity of their inhabitants and for the large local -consumption of alcohol. In 1897, village of Chailly in the Côte-d’Or -had no less than twenty octogenarians amongst 523 inhabitants. This -village is one of the localities in France where most alcohol is -consumed, and the old people are very far from being distinguished from -their younger fellows by any special sobriety. - -In some cases centenarians have been much addicted to the drinking -of coffee. The reader will recall Voltaire’s reply when his doctor -described the grave harm that comes from abuse of coffee which acts as -a real poison. “Well,” said Voltaire, “I have been poisoning myself for -nearly 80 years.” There are centenarians who have lived longer than -Voltaire, and have drunk still more coffee. Elisabeth Durieux, a native -of Savoy, reached the age of 114. Her principal food was coffee, of -which she took daily as many as forty small cups. She was jovial and a -boon table companion, and used black coffee in quantities that would -have surprised an Arab. Her coffee-pot was always on the fire, like the -tea-pot in an English cottage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147). - -It has been noticed that many centenarians do not smoke, but this like -all other traits is not universal. M. Ross, who gained a prize for -longevity in 1896 at the age of 102, was an inveterate smoker. In 1897, -a widow named Lazennec, died at La Carrière, in Kérinou, Finistère, at -the age of 104. She lived in a hovel on charity, and she had smoked a -pipe ever since she was quite young. - -It is plain that any factor to which long duration of life has been -attributed disappears when many cases are examined. Naturally a sound -constitution and a simple and sober life are favourable to longevity, -but apart from these, there is something unknown which tends to long -life. The celebrated physiologist of Bonn, Pflüger,[70] came to -the conclusion that the chief condition of longevity is something -“intrinsic in the constitution,” something which cannot be defined -exactly, and which must be set down to inheritance. - -In the present state of knowledge, we cannot denote the chief cause of -human longevity, but the proper course will be to seek it out as we -would seek out that of animal longevity. As human longevity is often -local in its character, and is exhibited by married people who have -nothing in common except their mode of life, we may enquire into the -intestinal flora and the mechanism by which the organism resists its -harmful effect as factors which influence the duration of life. It is -reasonable to suppose that in persons living in the same district or -under the same roof, the intestinal flora may be similar. The problem -can be settled only by a series of laborious researches which have yet -to be made. At present I can do no more than bring together a large -number of facts regarding the duration of life in man and in animals, -with the hope of suggesting the lines for future investigation. - - - - -PART III - -INVESTIGATIONS ON NATURAL DEATH - - - - -I - -NATURAL DEATH AMONG PLANTS - - Theory of the immortality of unicellular - organisms—Examples of very old trees—Examples of - short-lived plants—Prolongation of the life of some - plants—Theory of the natural death of plants by - exhaustion—Death of plants from auto-intoxication - - -It must surprise my readers to find how little science really knows -about death. Although death has a preponderating place in religions, -systems of philosophy, literature and folk-lore, scientific works pay -little attention to it. This unfortunate fact explains, although it may -not justify, the bitter attack made on science on the grounds that it -is occupied with minutiæ and neglects the great problems of human life, -such as death. When Tolstoi was absorbed by the problem and searched -for some solution in the writings of scientific men, he found that the -explanations were trivial or inexact. In consequence he was extremely -indignant with the men who devoted themselves to the investigation of -what seemed to him useless problems (such as the insect world, or the -structure of cells and tissues) and who were yet unable to say what the -destiny of man or death might be. - -I am far from claiming to solve these problems; I can do little more -than describe the actual state of the question of natural death. I hope -in this way at least to prepare for scientific investigation, and to -call attention to it as the most important problem of humanity. - -By the use of the phrase “natural death” I mean to denote a phenomenon -that is intrinsic in the nature of an organism and that is not the mere -result of an external accident. Popular phraseology includes under -natural death all cases due to diseases. But as such deaths can be -avoided and are not due to qualities inherent in the organism, it is -erroneous to include them in the category “natural death.” - -In nature, death comes so frequently by accident that there is -justification for asking if natural death really occurs. It used to be -thought that death was the inevitable end of life and that the living -principle contained within itself the germ of death. Accordingly, -it was a surprising discovery that many low organisms die only by -accident, and that if such accident be avoided, death does not fall on -them. Unicellular organisms (such as infusoria, many other protozoa -and low plants) multiply by simple division, the organism thus giving -rise to two new organisms; the parent so to speak loses itself in its -offspring without undergoing death. To criticisms of this mode of -presentment of the facts, Weismann, who has attracted most attention -to the view, replied as follows:—“In cultures of Infusoria, these -little animals continually multiply by division and no dead bodies are -found. The individual life is short, but it ends not in death but in -transformation to two new individuals.” - -Max Verworn,[71] a physiologist of repute, objected that Weismann had -overlooked the occurrence within the organism of a process of partial -destruction, and that under certain conditions a complete organ of -the infusorian body (the nucleus) dies and is absorbed. Such death of -a part, however, is not followed by death of the whole, and as the -continuous destruction of some of the cells in our own bodies is not -regarded as our death, the criticism of the German physiologist cannot -be accepted. - -It is not only the extremely short-lived microscopic organisms that -escape death. Some of the higher plants, which may attain to gigantic -size, encounter death only by accidents. There is nothing to be found -in the nature of their organisation which would seem to indicate that -death is the inevitable or even probable result of their constitutions. - -The longevity of some trees has long been notorious, as these appear to -live for many centuries and to die only when they are overwhelmed by -the ravages of a storm or killed by human agency. - -When the Canary Islands were discovered, in the beginning of the -fifteenth century, the early explorers were struck with the gigantic -size of a dragon tree which was venerated by the natives as their -tutelary deity. The tree stood in a Garden at Orotava in Teneriffe, -and even in these early days, its huge trunk contained a gigantic -hollow. The tree did not reward the worship of the natives, who -were annihilated by the Spaniards, and it survived them for nearly -four centuries. At the end of the eighteenth century it was seen -by Humboldt,[72] who found that the trunk was forty-five feet in -circumference, and who attributed to it a great age because dragon -trees grow extremely slowly. Early in the nineteenth century (1819) a -furious tempest swept over Orotava and with a gigantic crash nearly -a third of the crown of leaves and branches fell on the ground. -Notwithstanding this shock, the monster survived for fifty years. -Berthelot,[73] who visited it in 1839, described it as follows:—“A -dragon tree stood in front of my dwelling, grotesque in form, gigantic -in size, which a storm had smitten without overwhelming. Ten men would -have much ado to girdle its vast trunk, fifty feet in circumference at -the ground. The huge column had a deep cave within it, hollowed by the -ages; a rustic porch gave access to the interior, and the lofty dome, -although half had been destroyed by a storm, still bore an enormous -crown of branches.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.—The Dragon-tree of the villa Orotava.] - -The famous dragon-tree got more and more damaged, and was finally -overthrown by a storm in 1868. A few years after the catastrophe (in -1871) I myself saw the remains of the colossus, lying on the ground as -a huge grey mass like some antediluvian monster. No accurate estimate -of its age can be formed, but it must have lived several thousand years. - -Trees have been known which were still older than the dragon-tree of -Teneriffe. One of the best known is the baobab of Cape Verd, described -by Adanson. “This remarkable tree was thirty feet in diameter when the -famous French naturalist measured and described it. Three centuries -earlier, some English sailors had cut an inscription on it, and -Adanson laid this bare by removing three hundred layers of wood. On -his observations Adanson based an estimate of 5,150 years as the age -of the tree.[74] The old cypresses of Mexico are thought to be still -older. A. de Candolle[75] concluded that the cypress of Montezuma was -2,000 years old when he saw it, and that the cypress at Oazaca was much -older than the tree described by Adanson. In California, trees of the -species _Sequoia gigantea_ are three thousand years old, and Sargent, -an American botanist, attributes to some of them an age of at least -five thousand years. - -The question of the nature of individuality in the vegetable world -has been raised in connection with the longevity of trees. It has -been asked if a tree is to be regarded as a single individual or as -a colony of many plants like a branching polyp. It is a difficult -question, but only of secondary importance from the point of view of -this discussion. A. de Candolle,[76] having paid special attention to -the subject, came to the conclusion that trees do not die of old age, -that, in the real sense of the phrase, there is no natural end of their -existence. Many botanists agree with him. Naegeli[77] holds that a tree -several thousand years old dies only from external accidents. - -It is plain that amongst the lower plants and the higher plants there -are cases where natural death does not exist. Theoretically, life would -have an unlimited duration, subject to the continuous replacement of -the substance of the organism in the normal metabolism. It must not be -inferred, however, that there is no such occurrence as natural death -amongst plants. There are numerous cases where death comes quite apart -from the agency of external forces. Even amongst closely related plants -there are some cases where natural death does not occur, and others -where it is normal. The lower fungi offer a good instance. Some of -these pass through a longer or shorter vegetative stage and then the -living mass breaks up into spores (_Myxomycetes_). The whole bulk of -matter is not transformed, but the remnant consists only of cuticular -secretions, not living cells. In other fungi, only some of the cells -transform to spores, the others dying naturally. - -One stage of the life history of some lower plants is of short -duration. The prothalli of some cryptogams (_Marsiliaceæ_) live only a -few hours, just long enough for the appearance of the sexual organs. -When these are ripe the body of the prothallus and all its constituent -cells fall a prey to natural death. In such cases there is a “corpse,” -composed of dead cells and protoplasm. Even amongst the higher plants -there are instances of an extremely short duration of life. _Amaryllis -lutea_ passes through all the stages of its life-history in ten days, -the minimum time necessary for the sprouting of the leaves and flowers -and the production of the seeds, after which it dies naturally.[78] It -is interesting to find that in the same family there are other plants -notable for long duration of life. The Agave requires a century to -produce its flowers before death comes naturally. - -Everyone is familiar with the so-called “annual” plants which live -only a few months, from the time when they sprout, until, after the -production of seed, death comes to them naturally. The life of annuals, -however, can be preserved for two or for several years. Rye is normally -an annual, but some varieties are able to live for two years and -produce two crops. The Cossacks of the Don have established this fact, -and have cultivated a biennial variety of rye for many years.[79] -Beetroot[80] is normally biennial, but has been changed to a plant -which lives for from three to five years. Such instances are by no -means unique. - -Natural death can be postponed if the plant be prevented from seeding. -Professor Hugo de Vries has prolonged the life of the Oenotheras he -cultivates, by cutting the flowers before fertilisation. Under ordinary -conditions the stem dies after producing from forty to fifty flowers, -but, if cutting be practised, new flowers are produced until the winter -cold intervenes. By cutting the stem sufficiently early, the plants are -induced to develop new buds at the base, and these buds survive winter, -and resume growth in the following spring.” (Extract from a letter of -Prof. H. de Vries.) - -The grass of lawns is usually mowed before it begins to flower, so as -to prevent the ripening of the seeds and the death of the plant. When -this is done, the grass remains continually green, and its life lasts -for several years. - -The connection between the seeding of plants and their natural death -has been recognised for long, and is usually explained as being due to -the exhaustion of the plant. - -As I am not a botanist, and was anxious to know the views of botanists -on natural death, I wrote to Prof. de Vries, as a universally accepted -authority. The distinguished botanist replied to me as follows. “Your -question is extremely difficult. I do not think that much is known as -to the exact cause of the death of annual plants, but it is customary -to attribute it to exhaustion.” All the botanists who have expressed -opinions on this matter appear to hold a similar view. Hildebrand,[81] -the author of a memoir on the duration of life in plants, stated this -view again and again. According to him “the life of annuals is usually -short because they are exhausted by their extensive production of seeds -(p. 116).” “Even amongst plants which produce seeds for several years, -there are some which are prematurely exhausted by fructification and -which die spontaneously” (p. 67). In the prothallus of many of the -higher cryptogams, the formation of a single embryo is followed by -natural death; as Goebel[82] points out, the embryo completely absorbs -the prothallus. - -As plants generally obtain their food with ease, it is natural to ask -what is the cause of the exhaustion after seeding. When a plant which -cannot resist cold dies after it has produced its seeds in the end of -the summer, the event is natural enough. But how can we explain the -death of an annual plant which is growing in a rich soil, and which -seeds in the beginning of the summer, as being due to exhaustion long -before the winter cold. It frequently happens that after harvest new -shoots spring up from grains which have fallen. The soil which can -support this new vegetation cannot have been exhausted by the cereal -in question; and there has been enough warmth for the new crop. It -cannot be the external conditions which have caused the death of -the parent plant. The explanation of this apparent contradiction -has been sought in the constitution of the plant itself. Hildebrand -remarks that “certain species have a constitution which tends to early -fructification. As soon as the seeds have been set, the strength of the -plant is exhausted in the swelling of the grains, so that the plant -dies.” “Other species, on the contrary, are so constituted that they -vegetate for a long time, before fruiting, after which, however, they -also die. A third set of plants have such a constitution that “they -do not die after seeding, that they can seed often and live for many -years” (p. 113). - -Being unable to indicate exactly the intrinsic mechanism of these -different “constitutions,” several botanists explain them by a kind of -teleological predestination. According to Hildebrand “the nutritive -processes of a plant have no other purpose than to make it capable of -reproduction; this final end, however, can be reached in different -modes and after different periods of time” (p. 132). Goebel sets -down similar views. “In heterosporous plants the whole course of the -development of prothalli is predetermined. The prothalli, so far as -we actually know, to use the phrase of theologians, are predestined; -their fate is determined once for all” (p. 403). M. Massart[83] -expresses the same kind of view, when he says that “sometimes cells -die because their work is finished, and they have no longer any reason -for existing.” - -Such an interpretation of the facts is quite opposed to determinism, -and makes the problem of natural death in the plant world more -difficult but more interesting. - -The modern scientific conception of the universe excludes the idea -of predestination. The relations between fructification and natural -death must be regulated by the law of selection, according to which no -organism survives if its reproduction is impossible. It occasionally -happens that children are born without organs which are indispensable -to life. Such monsters of different kinds being non-viable, cannot be -said to be predestined to death, as they die because of defects in -their structure. Others are born with all that is necessary for life, -and survive for that reason, not because they are predestined to life. -So also species of plants which develop incompletely and which die -before they have produced spores or seeds, cannot survive; whilst those -which die after having given birth to the next generation survive in -their descendants. However quickly death follow the production of seed, -the species will survive equally well. The cause of the natural death -of plants must be sought, therefore, not in predestination, but in the -mechanism of the organic processes. - -Nothing seems more probable than that a plant should die when all its -organic forces have been exhausted. It would be interesting, however, -to ascertain the mechanism of that exhaustion, and this especially -because it is often very difficult to imagine a cause for it. Many -plants exist which produce several generations each season, in the same -soil, without exhausting it. In perennial plants, some parts, such -as the flowers, die periodically, although the plant itself is not -exhausted. Everyone has seen that in geraniums some of the flowers -wither whilst others are blooming, the process going on throughout the -season. We can scarcely attribute such a natural death of the flowers -to any exhaustion of the plant which continues to produce new flowers. - -The fairly frequent prolongation of the life of plants is also -out of harmony with the theory of natural death as the result of -exhaustion. It sometimes happens that male plants produce female -flowers abnormally; cases of this kind have been observed in willows, -stinging-nettles, hops, and especially in maize.[84] Here we have -to deal with a kind of monstrosity, differing, however, from the -non-viable monsters of the human race, in the respect that the -production of female flowers on the male branches results in the -prolongation of their lives. Generally the male branches die a natural -death as soon as the pollen has been shed, and therefore some time -before the death of the female flowers. If, however, a male branch -bears a female flower which becomes fertilised, then the life of the -branch is prolonged until the seeds ripen. If the natural death of the -male flowers is the result of exhaustion due to the development of the -pollen, how can we reconcile this with the prolongation of life in a -case where the male branch has also female flowers to nourish and seeds -to mature? - -It is quite clear that natural death, in such cases, is the result of a -mechanism more complex than simple exhaustion. - -Prof. de Vries has already noted that the duration of life in plants -depends on their vital processes. That view implies that there are some -qualities inherent in its organisation which can prolong or shorten -the life of a plant, and it is here that we ought to find the key -to the problem of natural death in the vegetable world. However, to -gain exact knowledge of such factors, it would be necessary to have -information on many points in plant physiology which unfortunately are -very imperfectly known. In this respect, the vital conditions of the -simplest plants, such as yeasts and bacteria, have been investigated -much more fully. It is true that such low organisms reproduce freely -either by division or by budding, so that they are amongst the -organisms in which natural death is not inevitable. None the less, in -their lives phenomena occasionally present themselves which can be -interpreted as cases of natural death. - -At a time when it was still unknown that all fermentation was due -to the action of microscopic plants, it had been observed that, in -certain conditions, fermentation ceased much more quickly than in -other conditions. For instance, when sugar is being transformed to -lactic acid, it is useful to add chalk, as otherwise the fermentation -stops before the greater part of the sugar has been acted upon. When, -in 1857, Pasteur made his great discovery of the lactic acid microbe, -he showed that that little organism, although it could produce lactic -acid, was interfered with by an excess of the acid. To secure complete -fermentation, it was necessary to neutralise the acid by the addition -of chalk. - -When the action of lactic acid is continued too long, it not only -arrests the process of fermentation but definitely kills the microbe. -It is for that reason that it has been found difficult to preserve the -lactic acid ferment for a long time in a living condition. Amongst the -ferments which have been isolated from Egyptian ‘leben’ by MM. Rist and -Khoury[85] there is one which is extremely delicate. - -When it is inoculated deep in a nutritive medium, it dies in a few -days, death, without doubt, being due to the lactic acid produced by -the microbe from the sugar and not neutralised. As this transformation -of sugar into lactic acid is a fundamental property of the microbe, -depending on its constitution, the arrest of the fermentation and the -death of the ferment in these definite conditions can be interpreted -only as natural death due to auto-intoxication, that is to say to -poisoning by a product of the physiological activity of the microbe -itself. As death takes place at a time when the medium still contains -enough sugar for the nutrition of the microbe, it is certain that -it cannot be the result of exhaustion. This case of the lactic acid -ferment is not unique. The microbe which produces butyric acid is -also interfered with by the acid it secretes. M. G. Bertrand, who has -examined carefully the microbe which produces fermentation in sorbose -(sugar extracted from fruit of the service-tree) (_Sorbus domestica_) -has informed me that this fermentation, too, ceases under the influence -of the secretions of the microbes, and that the microbes undergo -natural death at a time when the medium is far from exhausted of the -nutritive material. The yeast which produces alcohol is also interfered -with by an excess of alcohol, and as soon as a certain limit of -alcoholic strength has been reached, fermentation stops. When the yeast -is grown in media rich in nitrogen and poor in sugar, the plant takes -the nitrogenous material and produces salts of ammonia. These alkalies -damage the yeast and cause its death by auto-intoxication.[86] - -In the examples that I have given, natural death was a result of -the activity of the microbes, and was in correlation with their -organisation. Such death can be avoided by changing the external -conditions, and, if the acids or alkalies produced by these bacteria -are neutralised, the bacteria survive. The facts are in harmony with -those that I described in the case of the higher plants. By preventing -the ripening of seed, the life of many annual plants may be preserved -and the plants changed to biennials or perennials. In such cases death, -although the result of the constitution of the plant, may be postponed. - -We may ask then if the natural death of higher plants, usually -attributed to exhaustion, cannot be explained more simply as the -result of poisons produced in their metabolism. Many plants produce -poisons which are fatal to animals and man. May they not also produce -substances fatal to themselves? There is nothing improbable in the -supposition that some of the poisons may develop when the seeds are -ripening. By preventing the latter process, the ripening of the whole -organism may also be prevented. Such a theory would explain the many -cases of natural death which occur whilst the cell is far from having -reached exhaustion. The equally numerous cases of partial death, such -as that of flowers, whilst the same stem is still producing other -flowers (_e.g._ geraniums) would be explained by a local action of the -poisons not strong enough to kill the whole plant. - -I must insist that this theory, that natural death of the higher -plants, is the result of auto-intoxication, is a mere hypothesis -which future investigations may disprove. If, however, it comes to be -confirmed, it would explain the coincidence of death and fructification -more simply than the hypothesis of predestination. - -The higher plants may be subjects of auto-intoxication in the same -fashion as bacteria and yeasts. If these poisons were produced before -the ripening of the seeds, the plants would remain sterile, leaving -no descendants, so that the race would become extinct. The production -of poisons at the time of fructification would not interfere with the -succession of generations, and the race would be preserved. As the -poisoning is not necessary, it is easy to understand why many plants -survive seeding and escape natural death. The Dragon-tree, baobab, and -the cedars, which I spoke of earlier, would be examples of such escape. - -Although the existence of auto-intoxication in the higher plants is -still only a hypothesis, the natural death of bacteria and yeasts by -poisons which they themselves produce is an ascertained fact. - -In the plant world, therefore, there are examples of natural death -(bacteria and yeasts) due to auto-intoxication, and there are other -cases where high or low plants escape natural death. - - - - -II - -NATURAL DEATH IN THE ANIMAL WORLD - - Different origins of natural death in animals—Examples - of natural death associated with violent acts—Examples - of natural death in animals without digestive - organs—Natural death in the two sexes—Hypothesis as to - the cause of natural death in animals - - -The cases of natural death amongst animals differ from those found in -the vegetable world by their greater variety and complexity. As M. -Massart has shown for plants, so also natural death must have become -established independently in different groups of animals. In some -cases, the characters presented are strange and almost paradoxical. - -It is usual to contrast natural death with violent death on account of -the difference between the two. None the less, natural death may occur -in the animal kingdom, that is to say death resulting directly from the -constitution, and yet in intimate association with violent acts. I will -give some examples. - -Small, helmet-shaped organisms, transparent and graceful, are common on -the surface of the sea. These have been described by zoologists under -the name _Pilidium_. The organisation is simple. The body wall is a -delicate pellicle, through which, on the lower surface, a mouth leads -into a capacious stomach. Continual movements of waving cilia direct -small particles of food through the mouth to the digestive stomach. -As there are no organs of reproduction, it was assumed that these -creatures were not adults, but floating larvæ of some marine animal, -and, after a good deal of trouble, it was found that the Pilidia were -the young stages of ribbon-shaped worms of the group of Nemertines. -At a definite stage in the life-history, a fœtus begins to develop -round about the stomach of the Pilidium, and eventually completely -encloses it and detaches it by violent muscular contractions. The end -of the story is that the fœtus abandons the body of the Pilidium -carrying off with it the stomach, an organ necessary to the maintenance -of life. The remnant of the Pilidium swims about in the sea-water, but -soon dies as the result of the mortal wound caused by the removal of -the digestive organs. - -The act by which the Nemertine separates from its mother is violent, -and yet the death of the Pilidium must be regarded as natural. It is -the result of agencies within the body and not, as in most cases of -accidental death, of violence from without. - -The group of Nematode worms contains many common intestinal parasites -of man, such as _Ascaris_, _Trichina_, _Trichocephalus_, _Oxyuris_, -&c., but also others that live free in soil or water or in such fluids -as vinegar. They are protected by a strong cuticle, and some of them -are viviparous, that is to say, instead of laying eggs they give -birth to young worms already well grown and capable of independent -activity. Amongst the human Nematode parasites, the _Trichinæ_ give -birth to swarms of small larvæ which easily escape from the body of -the mother by the female generative aperture. In the case of some -free-living Nematodes, however, the female aperture is too small to -give passage to the rather stout larvæ. More than forty years ago, when -I was investigating the life-history[87] of one of these Nematodes -(_Diplogaster tridentatus_) I was struck by the fact that the larvæ -could leave the body of the mother only by violence and after they had -devoured most of its substance. These larvæ develop from eggs produced -within the maternal body. As the external reproductive aperture of -the female is minute, the larvæ cannot escape through it, but wander -amongst the tissues tearing and absorbing them. The mother soon dies, -and although her death is violent, it must be included in the category -of natural death. - -From the teleological point of view it might be said that Pilidium -and Diplogaster cease to live because they have fulfilled their -function of giving rise to a Nemertine or young Nematodes. Their -natural death would thus be predestined. There is no ground for such -an interpretation. On the other hand, it is certain that this death, -coming after the birth of the new generation, is in no way against the -preservation of the species in which the extraordinary natural death -by violence occurs. If the female orifice of Diplogaster were slightly -larger, the larvæ would emerge without difficulty and without causing -the death of the mother which none the less would have fulfilled her -purpose. - -All the cases of natural death amongst animals are not so brutal as -those of the Pilidium and the Nemertine worms. In many instances the -death is peaceful. As very frequently it is difficult to establish -definitely that the death is natural, I shall select clear cases. - -Animals are occasionally found which are devoid of some organ necessary -for prolonged life. The absence of a digestive tract in an animal that -lives in an environment rich in dissolved nutritive material (as for -instance tapeworms living in the intestinal tract) is not surprising. -But when creatures of the sea or of fresh water have no digestive -tract, their life can be maintained only at the expense of nutritive -material stored within them during embryonic life. The death which -comes eventually is truly natural. The best cases, that is to say those -which can be studied most completely, of such natural death occur -amongst the Rotifera. These are minute creatures of fresh or sea water, -at one time confused with the Infusoria, but possessed of a much more -complex organisation. They have a well-developed digestive tube, organs -of excretion, nervous system, and organs of sense. The animals are -diœcious; in each species both males and females exist. Whilst the -females have the complete structure of the species, the males are much -reduced, and are devoid of a digestive canal. The cuticle is fairly -stout, and they are unable to absorb dissolved nutriment through it; as -they have no organs of digestion, their life must be short. - -To study in detail the life and death of these creatures, I selected a -species sent to me by M. Haffkine. So far as I can judge, the species -in question is a hitherto unknown member of the genus _Pleurotrocha_, -and I propose for it the name _Pleurotrocha haffkini_. This rotifer is -convenient to study as it thrives in vessels containing fresh-water to -which some bread-crumb has been added (in the proportion of a gram of -bread to 500 grams of water). - -The sexes of the little rotifer can be distinguished from the earliest -age, for eggs that are to become females are much larger than those -from which males develop. It is easy to isolate the male eggs and to -follow the life-history up to the moment of natural death. The whole -course of life from the laying of the egg until death lasts only about -three days, and is probably the shortest duration of life in the animal -kingdom. Although some Ephemeridæ live only a few hours in the adult -state, their total life-cycle is much longer than that of the rotifers, -as the larval stages last for months or even for years. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.—Male _Pleurotrocha haffkini_.] - -The little males (Fig. 16) begin to swim soon after hatching, the -wheel-apparatus and the musculature being vigorous. They seek out -the females, as their reproductive organs are mature almost at the -moment of hatching. The transparent body, which is devoid of digestive -apparatus, swarms with mobile spermatozoa. As soon as the male has -seized a female, he discharges the contents of his body. It might be -supposed that such an evacuation would cause a violent perturbation of -the system leading to the death of the organism. There is no question -of this however. The males are able to live for twenty-four hours after -having accomplished their function, and the period represents a third -of their total duration of life. Moreover, I have isolated males from -females without any prolongation of their lives. In one experiment, I -isolated two males and placed a third in company with two females. It -was the third specimen that lived longest. - -The natural death of the males is foreshadowed by a weakening of the -movements; although the muscles and cilia remain mobile, the whole -animal moves only spasmodically; sometimes the muscles of the head -contract, sometimes those of the tail, but no locomotion occurs. -Occasionally there is a violent effort of ciliary motion as if the -attempt were being made to overcome the immobility of the body. Such -a condition lasts for several hours and is followed by death. The -spermatozoa inside the body retain activity last of all. - -Towards the crisis, bacteria, which abound in the medium occupied by -the rotifers, begin to attack the males. Some cluster round the head, -others round the tail, although none of them can effect entrance to -the body. The death of the males cannot be attributed to microbial -infection, but comes from some intrinsic cause. - -Is it inanition that is the cause of death? I do not think so, because -up to the time of death the tissues appear to be unmodified. In the -case of the females I have sometimes seen phenomena of inanition. In -old and exhausted cultures the starved females become thin, flattened -and quite transparent, and the tissues lose their granular appearance. -No such changes are visible in the dying males, the tissues of which, -on the contrary, retain a normal aspect. - -The most probable explanation is that death comes from poisoning by the -secretions of the tissues themselves. The large size of the organs of -excretion indicates that in the course of metabolism waste matter is -produced some of which is got rid of. If, after a time, the secretions -are insufficiently eliminated, the tissues must be poisoned. As death -is preceded by a spasm of uncoordinated movement, it appears as if the -fatal intoxication of the males affected the nervous system first. The -vibrating cilia and the muscles are attacked later. - -There can be no doubt but that the death of these male rotifers is -natural in the fullest sense. The females, however, although they are -provided with complete digestive organs, do not escape a similar fate. -Their life is longer and more complex than that of the males, and so -is subject to many more chances. The females therefore may come to die -from starvation or from other external, accidental causes. But, if they -are kept in favourable conditions, they may live for about fifteen -days, towards the end of which they die naturally, exhibiting the -symptoms that I have described in the case of the males (Fig. 17). - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.—Female _Pleurtrocha haffkini_, which has died -a natural death.] - -Rotifers are not the only animals which undergo natural death in a -fashion quite unlike the violent end of Pilidium and Diplogaster. There -are other cases amongst invertebrates, but I shall limit myself to -describing one that is well ascertained. - -More than fifty years ago, Dana, the American naturalist, discovered a -pelagic marine creature with characters so curious that he gave to it -the name _Monstrilla_. It is a little crustacean akin to the _Cyclops_ -of lakes. But although the latter is endowed with the organs necessary -to capture and digest food, _Monstrilla_ has neither organs of -prehension nor a digestive canal. It is a highly muscular animal with -organs of sense and reproduction and a nervous system; but it is devoid -of apparatus for prolonging life by nutrition. _Monstrilla_ therefore -is a creature doomed to natural death. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.—_Monstrilla._ (After M. Malaquin.)] - -The detailed observations of M. Malaquin[88] have supplied full -information regarding this strange life-history. _Monstrilla_ passes -a portion of its life as a parasite on Annelid worms. In that stage -it accumulates the necessary material for the growth of the sexual -products (ova and spermatozoa) and for free life in the sea whilst the -young are developing. It is not only the males which have no digestive -apparatus. The females also lack it, which is the more surprising as -they carry about the eggs attached to the body (as is done by many -other Crustacea, such as crayfish and lobsters) until the young are -ready to hatch (Fig. 18). M. Malaquin thinks that the Monstrillas die -of starvation. - -“As they are without a digestive tube or organs of prehension or -mastication,” M. Malaquin says (p. 192), “the Monstrillas, which have -no means of nutrition, are doomed to death from inanition after a short -pelagic life. This is a logical inference from their structure.” - -In support of his view, M. Malaquin states that before death the -tissues and organs show plain signs of degeneration. - -“The eyes first show traces of degeneration. The pigment spreads and -disappears little by little and then the visual elements fade out.” - -“Finally, individuals, usually females, show complete degeneration. -A female taken in a fine-meshed net showed no trace of organs in the -head; the eyes, the brain and the intestinal tract had disappeared -almost completely. The antennæ were reduced to stumps consisting of the -lowest joint and a portion of the second. These were clear indications -of the senility that precedes death” (p. 194). - -Such evidence not only supports the hypothesis that the natural -death of Monstrilla is due to inanition, but is opposed to a similar -interpretation being applied to the case of male rotifers, in which -death is not preceded by wasting of the organs. The death of some -insects, which comes rapidly after the adult stage has been reached, -cannot readily be attributed to starvation. In the strange butterflies -known as psychids (_Solenobia_) some of the females lay eggs without -having been fertilised,[89] and their life in the adult condition lasts -only a day. On the other hand, other females of the same butterfly -are fertilised before laying their eggs and in this case survive for -more than a week although they take no food. The rapid death of the -first-mentioned set cannot be attributed to inanition. - -In some Ephemeridæ, which supply good cases of natural death, the end -comes after a few hours of adult life without any sign of degeneration -of the organs. As in others (_Chloë_), life lasts for several days -without food having been taken, it is clear that inanition is not -the cause of the swift arrival of death in the first set. It is much -more probable that the natural death is due to an auto-intoxication -which takes effect at different intervals of time in different -circumstances.[90] - -In the higher animals such as vertebrates the conditions are less -favourable than in the case of insects for the investigation of the -causes of natural death. Vertebrates have always well-developed organs -of digestion and so live a relatively longer time and encounter a -greater number of chances of accident, with the result that in most -cases death comes from external accidental causes. Vertebrates usually -perish from hunger or cold, or are devoured by their enemies or killed -by the attacks of parasites or diseases. There remains only the human -race amongst the more highly developed animals, in which to study -the onset of natural death. And in the human race cases which may be -designated as natural are extremely rare. - - - - -III - -NATURAL DEATH AMONGST HUMAN BEINGS - - Natural death in the aged—Analogy of natural death and - sleep—Theories of sleep—_Ponogenes_—The instinct - of sleep—The instinct of natural death—Replies to - critics—Agreeable sensation at the approach of death - - -The death of old people, which has often been described as natural -death, is in most cases due to infectious diseases, particularly -pneumonia (which is extremely dangerous) or to attacks of apoplexy. -True natural death must be very rare in the human race. Demange[91] -has described it as follows:—“Arrived at extreme old age, and still -preserving the last flickers of an expiring intelligence, the old man -feels weakness gaining on him from day to day. His limbs refuse to obey -his will, the skin becomes insensitive, dry, and cold; the extremities -lose their warmth; the face is thin; the eyes hollow and the sight -weak; speech dies out on his lips which remain open; life quits the -old man from the circumference towards the centre; breathing grows -laboured, and at last the heart stops beating. The old man passes away -quietly, seeming to fall asleep for the last time.” Such is the course -of what properly speaking is natural death. - -The natural death of human beings cannot be regarded as due to -exhaustion from reproduction or from inanition, as in the case -of _Monstrilla_. It is much more likely that it is due to an -auto-intoxication of the organism. The close analogy between natural -death and sleep supports this view, as it is very probable that sleep -is due to poisoning by the products of organic activity. - -It is more than fifty years since sleep was explained as the result -of auto-intoxication. Obersteiner, Binz, Preyer, and Errera are among -the competent men of science who have taken this view. The first two -attributed sleep to an accumulation in the brain of the products of -exhaustion which are carried away by the blood during repose. The -attempt has been made even to discover the nature of these narcotic -substances. Some investigators think that an acid, produced during -the activity of the organs, is stored up in quantities that cannot be -tolerated. During sleep, the organism gets rid of this excess of acid. - -Preyer[92] tried to put the problem upon a more exact basis by the -theory that the activity of all the organs gives rise to substances -which he called _ponogenes_ and which he regarded as producing the -sensation of fatigue. According to him these substances accumulate -during the waking hours, and are destroyed by oxidation during sleep. -Preyer thinks that lactic acid is the most important of the ponogenes, -and lays stress on its narcotic effect. If his theory were correct, -there would be a remarkable analogy between the auto-intoxication by -lactic acid in the cases of man and animals, and the case of bacteria -which produce the same acid and the fermenting activity of which is -arrested as the acid accumulates. Just as sleep may be transformed -to natural death, so also the arrest of lactic fermentation may be -followed by the death of the bacteria which form the acid. - -So far, however, there has been no confirmation of Preyer’s theory. -Errera[93] has brought forward against it another theory according -to which the cause of sleep is not acid products, but certain -alkaline substances described by M. Armand Gautier under the name of -_leucomaines_. Gautier laid down that these substances act on the -nervous centres and produce fatigue and sleepiness. According to Errera -they might very well be the cause of sleep, as that comes on at a -time when there is the greatest accumulation of these leucomaines in -the body. He thinks that their action in producing sleep is a direct -intoxication of the nerve centres. During sleep they are removed, and -the disturbance which was produced in the organism is arrested. - -If it were possible to accept Errera’s theory, a kind of analogy could -be established between sleep and natural death on the one hand, and -the arrest of development and death of yeast grown in nitrogenous -media on the other hand, because in the latter case the poisoning is -produced by an alkaline salt of ammonia. It must be confessed, however, -that the actual state of our knowledge does not allow of a definite -view of the real mechanism of the sleep-producing intoxication. Our -ideas regarding leucomaines in general are still incomplete, and, -recently, one of them, _adrenaline_, the product of the supra-renal -capsules, has been investigated. Adrenaline is an alkaloid[94] which is -produced in the supra-renal bodies and is discharged into the blood. -It has the power of contracting arteries strongly, and has been used -to control blood-pressure. When it is given in large quantities or -in frequent doses, it acts as a true poison, whilst, in small doses, -it produces anæmia of the organs and has a special influence on the -nervous centres. Dr. Zeigan[95] has shown that a milligramme of -adrenaline, mixed with five grammes of normal salt solution injected -into the brain of cats, produces a soporific action. “About a minute -after the injection, the animal appears to be plunged into deep sleep -which lasts from 30 to 50 minutes. During this time, the sensitiveness -of the animal has completely ceased throughout the body, and for some -time after that it is much decreased. When they awake the animals -seem to have been drunk with sleep for some time.” Sleep is generally -associated with anæmia of the brain, and as adrenaline can actually -produce such anæmia, it might be supposed that this narcotic substance -is the most important of the organic products which give rise to sleep. -Against this hypothesis, however, some weight must be given to recent -investigations on fatigue and its causes. - -Each stage in the advance of knowledge has had its influence on -the study of the interesting and complex problem of sleep. When it -was thought that alkaloids (ptomaines) were of great importance in -infectious diseases, it was attempted to explain sleep as due to the -action of similar bodies. Now, when we believe that in such diseases -the chief part is played by poisons of extremely complex chemical -composition, the attempt is made to explain fatigue and sleep by -similar bodies. - -Weichardt[96] has recently made the best known investigations in this -direction. This young man maintains with ardour the view that during -the activity of organs there is an accumulation of special materials -which are neither organic acids nor leucomaines, but which are much -more like the toxic products of pathogenic bacteria. - -Weichardt made animals in his laboratory go through fatiguing -movements for hours and then killed them. The extract from muscles of -such animals had a powerful toxic effect when it was injected into -normal animals, producing lassitude and sometimes death within 20 to -40 hours. As all attempts to determine the exact chemical nature of -this fatigue-producing substance were baffled, it is impossible to get -an exact account of it. Amongst its properties there is one of great -interest. When it has passed into the circulation of normal animals in -quantities insufficient to produce death, it excites the formation of -an anti-toxin in the same way as a poison of diphtheria stimulates the -production of a diphtheria anti-toxin. - -When Weichardt injected into animals a mixture of the poison which -produces fatigue with small doses of the serum antidote, no results -followed. The neutralising effect of the antidote was apparent -even when it was introduced by the mouth. Towards the end of his -investigations, Weichardt supposed that it would be possible to obtain -a material that would prevent fatigue. - -Although it is still impossible to specify exactly the nature of the -substances which accumulate during the activity of organs and which -produce fatigue and sleep, it is becoming more and more probable that -such substances exist, and that sleep is really an auto-intoxication -of the organism. So far, such a theory has not been shaken by any -argument. Recently M. E. Claparède,[97] a psychologist of Geneva, -has argued against the current theory of sleep. He thinks that it -is contradicted by the fact that new-born infants sleep a great -deal, whilst very old people sleep very little. This fact, however, -can readily be explained by the greater sensibility of the nerve -centres of infants, as shown with regard to many harmful agencies. The -other objections of Claparède, such as the fact that sleepiness is -induced by exercise in the open air, or that excess of sleep itself -produces sleepiness, are not really incompatible with the theory of -auto-intoxication. They are facts of secondary importance probably -depending on some complication which the present state of our knowledge -makes it difficult to indicate exactly. The insomnia of neurasthenia, -which Claparède brings forward as another objection, can readily be -explained as due to hyperæsthesia of the nervous tissues which lose -part of their sensitiveness to poisons. - -On the other hand, there are many well established facts in agreement -with the theory of auto-intoxication. Leaving out of the question -sleep induced by narcotics, I may mention in this connection the -so-called “sleeping sickness.” It has been proved that this disease -is caused by a microscopic parasite, the _Trypanosoma gambiense_ of -Dutton, which develops in the blood and spreads to the liquid of the -membranes surrounding the central nervous system. One of the most -typical symptoms of the advanced stages of this disease is continual -drowsiness. “The drowsiness increases progressively, and the habitual -attitude becomes characteristic; the head is bent on the breast; the -eyelids are closed; in earlier stages the invalid can be aroused -easily, but, after a time, incurable attacks of sleep overcome the -patient in all circumstances, but especially after meals. These -fits of sleepiness become longer and deeper, until they reach a -comatose condition from which it is almost impossible to arouse the -patient.”[98] The total result of medical knowledge of this disease -is that it is impossible to doubt that the sleepiness is due to -intoxication produced by the poison of the trypanosome. - -Claparède has opposed what he calls an “instinctive” theory to -the toxic theory of sleep. According to this theory, sleep is the -manifestation of an instinct “the object of which is to arrest -activity; we do not sleep because we are intoxicated or exhausted, but -to prevent ourselves from falling into such a condition.” However, in -order to bring this narcotic instinct into play, certain conditions -are necessary, one of which certainly would be the intoxication of -the nerve centres. M. Claparède supposes that sleep is an active -phenomenon, induced when waste matter begins to accumulate in the -organism. “To bring about sleep, the nerve centres must be influenced -by waste matter, and this influence can readily be regarded as a kind -of intoxication.” - -Hunger is an instinctive sensation as much as sleepiness, but it does -not appear until our tissues are in a condition of exhaustion, the -exact nature of which cannot as yet be indicated. There is no real -contradiction between the toxic and instinctive theories of sleep. The -two theories represent different sides of a special condition of the -organism. - -The analogy between sleep and natural death is in favour of the -supposition that the latter, also, is due to an intoxication much more -profound and serious than that which results in sleep. Therefore, as -natural death in human beings has been studied only very superficially, -it is impossible to do more than frame theories regarding it. - -It would be natural if, just as in sleep there is an instinctive -desire for rest, so also the natural death of man were preceded by an -instinctive wish for it. As I have already discussed this subject in -the “Nature of Man” (chap. xi) I need not deal with it at length here. -I should like, however, to add some information which I have recently -obtained. - -The most striking fact in favour of the existence of the instinct for -natural death in man appears to me to have been related by Tokarsky -in regard to an old woman. While Tokarsky was alive I asked one of -his friends to obtain for me further details of this very interesting -case. Unfortunately Tokarsky could add nothing to what he had already -published in his article. I think that I have discovered the source of -his information. In his famous book on the _Physiology of Taste_[99] -Brillat-Savarin relates as follows:—“A great-aunt of mine died at -the age of 93. Although she had been confined to bed for some time -her faculties were still well preserved, and the only evidence of her -condition was the decrease in appetite and weakening of her voice. -She had always been very friendly to me, and once when I was at her -bedside, ready to tend her affectionately, although that did not -hinder me from seeing her with the philosophical eye that I always -turned on everything about me, ‘Is it you, my nephew?’ she said in -her feeble voice. ‘Yes, Aunt, I am here at your service, and I think -you will do very well to take a drop of this good old wine.’ ‘Give it -me, my dear; I can always take a little wine.’ I made ready at once, -and gently supporting her, gave her half a glass of my best wine. She -brightened up at once, and turning on me her eyes which used to be so -beautiful, said: ‘Thank you very much for this last kindness; if you -ever reach my age you will find that one wants to die just as one wants -to sleep.’ These were her last words, and in half an hour she fell into -her last sleep.” The details make it certain that this was a case of -the instinct of natural death. The instinct showed itself at an age -not very great in the case of a woman who had preserved her mental -faculties. Generally, however, it seems not to appear till much later, -for old men usually exhibit a keen wish to live. - -It is a well-known saying that the longer a man has lived the more -he wishes to live. Charles Renouvier,[100] a French philosopher who -died a few years ago, has left a definite proof of the truth of the -saying. When he was eighty-eight years old, and knew that he was -dying, he recorded his impressions in his last days. Let me quote from -what he wrote four days before his death. “I have no illusions about -my condition; I know quite well that I am going to die, perhaps in a -week, perhaps in a fortnight. And I have still so much to say on my -subject.” “At my age I have no longer the right to hope: my days are -numbered, and perhaps my hours. I must resign myself.” “I do not die -without regrets. I regret that I cannot foresee in any way the fate -of my views.” “And I am leaving the world before I have said my last -word. A man always dies before he has finished his work, and that -is the saddest of the sorrows of life.” “But that is not the whole -trouble, when a man is old, very old, and accustomed to life, it is -very difficult to die. I think that young men accept the idea of dying -more easily, perhaps more willingly than old men. When one is more -than eighty years old, one is cowardly and shrinks from death. And -when one knows and can no longer doubt that death is coming near, deep -bitterness falls on the soul.” “I have faced the question from all -sides in the last few days; I turn the one idea over in my mind; I -_know_ that I am going to die, but I cannot _persuade_ myself that I -am going to die. It is not the philosopher in me that protests. The -philosopher does not fear death; it is the _old man_. The old man has -not the courage to submit, and yet I have to submit to the inevitable.” - -I know a lady, a hundred and two years old, who is so oppressed by -the idea of death, that those about her have to conceal from her the -death of any of her acquaintances. Mde. Robineau, however, when between -one hundred and four and one hundred and five years old, became quite -indifferent to the close approach of her own death. She often expressed -a wish for it, thinking herself useless in the world. - -M. Yves Delage[101] in an analysis of my “Nature of Man” doubted the -existence of an instinct for death. “Animals,” said he, “cannot have -the instinct for death, because they do not know of death. In their -case, we must consider that what happens is an apathy tending to the -abolition of the sense of self-preservation. In man, the knowledge -of death implies that the indifference to its approach cannot be an -instinct.” “There may be developed, at the end of life, a special state -of mind which accepts death with indifference or with pleasure, but -such a state cannot be designated as an instinct.” M. Delage, however, -does not suggest what the state of mind in question is to be called. -As the aunt of Brillat-Savarin compared her sensations just before -death with the desire to sleep, and as this desire is an instinctive -manifestation, I think that the cheerful acquiescence in death, -exhibited by extremely old people, is also a kind of instinct. However, -the important matter is that the sentiment exists, and not what we are -to call it. M. Delage is far from denying its existence. - -Dr. Cancalon,[102] another of my critics, cannot admit the existence -of an instinct of death, “because of the theory of evolution. Of what -good would it have been, as M. Metchnikoff tells us that natural death -is very rare; how could it have been transmitted, as it comes into -existence long after the age of reproduction, and how could it have -aided the survival of the species? If its existence were proved as -the result of biological evolution, it would be a contradiction of -adaptation and an argument in favour of final causes.” I cannot agree -in any way with these opinions. In the first place, it is well known -that men and animals have many harmful instincts that do not tend -to the survival of the species. I need recall only the disharmonic -instincts which I described in the “Nature of Man,” such as the -anomalies of the sexual instinct, the instinct which drives parents to -devour their young or which attracts insects to flames. The instinct -of natural death is far from being harmful, and may even have many -advantages. If men were convinced that the end of life were natural -death accompanied by a special instinct like that of the need for -sleep, one of the greatest sources of pessimism would disappear. Now -pessimism is the cause of the voluntary death of a certain number of -people and of many others refraining from reproduction. The instinct -of natural death would contribute to the maintenance of the life of -the individual and of the species. On the other hand, there is no -difficulty in admitting the existence of instincts hostile to the -preservation of the species, especially in the case of man, in whom -individualism has reached its highest development. As man is the only -animal with a definite notion of death, there is nothing extraordinary -if it is in man that the instinctive wish for death develops. M. -Cancalon denies the possibility that death can be pleasant, as it is -the arrest of the physiological functions; but as sleep and syncope -are often preceded by very pleasant sensations, why may not this also -happen in natural death? Several facts prove it beyond dispute. It is -even probable that the approach of natural death is one of the most -pleasant sensations that can exist. - -It is indubitable that in a large number of cases of death, the -cessation of life is associated with very painful sensations. One has -only to see the horror shown in the faces o£ many dying people to be -convinced of this, but there are diseases and serious accidents in -which the approach of death does not arouse sorrowful sensations. I -myself, in a crisis of intermittent fever, in which the temperature -descended in a very short time from about 106° Fahr. to below normal, -experienced a feeling of extraordinary weakness, certainly like that -at the approach of death. This sensation was much more pleasant than -painful. In two cases of serious morphia poisoning, my sensations were -more agreeable; I felt a pleasant weakness, associated with a sensation -of lightness of the body, as if I were floating in the air. - -Those who have noted the sensations of persons rescued from death have -related similar facts. Prof. Heim, of Zurich, has described a fall -in the mountains which nearly killed him, as well as several similar -accidents to Alpine tourists. In all these cases he states that there -was a sensation of pleasure.[103] Dr. Sollier has told of a young woman -addicted to morphia, who had been convinced that she was at the point -of death. On recovering from a most serious attack of syncope, from -which she was restored only by giving another dose of morphia, she -cried: “I seem to come from far away; how happy I was!” Another of -Dr. Sollier’s patients, a lady who had an attack of peritonitis from -which she expected to die, felt herself “suffused with a feeling of -well-being, or rather the absence of all pain.” In a third Case of Dr. -Sollier, a young woman suffering from puerperal fever, feeling herself -at the point of death, had a similar sensation “of physical well-being -and of detachment from everything.”[104] - -As a sensation of happiness occurs even in cases of pathological death, -it is much more likely to occur in natural death. If natural death be -preceded by the loss of the instinct of life and by the acquisition of -a new instinct, it would be the best possible end compatible with the -real organisation of human nature. - -I do not pretend to give the reader a finished study on natural death. -This chapter of Thanatology, the science of death, only opens the -subject; but it is already apparent that study of the circumstances of -natural death in plants, in the animal world, and in human beings, may -give facts of the highest interest to science and humanity. - - - - -PART IV - -SHOULD WE TRY TO PROLONG HUMAN LIFE? - - - - -I - -THE BENEFIT TO HUMANITY - - Complaints of the shortness of our life—Theory of - “medical selection” as a cause of degeneration of the - race—Utility of prolonging human life - - -Although the duration of the life of man is one of the longest amongst -mammals, men find it too short. From the remotest times the shortness -of life has been complained of, and there have been many attempts to -prolong it. Man has not been satisfied with a duration of life notably -greater than that of his nearest relatives, and has wished to live at -least as long as reptiles. - -In antiquity, Hippocrates and Aristotle thought that human life was too -short, and Theophrastus, although he died at an advanced age (he lived -probably seventy-five years) lamented when he was dying “that nature -had given to deer and to crows a life so long and so useless, and to -man only one that was often very short.”[105] - -Seneca (_De brevitate vitæ_) and later, in the 18th century, Haller, -strove in vain against such complaints, which have lasted until our own -days. Whilst animals have no more than an instinctive fear of danger, -and cling to life without knowing what death is, men have acquired an -exact idea of death, and their knowledge increases their desire to live. - -Ought we to listen to the cry of humanity that life is too short and -that it would be well to prolong it? Would it really be for the good -of the human race to extend the duration of the life of man beyond its -present limits? Already it is complained that the burden of supporting -old people is too heavy, and statesmen are perturbed by the enormous -expense which will be entailed by State support of the aged. In -France, in a population of about 38 millions, there are two millions -(1,912,153) who have reached the age of 70, that is to say, about five -per cent. of the total. The support of these old people absorbs a -sum of nearly £6,000,000 per annum.[106] However generous may be the -views of the members of the French Parliament, many of them hesitate -at the idea of so great a burden. Without doubt, men say, the cost of -maintaining the aged will become still heavier if the duration of life -is to be prolonged. If old people are to live longer, the resources of -the young will be reduced. - -If the question were merely one of prolonging the life of old people -without modifying old age itself, such considerations would be -justified. It must be understood, however, that the prolongation of -life would be associated with the preservation of intelligence and -of the power to work. In the earlier parts of this book I have given -many examples which show the possibility of useful work being done -by persons of advanced years. When we have reduced or abolished such -causes of precocious senility as intemperance and disease, it will no -longer be necessary to give pensions at the age of sixty or seventy -years. The cost of supporting the old, instead of increasing, will -diminish progressively. - -If attainment of the normal duration of life, which is much greater -than the average life to-day, were to overpopulate the earth, a very -remote possibility, this could be remedied by lowering the birth-rate. -Even at the present time, while the earth is far from being too quickly -peopled, artificial limitation of the birth-rate takes place perhaps to -an unnecessary extent. - -It has long been a charge against medicine and hygiene that they tend -to weaken the human race. By scientific means unhealthy people, or -those with inherited blemishes, have been preserved so that they can -give birth to weak offspring. If natural selection were allowed free -play, such individuals would perish and make room for others, stronger -and better able to live. Haeckel has given the name “medical selection” -to this process under which humanity degenerates because of the -influence of medical science. - -It is clear that a valuable existence of great service to humanity is -compatible with a feeble constitution and precarious health. Amongst -tuberculous people, those with inherited or acquired syphilis, and -those with a constitution unbalanced in other ways, that is to say, -amongst so-called degenerates, there have been individuals who have had -a large share in the advance of the human race. I need only instance -the names of Fresnel, Leopardi, Weber, Schumann and Chopin. It does -not follow that we ought to cherish diseases and leave to natural -selection the duty of preserving the individuals which can resist them. -On the other hand, it is indispensable to try to blot out the diseases -themselves, and, in particular, the evils of old age, by the methods -of hygiene and therapeutics. The theory of medical selection must be -given up as contrary to the good of the human race. We must use all -our endeavours to allow men to complete their normal course of life, -and to make it possible for old men to play their parts as advisers and -judges, endowed with their long experience of life. - -To the question propounded at the beginning of this section of my book, -I can make only one answer: Yes, it is useful to prolong human life. - - - - -II - -SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE - - Ancient methods of prolonging human life—Gerokomy—The - “immortality draught” of the Taoists—Brown-Séquard’s - method—The spermine of Poehl—Dr. Weber’s - precepts—Increased duration of life in historical - times—Hygienic maxims—Decrease in cutaneous cancer - - -Men of all times have attempted all manner of devices to bring about an -increase of years, although they have not considered the problem in its -general bearing. - -In Biblical times it was believed that contact with young girls would -rejuvenate and prolong the life of feeble old men. In the first Book of -Kings it is related as follows:— - -“Now King David was old and stricken in years; and they covered him -with clothes, but he gat no heat. - -“Wherefore his servants said unto him, Let there be sought for my Lord -the king a young virgin; let her stand before the king and let her -cherish him, and let her lie in thy bosom, that my lord the king may -get heat” (Kings I., chap. i.). - -This device, afterwards called _gerokomy_, was employed by the Greeks -and Romans, and has had followers in modern times. Boerhave, the -famous Dutch physician (1668-1738), “recommended an old burgomaster of -Amsterdam to lie between two young girls, assuring him that he would -thus recover strength and spirits.” After quoting this, Hufeland, the -well-known author of “Macrobiotique” in the eighteenth century, made -the following reflection:—“If it be remembered how the exhalations -from newly opened animals stimulate paralysed limbs, and how the -application of living animals soothes a violent pain, we cannot refuse -our approval to the method.”[107] - -Cohausen, a doctor of the eighteenth century, published a treatise on -a Roman, Hermippus, who had died aged a hundred and fifteen years. He -had been a master in a school for young girls, and his life, passed in -their midst, was greatly prolonged. “Accordingly,” commented Hufeland -(p. 6), “he gives the excellent advice to breathe the air of young -girls night and morning, and gives his assurance that by so doing the -vital forces will be strengthened and preserved, as adepts know well -that the breath of young girls contains the vital principle in all its -purity.” - -In the Eastern half of the world equal ingenuity was exercised in -the attempt to rejuvenate the body and renew the forces of man. The -successors of Lao-Tsé searched for a beverage that would confer -immortality and have recounted extraordinary matters concerning it. - -The Emperor of China, Chi-Hoang-Ti (221-209 B.C.), displayed extreme -friendliness to the Taoists, believing that these had the secret of -long life and immortality. In his reign, Su-Chi, a Taoist magician, -persuaded him that eastwards of China there lay fortunate islands -inhabited by genii whose pleasure it was to give their guests to -drink of a beverage conferring immortality. Chi-Hoang-Ti was so -delighted with the news that he equipped an expedition to discover the -islands.[108] - -Later on, in the dynasty of the Tchengs (618-907), when Taoism -had again become a religion in favour at court, efforts were made -to obtain imperial patronage for the draught of immortality, and -magicians were in high favour. The Taoist writers called this drink -_Tan_ or _Kin-Tan_, the “golden elixir.” According to Mayers, the -chief ingredients of this marvellous compound were “cinnabar, the -red sulphate of mercury, and a red salt of arsenic, potassium and -mother-of-pearl. The preparation of it required nine months, and it -passed through nine changes. One who had drunk of it was changed to a -crane, and in this form could ascend to the dwellings of the genii, -there to abide with them.”[109] - -The Taoists represent their saints, in the shade of willows, seeking -the elixir of life, and in Chinese Buddhist temples there are placed -votive cakes shaped like the tortoise, a sacred animal and the symbol -of long life. Worshippers let stones of divination fall on these cakes -and so ascertained if their lives were to be prolonged, promising for -each subsequent year as many cakes as the divinity might demand. - -The mysticism of the East reached Europe in the Middle Ages, and then, -and even in modern times, drugs were used to prolong life. Cagliostro, -the celebrated quack of the eighteenth century, boasted that he had -discovered an elixir of life by the use of which he had survived for -many thousand years. - -There still exists, in some modern pharmacopœias, an “elixir ad -longam vitam” compounded of aloes and other purgatives. Analogous -preparations are known, such as the “vital essence of Augsburg” which -is a mixture of purgatives and resins. - -Serious physicians have rejected such preparations of the quacks. -They have abandoned the search for a specific, and, in their efforts -to prolong human life, have relied on common rules of hygiene, such -as cleanliness, exercise, fresh air, and general sobriety. In our own -days, Brown-Séquard is an isolated instance of a seeker for a specific -against senescence. This distinguished physiologist, setting out from -the view that the weakness of old men is due partly to diminution of -the secretions of the testes, hoped to find a remedy in the employment -of subcutaneous injections of emulsions of the testes of animals -(dogs and guinea-pigs). Brown-Séquard,[110] then aged 72 years, gave -himself several such injections, and declared that he found himself -reinforced and rejuvenated. Since then, numbers of persons have -undergone the treatment which for a time was in vogue. The observations -of physicians, made on old men and sick persons, have not justified the -hopes which were entertained of the mode of treatment. Fürbringer,[111] -in particular, working in Germany, has discredited the injections of -Brown-Séquard. However, instead of following exactly the original -prescription, Fürbringer employed a testicular emulsion which had -been previously raised to the boiling-point. Brown-Séquard’s method -has not resisted scientific investigation, and although it is still -occasionally employed in France, it has been given up in many countries. - -Brown-Séquard laid stress on the efficacy of emulsions of testis -as opposed to chemical substances prepared from the gland. Other -scientific men, on the other hand, have attached value to such -substances and in particular to an organic alkali the salt of which is -known as spermine. That salt, made by Poehl of St. Petersburg, has been -largely used. Several observers declare that its employment, injected -in solution or even absorbed directly as a powder, has been followed by -a strengthening of bodily power enfeebled by age or labour. - -As I have no personal experience of spermine, I shall quote from -Professor Poehl[112] some indications of its efficacy. Several -physicians (Drs. Maximovitch, Bukojemsky, Krieger and Postoeff) have -given injections of spermine to enfeebled old men who had lost appetite -and sleep, and have noted improvement lasting for months. From the -instances given, I have selected that of an old lady of ninety-five -years, afflicted with severe sclerosis of the arteries, with no -appetite, a bad digestion and constipation. This patient had complained -for several years of sacral pains, and moreover was nearly quite deaf -and suffered from periodic attacks of malarial fever. The injections of -spermine, given for a period of fifteen months, restored the old lady -to such an extent that she recovered her power of hearing and felt the -sacral pains only slightly and after a long walk. Her general condition -was highly satisfactory. - -Spermine, as it has been used medically, is prepared not only from the -testes of animals but from the prostate gland, ovary, pancreas, thyroid -gland and spleen. The substance is not specially associated with -spermatozoa but has a wide distribution in the mammalian body. - -In the medical treatment of the evils of old age, testicular emulsions -or spermine have not been so favoured as general hygienic measures. Dr. -Weber,[113] a London medical man, has recently summarised more general -measures, and his evidence is the more important as he has been able -to test the efficacy of his precepts in his own case. Dr. Weber is 83 -years old, and in his practice has cared for many other old men. - -The following are the precepts which Dr. Weber formulated: All the -organs must be preserved in a condition of vigour. It is necessary to -recognise and subdue any morbid tendencies whether these be hereditary -or have been acquired during life. It is necessary to be moderate in -food and drink, and in all other physical pleasures. The air should -be pure in the dwelling and in the vicinity. It is necessary to take -exercise daily, whatever be the weather. In many cases the respiratory -movements must be specially exercised, and exercise on level ground and -up-hill should be taken. The persons should go to bed early and rise -early, and not sleep for more than six or seven hours. A bath should -be taken daily and the skin should be well rubbed, the water used -being hot or cold, according to taste. Sometimes it is advantageous -to use hot and cold water. Regular work and mental occupation are -indispensable. It is useful to stimulate the enjoyment of life so -that the mind may be tranquil and full of hope. On the other hand, -the passions must be controlled and the nervous sensations of grief -avoided. Finally, there must be a resolute intention to preserve the -health, to avoid alcohol and other stimulants as well as narcotics and -soothing drugs. - -By following his own precepts, Dr. Weber has enjoyed a vigorous and -happy old age. A Mde. Nausenne, who died on March 12th, 1756, at the -age of 125 years, in the Dinay Infirmary (Côtes-du-Nord) explained the -secret of her still greater longevity as follows: “Extreme sobriety, no -worry, body and mind quite calm” (Chemin, _op. cit._, p. 101). - -Hygienic measures have been the most successful in prolonging life and -in lessening the ills of old age. - -Although until quite recently hygiene has rested upon a very small -number of scientifically established facts, and although its precepts -have not been followed rigidly, none the less it has already succeeded -in increasing the duration of human life. This becomes evident if we -compare the mortality tables of the present day with those of the past. - -There is reason to state definitely that the mortality in civilised -countries has decreased on the whole in the last one or two centuries. -I have taken some facts regarding this from the valuable monograph -of M. Westergaard.[114] That author came to the conclusion that the -mortality rate in the 19th century in civilised countries was “much -lower than in most earlier centuries.” This diminution has been chiefly -in infantile mortality. According to Mallet, the mortality rate of -infants in the first year of their life was, in Geneva, 26 per cent. -in the 16th century, and fell gradually to 16-1/2 per cent. at the -beginning of the 19th century. A similar change has been reported from -Berlin, Holland, Denmark and other places. However, it is not only very -young infants that have shown a diminution in the death-rate. The life -of old people has been prolonged to an extent equally remarkable. The -following are some of the facts which support this statement. Whilst -the old Protestant clergymen of Denmark at ages varying from 74-1/2 to -89-1/2 years had a mortality rate of 22 per cent. in the second half -of the 18th century, the rate had sunk to 16·4 per cent. by the middle -of the 19th century. This is not an isolated fact. The old clergymen -of England (65 to 95 years) have also come to live longer, because -in the 18th century the mortality rate was 11·5 per cent. and in the -19th century (1800-1860) only 10·8 per cent. There has been a similar -decrease in the mortality rate in the members of both sexes of the -Royal Houses of Europe (Westergaard, p. 284). - -From 1841 to 1850, in England and Wales 162·81 individuals out of every -thousand of both sexes died annually, but the corresponding figure for -the period 1881 to 1890 was decreased to 153·67 per thousand. - -Westergaard (p. 296) has displayed in a most useful table the mortality -in the chief countries of Europe and in the State of Massachusetts, in -two periods of time. In the case of old persons from 70 to 75 years, -there has been a constant decrease in the death-rate, without any -exceptions. The exact statistics collected by Pension Bureaus and Life -Assurance Companies exhibit the same general tendency. - -It cannot be disputed then that there has been a general increase -in the duration of life, and that old people live longer at the -present time than in former ages. This fact, however, cannot be taken -absolutely, and it is still possible that in particular cases there may -have been more centenarians hitherto than at present. - -The prolongation of life which has come to pass in recent centuries -must certainly be attributed to the advance of hygiene. The general -measures for the preservation of health, although they were not -specially directed to old people, have had an effect of increasing -their longevity. As in the 18th century and for the greater part of -the 19th, the science of hygiene was in a very rudimentary condition, -we may well believe that improvement in cleanliness and in the general -conditions have contributed largely to the prolongation of life. It is -now a long time since Liebig said that the amount of soap used could -be taken as a measure of the degree of civilisation of a people. As -a matter of fact, cleanliness of the body brought about in the most -simple way, by washing with soap, has had a most important effect -in lessening disease and mortality from disease. In this connection, -the fact recently published by Prof. Czerny,[115] a well-known German -surgeon, has a special interest. Although cancer, the special scourge -of old age, has increased in recent times, one form of the disease, -cancer of the skin, has diminished notably. “Cancers of the skin,” -Prof. Czerny says, “are met with almost exclusively on uncovered -regions of the body, or on parts accessible to the hands. They develop -especially where the susceptibility is increased by ulcers or scars -which are easily soiled. And so it happens that in the classes where -care is taken as to cleanliness cancer of the skin is very rare and -certainly much more rare than it used to be.” - -M. Westergaard thinks that vaccination against small-pox has been of -considerable importance in lowering the death-rate in the 19th century. -This, however, can have had little effect on the duration of life in -old people, as deaths due to small-pox in the old are excessively -rare. For instance, in the second half of the 18th century, that is -to say before the introduction of Jenner’s method, the mortality from -small-pox at Berlin was 9·8 per cent. of all the deaths, but of these -only 0·6 per cent. were cases of persons more than fifteen years old. -The rest, that is to say, 99·3 per cent. fell on children under that -age. It may be supposed that most of the old people at that time were -already protected by previous attacks of small-pox, contracted when -they were young. - -If hygiene were able to prolong life when it was little developed, as -was the case until recently, we may well believe that, with our greater -knowledge of to-day, a much better result will be obtained. - - - - -III - -DISEASES THAT SHORTEN LIFE - - Measures against infectious diseases as aiding in the - prolongation of life—Prevention of syphilis—Attempts to - prepare serums which could strengthen the higher elements - of the organism - - -Attacks of infectious diseases incurred during life frequently shorten -its duration and it has been observed that most centenarians have -enjoyed good health throughout their lives. Syphilis is the most -important of these diseases. It is not really a cause of death itself, -but it predisposes the organism to the attacks of other diseases, -amongst the latter being some particularly fatal to old people, -such as diseases of the heart and blood-vessels (angina pectoris -and aneurism of the aorta) and some malignant tumours, especially -cancer of the tongue and of the mouth. To lengthen human life, it -is a fundamental necessity to avoid infection by syphilis. To reach -this result everything must be done to spread medical knowledge about -such diseases. It is absolutely necessary to overcome the deeply -rooted prejudice in favour of concealing everything relating to -sexual matters. Complete information should be widely spread as to -the means of protecting humanity against this awful scourge. It has -now been possible to apply experimental methods to the investigation -of this disease, and science has obtained a series of results of the -highest practical utility. Prof. Neisser of Breslau, one of the most -distinguished of modern venereal physicians, has summed up the present -state of knowledge of these matters in the following lines.[116] “It is -our duty as medical men,” he says, “to recommend strongly as a means of -disinfection in all possible cases of contagion the calomel ointment -which Metchnikoff and Roux have advised.” It is to be hoped that future -generations, by following this advice, will see an enormous diminution -in the number of cases of syphilis. - -Syphilis, however, although a very important factor, is not alone -in shortening the life of man. A very large number of persons die -prematurely although they have not contracted that disease. We do not -know the duration of human life before the arrival of syphilis in -Europe, but there is no reason to think that it was very different -from what it is to-day. We must, therefore, try to prevent as many -infectious diseases as possible, and recent advances in medicine -have made this task much less difficult. Pneumonia, it is true, the -most common infectious disease amongst the old, cannot yet be easily -avoided. All the anti-pneumonic serums which have hitherto been -prepared have turned out to have little efficacy; but there is no -reason to give up the hope that this problem will yet be solved. - -Diseases of the heart, which are common in extreme old age, are -particularly difficult to avoid, because in most cases we do not know -sufficiently well their primary causes. In so far as they depend upon -intemperance or infectious diseases such as syphilis, they can be -avoided by the employment of suitable measures. - -As the higher elements of the body in old people become weaker and are -devoured by the macrophags, it seems probable that the destruction or -deterioration of these voracious cells would tend to the prolongation -of life. However, as the macrophags are indispensable in the struggle -against the microbes of infectious diseases, and particularly of -chronic disease, such as tuberculosis, it is necessary to preserve -them. We must turn rather to the idea of a remedy which could -strengthen the higher elements and make them a less ready prey to the -macrophags. - -In the “Nature of Man” (Chap. III.) in discussing the simian origin -of mankind, I touched on the existence of animal serums that have the -power of dissolving the blood corpuscles of other species of animals. -There is now, in biological science, a new chapter upon such serums, -which have been called cytotoxic serums because they are able to poison -the cells of organs. - -The blood and blood serum of some animals act as poisons when they -are introduced into an organism. Eels and snakes, even non-poisonous -snakes, are cases in point. A small quantity of the blood of a snake, -an adder for instance, injected into a mammal (rabbit, guinea-pig, or -mouse) soon brings about death. The blood of some mammals is poisonous -to other mammals, although in a lesser degree than that of snakes. The -dog is specially notable from the fact that its blood is poisonous to -other mammals, whilst, on the other hand, the blood and blood serum -of the sheep, goat, and horse have generally little effect on other -animals and on man. It is for this reason that these animals, and -particularly the horse, are used in the preparation of the serums -employed in medicine. - -Now, these harmless serums become poisonous when they have been taken -from animals which have been first treated with the blood or the -organs of other species of animals. For instance, the blood serum of -a sheep which has been treated with the blood of a rabbit becomes -poisonous because it has acquired the power of dissolving the red blood -corpuscles of the rabbit. It is a poison in the case of the rabbit, -but is harmless to most other animals. The injection of the rabbit’s -blood into the sheep has conferred on the sheep a new property which -comes into operation only with regard to the red blood corpuscles -of the rabbit. We have here to do with something analogous to what -has been observed in the cases of serums used to arrest infectious -disease. When the bacilli of diphtheria, or their products, have been -injected into horses, there is produced an anti-diphtheric serum, -capable of curing diphtheria, but powerless against tetanus or plague. -After M. J. M. Bordet of the Pasteur Institute had made his discovery -of serums that had acquired the power of dissolving the red blood -corpuscles of other animals, the attempt was made to prepare similar -serums directed against all the other elements of the body, such as -white blood corpuscles, renal and nervous cells. In the course of -these investigations it was proved to be necessary to employ a certain -dose of the serum in order to obtain the poisonous result. If smaller -quantities of the poisonous dose were used, the reverse effect was -produced. Thus a serum, strong doses of which dissolved the red blood -corpuscles and so made them less numerous in the blood, increased the -number of these when given in very small doses. - -M. Cantacuzène was the first to establish this fact in the case of -the rabbit, whilst M. Besredka and I myself did it in the case of -man.[117] Since then M. Bélonovsky of Cronstadt has confirmed the -result on anæmic patients, treating them with small quantities of -serum. He has been able to produce in them an increase in the number -of the red blood corpuscles, and in the quantity of the red colouring -matter (hæmoglobin) in the blood. Later on M. André[118] devoted much -attention to this matter at Lyons. He prepared a serum by injecting -human blood into animals and made use of it in the case of several -persons who suffered from anæmia from different causes. In the case -of patients, the anæmic condition of which had hitherto remained -stationary, Dr. André found a sudden increase in the number of red -corpuscles after injecting small doses of the serum. M. Besredka, -in the case of laboratory animals, increased the number of white -corpuscles by injecting them with a small quantity of a serum, strong -doses of which destroyed these cells. - -These facts are only a special case of the general rule that small -doses of poisons increase the activity of the elements that are killed -by large doses. In order to increase the activity of the heart, medical -men give successfully small doses of cardiac poisons such as digitalis. -As a commercial process, the activity of yeasts is increased by -submitting them to weak doses of substances (fluoride of sodium) which, -given in larger quantities, would kill them. - -My general conclusion from these facts is that it is logical to lay -down the principle that the higher elements of our body could be -strengthened by subjecting them to the action of small doses of the -appropriate cytotoxic serums. There is, however, much difficulty in -putting this into practice. It is quite easy to obtain human blood -to inject into animals with the object of preparing a serum which -can increase the number of red corpuscles. On the other hand, it is -extremely difficult to get human bodies sufficiently fresh to use them -for a practical purpose. According to law, _post mortem_ examinations -can be made only after an interval of time in course of which the -tissues have changed; besides, the organs obtained in this way are -frequently affected by injuries or diseases militating against their -use. Even in Paris, with its three million inhabitants, it is extremely -rare that there is a good opportunity for the preparation of human -cytotoxic serums. In two or three years, during which Dr. Weinberg has -collected the organs from human bodies fairly fresh, he has been unable -to obtain sufficiently active serums. - -The best results have been obtained from new-born infants which have -been killed by some accident in the process of child-birth, as in them -the organs are in a normal state. However, owing to the advance in -the practice of obstetrics, such accidents, already infrequent, are -becoming extremely rare. In such conditions we may have to wait long -before getting a positive result, unless the future will find some -method of obtaining the necessary materials for this difficult and -interesting purpose. - -As it is so difficult to prepare a remedy which can strengthen the -weakened higher elements of the body, it may be easier to find a means -of preventing the weakening which interferes so much with our desire to -live long. As the products of microbes are the most active agents in -deteriorating our tissues, we must look towards them for the solution -of the problem. - - - - -IV - -INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION SHORTENS LIFE - - Uselessness of the large intestine in man—Case of - a woman whose large intestine was inactive for six - months—Another case where the greater part of the - large intestine was completely shut off—Attempts to - disinfect the contents of the large intestine—Prolonged - mastication as a means of preventing intestinal - putrefaction - - -The general measures of hygiene directed against infectious diseases -play a part in prolonging the lives of old people, but, in addition to -the microbes which invade the body from outside, there is a rich source -of harm in the microbes which inhabit the body. The most important of -these belong to the intestinal flora, which is abundant and varied. - -The intestinal microbes are most numerous in the large intestine. This -organ, which is useful to mammals the food of which consists of rough -bulky vegetable matter, and which require a large reservoir for the -waste of the process of digestion, is certainly useless in the case -of man.[119] In the “Nature of Man” I have dealt with this question -at length, as it was an important example of what I regard as the -disharmonies of the human constitution. A case upon which I have always -laid great stress is that of a woman who lived for thirty-seven years, -although her large intestine was atrophied and inactive, as this seems -to be a remarkable proof of the uselessness of the organ in the human -body. The small size or complete absence of the large intestine in -many vertebrates confirms my conclusion. None the less, some of my -critics think that my argument is incomplete. To strengthen it, I may -call their attention to a medical observation which is as valuable as -if it had been an experiment. It relates to a woman, sixty-two years -old, a patient of Prof. Kocher at Berne. She had been suffering from a -strangulated hernia associated with gangrene of part of the intestine, -and had to be operated upon suddenly. - -The gangrenous portion of the ileum having been removed, the healthy -part was implanted in the skin so as to form an artificial aperture -through which waste matter from the food passed to the exterior -without traversing the large intestine. Although the patient was old -and seriously ill, the operation, performed by M. Tavel, was quite -successful. Six months later, in a new operation, the small intestine -was rejoined to the large intestine so that the fæces were again able -to pass to the exterior by the natural channel. In this case, then, the -large intestine was thrown out of use for half a year, not only without -injury to the general health, but with the result that the patient was -completely cured and gained in weight. MM. Macfadyen, Nencki, and Mde. -Sieber[120] studied the digestive processes in the small intestine -and the nutritive metabolism, and determined that these were active -and healthy, the absence of intestinal putrefaction, that evil of the -constitution, being specially favourable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.—Diagram of the lower bowel in a female patient. - -_A.C.N._, Artificial anus: _A.S._, Insertion of the ileum to the colon. - -(After M. Mauclaire.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.—Diagram of the lower bowel, after a third -operation, on the case in Fig. 19. - -(After M. Mauclaire.)] - -In six months of non-action, the part played by an organ can be -satisfactorily estimated. M. Mauclaire,[121] however, has put on record -a case the history of which was longer. In 1902 he operated on a young -woman and produced an artificial anus, there being no escape of fæcal -matter by the ordinary channel. Ten months later M. Mauclaire operated -a second time and shut off a portion of the intestine. He left the -artificial anus, but cut across the lower end of the small intestine -and inserted it near the iliac end of the descending colon (Fig. 19). -For several days after the operation the fæces were passed by the -normal aperture, as the small intestine now communicated directly with -the large intestine, near the rectum. This condition, however, did not -persist, for the fæcal matter began to flow back through the excluded -portion of the large intestine, so reaching the artificial anus, and -causing inconvenience. Giving up the hope that this would cease, M. -Mauclaire performed a third operation twenty months later. He cut -across the large intestine near the point where the small intestine -had been artificially led into it (Fig. 20), so dividing the digestive -tube into two parts, one of which remained in communication with the -natural anus, whilst the other, consisting of nearly the whole of -the large intestine, communicated with the exterior by the artificial -anus. In the new state of affairs, the food refuse passed directly -into the terminal portion of the large intestine, and thence, by way -of the rectum, to the exterior through the normal anus without being -able to pass up the large intestine towards the artificial anus. In -this last operation about a yard of the small intestine and the greater -part of the large intestine, the cæcum, and ascending, transverse and -descending colons were removed from activity. - -By the kindness of M. Mauclaire, I have been able to watch his patient -during the last four years. I satisfied myself that after the supposed -exclusion of the large intestine, food dejecta ascended the colon and -emerged by the artificial anus. There was such an accumulation of -waste in the large intestine that fragments did not emerge until three -weeks after the meal of which they had formed part. It was only after -the final operation, that in which the large intestine was separated, -that the dejecta escaped only by the natural anus, whilst a little -mucus containing microbes was passed through the artificial aperture. -Even three years after the operation, mucus continued to escape by the -latter aperture, it being shown thus that after the large intestine had -ceased to be a channel for the fæces, its walls continued to secrete -although otherwise it had lost its function completely. Nevertheless -the condition of this patient improved and she lived perfectly well -without a functional large intestine. She takes food well but has to go -to stool three or four times a day and has a tendency to diarrhœa. -The excreta are smooth and often nearly liquid, especially after fruit -has been eaten. - -The case I have been describing, and which I am still keeping under -observation, demonstrates once more the uselessness of the human large -intestine; it should convert the most sceptical critic. But it also -shows that the suppression of nearly the entire large intestine for -several years does not completely get rid of the intestinal flora. Even -without this evidence, however, I do not suggest that removal of the -large intestine can be thought of as a means to prevent the pernicious -effect of the intestinal flora. - -Is it possible, without operative interference, to take direct action -against the intestinal flora by the use of antiseptics? Consideration -of this is already ancient history. When the theory that the intestine -was a source of auto-intoxication was propounded, M. Bouchard[122] made -the attempt to cure such cases by disinfecting the digestive tube with -[Greek: b]-naphthol. He found, however, that that antiseptic, like -many others, not only did not completely disinfect the intestine but -sometimes had a harmful effect on the body. - -M. Stern[123] has shown, in an elaborate memoir, that such antiseptics -as calomel, salol, [Greek: b]-naphthol, naphthaline, and camphor, when -administered in quantities compatible with health, do not disinfect -the digestive tube at all. More recently M. Strasburger[124] has shown -that when naphthaline has been given in quantities sufficient to impart -its odour to the fæces, the intestinal microbes, so far from being -diminished, are even increased in numbers. On the other hand, after -meals consisting of milk to which there has been added an antiseptic -in the proportion of a quarter of a gram to the litre, the intestinal -microbes are really reduced in number. Strasburger obtained his best -results with tanocol. Two persons who used, according to this method, -three to six grams of tanacol per day, displayed a notable reduction in -quantity of the intestinal flora. - -Strasburger’s conclusion was that “the attempt to destroy the -intestinal microbes by the use of chemical agents has little chance of -success.” It cannot be denied that under special circumstances it is -possible to decrease the number of microbes, especially in the small -intestine. But this result is small and may be followed by the contrary -effect, for the natural means of defence of the intestine against -microbes are weakened, and the intestine itself may be harmed more than -the microbes. - -Strasburger, moreover, is no convinced advocate of the use of -purgatives. The diminution of the sulpho-conjugate ethers in the -urine, which certainly may follow the use of purgatives, does not -necessarily indicate reduced putrefaction in the intestine, but may -point only to a lessened absorption of the bacterial products. Such an -interpretation is supported by an observed fact; in the case of a dog -belonging to Strasburger, which had a fistula of the small intestine, -the diarrhœa induced by calomel was accompanied by an indubitable -increase in the total quantity of intestinal microbes. - -Strasburger thinks that the most favourable results can be obtained -by aiding the intestine in the discharge of its normal function. If -it can be brought to digest the food more completely, there is the -less pabulum left for the microbes. A similar result can be reached by -lowering the amount of food taken, and to this course the beneficial -effects of starvation in acute diseases of the intestine may be -attributed. - -The general conclusion, reached after many experiments on the -disinfection of the intestine, is unfavourable. Very little is to be -expected from the method. None the less I cannot regard the matter -as definitely settled. Cohendy has investigated the effect on the -intestinal flora of thymol which was administered in several cases with -the object of destroying parasites. From nine to twelve grammes of -thymol were administered to each patient in the space of three days, -and there was a notable antiseptic effect, Cohendy believing that the -quantity of microbes had been reduced to a thirteenth. - -Such facts prove only that the antiseptic treatment is available -up to a certain point. To attain the results, however, such large -quantities must be used that the treatment can be applied only in -special cases and at long intervals. More use can be made of simple -purgatives which do not kill the microbes but eliminate them by the -normal channel. It has been urged repeatedly that calomel, which is -often used as a purgative, acts also as an intestinal antiseptic; -but it is probable that its influence in reducing the intestinal -flora is merely mechanical. It has been shown that calomel, like -some other purgatives, lessens intestinal putrefaction, the evidence -being the decrease in the sulpho-conjugate ethers in the urine. But -although the diarrhœa induced by purgatives generally has such a -result, spontaneous diarrhœas such as those of typhoid fever and of -intestinal tuberculosis are associated with increased putrefaction.[125] - -It is clear, however these matters may be settled, that regular -activity of the bowels, increased by the occasional use of purgatives, -must diminish the formation of intestinal poisons, and therefore also -the damage done by these to the higher elements of the body. - -When I asked the relatives of Mde. Robineau if they could tell me of -any special circumstance which in their opinion had contributed to -the extreme duration of the life of this old lady, they replied as -follows:—“We are convinced that a slight bodily derangement, present -for the last fifty years, has tended to prolong the life of the old -lady. It cannot be said that she has suffered from diarrhœa, but -she has been often subject to frequent calls of nature.” It was most -remarkable that the old lady showed no traces of sclerosis of the -arteries. I may mention the strongly contrasting case of one of my -old colleagues to whom a natural desire to empty the bowels came only -once a week. A more frequent call was a sign of illness in his case. -Now sclerosis of the arteries appeared in so marked a form that he -died from it before he had reached the age of fifty years. This may be -added to the list of facts which point to a close association between -sclerosis of the arteries and the functions of the digestive tube. - -Recently, at the suggestion of Mr. Fletcher,[126] the advantage of -eating extremely slowly has been recognised, the object being to -prepare for the utilisation of the food materials, and to prevent -intestinal putrefaction. Certainly the habit of eating quickly favours -the multiplication of microbes round about the lumps of food which have -been swallowed without sufficient mastication. It is quite harmful, -however, to chew the food too long, and to swallow it only after it -has been kept in the mouth for a considerable time. Too complete a -use of the food material causes want of tone in the intestinal wall, -from which as much harm may come as from imperfect mastication. In -America, where Fletcher’s theory took its origin, there has already -been described under the name of “Bradyfagy” a disease arising from the -habit of eating too slowly. Dr. Einhorn,[127] a well-known specialist -in the diseases of the digestive system, has found that several cases -of this disease were rapidly cured when the patients made up their -minds to eat more quickly again. Comparative physiology supplies us -with arguments against too prolonged mastication. Ruminants, which -carry out to the fullest extent Mr. Fletcher’s plan, are notable for -extreme intestinal putrefaction and for the short duration of their -lives. On the other hand, birds and reptiles, which have a very poor -mechanism for breaking up food, enjoy much longer lives. - -Prolonged mastication, then, cannot be recommended as a preventative -of intestinal putrefaction any more than the surgical removal of the -large intestine or the disinfection of the digestive tube. The field -lies open for other means which may probably solve the problem more -completely and more practically. - - - - -V - -LACTIC ACID AS INHIBITING INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION - - The development of the intestinal flora in - man—Harmlessness of sterilised food—Means of - preventing the putrefaction of food—Lactic fermentation - and its anti-putrescent action—Experiments on - man and mice—Longevity in races which use soured - milk—Comparative study of different soured - milks—Properties of the Bulgarian _Bacillus_—Means - of preventing intestinal putrefaction with the help of - microbes - - -At birth the human intestine is full, but contains no microbes. -Microbes very soon appear in it, because the meconium, the contents -of the intestines of new-born children, composed of bile and cast-off -intestinal mucus cells, is an excellent culture medium for them. In the -first hours after birth, microbes begin to reach the intestine. In the -first day, before the child has taken any food whatever, there is to -be found in the meconium a varied flora, composed of several species -of microbes. Under the influence of the mother’s milk this flora is -reduced and comes to be composed almost entirely of a special microbe -described by M. Tissier and called by him _Bacillus bifidus_. - -The food, therefore, has an influence on the microbes of the intestine. -If the child be fed with cow’s milk, the flora is richer in species -than in the case of a child suckled by its mother. Later on, also, -the flora varies with the food, as has been proved by MM. Macfadyen, -Nencki, and Mde. Sieber in the case of a woman with an intestinal -fistula. The dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food makes -it possible to adopt measures to modify the flora in our bodies and -to replace the harmful microbes by useful microbes. Unfortunately, -our actual knowledge of the intestinal flora is still very imperfect -because of the impossibility of finding artificial media in which it -could be grown. Notwithstanding this difficulty, however, a rational -solution of the problem must be sought. - -Man, even in the savage condition, prepares his food before eating it. -He submits much of it to the action of fire, thus notably lessening the -number of microbes. Microbes enter the digestive tube in vast numbers -with raw food, and in order to lessen the number of species in the -intestines, it is important to eat only cooked food and to drink only -liquids that have been previously boiled. In that way, although we -cannot destroy all the microbes in the food, because some of them can -withstand the temperature of the boiling point of water, we can kill -the great majority of them. - -It has sometimes been supposed that cooked or completely sterilised -food (that is to say food that has been subjected to a temperature of -from 248°-284° Fahr.) is harmful to the organism and that much of it -is not well digested. From this point of view protests have been made -against the feeding of infants with sterilised milk or even with boiled -milk. Although in certain cases sterilised milk is not well supported -by infants, it cannot be doubted but that boiled milk and cooked -food are generally successful. The large number of children brought -up successfully on boiled cow’s milk and the health of travellers in -arctic regions are ample proof of this. I have been told by M. Charcot -that in his voyage to the antarctic regions, he and his companions -lived entirely on sterilised food, or on cooked food such as the flesh -of seals and penguins. As they had no green food nor fresh fruit, the -only raw food that they ate was a little cheese. Living under these -conditions, all the members of the expedition enjoyed good health, -and there was no case of digestive disturbance in the whole period of -sixteen months. - -It is obvious that abstaining from raw food, and so reducing largely -the entrance of new microbes, by no means causes the disappearance -of the intestinal flora already existing. We must reckon with that -and with the evil that it does by weakening the higher cells of the -tissues. As the part of the flora that does most damage consists of -microbes which cause putrefaction of the contents of the intestine and -harmful fermentations, particularly butyric fermentation, it is against -these that our efforts must be directed. - -Long before the science of bacteriology was in existence, men had -turned their attention to methods of preventing putrefaction. Food, -especially if it be kept in a warm place or in a moist atmosphere, soon -begins to putrefy and to become unpleasant to the taste and dangerous -to the health. Everyone has known cases of poisoning from putrid flesh -or other food material. Foà,[128] the explorer of Central Africa, has -related that once, when they were starving, he and his men came on the -putrefying body of an elephant. The negroes rushed to lay hold of the -carrion, but Foà tried to dissuade them, explaining that to eat flesh -in such a state was as bad as taking poison. All did not listen to him, -and three negroes, who had taken pieces of the body, swallowed them -before they had been properly cooked. All three died in a few days, -with the neck and throat swollen, the tongue almost paralysed, and the -abdomen inflated. - -In another case, sausages made of putrid horse flesh caused an epidemic -at Rohrsdorf, in Prussia, in 1885.[129] About forty people fell ill -after having eaten the sausages, which, according to witnesses, were -green in colour, smelt badly, and had a revolting appearance. One -person died, whilst the others recovered after cholera-like symptoms. -It is true that all putrefying food does not produce the same effect. -MM. Tissier and Martelly[130] found no digestive trouble after having -eaten food that was quite putrid. Everyone knows that the Chinese -prepare a dish particularly pleasant to gourmets by allowing eggs -to putrefy. Some decaying cheeses are harmful to the health, but -others can be eaten with impunity. The reason of this is that whilst -putrefying food may contain microbes and dangerous toxins, it does -not contain them in all cases. On the other hand, we must take into -account the different susceptibilities of people to the harmful action -of microbes and their products. Some can swallow without any evil -result a quantity of microbes which in the case of other individuals -would produce a fatal attack of cholera. Everything depends upon the -resistance offered to the microbes by the invaded organism. - -Experiments on animals fed on putrefying food have also given varied -results. Some animals eat it without any harm resulting, others have -attacks of vomiting and show such a repugnance that it is impossible to -continue the experiment. - -Not only flesh and other animal substances, but vegetables can undergo -putrefaction and fermentation (butyric) which make it dangerous -to eat them. Many accidents have occurred in man as the result of -deteriorated preserved fruit. Vegetables, preserved in silos to feed -cattle, sometimes go wrong. “If, for instance, rainy days come after -sunny days, so that the uncovered fodder is wetted again, the resulting -ensilage is poor and has an extremely unpleasant butyric odour, so that -the animals turn from it.” Sometimes the fodder grows black in the -silo, and acquires a special smell. “The animals will take it only in -the absence of other food; their excreta become black, and if they are -kept on such a diet for a time they waste in a marked manner.”[131] - -In popular practice, the value of acids for preserving animal -and vegetable food and for preventing putrefaction has long been -recognised. Meats of all kinds, fish and vegetables have been -“marinated” with vinegar, as the acetic acid in that substance, the -product of bacteria, wards off putrefaction. If the materials which -it is desired to preserve give off acids themselves, the addition of -vinegar may be unnecessary. For this reason some animal products such -as milk, or vegetables rich in sugar become acid spontaneously and so -can be preserved. Soured milk can be made into many kinds of cheese, -and these last for longer or shorter times. Many vegetables can undergo -a natural process of souring, when they “keep” without difficulty. -Thus cabbage becomes “sauerkraut” and beetroot and cucumbers pass -into an acid state. In many countries, as for instance in Russia, the -use of acidified vegetables is of great importance in the food-supply -of the populace. Fresh fruit and vegetables cannot be obtained in the -long winters, during which the people consume large quantities of -cucumbers, melons, apples, and other fruits which have undergone an -acid fermentation in which lactic acid is the chief product. During -summer, milk, which acidifies readily, is the chief source of acid -materials for consumption. The chief beverage is “kwass,” of which -black bread is the main ingredient, and this passes through not only an -alcoholic fermentation, but an acidifying change in which lactic acid -is the most important product. - -Rye bread, the chief food of the populace, is also a product of -fermentations amongst which the lactic acid fermentation is most -important, but in other kinds of bread also there is a fermentation in -which some of the sugar is transformed to lactic acid. - -Soured milk, because of the lactic acid in it, can impede the -putrefaction of meat. In certain countries, accordingly, meat is -preserved in acid skimmed milk with the result that putrefaction -is prevented. Lactic acid fermentation is equally important in the -food supply of cattle. It is the chief agent that, in the process of -preserving vegetation in silos, hinders putrefaction. Finally, the same -fermentation serves in distilleries to preserve the must from which -alcohol is prepared. - -This short review is in itself enough to show the great importance of -lactic fermentation as a means of stopping putrefaction and butyric -fermentation, both of which hinder the preservation of organic -substances and are capable of exciting disturbances in the organism. - -As lactic fermentation serves so well to arrest putrefaction in -general, why should it not be used for the same purpose within the -digestive tube? - -It is a matter of common knowledge that putrefaction and butyric -fermentation are arrested in the presence of sugar. Whereas meat -preserved without special care soon putrefies, milk in exactly the -same conditions does not putrefy, but becomes sour, the reason being -that meat is poor in sugar whereas milk contains a good deal of it. -However, the scientific explanation of this fundamental fact is -difficult. It has been shown conclusively that sugar itself cannot -prevent putrefaction. Milk, for instance, however rich in sugar it -may be, readily putrefies in certain conditions. Sugar preserves -organic matter from putrefaction only because it can readily undergo -lactic fermentation, and this fermentation is the work of the microbes -described fifty years ago by Pasteur. That great discovery proved the -part played by microbes in fermentation and founded bacteriology, a -science equally rich in theory and in practice. - -I need not pause to develop the theme that the anti-putrescent action -of the lactic fermentation depends on the production of lactic acid by -microbes, because I have explained the matter at length in the tenth -chapter of the “Nature of Man.” If the lactic acid be neutralised, -the organic matter soon putrefies, notwithstanding the presence of -the lactic microbes. The most important point is as to whether lactic -fermentation really arrests intestinal putrefaction. Several sets of -observations have been made upon this matter. Dr. Herter,[132] of -New York, injected directly into the small intestine of a number of -dogs quantities of different microbes. To test the action of these on -intestinal putrefaction, he investigated the sulpho-conjugate ethers -in the urine, as he believed, in accordance with current and well -justified opinion, that these substances are the best proofs of the -existence of putrefaction. He found that whilst the introduction of -quantities of _Bacillus coli_ or _Bacillus proteus_ increased the -intestinal putrefaction, lactic bacilli notably lessened it. Herter -found a notable diminution of sulpho-conjugate ethers in the urine of -dogs which had been treated with the lactic microbes. - -The experiments which Dr. M. Cohendy[133] performed upon himself during -a period of nearly six months are still more interesting. - -When Dr. Cohendy had proved that much intestinal putrefaction occurred -during a period of 25 days, in which he lived on an ordinary mixed -diet, he began to take pure cultures of lactic bacillus, taken from -yahourth. In a period of 74 days, he took quantities varying from 280 -to 350 grams of the culture. - -Analysis of the urine during the progress of the experiment showed -that intestinal putrefaction had notably decreased whilst the lactic -bacilli were being taken, and that the diminution persisted seven weeks -after the taking of the bacilli ceased. Dr. Cohendy gives it as the -direct result of his experiment that the introduction of lactic ferment -into the intestine definitely arrests putrefaction. He obtained this -result on a diet consisting of 400 grams of soup, 150 of meat, 700 of -grain-food, 400 of green vegetables, 300 of fruits and dessert and a -litre of water. He came to the conclusion that the elimination of meat -from the diet was unnecessary, as the particular kind of lactic ferment -he employed was extremely active in inhibiting the proteolytic ferments. - -Later experiments made by Dr. Cohendy showed that the lactic bacillus -became so acclimatised in the human intestine that it was to be found -there several weeks after it had been swallowed. - -Dr. Pochon, assistant to Professor Combe[134] at Lausanne, has repeated -on himself the experiments of Cohendy. He took for several weeks -milk curdled with pure cultures of lactic acid microbes and obtained -“results that were quite definite as to intestinal putrefaction.” -Analysis of his urine showed that there was a marked diminution of -indol and phenol, substances which are certain indexes of intestinal -putrefaction. - -In addition to such observations on lactic bacilli there is a good deal -of knowledge as to the effect of lactic acid taken in bulk. The result -of the various observations[135] shows that the acid lessens intestinal -putrefaction and lowers the quantity of sulpho-conjugate ethers in the -urine. This fact explains why favourable results follow the use of -lactic acid in many intestinal diseases such as infantile diarrhœa, -tuberculous enteritis and even Asiatic cholera. The addition of this -remedy to practical therapeutics is due chiefly to Professor Hayem. -It is employed not only in the treatment of diseases of the digestive -system (dyspepsia, enteritis and colitis), but is indicated also in -diabetes and is used locally in tuberculous ulcerations of the larynx. -As quantities up to twelve grams can be given by the mouth daily, it is -plain that the system is tolerant of this acid. It is either oxidised -in the tissues or excreted with the urine. In the case of a diabetic -woman who had taken 80 grams of lactic acid in four days, Nencki and -Sieber[136] found no traces of it in the urine. On the other hand, -Stadelmann[137] found a notable quantity of the acid in another -diabetic patient who had been taking over four grams daily. - -The general interpretation of the benefits gained from the use of -lactic acid ferments is that they depend solely on the action of the -lactic acid which they produce in preventing the multiplication of -the microbes which cause putrefaction. Recent investigations made by -Dr. Bélonowsky, at the Pasteur Institute, show that a lactic ferment -isolated from yahourth and described as the Bulgarian bacillus owes -its antiseptic powers not only to lactic acid but to another substance -which it secretes. Dr. Bélonowsky has studied the effects of this -bacillus upon mice, by adding to their previously sterilised food -quantities of this lactic microbe. As control experiments he fed -other mice on food to which lactic acid had been added in quantities -corresponding to the quantity produced by the Bulgarian bacillus, or -which had been mixed with other kinds of bacilli. Another set of mice -were given normal food without the addition of either microbes or -lactic acid. - -Out of these groups of mice, those which had been given the Bulgarian -bacillus thrived best and had most progeny. Their droppings showed -fewest microbes, particularly microbes of putrefaction. - -The next stage in Dr. Bélonowsky’s experiments was to feed mice not -with living quantities of the Bulgarian bacillus, but with cultures -which had been sterilised by heat (120°-140° Fahr.). These mice lived -as well as those to which living cultures had been supplied, and -notably better than those supplied with pure lactic acid. It is evident -therefore that there is some other product of this bacillus which -favours life by preventing intestinal putrefaction. - -Dr. Bélonowsky showed, moreover, that the Bulgarian bacillus cures a -special intestinal disease known as mouse typhus. - -The experiments which I have described show that intestinal -putrefaction is to be combated not by lactic acid itself, but by the -introduction into the organism of cultures of the lactic bacilli. -The latter become acclimatised in the human digestive tube as they -find there the sugary material required for their subsistence, and by -producing disinfecting bodies benefit the organism which supports them. - -From time immemorial human beings have absorbed quantities of lactic -microbes by consuming in the uncooked condition substances such as -soured milk, kephir, sauerkraut, or salted cucumbers which have -undergone lactic fermentation. By these means they have unknowingly -lessened the evil consequences of intestinal putrefaction. In the Bible -soured milk is frequently spoken of. When Abraham entertained the three -angels he set before them soured milk and sweet milk and the calf which -he had dressed (Genesis xviii. 8). In his fifth book, Moses enumerates -amongst the food which Jehovah had given his people to eat “Soured milk -of kine and goat’s milk, with fat of lambs and rams of the breed of -Bashan, and goats with the fat of kidneys” (Deut. xxxii. 14).[138] - -A food known as “Leben raib,” which is a soured milk, prepared from -the milk of buffaloes, kine or goats, has been used in Egypt from -the remotest antiquity. A similar preparation known as “yahourth” is -familiar to the populations of the Balkan Peninsula. The natives of -Algiers make a kind of “leben” not identical with the Egyptian form. - -Soured milk is consumed in great quantities in Russia in two forms, -“prostokwacha,” which is raw milk spontaneously coagulated and soured, -and “varenetz,” which is boiled milk soured with a yeast. - -The chief food of many natives of tropical Africa consists of soured -milk. The staple diet of the Mpeseni is “a curdled milk, almost -solidified.” “Meat is eaten only on ceremonial occasions.” According -to Foà, a tribe of the Nyassa-Tanganyika plateau, like the Zulus, take -milk only in the form of a raw cheese mixed with salt and pepper. - -Dr. Lima of Mossamedes, in West Africa, has told me that the natives -of many regions south of Angola live almost entirely on milk. They -employ the cream as an ointment for the skin, whilst the milk, soured -and curdled, is their staple food. M. Nogueira reported the same -circumstances nearly fifty years ago after his journey in the province -of Angola. - -Just as cheeses vary in different countries, so curdled milk varies -slightly according to the nature of the flora of microbes. Taking all -the soured milks that are produced by natural processes, it may be said -that the greater number of them contain not only microbes that produce -lactic acid, but also yeasts that cause alcoholic fermentations. -Kephir, which is prepared from the milk of kine, and koumiss, which -is a product of mares’ milk, are notably alcoholic. Koumiss is the -well-known national beverage of the Kirghises, Tartars and Kulmucks, -nomads of Asiatic Russia who are famous horse breeders, whilst kephir -is the native drink of the mountaineers of the Caucasus, the Ossetes, -and some other tribes. - -It has been supposed that the chief merit of kephir was that it was -more easy to digest than milk, as some of its casein is dissolved in -the process of fermentation. Kephir, in fact, was supposed to be partly -digested milk. This view has not been confirmed. Professor Hayem thinks -that the good effects of kephir are due to the presence of lactic acid -which replaces the acid of the stomach and has an antiseptic effect. -The experiments of M. Rovighi, which I spoke of in _The Nature of Man_, -have confirmed the latter fact, which now may be taken as certain. The -action of kephir in preventing intestinal putrefaction depends on the -lactic acid bacilli which it contains. - -Kephir, although in some cases certainly beneficial, cannot be -recommended for the prolonged use necessary if intestinal putrefaction -is to be overcome. It is produced by combined lactic and alcoholic -fermentations, and as it contains up to one per cent. of alcohol, its -use as a food for years would involve the absorption of considerable -quantities of alcohol. The yeasts which produce it can be acclimatised -in the human digestive tract, in which, however, they are harmful, as -they are favourable to the germs of infectious diseases such as the -bacillus of typhoid fever, and the vibrio of Asiatic cholera. - -Kephir has also the disadvantage that its flora varies considerably and -is not well known. There has been little success in producing it by -pure cultures as would be necessary were it to be brought into general -use. When it is prepared from a dried remnant there is the risk of -stray microbes being included, and these may bring about pernicious -fermentations. Professor Hayem prohibits its use in the case of -persons in whom food is retained for long in the stomach. “When it -is retained in the stomach, kephir goes on fermenting, and there are -developed in the contents butyric and acetic acids which aggravate the -digestive disturbances.”[139] - -As it is the lactic and not the alcoholic fermentation on which the -valuable properties of kephir depend, it is correct to replace it by -soured milk that contains either no alcohol or merely the smallest -traces of it. - -The fact that so many races make soured milk and use it copiously is -an excellent testimony to its usefulness. M. Nogueira has written -to me to say how much he was astonished, on revisiting after a long -period of absence the district of Mossamedes, to find the natives so -well preserved and displaying so few traces of senility. Dr. Lima has -stated that amongst the natives of the region south of Angola “many -individuals of extraordinary longevity are to be found.” Although they -are thin and withered, these old people are very active and can make -long journeys. - -Mr. Wales, a lawyer at Binghampton, U.S.A., has been so good as to -make me acquainted with some extremely interesting facts taken from a -work by James Riley which is now a bibliographical rarity.[140] In the -narrative of a shipwreck of the vessel on which he made a voyage in -1815, James Riley states that the wandering Arabs of the desert live -almost wholly on the milk of camels, fresh or soured. - -On this diet they enjoy excellent health, display great vigour and -reach advanced ages. Riley estimated that some of the old men must have -lived for two to three hundred years. No doubt these figures are much -too high, but it is probable that the Arabs Riley encountered lived -really unusually long. - -Mr. Wales has examined Riley’s work critically, and is of the opinion -that that author was a well-informed, sagacious and conscientious -observer. - -M. Grigoroff, a Bulgarian student at Geneva, has been surprised by -the number of centenarians to be found in Bulgaria, a region in which -yahourth, a soured milk, is the stable food. Some of the centenarians, -described by M. Chemin in his memoir, lived chiefly on a milk diet. -Marie Priou, for example, who died in the Haute-Garonne in 1838 at the -age of 158 years, had lived for the last ten years of her life entirely -on cheese and goat’s milk (_op. cit._ p. 100). Ambroise Jantet, a -labourer of Verdun, who died in 1751 at the age of 111 years, “ate -nothing but unleavened bread and drank nothing but skimmed milk” (p. -133). Nicole Marc, who died aged 110 years, at the chateau of Colemberg -(Pas-de-Calais), a hunch-back and cripple, “lived only on bread and -milk-food. It was only towards the end of her life and after much -persuasion that she took a little wine” (Chemin, p. 139). - -I owe to the kindness of M. Simine, an engineer in the Caucasus, the -following communication, taken from the newspaper _Tiflissky Listok_, -Oct. 8th, 1904. “In the village of Sba, in the district of Gori, there -is an old Ossete woman, Thense Abalva, whose age is supposed to be -about 180 years (?). This woman is still quite capable and looks after -her household duties and sews. Although she is bent, she walks firmly -enough. Thense has never taken alcoholic liquors. She rises early in -the morning, and her chief food is barley bread and butter milk, taken -after the churning of the cream. Butter milk is a liquid containing -very many lactic microbes. - -Mrs. Jenny Read, an American, has written to me that her father, -eighty-four years old, “owes his health to the curdled milk which he -has taken for the last 40 years.” - -Curdled milk and the other products of milk to which I have referred -are the work of the lactic microbes which produce lactic acid at the -expense of milk sugar. As many different kinds of soured milk have been -consumed on a vast scale and have proved to be useful, it might be -supposed that any of them is suitable for regular consumption with the -object of preventing intestinal putrefaction. - -From the point of view of flavour I find that soured milk, prepared -from raw milk, is much the more agreeable. However, when a food is to -be selected for consumption during a long period of time, we must keep -hygiene strictly in view. It is certain, therefore, that the Russian -“prostokwacha,” as well as any other soured raw milk, must be rejected. -Raw milk contains a large assortment of microbes, and frequently some -of these are harmful. The bacillus of bovine tuberculosis, as well -as other pernicious microbes, may be found in it. According to the -investigations of Heim[141] the vibrios of Asiatic cholera, when placed -in raw milk, survive even when the milk has become quite soured. In -similar conditions the bacillus of typhoid fever remains alive for 35 -days and dies only after it has been kept for 48 days in completely -soured milk. - -As raw milk nearly always contains traces of fæcal matter from the -cow, it sometimes happens that pernicious microbes are introduced from -that source, and remain alive notwithstanding the acid coagulation of -the milk. The lactic microbes certainly prevent the multiplication -of other microbes, as, for instance, those of putrefaction, but are -incapable of destroying them. Moreover, raw milk often contains fungi -(yeasts, torulas, and oïdia) the presence of which is favourable to the -development of such pernicious microbes as the cholera vibrio and the -bacillus of typhoid fever. - -Prolonged consumption of raw milk increases the risk of introducing -dangerous microbes into the organism, and this possibility drives me to -recommend soured milk prepared after heating. Theoretically, it would -be best to sterilise the milk completely so that all the contained -microbes would be destroyed. This, however, requires heating the milk -to a temperature of from 226° to 248° Fahr., by which it acquires an -unpleasant flavour. On the other hand, the pasteurising of milk at a -temperature of about 140° Fahr. is not sufficient to get rid entirely -of the bacilli of tuberculosis and the spores of the butyric bacilli. -We have, therefore, to fall back on a middle course, and be content -with boiling the milk for several minutes. By so doing we certainly -kill the tubercle bacilli and the spores of some of the butyric -bacilli,[142] there being left only some butyric spores and the spores -of _Bacillus subtilis_, to destroy which a much higher temperature is -necessary. - -As some kinds of soured milk, such as “varenetz,” “yahourth,” “leben,” -etc., are prepared from boiled milk, it might be supposed that -they fulfil the conditions necessary for prolonged use. A closer -examination, however, makes us reject them. - -Boiled milk, to make it undergo the lactic fermentation properly, -must have added to it a prepared ferment. What is necessary is not -merely rennet, as was formerly supposed, but a number of organised -ferments, that is to say, microbes. In the preparation of these soured -milks, a leaven is employed, one of the names of which is “Maya,” -and which contains not only lactic microbes, but several others. MM. -Rist and Khoury[143] have come to the conclusion that the Egyptian -“leben” contained a flora composed of five species, three of which -are bacteria and two yeasts. The bacteria produce lactic acid and the -yeasts alcohol. Although the result is that “leben” is a nearly solid -substance, whilst kephir is a liquid, the two are closely similar. -In both cases we have to do with coincident lactic and alcoholic -fermentations, and my remarks regarding kephir apply equally well to -the Egyptian “leben.” - -Through the agency of Prof. Massol of Geneva, I have obtained a -specimen of the Bulgarian “yahourth.” Working with his pupil, M. -Grigoroff, M. Massol[144] has isolated several microbes from this milk, -amongst these being a very active lactic bacillus. The same soured -milk has been studied in my laboratory by Drs. M. Cohendy[145] and -Michelson. They found in it a very powerful lactic ferment, which has -been named the Bulgarian bacillus. This was the microbe employed in the -experiments of M. Bélonowsky, to which I have already referred. More -recently, it has been carefully investigated from the chemical point of -view by MM. G. Bertrand and Weisweiler[146] at the Pasteur Institute. -It proved to be an extremely active producer of lactic acid, supplying -25 grammes per litre of milk. The other acids which this bacillus -produces, such as succinic and acetic acids, are formed only in very -small quantities (about 50 centigrams a litre). Formic acid is produced -only in traces. On the other hand, the Bulgarian bacillus forms neither -alcohol nor acetone, two frequent products of bacterial fermentation. -The bacillus also differs from other lactic ferments inasmuch as it -has no action on albuminoids (casein, etc.), nor on fats. All these -qualities make the Bulgarian bacillus much the most useful of the -microbes which can be acclimatised in the digestive tube for the -purpose of arresting putrefactions and pernicious fermentations, such -as the butyric fermentation. - -As in all the known soured milks (yahourth, leben, prostokwacha, -kephir, and koumiss) the lactic bacilli are associated with a rich -flora in which pernicious microbes may be met (such as the red torula, -a microbe which predisposes to cholera and typhoid fever, which I found -in the leaven of yahourth, bought in Paris), it is necessary to work -out a method by which good curdled milk can be produced with the aid of -pure cultures of the lactic microbes. - -It was the obvious course to begin with the Bulgarian bacillus, as -that is known to be the best producer of lactic acid. It coagulates -milk rapidly, giving it a strongly acid flavour, but it often also -gives a disagreeable taste of tallow. It is true that after it has been -kept for a long time in the laboratory in the form of pure cultures -in sterilised milk, the bacillus loses to a large extent its power -of saponifying fats, the taste of the curdled milk being then more -agreeable. If necessary, therefore, soured milk prepared exclusively -with the Bulgarian bacillus can be used. In practice, however, it -is useful to associate with it another lactic microbe, known as the -paralactic bacillus, as the latter, although producing less lactic acid -than the Bulgarian bacillus, does not break up the fats and gives the -curdled milk a very pleasant flavour. - -As it is undesirable to absorb too much fatty matter, it is necessary -to prepare curdled milk for regular use from skimmed milk. After the -milk has been boiled and rapidly cooled, pure cultures of the lactic -microbes are sown in it, in sufficient quantities to prevent the -germination of spores already in the milk and not destroyed in the -process of boiling. The fermentation lasts a number of hours, varying -according to the temperature, and finally produces a sour curdled milk, -pleasant to the taste and active in preventing intestinal putrefaction. -This milk, taken daily in quantities of from 300 to 500 cubic -centimetres, controls the action of the intestine, and stimulates the -kidneys favourably.[147] It can therefore be recommended in many cases -of disorder of the digestive apparatus, of the kidneys, and in several -skin diseases. - -The Bulgarian bacillus taken from yahourth or from soured milk, -prepared from pure cultures of lactic microbes, can live in warm -temperatures, and, as has been shown by Dr. Cohendy, is able to take -its place in the intestinal flora of man. - -Soured milk, prepared according to the receipt which I have given, has -been analysed by M. Fouard, an assistant at the Pasteur Institute. -When it was ready to be taken, M. Fouard found in it about 10 grammes -of lactic acid per litre. Moreover, a large proportion (nearly -38 per cent.) of the casein had been rendered soluble during the -fermentation, which shows that its albuminous matter is prepared for -digestion much as in kephir. Of the phosphate of lime (which is the -chief mineral substance of milk) 68 per cent. was rendered soluble -during the fermentation. These facts all confirm the utility of the -soured milk prepared from pure cultures of lactic bacteria. - -Those persons who, from some reason or other, cannot take milk, may -swallow the bacilli in a pure culture without milk. However, as the -microbes need sugar to produce lactic acid, it is necessary to take -with them a certain quantity of sweet food (jam, sweet-meats, and -especially beetroot). - -The Bulgarian bacillus produces lactic acid not only from milk sugar, -but also from many other sugars, for instance, cane sugar, maltose, -levulose and especially glucose. - -Cultures of the bacillus can be made not only in milk, but in vegetable -broths, or broths of animal peptone to which sugar has been added. The -cultures can be taken in a dry form (powders or tabloids), or in the -liquid in which the bacilli had themselves been developed. - -A reader who has little knowledge of such matters may be surprised -by my recommendation to absorb large quantities of microbes, as the -general belief is that microbes are all harmful. This belief, however, -is erroneous. There are many useful microbes, amongst which the lactic -bacilli have an honourable place. Moreover, the attempt has already -been made to cure certain diseases by the administration of cultures -of bacteria. M. Brudzinsky[148] has used cultures of lactic microbes -in certain intestinal diseases of infants, whilst Dr. Tissier[149] has -used them in similar affections of infants and adults. - -From the general point of view of this book, the course recommended -consists of the absorption either of soured milk prepared by a group of -lactic bacteria, or of pure cultures of the Bulgarian bacillus, but in -each case taking at the same time a certain quantity of milk sugar or -saccharose. - -For more than eight years I took, as a regular part of my diet, soured -milk at first prepared from boiled milk, inoculated with a lactic -leaven. Since then, I have changed the method of preparation and have -adopted finally the pure cultures which I have been describing. I am -very well pleased with the result, and I think that my experiment -has gone on long enough to justify my view. Several of my friends, -some of whom suffered from maladies of the intestine or kidneys, have -followed my example, and have been well satisfied. I think, therefore, -that lactic bacteria can render a great service in the fight against -intestinal putrefaction. - -If it be true that our precocious and unhappy old age is due to -poisoning of the tissues (the greater part of the poison coming from -the large intestine inhabited by numberless microbes), it is clear -that agents which arrest intestinal putrefaction must at the same time -postpone and ameliorate old age. This theoretical view is confirmed by -the collection of facts regarding races which live chiefly on soured -milk, and amongst which great ages are common. However, in a question -so important, the theory must be tested by direct observations. For -this purpose the numerous infirmaries for old people should be taken -advantage of, and systematic investigations should be made on the -relation of intestinal microbes to precocious old age, and on the -influence of diets which prevent intestinal putrefaction in prolonging -life and maintaining the forces of the body. It can only be in the -future, near or remote, that we shall obtain exact information upon -what is one of the chief problems of humanity. - -In the meantime, those who wish to preserve their intelligence as -long as possible and to make their cycle of life as complete and as -normal as is possible under present conditions, must depend on general -sobriety and on habits conforming to the rules of rational hygiene. - - - - -PART V - -PSYCHICAL RUDIMENTS IN MAN - - - - -I - -RUDIMENTARY ORGANS IN MAN - - Reply to critics who deny the simian origin of - man—Actual existence of rudimentary organs—Reductions - in the structure of the organs of sense in man—Atrophy - of Jacobson’s organ and of the Harderian gland in the - human race - - -Several critics of _The Nature of Man_ have protested against my -theory of the simian origin of man. Some of these found my arguments -unsatisfactory and unconvincing. Others have attacked generally my -suggestion that some anthropoid had been suddenly transformed to a -primitive human being. - -It is true that so long as we have little palæontological evidence as -to the actual descent of man, we cannot discuss the subject without -the aid of hypotheses. I think, however, that recent additions to -knowledge confirm the theory of the descent of man in a way that ought -to influence the most resolute opponents. I have in mind chiefly -the arguments supplied by the embryology of anthropoid apes, and by -the investigation of their blood. None the less, there are still -many authors who maintain their opposition. One of my critics, Dr. -Jousset,[150] enumerates certain differences in the structure of the -skeleton in man and apes, and concludes that these radically separate -man from apes. - -No one has ever doubted that man was not identical in structure with -the anthropoid apes, or that he differs from them in several characters -of the skeleton and of many other organs. The differences, however, -do not justify any radical separation of the two. The unusual length -of arm, upon which my opponents throw so much weight, is in harmony -with the mode of life of apes, as these climb on trees and walk on all -four limbs. The difference between apes and Europeans in length of arm -is certainly considerable, but is much less in the case of some lower -races, such as the Veddahs. In the Akkas of Central Africa, the arms -are so long that the hands nearly reach the knees. The fœtus of -Europeans also shows an unusual length of arm, probably an ancestral -feature. It is only after birth that the arms become relatively shorter. - -All the other characters different in man and the apes, are equally -secondary. On the other hand, just as apes differ amongst themselves, -so also, the different races show differences often strongly marked. -M. Michaelis,[151] in a comparative study of the muscular systems -of monkeys, has made known many details of the musculature in the -orang-outan and the chimpanzee, and it appears from his investigations -that, although there are some differences between these two apes, they -are both closely similar to man. - -There are many variations in the muscular structure of man, and these -find parallels in the muscles of apes. This is also the case with other -abnormalities of structure, some of which resemble the condition in -mammals much lower than apes. An example of this is the presence of -additional pairs of nipples, arranged symmetrically on the sides of the -chest and occasionally found in human beings. A similar abnormality -has been found in some monkeys, and the best explanation of such an -occurrence is that monkeys, like man, are descended from mammals which -possessed several pairs of mammary glands. - -The large number of abnormalities and rudimentary organs which may -be found in man affords important evidence in favour of the descent -of man from lower animals. Some authors, however, have tried to -dispute this view and even deny the existence of rudimentary organs. -M. Brettes,[152] amongst my opponents, has brought together most -facts upon this matter, with the object of proving that such organs -fulfil some function indispensable to the body and bear witness to the -existence of a general plan of organisation. My opponent, however, -confines himself to general propositions, laying much stress on a law -of “the subordination of organs” without proving that rudimentary -organs have an actual function. In _The Nature of Man_ I remarked on -the uselessness of the wisdom teeth, which are not cut until long -after childhood and which are useless in mastication. In many human -beings these teeth never cut through the gum, and their absence is -no disadvantage. This is a typical case of a rudimentary organ. To -maintain the contrary it would be necessary to prove that the wisdom -teeth fulfil an indispensable function and that their absence was in -some way harmful to the organism. No one has been able to show this. - -The mammary glands in males are another case of rudimentary organs. The -function of these, of course, is well known in females, but it is only -in the rarest cases that they are active in males. - -The organs of sense supply many cases of rudimentary structures. -Animals which live in caves, in the dark, do not discern objects by -sight, and in these cases the eyes are rudimentary. It is quite -impossible to deny the existence of rudimentary organs. They are -extremely important guides to us in our investigation of the past -history of the human race. The comparative study of the organs which -are rudimentary in man and more or less well developed in lower animals -is of fundamental importance in the problem of our origin. - -The higher apes, or anthropoids, display reduction in some parts of -the organs of sense. The organ of smell, for instance, is much less -developed in them than in many other animals. Man has inherited the -imperfect condition of this organ, and his sense of smell is much -less developed than that of mammals which are lower in the scale of -life. Man, however, because of his intelligence, has been able to tame -domestic animals, such as dogs, ferrets, and pigs, and to make use -of their acute sense of smell for tracking game or obtaining edible -plants. The imperfect condition of the sense of smell in man in other -cases is well replaced by his mental powers. He no longer recognises -the approach of an enemy by the sense of smell, in order that he may -take flight, because he has better means of defence than those of -animals. It is not surprising, therefore, that the olfactory apparatus -of man is much reduced as compared with that of lower mammals. In apes -and man the nasal region of the head is much smaller than in their -mammalian ancestors, and in the deep-lying parts of the system there -are corresponding differences. Most mammals, for instance, and the dog -in particular, have four turbinal bones, the purpose of which is to -increase the surface of the mucous membrane of the nose, whilst in man -there are only three, one of which is rudimentary. - -The olfactory apparatus in most mammals contains a well-developed -portion known as the organ of Jacobson, the probable function of -which is to appreciate the flavour of food in the mouth. In man, this -organ is in a rudimentary condition and cannot fulfil its function, -as it is devoid of its proper nerve. This remnant, now useless, gives -us information as to the evolution of the organ of smell in man. In -the human fœtus, Jacobson’s organ is not only better developed than -in adult man, but it is also provided with a stout nerve trunk, which -disappears towards the end of embryonic life. The organ, however, -cannot perform any olfactory function. The human fœtus, moreover, -possesses five turbinals which later on become reduced to three, and of -these only two develop completely. - -The history of the evolution of the organ of smell, as it has been made -out by comparative anatomy and embryology, links this apparatus in -man with the corresponding organs of other mammals by means of these -useless rudiments, which, however, are important evidence in scientific -theory. - -The auditory apparatus also has become reduced in man. Many animals, -in the struggle for existence, require a very acute sense of hearing, -more so than man or some of the most intelligent mammals. We have all -seen how horses raise their ears to hear better when there is the -slightest sound near them. Monkeys and man have lost this power, and -man sometimes tries to supply the defect by artificial means. When a -lecturer, for instance, is not speaking sufficiently loud some of the -audience put their hands to their ears, making a kind of trumpet which -serves to catch the sound. The human external ear is supplied with -muscles, but in most cases these are too feeble to move it. In very -rare cases persons can move their ears, the muscles inserted to the -shell in most of us being mere rudiments of those that existed in our -ancestors. - -In the organ of sight, the little fold in the inner angle of the eye, -known as the semilunar fold, is of special interest. This membrane -is a useless vestige of a structure much better developed in lower -mammals. In the dog it is present as a small third eyelid, supported -by a special cartilage provided with a secreting gland, known as the -Harderian gland. In birds, reptiles and frogs, the corresponding -structures are much better developed. Everyone has seen the delicate -membrane which, in the case of a bird, may shoot out from the inner -angle of the eye and cover the whole of the exposed part of the eyeball -(nictitating membrane). In these animals, the eye is protected by this -third lid, which has its own muscles. As in the dog, this third eyelid -of birds and lower vertebrates is generally provided with a large -Harderian gland, which produces a liquid secretion like tears. - -In most monkeys, this apparatus is much reduced. Many of them have -still a small Harderian gland and a weak third eyelid. In man, as I -have already said, there are only vestiges of these organs, the gland -being almost atrophied and the third eyelid represented only by an -insignificant crescentic fold. In the lower races the fold sometimes -contains a small cartilage. Giacomini found it twelve times in sixteen -negroes, whilst in 548 white people it was found only in three cases. - -The interpretation of these facts is not doubtful. This little fold is -the last vestige in use of an organ which was useful only in our remote -ancestors. - -The organs of reproduction in the human race also show a number of -rudiments. There remain even traces of a hermaphrodite condition, -a very low degree of organisation, going back to extremely -remote ancestors. The evidence given by the very large number of -abnormalities that are found in these organs makes it clear that, in -the long period of the evolution of the human race, they have been -subjected to a series of modifications. Thus, for instance, there is -occasionally present in women a form of uterus resembling that of the -lower mammals, or even the double uterus of marsupials. - -The evolution of man has been dominated by the great development of -the brain and of the intelligence, and man, accordingly, has lost many -organs and functions which were of use in his more or less remote -ancestors. - - - - -II - -HUMAN TRAITS OF CHARACTER INHERITED FROM APES - - The mental character of anthropoid apes—Their muscular - strength—Their expression of fear—The awakening of - latent instincts of man under the influence of fear - - -The facts of which I have given a résumé serve to show that evolution -always leaves definite traces indicating its successive stages in -the form of rudiments. It is probable, therefore, that the pre-human -mental functions or psycho-physiological qualities, which have so long -a history behind them, have also left more or less appreciable traces. -These, however, must be more difficult to find than rudimentary organs -which can be made visible by dissection. - -If we turn first to the animals most nearly related to man, we find -that the living anthropoid apes show in the clearest way their close -relationship with the human race, and suggest that their kinship with -our remoter ancestors must be even greater. - -The anthropoid apes alive to-day are animals inhabiting chiefly virgin -forests, and feeding on fruits and shoots, although they do not despise -eggs or even little birds. To satisfy their wants, they climb with the -greatest ease. Orang-outans and chimpanzees climb slowly and carefully, -whilst gibbons show a greater agility and more perfect acrobatic power. -They may be seen throwing themselves from branch to branch across -spaces of forty feet with the greatest precision. They play at the top -of very tall trees, hardly grasping the branches through which they -pass, making leaps of from twelve to eighteen feet for hours together -with little apparent exertion. - -To give an idea of the dexterity and swiftness of gibbons, Martin -took the case of a female which he observed in captivity. One time -she hurled herself from a perch across a space at least twelve feet -wide, against a window which one would have thought would have been -immediately broken. To the great surprise of the spectators it was not -broken. The gibbon seized with her hands the narrow board between the -panes, and then in an instant twisted herself round and jumped back to -the cage she had left, performing this manœuvre with great strength -and the most marvellous precision. - -The muscular force implied in the above narrative is possessed by all -the anthropoid apes. Battel, an English sailor who gave the first -description of the gorilla in the beginning of the 17th century, stated -that the strength of that animal was so great that ten men could hardly -master an adult specimen. The other anthropoids, although not so strong -as the gorilla, nevertheless display surprising force. - -Edouard, the young male chimpanzee which I used in my experiments -on syphilis, struggled so much at the least touch that it took four -men to master him. I had to give up allowing him to leave his cage -because there was no way of getting him back to it. Even quite young -chimpanzees, females not yet two years old, cannot be handled easily. -Although they are very friendly, my specimens used to resist with all -their strength when it was necessary to put them back in their cages -for the night. Two men had much ado to shut them up. - -Notwithstanding this great muscular force, the anthropoid apes are -cowardly. They have no idea of their strength, but fly from the -approach of the slightest imagined danger. My young chimpanzees, -although their teeth and muscles were already formidable weapons, -showed the greatest fear when I put with them animals even so weak and -harmless as guinea-pigs, pigeons and rabbits. Mice frightened them -very much at first, and it took them a considerable time before they -got over their fear of so insignificant an enemy. When living in a -state of nature the anthropoid apes scarcely ever assume the offensive. -“Though possessed of immense strength,” wrote Huxley,[153] “it is rare -for the Orang to attempt to defend itself, especially when attacked -with fire-arms. On such occasions he endeavours to hide himself, or -to escape along the topmost branches of the trees, breaking off and -throwing down the boughs as he goes.” Savage[154] wrote of chimpanzees -that “they do not appear ever to act on the offensive, and seldom, -if ever really, on the defensive.” When a female was surprised on a -tree with her young ones “her first impulse was to descend with great -rapidity and make off into the thicket.”[155] - -The gorilla, the strongest and most ferocious of the apes, has -sometimes been observed to take the offensive. Savage, quoted by -Huxley, said that “they are exceedingly ferocious, and always offensive -in their habits, never running from man, as does the chimpanzee. -The females and young, at the first cry, quickly disappear. He (the -male) then approaches the enemy in great fury, pouring out his horrid -cries in quick succession.”[156] Only males take the offensive, -nor can this be of frequent occurrence, as one of the most recent -observers, Koppenfels,[157] states that “the gorilla never attacks man -spontaneously; he tries to avoid him, and, as a rule, takes to flight -as soon as he sees a man, uttering peculiar guttural cries.” - -Which of these characters are preserved in the human race? Man is -naturally feebler and less of a gymnast than the great apes, but his -disposition is cowardly. One of the earliest signs of mental activity -in an infant is the fear of surrounding circumstances. The smallest -change in its balance or its being put in a bath cause it to show -signs of real terror. Later on, it is alarmed when it sees any kind of -animal, exactly in the fashion of a young chimpanzee. The most harmless -spider is enough to frighten it. - -Although mental culture subdues fear to a large extent, fear reveals -itself more or less strongly from time to time, and it is on such -occasions that we may find in the human being psychological relics of -his ancestors. An analysis of fear is of special interest. - -The first result of the emotion of fear is flight. Consciousness of -danger sets our limbs in motion, and our instinctive desire to escape -displays itself even when flight is more dangerous than what we wish -to avoid. At the first alarm of fire in a public building, people rush -towards the exits and in so doing often perish from their wish to -escape. Even in the extreme of terror, the desire of flight is one of -the earliest impulses. Mosso, a well-known Italian physiologist, in a -monograph on fear, relates that when a Calabrian brigand was sentenced -to death “he uttered a sharp cry, heart-rending and terrible, looked -around him as if he were eagerly seeking for something, and then -stepped backwards as if to fly, and threw himself against the wall of -the court, writhing, with arms outstretched, scratching at the wall as -if he were trying to break through it.” - -Although in such a case it was futile and often is harmful, the -instinct of flight from danger is inherited from ancestors from a -time when it served to save life. Attempts to escape are not the -only signs of fear. There is often a trembling fit which would make -flight impossible. In Mosso’s case of the Calabrian brigand, “after -his struggles, cries and contortions, he fell on the ground in a -motionless heap, like a wet rag; he became pale and trembled more than -I have seen any other person tremble; his muscles seemed changed into -a soft and quivering jelly.” This condition of trembling inertia is -another legacy from animals. Quivering of the muscles often manifests -itself in terrified animals. Darwin[158] wrote of it, “trembling is of -no service, often of much disservice, and cannot at first have been -acquired through the will, and then rendered habitual in association -with any emotion.” The phenomenon seemed to him obscure and difficult -to explain, a view shared by Mosso. The trembling of the musculature of -the body is a generalised and exaggerated form of the movements of the -cutaneous muscles in the condition known popularly as “goose-skin.” The -latter, however, is a relic of an adaptation useful to some animals. -The hedgehog rarely takes to flight at the approach of danger, but -stands still, and using strongly developed muscles, rolls itself into a -ball. In birds and many mammals, the muscles of the skin cause erection -of the feathers or hairs. These movements often are performed during -fright, and according to Darwin, serve not only to warm the skin, -but sometimes to make the animal appear larger and more terrifying to -enemies. - -Fear and cold alike cause contraction of the superficial blood-vessels, -and, in man, excite the contraction of the minute rudimentary muscles -inserted to the roots of the hairs. “Goose-skin” is caused by the -contraction of these muscles, the condition being a functional -rudiment, no longer serving to warm the skin nor to make the body -appear larger. In a few exceptional cases, “goose-skin” can be produced -voluntarily. In the normal condition, the rudimentary cutaneous muscles -of man are immobile, and it requires some special stimulation to set -them in action. - -Fear, which is occasionally able to excite the contraction of the -involuntary muscles, also stimulates other muscles against the will. -Under the influence of emotions that powerfully affect the nervous -system, and particularly under that of fear, contractions of the -bladder and intestines may be so violent that it is impossible to -prevent the voiding of their contents. Accidents of this kind are not -infrequent in the case of youthful candidates at examinations. Mosso -relates of a friend, a volunteer in the war of 1866, that he was seized -with terror during a battle and that the utmost efforts of his will -failed to make his body endure the terrible spectacle. - -The involuntary action of the bladder and intestines during fear is -a legacy from animals. The phenomenon is common in dogs and monkeys. -Chimpanzees, when laid hold of, discharge their urine and fæces. At -Madeira I had an unusually cowardly _Cercopithecus_ monkey which when -at all alarmed discharged the contents of the rectum. Quite possibly -such a mechanism was useful for the preservation of the individual. The -emission of various kinds of excretions is of use in the struggle for -existence. In that way the fox drives the badger from its earth and -takes possession of it, whilst polecats and skunks defend themselves -against more powerful carnivorous animals by discharging on them -fœtid secretions. - -Instinctive fear is therefore a very powerful stimulant, awakening -functions which are rudimentary and almost completely extinct. -Sometimes it sets in operation mechanisms which have long been -paralysed. Pausanias gives an example of a dumb young man who recovered -his speech when he was terrified by seeing a lion. Herodotus relates -that the son of Crœsus, who was dumb, on seeing a Persian about to -kill his father, cried out: “You must not kill Crœsus,” and from -that time onwards was able to talk. These ancient narratives have been -confirmed by many modern observations. A woman, for instance, who had -been dumb for several years, on seeing a fire, was terrified and cried -out suddenly “Fire!” after which her speech was restored. Such are -cases of the awakening of a function which has been arrested only for -several years. But fear can bring into activity other mechanisms which -have been inactive from time immemorial. - -Many different kinds of animals can swim instinctively. This is true -in the case of most birds and mammals. There are some species which -show a repugnance to water, but none the less swim well enough if they -are thrown into it. Cats shun water as much as possible, but, none -the less, can swim quite easily. Historians relate that Hannibal had -great difficulty in getting his elephants to cross the Rhone. Some -females were ferried across first, upon which the other elephants threw -themselves into the water to pursue them and swam across the river -without any difficulty (Lenthéric, _Le Rhône_, 1892, p. 81). - -The lower monkeys can swim without being taught, but the anthropoid -apes have lost this power, and man also is without it. M. Volz[159] -states that the different species of gibbons which live in Sumatra are -separated by rivers. Their inability to swim makes these a complete -barrier. It is probable that the lower races, in this respect, are -better endowed than we are. It is said that in the case of negroes, -children run to the sea or to rivers almost as soon as they leave the -cradle, and learn to swim almost as quickly as to walk.[160] In the -case of white people, many find it very difficult to learn to swim, -and it is at least certain that swimming is not instinctive as in the -case of our animal ancestors. Christmann,[161] the author of a treatise -on swimming, states that the reason of man is a worse guide than the -infallible instinct of the animal. Fear is able to stifle reason and -to allow the instinct to come into play. It is known that children or -adults may be taught to swim by throwing them into the water. Under the -influence of fear, the instinctive mechanism inherited from animals -awakens, and man soon becomes a swimmer. There are some teachers of -swimming who use this method successfully. I have myself known an -individual who learnt the art in that way, and M. Troubat, librarian at -the International Library, has informed me that one of his friends, a -journalist who died at Noyon several years ago, bathed in the Seine one -evening at Neuilly when he could not swim. Unexpectedly finding himself -beyond his depth, a sudden movement of fear saved him. Since then, he -said, he knew how to swim. - -Just as there are cases in which terror provokes flight, and others in -which it causes an arrest of motion, so also fear may do a disservice -to a swimmer. Those who employ fear as a means of teaching to swim, -know that they must intervene if there is real danger. It is true, none -the less, that up to a certain point fear can awaken functions which -have been atrophied for numberless generations, and that we can learn -from it something as to the evolution of the human race. - - - - -III - -SOMNAMBULISM AND HYSTERIA AS MENTAL RELICS - - Fear as the primary cause of hysteria—Natural - somnambulism—Doubling of personality—Some examples of - somnambulists—Analogy between somnambulism and the life - of anthropoid apes—The psychology of crowds—Importance - of the investigation of hysteria for the problem of the - origin of man - - -The study of fear is interesting in other respects than those with -which I have been dealing. It is also a primary cause of the obscure -and complicated phenomena of hysteria. - -Thus, for instance, amongst twenty-two hysterical women observed by -Georget[162] the primary causes were: terror, 13 cases; extreme grief, -7 cases; extreme annoyance, one case. A patient of M. Pitres, of -Bordeaux, first exhibited hysteria after being extremely terrified. A -man with a tame bear had come to the village. The patient went to see -the performance and elbowed her way through the crowd until she got -to the front row. The bear, whilst dancing, passed so close that its -cold muzzle touched the cheek of the young girl. Marie—for that was -the patient’s name—was terrified. She ran quickly home, and almost -on her arrival fell on her bed in an attack of convulsion and extreme -delirium. Since then the attacks have been repeated many times, and the -delirium associated with them always turns upon the terror caused by -the bear touching her. - -A hysterical woman at the Salpétrière is haunted by terrifying dreams. -She thinks someone is trying to murder her, or to cut her throat, or -that she is falling into water, and she keeps crying for help.[163] - -Some of the most curious phases of hysteria are the paradoxical and -extraordinary cases of so-called natural somnambulism, in which the -patients, whilst asleep, perform all sorts of acts of which they -remember nothing in their waking hours. Cases of duplication of -personality are also known, in which the patients live in two different -states without, in one of these, having the slightest remembrance of -what takes place in the other. One of the most curious observations was -that of the somnambulist who became _enceinte_ whilst in her second -state. In her first, or normal condition, she was ignorant of the -reason of her physical changes, although in the second state she knew -about it quite well and spoke freely of it (Pitres, _op. cit._ II, 215). - -In the state of natural somnambulism the patients generally reproduce -the normal acts of their daily life which they have acquired the habit -of performing unconsciously. Artisans devote themselves to their manual -work, sempstresses begin to sew, maid servants brush shoes or clothes, -lay the table and so forth. Educated persons devote themselves to -intellectual work to which they are accustomed. Clergymen have been -known to compose their sermons in the somnambulistic condition, and to -read them over to correct mistakes in style or in spelling. - -However, besides somnambulists who during slumber simply repeat the -usual acts of their life, there are others who do special things to -which they are unaccustomed. - -It is these cases which are most interesting from my point of view. -I shall take one case which has been specially well reported. A -hysterical patient, a girl of 24 years of age, was admitted as an -in-patient to the hospital Laënnec. One Sunday, she got up about one -o’clock in the morning. The night watchman, who was alarmed, went for -the night doctor, who witnessed the following scene. “The patient went -to the staircase leading to the nurses’ quarters, then suddenly turned -round and walked towards the wash-house. The door of that being closed, -she then groped for a time and turned towards the women’s dormitory -in which she had formerly slept. She went up to the top of the house -where this dormitory was, and when she got on the landing, opened a -window leading to the roof, went out of the window, walked along the -gutter, under the horrified eyes of the nurse who followed her and who -did not dare to speak to her, went in again by another window and went -down the stairs.” “It was at this moment that I saw her,” said the -night doctor; “she was walking noiselessly, her gait was automatic, her -arms hanging by her sides, a little bent, the head erect and fixed, -her hair disordered, her eyes wide open; she seemed like some strange -apparition.”[164] This is obviously the case of a hysterical subject, -who in a normal condition was not accustomed to climb upon roofs and -walk along the gutters. - -Another observation, reported by Charcot, related to a young man, -seventeen years old, the son of a large manufacturer, and of good -address. Tired out by working for his final examination, he had gone -to bed early. Some time later he rose from the bed in his college -dormitory, went out by a window, and without accident climbed on the -roof and took a long and dangerous walk along the gutters. He was -awakened before any accident occurred (Feinkind, p. 70). - -A case observed by Dr. Mesnet and M. Mottet was still more interesting. -A lady thirty years old and extremely hysterical got out of bed in the -night, “dressed herself, completed her toilet without help, removed the -furniture in her way without stumbling against it. She was indifferent -and idle by day, but strenuous at night in performing the most varied -acts. I have seen her walking about in her rooms, opening doors, going -down to the garden, leaping on seats with the utmost agility, running -about, in fact doing all these things much better than in her waking -hours, in which she got about only slowly and with aid” (Feinkind, p. -84). - -Horst has related an extraordinary incident which took place in the -sixteenth century. “A soldier walked in his sleep to a window, and with -the help of a rope climbed a high tower, secured a jackdaw’s nest with -its young birds, and regained his bed, where he remained asleep until -the morning.”[165] Unfortunately there are not sufficiently detailed -facts regarding this incident, and for fully described cases we must -return to modern times. Dr. Guinon has related one case in ample -detail. A man thirty-four years of age, by occupation an interpreter, -was taken into hospital for hysterical attacks. “One night soon after -he came under the care of the physicians, this patient, towards one -o’clock in the morning, suddenly arose from bed, threw open a window -and jumped across the sill into the courtyard of the hospital. The -attendants on duty ran after him, and saw him hurrying away, undressed -and carrying a pillow in his arms. He traversed a series of gardens -and walks, with the topography of which he was unacquainted, climbed a -ladder and got on the roof of the hydrotherapeutic establishment, up -and down which he proceeded to run with the greatest agility. Sometimes -he stopped in his flight and rocked the pillow he was carrying, kissing -and soothing it as if it were a child. Then he retraced the route he -had taken.” On being questioned next morning, he had not the faintest -remembrance of his nocturnal exploit. “A similar fit came on him five -or six times” (Feinkind, p. 108). - -The same patient, “after having turned over in bed several times, -seized a pillow and held it to his breast. He then got out of bed, -and, in his nightgown, ran through the dormitory to a door leading to -the lavatories. He opened the door, readily but with violence, and -entered one of the closets. Then, still holding the pillow against his -chest with one arm, by a gymnastic feat both difficult and dangerous, -yet which he performed with the utmost precision, using his feet and -the free arm, he got hold of the edge of the frame of an open window, -through which he swung himself to the sill, alighting on both feet, -after which, preserving the pillow carefully from contact or shocks, -he jumped to the ground (the infirmary ward was on the ground floor). -He then ran quickly to the opposite corner of the courtyard, passing -the whole length of the great building at full speed, holding the -pillow carefully. By a path which led round the building, he reached a -corner where there was a tower supporting a great water-tank. A kind of -metallic ladder, placed almost vertically and with rounded steps, led -up the side of the tower to a sort of observation-landing which at one -point was adjacent to the edge of the roof of the bath-house. - -“The patient set himself to climb this ladder without any hesitation, -holding on by his free hand and placing his naked feet on the rounded -steps with extreme precision. When he reached the nearest point to -the roof of the bath-house he leapt upon that, and at a running pace -climbed the zinc roof to the crest, looking round him from time to time -to see if his imaginary pursuers were near. He ran along the crest -which was so narrow that his feet had to be placed alternately on -either side on the slopes of the steep-pitched roof, a performance so -dangerous that none of the officials would follow him, and which none -the less he performed with complete assurance and without a single slip. - -“When he reached the middle of the building he sat down on the crest -of the roof, leaning against a ventilating chimney. He then took the -pillow which he had been carrying carefully, placed it on his knees -with a corner against his shoulder, and began to rock it as if it -were a child, crooning to it, stroking it with his hand or with his -cheek that he pressed gently against the corner. From time to time his -eyebrows contracted and his looks hardened, and he gazed around him as -if he were being pursued or watched, then gave a growl of rage, and -took to flight again, carrying the pillow on his dangerous path. All -the time he kept speaking, but we could not hear what he said. He saw -nothing that was not in his dream; he did not understand when his name -was called aloud; but he could hear, for at the slightest sound near -him he rushed off again as if his pursuers were upon him. This episode -lasted about two hours, during which he had climbed over all the roofs -in the vicinity, defying our pursuit of him” (Feinkind, pp. 106-112). - -I could give other similar cases, but I think that I have shown -sufficiently that man, when in the condition of natural somnambulism, -exhibits qualities that he does not possess in the normal state, -becoming strong, adroit, and a good gymnast, like his anthropoid -ancestors. The close resemblance between the manœuvres of Martin’s -gibbon, which I described earlier in this chapter, and the dangerous -exploits of some sleep walkers is most striking. - -The impulses to climb on roofs and poles, to run along in rain gutters, -to climb a tower to take a bird’s nest, are characteristic examples of -the instinctive actions of climbing animals, like the anthropoid apes. -Dr. Barth[166] defines somnambulism as “a dream with exaltation of the -memory and automatic action of the nervous centres, without voluntary -and conscious control.” “The striking exaltation of the memory is the -dominating condition. The extreme exactness of the memory of places -displayed by the somnambulist makes us understand how he performs -his nocturnal wanderings, doing almost without the aid of his senses -numberless deeds of which he would be practically incapable in a -waking condition.” However, as such a patient performs new acts which -he has never accomplished before in his own individual life, we must -suppose that the exaltation of memory includes extremely ancient facts, -dating perhaps from the pre-human period. Man has inherited from his -ancestors a number of mechanisms of the brain, the activity of which -is inhibited by restraints which have been developed later. Just as -man possesses mammary glands which under ordinary conditions cannot -secrete milk, so also, in his brain, there are contained groups of -cells which are inactive in the normal condition, but, also, just as in -some exceptional cases man and the males of several species of mammals -are able to give milk, so also in abnormal conditions the atrophied -mechanisms of other nervous centres begin to act. - -The secretion of milk by males is a return to an extremely ancient -condition in which both sexes were able to nourish the young; so, also, -the gymnastic feats and the extraordinary strength of somnambulists are -a return to a normal condition much less remote from us than lactation -in males. - -It is curious to find that, in some cases, natural somnambulism -is associated with power to move the shell of the ear. I know two -brothers, who, when they were young, used to walk in their sleep in -the most typical way. One of them, a chemist, used to climb on a high -cupboard, or simply walk about in the room. The other brother, a -sailor, in a fit of somnambulism, climbed to the top mast of a sailing -ship. These brothers, who were somnambulists, had the cutaneous muscles -extremely well developed and were able to move their ears voluntarily. - -In this case the abnormality was hereditary in the family, and the -two daughters of one of the brothers were also somnambulistic and had -control over the muscles of the ears. Here, then, is a case of the -simultaneous recurrence of two characters of our ancestors: mobility -of the ear and agility in gymnastic feats. M. Barth characterises the -somnambulist as “a living automaton in whom conscious will is for the -time being destroyed.” According to him, the somnambulist “acts at -the suggestion of circumstances, and what seem most extraordinary in -what he does are in reality instinctive reactions.” This description -agrees well with my view that in natural somnambulism the instincts -of our pre-human ancestors are awakened, instincts which under normal -conditions are latent and rudimentary. - -Sometimes, under the stimulus of fear, the instinctive mechanism of -swimming is awakened in man. It would be extremely interesting to know -if a similar occurrence took place in somnambulists. I have been unable -to find in literature any sufficient facts upon this subject. I can -quote only one case, and that with all reserve, which was published -in the article “Somnambulism” in the _Dictionnaire des Sciences -Médicales_. “It is related that a somnambulist who took to swimming -during one of his fits was called by his name several times, and became -so frightened when he awoke that he was drowned.” It would be extremely -interesting to collect more numerous facts on the instincts shown by -somnambulists. - -I have given a good deal of attention to natural somnambulism with -the idea that I should find in it traits recalling those of the life -of anthropoid apes. I think that the extremely varied phenomena of -hysteria could supply us with other facts, useful in investigating -the psycho-physiological history of man. Perhaps some of the facts of -so-called “lucidity” which are well established could be explained -as the awakening of special sensations atrophied in the human race, -but present in animals. It is known that in vertebrate anatomy organs -are found which have the structures of organs of sense, but which are -absent or quite rudimentary in the human body. On the other hand, -it is known that animals perceive some phenomena of the surrounding -world, for the perception of which man has no organs of sense. Fish, -for instance, appreciate gradations in the depth of water, birds and -mammals have a sense of orientation and can anticipate changes in the -weather more exactly than our meteorological science. When under the -influence of hysteria, man may possibly be able to recover these senses -of our remote ancestors, and to know things of which he is ignorant in -the normal condition. - -Hysteria is common to man and animals. Amongst the numerous chimpanzees -which I have owned, several have shown signs of hysteria. Some, -when they were in the slightest degree annoyed, lay on the ground, -screaming terribly, and rolling about like children in a fit of -passion. One young chimpanzee used to pull out its hair when it was in -a fit of temper. The view that hysteria is a relapse to the condition -of our animal ancestors is supported by the conception of hysterical -phenomena, suggested by Dr. Babinsky.[167] This well-known neurologist -thinks that “the phenomena of hysteria have two special characters, -the one being that they can be reproduced by suggestion in some cases -with the most complete fidelity, and the other that they can disappear -under the sole influence of persuasion.” M. Babinsky thinks that “the -hysteric patient is neither unconscious nor completely conscious, but -is in a state of special consciousness.” In my opinion the latter -condition corresponds to the state of mind of our more or less remote -ancestors. - -Occasionally a man, under some sudden impulse, falls into a condition -of extreme violence, and, being unable to control himself, commits -acts of which he repents immediately afterwards. It is the custom to -say that at such times the brute has awakened in the man. This is -more than a metaphor. (Probably some nervous mechanism from a remote -ancestor has come into action, at the call of some stimulation.) As our -anthropoid ancestors and primitive man lived in tribes, it is natural -that when men are grouped together, certain savage instincts should -awaken. In this connection it is interesting to study the psychology -of crowds. When man is surrounded by a great many of his fellows, -he becomes particularly responsive to suggestion. This condition is -characterised as follows by M. G. Le Bon,[168] the author of a study -on the psychology of crowds: “The most careful observations seem to -prove that an individual immerged for some length of time in a crowd -in action soon finds himself—either in consequence of the magnetic -influence given out by the crowd, or from some other cause of which we -are ignorant—in a special state, which much resembles the state of -fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds himself in the -hands of the hypnotiser. The activity of the brain being paralysed -in the case of the hypnotised subject, the latter becomes the slave -of all the unconscious activities of his spinal cord, which the -hypnotiser directs at will. The conscious personality has entirely -vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and thoughts -are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser” (p. 11). Man, -under the influence of the crowd, gets into a condition like that of -a hysterical patient and displays a state of mind identical with that -of our ancestors. “Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms part of -an organised crowd, a man descends several rungs in the ladder of -civilisation. Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a crowd, -he is a barbarian—that is, a creature acting by instinct” (p. 13). - -It is quite natural to find relics of our prehistoric past in all kinds -of hysterical phenomena. We could reach extremely interesting facts -regarding the tribal and sexual life of apes, if we tried to compare -with them the phenomena of human hysteria. The passionate gestures -which are characteristic of some hysterical cases could probably be -explained in this way quite simply, and the wild cries uttered by -patients in acute hysteria would be similarly explicable. - -I think that just as anatomists seek for points of comparison between -man and animals, as palæontologists make excavations to discover the -buried remains of creatures intermediate between man and apes, so -also, psychologists and doctors should investigate the rudimentary -psycho-physical functions with the object of building up the history of -the evolution of our psychical life. It cannot be doubted that in this -branch of science new arguments would be found to support the already -well founded theory of the simian origin of the human race. - - - - -PART VI - -SOME POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL ANIMALS - - - - -I - -THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE - - Problem of the species in the human race—Loss - of individuality in the associations of lower - animals—Myxomycetes and Siphonophora—Individuality in - Ascidians—Progress in the development of the individual - living in a society - - -In the following pages I shall try to reply to the criticism on _The -Nature of Man_ that in that book I only considered the individual -without thinking of the interests of society or of the race. I have -been reproached for having lost sight of the truth that in the general -course of evolution the interests of the individual must yield to the -higher interests of the community. It was asserted, in fact, that by -advising orthobiosis, that is to say, the most complete cycle of human -life, ending in extreme old age, I was suggesting something to the -detriment of humanity as a whole. - -This objection rests on a misunderstanding which it will be interesting -to clear up. I think that the complete development of the individual -not only would not injure the community but would be of great advantage -to it. Moreover, we must not lose sight of the fact that the individual -has rights which must not be ignored. - -In the attack on my theory many facts were brought forward which show -that in the animal and vegetable kingdoms the individual is always -sacrificed to the advantage of the race. There is no doubt as to this, -and in the course of this book I have given exact facts bearing on it. -I instanced plants such as the Agave and some Cryptogams which die as -soon as they have reproduced; I have also spoken of the small female -round worms (_Nematoda_) which are brutally torn in pieces and devoured -by their progeny. It would be difficult to find better cases of the -sacrifice of the individual to the species. The rule, however, does not -apply to man, who, in this respect, stands in a special position. - -Since the arrival of man, several species of animals have disappeared -from the earth. Man has played a large part in the destruction of the -Moa (_Aepyornis_) of Madagascar, the largest member of the class of -birds. He destroyed the Dodo of the Island of Mauritius and Steller’s -sea cow (_Rhytina stelleri_), a harmless relative of the Manatee, from -the shores of the Aleutian Archipelago. Man is about to cause the -extinction of several species of harmful carnivorous animals, such -as the wolf and the bear, and possibly it will not be long before -automobiles have replaced the horse, which would then become extremely -rare. However, although he has destroyed so many other species, man has -taken good care of himself. The progress already made by civilisation -has considerably reduced our mortality. Every year, a large number -of young infants are kept alive by the aid of hygiene and medicine. -The decrease of war and of assassination has also played a part in -maintaining the race. The position which man has acquired in the world -makes it more likely that what we have to fear is too great an increase -of population, and although the theory of Malthus has not been -verified in all its details, it is still true that man could multiply -on the face of the earth too abundantly. It is already clear that -almost in the proportion that humanity stops the effusion of its blood -in war, it tends to limit the propagation of the race. - -As the future of the species seems to be safe, it is natural to -consider in the first place that of the individual. In this respect the -facts of general biology are of special interest. - -Man is not the only social animal on the earth. Long before his -appearance other living beings existed in organised societies. -The splendid colonies of Siphonophora float on the surface of the -seas, whilst in the ocean depths there are societies of corals of -extraordinary variability, whilst again, on land, many kinds of insects -live in highly organised societies. - -This social life has been developed without external assistance, and -without any code to regulate the conduct of the individuals united for -a common purpose. - -It will be interesting to give a slight survey of the fundamental -principles of such societies; I intend to draw special attention to -one of the essential points in the societies of animals, hoping to -elucidate the relations between the individuals and society. - -In the organisation of human society the most difficult points are -the extent to which the society may encroach on the individual and -the degree to which the individual may preserve his rights and his -independence. Disputes on these have been interminable, and I do not -propose to discuss the theories according to which an individual must -be sacrificed for the good of the community to which he belongs. -I shall limit myself to reviewing the fate of the individuals in -societies of beings much inferior to man. - -There are examples of societies composed of many individuals, even -amongst living things on the borderland between the animal and -vegetable kingdoms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.—Isolated individuals of a Myxomycete. - -(After Zopff.) - -_a_, spore; _b-f_, escape of the zoospores.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.—Myxomycete individuals united to form a -plasmodium. - -(After Zopff.)] - -There may be found in woods, on dead leaves or on decaying timber, -minute plants resembling tiny mushrooms. These are Myxomycetes, and -the visible portions are minute sacs filled with microscopical rounded -bodies, known as spores. When one of the spores is moistened, there -emerges a minute organism with a mobile appendage by which it can be -impelled through water. A drop of water on a leaf or on a fragment of -timber may be filled with numbers of these tiny swimming bodies (Fig. -21). Their free life as individuals, however, is of brief duration. -When they come into contact, their bodies fuse, forming a gelatinous -mass which may be quite large (Fig. 22). This mass is called a -plasmodium, and is composed of a living substance which can move slowly -over leaves and which exhibits streaming movements in the interior, so -that the whole resembles in some respects the lava from a volcano. - -The plasmodia may be regarded as societies in the constitution of which -the individuality of the members has been completely sacrificed. The -ideal of those philosophers who have urged that man should renounce -his individuality and merge himself in the community has been realised -in the fullest way at the lower end of the scale of life, at an epoch -inconceivably remote from the appearance of the human race. - -Amongst animals, even the most lowly, there are no societies in which -the members are sacrificed so completely to the whole. Individuality -is always preserved to a greater or lesser extent. Consider the -polyps, colonies of which form reefs in the sea and may even become -islands. These creatures live in aggregations, the members of which -are incapable of living an independent life. They are united by living -substance and resemble double monsters, such as Doodica and Radica, who -were so much talked of some years ago when M. Doyen operated upon them. -The peritoneal cavities of these twins were in free communication, -and the blood-vessels were united so that the blood of the one passed -freely into the body of the other. In another double monster, the two -Tscheck girls, Rosa and Josepha, the intestinal tracts communicate, -both leading to a common rectum. In these, who are still alive, the -peritoneum is joined and there is a single urethra. - -In the case of the coral polyps, the fusion of the individuals of the -colony is nearly always much more complete. Each individual has its -own mouth and stomach, whilst the other organs cannot be assigned to -individuals but must be regarded as common to the whole. - -In the swimming polyps or Siphonophora, the loss of individuality -is still more remarkable. These graceful and transparent creatures, -sometimes large in size, live in the sea and may appear on its -surface in great numbers. They possess many whip-like filaments -provided with tentacles, swimming bells and stomachs. There can be -no doubt as to their colonial nature (Fig. 23), but it is difficult -to decide as to whether each piece of the colony, each swimming -bell, stomach and so forth, is to be regarded as an individual or -an organ, different zoologists having taken different views on the -question. One interpretation is that colonial life has brought with -it such modifications that of each individual there remains only a -single organ. Some individuals have been reduced to simple stomachs, -attached to the central stem, whilst others have lost all organs -except that of locomotion which has become one of the swimming bells -of the colony. Other zoologists, and I myself amongst them, think -that the Siphonophora are colonies of organs in which there has been -as yet practically no development of individuality. A living chain of -Siphonophora is simply a number of organs such as stomachs, tentacles, -swimming bells and so forth, united on a common stem. I need not -discuss the disputed point further, for the only matter pertinent to -my argument is that in the Siphonophora the loss of individuality, -the sacrifice of the parts to the whole, is not so great as in the -Myxomycetes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.—One of the Siphonophora. - -(After Chun.) - -_pn_, pneumatic chamber; _clh_, swimming bells; _stl_, stolon.] - -In support of my view, I must recall the small forms of Siphonophora -known as _Eudoxia_. These are detached pieces of the common trunk -which swim freely in the sea and have a remarkable structure (Fig. -24). Their mobility is due to a bell provided with strong muscular -fibres. The bell is a portion of an individual which possesses organs -of reproduction but which is devoid of the means to capture or digest -food. These two functions are performed by a second individual which -is closely united with the first. The nutrient individual has a long -tentacle by which the prey is captured, and a capacious stomach in -which it is digested. The products of digestion pass by channels into -the reproductive individual, carrying as it were a ready-made blood. -_Eudoxia_ in fact is a double being composed of an individual incapable -of locomotion or of reproduction, but adapted for prehension and -digestion, and of a second individual which can reproduce and which is -mobile. _Eudoxia_ is an association resembling that of the blind man -and the paralytic, in Florian’s fable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.—_Eudoxia._ - -(After Chun.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.—_Botryllus_ colonies. - -_o_, mouth ; _A_, common cloaca.] - -Advance in the organisation of social animals is plainly incompatible -with complete loss of individuality, and this becomes the more apparent -the higher we reach in the scale of life. In the social Ascidians, -each member retains all the organs necessary to life. Animals of the -genus _Botryllus_ (Fig. 25), perhaps the most interesting of these -Ascidians, occur in the form of circular colonies. The individuals -which compose the colony are grouped radially around a common centre -which is occupied by the cloaca. Each individual has its own mouth -and digestive tube, but the latter opens into a cloaca, common to all -the individuals, by which the excreta are voided. There is, in fact, -a single anus, as in the case of Rosa and Josepha which I have just -mentioned. - - - - -II - -INSECT SOCIETIES - - Social life of insects—Development and preservation of - individuality in colonies of insects—Division of labour - and sacrifice of individuality in some insects - - -Hitherto I have dealt with associations of animals the members of -which are linked by an actual material bond. In the insect world there -are many cases of highly developed colonies. But the organisation of -insects is high, and is incompatible with the existence of actual -physical connection between the members of the society. - -In early stages of the development of the social instinct in bees, -fully formed and similar individuals join together with the object -of securing the safety of their individual lives. Sometimes they act -together to drive away a common enemy, sometimes, as in winter, they -cling in a mass to maintain their temperature. In such primitive -societies, the young are not reared in common. It is only in much more -highly developed colonies, such as those of some bees and wasps, and of -ants and termites, that the chief object of the common action is care -of the progeny. Such an extreme development of the colony is attained -only by sacrificing the individuality of the members. There is a -far-reaching division of labour, so that the queens, for instance, are -mere machines for laying eggs. In hive-bees the queen can no longer -judge of what is good for the colony, her intellectual functions being -degenerate. She is enclosed in her cell and supported by the workers, -who see in her the future of the race. In times of want the worker-bees -sacrifice their own lives and give the queen the last remnants of -the food-supply so that she survives them. The males are incomplete -individuals and are tolerated only so long as they are required, after -which the workers kill them remorselessly. - -The workers, which take such pains for the well-being of the hive, -are incomplete individuals. Their brains are well developed and they -are well equipped with organs for making wax and collecting food, but -their reproductive organs are reduced to mere vestiges incapable of -fulfilling their functions. - -Here then is a case of loss of individual characters increasing with -the perfection of the colony. Amongst ants and termites, the social -life of which arose quite independently of that of bees, the same -course of events has been repeated. High intelligence and skill -are confined to the workers, in which the reproductive organs are -atrophied. The soldiers have powerful jaws used in defence of the camp, -but they, too, are sexually incomplete. The females and males, in which -the reproductive organs have attained huge proportions so that the -bodies are little more than sacs containing the sexual elements, have -no intelligence and very little skill. - -An extremely curious specialisation, consisting in the formation of -honey-bearing workers, occurs in some Mexican ants. Some of the workers -of these races absorb so much honey that their bodies become swollen -honey-bags. The limbs can no longer support the expanded body, and the -insects, reduced to immobility, do not quit the burrows. Normal life -has become impossible for these individuals, who soon die for the good -of the community. When the normal workers or the sexual individuals -are hungry, they approach the honey-bearers and take honey from their -mouths. The honey-bearers have become no more than animated cupboards -(Fig. 26). - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.—A Honey-ant. - -(After Brehm.)] - -The termites belong to quite another class of the group Insecta, but -in their case a similar sacrifice of the individual to the state -is practised. The females become transformed to shapeless bags of -eggs. They cannot move, but remain secluded in the recesses of the -“ant”-hill, where they lay as many as 80,000 eggs a day. The soldiers -have become provided with jaws so enormous that these unsexed insects -can perform no function other than defence of the colony. - -The partial reduction of individuality in social insects never goes -so far as in the cases of the lower animals I have described. It -may be stated as a general rule that increase in the perfection of -organisation brings with it a more or less complete preservation of -individuality in the members of a community. - -I shall now examine to what extent this law can be applied in the case -of man. - - - - -III - -SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE HUMAN RACE - - Human societies—Differentiation in the human - race—Learned women—Habits of a bee, _Halictus - quadricinctus_—Collectivist theories—Criticisms by - Herbert Spencer and Nietzsche—Progress of individuality - in the societies of higher beings - - -Social life is for the most part little developed amongst vertebrate -animals. The birds and fishes which live in communities present no -organisation of society even comparable with that found amongst -insects. There is little advance in this respect in the case of -mammals, and it is not until we come to man that highly organised -societies are to be found. Man is the first vertebrate to develop an -organised social life. But, whilst in the insect world, instincts are -of supreme importance in the regulation of the community, there is -little instinctive action in human communities. The consciousness of -individuality, or egoism, is very powerful in human beings, and perhaps -for that reason our ancestors made little progress in the development -of social relations. - -Anthropoid apes adhere in little groups or in families without any true -social organisation. Love of the neighbour, or altruism, appears to be -a recent and feeble human acquisition. - -Although the organisation of human society is far advanced and -division of labour very complete, there is no differentiation of the -individuals comparable with what is found amongst insects. Although in -animals so different as Siphonophora, bees, wasps, and termites the -development of the community, proceeding along different lines, has -brought into existence non-sexual individuals, there is no trace of -this specialisation amongst human beings. - -Certain abnormalities in the condition of the sexual organs are -occasionally found in men and women, but these cannot be compared with -the production of sexless individuals that has taken place amongst -other social creatures. I cannot accept the view that we are to see -something analogous to the case of worker bees in the prohibition of -sexual relations imposed by some religious systems on a certain number -of individuals. But in any event there is little importance in this -occurrence, which is rapidly becoming rarer. - -In recent times, both in Europe and the United States of America, there -has been an active development of a femininist movement impelling women -towards higher education. Women, no longer content with the avocations -of mother and housewife, have pressed into professions such as law and -medicine. There is a steady increase in the number of women who study -at the Universities, and countries like Germany, which have tried to -exclude women from higher studies, will soon have to yield before an -irresistible pressure. - -Can we regard the results of this movement as analogous to the -production of sexless workers which has taken place amongst social -insects? I think not. It is undoubtedly true that a certain number -of young women, who, for some reason or other are unlikely to marry, -devote themselves to scientific study. In these cases, however, -celibacy is the cause, not the result of the increased intellectual -activity. On the other hand, it must be remembered that many women -students of science eventually marry. In St. Petersburg, for instance, -there were 1,091 women in the Medical School; of these 80 were already -married and 19 were widows. Of the remaining 992, 436 or 44 per cent. -married during the course of their studies. - -Observation of the femininist movement, which has lasted for more than -forty years, shows that in most cases there is no tendency towards the -formation of individuals resembling the infertile worker insects. Most -lady doctors and learned women would like nothing better than to be the -founders of a family. Even the women who have been most distinguished -in the scientific world are no exception to the rule. In this relation -it is very interesting to follow the details of the life of Sophie -Kowalevsky, one of the most notable of learned women. In her youth, -when she began to study mathematics, she would not admit that feelings -of love had any importance. Later on, however, when she felt herself -growing old, these sentiments awoke in her to such an extent that on -the day when the prize of the Academy of Sciences was bestowed on her, -she wrote to one of her friends, “I am getting innumerable letters of -congratulation, but by the strange irony of fate, I have never felt so -unhappy.” - -The cause of this discontent reveals itself in the words which she -addressed to her most intimate woman friend. “Why is it,” she said, -“that no one loves me? I could give more than most women, and while the -most ordinary women are loved, as for me, I am not loved.”[169] - -It is, in fact, impossible to regard the celibacy of persons devoted -to religion or to scientific studies as the beginning of a special -organisation analogous to that of worker bees. - -However, it is still probable that in the human race a special -differentiation has been established for the accomplishment of -different and essential functions. - -The organisation of human societies has certainly not followed the path -by which social insects attained the formation of sexless individuals. -It much more closely resembles what has taken place in some isolated -animal types. A solitary bee, named _Halictus quadricinctus_ (Fig. 27), -is characterised by the fact that the female does not die when she has -laid her last eggs, as generally happens amongst insects, but remains -alive to cherish her offspring. This final portion of her life does not -last long, and the bee cannot play the prominent part of governess in a -society of insects organised by this specialisation of elderly females. -In the human race the individual life lasts longer and a division of -labour takes place in the fashion suggested by _Halictus quadricinctus_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.—_Halictus quadricinctus._ - -(After Buffon.)] - -An ordinary woman ceases to be fertile at between forty and fifty years -old, that is to say, at a time when, according to statistics, she has -still on the average twenty years to live. During this long period, -she can perform an extremely useful function in society, a function -resembling that of the old mothers of _Halictus quadricinctus_, and -consisting chiefly in the bringing up and education of the children. -Who does not know the extraordinary devotion of grandmothers, and, as -a general rule, of old women, who are extremely useful in bringing up -children. And none the less, it must not be forgotten that, actually, -old age begins too soon, that it is not what it ought to be under -normal conditions, and that human life itself does not last nearly so -long as it ought to do in ideal conditions. We may predict that when -science occupies the preponderating place in human society that it -ought to have, and when knowledge of hygiene is more advanced, human -life will become much longer and the part of old people will become -much more important than it is to-day. - -The members of human society are not divided into sexual and neuter -individuals as amongst insects, but the active life of every individual -can be divided into two periods, the first one of productive activity, -and the second of sterility but none the less devoted to work useful -to the community. The essential difference between the two cases may -be reduced to the contrast that whilst the individuals of which animal -societies are composed are structurally incomplete, in human societies -the individual preserves his integrity. - -We come, then, to the result that the more highly organised a social -being may be, so also the more highly developed is his individuality. -It follows that amongst the theories which seek to control social -life, those are the best which leave a field sufficiently wide and -free for the development of individual initiative. The ideal which -has been so often advocated and according to which the individual -is to be sacrificed as completely as possible to society, cannot be -regarded as in harmony with the general law of organic associations. -Special conditions exist in social life in which great sacrifices are -inevitable, but such an arrangement cannot be considered as general -and permanent. We may predict that the more human beings succeed in -advancing communal life, the fewer cases there will be in which the -individual has to be sacrificed. - -In the hope of subduing the egoism rooted in human nature, moralists -have preached renunciation of individual happiness and the need of -subordinating it to the good of the community. Very often such -doctrine has borne little fruit, but there are cases where it has been -embraced with such ardour that men and, still more, young women have -been led to sacrifice their well-being for what they have taken to be -the common good. However it may involve self-abnegation, there has been -continued insistence on the duty of sacrificing the individual to the -community. - -The existing great inequalities in the distribution of wealth have -revived doctrines the object of which is to redress such injustice. -For more than a century, different forms of socialism have claimed -to formulate rules for the amelioration of mankind. They agree in -a verdict against existing conditions, but follow different paths -in their proposals for the reformation of society. The varieties of -socialism are so numerous that it is difficult even to define the -word. Although collectivist theories have lost much of their early -thoroughness, they are still far from admitting the just claims of -the individuals constituting the society. At socialist assemblies and -congresses the resolutions adopted frequently proclaim aggressively the -sacrifice of the rights of the individual. The members of one socialist -party have been seen refusing the collaboration of newspapers which are -not the official organs of the party, or declining any co-operation -with a government they have proscribed. In strikes organised by -socialists, work is forbidden to men who ardently desire it. Recently -printers have refused to set up newspapers the opinions of which they -did not share, and even doctors have been known to decline to treat -those belonging to another political party. - -It is no new charge against collectivists that they would encroach -too much on individual liberty. They reply that “in social-democratic -society of the future, tyranny and oppression will be impossible. The -secret of the bond will reside in a discipline totally different from -the inanimate obedience of the soldier, a discipline depending on a -willing submission of the individual to the group because of the common -object.”[170] But such discipline and submission may go so far that the -conscience of the individual is seriously offended. And so amongst the -socialists themselves there has arisen a small group which declines to -accept this submergence of the individual in the whole. This group is -composed of anarchists, who, in the name of liberty and the individual, -attack the property and sometimes the lives of their opponents. - -It appears that there has been a notable evolution of collectivist -theories in the century or more in which the abolition of human misery -has been an accepted problem. Whilst there was formerly advocated -the total abolition of private property and the establishment of -phalansteries for communal life, at the present time the demand is -limited to the nationalisation of the means of production, leaving -housing and food to be provided by individual property.[171] - -Through a publication, of M. Kautsky, one of their best known -representatives, the social democrats have announced that “the -nationalisation of the land does not necessarily bring with it the -abolition of private dwellings. The customary attachment of the -dwelling to agricultural employment will cease, but there is no reason -why the peasants’ houses should become collective property.” “Modern -socialism does not exclude individual property in food. One of the -most important, perhaps the most important factor, in making human -life happy and adding to its pleasures is the possible attainment of -a private house. Collective ownership of the land does not exclude -this.” It is very difficult to separate house and garden, especially -from the point of view of considering the pleasures of life. A -garden furnishes the opportunity for endless improvements, many of -which cannot be separated from the idea of individual property. The -concessions which collectivists have been compelled to make show -conclusively the importance of private property. - -Notwithstanding such modifications, many voices have been raised -against the prospect of the socialisation of the means of production -and the concomitant limitations of individual enterprise. The great -English philosopher, Herbert Spencer,[172] against whom narrowness -of view or conservatism could be urged, energetically attacked -collectivist doctrines as tending to reduce human individuality to -a dead level. By a series of cogent instances, he showed the evil -results of the best intentioned efforts to equalise opportunities -and to abolish poverty. He foretold that slavery would be the real -outcome if the State interfered too much in spheres that ought to be -left to individual enterprise. He believed that the institution of a -collectivist State would bring great dangers. - -Nietzsche has attacked socialism with his customary exaggeration. -“Socialism,”[173] he wrote, “is the fanatical younger brother of dying -despotism, whose goods he wishes to inherit; his efforts are, in the -deepest sense of the word, reactionary. He wishes a wealth of power in -the State greater than despotism ever enjoyed, but he goes beyond all -the past inasmuch as he strives absolutely to stifle the individual; -for him the individual is a useless efflorescence of nature to be -tamed into a useful organ of the community.” Further, “Socialism at -least teaches brutally and convincingly the danger of concentrating -power in the State, for it is a covert attack on the State itself. -When its harsh voice raises the war-cry ‘Let the State control as much -as possible,’ the cry will at first become louder; but soon another -phrase will grow equally clamant, ‘Let the State control as little as -possible.’” - -It is most probable that no shade of socialism will be able to -solve the problem of social life with a sufficient respect for the -maintenance of individual liberty. None the less the progress of human -knowledge will inevitably bring about a great levelling of human -fortunes. Intellectual culture will lead men to give up many things -that are superfluous or even harmful, and that are still thought -indispensable by most people. The conceptions that the greatest good -fortune consists in the complete evolution of the normal cycle of human -life and that this goal can be reached most easily by plain and sober -habits will convince men of the folly of much of the luxury that now -shortens human existence. Whilst the rich will choose a simpler mode of -life and the poor will be able to live better, none the less, private -property, acquired or inherited, may be maintained. Evolution must -be gradual and much effort and new knowledge is required. Sociology, -a new-born science, must learn of biology, her older sister. Biology -teaches us that in proportion that the organisation becomes more -complex, the consciousness of individuality develops, until a point is -reached at which individuality cannot be sacrificed to the community. -Amongst low creatures such as _Myxomycetes_ and _Siphonophora_, the -individuals disappear wholly or almost wholly in the community; -but the sacrifice is small, as in these creatures the consciousness -of individuality has not appeared. Social insects are in a stage -intermediate between that of the lower animals and man. It is only in -man that the individual has definitely acquired consciousness, and for -that reason a satisfactory social organisation cannot sacrifice it on -pretext of the common good. To this conclusion the study of the social -evolution of living beings leads me. - -It is plain that the study of human individuality is a necessary step -in the organisation of the social life of human beings. - - - - -PART VII - -PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM - - - - -I - -PREVALENCE OF PESSIMISM - - Oriental origin of pessimism—Pessimistic - poets—Byron—Leopardi—Poushkin—Lermontoff—Pessimism - and suicide - - -In the attempt to formulate a pessimistic theory of human nature, we -are naturally led to ask why it is that so many famous men have come to -a purely pessimistic conception of human life. - -Pessimism, although it has been most prominent in modern times, is -extremely old. Everyone knows the pessimistic wail of Ecclesiastes, -written nearly ten centuries before our era: “Vanity of Vanities, all -is vanity.” Solomon, the supposed author, states that he “hated life, -because the work that is wrought under the sun is grievous unto me, for -all is vanity and vexation of spirit” (Eccl. ii., 17). - -Buddha raised pessimism to the rank of a doctrine. All life seemed to -him sorrow. “Birth is sorrow, old age is sorrow, disease is sorrow, -union with one whom we do not love is sorrow, separation from one whom -we love is sorrow, not to gratify desire is sorrow, in short, our five -bonds with the things of the earth are sorrow.”[174] This Buddhistic -pessimism has been the source of most of the modern pessimistic -theories. - -Pessimism arose in the East and was much in vogue in India even apart -from Buddhism. In the poems known under the name of Bhartrihari, and -dating from the beginning of the Christian era, human life has been -commiserated in the following fashion. “One hundred years are the -limit of the life of man; night takes half of them, half of the other -half is childhood and old age, the rest is filled with diseases, with -separations and the misfortunes that come from them, with working for -others and with wasting one’s time. Where can happiness be found in an -existence most like to the bubbles in broken water?” “Man’s health is -destroyed by every kind of care and disease. When fortune comes to him, -evil follows as if by an open door. Death takes all human beings, one -after the other, and they can offer no resistance to their fate. What -is there assured amongst all that the mighty Brahma has created?”[175] - -Pessimistic theories spread from the Asiatic East to Egypt and Europe. -Three centuries before the Christian era, there arose the philosophy of -Hegesias, which maintained that experience was generally deceptive and -that enjoyment was quickly followed by satiety and disgust. According -to him, the sum of pain surpassed the sum of pleasure in life, so that -happiness was unattainable, and in reality never existed. It was vain -to seek pleasure and happiness, as these could not be realised. It was -better to try to be indifferent, dulling feeling and desire. In fact, -life was no better than death, and it was often preferable to end it -by suicide. Hegesias was called _Pisithanatos_, the adviser of death. -“Listeners thronged around him, his doctrine spread rapidly, and his -disciples, persuaded by his voice, gave themselves to death. Ptolemy -was perturbed by it, and fearing that the dislike of life would become -contagious, closed the school of Hegesias and exiled its master.”[176] - -The pessimistic tendency sometimes appears in the writings of many -Greek and Latin philosophers and poets. Seneca wrote: “The spectacle of -human life is lamentable. New misfortunes overwhelm you before you have -freed yourself from the old ones.”[177] - -It is in modern days, however, that there has been the greatest spread -of pessimism. - -Besides the philosophical theories of the last century, those -of Schopenhauer, von Hartmann and Mailaender, which I discussed -sufficiently in _The Nature of Man_, poets have formulated a -pessimistic view of life. Even Voltaire was a pessimist in the -following lines: - - Alas! what are the course and the goal of life? - Only follies and then the darkness. - Oh Jupiter! in creating us you made - A heartless jest. - -In _The Nature of Man_ I described Byron’s expression of his conception -of the evils of human life. Soon after the death of the great English -poet, a celebrated Italian poet, Giacomo Leopardi, sounded a note of -abandoned pessimism. - -Here are words which he addressed to his own heart[178]: “Be quiet for -ever, you have beaten enough, nothing is worthy of your beating and the -earth is not worthy of your sighs. Life is nothing but bitterness and -weariness, there is nothing else in it. The world is nothing but mire. -Repose from now onwards. Be in despair for ever. Destiny has given us -nothing but death. Despise henceforth yourself and nature, and the -shameful concealed power which decrees the ruin of all and the infinite -variety of all.” - -Leopardi makes his readers witnesses of his distraction and his grief: -“I shall study the blind truth”—he wrote in a poem dedicated to -Charles Pépoli—“I shall study the blind fates of things mortal and -immortal. Why humanity came into existence, and was burdened with pain -and sorrow, to what final end destiny and nature are driving it, for -whose pleasure or advantage is our great pain, what order, what laws -rule this mysterious universe which wise men cover with praise, and I -am content to wonder at” (_ibid._, p. 15). - -Quite a school of poets has been developed, singing the pain of the -world, the “Weltschmerz” of German authors, amongst whom Heine and -Nicolas Lenau are specially distinguished. - -Russian poetry was born under the influence of Byronism, and its best -exponents, Poushkin and Lermontoff, often laboured over the problem of -the object of human existence, finding only sad answers. Poushkin, who -is justly regarded as the father of lyric poetry in Russia, stated his -pessimistic conception in the following lines:— - - Useless gift, gift of chance, - Life, why wert thou given me? - And why from the beginning art thou doomed - Irrevocably to death? - - What unfriendly power - Has drawn me from the darkness, - Has filled my soul with passion, - And breathed doubt into my soul? - - There is no goal for me, - My heart and my soul are empty; - And the dull emotion of life - Has filled me with black care. - -Recently, Mde. Ackermann, in a series of short poems, has given voice -to the grief caused to her by the world and life as they are, although -she does not state exactly the reason of her bitter complaints. - -Whilst pessimistic philosophers and poets reflect the thoughts and -feelings of their contemporaries, it is certain that they also -seriously influence their readers. And so there has come into existence -a deeply rooted conviction that the miseries of human life are far -from being countervailed by its happiness. Probably such ideas have -influenced the number of suicides. We do not know with any certainty -the real motives of most cases of self-destruction, but it cannot be -denied that the trend of modern thought has played an important part. -According to statistics, the chief causes of suicide are “hypochondria, -melancholia, weariness of life, and unbalancing of the mind.” Thus from -the Danish statistics it appears (and Denmark is the country in which -suicide is most prevalent) that of 1,000 cases of suicides of males, -between 1866 and 1895, 224, or one-quarter, were referred to the causes -I have just mentioned. In the case of women, the corresponding figures -are higher, amounting to nearly one-half (403 out of 1,000). The second -most common cause of male suicides is alcoholism (164 in 1,000).[179] -It is very probable that pessimism was the determining condition in -most of the suicides referred to these two categories of causes. -Leaving out of the question the true cases of mental alienation, -amongst the victims of melancholia, hypochondria and weariness of life, -in whom the mental condition was not pathological in the strict sense -of the word, there must have been many who killed themselves because -their view of life was pessimistic. And amongst the victims of drink, -there are many who take to alcohol because they are convinced that -life is not worth preserving. - -The progressive increase in the numbers of suicides in modern times -is an index of the great influence of pessimism. There have been even -societies for the promotion of suicide. In such a society, founded in -Paris in the beginning of last century, members placed their names -in an urn, to be drawn by chance. He whose name was drawn had to -kill himself in the presence of the other members. According to its -rules, this society admitted only persons of honour who must have had -experience of “the injustice of man, the ingratitude of a friend, the -infidelity of a wife or mistress, and who, moreover, for many years -had had a void in their souls and a distaste of what this world can -offer.”[180] - -Although such societies no longer exist, individuals continue to put -their lives to an end, in greater numbers every year. - - - - -II - -ANALYSIS OF PESSIMISM - - Attempts to assign reasons for the pessimistic conception - of life—Views of E. von Hartmann—Analysis of - Kowalevsky’s work on the Psychology of Pessimism - - -In view of the facts I brought together in my last chapter, there -is occasion to inquire if it be possible to discover the intimate -mechanism by which men arrive at a conception of life as an evil to be -got rid of as quickly as possible. Why do so many think that man is -less happy than the beasts, and that cultured and intelligent men are -more unhappy than those who are ignorant or feeble-minded ? - -I have related how in a society of friends of suicide, injustice and -unfaithfulness were regarded as prime factors in arousing a distaste -for life. Shakspeare made Hamlet exclaim that if it were possible to -put an end to our days no one would continue to live:— - - For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, - The oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely? - -For Byron, besides diseases, death and slavery, the evils that we see, -there are others:— - - And worse, the woes we see not—which throb through - The immedicable soul, with heart-aches ever new. - -In many of his works he insists on the feeling of satiety which was -almost continually upon him. Every sensation of pleasure that came to -him was rapidly succeeded by a still stronger feeling of disgust. - -Heine thought that existence was evil and saw - - ... across the hard surfaces of the rocks - The homes of men and the hearts of men— - In the one as in the others, lies, imposture and misery. - -As I urged in _The Nature of Man_, consciousness of the shortness of -human life has been an important factor in exciting pessimism, and we -find this theme recurring in pessimistic writers. Leopardi returns to -it again and again in his poems. “Falling in peril of death from some -mysterious disease,” he said in his _Souvenirs_, “I lamented over my -sweet youth and the flower of my poor days which was to fall so soon, -and often in the midnight hours wove from my sorrows, by the pale light -of my lamp, a sad poem, and in the silence of the night wept over my -fleeting life, and half fainting, sang to myself my funeral song” -(_loc. cit._, p. 28). The bas-relief on an ancient tomb, representing -the departure of a young girl who took farewell of her friends, -suggested to Leopardi the following thoughts: “Mother, who from their -birth makes her family of living beings tremble and weep, Nature, -monster unworthy of our praise, who brings into the world and nurtures -only to kill, if the premature death of a mortal be evil, why do you -bring it on so many innocent heads? If it be a good, why do you make it -sad for those who go and for those left behind? Why is it the hardest -grief to console? The only relief from our woes is death, death, the -inevitable end, the immutable law which you have established for human -beings. Why, alas, after the sad voyage of life, do you not make the -arrival joyful? This certain end, this end which is in our souls all -our lives, which alone can soothe our troubles, why do you drape it in -black and surround it with mournful shades? Why do you make the harbour -more terrible than the open seas?” (_loc. cit._, p. 55). - -The three chief grievances—injustice, disease, and death—often come -together. From the anthropomorphic point of view fate is represented as -a sort of wicked being who commits injustice by visiting all kinds of -evils on mankind. - -A pessimistic conception of life is arrived at by a complex -psychological process in which both feelings and reflection are -involved, and hence it is difficult to analyse it satisfactorily. -Formerly, therefore, writers were content with general and very vague -estimates of the process by which we may become pessimists. Ed. von -Hartmann has tried to deal more exactly with this inner process of -the human mind. In the first place, he lays stress on the fact that -pleasures always bring less satisfaction than pains bring grief. -False notes in music, for instance, are more painful than the best -music is delightful. The pain of toothache is much more violent -than the pleasure when relief comes. So also with all diseases. In -love, according to Hartmann, the pleasure is always very greatly -over-balanced by the pain. Muscular work brings pleasure only in a very -small degree, and devotion to science and art and intellectual work in -general brings more pain than pleasure to the votaries. As the result -of an analysis, Hartmann is convinced that there is much more pain than -pleasure in the world. Pessimism is founded upon the essential nature -of human feelings. - -M. Kowalevsky,[181] a German philosopher at Koenigsberg, adopting the -modern habit of measuring mental processes as exactly as possible, has -recently published an attempt to analyse pessimism psychologically. -Although this has not solved the problem, it is extremely interesting -as an instance of the application of the methods now being adopted in -modern psychology. - -M. Kowalevsky took advantage of all the known methods of estimating the -relative values of our emotions; he tried to make use of the notes of -Munsterberg, another living psychologist who kept a journal in which -he set down daily his psychical and psycho-physical impressions. The -object of the work had no relation to the question of pessimism, and -for that reason Kowalevsky thought that it was specially important in -his investigations. - -Munsterberg was not content with the existing classification of -emotions as agreeable or painful. He subdivided them much further. He -recognised, for instance, emotions of tranquillity and excitement, -serious and pleasant impressions. Having completed the reckoning, -Kowalevsky came to the conclusion that his colleague, who was by -no means a pessimist, but a psychologist of well-balanced mind, -experienced many more painful emotions (about 60 per cent. as compared -with 40 per cent.) than agreeable emotions. “Such a result is in favour -of pessimism,” concluded Kowalevsky. - -However, he went beyond the foregoing enquiry. By several other -methods, he tried to gain an exact idea of the value of our emotions. -He visited elementary schools in order to investigate the pleasures -and pains of the scholars. In the case of 104 boys, of eleven to -thirteen years of age, he found that pain was much more deeply felt -than corresponding pleasure. Thus, while in 88 cases illness was set -down as an evil, only in 21 was health reckoned as a good. One-third of -the pupils noted down war amongst evils, whilst only one noted peace -amongst the good things. Poverty was written down thirteen times as an -evil, against twice in which riches were put down as a good. In another -series of investigations, Kowalevsky took notes on the pleasures and -pains felt by pupils of the two sexes attending the same school. The -result was that the greatest evil, according to them, was illness, -noted 43 times, then death 42 times, after which came fire 37 times, -hunger 23 times, floods 20 times. Amongst the good things, the first -place was given, as might have been expected, to games (30) and the -second to presents. - -As Kowalevsky did not find that such investigations could solve the -problem, he tried to discover a more exact method. With this object, -he turned to different sensations, such as those of smell, hearing and -taste, to which he applied methods of exact measurement. In the case of -taste, for instance, he determined the minimum quantity of different -substances which could excite definitely pleasant or unpleasant -sensations. In his experiments, Kowalevsky found that doses which -gave bad tastes were not balanced by those which gave good tastes. -For instance, to neutralise the unpleasant taste of quinine, it was -necessary to employ a much larger quantity of sugar. He was specially -pleased with one experiment. Four persons were given definite mixtures -of sugar and quinine in order to discover the proportion of the two -substances necessary to obtain a neutral sensation. He found that to -take away the bad taste of quinine, it was necessary to double the -quantity of sugar given. Similarly with smells, he found that those -which were unpleasant were appreciated much more strongly than those -which were pleasant. Here, then, was a series of scientific results -supporting the view of the pessimists. Must we really conclude from -them that the world is very badly arranged? The analysis of good and -bad temper made by Kowalevsky is in favour of such an interpretation. -In order to estimate these conditions of mind, he measured the gait, -that is to say, the number of steps taken in a minute. This method -depended upon the following idea. It is an accepted view that the -condition of mind is shown by the rapidity of the human walk; we -have only to compare the slow pace of a man in deep grief with the -rapid steps of a man in a state of joy. Pain, as a general rule, -depresses, while joy stimulates voluntary movements. The result of -the measurements taken according to this method give a new argument -in favour of pessimism. However, it is useless to attempt to analyse -these figures on which Kowalevsky had to employ the integral calculus, -because the principle of his method cannot be supported. As a matter of -fact, the rapidity of walking is an index of the degree of excitation, -and not of the happy or unhappy condition of the mind. When a person -suddenly undergoes a strong impression, either pleasant or unpleasant, -he takes to walking actively about in his room, and may even want to -go out of doors to walk more quickly. A letter which has been received -and which gives some unexpected news, as for instance of the infidelity -of a person one loves, or of an inheritance which one did not expect, -produces a condition of excitement shown chiefly by rapid walking. Many -orators and professors have to make gestures and to walk about in the -course of their lectures. A man of science to whom some new idea comes -and who wishes to think it out, rises from his chair and begins to -walk. But not only on such pleasant occasions, but when one has to face -an insult or an act of defiance which makes one very angry, the need to -walk actively is felt. It is therefore impossible to utilise records of -movements in the study of the pessimistic state of mind. - -M. Kowalevsky employed still another mode of attacking the problem. -He examined the recollection of painful or pleasant impressions. He -asked the children of both sexes, whom he was investigating, questions -which gave him indications as to whether pleasures or pains made -the more lasting impression on the memory, and he registered the -answers. The result, which agreed with what had already been obtained -by Mr. Colegrove, an American psychologist, was unfavourable to the -pessimistic view. He found, in fact, that in the majority of cases (70 -per cent.) recollection of pleasant impressions predominated. However, -in such investigations there is a facile source of error arising from -the condition of mind of those who are being questioned. It is probable -that Kowalevsky made his enquiry in school during recreation time, when -most of the pupils were free from the boredom of the actual class. When -we are happy the tendency exists in us to recall pleasant impressions -of the past. If the enquiry had been made during a difficult or -wearying lesson, or on children shut up in a hospital, or undergoing -punishment, it is probable that the result would have been reversed. - -It is evident that all such attempts to solve a problem so complex as -that of pessimism, even by the so-called exact methods of physiological -psychology, cannot lead to any convincing result. Thus Kowalevsky’s -different investigations led to contradictory conclusions. Whilst some -of his series of facts supported the pessimistic conception, others -were opposed to it, and he obtained no definite general conclusion. -How can one expect to apply a method of measurement to sensations and -emotions so different, not only from the qualitative point of view, -but also in relation to their intensity? Take, for instance, the case -of an individual who has experienced in one day nine sensations which -were painful and one which was agreeable. According to the valuation -of experimental psychologists, he ought to have reason to become a -pessimist. However, this may be far from the case, if the nine painful -impressions were much weaker than the single happy impression. The -first were provoked by small wounds to his pride, fleeting pains of no -importance, and small losses of money, whilst the happy emotion came -from receiving a love letter. The sum of the ten impressions would be a -happy one, and might well put him in an optimistic frame of mind. The -learned attempts of experimental psychologists must be abandoned, as -incapable of illuminating the problem. If, however, the human spirit -still seeks some means of explaining the psychology of pessimism, there -remains only the less subtle method given by the biographical study of -human beings. - - - - -III - -PESSIMISM IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND AGE - - Relation between pessimism and the state of the - health—History of a man of science who was pessimistic - when young, and who became an optimist in old - age—Optimism of Schopenhauer when old—Development of - the sense of life—Development of the senses in blind - people—The sense of obstacles - - -Animals and children in good health are generally cheerful and of -optimistic temperament. As soon as they fall ill they become sad -and melancholy until their recovery. We may infer from this that an -optimistic view is correlated with normal health, whilst pessimism -arises from some physical or mental disease. And so in the case of -the prophets of pessimism, we may seek for the origin of their views -in some affliction. The pessimism of Byron has been attributed to his -club-foot, and that of Leopardi to tuberculosis, these two nineteenth -century exponents of pessimism having died whilst young. Buddha and -Schopenhauer, on the other hand, reached old age, whilst Hartmann died -when sixty-four years old. Their diseases at the time when they formed -their theories could not have been very dangerous, and none the less -they took a most gloomy view of human existence. The recent historical -investigations of Dr. Iwan Bloch[182] make it very probable that -Schopenhauer, in his youth, contracted syphilis. There has been found -a note-book of the great philosopher in which he wrote down the details -of the severe mercurial treatment which he had to undergo. The disease, -however, was not contracted until several years after the appearance of -his great pessimistic work. - -Although we must attach due weight to the connection between disease -and pessimism, we can assure ourselves that the problem is more complex -than it appears at first sight. It is well known that blind people -often enjoy a constant good humour, and, amongst the apostles of -optimism, there has been the philosopher Duering,[183] who lost his -sight during his youth. - -Moreover, it has been noticed that persons affected with chronic -diseases frequently have a very optimistic conception of life, whilst -young people in full strength may become sad, melancholic, and -abandoned to the most extreme pessimism. Such a contrast has been -well described by Émile Zola in his novel _La Joie de Vivre_, where a -rheumatic old man, tried by severe attacks of gout, maintained his good -humour, whilst his young son, although vigorous and in good health, -professed extreme pessimism. - -I have a cousin who lost his sight in early youth. When he grew up he -formed a most enviable judgment of life. He lived in his imagination -and everything in life seemed to him good and beautiful; he married, -and pictured his wife to himself as the most beautiful woman in the -world, and thus he feared nothing more than the recovery of his sight. -He had adapted himself to live without sight, and was convinced that -the reality was much lower than his imagination. He feared that if he -were able to see his wife she would appear to him less beautiful. - -I know a girl twenty-six years old, blind from her birth, the subject -of infantile paralysis and liable to fits of epilepsy. She is nearly an -idiot, lives in a carriage, and sees life from its best side. She is -certainly the most happy member of all her family. - -The good humour and megalomania of those affected with general -paralysis of the insane also is well known. All such examples show that -pessimism cannot be explained as depending on bad health. - -Examination of the state of mind of a pessimist may throw some light on -the subject. There has been within my own circle a typical case of a -person who went through a phase of life in which everything seemed as -gloomy as possible. My intimate knowledge of him makes it possible to -apply my observations to the matter under discussion. - -The subject was born of parents of good health and in comfortable -circumstances, so that, from the beginning of his life, he was -surrounded by a favourite environment. He lived in the country and -escaped the diseases of childhood, so that he reached maturity in good -health, and passed well through college and the university. Science -attracted him, and he had the ambition to become a distinguished -investigator. He threw himself into a scientific career with zeal and -ability. His ardent disposition, although certainly favourable to work, -was the cause of many troubles. He wished to succeed too quickly, and -the obstacles he encountered embittered him. As he thought himself -naturally talented, he conceived it to be the duty of his seniors to -aid his development. And so, when he met with natural and very common -indifference from those who had already become successful, the young -man thought that there was a plot against him, to bring to nothing his -scientific talents. From this view, many quarrels and difficulties -arose, and as he could not overcome these sufficiently quickly, he -fell into a mood of pessimism. In this life, he said to himself, the -main thing is to adapt oneself to external conditions. According to -Darwin’s law of natural selection, the individuals who do not succeed -in adapting themselves go to the wall. The survivors are not the -best but only the most cunning. In the history of the earth it has -been seen that many lower animals have long survived creatures much -higher in organisation and general evolution. Whilst so many of the -higher mammals, the nearest relatives of man, have been crushed out of -existence, simpler animals, such as evil-smelling cockroaches, have -survived from the remotest times, and multiply in the neighbourhood of -man in despite of his efforts to exterminate them. The animal series -and human evolution itself show that delicacy of the nervous system, -with its concomitant extreme development of the sensibilities, hinders -the power of adaptation and brings with it insuperable evils. The -least blow to his pride, or a slighting word from a comrade, threw -this pessimist into a most painful condition. No, he would cry, it -would be better to be without friends, if one is to be wounded so -deeply by them. It would be best to seclude oneself in some remote -spot and be engrossed in one’s work. He was very impressionable and a -lover of music, and from his visits to the opera, he retained in his -mind an air from the “Flûte enchantée.” “Were I as small as a snail, -I would hide myself in my shell.” His moral hypersensibility was -associated with physical hyperæsthesia. Noises of all kinds, such as -the whistling of railway-trains, the cries of street-vendors, or the -barking of dogs, excited extremely painful sensations. The least trace -of light prevented him from sleeping at night. The unpleasant flavour -of most drugs made it impossible for him to take medicine. He agreed -thoroughly with the pessimistic philosophers who declare that the ills -of life far surpass the good things. He required no experiments on the -sense of taste to convince him. He believed that the organisation of -his body prevented him from becoming adapted to external conditions and -that he would have to disappear like the mammoth and the anthropoid -apes. - -The course of his life confirmed the convictions of our pessimist. -He had no private fortune and married a woman who became affected -with tuberculosis, and so was confronted with the greatest evils of -existence. A young lady, hitherto in good health, contracted influenza -in some northern town. It was a mere nothing, said the doctors; -influenza is everywhere and no one escapes it; after a little patience -and rest, she will be well again. However the “influenza” persisted -and brought with it feebleness and wasting. The doctors then found -that there was a little dullness in the apex of the left lung, but as -there was no bad family history, there was nothing to fear. I need not -describe the familiar course of events. The trifling influenza was -replaced by degeneration of the left lung, and brought death after four -years of great suffering. Towards the end, when there was no hope, the -patient found her only solace in morphine. Under the influence of that -drug, she passed hours free from pain and in relative calm, but her -excited imagination passed almost into hallucination. - -It is not surprising that the death of his wife was a severe shock -to the husband. His pessimism became complete. He was a widower at -the age of twenty-eight years, and, in his condition of mental and -physical exhaustion, took to morphine like his wife. He knew that -it was a poison which would complete the ruin of his constitution -and make his work impossible. But what was the value of his life? -As his organisation was too nervous for him to adapt himself to -external conditions, was it not as well to come to the aid of natural -selection and so make room for others? As it happened, a large dose of -morphia did not solve the problem. It produced in him a condition of -extraordinary happiness combined with extreme physical weakness. Little -by little the instinct of life awoke in him, and he resumed his work. -Pessimism, however, remained the fundamental quality in his character. -Life was not worth the pains necessary to protect it. It would be -a true crime to bring into the world other living beings doomed to -elimination by natural selection. Moral and physical sensibility, as -they continued to develop, brought with them so much evil that there -could be no good end. The “injustice” of those who were unwilling to -“understand” him made life painful to the man himself and to those -about him. The closest absorption and hard work made his existence more -tolerable, but his pessimistic conception was not in the least altered. -Thus, he was easily driven to morphia for consolation, when he suffered -from some act of “injustice” or vexation. A severe fit of poisoning, -however, stopped this excess. - -Years passed. When he discussed with his friends the problem of -the goal of human life and similar topics, he was always ardent in -supporting the point of view of pessimism. However, he occasionally -wondered if his pleading for this were really sincere. As his nature -was honest and frank, this question which he put to his conscience -appeared most curious to him. Analysis of what passed in his mind -revealed to him a change. It was not that his conceptions had changed -in the course of years, but rather his feelings and sensations. As -he was now in full maturity, between forty-five and fifty years old, -he found that there was a great change in the intensity of these -last. Disagreeable sounds did not trouble him to the same extent as -formerly, and he was undisturbed by the caterwauling of cats or by -harsh street cries. As his hypersensibility diminished his character -became more tolerant. Even the injustices or wounds to his pride which -formerly drove him to morphia, no longer provoked in him any painful -reaction. He could easily conceal the bad effect of these upon him, -and no longer felt them with the same intensity. Thus his character -had become much more supportable to those with him, and much better -balanced. - -“It is old age which is come upon me,” he cried; “I feel painful -impressions much less acutely and pleasant impressions have less -effect on me. The relative proportions of the two remain as before, -that is to say, unpleasant things still impress me much more strongly -than pleasant things.” By analysing and comparing his emotions, he -discovered something new, in fact that some impressions were, so to -speak, neutral. As he was less sensitive to unharmonious sounds, and -at the same time less affected by music itself, he found himself in -a more tranquil condition. Awakening in the middle of the night, he -experienced a kind of happiness which reminded him of that formerly -produced by morphine, and which was characterised by his hearing no -sound, either pleasant or unpleasant. He became less disgusted by -drugs, but at the same time indifferent to the pleasures of the table -which he had appreciated in his youth. He also delighted in consuming -more and more simple food. A piece of black bread and a glass of water -became real treats to him. Insipid dishes, which he formerly despised, -were now specially agreeable to him. - -Just as in the evolution of art, violent coloration has yielded to the -low tones of Puvis de Chavannes, as views of fields and meadows are -preferred to those of mountains and lakes; just as in literature, -tragic and romantic studies have been successfully replaced by scenes -of daily life, so the psychical development of my friend displayed -a similar change. Instead of taking his pleasure in mountains or in -places famed for their picturesqueness, he was content to watch the -budding of the leaves of the trees of his garden, or a snail overcoming -its fears and putting out its horns. The simplest occurrences, such -as the lisping or the smile of a baby or the first words of a child, -became sources of real delight to this elderly man of science. What -was the meaning of these changes which took so many years to be -accomplished? It was the growth of his sense of life. The instinct of -life is little developed in youth. Just as a young woman gets more -pain than pleasure from the earlier part of her married life, just as -a new-born baby cries, so the impressions from life, especially when -they are very keenly felt, bring more pain than pleasure during a long -period of human life. The sensations and feelings are not stable; they -undergo evolution, and when that takes place more or less normally, it -brings about a state of psychical equilibrium. - -And thus my friend, formerly so entrenched in pessimism, came to share -my optimistic view of life. The discussions that we had had for so many -years ended in complete agreement. “However,” said he, “to understand -the value of life, one must have lived long; otherwise one is in the -position of a man blind from his birth to whom are recounted the -beauties of colours.” In a word, my friend towards the end of his life -changed from abject pessimism to complete optimism. - -Such a transformation or evolution cannot be regarded as unusual. -In _The Nature of Man_, I showed that most of the great pessimistic -writers had been young men. Such were Buddha, Byron, Leopardi, -Schopenhauer, Hartmann, and Mailaender, and there might be added many -other names of less well known men. - -The question has often been asked why Schopenhauer, who was certainly -sincere in his philosophy and who extolled Nirvana as the perfect -state, came to have a strong attachment to life, instead of putting -it to a premature end as was done later on by Mailaender. The reason -was that the philosopher of Frankfort lived long enough to acquire a -strong instinct of life. M. Moebius,[184] a well-known authority on -madness, has made a close investigation of Schopenhauer’s biography, -and has established the fact that towards the end of his life his views -were tinged with optimistic colours. On his seventieth anniversary, he -took pleasure in the consoling idea of the Hindoo Oupanischad and of -Flourens that the span of man’s life might reach a century. As Moebius -put it, “Schopenhauer as an old man enjoyed life and was no longer a -pessimist” (p. 94). Not long before his death he still hoped to survive -yet another twenty years. It is true that Schopenhauer never recanted -his early pessimistic writings, but that was probably because he did -not fully realise his own mental evolution. - -In looking through the work of modern psychologists, I cannot -find recognition of the cycle of evolution of the human mind. In -Kowalevsky’s able and conscientious study of pessimism, I was specially -struck by one phrase. “Evils such as hunger, disease, and death are -equally terrible at all stages of life and in every rank of society” -(p. 95) said that author. I notice here a failure to recognise the -modification of the emotions in the course of life which, none the -less, is one of the great facts of human nature. Fear of death is by -no means equally great at all stages of life. A child is ignorant of -death and has no conscious aversion from it. The youth and the young -man know that death is a terrible thing, but they have not the horror -of it that comes to a mature man in whom the instinct of life has -become fully developed. And we see that young men are careless of the -laws of hygiene, whilst old men devote to them sedulous attention. -This difference is probably a notable cause of pessimism in young men. -In his studies of the mind, Moebius[185] has stated his view that -pessimism is a phase of youth which is succeeded by a serener spirit. -“One may remain a pessimist in theory,” he says, “but actually to be -one, it is necessary to be young. As years increase, a man clings more -firmly to life.” “When an old man is free from melancholia, he is not -a pessimist at heart.” “We cannot yet explain clearly the psychology -of the pessimism of the young, but at least we can lay down the -proposition that it is a disease of youth” (p. 182). - -The cases of Schopenhauer and of the man of science whose psychical -history I have sketched fully confirm the view of the alienist of -Leipzig. - -The conception that there is an evolution of the instinct of life in -the course of the development of a human being is the true foundation -of optimistic philosophy. It is so important that it should be examined -with the minutest care. Our senses are capable of great cultivation. -Artists develop the sense of colour far beyond the point attained -by ordinary men, and distinguish shades that others do not notice. -Hearing, taste, and smell also can be educated. Wine tasters have an -appreciation of wine much more acute than that of other men. A friend -of mine, who does not drink wine, can distinguish burgundy from claret -only by the shapes of the bottles, but is devoted to tea and has a very -fine palate for different blends. I do not know if a good palate is a -natural gift, but however this may be, it is certain that the palate -can be brought to a high condition of perfection. - -The development of the senses is specially notable in the case of the -blind in whom other powers become extremely acute. As I thought that -investigation of the educability of other senses in blind persons very -important from the point of view of the development of the sense of -life, I have tried to obtain the best available information on the -question. The perfection of touch in the blind is accepted so generally -as a truth that one would have expected to find convincing facts in its -favour. However, it is not true. Griesbach,[186] using a well-known -method for estimating tactile discrimination, found that the sense of -touch is not more acute in the blind than in normal persons. Blind -persons distinguished the points of a pair of compasses as separate, -only when they were at least as far apart as in case of normal persons. -Dr. Javal,[187] a well-known oculist who himself became blind, stated -his surprise at finding that “tactile discrimination is quite notably -less acute in the case of the blind than in the case of those with -unimpaired vision. For instance, the index finger of a blind man who -was a great reader got separate sensations from the points of a pair -of compasses only when these were three millimetres apart, whilst a -man with normal sight had the double sensation at a distance of two -millimetres” (p. 123). Griesbach goes still farther, stating that -neither hearing nor smell is better developed in the blind than -amongst normal people. Although these senses may come to replace to a -certain extent the sense of sight, this occurs merely because the blind -person uses impressions which the clear-sighted person hardly notices. -As we see what is going on around us, we do not concentrate our -attention on the different sounds and smells or other such phenomena. -The blind person, on the other hand, not being absorbed by impressions -of sight, gives attention to the others. Such and such a sound tells -him that the garden gate of his neighbour has been opened to let out a -carriage which he must avoid. A particular smell lets him recognise the -place where he is, as stable or kitchen. - -From the present point of view, it is not exactly the acuteness of the -senses which is most important. The acuteness might be equal in a blind -person and in a normal person. It might even be greater in the latter, -and yet it is only the blind person who can decipher without difficulty -raised points so as to understand their meaning as well as when a -normal person reads a printed book. This power of the blind person is -developed only after a long period of learning, and depends on the -appreciation of very delicate tactile impressions. I must point out, -moreover, that the method of deciding by means of a pair of compasses -gives information only with regard to one side of the tactile sense. - -However, although we admit that blind people do not really gain -anything in the four remaining senses, there is developed in them a -special kind of sensibility, which is spoken of in their case as a -sixth sense, the “sense of obstacles.” Blind people, especially those -who have lost their sight in youth, acquire a surprising habit of -avoiding obstacles and of recognising at a distance objects round -about them. Blind children, for instance, can play in a garden, without -knocking themselves against the trees. - -Dr. Javal[188] states that some blind people, when passing in front -of a house, can count the ground floor windows. A professor, who had -been blind from the age of four years, could walk in the garden without -striking against a tree or post. He appreciated a wall at a distance -of two metres from it. One day, going for the first time into a large -apartment, he recognised the presence of a big piece of furniture in -the middle, which he took to be a billiard table. - -Another blind man, walking in the street, could distinguish houses from -shops and could count the number of doors and windows. The existence -of this sense of obstacles rests upon so many exact facts that it is -indubitable. The opinions as to the mechanism by which it operates, -however, are very varied. Dr. Zell[189] thinks that it is not a sense -peculiar to blind people and “that those of normal sight could equally -well acquire it by practice, because it exists in nearly everyone -without being noticed.” None the less, there are some blind people who, -even in the course of years, do not acquire it. M. Javal, for instance, -learnt to read with his fingers extremely well, but was never able to -distinguish obstacles at a distance. - -The most probable hypothesis refers this sixth sense to the action of -the tympanic membrane and the auditory apparatus. It is known that -loud noise makes it more difficult to perceive obstacles, and snow, -by dulling the sound of steps, has a precisely similar effect. Blind -tuners, in whom the sense of hearing is well developed, have the sixth -sense very marked. - -The examples I have given show that the human body possesses senses -which come into operation only in special conditions, and which -require a special education. The “sense of life” to a certain -extent comes within this category. In some persons it develops very -imperfectly, generally revealing itself only late in life, but -sometimes a disease or the danger of losing life stimulates its earlier -development. Occasionally in persons who have tried to commit suicide, -a strong instinct of life wakens suddenly, and impels them to make -frantic efforts to escape. - -It happens, therefore, that the sense of life develops sometimes in -healthy people, sometimes in those who suffer from acute or chronic -disease. These variations are parallel with the development of the -sexual instinct, which in some women is completely absent and in others -develops only very late. In certain cases, it is awakened only by -special conditions, such as child-birth, or even some defect of health. - -As the sense of life can be developed, special pains ought to be taken -with it, just as with the making perfect of the other senses in the -blind. Young people who are inclined to pessimism ought to be informed -that their condition of mind is only temporary, and that according to -the laws of human nature it will later on be replaced by optimism. - - - - -PART VIII - -GOETHE AND FAUST - - - - -I - -GOETHE’S YOUTH - - Goethe’s youth—Pessimism of youth—Werther—Tendency to - suicide—Work and love—Goethe’s conception of life in - his maturity - - -There can be drawn from analysis of the lives of great men information -that is very important in the study of the constitution of man. I have -chosen Goethe for several reasons. He was a man of genius distinguished -by the comprehensive character of his ability. He was a poet and -dramatist of the highest rank, his mind was stored with the most -varied knowledge, and he contributed to the advancement of natural -science. As minister of state and as the director of a theatre, he was -occupied with practical affairs. He reached the age of eighty-three -years, and he passed through the phases of life in relatively normal -circumstances; in his many writings there are most valuable facts which -throw a keen light on his life and nature. The Goethe cult in Germany -has brought about the existence of fuller biographical details than -exist regarding any other great man. He aspired to lead “the higher -life,” and, throughout his existence, he occupied himself with the most -serious problems of humanity. - -It is not surprising that Goethe became a subject of investigation for -me, but as the main facts as to his history are widely known I need not -elaborate them here. - -Goethe was reared in circumstances that were favourable in every -respect, and from his earliest years showed remarkable traits. As his -memory was good and his imagination vast, the study of ancient and -modern languages and the routine curriculum of a classical education -were little more than an amusement to him. The rich library of his -father placed all sorts of books at his disposal, and whilst he was -still young he devoted himself to reading with the enthusiasm and -passion that were the chief qualities of his character. When he was -fifteen years old he began to write verses, although he was still -unconscious of his destiny as a poet. He intended to be a learned man, -and looked forward to the career of a professor. - -At the age of sixteen, he entered the University of Leipzig with the -intention of studying natural science seriously. Law and philosophy -interested him but little; he turned to natural science and medicine, -although his actual study was rather superficial. His disposition was -lively and restless; he made many friends, frequented the theatre -and plunged into all kinds of gaiety. Extracts from letters he wrote -during this period show the kind of life he led. When he was a student, -eighteen years old, he wrote to a friend, “And so good-night; I am -drunk as a hog.” A month later, to the same friend, he summed up his -life as a “delirium in the arms of Jetty.” - -He graduated in law at Strassburg, and became a barrister, but -realising that such a career was unsuitable, he became a man of -letters, encouraged by the success of his first literary efforts. - -From the point of view of a writer, he sought all kinds of experiences. -He devoted himself to literature and science, including even the -occult sciences, and frequented the theatre and society. He was -specially attracted by the imaginative side and gave little thought to -the problems of science. “I must have movement,” he wrote in one of his -note-books. - -When he was young, his temper was violent and he fell into fits of -passionate rage. His contemporaries have related that when he was in -such a condition he would destroy the illustrations and tear up the -books on his work-table. These experiences have been vividly described -in his famous romance, _The Sorrows of Werther_. I shall give a few -extracts to show the exact state of mind of the young pessimist. “It is -the fate of some men not to be understood.” “Human life is a dream; I -am not the first to say that, but the idea haunts me. When I reflect on -the narrow limits which circumscribe the powers of man, his activities -and intelligence; when I see how we exhaust our forces in satisfying -our wants and that these wants are for no more than the prolongation -of a miserable existence; that our acquiescence in so much is merely -resignation engendered by dreams, like that of a prisoner who has -covered the walls of his cell with pictures and new landscapes; such -things, my friend, plunge me into silence.” “Our learned teachers -all agree that children do not know why they have desires; but that -grown men should move on the earth like children, and, like these, be -ignorant whence they have come and whither they go, like these strive -little for real things, but be ruled by cakes and sweets and rods; no -one will believe such things, though their truth is patent. I admit -readily (for I know what you will say) that they are the happiest men -who live from day to day like children, who play with their dolls, -dress them and undress them, who reverence the cupboard where mamma -keeps the gingerbread, and who, when they have got what they wish, -cry, with their mouths full, ‘How happy we are!’” - -Werther proclaimed his pessimism before his romance with Charlotte, and -it was his view of life that made his love-affair turn out unhappily. -But the fame of Goethe’s _Werther_ was due, not to the tragic fate -of the young lover, but to the general views which were in harmony -with the conception of the world held by the best minds of the time. -Byronism was born before Byron. - -_Werther_ affords a good illustration of the disharmonies in the -development of man’s psychical nature. Inclination and desires develop -extremely strongly and before will. Just as in the development of -the reproductive functions, as I showed in _The Nature of Man_, the -different factors develop unequally and unharmoniously, so there is -inequality and disharmony in the order of the appearance of the higher -psychical faculties. Sexual appreciation and a vague attraction to -the other sex appear at a time when there can be no possibility of -the normal physical side of sex, with the result that many evils come -about in the long period of youth. The precocious development of -sensibility brings about a kind of diffused hyperæsthesia which may -lead to trouble. The infant wishes to lay hold of everything he sees -before him; he stretches out his arms to grasp the moon and suffers -from his inability to gratify his desires. In youth there is still -well-marked disharmony. Young people cannot realise the true relations -of things, and formulate their desires before they understand that -their will-power is not strong enough to gratify them, as will is the -latest of the human powers to develop. - -Werther fell in love with a kindred spirit and gave way to his passion -without consideration of the difficulties, Charlotte being already -betrothed to another. This is the plot of the tragedy of the young -man, who committed suicide, having given way to pessimism. He had not -the will-power to conquer his sentiments and so fell into a state of -lassitude, until, weary of life, he could see no other end than to blow -out his brains. - -I need not linger over the last phase of the story of Werther, for it -is the character of Goethe himself that is of interest. Goethe was -able to subdue his passion for Lotte, and, after many amorous woes, -consoled himself with another woman. Notwithstanding this difference, -it is certain that in _Werther_, Goethe was telling part of the story -of his own youth. Goethe himself is a witness to this, for in a letter -to Kestner he wrote that “he was at work on the artistic reproduction -of his own case.” The letter was written in July, 1773, whilst Goethe, -then a writer twenty-four years old, was relating the sorrows of young -Werther. - -The general tendency of _Werther_ has been described excellently -by Carlyle.[190] “_Werther_,” he wrote, “is but the cry of that -dim, rooted pain, under which all thoughtful men of a certain age -were languishing; it paints the misery, it passionately utters the -complaint; and heart and voice, all over Europe, loudly and at once -responded to it.” Werther was “the first thrilling peal of that -impassioned dirge which, in country after country, men’s ears have -listened to, till they were deaf to all else.” - -In the pessimistic period of his life, Goethe often cherished the idea -of suicide. In his biography he relates that at this time he used to -have, by his bedside, a poisoned dagger, and that he had repeatedly -tried to plunge it in his bosom. Of these times he wrote to his friend -Zelter[191]—“I know what it has cost me in effort to resist the waves -of death.” The suicide which was the subject of the end of his romance -made a deep impression upon him. Although he overcame his passion -for Charlotte, his view of life remained tinged with pessimism for -many years; in a note-book of 1773, for instance, he wrote “I am not -made for this world.”[192] These words are the more striking as they -date from a period when exact ideas regarding the adaptation of the -organism and the character to the environment did not exist. Goethe, -with his too delicate sensibility, felt himself out of harmony with his -environment. - -It is very interesting to trace Goethe’s subsequent development and -the transformation of a youthful pessimist into a convinced optimist. -Goethe found a remedy for his crises of grief in work, poetical -creation and love. He declared that the mere describing his woes on -paper brought assuagement. The tears that they shed console women and -children; and the poetry in which he expresses his suffering consoles -the poet. Goethe’s romance with Charlotte was not quite at an end when -he found himself ready to love her sister Helen. He wrote to Kestner in -December, 1772:—“I was about to ask you if Helen had arrived, when I -got the letter telling me of her return.” “To judge from her portrait -she must be charming, even more charming than Charlotte. Well, I am -free and I am thirsting for love.” “I am here at Frankfort again with -new plans and new dreams, and all will be well if I find someone to -love.” Soon afterwards, in another letter to Kestner, he wrote:—“Tell -Charlotte that I have found here a girl whom I love with all my heart; -if I wanted to marry, I should choose her before anyone else.” - -As he had not yet realised his true vocation, Goethe became a court -minister at Weimar. He devoted himself to his duties with an -enthusiasm that carried him far beyond the usual affairs of state. -He wished to deepen his knowledge of such administrative problems as -the construction of roads and the management of mines, and he studied -geology and mineralogy with a real zest. Forest administration and -agriculture led him seriously into botany, and as he had the direction -of a school of design, he thought it necessary to learn anatomy. -Such varied work gave him a real taste for science. It was no longer -the superficial interest that characterised his work at Leipzig and -Strassburg but a true devotion which led him to important discoveries, -some of which have become classic. - -Even such varied occupations did not absorb his prodigious genius. In -his leisure he wrote poetry and prose. Engrossed in so much work, he -was happy. His discovery of the human intermaxillary bone suffused him -with joy. His intense activity was strengthened by his love for Madame -von Stein, a love that he declared was “a life-belt supporting him in -the sea.” A few hours with her in the evenings set free his soul. - -The powerful influence of love on the life of Goethe was specially -prominent in this period when he was passing from pessimistic youth to -optimistic maturity. Being forced to separate from Madame von Stein, -he gave way to grief that plunged him again in the worst hours of his -life. At the age of thirty-seven he fell back into a crisis like that -of the days of _Werther_. “I have discovered,” he said in 1786, “that -the author of _Werther_ would have done well to blow out his brains -when he had finished his work.” Soon afterwards he wrote that “death -would have been better than the last years of his life.” - -This relapse into pessimism was shorter and less acute than his first -experience. He began to find that frequently his delight in existence -and sense of life were proved by his fear of death. When he was little -more than thirty years old, he began to take precautions against the -chance of his death. He wrote to Lavater:—“I have no time to lose; I -am already getting on in years, and it may be that fate will destroy -me in the midst of my life.” On all sides his wish to live and his -shrinking from death reveal themselves. It was at this time, a few -days after his thirty-first birthday, that he wrote those famous -lines, counted amongst the finest of his poetry, on the summit of -the Gickelhahn, on the wall of a small room, and which end with the -presentiment of his own death, “Before long, you also will be at rest.” - -The crisis through which he passed at the age of thirty-seven, as the -immediate result of his separation from Madame von Stein, but perhaps -also partly due to brain fatigue, brought about his sudden departure -from Weimar and his long sojourn in Italy. There he came to life again, -and everything interested him, archæology, art and nature. The joy of -life came back to him, and he soon consoled himself for the lost love -of the blue-stocking Baroness in the arms of a pretty, blue-eyed girl -of Milan. This girl, whose name was Maddalena Riggi, like Charlotte, -was already betrothed, a circumstance, however, that had a different -result. Even after she had given up the man to whom she had been -engaged, Goethe avoided any permanent bond and soon abandoned her -definitely. He chose to associate with Faustine, another Italian girl, -with whom he lived during the last period of his stay at Rome. This -affair, which was less ideal and much simpler than his love for Madame -von Stein, he has described in his _Roman Elegies_, which throw a vivid -light on his temperament. I shall give some characteristic extracts. - -“A sacred enthusiasm inspires me on this classic soil; the old world -and the world around me raise their voices and draw me to them. -Here I follow the ideas and turn over the pages of the ancient -writers, giving myself no rest whilst day lasts and ever reaching new -delights. By night love calls me to other cares; and if I am only half -a philosopher, I am twice happy. But may I not say that I am also -learning when my eye follows the contours of a loving breast, when with -my hand I trace the lines of her form? It is then that I understand -marble, I think and compare, I see with an eye that touches and touch -with a hand that sees.” “Often I have made verses in her arms; often -my playful finger has softly beaten out my hexameters on her back. As -she breathes in her sweet sleep, her breath burns me to my innermost -soul.”[193] - -His stay in Italy brought Goethe definitely to maturity. On this -important stage in his life let us hear his biographer, Bielschowsky. -“The voyage to Italy made a new man of him. His sickliness and -nervousness disappeared. The melancholy which led him to think of early -death and made him regard death as better than the former conditions -of his life was replaced by a sublime serenity and joy in living. The -taciturn and preoccupied man who in no society abandoned his grave -thoughts had become happy as a child” (vol. i, p. 412). “From this -time on, in calm and enviable security, he passed through the cycle of -life which seemed so mysterious to others. Goethe became the serene -Olympian, the wonder of posterity, whilst many of his contemporaries no -longer saw in him the passionate pilgrim” (_ibid._, p. 417). - -It was after reaching the age of forty years that Goethe entered on the -optimistic phase of his life. - - - - -II - -GOETHE AND OPTIMISM - - Goethe’s optimistic period—His mode of life - in that period—Influence of love in artistic - production—Inclinations towards the arts must be - regarded as secondary sexual characters—Senile love of - Goethe—Relation between genius and the sexual activities - - -The moral equilibrium of the great writer was not established once -for all. In the course of his life, Goethe had several relapses into -pessimism which, however, were ephemeral, and after which he became a -man as complete and harmonious as was possible in the circumstances of -his life. He reached a serene old age, and his activity did not relax -until after his eightieth year, when he died. - -As I have already said, Goethe realised the value of life in good -time. Having become an optimist, he experienced the joy of existence -and coveted as much of it as possible. When he was an old man, he -declared that life, like the Sibylline books, became more valuable -the fewer of them were left. There appeared in him a normal phase of -human nature. The conditions under which he lived, however, were far -from ideal. His health was indifferent. In his youth he suffered from -severe hæmorrhage, probably tuberculous, and throughout his life he was -subject to various more or less serious maladies, such as gout, colic, -nephritis, and intestinal troubles. His habits were unwholesome. He -was brought up in a region of vineyards, and in his youth he acquired -the habit of drinking wine in quantities certainly harmful. This he -himself realised, and when he was thirty-one years old, after he had -acquired the instinct of life, he gave it serious attention. “I wish I -could abstain from wine,” he wrote in his note-book. Some weeks later -he wrote, “I now drink almost no wine.”[194] - -But he had not the strength of character to remain temperate, and soon -after his decision, he had fits of bleeding at the nose, which he -attributed to “having taken some glasses of wine.”[195] To his last -day, he took wine regularly, and sometimes to excess. J. H. Wolff, -who dined with him at Weimar, when he was in his eightieth year, was -surprised by his appetite and by the quantity of wine he drank. “In -addition to other food, he ate an enormous portion of roast goose, and -drank a bottle of red wine.”[196] In Eckermann’s interesting narrative -of the last ten years of Goethe’s life (1822-1832) there is repeated -mention of wine. Goethe seized every occasion to drink it. Sometimes -it was the visit of a stranger, sometimes a present of some famous -vintage. It was said that he drank from one to two bottles of wine -daily (Moebius). None the less, he was convinced that wine was not good -for intellectual work. He had remarked that when his friend Schiller -had drunk more than usual, to increase his strength and stimulate his -literary activity, the result was deplorable. He said to Eckermann -(March 11, 1828), “He will ruin his health and will spoil his work. -That is why he has made the faults the critics have pointed out.” In -another conversation (March 11, 1828) he stated that what was written -under the influence of wine was abnormal and forced, and ought to be -deleted. - -Love was the great stimulus of Goethe’s genius. The love affairs, -the histories of which fill his biography, are well known. Many have -been shocked by them; others have tried to justify them. It has been -suggested that his disposition made it necessary for him to impart his -ideas and obtain sympathy for them, and that his love for women was the -expression of a purely artistic feeling and had nothing in common with -the ordinary passion. - -The truth is that artistic genius and perhaps all kinds of genius are -closely associated with sexual activity. I agree with the proposition -formulated by Dr. Moebius[197] that “artistic proclivities are probably -to be regarded as secondary sexual characters.” Just as the beard -and some other male characters are developed as means of attracting -the female sex, so also bodily strength, strong voice and many of -the talents must be regarded as due to the need to fulfil the sexual -relations. In primitive conditions woman worked more than man; man’s -superior force served him principally in fighting with other males, the -object of the combats usually being possession of a woman. Just as a -victorious combatant covets the presence of a woman as witness of his -prowess, so an orator speaks better in the presence of a woman to whom -he is devoted. Singers and poets are stimulated in their arts by the -love they awaken. Poetic genius is intimately associated with sexual -power and castration inhibits it. Just as castrated animals retain -their physical strength, but become changed in character, losing in -particular their combative nature, so a man of genius loses much of -his quality with the sexual function. Amongst the eunuchs on record, -Abelard is the only poet, but Abelard was forty years old when he -ceased to be a man, and at the same time he ceased to be a poet. Many -singers have been eunuchs, but they have been merely executants, and -have taken no part in musical creation. Some musical composers have -been eunuchs, but these were of mediocre ability and their names have -been forgotten. When castration has taken place at an early age, it -has a much more powerful influence in modifying the secondary sexual -characters. - -From the point of view of a naturalist, I cannot agree with the -moralists who have blamed Goethe for his sexuality, nor do I share the -views of those defenders of him who have wished to deny the facts or to -explain them away by the suggestion that they did not relate to sexual -love. - -Extracts from the _Roman Elegies_ show quite clearly what was the -nature of Goethe’s love affairs. His feelings towards the Baroness von -Stein have been taken as revealing merely idealistic love. But some of -his letters to her are clear evidence that their relations were erotic -(Moebius, _Goethe_, vol. ii, p. 89). The love which he bore for Minna -Herzlieb, the girl who inspired him to write _Elective Affinities_ -(_Wahlverwandschaften_), has been described by Goethe himself in a poem -so crudely erotic that it has been impossible to publish it (Lewes, -vol. ii, p. 314). - -A fact to which I specially desire to call attention is that Goethe’s -amorous temperament survived until the end of his life, and all the -world has been astonished by the vigour of his poetic genius in extreme -old age. - -Goethe has been the subject of derision because at the age of -seventy-four years he fell deeply in love with Ulrique de Lewetzow, who -was quite a young girl. This incident, however, merits close attention -as it is a typical case of senile love in a man of genius. - -Whilst he was at Carlsbad, Goethe became acquainted with a pretty girl -seventeen years old, with beautiful blue eyes, brown hair, and of an -ardent, good-humoured and happy disposition. In the first two seasons -nothing in particular happened. But in the third summer, at Marienbad, -Goethe became passionately enamoured of Ulrique, who was then nineteen -years old and in the full bloom of her young womanhood. His love made -him young again; he passed long hours with her and took to dancing with -her. “I am quite certain,” he wrote to his son, “that it is many years -since I have enjoyed such health of body and mind” (Aug. 30, 1823). His -passion became so serious that the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, on behalf -of his friend, made a formal proposal of marriage for Mademoiselle de -Lewetzow. The mother gave an evasive answer, and the matter rested -in suspense for long, and ended in a refusal. Goethe withdrew to his -family, but encountered there strong opposition to his project of -marriage. - -This misadventure troubled the old poet so seriously that he fell ill. -He suffered from pain in the region of the heart and from profound -mental disturbance. He complained to Eckermann “that he could do -nothing, that he could get to work on nothing, and that his mind had -lost its power.” “I can no longer work,” he said. “I cannot even read, -and it is only in rare and fortunate moments that I can think, feeling -myself partially soothed” (Eckermann, Nov. 16, 1823). Eckermann makes -the following reflection on the state of mind of the great old man. -“His trouble seems to be not merely physical. The passionate desire -which he acquired for a young lady at Marienbad this summer, and -against which he is still struggling, must be regarded as the chief -cause of his illness” (Nov. 17, 1823). - -As in all earlier crises, Goethe sought consolation in poetry and -love. He left Marienbad in a carriage and began to set down verses -astonishingly vigorous for so old a man. His Marienbad elegy is held to -be one of the best of his poetical achievements. The following extracts -will give an idea of his state of mind at that period. - -“I am lost in unconquerable desire; there is nothing left but -everlasting tears. Let them flow, let them flow unceasingly. But they -can never extinguish the fire that burns me. My heart rages; it is -torn in pieces, this heart where life and death meet in a horrible -combat.” “I have lost the universe, I have lost myself, I who until now -have been the favourite of the gods; they have put me to the question, -they offered me Pandora, rich in treasure and still richer in perilous -seductions; they made me drunken with the kisses of her mouth, which -gave me its sweets; they have torn me from her arms, and have struck me -with death.” - -Goethe concealed his elegy for some time, guarding it as something -sacred, but eventually handed it over to Eckermann. Poetic creation -soothed his mind only for a time. His nature demanded some more -efficacious consolation. A few weeks after the separation he began to -complain bitterly of the absence of the Countess Julie von Egloffstein, -whom he wanted very much. “She cannot know what she is keeping from me -and what she makes me lose, nor can she know how I love her and how -she engrosses my mind.” He derived a little comfort from the visits of -Madame Szymanowska, whom he admired “not only as a great artist, but -as a pretty woman” (Eckermann, Nov. 3, 1823). “I am deeply grateful -to this charming woman,” he said to the chancellor, “for her beauty, -her sweetness, and her art have soothed my passionate heart” (Bode, p. -151). He also renewed his relations with Marianne Jung, the retired -actress and dancer. “When Goethe had to turn his thoughts from Ulrique, -the image of the pretty owner of Gerbermühle again occupied his mind. A -visit to her, and intimate correspondence with her, restored peace to -his heart so greedy of love” (Bielschowsky, vol. ii, p. 487). - -His devotion to Ulrique was Goethe’s last acute attack of love; but -until the end of his days he felt the need of being surrounded by -pretty women. As director of the theatre, he came in contact with many -young women who wished engagements. He confessed to Eckermann that he -required much strength of mind to resist feminine charms which tempted -him to be unjustly favourable to the prettiest of those who sought -employment. “If I allowed myself to fall into an intrigue of gallantry, -I would become like a demagnetised needle as soon as the girl found a -real lover” (Eckermann, March 22, 1825). - -His daughter-in-law’s sister has related that Goethe liked to have -young girls in his study whilst he was at work. They had to sit -quietly, neither working nor talking, often a difficult task for them -(Bode, p. 155). - -Even on the last day of his life, whilst in delirium, he cried out, -“What a pretty woman’s head with black curls on a black ground” (Lewes, -vol. ii, p. 372). After uttering several other more or less incoherent -phrases, he drew his last breath. - -The facts which I described in the chapter of this book dealing with -old age have made clear how long sexuality persists in men. As the -testes resist atrophy better than other organs, and even in extreme old -age still form active spermatozoa, it is natural that their condition -should be reflected on the organism generally, and that feelings of -love should still be excited. If by some accident Goethe had become -a eunuch early in life, he would have been a different being. The -moralists who have been shocked by his amorous intrigues would have -been satisfied, but the world would have lost a great poet. Moreover, -Goethe is no exceptional case amongst writers. The temperament of -Victor Hugo and his devotion to women up to the end of his days are -well known. More recently, after the death of Ibsen, a profound -sensation was made by the revelation of his love for Mademoiselle -Bardach, who inspired his genius during the last period of his life. - -Not only poetic creation but other forms of genius are intimately -associated with the sexual function. The philosopher Schopenhauer, who -was no ascetic, wrote as follows, at the age of twenty-five, when he -was in full creative activity, “In the days and at the hours when the -voluptuous instinct is strongest, when it is a burning covetousness, -it is then that the greatest forces of the mind and the greatest -stores of knowledge are ready for the most intense activity.” “At -such moments life is truly at its strongest and most active, for its -two poles are then operating most actively; and this is plain in the -man of the highest intelligence. In these hours one sees more than in -years of passivity” (quoted in Moebius’ _Schopenhauer_, p. 55). “This -means that in Schopenhauer intellectual creation was linked with erotic -excitement” (_ibid._, p. 57). - -It was facts of such a nature that led Brown-Séquard to his idea of -strengthening cerebral activity by injections of the substance of -testes. To obtain the same effect, he prescribed another means, the -value of which was proved in the case of two individuals aged from -forty-five to fifty years, the observations being continued over -several years. “By my advice,” he said, “when these had to perform -any great physical or intellectual work, they got themselves into a -condition of sexual excitement.” “The testes being in this way thrown -into functional activity, there was soon produced the desired increase -in the power of the nerve centres.”[198] - -Although I insist on the existence of a close relation between -intellectual activity and the sexual function, I do not mean to assert -that there have not existed exceptions to the rule. - -Now that I have described certain important factors in the genius of -Goethe, I shall pass on to a study of his state of mind in the last -period of his life, the splendour and harmony of which have been so -often admired. - - - - -III - -GOETHE’S OLD AGE - - Old age of Goethe—Physical and intellectual vigour of - the old man—Optimistic conception of life—Happiness in - life in his last period - - -Drinkers of wine may take the case of Goethe as an argument against -temperance. Although he was not healthy in his youth, his large -consumption of wine did not prevent him from enjoying an old age full -of force and intellectual work. Eckermann, who was his intimate and -constant companion in the last ten years of his life, was never weary -of expressing his surprise and delight at the physical and moral vigour -of the distinguished old man. He found Goethe on his return to Jena, -at the age of seventy-four, in a condition “very pleasant to see; he -was in good health and robust, so that he could walk for hours” (Sept. -15, 1823). His eyes were “brilliant and clear and his whole expression -was that of joy, vigour and youth” (Oct. 29). In walks with Eckermann, -Goethe forced the pace and showed strength which filled his companion -with delight (March, 1824). His voice was full of character and of -force (March 30, 1824), and every word showed his vitality (July 9, -1827). - -In a conversation that Eckermann had with Goethe when the latter was -seventy-nine years old “the sound of his voice and the fire in his eyes -were of such strength as would have been normal in the full flush -of youth” (Mar. 11, 1828). Such characters were preserved until the -end of the life of the great man, and a few months before his death -Eckermann jotted in his book that he saw him every day in full vigour -and freshness, looking as if his health might be prolonged indefinitely -(Dec. 21, 1831). In the beginning of the following spring, Goethe -caught a feverish cold, possibly pneumonic, and died, probably from -weakness of the heart. His illness lasted a week. If he had not been a -drinker of wine he would have been able to withstand this attack and to -live still longer. - -The intellectual vigour of Goethe was even greater and more remarkable -than his physical strength. His interests were extremely wide, and his -thirst for knowledge was never appeased. Once, when he was absorbed -by the interest of hearing d’Alton describe in detail the skeleton of -rodents, Eckermann states his surprise that a man not far short of -eighty years old “did not give up seeking for and gaining knowledge.” -But in these matters he never lost his interest. He wished always to go -further and further, always to learn, so showing himself to be a man -of eternal and undying youth (April 16, 1825). Goethe’s aptitude for -understanding and his memory were most unusual. When he was more than -eighty, he surprised those who heard him “by the incessant flow of his -ideas and by his extraordinary fertility in invention” (Oct. 7, 1828). - -“The old age of Goethe is the most striking proof of the extreme force -of his constitution,” said his medical biographer, Dr. Moebius. Works -which were written in his last years are for the most part beyond -praise, both because of their finished form, and by their wisdom and -feeling. What other man of eighty has written anything of the same -character? From the physiological point of view I am more surprised -at his works when he was old than at those of his youthful activity” -(Moebius, _Goethe_, i, 200, 201). - -Although Goethe’s character, which was fiery and intense in his youth, -became much more calm with age, there still came to him moments when -he was carried away. He had certain eccentricities of an old man, and -in particular was often very despotic, and this trait has been the -occasion of many stories. His temper, however, became much more certain -in his old age, and his general conceptions much more optimistic. -Apart from certain short crises, he was happy in his life. In 1828, he -settled down at Dornburg and there passed a tranquil existence. “I stay -out of doors nearly all day and engage in private conversations with -the tendrils of the vine which communicate their excellent ideas to -me, ideas about which I shall have marvellous things to tell you”—he -wrote to Eckermann on June 15, 1828—“I am composing verses which are -quite good, and I hope that it will be given to me to live long in -this condition. I am quite contented,” he said to his collaborator, -“at the beginning of spring, when I see the first green leaves, I am -pleased to watch how, from week to week, one leaf after another appears -on the stem. I am delighted in May, when I see a flower-bud; I feel -really happy, when in June the rose offers to me its splendour and its -perfume” (Eckermann, April 27, 1825). His delight in life at this epoch -is also revealed in many letters. “I wish to whisper this in your ear,” -he wrote to Zelter on April 29, 1830. “I am delighted to find that even -at my great age, ideas come to me the pursuit and development of which -would require a second life.” - -His conception of life had changed enormously since the epoch of -_Werther_. Goethe himself said: “When one is old, one thinks many -things about this world quite different from when one was young” -(Eckermann, Dec., 1829). The youthful sensitiveness which had brought -him so much suffering was notably dulled. Eckermann was astonished -at the way he accepted wounds to his pride. It happened that his -design for the new theatre at Weimar was abandoned while it was being -constructed, and replaced by another not his own work. Eckermann -was much disturbed by this, and went to see Goethe in a state of -apprehension. “I was afraid,” he said, “that so unexpected a step -would profoundly wound Goethe. Well, there was nothing of the sort; -I found him in the best of tempers, quite calm, absolutely above all -feelings in the matter.” When he had reached his eighty-fourth year, -Goethe had no weariness of life. In his last illness, he showed not -the smallest desire to die. He expected to get better, and thought -that the approach of summer would restore his strength. The desire to -live was strong in him. None the less, he recognised that his cycle of -life was finished, and although he had no weariness of life, he felt -a kind of satisfaction that life was over. “When, like me, a man has -lived eighty years,” he said, “he has hardly the right to live, but -ought to be ready every day to die, and to think of putting his house -in order” (Eckermann, May 15, 1831). None the less, he continued his -work, in particular revising the last two chapters of the second part -of _Faust_. When he had finished them, Goethe was extremely pleased. “I -can consider,” he said, “any days which come to me yet as a real gift, -as it is a matter of no moment if I write anything more or what such -work should be” (Eckermann, June 1, 1831). - -Goethe gave Faust one hundred years of life, and it is probable that he -thought of that period as his own span. Although he did not reach it, -he approached it, after having lived a most active life, full of most -valuable lessons for posterity. - - - - -IV - -GOETHE AND “FAUST” - - _Faust_ the biography of Goethe—The three monologues - in the first Part—Faust’s pessimism—The brain-fatigue - which finds a remedy in love—The romance with Marguerite - and its unhappy ending - - -“Goethe was Faust, Faust Goethe,” said the biographer of the great -poet (Bielschowsky, vol. ii, p. 645). Most people admit that in -_Faust_ Goethe gave his autobiography on a more detailed scale than -in _Werther_. Why then should I follow my analysis of Goethe himself, -which was based on exact facts, with an analysis of Faust? I do so -because in addition to the biographical details in _Faust_, there are -many ideas which illuminate the poet’s conception of life. Goethe’s -life explains _Faust_, and _Faust_ explains the soul of its author. -And I am convinced that an accurate study of so great a man is of high -importance in the investigation of human nature. - -The two Parts of _Faust_ correspond with two distinct periods in -Goethe’s life. In the first Part, Faust was pessimistic, in the second -optimistic. Although many of the high problems that occupy humanity are -raised and discussed in _Faust_, love is the centre on which the drama -turns. - -In the first Part, conceived and for the most part written during -his youth, the chief theme is the love of a young man for a pretty -and attractive girl towards whom the hero acts in a fashion opposed -to conventional morality. As in most of his principal works, Goethe -has made an episode in his own life the basis of _Faust_. It is the -well-known story of Frederique, the daughter of a clergyman, for -whom the brilliant young author conceived a violent passion and who -returned his affection with a deeper and more enduring feeling. Goethe -was alarmed at the possibility of definitely settling his future, and -deserted the poor victim of love in an unfortunate state. Later on, he -confessed to the Baroness von Stein that he had abandoned Frederique -at a time when his desertion was likely to cause the death of the poor -girl. “I had wounded to the quick,” he wrote (Bielschowsky, vol. i, p. -135), “the best heart in the world, and I had to repent of it long and -almost unendurably.” As an atonement, he made Frederique the heroine -of “Goetz” and of “Clavigo,” but not thinking these worthy of her, he -immortalised her as the Marguerite of _Faust_. - -A learned doctor, skilled in all human knowledge, but who had found -no satisfaction in his studies, found consolation in the beauty and -charm of a young girl with whom he fell passionately in love. It will -be interesting to trace the psychological process which induced him to -leave the scene of his scientific studies for the streets and resorts -where he found Marguerite. - -Although Faust was represented as an old man, who had had time enough -to absorb all human learning, his image bears the stamp of green youth. -“Discontented with all his knowledge, he wished to know the secret -entrails of the world, to be a witness of the centre of all activity, -to unveil the principle of life.”[199] These are the demands of a young -man seeking to resolve the most intricate problems at one stroke. The -speech in question dates from the period of _Werther_, when Goethe -was twenty-five years old, and for that reason leaves no very serious -impression.[200] The second monologue, which ends with the attempt to -take poison, is later, and is absent in the edition of 1790 (Fragment). -It was revised when Goethe had reached his fiftieth year, and displays -a riper maturity. Although lacking exactness, it depicts in an -interesting fashion the miseries of life. - - Some alien substance more and more is cleaving - To all the mind conceives of grand and fair; - When this world’s Good is won by our achieving, - The Better, then, is named a cheat and snare. - The fine emotions, whence our lives we mould, - Lie in the earthly tumult dumb and cold. - If hopeful Fancy once, in daring flight, - Her longings to the Infinite expanded, - Yet now a narrow space contents her quite, - Since Time’s wild wave so many a fortune stranded. - Care at the bottom of the heart is lurking; - Her secret pangs in silence working, - She, restless, rocks herself, disturbing joy and rest; - In newer masks her face is ever drest, - By turns as house and land, as wife and child, presented,— - As water, fire, as poison, steel; - We dread the blows we never feel, - And what we never lose is yet by us lamented.[201] - -Fear of the evils which lie in wait for us and against which we can -make no provision render life insupportable. Faust’s frame of mind as -described in these lines recalls Schopenhauer, who was always afraid of -something; fear, sometimes of thieves, sometimes of diseases, tormented -him. He would never go to a barber’s to be shaved, and always carried -his own drinking cup with him. - -“Is it not better to end such a life, and to kill oneself, even if it -mean annihilation?” asked Faust. He took up the poisoned goblet and -put it to his lips, but, arrested by singing and the sound of bells -outside, he refrained, and life laid hold of him. Not religious faith, -however, but memories of childhood, “the happy sports of youth and the -gay festivals of spring” were the agencies that recalled Faust to the -earth. He went out of doors, mingled with the crowd, tried to amuse -himself amongst men, and savoured the beauty of the new-born spring, -but all these could not make him forget the evil of life. He met his -pupil, talked with him, and again displayed his pessimism. - - O happy he, who still renews - The hope, from Error’s deeps to rise for ever! - That which one does not know, one needs to use; - And what one knows, one uses never.[202] - -Then follows the celebrated monologue of Faust over which so many -commentators have lost their heads and wasted oceans of ink. - - Two souls, alas! reside within my breast, - And each withdraws from, and repels, its brother. - One with tenacious organs holds in love - And clinging lust the world in its embraces; - The other strongly sweeps, this dust above, - Into the high ancestral spaces.[203] - -On this passage has been built up a whole theory of “double natures” -with which has been incorporated the dualism of Manicheism, the two -natures of Christ and what not besides.[204] - -There exists in literature no better expression of human disharmony -than this monologue “of the two souls.” It portrays the unbalanced -condition so frequent in youth and is a valuable indication of the real -youth of Faust. - -On his return to his study, Faust again revealed his pessimism. - - But ah! I feel, though will thereto be stronger, - Contentment flows from out my breast no longer. - Why must the stream so soon run dry and fail us, - And burning thirst again assail us? - Therein I’ve borne so much probation![205] - -It is at this point that Faust addresses the Spirit “that denies” and -that is called “sin” and “evil.” This spirit invokes before his eyes -“the fairest images of dreams,” that is to say, a woman’s body in its -beautiful nudity. Faust declares himself - - Too old to play with passion, - Too young to be without desire.[206] - -Pursued by desire - - ... when night descends, how anxiously - Upon my couch of sleep I lay me. - There, also, comes no rest to me; - But some wild dream is sent to fray me.[207] - -So that - - Death is desired, and Life a thing unblest. - O fortunate, for whom, when victory glances, - The bloody laurels on the brow he bindeth! - Whom, after rapid, maddening dances, - In clasping maiden-arms he findeth![208] - -Faust thus reached the ecstasy of passion. Soon afterwards in the -Witches’ kitchen, he saw in a mirror a “heavenly form” and cried:— - - O lend me, Love, the swiftest of thy pinions, - And bear me to her beauteous field. - - A woman’s form, in beauty shining! - Can woman, then, so lovely be? - And must I find her body, there reclining; - Of all the heavens, the bright epitome? - Can Earth with such a thing be mated?[209] - -Discontent with life, sense of the insufficiency of human knowledge -and the most gloomy pessimism lead to the passion of love which, -eventually, after many devious paths, throws Faust into the arms of -Marguerite. The story is one of the world’s great romances and everyone -knows it. Faust all unconsciously was following the prescription of -Brown-Séquard. Brain-fatigue had made the continuation of the study -which caused it impossible. The condition is plainly stated in the -following lines:— - - The thread of Thought at last is broken, - And knowledge brings disgust unspoken. - Let us the sensual deeps explore.[210] - -The brain has refused to work, and blind instinct, in the guise of -dreams, whispers that there is in the organism something that can -restore the intellectual forces. This something, however, is what is -called sin, and much courage is needed to plunge into it. Without this -evil, life cannot last. Faust has to choose between love and death, and -chooses love. - -The end of the romance of Goethe and Frederique was bad, and that of -Faust and Marguerite was still worse. The poet painted it in the most -sombre colours. Marguerite killed her child, poisoned her mother, -became crazy, and was beheaded. Faust’s cup of misery was filled to the -brim; he blamed his evil genius, he made desperate efforts to save the -poor woman, and cried “O that I had never been born.” - -To sum up: in the first Part, Faust is a young, learned man who -expects too much from science and life, and whose genius requires -extra-conjugal love as a stimulant; he is unbalanced and inevitably -pessimistic. It is not surprising that his life goes badly, and that -his conduct leaves him much to repent of. But although, at first, -a vague general discontent nearly drives him to suicide, later on -the terrible evil which he had wrought on a poor creature he loved -passionately did no more than plunge him into misery that was bitter -but far from mortal. His mind had developed far in the direction of -optimism. The crisis through which he passed, serious as it was, ended -by his return to a life of great activity and enterprise. - - - - -V - -THE OLD AGE OF FAUST - - The second Part of _Faust_ is in the main a description - of senile love—Amorous passion of the old man—Humble - attitude of the old Faust—Platonic love for Helena—The - old Faust’s conception of life—His optimism—The general - idea of the play - - -The first Part of _Faust_ was acclaimed by the world almost as soon as -it appeared, but the second Part met a very cold reception. Everyone -knows and reads the first Part; the second Part has few readers, and -these chiefly poets and dramatists. No doubt it has more effect on the -stage than when it is read, but this is due to subsidiary features in -which it resembles a fine ballet. There is general agreement that the -real meaning of the second Part is obscure, complex and difficult to -interpret. Many literary critics have racked their brains in the effort -to discover the author’s central idea. When Eckermann, who persuaded -Goethe to revise and finish the second Part, asked what was the meaning -of some of the scenes in it, Goethe evaded the question and played the -sphinx. Thus, with regard to the famous “mothers” Goethe answered, -with a mysterious air:—“You have the manuscript; study it, and see -what you can make of it” (January 10, 1830). G. H. Lewes, although -one of Goethe’s most resolute admirers, admitted the impossibility -of grasping the sense of the second Part. The Wanderjahre and the -second Part of _Faust_ were arsenals of symbols, and it pleased the -old poet to see acute critics labouring to interpret them whilst he -was silent and refused to help them. Lewes thought that Goethe, so far -from showing the smallest wish to clear up their difficulties, took -a pleasure in giving them new problems to puzzle over. Lewes himself -thought that the second Part was poor in idea and execution, and -admitted that he had failed after repeatedly trying to get a conception -of it that would reveal its beauties. In writing about it, he contented -himself with giving a summary of it. Now this second Part, although its -general lines had been laid down for long, was actually written during -several years in the last period of the poet’s life. The fact that it -was composed out of the regular sequence of the Acts and Scenes gives -us an important clue. The third Act and then the second Part of the -fifth Act were put on paper first. Next followed the first Act and part -of the second; the classical Walpurgis night was written in 1830, the -fourth Act in 1831, and last of all the beginning of the fifth Act. - -As the second Part of _Faust_ is a crowded motley, containing many -subjects, obviously of minor importance, such as the volcanic theory -of the earth and the disquisition on paper-money, the key-note may be -found in the portions which were first composed. Now Act III. contains -the story of Helena, and the second part of Act V. Faust’s activity for -the general welfare. - -Setting out from the conception that the works of Goethe reflect the -acts and incidents of his own life, I shall try to explain on that -basis the meaning of the most obscure of his writings. - -I have already stated that love was the stimulus of Goethe’s activity -in youth and age; it is the scarlet thread running through his -history. There was no difficulty in his using his love for Frederique -as material for a play; that a young man should love a young girl -was natural enough. The story of an old man enamoured of a young -beauty was quite another matter. It was said that one of the reasons -that prevented his marriage with Ulrique de Lewetzow was the fear of -ridicule (Lewes, _op. cit._, ii, p. 345), a fear that plays a large -part in human affairs. It is easy to understand that the old poet was -in a difficulty when he came to write of senile love. Faust’s love for -Helena was not that of a supposed old man who became young by doffing -his beard and changing his cloak, but of a real old man whom no mystery -nor magic was to make young again. And yet old Faust’s love was a true -passion, and Goethe has written no finer lines than those describing it. - -When the second Part begins, Faust has passed through the terrible -crisis of the first Part. Wearied and restless, he seeks a new mode of -life. - - Life’s pulses now with fresher force awaken - To greet the mild ethereal twilight o’er me; - This night, thou, Earth! hast also stood unshaken, - And now thou breathest, new-refreshed before me, - And now beginnest, all thy gladness granting, - A vigorous resolution to restore me, - To seek that higher life for which I’m panting.[211] - -The invoked image of the most beautiful woman in the history of the -world transforms Faust’s desire of love into an overwhelming passion. - - Have I still eyes? Deep in my being springs - The fount of Beauty, in a torrent pouring! - A heavenly gain my path of terror brings. - The world was void, and shut to my exploring,— - And, since my priesthood, how hath it been graced! - Enduring 'tis, desirable, firm-based. - And let my breath of being blow to waste, - If I for thee unlearn my sacred duty! - The form, that long erewhile my fancy captured, - That from the magic mirror so enraptured, - Was but a frothy phantom of such beauty! - 'Tis Thou, to whom the stir of all my forces, - The essence of my passion's courses,— - Love, fancy, worship, madness,—here I render.[212] - -In the throes of this passion, Faust is tortured by jealousy when he -sees the lovely woman clinging to and kissing a young man. He desires -her at all costs. - - Am I nothing here? To stead me, - Is not this key still shining in my hand? - Through realms of terror, wastes and waves it led me, - Through solitudes, to where I firmly stand, - Here foothold is! Realities here centre! - The strife with spirits here the mind may venture, - And on its grand, its double lordship enter! - How far she was, and nearer, how divine! - I’ll rescue her and make her doubly mine. - Ye Mothers! Mothers! Crown this wild endeavour! - Who knows her once must hold her, and for ever.[213] - -The disappearance of the beautiful woman so moved Faust that he fainted -and fell into a prolonged sleep. As soon as he recovered consciousness -he asked: “Where is she?” and set out to seek for her. When he learned -that Chiron had already carried off Helena on his back Faust cried -out:— - - Her didst thou bear? - - _Chiron_: This back she pressed. - - _Faust_: Was I not wild enough, before; - And now such seat, to make me blest! - O, I scarcely dare - To trust my senses!—tell me more! - She is my only Aspiration! - Whence didst thou bear her—to what shore?[214] - - Thou saw’st her once; _to-day_ I saw her beam, - The dream of Beauty, beautiful as Dream! - My soul, my being, now is bound and chained; - I cannot live, unless she be attained.[215] - -Chiron found this attitude of passionate emotion so strange that he -advised Faust to take care of his health. - -After many wanderings and difficulties Faust again met the woman he -coveted and spoke to her as follows:— - - What else remains, but that I give to thee - Myself, and all I vainly fancied mine? - Let me, before thy feet, in fealty true, - Thee now acknowledge, Lady, whose approach - Won thee at once possession and the throne![216] - -This language, so very different from what the same man had formerly -addressed to Marguerite, is much more like that of an old lover to a -young beauty whom he admires. When Helena invited Faust to sit on the -throne beside her, he replied:— - - First, kneeling, let the dedication be - Accepted, lofty Lady! Let me kiss - The gracious hand that lifts me to thy side. - Confirm me as co-regent of thy realm, - Whose borders are unknown, and win for thee - Guard, slave and worshipper, and all in one![217] - -The old man in the throes of a passion so great that he was wholly -absorbed by it did not dare to address the beloved woman except in the -most humble terms. - -Helena made no declaration of love, but was complacent to him, and when -Faust suggested: “Now let our throne become a bower unblighted,” Helena -agreed to follow him to a secluded and green bower. There they remained -alone for some time, cared for by an old servant. - -The result of this union was not a child like that to which Marguerite -gave birth and afterwards killed. It was a strange and peculiar being; -a boy who immediately after his birth began to leap about and to alarm -his parents by the activity of his movements. - -Although Goethe preserved an obstinate silence when he was asked to -explain many of the scenes in the second Part, he had no hesitation in -explaining the significance of this astonishing child. “The child was -not a human being but an allegory, in which was personified poetry, -which is not bound to any time, to any place, or to any person” -(Eckermann, December 20, 1829). Struck by the tragic fate of Byron, -Goethe made the son of Faust and Helena a symbol of the English poet. - -Literary critics, setting out from the categorical explanation of -Goethe himself, have declared that the union of Faust and Helena -was meant to denote the alliance of romanticism and classicism, a -marriage from which was born modern poetry, personified in its highest -representative, Byron. This, however, cannot be the idea of Goethe, who -himself was far from an enthusiast about classicism and romanticism. -“What,” he said, “is all this noise about the classic and the romantic? -The essential thing is that a piece of work should be wholly good and -serious; then it will also be classic” (Eckermann, October 17, 1828). -It is much more probable that Goethe intended poetry to spring from the -relations between the old Faust and his adorable companion, relations -of a kind to be included in so-called platonic love. Such love inspires -the creation of perfect work even in an old poet, when he is stimulated -by a beautiful woman. - -When Faust and Helena emerged from the grotto with their son, Helena -said:— - - _Helena_: Love, in human wise to bless us, - In a noble pair must be; - - But divinely to possess us, - It must form a precious Three. - - _Faust_: All we seek has therefore found us; - I am thine and thou art mine! - So we stand as love hath bound us; - Other fortune we resign.[218] - -After the death of her son, Helena abandoned Faust, leaving him her -garments:— - - _Helena_: Also in me, alas! an old word proves its truth, - That Bliss and Beauty ne’er enduringly unite. - Torn is the link of Life, no less than that of Love; - So, both lamenting, painfully I say: Farewell! - And cast myself again,—once only,—in thine arms.[219] - -After this crisis the old Faust sought to console himself in the bosom -of nature, just as after the terrible catastrophe with Marguerite the -contemplation of nature had given him the strength to live. On this -occasion he reached the summit of a high mountain from which he watched -the changing vapours of a cloud which seemed to him to assume the form -of female beauty. But Faust was old, and now saw only memories of love. -He cried out:— - - Yes! mine eyes not err!— - On sun-illumined pillows beauteously reclined, - Colossal, truly, but a godlike woman-form, - I see! The like of Juno, Leda, Helena, - Majestically lovely, floats before my sight! - Ah! now ’tis broken! Towering broad and formlessly, - It rests along the east like distant icy hills, - And shapes the grand significance of fleeting days. - Yet still there clings a light and delicate band of mist - Around my breast and brow, caressing, cheering me. - Now light, delaying, it soars and higher soars, - And folds together.—Cheats me an ecstatic form, - As early-youthful, long-foregone and highest bliss? - The first glad treasures of my deepest heart break forth; - Aurora’s love, so light of pinion, is its type, - The swiftly-felt, the first, scarce-comprehended glance, - Outshining every treasure, when retained and held. - - Like Spiritual Beauty mounts the gracious Form, - Dissolving not, but lifts itself through ether far, - And from my inner being bears the best away.[220] - -This state of mind resembles Goethe’s condition after the rupture with -Ulrique. - -Love and poetry alike were over for him. None the less his craving for -the higher life was not yet weakened. The desire to live was still -very strong in the old Faust. But now he no longer as in the days -of his youth dreamed of an ideal which could not be attained. When -Mephistopheles asked him ironically:— - - Then might one guess whereunto thou hast striven? - Boldly-sublime it was, I’m sure. - Since nearer to the moon thy flight was driven, - Would now thy mania that realm secure? - - _Faust_: Not so! This sphere of earthly soil - Still gives us room for lofty doing. - Astounding plans e’en now are brewing: - I feel new strength for bolder toil.[221] - -Such optimistic language, extraordinarily different from Faust’s -lamentations in the first Part, becomes still more marked. When he was -approaching his centenary he made the following profession of faith:— - - I only through the world have flown: - Each appetite I seized as by the hair; - What not sufficed me, forth I let it fare, - And what escaped me, I let go. - I’ve only craved, accomplished my delight, - Then wished a second time, and thus with might - Stormed through my life: at first ’twas grand, completely, - But now it moves most wisely and discreetly. - The sphere of Earth is known enough to me; - The view beyond is barred immutably: - A fool, who there his blinking eyes directeth, - And o’er his clouds of peers a place expecteth! - Firm let him stand, and look around him well! - This World means something to the Capable. - Why needs he through Eternity to wend? - He here acquires what he can apprehend.[222] - -When he had reached the maturity of his wisdom, Faust organised -drainage works, the object of which was to increase the area of land -that could be utilised:— - - To many millions let me furnish soil, - Though not secure, yet free to active toil; - Green, fertile fields. - A land like Paradise here, round about. - Yes! to this thought I hold with firm persistence; - The last result of wisdom stamps it true: - He only earns his freedom and existence, - Who daily conquers them anew. - Thus here, by dangers girt, shall glide away - Of childhood, manhood, age, the vigorous day: - And such a throng I fain would see, - Stand on free soil among a people free! - Then dared I hail the Moment fleeing: - “_Ah, still delay—thou art so fair!_” - The traces cannot, of mine earthly being, - In æons perish,—they are there!— - In proud fore-feeling of such lofty bliss, - I now enjoy the highest Moment,—this![223] - -These were the last words of the wise centenarian. It has been said -that they contain the quintessence of Goethe’s moral philosophy, and -that they preach the sacrifice of the individual for the benefit of -society. Lewes, for instance, takes this view, holding that Faust was -the exposition of a man who had conquered the vanity of individual -aspirations and joys, and had come to the knowledge of the great truth -that man must live for man, and can find lasting happiness only in -work for the benefit of humanity. For my own part, it seems to me that -according to Goethe’s _Faust_ man must dedicate a large part of his -life to the complete development of his own individuality, and that -it is only in the second half of his life, when he has grown wise by -experience and feels satisfied as an individual, that he should use -his activity for the good of mankind. It was no part either of the -ideas of Goethe or of the nature of his work to preach the sacrifice of -individuality. - -Goethe was thus absorbed in _Faust_ by the problem of the conflict -between certain actions and guiding principles. The misdeeds of the -hero in the first Part of his life had to be redeemed. He said to -Eckermann that “the key to the salvation of Faust was to be found in -the Angels’ Chorus”:— - - The noble spirit now is free, - And saved from evil scheming: - Whoe’er aspires unweariedly - Is not beyond redeeming.[224] - -However, that of which he did not speak, and which none the less was -most important in Faust and in Goethe himself, is the action of love as -a stimulant to artistic creation, and it was probably to this that he -referred at the end of his tragedy. The mystical chorus sent up prayers -in a religious and erotic ecstasy, and their mysterious song is:— - - The Indescribable, - Here it is done; - The Woman-Soul leadeth us - Upward and on![225] - -Although these verses have been interpreted as love which sacrifices or -even love which leads to the grace of God (Bode, p. 149), it is much -more probable that it is love for feminine beauty, a love which makes -possible the execution of wonderful things. Such an interpretation -agrees with the fact that the verses are spoken by a _mystic_ choir -which speaks of the _indescribable_ (_das Unbeschreibliche_) in -which we must see the amorous passion of the old man. In such an -interpretation the whole of _Faust_ (and especially the second Part) is -an eloquent pleading for the importance of love in the higher activity -of man, in accordance with the law of human nature, which is a much -better justification of Goethe’s conduct than all the arguments of his -interpreters and admirers. - -I do not agree with the common idea that the two Parts of _Faust_ are -two distinct works, but regard them as complementary. In the first Part -we see the young pessimist, full of ardour and of desires, ready to -make an end of his days and stopping at nothing to satisfy his thirst -for love. In the second Part we have a mature old man still loving -women, but in a different way, a man who is wise and optimistic, and -who, having satiated the wants of his individual life, dedicates the -rest of his days to mankind, and who, having reached a century, dies -extremely happy, in fact almost exhibiting the instinct of natural -death. - - - - -PART IX - -SCIENCE AND MORALITY - - - - -I - -UTILITARIAN AND INTUITIVE MORALITY - - Difficulty of the problem of morality—Vivisection - and anti-vivisection—Enquiry into the possibility of - rational morality—Utilitarian and intuitive theories of - morality—Insufficiency of these - - -In the course of this book I have from time to time approached -subjects closely related with the problem of morality. For instance, -in considering the prolongation of human life, it was necessary to -show that extension of longevity far beyond the reproductive period of -man in no way is opposed to the principles of the highest morality, -although there exist races who find the sacrifice of old people in -harmony with their conception of morality. - -Experimental biology, which lies at the root of most of the doctrines -exposed in this work, depends on vivisection of animals. There are, -however, very many persons who regard it as immoral to operate on -living animals when it is not for the direct benefit of these. The -attempts which have been made in France and Germany to prevent or to -limit vivisection in laboratories have not succeeded, but in England -there is a severe law controlling operations on animals and submitting -them to oppressive regulations to which many of the scientific men in -the country are opposed. - -The question of experiments upon human beings is still more delicate. -Just as formerly the examination of a human corpse could be made only -in secret, so at the present time, if the slightest experiment is to be -made upon a human being, it can be only by devious ways. People who are -hardly shocked at all at the numberless accidents caused by automobiles -and other means of transit, or in field sports, make the strongest -protest against any proposal to try some new method of treatment upon a -human being. - -A large number of people, amongst them even men of science, regard -as immoral any attempt to prevent the spread of venereal diseases. -Recently, in connection with the investigations into the action of -mercurial ointment as a means of preventing syphilis, the members of -the Faculty of Medicine in France made a public protest, declaring -that it would be “immoral to let people think that they could indulge -in sexual vice without danger,” and that it was “wrong to give to the -public a means of protection in debauch.”[226] None the less, other men -of science, equally serious, were convinced that they were performing -an absolutely moral work in attempting to find a prophylactic against -syphilis which would preserve many people, including children and other -innocent persons who, if no preventive measures existed, would suffer -from the terrible disease. - -Such examples show the reader what confusion exists in the problem of -morality. Although at every moment, in every act of human conduct, the -precepts of morality must be reckoned with, even the most authoritative -persons are far from agreeing as to what rules to follow. About a -year ago in a Parisian journal[227] an enquiry into the subject of -rational morality was directed to distinguished authors. The object -was to discover if, at the present time, moral conduct could be based -not on religious dogma, which binds only those who believe in it, but -on rational principles. The answers were most contradictory. Some -denied the possibility of rational morality, others admitted it, but -in very different fashions. Whilst one philosopher, M. Boutroux, -held that “morality must be founded on reason and could have no -other foundation,” a poet, M. Sully-Prudhomme, turned to feeling and -conscience as the basis of morality. According to him, “in the teaching -of morality, it is the heart and not the mind which is at once master -and pupil.” In the contradictions which I mentioned in the beginning -of this chapter, these two views appear. When antivivisectionists -are protesting against experiments on animals, they are inspired by -sympathy for poor creatures which cannot defend themselves. Guided by -conscience, they think immoral any suffering inflicted upon a living -being for the benefit of another being, whether human or animal. I -know distinguished physiologists who have determined to limit their -experiments to animals with little sensibility, such as frogs. The -great majority of scientific men, however, would have no scruple in -opening bodies and subjecting their victims to severe suffering in the -hope of clearing up some scientific problem which sooner or later would -increase the happiness of human beings and animals. If vivisection -had not been performed, or if it had been restricted, the great laws -of infectious diseases would not have been discovered, nor would -the discovery of many valuable remedies have been made. To justify -investigation, men of science set out from the utilitarian theory of -morality, which approves everything that is useful to the human race. -The antivivisectionists, on the other hand, rely on the intuitive -theory, according to which conduct is controlled by the spontaneous -activity of our conscience. - -In the case which I have selected the problem is easy to solve. It is -plain that vivisection is inevitable in the experimental investigation -of vital processes, as it is the only means by which serious progress -can be made. None the less, very many people cannot accept this -necessity, because of the intensity of their love for animals. - -In the question of the prevention of syphilis, the moral problem is -still more easy to settle. Whilst in the case of vivisection a real -suffering may be inflicted upon animals, in preventive measures against -syphilis, the evil is more or less intricate and very problematic. -The certainty of safety from this disease might render extra-conjugal -relations more frequent, but if we compare the evil which might come -from that with the immense benefit gained in preventing so many -innocent persons from becoming diseased, it is easy to see to which -side the scale dips. The indignation of those who protest against the -discovery of preventive measures can never either arrest the zeal of -the investigators or hinder the use of the measures. This example -again shows that reasoning is necessary in the solution of most moral -questions. - -However, the problems which arise in actual life are often very much -more complicated than the two cases I have taken as an introduction. -It is easy to prove the high utility of the work of vivisectors and -of those who are seeking means of preventing syphilis, whilst their -adversaries have nothing to invoke but their feelings. The situation is -quite different in many questions which border on morality. The sexual -life abounds in extremely difficult problems, in which it is almost -impossible to determine what is right. Let me recall the vagaries -in the life of Goethe, whose great genius was so often in conflict -with the morality of his time. Was he wrong in giving up Frederique -and Lili from the fear that a permanent bond would damage his poetic -productivity? Then there is the moral question of the marriage of -men affected with syphilis, or other diseases which might influence -the offspring. The problems of the continence of young people before -marriage, of prostitution and of means of preventing conception are -without doubt questions of great importance, the solution of which is -extremely difficult from the point of view of morality. Differences of -opinion are revealed in nearly everything relating to punishment. The -question of the death penalty is much in dispute and requires numerous -investigations of different kinds. Statistics have been collected to -give information as to the utility or inutility of the death penalty. -According to some results, capital punishment does not diminish the -number of crimes, whilst according to others it has a real preventive -effect. Punishments less violent than death, and particularly the -punishments of children, are equally troublesome, and schoolmasters -have difficulty in finding a solution. - -The utilitarian theory of morality often finds it impossible to prove -the advantage of the conduct it prescribes, and this the more because -in many cases we do not exactly know who is to profit by it. Is the -utility of any particular act to be considered so far as it affects -relatives, members of the same religion, of the same country, or of the -same race, or all humanity? - -In face of these difficulties, many moral philosophers have given up -the utilitarian theory and declared for an intuitive theory. The basis -of morality is to be found in a feeling innate in every man, a sort of -social instinct urging him to do good to his neighbour, and which, by -the voice of his own conscience, dictates how he ought to act much more -precisely than could be done by any comprehension of the utility of his -conduct. - -It is certainly true that man is an animal living in society because -of his need for association with other human beings. But whilst in -the animal world the members of societies are actuated by an instinct -which is blind and generally very precise, in man we find nothing of -the kind. The social instinct appears in him in endless variety. In -some of us love of neighbours is extremely highly developed, so that -some persons are only happy when sacrificing themselves for the public -good. They give all that they have to the poor, and often die for some -ideal which is necessarily altruistic. Such examples are rare. Many -men, however, profess an affection for some of their kind, devote -themselves to their relations, their friends, or their compatriots, -and remain practically indifferent to all others. Other individuals, -again, have an even narrower sphere of affection, and take advantage -of their fellows, either in their own interest or in that of their own -family. Still more rare are the really wicked persons who have no love -for anyone but themselves and who take pleasure in doing harm to those -about them. Notwithstanding this diversity in the development of the -social instinct, all men have to live together. - -If it were possible to know the inner motives of men, these might be -used as a basis for classifying conduct. Those acts might be described -as moral which were inspired by neighbourly love, and those as immoral -the motive of which was egoism. But it is seldom that the real motives -are discovered; they lie deep down in the individual mind, sometimes -unknown even to the man himself. We can nearly always harmonise our -acts with the dictates of our consciences and find reasons for the -harm we inflict upon others. It is only rare natures that possess a -conscience so delicate as to be always tormented lest they are not -doing good to their neighbours. - -In the course of life, men are disposed to attribute bad motives to -their opponents. Such an attitude makes criticism easier and panders -to the common wish to speak evil of one’s neighbours. Notwithstanding -the numerous precedents for such an attitude amongst politicians and -journalists, it must be discarded from any serious study of morality. - -The motives and the conscience are elusive elements of little use -in any attempt to value human conduct. We have to fall back on the -consequences of action. Now it is easy to show that the social instinct -often leads to action which is not good. It frequently happens that -men, acting with the highest and best intentions, do much harm. -Schopenhauer long ago pointed out that morality based on sentiment is a -mere caricature of real morality. Impelled by the altruistic wish to do -good, men often lavish unreflecting charity and do harm to others and -to themselves. In _Timon of Athens_ Shakespeare depicted - - A most incomparable man; breathed, as it were, - To an untirable and continuate goodness, - -and who gave away to the right and the left, creating around him a -cloud of parasites. He finally ruined himself and became a hopeless -misanthrope. Shakespeare put his verdict in the mouth of Flavius:— - - Undone by goodness. Strange, unusual blood, - When man’s worst sin is, he does too much good. - -Morality, founded purely on sentiment, has inspired the attacks on -vivisectors which in all confidence spread evil amongst men. - -It is a surprising result of the great complexity of human affairs, -that society is sometimes better served by wicked acts than by acts -inspired by the most generous feelings. Thus extremely rigorous -measures of repression are often more successful than the half-measures -employed by humane and charitable administrators. - -The intuitive theory of morality has had no greater success than -utilitarianism. Even if the sentiment of society were a true basis of -moral conduct, it fails in actual practice. On the other hand, although -utility is the object of all morality, it is in most cases so difficult -to determine what is really useful, that utilitarianism breaks down as -the foundation of morality. - -We must look elsewhere for principles which can guide us towards right -conduct. - - - - -II - -MORALITY AND HUMAN NATURE - - Attempts to found morality on the laws of human - nature—Kant’s theory of moral obligation—Some - criticisms of the Kantian theory—Moral conduct must be - guided by reason - - -Even in antiquity, there were efforts to find a basis for morality -other than the precepts of religion based on revelation, but the -failure of such attempts has long been admitted. In the first chapter -of _The Nature of Man_, I described such efforts to find a basis -for morality in human nature itself. The Epicureans and the Stoics, -although their doctrines were opposed, each claimed to set out from -human nature. The principle is too vague for practical use, as human -nature can be interpreted in very different fashions. - -When several attempts to find a rational basis for morality had failed, -Kant’s theory appeared and was hailed by many as a real advance. None -the less, it has not met with general approval and may be taken as a -supreme instance of the failure to solve the great problem of morality -by reason. I do not wish to deal with it at length, but a review of its -main outlines is pertinent to my argument. - -According to Kant, morality cannot be founded on the feeling of -sympathy, nor can it have as its object the happiness of men. Nature -would have been an unskilful workman were her object the happiness of -human beings, for many lower animals have much more happiness. An inner -law is the force compelling us to morality, and without that we should -have to seek our guide in happiness. - -Kant’s doctrine is an intuitive theory of morality. It is based neither -on sympathy nor on any inherent charity, which would make us covet -happiness for our fellows, but solely on the consciousness of duty. -Kant thought that the action of a man who wished to do good to his -fellows was devoid of merit. Conduct was moral only in so far as it was -obedience to the inner sense of duty. Schiller’s epigram has thrown -into relief this part of the great philosopher’s theory, “When I take -pleasure in doing good to my neighbour, I am uneasy, as I fear that I -have been lacking in virtue.” - -In his criticism of Kant’s system, Herbert Spencer drew a picture of -a world inhabited by men who had no sympathy for their fellows and -who did good to them against their natural instincts and only from -a pure sense of duty. Spencer thought that such a world would be -uninhabitable. Clearly, moral conduct, on the Kantian basis, could -be followed only by exceptional persons, for most men follow their -inclinations rather than any sense of duty. People of lower culture -would accept kindnesses from others without caring whether the motive -were kindness or a sense of duty, but highly civilised people would not -endure service from those whom they knew to be acting against their -instincts in obedience to a sense of duty. And so men would be driven -to hide the real motives of their conduct, lest they should offend the -sensibility of those towards whom their moral conduct was directed. -Such cases, where the real motive is concealed, show how impossible -it is to judge of conduct from the motives which may be supposed to -have inspired it. As it is generally impossible to know whether some -altruistic conduct has been inspired by kindness or has been performed -as a duty, it is better to give up any attempt to appraise the springs -of moral conduct. - -Kant himself realised the need of some other standard for appraising -human conduct. With such a purpose he arrived at his well-known -maxim:—“Let your conduct be such that your motive might serve as a -standard of universal application.” To explain the maxim he gave a -number of examples. A man who is without money and cannot pay a debt -is in doubt as to whether he should promise to repay his creditor. -According to Kant, he ought to ask himself what would be the result -if such a promise were to be made under similar circumstances by -everyone. It is plain that if such false promises became universal, -they would cease to be believed and so would be impracticable in -actual life. Kant’s formula, therefore, would supply a rational basis -for the discrimination of immoral conduct. In the case of theft it -would operate as follows: if it became the custom for everyone to take -whatever he wanted, private property and theft would simultaneously -cease to exist. So also suicide is immoral, since if it became general -the human race would cease to exist. - -Kant, however, was looking at only one side of the problem. Moral -conduct is frequently limited to an individual, and cannot be -generalised for all humanity. Thus, for instance, if one about to -sacrifice his life for the good of his fellows were to estimate his -action according to Kant’s formula, he would reach a conclusion similar -to that in the case of suicide; if everyone were to sacrifice his life -for others, no one would remain alive, and so, according to Kant, the -sacrifice of one’s life for the good of others would be an immoral act. - -It is plain that in his search for a rational basis of morality, Kant -found only a hollow form, void of any substantial body of morality. -It is not enough that a moral man should take his consciousness of -duty as a guide. He must know what would be the result of his acts. -If it is immoral to make a false promise, it is because people would -lose confidence in such promises, and confidence is necessary to our -well-being. When the formula of Kant condemns theft, it is because, if -theft became general, there could be no private property, and property -is regarded as necessary to the well-being of men. Suicide is immoral, -according to Kant, because it would lead to the disappearance of the -human race, and human life is of course a good. - -Kant tried to found his theory of morality on a rational basis which -excluded the idea of the general good, but it was impossible for him to -avoid it. His “practical reason,” when it raised the consciousness of -duty to a principle, should have pointed the goal towards which moral -acts were to be directed. In this matter, I find that Kant’s ideas are -very vague, although extremely interesting. - -The innate feeling of duty implies the _will_ to pursue moral conduct. -This will is independent of the circum-ambient conditions. Kant in his -nebulous language explains this consideration as follows:—“Our reason -informs us of a law to which all our maxims are subject, as if our will -had created its own natural order of things. This law, then, is in -the sphere of a nature which we do not know empirically but which the -freedom of the will makes possible, a nature which is supra-sensible, -but which from the practical point of view we make objective, because -it is created by our will in virtue of our existence as rational -beings. The difference between the laws of a nature to which the will -is subject and a nature subject to the will subsists in this, that -in the first the objects must be the causes which determine the will, -whilst in the second, the will itself causes the objects so that the -causality of the will resides exclusively in pure reason, pure reason -being thus practical reason” (_Critique of Practical Reason_). - -So far as I can follow the argument of Kant, it seems to me to imply -that rational morality cannot be bound by human nature as it exists. I -may perhaps interpret Kant’s thought as if he had the intuition that -the moral will was capable of modifying nature by subjecting it to its -own laws. - -On the other hand, several critics of Kant have attempted to improve -his theory of morality by reconciling it with human nature as it -actually exists. Vacherot,[228] for instance, has taken such an -attitude in the most definite fashion. He insists that Kant “did not -appreciate the capital importance of the object of the moral law. The -problem which under the designation _summum bonum_ absorbed the schools -of antiquity plays a minor part in the Kantian theory. Kant should have -recognised that human destiny is not limited to duty but must include -happiness” (p. 316). - -But what is this “happiness” which is to be the standard of human -actions? To answer this Vacherot places himself in the position of -those ancient philosophers whom I discussed in _The Nature of Man_. He -makes his point absolutely clear. “What is the ‘good’ for any being? -The attaining of its purpose. What is the purpose of a being? The -simple development of its nature. Apply this to man and morality. When -human nature is known by observation and analysis, the deduction can be -made as to what is the purpose, and the good, and therefore the law of -man. For the conception of the good necessarily involves the idea of -duty and of law to be imposed on the will. We have to fall back, then, -on knowledge of man, but it must be complete knowledge, a recognition -of the faculties, feelings, and inclinations that are peculiar to him -and that distinguish him from animals” (p. 319). Here is a summary -of this doctrine:—“Develop all our natural powers, subordinating -those which are subsidiary to those which form the peculiar quality -of human beings; this is the true economy of the little world we call -human life; this is its purpose and this its law. The formula states -in the most scientific and least doubtful form a very old truth, the -foundation of all morality and the test of all its applications. If we -seek to know what are justice, duty and virtue, we must look in the -world itself, and not above or below it” (Op. 301). - -Professor Paulsen, a more recent critic of Kant, comes to a similar -conclusion.[229] He thinks that Kant should have modified his formula -in some such way as follows:—“The laws of morality are rules which -might serve for a natural legislation for human life; in other words, -rules that, when they guided conduct according to natural law, would -result in the preservation and supreme development of human life.” - -From whatever side we examine the problem of morality, we come to -submit conduct to the laws of human nature. Sutherland, a modern author -who discusses morality by the scientific method, defines morality -as “conduct guided by rational sympathy.” Such sympathy would not -subordinate the chief good of others to an advantage less important but -more immediate. Thus a mother may sympathise with her child when it has -to take some unpleasant medicine; but if her sympathy be rational she -will not let it interfere with the health of the child. - -In the foregoing case, sympathy has to be controlled by medical -knowledge. In moral conduct generally, reason must be the determining -factor, whatever be the inspiring motive of the conduct, whether it -come from sympathy or from the sense of duty. And thus morality in the -last resort must be based on scientific knowledge. - - - - -III - -INDIVIDUALISM - - Individual morality—History of two brothers brought - up in same circumstances, but whose conduct was - quite different—Late development of the sense of - life—Evolution of sympathy—The sphere of egoism in - moral conduct—Christian morality—Morality of Herbert - Spencer—Danger of exalted altruism - - -Although moral conduct refers specially to the relations between men, -there exists a morality of the individual. As this latter is simpler, I -shall consider it first in my investigation of rational morality. - -When a man, seeking his individual happiness, gives way to his -inclinations without restraint, he often comes to behave in a way that -is generally regarded as immoral. Following his inclination, he may -become idle and drunken. Idleness may depend on some irregularity of -the brain, and may thus be as natural as is the wish to take drink -in the case of a man to whom alcohol brings a feeling of well-being -and gaiety. Why is it that idleness and alcoholism are immoral? Is -it because they prevent the living of life in its completest and -widest sense, according to the theory of Herbert Spencer? But it is -precisely in this way that the adherents of the theory justify all -kinds of excess without which fullness and width of life seem to them -impossible. - -Whilst vices such as idleness and drunkenness arise directly from -qualities of the human constitution, they must be regarded as immoral -because they prevent the completion of the ideal cycle of human -life. I knew two brothers, almost the same age, subject to the same -influences, and brought up in the same environment. None the less, -their tastes and conduct were very different. The older brother, -although very intelligent, during his college career devoted himself -eagerly to bodily exercises and indulged in every way his inclination -for pleasure. “As the chief end of life is happiness,” he said, “one -must try to get as much of it as possible,” and so he got into the -habit of visiting places where there was most amusement. Cards, good -living, and women furnished for him the means of pleasure. As his -ability was unusual, he passed his examinations almost without having -worked. The example of his younger brother, always a devoted student, -did not attract him. “It is all very well for you,” he said, “as you -find your happiness in work; as for me, I detest books, and I am happy -only when I am giving myself up to pleasure. Everyone must take his -own road to the goal of life.” As a result, the health of the older -brother was seriously affected by his mode of life. He acquired some -disease of the circulatory system, had to face the end, and died at -the age of fifty-six. The last years of his life were very unhappy, -as the instinct of life developed in him extremely strongly. He was a -victim of his own ignorance because when he was young he did not know -that the sense of life would develop later on, and would become much -stronger than in his youth. His brother was equally unaware of this -fact, but, absorbed in scientific study, he kept himself apart from the -indulgences of youth and lived a sober life. In this way he found that -his strength and activity were fully preserved at a time of life when -his older brother was already a physical wreck. - -I have quoted this example, not to repeat the banal idea that a sober -life is followed by a healthier old age than an intemperate life, but -because I wish to insist on the importance of the development of the -instinct of life in the course of each individual life. I see that -this idea is very little known. I was present at the last moments of -my older brother (he was called Ivan Ilyitch, and he was the subject -of the famous story of Tolstoi: _The Death of Ivan Ilyitch_). Knowing -that he was going to die from pyemia, at the age of forty-five, my -brother preserved his great intelligence in all its clearness. As I -sat by his bedside he told me his reflections in the most objective -fashion possible. The idea of his death was for long very terrible to -him, but “as we all die” he came to “resign himself, saying that after -all there was only a quantitative difference between death at the age -of forty-five and later on.” This reflection, which relieved the moral -sufferings of my brother, is none the less untrue. The sense of life is -very different at different ages, and a man who lives beyond the age of -forty-five experiences many sensations which he did not know before. -There is a great evolution of the mind during the advance of age. - -Even if we do not accept the existence of an instinct of natural -death as the crown of normal life, we cannot deny that youth is only -a preparatory stage and that the mind does not acquire its final -development until later on. This conception should be the fundamental -principle of the science of life and the guide for education and -practical philosophy. - -Individual morality consists of conduct permitting the accomplishment -of the normal cycle of life and ending in a feeling of satisfaction as -complete as possible and which can be reached only in advanced age. And -so, when we see a man wasting his health and strength and youth, and -thus making himself incapable of feeling the most complete pleasure in -life, we call him immoral. - -A man entirely isolated does not exist in nature. We are born weak -and incapable of satisfying our needs and at once come into relations -with the human being who feeds us and protects us. The child, although -egoistic, becomes attached to his protector, and in this way the -feeling of sympathy is born. Guided by this feeling as well as by the -sense of his own interest, the child soon begins to employ his will -in restraining some of his instincts, which, none the less, are quite -natural. Thus, the fear of being deprived of food makes him obedient -to his protectors. The child cannot complete his normal cycle without -pursuing a certain moral conduct. - -When he becomes adult, man experiences the instinctive need of -relations with someone of the other sex. This need lays certain duties -on him, and although the love of a young man is less egoistical -than that of the child, it is far from presenting the characters of -self-abnegation and sacrifice. - -A young woman, after having passed through the usual cycle of life -with her mother and with a man, becomes herself a mother. Maternal -instinct furnishes her with certain rules of conduct, but this natural -instinct is not enough to fulfil its object, that is to say, to rear -the child until an age when it can live independently. Directed by a -feeling of sympathy for her child, the young mother learns from women -with more experience to ward off dangers from her child. In the first -years, moral conduct on the part of the mother consists almost entirely -in bringing up the child in a healthy way. For this purpose she must -acquire much knowledge. If she remains ignorant, her conduct must be -regarded as immoral. - -So far as concerns the bringing up of a child, the moral problem is -quite simple, because we are all agreed that the object is to rear -the child to maturity in the healthiest possible condition. When the -child exhibits any habits harmful to this object, although due to -natural instincts, the mother applies her knowledge to restrain them -without paying attention to the theory that happiness consists in the -fulfilment of everything that is natural. When a child has passed -through the perilous first period of its life, the mother has to ask -what general object she is to follow in its education. She wishes her -child to be as happy as possible. Here the conception of orthobiosis -will serve her, and it will teach her that the greatest happiness -consists in the normal evolution of the sense of life, leading to -serene old age, and finally reaching the fulness of satiety of life. -Man, who has passed his apprenticeship to life from his birth, with his -protectors, and, later on, with persons of the other sex, inevitably -acquires certain elements necessary for social life. Persuaded that -in order to succeed in his individual life he must have help from his -fellows, he learns to subdue his anti-social tendencies, at first -in his own interests. Let me take an example of this. When a man -has reached a certain stage of civilisation, it generally becomes -impossible to him to supply his bodily wants without the help of -persons less cultured than himself. He takes into his house one or more -servants, with whom he enters into definite relations. He wishes for -himself and those about him a normal life, such as I have described -in _The Nature of Man_. To attain this it is indispensable in his own -interest and in that of his family, that his domestic servants should -be well treated. The health of the family very often depends on the -conduct of the servants, who will follow conscientiously the hygienic -rules only if they themselves are living in good conditions. The custom -according to which the masters live in luxuriously furnished rooms, -while their servants have mean quarters in the attics, is immoral from -the point of view of the well-being of the masters themselves. The -crowded servants’ quarters are a nest of all sorts of infection, which -may spread in the families of the masters. Very often people who think -that they are following the rules of exact hygiene contract diseases -without knowing that the infection has come from their servants. - -Anger gives us another example. It is certainly harmful to the health, -and so should be controlled in the interest of the bad-tempered -person himself. Fits of rage are frequently followed by ruptures of -blood-vessels, and by diabetes, and even cataracts have developed after -some violent passion. - -Luxurious habits are also well known to be harmful to the health. Heavy -meals, evenings passed in the theatre and in society may seriously -affect activity of the organs. Moreover, the luxury of some people -is often the cause of misery to others. The knowledge that luxurious -habits shorten life and prevent man from reaching the greatest -happiness may warn people against luxury better than the appeal to the -feeling of sympathy. - -As it is a fact that most men guide their lives generally from egoistic -motives, any theory of morality which is to be put into practice must -reckon seriously with this factor. All other systems have recognised -it. In the Sermon on the Mount, which is a summary of Christian -morality, each moral act is recognised on the ground that it will -bring some reward or obviate some punishment. “Rejoice,” said Jesus, -“and be exceeding glad; for great is your reward in heaven” (Matt. v., -12). “Take heed that ye do not your alms before men, to be seen of -them; otherwise ye have no reward of your Father which is in heaven” -(Matt. vi., 1). “That thine alms may be in secret; and thy Father -which seeth in secret himself shall reward thee openly” (Matt. vi., -4). “Judge not, that ye be not judged” (Matt. vii., 1). “But if ye -forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your -trespasses” (Matt. vi., 15). Jesus had no high opinion of the influence -of altruism on human conduct. - -Herbert Spencer in his treatise on morality (_The Data of Ethics_) -also insists that laws of conduct, to be of general application, must -not require men to make too great sacrifices, as otherwise the best -teaching would remain a dead letter. He imagines, however, that in the -future the human race will be so much improved that moral conduct will -become instinctive, needing no compulsion. The English philosopher -presents a view of the future of the human race totally at variance -with the Kantian conception. Instead of human beings becoming filled -with a sense of duty opposed to their natural instincts, the world will -be peopled with men acting morally from inclination, so making the -world delightful. - -The ideal is so far removed from existing conditions that the -possibility of its attainment is hardly worth considering. It is -probable that a world whose inhabitants had the feeling of sympathy -very highly developed would not be so delightful. For sympathy is -generally a reaction against evil. When evil disappears, sympathy would -be not merely useless, but annoying and harmful. - -George Eliot in _Middlemarch_ describes a young woman enthusiastically -anxious to do good to her fellows. When she came to live in a village, -she made great plans to succour its poor. Her disillusion and annoyance -were great when she found that the villagers were quite comfortably -off, and had no need of her charity. - -John Stuart Mill in his _Autobiography_ relates that when he was young -he dreamed of reforming society and making everyone happy. But when he -asked himself if the accomplishment of his beautiful ideas would make -him happy, he was compelled to answer “No!” and this discovery plunged -the young philosopher into a lamentable condition. He described himself -as quite overcome, all that supported him in life crumbling away. His -happiness could lie only in the constant pursuit of his object, and -the charm seemed broken, because if attainment were not to please him, -how could the means be of any interest to him? It seemed to him that -nothing was left to which he could dedicate his life. - -As it is highly probable that with the advance of civilisation -the greatest evils of humanity will become lessened, and may even -disappear, the sacrifices to be made will also become less. Now that -there is a serum which protects against plague, there is no room for -the heroism of the doctors who used to incur the greatest danger in -fighting epidemics. Until lately doctors used to risk their life in -treating the throats of diphtheric patients. A young doctor who was -a friend of mine, of high ability and promise, died from diphtheria -contracted under these conditions. He met his death, in isolation from -his friends in case of infecting them, with the utmost heroism. Now -that the anti-diphtheric serum has been discovered, such heroism would -be unnecessary. The advance of science has removed the occasion of such -sacrifices. - -It is now very long since there has been opportunity for the heroism -which steeled the hand of Abraham to sacrifice his only son to his -religion. Human sacrifice, based on the highest morality, has become -more and more rare, and will finally disappear. Rational morality, -although it may admire such conduct, has no use for it. So also, it -may foresee a time when men will be so highly developed that instead -of being delighted to take advantage of the sympathy of their fellows, -they will refuse it absolutely. Neither the Kantian idea of virtue, -doing good as a pure duty, nor that of Herbert Spencer, according to -which men have an instinctive need to help their fellows, will be -realised in the future. The ideal will rather be that of men who will -be self-sufficient and who will no longer permit others to do them -good. - - - - -IV - -ORTHOBIOSIS - - Human nature must be modified according to an - ideal—Comparison with the modification of the - constitution of plants and of animals—Schlanstedt - rye—Burbank’s plants—The ideal of orthobiosis—The - immorality of ignorance—The place of hygiene in the - social life—The place of altruism in moral conduct—The - freedom of the theory of orthobiosis from metaphysics - - -As I have shown in _The Nature of Man_, the human constitution as it -exists to-day, being the result of a long evolution and containing a -large animal element, cannot furnish the basis of rational morality. -The conception which has come down from antiquity to modern times, of -a harmonious activity of all the organs, is no longer appropriate to -mankind. Organs which are in course of atrophy must not be reawakened, -and many natural characters which perhaps were useful in the case of -animals must be made to disappear in men. - -Human nature, which, like the constitutions of other organisms, is -subject to evolution, must be modified according to a definite ideal. -Just as a gardener or stock raiser is not content with the existing -nature of the plants and animals with which he is occupied, but -modifies them to suit his purposes, so also the scientific philosopher -must not think of existing human nature as immutable, but must try to -modify it for the advantage of mankind. - -As bread is the chief article in human food, attempts to improve -cereals have been made for a very long time. Rimpau made one of the -greatest steps in this direction when he introduced into cultivation a -variety of rye known as Schlanstedt rye, now fairly abundant in France -and Germany. Rimpau set himself the task of producing a variety with -the longest ears and containing many and heavy grains. Having conceived -his ideal, he began to seek out what was nearest to it in a very large -number of examples of rye. After patient and continued labour, using -careful selection and cross-fertilisation, Rimpau succeeded in making -the new variety, and so did a great service to mankind. - -Burbank,[230] an American horticulturist, has recently gained a wide -reputation because of his improvements of useful plants. He has -produced a new kind of potato which has raised the value of potato -crops in the United States by about £3,500,000 per annum. Burbank -cultivated great numbers of fruit trees, flowers, and all kinds of -plants, with the object of increasing their utility. One of his objects -was to produce varieties which could resist dry conditions, which -reproduced rapidly and so forth. He has modified the nature of plants -to such an extent that he has cactus plants and brambles without -thorns. The succulent leaves of the former provide an excellent food -for cattle, whilst the absence of thorns in the latter makes their -pleasant fruit more suitable for gardens. Burbank has enormously -improved the production of stoneless plums, and has very much reduced -the price of many bulbs and lilies by increasing their productivity. - -To obtain such results much knowledge and a long period of time -were necessary. To modify the nature of plants it was necessary to -understand them well. To frame the new ideal of the plant it was -necessary not only to have an exact conception of what was wanted, but -to find out if the qualities of the plants in question furnished any -hope of realising it. - -The methods which have been successful in the case of plants and -animals must be much modified for application to the human race. In -the case of human beings the selection and cross-breeding which were -imposed upon rye and plum trees are not possible, but, at the same -time, the ideal of human nature, towards which mankind ought to press, -may be formed. In our opinion this ideal is orthobiosis, that is to -say, the development of the human life so that it passes through a long -period of old age in active and vigorous health, leading to the final -period in which there shall be present a sense of satiety of life, -and a wish for death. I do not think that the ideal should be that of -Herbert Spencer, a simple prolongation of human life. When the instinct -of death comes at a not very late period of life, there would be no -inconvenience in shortening the life, if death did not come soon after -the appearance of the instinct. Probably this would be the only case -where suicide was justified in the conception of orthobiosis. - -The foregoing is the case of an action in conformity with the -ideal, but quite contrary to human nature as it is at present. A -similar contradiction appears in reproduction. Man came from animals -amongst which unlimited reproduction was an important factor in the -preservation of the species, as it allowed the species to survive under -all sorts of bad conditions, such as diseases, combats, attacks of -enemies, and changes of climate. Although man, according to the laws of -human nature, is capable of reproducing extremely rapidly, the ideal -of his happiness makes a restriction of this power necessary. Thus -orthobiosis, based upon knowledge of human nature, would set limits to -a function which is perhaps the most natural of all. The restriction -which is already partially adopted will come more and more into -operation as the struggle against diseases, the prolongation of human -life, and the suppression of war make progress. It will be one of the -chief means of diminishing the most brutal forms of the struggle for -existence, and of increasing moral conduct amongst mankind. - -Just as Rimpau began to study the nature of plants before trying to -realise his ideal, so also varied and profound knowledge is the first -requisite for the ideal of moral conduct. It is necessary not only to -know the structure and function of the human organism, but to have -exact ideas on human life as it is in society. Scientific knowledge -is so indispensable for moral conduct that ignorance must be placed -among the most immoral acts. A mother who rears her child in defiance -of good hygiene, from want of knowledge, is acting immorally towards -her offspring, notwithstanding her feeling of sympathy. And this also -is true of a Government which remains in ignorance of the laws which -regulate human life and human society. - -It must be well understood that I am not here thinking of written -knowledge, set down in treatises and volumes. Rimpau and Burbank went -outside manuals of botany to obtain their knowledge. Besides books, -wide ideas on the practice of life are required to direct aright the -conduct of men. A doctor who has just finished his studies at the -hospital, notwithstanding all his knowledge, is not yet sufficiently -trained to be a good practitioner. He must acquire the habit of -treating patients, and for this years are required. So also is it with -regard to the practical applications of the principles of morality. -The regulation of conduct requires profound knowledge both theoretical -and practical, and men selected to frame or to apply laws of morality -must have this double qualification. If the human race come to adopt -the principles of orthobiosis, a considerable change in the qualities -of men of different ages will follow. Old age will be postponed so -much that men of from sixty to seventy years of age will retain their -vigour, and will not require to ask assistance in the fashion now -necessary. On the other hand, young men of twenty-one years of age will -no longer be thought mature or ready to fulfil functions so difficult -as taking a share in public affairs. The view which I set forth in -_The Nature of Man_ regarding the danger which comes from the present -interference of young men in political affairs has since then been -confirmed in the most striking fashion. - -It is easily intelligible that in the new conditions such modern idols -as universal suffrage, public opinion, and the _referendum_, in which -the ignorant masses are called on to decide questions which demand -varied and profound knowledge, will last no longer than the old idols. -The progress of human knowledge will bring about the replacement -of such institutions by others, in which applied morality will be -controlled by the really competent persons. I permit myself to suppose -that in these times, scientific training will be much more general than -it is just now, and that it will occupy the place which it deserves in -education and in life. - -It is equally clear that if a mother is to act morally with regard to -her child, she must teach herself properly. In place of mythology and -literature, she must learn hygiene and all that relates to the rational -rearing of children. So, also, in the education of men, the study of -the exact sciences must occupy by far the most important place. Then -only will moral conduct and scientific knowledge begin to unite. An -ignorant mother will bring up a child very badly notwithstanding all -her good will and her affection. A doctor, however imbued with strong -sympathy for his patients, could do them much harm if he had not the -appropriate knowledge. Are not politicians open to the reproach from -the point of view of morality that very often through ignorance they -do the very worst evil in public administration? With the progress of -knowledge, moral conduct and useful conduct will become more and more -closely identified. - -I have been reproached because in my system the health of the body -occupies too large a place. It cannot be otherwise, because health -certainly plays the chief part in existence. Notwithstanding his -pessimism, Schopenhauer was convinced that health was the greatest -treasure, a treasure before which everything else yielded. In many -religions care of the health is laid down amongst the chief duties. -Although many scientific men do not hold the opinion that circumcision -was ordained for hygienic reasons, it is certain that hygiene was -extremely important in the Jewish religion. It is only in Christianity, -which despises the human body, that hygiene is excluded from the -religious code, as in the words of Jesus:- - -“Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall -drink; nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life -more than meat, and the body than raiment?” (Matt. vi., 25). As for -long ages hygiene was very imperfectly known, it is not surprising -that it played a small part in human affairs. Probably the objection -to the importance that I assign to it in orthobiosis is a relic from -the old order of things. Now, however, the situation is different. -Bacteriology has placed hygiene on a scientific foundation, so that the -latter is now one of the exact sciences. It has now become necessary -to give it the chief place in applied morality as it is the branch of -knowledge that teaches how men ought to live. - -It has been objected that I have left no place for altruism in my -system.[231] Certainly I have tried to find an egoistic basis for -moral conduct, as I have shown above. I think, however, that the wish -to live according to the ideal of orthobiosis and to make others live -a normal life would be a powerful agency in improving social life, in -preventing mutual damage, and promoting mutual help. Such a motive, -within the reach of persons whose altruistic feelings are not specially -strong, must largely extend moral conduct amongst human beings, and -even although in future such manifestations of high morality as the -sacrifice of life and health will become wholly or nearly wholly -useless, I think that for the present there is still room for altruism. -The practical application of scientific knowledge already gained admits -much self-denial and good feeling. Struggle against prejudices of -all kinds and the development and diffusion of sound ideas require a -conduct very highly altruistic. - -The fears of my opponents are still less justified when we reflect that -the feelings of sympathy and of cohesion must play a large part in the -business of helping the evolution of man towards the goal of normal -life. - -Although our actual knowledge already provides a basis of rational -morality, it may be admitted that in the future, if science continues -its forward march, the rules of moral conduct will become still more -improved. There will be no ground for reproaching me for a blind faith -in the all-powerfulness of science. Much more trust can be given to -one who has faithfully carried out his promises, than to one who has -promised much and fulfilled nothing. Science has already justified the -hopes which have been placed in it. It has saved people from the most -terrible diseases, and has made life much easier. On the other hand, -religions, which demand an uncritical faith as the means of curing the -ills which afflict humanity, have not fulfilled their promises. - -The reproach that I preach blind faith in the progress of science, -destined to replace religious faith, is unjust, because my faith -depends on a confidence that science has already deserved. Equally -unjust is the reproach that I have built my system on a partly -metaphysical principle. According to M. Parodi,[232] the hypothesis of -physiological old age and of natural death seem to “involve the idea -of a natural duration of human life, which, however, from accidental -reasons man does not complete at present. M. Metchnikoff repeatedly -uses the expression ‘normal cycle.’ Now do we not see here the -surreptitious repetition of the old teleological conception of nature, -although at first he so energetically disavowed it? It is the belief -that the species is a necessary reality, corresponding to a definite -type of its own, in fact a special design of nature; that nature, -to guide herself, had an ideal which circumstances could mistake or -degrade, but which had to be restored to its perfect form? Otherwise, -why does he insist that there must be a condition of perfect and stable -equilibrium between individual and environment? that there is a normal -cycle and that it must be possible to harmonise the disharmonies?” - -I can show easily that all these objections rest upon a simple -misunderstanding. I have never conceived of the existence of any ideal -of nature or of the inevitable necessity of transforming disharmonies -to harmonies. I have no knowledge of the “designs” and “motives” of -nature; I have never taken my stand on metaphysical ground. I have not -the remotest idea if nature has any ideal and if the appearance of -man on the earth were a part of such an ideal. What I have spoken of -is the ideal of man corresponding to the need to ward off the great -evils of old age as it is now, and of death as we see it around us. -I have said, moreover, that human nature, that collection of complex -features of multiple origin, contains certain elements which may be -used to modify it according to our human ideal. I have done nothing -but what the horticulturist does when he finds in the nature of plants -elements which suggest to him to try and make new and improved races. -Just as the constitution of some plum trees contains elements which -make it possible to produce plums without stones which are pleasanter -to eat, so also in our own nature there exist characters which make -it possible to transform our disharmonious nature into a harmonious -one, in accordance with our ideal, and able to bring us happiness. I -have not the smallest idea what ideal nature may have on the subject -of plums, but I know very well that man has such designs and such -an ideal as form a point of departure for the transformation of the -nature of plums. Substitute man for the plum tree and you are at my -point of view. When I have spoken of the normal cycle of life or of -physiological old age, I have used the words normal and physiological -only in relation to our ideal of the human constitution. I might just -as well have said that a cactus without thorns is the normal cactus in -the conditions where it was desired to obtain a succulent plant useful -as food for cattle. The words “normal” and “physiological” seemed to -me more convenient than such a phrase as “in correspondence with human -ideals.” - -I am so little convinced of the existence of any disposition of nature -to transform our ills into goods, and our disharmonies into harmonies, -that it would not surprise me if such an ideal were never reached. Even -in unmetaphysical circles it is said that nature has the intention of -preserving the species at the expense of the individual. The ground -of this is that the species survives the individual. On the other -hand, very many species have completely disappeared. Amongst these -species were animals very highly organised, such as some anthropoid -apes (_Dryopithecus_, etc.). As nature has not spared these, how can -we be certain that she is not ready to deal with the human race in the -same way. It is impossible for us to know the unknown, its plans and -motives. We must leave nature on one side and concern ourselves with -what is more congruous with our intelligence. - -Our intelligence informs us that man is capable of much, and for -this reason we hope that he may be able to modify his own nature and -transform his disharmonies into harmonies. It is only human will that -can attain this ideal. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Westergaard, _Mortalitaet u. Morbilitaet_, 2nd. Edit., 1901, pp. -653-655. - -[2] The volume of the urine excreted in 24 hours (in January 1905) -was 500 c.c., with a density of 1019. There was no albumen or sugar. -The quantity, per litre, of urea was 11·50 gr., of chlorides 9 gr., -of phosphates 1·15 gr. The sediment contained crystals of uric acid, -some pavement epithelium cells, a very few cells from the tubules, some -hyaline platelets and isolated white corpuscles. - -[3] _Extinct Animals_, London, 1905, pp. 28, 29. - -[4] _Rendiconti d. Accad. d. Lincei_, 1906, vol. xiv. pp. 351, 390. - -[5] _Ueb. d. physiologische Degeneration bei Actinosphærium -eichhornii._ Jena, 1904. - -[6] “Senescence and Rejuvenation,” _Journal of Physiology_, 1891, t. -xii. - -[7] _Biologisches Centralblatt_, 1904, pp. 65, 81, 113. - -[8] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences_, 23 April, 1900. - -[9] _Revue générale des sciences_, 30 Dec., 1904, p. 1116. - -[10] _Le Bulletin médical_, 1906, p. 721; _Le Cerveau sénile_, Lille, -1906, pp. 64-69. - -[11] _Mémoires couronnés publiés par l’Académie royale de Belgique_, -Bruxelles, 1906. - -[12] _Revue de Médecine_, Nov., 1906, p. 870. - -[13] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, Oct. 1906, p. 859. - -[14] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1900, vol. xiv. p. 113. - -[15] _Eléments d’histologie humaine_, French translation, 1856, p. 222. - -[16] _Leçons sur la physiologie du système nerveux_, 1866. - -[17] _De la dégenérescence graisseuse des muscles chez des vieillards._ -Paris, 1867. - -[18] Demange, _Étude sur la vieillesse_, 1886, p. 118. - -[19] _C. R. de la Société de Biologie_, 14 November, 1903. - -[20] _Clinica medica_, 1905, _n._ 6. - -[21] _Bulletins de la Société royale des sciences-medicales de -Bruxelles_, 1905, _n._ 4, p. 105. - -[22] Sarbach, _Mittheilungen a. d. Grenzgeb. d. Med. u. Chir._, vol. -xv. 1906. - -[23] _Verhandlungen d. Kongr. f. innere Medicin._ Wiesbaden, 1906, pp. -59, 98. - -[24] _Archives de Neurologie_, 1886. - -[25] Die Function d. Schilddrüse, _Virchow’s Festschrift_, vol. i. -1891, p. 369. - -[26] Fuss, Der Greisenbogen, in _Virchow’s Archiv_, 1905, vol. clxxxii. -p. 407; S. Toufesco, _Sur le cristallin_, Paris, 1906. - -[27] Edmond Fournier, _Stigmates dystrophiques de l’hérédosyphilis_, -Paris, 1898, p. 4. - -[28] _Histoire naturelle générale et particulière_, vol. ii. Paris, -1749. - -[29] _De la longévité humaine et de la quantité de vie sur le globe_, -Paris, 1855. - -[30] _Ueber die Dauer des Lebens_, Jena, 1882, p. 4. - -[31] Brehm, _La vie des animaux, Mammifères_, vol. ii. p. 623. - -[32] _Leçons sur la physiologie et l’anatomie comparée_, vol. ix. 1870, -p. 446. - -[33] _Archiv f. die gesammte Physiologie_, Bonn, 1903, vol. xcv. p. 606. - -[34] _La Nature_, May 12, 1900, p. 378. - -[35] Ashworth and Annandale, _Proceedings of the R. Society of -Edinburgh_, vol. xxv. part iv. 1904. - -[36] _Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen des Thierreichs_, vol. iii. p. 466. - -[37] Weismann, _The Duration of Life_, in “Essays on Heredity” (English -translation), Oxford, 1889. - -[38] Oustalet, “_La Longévité chez les Animaux vertébrés_,” _La -Nature_, May 12, 1900, p. 378. - -[39] “_On the Comparative Ages to which Birds live_,” _The Ibis_, Jan., -1899, vol. v. p. 19. - -[40] J. Maumus, “Les cæcums des oiseaux,” _Annales des sciences -naturelles_, 902. See also P. Chalmers Mitchell, “On the Intestinal -Tract of Birds,” _Trans. Linnæan Soc. of London_, vol. viii. part 7, -1901. - -[41] Weidersheim, _Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates_, -translated by W. Newton Parker, p. 236, 1886. - -[42] _Elements of Comparative Anatomy_, English translation by F. -Jeffrey Bell, B.A., London, 1878, p. 562. - -[43] _Virchow’s Archiv_, 1869, vol. xlviii. p. 151. - -[44] P. Chalmers Mitchell, “On the Intestinal Tract of Mammals,” -_Trans. Zool. Soc. of London_, vol. xvii. part 5, 1905. - -[45] _Travaux de la Société des médecins russes à Saint-Pétersbourg._ -September-October, 1905, p. 18 (in Russian). - -[46] _Virchow’s Archiv_, 1874, vol. lix, p. 161. - -[47] _Zeitschrift f. klinische. Medicin_, 1887, vol. xii. - -[48] _Mittheilungen a. d. Grenzgebieten d. Medicin u. Chirurgie_, 1905, -vol. xiv. - -[49] Aldor, _Centralblatt f. innere Medicin_, 1898, p. 161. - -[50] _L’année biologique_, 7th year, 1902. Paris, 1903, p. 590. - -[51] _Gazette des Hôpitaux_, 1904, p. 715. - -[52] _Accidents dus à la Constipation pendant la Grossesse, -l’Accouchement et les Suites des Couches._ Thèse, Paris, 1902, p. 32. - -[53] _Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_, Paris, 1905, 10 July, -p. 136. - -[54] _Archiv. f. klinische Chirurgie_, 1901, vol. lxiii, p. 773. - -[55] Kolle u. Wassermann, _Handb. d. pathogenen Mikro-organismen_, vol. -ii, 1903, p. 678. - -[56] Ficker, in the _Archiv. für Hygiene_, vol. lii, p. 179, has -recently published the results of an investigation into this. - -[57] Quoted by Frédericq et Nuel, _Eléments de physiologie humaine_, -4th edition, 1899, p. 256. - -[58] Quoted by Frédericq et Nuel, _op. cit._ - -[59] _L’aviculture_ (a fortnightly Russian journal), Oct. 1st, 1904, -No. 19, p. 3. - -[60] _Country Life_, 1905. - -[61] Quoted by Ebstein, _Die Kunst d. mensch. Leben zu verlängern_, -1891. - -[62] _Op. cit._, p. 12. - -[63] _Annuaire statistique de la ville de Paris_, 23rd year, 1904, p. -164-171. - -[64] Ornstein, Virchow’s _Archiv._, 1891, vol. cxxv, p. 408. - -[65] Ebstein, _op. cit._, p. 70. - -[66] Lejoncourt, _Galerie des centenaires_, Paris, 1842, p. 96-98. - -[67] Lejoncourt, _op. cit._, p. 101. - -[68] _Researches into the Physical History of Mankind_, 1836, vol. i, -p. 1157. - -[69] I owe to the kindness of M. Chemin a memoir in which he has -brought together the ancient and new records on the centenarians of all -countries up to the end of the nineteenth century. M. Chemin was unable -to find a publisher, but has given me his manuscript, extending to 182 -pages. - -[70] _Ueber die Kunst d. Verlängerung d. mensch. Lebens_, Bonn, 1890, -p. 23. - -[71] _Physiologie générale_, 1900, p. 381. - -[72] _Tableaux de la nature_ (French translation), 1808, vol. ii, p. -109. - -[73] Webb and Berthelot, _Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries_, 1839, -vol. i, part 2, pp. 97-98. - -[74] _Bibliothèque universelle de Genève_, 1839, vol. xlvi, p. 387. - -[75] _Ibid._, p. 392. - -[76] _Bibliothèque universelle de Genève_, vol. xlvii, p. 49. - -[77] _Entstehung u. Begriff d. naturhistorischen Art_, 2nd edit., -Munich, 1865, p. 37. - -[78] Griesebach, _Die Vegetation der Erde_. - -[79] Batalin, _Acta Horti Petropolitani_, vol. xi, no. 6, 1890, p. 289. - -[80] I am indebted to Prof. Hugo de Vries for this and other instances -of the prolongation of life in plants. - -[81] Engler’s _Botanische Jahrbücher_, Leipzig, 1882, vol. ii, p. 51. - -[82] _Organographie der Pflanzen_, Iéna, 1898-1901. - -[83] _Bulletin du jardin botanique de Bruxelles_, vol. i, no. 6, 1905. - -[84] Hugo de Vries, _Jahrbücher für wissensch. Botanik_, 1890, vol. -xxii, p. 52. - -[85] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1902, p. 71. - -[86] Duclaux, _Microbiologie_, vol. iii, 1900, p. 460. - -[87] _Archiv. für Anatomie und Physiologie_, 1864. - -[88] _Archives de Zoologie expérimentale_, 1901, vol. ix, p. 81. - -[89] Observations of Dr. Speyer, quoted by Weismann. - -[90] See _The Nature of Man_. - -[91] _Étude clinique sur la vieillesse_, Paris, 1886, p. 145. - -[92] _Revue scientifique_, 1877, p. 1173. - -[93] _Revue scientifique_, 1887, 2nd part, p. 105. - -[94] Gabriel Bertrand, _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1904, p. 672. - -[95] _Therapeutische Monatshefte_, 1904, p. 193. - -[96] _Münchener medicinische Wochenschrift_, 1904, No. 1; -_Verhandlungen der physiologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin_, Dec. 5th, -1904. - -[97] _Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles_, Geneva, March, -1905, vol. xvii; _Archives de physiologie_, vol. iv, p. 245. - -[98] Laveran and Mesnil, _Trypanosomes et Trypanosomiases_, Paris, -1904, p. 328. - -[99] Paris, 1834, 4th edition, vol. ii, p. 118. - -[100] _Revue de métaphysique et de morale_, March, 1904. - -[101] _Année biologique_, vol. vii, p. 595. - -[102] _Revue occidentale_, July 1st, 1904, vol. xxx, p. 87. - -[103] Egger, “_Le moi des mourants_,” Revue philosophique, 1896, i, p. -27. - -[104] _Ibid._, pp. 303-307; v. also _Bulletin de l’Institut général -phycholog._, 1903, p. 29. - -[105] Cicero, _Tusculanes_, chap, xxviii. - -[106] Rapport de M. Bienvenu-Martin à la Chambre des députés, Paris, -1903. - -[107] _L’Art de prolonger la vie humaine_ (French translation), -Lausanne, 1809, p. 5. - -[108] A. Réville, _Histoire des religions_, vol. iii, Paris, 1889, p. -428. - -[109] A. Réville, _loc. cit._, p. 455. - -[110] _Comptes rendus de la Societé de Biologie_, 1899, p. 415. - -[111] _Deutsche medicin. Wochenschrift_, 1891, p. 1027. - -[112] _Die physiologisch-chemisch. Grundlagen d. Spermintheorie_, -Berlin, 1898. - -[113] _British Medical Journal_, 1904; _Deutsche Mediz. Wochenschr._, -1904, Nos. 18-21. - -[114] _Die Lehre von d. Mortalitaet u. Morbilitaet_, 2nd edition, Jena, -1901. - -[115] _Medizinische Klinik_, 1905, No. 22. - -[116] _Die experimentelle Syphilisforschung_, Berlin, 1906, p. 82. - -[117] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1900, pp. 369-413. - -[118] _Les sérums hemolytiques_, Lyon, 1903. - -[119] According to a recent publication of M. Ellenberger (_Archiv. f. -Anatomie u. Physiologie, Physiologische Abtheilung_, 1906, p. 139), -the cæca of the horse, pig and rabbit, play an active part in the -digestion of vegetable matter, which is rich in cellulose. At the end -of his treatise, Ellenberger insists that the vermiform appendix of the -cæcum is not a rudimentary organ. The reason why the appendix can be -removed in the case of man without disturbance to the functions of the -body, is that this work can be performed by the Peyer’s patches of the -intestine. The existence of the appendix is not necessary to the normal -processes of the body, and is a real danger to health and sometimes to -life. Comparative study of the cæca in birds shows that these organs -are in process of degeneration. - -[120] _Archiv. für experimentelle Pathologie_, vol. xxviii, p. 311. - -[121] _Sixième Congrès de Chirurgie_, Paris, 1903, p. 86. - -[122] _Leçons sur les auto-intoxications_, Paris, 1886. - -[123] _Zeitschrift für Hygiene_, 1892, vol. xii, p. 88. - -[124] _Zeitschrift für klinische Medicin_, 1903, vol. xlviii, p. 491. - -[125] There is a summary of this question in Gerhardt’s work on -intestinal putrefaction, in _Ergebnisse der Physiologie_, 3rd year, -section 1, Wiesbaden, 1904, pp. 107-154. - -[126] _The A B C of our Nutrition_, New York, 1903; Dr. Regnault, Nov. -1, “L’art de manger,” _La Revue_, 1906, p. 92. - -[127] _Zeitschr. f. diatetische u. physikal. Therapie_, t. viii, 1904, -1905. - -[128] _Du Cap au lac Nyassa_, Paris, 1897, pp. 291-294. - -[129] Gaffky and Paak, in _Arbeiten d. k. Gesundheitsamtes_, vol. vi, -1890. - -[130] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1903. - -[131] Cormouls-Houlès, _Vingt-sept années d’agriculture pratique_, -Paris, 1899, pp. 57-58. - -[132] _British Medical Journal_, 1897, Dec. 25th, p. 1898. - -[133] _Comptes rendus de la Soc. de Biologie_, 1906, March 17th. - -[134] Dr. Combe, _L’auto intoxication intestinale_, Paris, 1906. This -valuable work contains much useful information on the subject. - -[135] Grundzach, _Zeitschrift für klinische Medezin_, 1893, p. 70; -Schmitz, _Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie_, 1894, vol. xix, p. -401; Singer, _Therapeutische Monatshefte_, 1901, p. 441. - -[136] _Journal für praktische Chemie_, 1882, vol. xxvi, p. 43. - -[137] _Archiv. für experimentelle Pathologie_, 1883, vol. xvii, p. 442. - -[138] In the English authorised version as in the translation of -Osterwald the word “butter” is used in place of “soured milk.” -Professor Metchnikoff follows the translation given by Ebstein in his -work on the Medicine of the Old Testament. - -[139] _Presse médicale_, 1904, p. 619. - -[140] “An authentic narrative of the loss of the American brig -_Commerce_ wrecked on the western coast of Africa in the month of -August, 1815, with an account of the sufferings of the surviving -officers and crew, who were enslaved by the wandering Arabs on the -African desert or Zaharah; and observations historical, geographical, -etc.” by James Riley. Hartford, S. Andrus and Son, 1854. - -[141] _Arbeiten a. d. k. Gesundheitsamte_, 1889, vol. v, pp. 297-304. - -[142] See Grasberger and Schattenfroh, _Archiv. für Hygiene_, 1902, -vol. xlii, p. 246. - -[143] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1902, p. 65. - -[144] _Revue médicale de la Suisse romande_, 1905, p. 716. - -[145] _Comptes rendus de la Soc. Biologique_, March 17th, 1906. - -[146] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1906, p. 977. - -[147] Soured milk can be taken at any time of the day, with or in -between meals. - -[148] _Jahrbuch für Kinderheilkunde, N. F. 12 Ergænsungsheft_, 1900. - -[149] _Annales de l’Institut Pasteur_, 1905, p. 295; _Tribune -médicale_, Feb. 24th, 1906. - -[150] _La nature humaine et la philosophie optimiste_, Paris, 1904. - -[151] _Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Anatom. Abtheil_, 1903, p. 205. - -[152] _L’univers et la vie_, p. 592. - -[153] Huxley, _Man’s Place in Nature_. Collected Essays, vol. vii, p. -54. - -[154] _Ibid._, p. 60. - -[155] _Ibid._, p. 62. - -[156] _Ibid._, p. 67. - -[157] Ménégaux, _Les Mammifères_, p. 24. - -[158] Darwin, _Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals_, 1873, p. -67. - -[159] _Biologisches Centralblatt_, 1904, p. 475. - -[160] J. de Fontenelle, _Nouveau manuel complet des nageurs_, Paris, -1837, p. 2. - -[161] _La natation et les bains_, Paris, 1887. - -[162] Quoted by M. Pitres in _Leçons cliniques sur l’hystérie_, 1891, -vol. i. - -[163] Bourneville et Regnard, _Iconographie photographique de la -Salpétrière_, 1879-1880, vol. iii, p. 50. - -[164] Stéphanie Feinkind, _Du somnambulisme dit naturel_, Paris, 1893, -p. 55. - -[165] _Dictionnaire des sciences médicales_, 1821, vol. lii, p. 119. - -[166] _Du Sommeil non naturel_, Paris, 1886. - -[167] _Conférence faite à la Société de l’Internat_, June 28th, 1906. - -[168] _The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind._ English translation, -London, 1896. - -[169] _Souvenirs d’enfance de S. Kowalevsky_, 1895, pp. 301-311. - -[170] W. Herzberg, _Sozialdemokratie und Anarchismus_, 1906, p. 17. - -[171] _Le problème agraire_, 1905, p. 147. - -[172] “The Coming Slavery” in _Man versus the State_, 1888, p. 18. - -[173] _Human, too Human._ French translation, 1899, pp. 405-407. A -German critic has reproached me for my ignorance of Nietzsche’s works. -I have read several of them, but the mixture of genius and madness in -them makes them difficult to use. In this connection Moebius’ volume, -_Ueber das Pathologische bei Nietzsche_ (Wiesbaden, 1902), is of -interest. - -[174] Quoted by Oldenberg, _Le Bouddha_, French translation, Paris, -1894, p. 214. - -[175] P. Régnaud, “Le pessimisme brahmanique,” in _Annales du Musée -Guimet_, 1880, vol. i, pp. 110-111. - -[176] Guyau, _La Morale d’Epicure_, 4th edition, 1904, p. 116. - -[177] _Ad Marciam_, chap. x. - -[178] _Poésies et œuvres morales_, by Leopardi. Translated into -French 1880, p. 49. - -[179] These facts are taken from Westergaard, 2nd edit., 1901, p. 649. - -[180] Dieudonné, _Archiv für Kulturgeschichte_, 1903, vol. i, p. 357. - -[181] Kowalevsky, _Studien zur Psychologie des Pessimismus_, Wiesbaden, -1904. - -[182] _Medicinische Klinik_, 1906, n. 25 and 26. - -[183] _Der Werth des Lebens._ - -[184] _Ueber Schopenhauer_, Leipzig, 1899. - -[185] Moebius, _Goethe_, vol. i, Leipzig, 1903. - -[186] V. Kunz, “Zur Blindenphysiologie,” _Wiener medicin. -Wochenschrift_, 1902, No. 21. - -[187] _Physiologie de la Lecture et de l’Écriture_, Paris, 1905. - -[188] _Entre aveugles_, Paris, 1903. - -[189] _Der Blindenfreund_, Feb. 15th, 1906. - -[190] _Critical and Miscellaneous Essays_, vol. i, pp. 164-5, in the -Essay on _Goethe_. - -[191] _Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter._ Letter of Dec. 3, 1812. - -[192] Quoted in Moebius’ _Goethe_, vol. ii, p. 80. - -[193] _The Fifth Roman Elegy_, Blaze’s French translation, 1873 p. 186. -Some of Goethe’s biographers, and amongst them G. H. Lewes, maintain -that these lines relate to Christine, Goethe’s wife. This is erroneous; -they refer to Faustine (see Bielschowsky, i, p. 517). - -[194] Moebius’ _Goethe_, vol. ii, pp. 84-87. - -[195] Moebius’ _Goethe_, vol. ii, pp. 84-87. - -[196] Quoted by Bode _in Goethe’s Lebenskunst_, Berlin, 1905, p. 59. - -[197] _Ueber die Wirkungen d. Castration_, Halle, 1903, p. 82. - -[198] _Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie_, 1889, p. 420. - -[199] The word _Samen_ of the original is the expression of the -alchemists for the “principle of life.” - -[200] Erich Schmidt, Goethe’s _Faust in ursprünglicher Gestalt_, 6th -edit., Weimar, 1905, p. 1. - -[201] _Faust_, Bayard Taylor’s translation. London: Warne & Co., pp. -20-21. - -[202] _Op. cit._, p. 32. - -[203] _Op. cit._, pp. 33, 34. - -[204] Details of this will be found in Kuno Fischer’s _Goethe’s Faust_, -pp. 328-330. - -[205] _Op. cit._, pg. 36. - -[206] _Op. cit._, pg. 45. - -[207] _Op. cit._, p. 46. - -[208] _Op. cit._, p. 46. - -[209] _Op. cit._, p. 71. - -[210] _Op. cit._, p. 51. - -[211] _Op. cit._, p. 151. - -[212] _Op. cit._, p. 203. - -[213] _Op. cit._, p. 205. - -[214] _Op. cit._, p. 230. - -[215] _Op. cit._, p. 231. - -[216] _Op. cit._, p. 284. - -[217] _Op. cit._, p. 287. - -[218] _Op. cit._, p 298. - -[219] _Op. cit._, p. 305. - -[220] _Op. cit._, p. 309. - -[221] _Op. cit._, p. 313. - -[222] _Op. cit._, p. 351. - -[223] _Op. cit._, pp. 354-355. - -[224] _Op. cit._, p. 365. - -[225] _Op. cit._, p. 370. - -[226] _V. Tribune médicale_, 1906, p. 449. - -[227] _La Revue_, Nov. 15th and Dec. 1st. - -[228] _Essais de Philosophie critique_, Paris, 1864. - -[229] _System der Ethik_, 7th and 8th editions, vol. i, p. 199. Berlin -1906. - -[230] De Vries, in _Biologisches Centralblatt_, 1906, Sept. 1st, p. 609. - -[231] Dr. Grasset, “La fin de la vie” in the _Revue de philosophie_, -Aug. 1st, 1903. - -[232] “Morale et biologie,” _Revue philosophique_, 1904, vol. lviii, p. -125. - - - - -INDEX - - - Abelard, 273 - - Abraham, use of soured milk, 171 - - Ackermann, Mde., 237 - - _Actinosphærium_, degeneration in, 14 - - Adanson, on age of Baobab-tree, 98 - - Adrenaline, effect of, 121 - - Agave, duration of life of, 100 - - Aged, treatment of in uncivilised countries, 1, 2 - - Alcohol and longevity, 91, 92 - - Algeria, ostriches at, 76, 78, 79 - - Altruism, 331 - - Ambard, Dr., on Mde. Robineau, 7 - - Anæmia, of brain, and sleep, 122 - use of serums in, 149 - - André, M., use of serums in anæmia, 149 - - Anger, 321 - - Annandale, Nelson, on age of anemones, 48 - - Annuals, change to biennials or perennials, 100 - death of, 102 - - Antelopes, excreta of, 66 - - Anthropoids, mental characters of, 191 _et seq._ - - Antiseptics, use of, in intestinal putrefaction, 156 - - Ants, 220, 221 - - Apes, anthropoid, mental characters of, 191 _et seq._ - relationship to man, 184, 185 - - Arabs, use of milk by, 174 - - Aristotle, 132 - - Arteries, sclerosis of, in the aged, 31 - - Ascidians, social, 219 - - Ashworth, Mr., on age of anemones, 48 - - Atheroma, in the aged, 30 - - Atrophy, of cells, 26 - of muscles, 28 - - Auditory apparatus, rudimentary organism, 188 - - Augsburg, elixir of life, 138 - - Auto-intoxication, from intestinal putrefaction, 69 - in plants, 107 - sleep, due to, 120 - - - Babinsky, Dr., hysteria a relic from apes, 209 - - Balkan States, centenarians frequent in, 90 - - Baobab-tree, age of, 98 - - Barth, Dr., definition of somnambulism, 206 - - Batrachia, longevity of, 50 - - Bats, intestinal flora of, 80, 81 - - Bees, 49, 220, 226 - - Beetroot, perennial variety of, 100 - - Belgium, old age pensions, 4 - - Bélonovsky, M., on serums in anæmia, 148 - - Bélonowsky, Dr., on Bulgarian bacillus, 170 - - Berthelot, on dragon-tree of Orotava, 96 - - Bertrand, M. G., on sorbose fermentation, 106 - - Bertrand and Weisweiler, on _Bacillus bulgaris_, 179 - - Besredka, M., on blood serums, 148, 149 - - Bielschowsky, biographer of Goethe, 269 - - Blanchard, E., on age of carp, 50 - - Birds, intestinal flora of, 76, 79 - longevity of, 52 - - Blindness, 248, 257 - - Bloch, Dr. I., on Schopenhauer, 247 - - Blood-vessels, hardening of, in the old, 31 - - Bodio, on infant mortality, 85 - - Boerhave, on gerokomy, 136 - - Bones, degeneration of, 29, 30 - - Bordet, M. J. M., on serums, 148 - - Botulism, poison of, 70, 82 - - Bouchard, M., on disinfection of intestines, 156 - - Bouchet, M., on constipation after parturition, 68 - - Bourneville, M., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, 34 - - Boveri, M., produced atherana by nicotine, 32 - - Bone, marrow, in old age, 37 - - _Botryllus_, 219 - - Boutroux, definition of morality, 303 - - Bradyfagy, 159 - - Brain, anæmia of, as cause of sleep, 122 - - Brehm, on age of cattle, 55 - - Brettes, criticism of “rudimentary organs,” 186 - - Bricon, M., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, 34 - - Brigand, Calabrian, fear of death, 194, 195 - - Brillat-Savarin, quotation from, 126 - - Brown-Séquard, specific for long life, 139, 277 - - Brudzinsky, M., on use of lactic microbes, 181 - - Buddha, on pessimism, 233, 247 - - Buehler, Dr., on cause of old age, 16 - - Buffon, on duration of life, 40, 50 - - Bulgarian bacillus, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182 - - Bunge, on relation between growth and longevity, 42 - - Burbank, American horticulturist, 326, 328 - - Butterflies, longevity of, 57 - - Bütschli, O., on life of cells, 15 - - Byron, 239, 247, 295 - - - Cachexia, after extirpation of thyroid gland, 34 - - Caeca, of vertebrates, 60 _et seq._ - - Cagliostro, elixir of life, 138 - - Calomel, as an intestinal antiseptic, 158 - and syphilis, 146 - - Camphor, as an intestinal antiseptic, 156 - - Canary Islands, 96 - - Cancalon, Dr., on instinct of death, 128, 129 - - Cancer, and cleanliness, 144 - - Candolle, A. de, on cypresses of Mexico, 98 - on age of trees, 99 - - Cantacuzène, M., on blood serums, 148 - - Capital punishment, 305 - - Carlyle, on “Werther,” 265 - - Castration, effects of, 272 - - Cats, longevity of, 56 - - Cattle, longevity of, 55 - - Celibacy, and education of women, 224 - - Cell reproduction, rate of, 16 - - Centenarians, 4, 5, 86, 88, 89, 175, 176 - - Charcot, on sterilised food, 162, 163 - on hysteria, 202 - - Charron, M., on putrefactive poisons, 69 - - Chemin, M., on centenarians, 88, 89 - - Chimpanzee, 185, 192, 193 - - China, Emperor Chi-Hoang-Ti and immortality, 137 - - Chopin, a degenerate, 134 - - Christian morality, 321, 330 - - Chromophags, action of, 25 - - Claparède, E., on theory of sleep, 123, 124, 125 - - Cleanliness, and increase of life, 144 - - Clergymen, increasing duration of life of, 142 - - Coffee and longevity, 92 - - Cohausen, on gerokomy, 137 - - Cohendy, Dr. M., on Bulgarian bacillus, 178 - on intestinal flora, 78, 79 - on intestinal putrefaction, 168 - on thymol as a disinfectant, 157 - - Collectivism, 228 - - Colon, absorption in, 64 - - Constipation, evil results of, 67, 68, 69 - - Cooking, effect of, on microbes in food, 162 - - Copenhagen, suicide in, 3 - - Coral polyps, 216 - - Cornaro, 91 - - Cossacks, and biennial rye, 100 - - Cretinism, compared with senility, 32 - - Crœsus, 197 - - Cryptogams, life of, 99 - - Cursorial birds, intestinal flora of, 76 - - Cypress, age of, 98 - - Czerny, M., on absorption in colon, 64 - on cancer, 144 - - - D’Alton, and Goethe, 280 - - Dalyell, old anemone of, 48 - - Dana, on _monstrilla_, 115 - - Darwin, on fear, 195 - - David, King, 136 - - Death, instinct of, 128, 129 - natural, 94, 109, 119 - sensations at approach of, 126, 127, 130 - - Debreuil, Ch., on defecation in rheas, 76 - on excreta of antelopes, 66 - - Degenerates, famous, 134 - - Delage, Yves, criticism of instinct of death, 128 - on function of large intestines, 65, 66 - - Demange, M., on old age, 119 - - Denmark, suicide in, 3, 237 - - Descent of man, 184 - - Despotism, and socialism, 230 - - de Vries, H., on duration of life of plants, 104 - on prolongation of life of plants, 100 - on natural death in plants, 101 - - Diet and longevity, 46 - - Digestive system and senility, 59 - - _Diplogaster_, mother killed by larvæ, 111 - - Diphtheria, 323 - - Disease, and shortening of life, 145 _et seq._ - - Doctors, lady, 225 - - Dodo, 213 - - Dogs, longevity of, 55 - - Dostoiewsky, quotation from, 2 - - Doyen, M., operation on double monsters, 216 - - Dragon-tree, of Orotava, 96, 97, 98 - - Drakenberg, age of, 87 - - Drunkenness, and morality, 317 - - _Dryopithecus_, 334 - - Ducks, old, 11 - - Duering, on pessimism, 248 - - Durand-Fardel, M., on atheroma, 30 - - Duration of life, in animals, 39 _et seq._, 133 - - - Eagles, intestinal flora of, 82 - - Ecclesiastes, quotation from, 233 - - Eckermann, narrative of Goethe’s last years, 271, 274, 279 - - Egoism, 227, 306, 331 - - Egyptian milk, 105 - - Eimer, Th., on intestines of bats &c., 62, 63 - - Einhorn, Dr., on bradyfagy, 159 - - _Elective Affinities_, Goethe’s, 273 - - Elephants, 9, 54, 83, 197 - - Eliot, George, 322 - - _Elixir vitæ_, 138 - - Ellenberger, on digestion in horse, 78 - - Enriquez, on infusoria, 13 - - Ephemeridæ, duration of life of, 113, 118 - - Epicureans, 309 - - Epiphyses of bones, as giving period of growth, 40 - - Ermenghem, van, on botulism, 70 - - Errera, Dr., on cause of sleep, 121 - - _Eudoxia_, 218 - - Ewald, on absorption in colon, 64 - - Exhaustion, as cause of plant death, 104, 107 - - Extinction of animals, 213 - - Eye, in old age, 36 - - - Fatigue, Weichardt on cause of, 123 - - “_Faust_” and Goethe, 283 _et seq._ - - Favorsky, Dr., on botulism, 82 - - Fear, analysis of, 194 - - Fecundity and duration of life, 43, 44, 45, 57, 58 - - Feinkind, case of somnambulism quoted from, 204 - - Femininist movement, 224 - - Fermentation, cause of, 105 - - Fertility and longevity, 44, 45 - - Fish, longevity of, 50 - - Flamans, M., 5 - - Fletcher, on chewing, 159 - - Flora, of intestines, poisonous effect of, 70, 73 _et seq._, 151 - _et seq._ - - Flourens, on duration of life, 40, 84 - - Foà, on use of soured milk in Africa, 172 - - Food, evil effects of putrefaction in, 163 - - Fouard, M., on soured milk, 180 - - Fürbbinger, on Brown-Séquard’s emulsions, 139 - - - Gautier, A., on leucomaines, 121 - - Gegenbaur, on intestinal tract, 60, 61 - - Genius and sexual power, 272 - - Gerokomy, 136 - - Gessner, on age of pike, 50 - - Gestation and longevity, 42 - - Giacomini, on Harderian gland, 189 - - Gibbons, 192, 198 - - Goebel, on duration of life of prothalli, 101, 102 - - Goethe, 260-300, 305 - - “Goose-skin,” 196 - - Gorilla, strength of, 192 - - Griesbach, on sense of touch in blind, 257 - - Grigoroff, on Bulgarian yahourth, 175, 178 - - Grindon, on age of sheep, 55 - - Guinon, Dr., on a case of hysteria, 203 - - Gurney, J. H., on longevity of birds, 51, 79 - - - Haeckel, on medical selection, 134 - - Haffkine, M., 112 - - Hair, 17, 18 - - _Halictus_, a solitary bee, 226 - - Haller, on human longevity, 84, 132 - - _Hamlet_, quotation from, 239 - - Hannibal, his elephants swim the Rhone, 197 - - Harderian gland, 189 - - Hartmann, 235, 241 - - Harvey, on Parr, 87 - - Hayem, Prof., on use of lactic acid, 169, 173 - - Heart, diseases of, and syphilis, 145, 146 - - Hegesias, and suicide, 234 - - Heile, on absorption in colon, 64 - - Heim, on microbes in milk, 176 - - Heim, Prof., on Alpine accidents, 130 - - Heine, 236, 240 - - Hermippus, and gerokomy, 137 - - Herter, Dr., experiments on lactic acid in dogs, 167 - - Hertwig, R., on _Actinosphærium_, 14 - - Hildebrand, on duration of life of plants, 101, 102 - - Hippocrates, 132 - - Hofmeister, on digestion in horse, 74 - - Honey-ant, 222 - - Horse, cæcum, 62 - digestion, 74 - use of serum, 147 - - Horsley, Sir V., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, 34 - - Horst, on a somnambulistic soldier, 203 - - Hufeland, quotation from “Macrobiotique,” 137 - - Hugo, V., and sexuality, 277 - - Humboldt, on dragon-tree of Orotava, 96 - on longevity of parrots, 52 - - Hunger, compared with sleep, 125 - - Huxley, on character of Orang, 193 - - Hygiene, and old age, 141, 142, 143 - - Hypnotism, of a crowd on individuals, 210 - - Hysteria, analysis of, 200 _et seq._ - in monkeys, 208 - - - Ibsen, and sexuality, 277 - - Idleness, 316 - - Immortality, Chinese beverage for, 137, 138 - - Incubation, duration of, compared with longevity, 41, 42 - - India, government of, and age of elephants, 54 - - Individualism, 316 - - Individuality, 212 _et seq._ - - Infusoria, death of, 95 - senescence of, 13 - - Insects, ages of, 49 - social, 220 _et seq._ - - Instinct, of death, 128, 129 - maternal, 319, 320, 329 - social, 306 - - Intestine, large, 59, 65, 67, 151 - - Intuitive theory of morality, 305 - - - Jacobson, organ of, 187 - - Javal, Dr., on characters of the blind, 257, 259 - - Jenner, effect of vaccination on mortality rate, 144 - - Josué, M., artificial production of atheroma, 32 - - Jousset, Dr., on difference between man and apes, 184 - - - Kant, 309, 310 - - Kautsky, on socialism, 229, 230 - - Kentigern, age of, 87 - - Kephir, 171, 172, 173 - - Khoury, M., on ferment of Egyptian milk, 105 - - Kocher, Dr., on effects of extirpation of thyroid gland, 33 - - Kocher, Prof., case of removal of large intestine, 152, 153 - - Kölliker, on degeneration of muscles, 27 - - Koppenfels, on character of gorilla, 194 - - Koumiss, 172 - - Kowalevsky, Sophie, 225 - - Kowalevsky, analysis of pessimism, 241, 255 - - Kukula, experiments on intestinal poisons, 69, 70 - - Kwass, 166 - - - Lactic bacilli, and putrefaction in intestine, 168 - - Laignel-Lavastine, M., criticism of neuronophagy, 20 - - Lankester, Sir E. Ray, on longevity, 12, 56 - - Lao-Tsé, and immortality, 137 - - Laud, Archbishop, old tortoise of, 51 - - Lautschenberger, on absorption in colon, 64 - - Lavater, Goethe’s letter to, 268 - - Laws aiding the aged, 3, 4 - - “Leben,” Egyptian, 105, 171, 177, 178 - - Le Bon, G., on hysteria in crowds, 209 - - Lenau, M., 236 - - Lenthéric, on elephants swimming, 197 - - Leopardi, G., pessimistic poet, 235, 236, 247 - - Le Play, M., on putrefactive poisons, 69 - - Léri, M., on senile brain, 20 - - Lermontoff, 236 - - Leucomaines, as cause of sleep, 121 - - Levaillant, on longevity of parrots, 52 - - Lewes, G. H., on Goethe, 273, 290, 292, 298 - - Lexis, on duration of human life, 85 - - Life, duration of, in animals, 39 _et seq._ - - Life, prolongation of human, 132, _et seq._ - “sense” of, 260 - - Lima, Dr., on use of soured milk in Africa, 172, 174 - - Lloyd, M., old anemone of, 47 - - Loewenberg, Dr., on Mde. Robineau, 7 - - London Zoological Gardens, 51, 81 - - Longevity, in animal kingdom, 47 _et seq._ - human, 84 _et seq._ - rules for, 141 - in sexes, 44 - theories of, 39 - - Lorand, Dr., on ductless glands, 32 - - Love, Goethe and, 272 - - Luxury, 321 - - - Macfadyen, Nencki and Mde. Sieber, on digestion, 153, 161 - - Macrophags, 25, 147 - - Mailaender, 235, 255 - - Malaquin, M., on _Monstrilla_, 116, 117 - - Male rotifers, death of, 114, 115 - - Malthus, theory of, 214 - - Mammals, longevity of, 53 - - Mammary glands, in males, 186 - - Man, compared with apes, 184, 185 - natural death of, 119 _et seq._ - longevity of, 84 _et seq._ - - Manouélian, M., on neuronophagy, 21, 22 - - Marinesco, M., on neuronophogs, 19 - - Marrow of the bones, in old age, 37 - - _Marsiliaceæ_, duration of life of prothallus, 99 - - Martin, on Gibbons, 192 - - Massart, on cause of death in plants, 102, 109 - - Massol, Prof., 178 - - Mastication, and intestinal putrefaction, 160 - - Matchinsky, M., on atrophy of ovary, 26 - - Maternal instinct, 319, 320 - - Mauclaire, M., operations on large intestine, 153, 154, 155 - - Maumus, M., on digestion in cæca, 61 - - Mauritius, giant tortoise from, 12 - - Maupas, M., on infusoria, 13 - - Maya, 178 - - Mayers, on Chinese elixir, 138 - - Meconium, appearance of microbes in, 161 - - Medical selection, 134 - - Mesnet and Mottet, Drs., cases of hysteria, 203 - - Mice, duration of life, 41, 43, 56 - - Michaelis, on muscles of monkeys, 185 - - Microbes, as cause of senility, 73 - in food, 162, 163 - passage through intestinal walls, 71 - - _Middlemarch_, G. Eliot’s, 322 - - Milk, importance of boiling, 177, 178 - microbes of disease in, 177 - putrefaction and fermentation of, 167 - use of soured milk, 181, 182 - - Mill, J. S., 323 - - Milne-Edwards, H., on laws of duration of life, 42 - - Minot, Prof., on cause of old age, 16 - - Moa, 213 - - Moebius, on Goethe, 271 - on Schopenhauer, 255 - - Molluscs, ages of, 48 - - Mongols, hair in old, 17 - - Monkeys, longevity of, 83 - - Monsters, double, 216 - - _Monstrilla_, life-history of, 115, 116, 117 - - Montefiore, Sir M., 91 - - Morality, Christian, 321 - definitions of, 303 - Kantian, 309, 310, 311, 312 - science and, 301 _et seq._ - - Mortality rates of old persons, 142, 143 - - Moses, use of soured milk, 171 - - Mosso, on fear, 194, 196 - - Muscles, degeneration of, 9, 26, 27 - - Myxomycetes, 215 - - - Naegeli, on age of trees, 99 - - Nails, growth of, in the old, 18 - - Naphthaline, as an intestinal antiseptic, 156 - - Nature, human, 325 - - Nausenne, Mde., cause of longevity, 141 - - Negroes, longevity of, 88 - - Neisser, Prof., on protection against syphilis, 146 - - Nematodes, death of, 111 - - _Nemertines_, life-history of _Pilidium_ of, 109 _et seq._ - - Nencki and Sieber, on digestion, 153, 161, 169 - - Neuronophags, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 - - Nicotine, use of in experimental production of atheroma, 32 - - Nietzsche, criticism of Socialism, 230 - - Nogueira, M., on use of soured milk in Africa, 172, 174 - - - Obstacles, sense of, 258 - - Old age, Goethe and, 279 _et seq._ - - Olympian, Goethe as an, 269 - - Optimism, foundation of, 256 - Goethe’s transformation to, 269, 270 _et seq._ - - Orang-outan, 185, 193 - - Orotava, dragon-tree of, 96 - - Orstein, Dr., on centenarians in Greece, 90 - - Orthobiosis, 212, 325 _et seq._ - - Ossetes, use of soured milk, 173 - - Osteoclasts, 30 - - Ostrich, defecation of, 76 - - Oustalet, M., on longevity of vertebrates, 46 - - Ovary, atrophy of, 26 - - Owls, intestinal flora of, 83 - - Ownership, collective, 229, 230 - - - Parodi, on old age, 332 - - Parr, Thomas, 87 - - Parrots, duration of life, 41 - scanty intestinal flora of, 79 - - Pasquier, Dr. du, on constipation, 67 - - Pasteur, discovery of lactic microbe, 105, 167 - - Paulsen, criticism of Kant, 314 - - Pensions, old age, 3, 4, 133 - - Pessimism, 129, 233, 234, 239, 241, 249, 266 - - Pessimist, study of life-history of a, 249 _et seq._ - - Pflüger, on longevity, 93 - - Phagocytes, 18, 19 - - Phagocytosis, examples of, 25, 37 - - Phalansteries, 229 - - _Pilidium_, 109 _et seq._ - - Pitres, M., hysteric patients of, 200 - - Plague, 323 - - Plants, death of, 99, 103 - - Plasmodia, of Myxomycetes, 215, 216 - - _Pleurotrocha haffkini_, 112, 113 - - Pochon, Dr., experiments on use of lactic bacilli, 169 - - Poehl, Dr., on spermine, 139, 140 - - Pohl, Dr., on growth of hair, 17, 18 - - _Ponogenes_, as cause of sleep, 120 - - Potatoes, improved by Burbank, 326 - - Poushkin, 236 - - Predestination, and plants, 103 - - Preyer, Dr., on _Ponogenes_, 120 - - Prichard, on longevity of negroes, 88 - - Productivity compared with fecundity, 57, 58 - - Prostokwacha, 172, 176 - - Prolongation of life, 132 _et seq._ - - Prothalli, life of, 99 - - Psychids, death of, 117 - - Ptolemy, fear of Hegesias’ philosophy, 235 - - Punishment, capital, 305 - - Purgatives, use of, in intestinal putrefaction, 157 - - Putrefaction, intestinal, 151 _et seq._, 161, 163, 164 - - - Quételet, on stature of the aged, 9 - - - Rabbit, fecundity of, 58 - - Ravens, absence of putrefaction in intestines of, 75 - - Reagents, action of, in distorting tissues, 20 - - Renouvier, C., on his own death, 127 - - Reproduction, organs of, rudiments in, 189 - - Reptiles, longevity of, 50 - - Rhea, cæca of, 60, 77 - - Rhinoceros, longevity of, 54 - - _Rhytina_, 213 - - Riley, James, on food of Arabs, 174 - - Rimpau, on cultivation of rye, 326, 328 - - Rist and Khoury, on milk, 178 - - Rist, M., on ferment of Egyptian milk, 105 - - Rivière, M., on defecation in ostriches, 76, 78, 79 - - Robineau, Mde., 5, 6, 7, 8, 128, 159 - - “_Roman Elegies_,” Goethe’s, 268, 273 - - Rotifera, duration of life, 39 - death of, 112 - - Roux, anti-syphilitic ointment, 146 - - Rovighi, on Kephir, 173 - - Rudimentary organs, 185 _et seq._ - - Rye, duration of life of, 100 - Rimpau’s improvement of, 326 - - - Salpétrière, hysterical patients at, 201 - old women in the, 4, 5 - - Sand, M., on senile brain, 20 - - Sargent, on age of Sequoia, 98 - - Sauer-kraut, 165, 171 - - Sauvage, M., on atheroma, 30 - - Savage, on character of anthropoids, 193 - - Saxe-Weimar, Grand Duke of, and Goethe, 274 - - Schaudinn, spirillum of syphilis, 31 - - Schiller, Goethe on, 271 - - Schiller, on moral conduct, 310 - - Schlanstedt, rye of, 326 - - Schmidt, on microbes in constipation, 70 - - Schopenhauer, 235, 247, 255, 277, 330 - - Schumann, a degenerate, 134 - - Science, and morality, 301 _et seq._ - - Sclerosis, in the aged, 31 - - Sea-anemones, longevity of, 47, 48 - - Sea-cow, 213 - - Selection, medical, 134 - - Seneca, 132, 235 - - Senescence, Brown-Séquard’s specific against, 139 - mechanism of, 25 - phagocytosis as cause of, 35 - - Senility, characters of, 8, 14 - and digestive system, 59 - theories of causation of, 15 _et seq._ - - Sensation, analysis of, with regard to pain and pleasure, 243 - - Sense of life, 26 - of obstacles, 258 - - Sense, organs of, rudimentary structures in, 186, 187 - - “Sermon on the Mount,” 321 - - Serums, cytotoxic, 147, 148, 149 - - Servants, care of, 321 - - Sex, and longevity, 57 - - Sexuality, Goethe and, 273 _et seq._ - and old age, 276 - moral problems of, 305 - - Sexual organs, abnormalities of, 224 - - Sexual power and genius, 272 - - Shakespeare, quotations, 239, 307 - - Sheep, digestion of, 74 - longevity, 55 - - Sight, rudimentary organs of, 189 - - Silos, 165 - - Siphonophora, 217 - - Skeleton, atrophy of, in the aged, 29 - - Sleep, and anæmia of brain, 122 - and auto-intoxication, 120 - and death compared, 125 - - Sleepiness, compared with hunger, 125 - - Sleeping-sickness, 124 - - Small-pox, and mortality rates, 144 - - Smell, analysis of, 243 - - Smell, rudimentary organs of sense of, 187 - - Smoking and longevity, 93 - - Social animals, 214, 220 _et seq._ - - Socialism, 228, 229 - - Society _v._ the individual, 223 _et seq._ - - Society, and morality, 306 - - Sociology, dependent on biology, 231 - - Sollier, Dr., on sensations at death, 130 - - Solomon, quotation from “Ecclesiastes,” 233 - - Somnambulism, analysis of, 200 _et seq._ - - Sorbose, fermentation of, 106 - - Soured milk, use of, 171, 181, 182 - - Sparrow, fecundity of, 58 - - Spencer, Herbert, criticism of Kant, 310 - criticism of socialism, 230 - theory of morality, 316, 322, 324, 327 - - Spermatozoa, in old age, 35 - - Spermine, 139, 140 - - Stadelmann, on lactic acid in diabetes, 170 - - Statistics on suicide, 3 - - Stature, in old age, 8, 9 - - Stein, Mde. von, 267, 268, 273 - - Steller’s sea-cow, 213 - - Stern, M., on disinfection of intestine, 156 - - Stohmann, on digestion in sheep, 74 - - Stoics, 309 - - Stragesco, Dr., on digestion in mammals, 63 - - Strasburger, on disinfection of intestine, 156, 157 - on microbes in constipation, 70 - - Suicide, 3, 4, 237, 238, 265, 311 - - Sully-Prudhomme, definition of morality, 303 - - Suprarenal capsules, and atheroma, 32 - - Swimming, instinctive power of, 197, 198, 207 - - Syphilis, 31, 37, 145, 146, 302, 304 - - Switzerland, centenarians rare in, 91 - - - Tanacol, as an intestinal antiseptic, 156 - - Taoism and immortality, 137, 138 - - Taste, analysis of, 243 - - Tavel, M., operations on large intestine, 152 _et seq._ - - Taylor, Bayard, translation of _Faust_, 285 - - Termites, 220, 221 - - Testis, emulsion of, as used by Brown-Séquard, 139 - resistance of, to senescence, 35 - - Thanatology, 131 - - Theophrastus, 132 - - Thymol, as an intestinal antiseptic, 157 - - Thyroid, effects of extirpation of, 32, 33, 34 - - _Timon of Athens_, quotation from, 307 - - Tissier, Dr., on _Bacillus bifidus_, 161 - on use of lactic microbes, 181 - - Tissier, and Martelly, on putrid food, 164 - - Tobacco and longevity, 93 - - Tokarsky, on natural death, 126 - - Tolstoi, and death, 94 - “Death of Ivan Ilyitch,” 318 - - Tortoise, 11, 12, 13, 51 - - Touch, sense of, in the blind, 257 - - Troubat, M., on instinctive swimming, 198 - - Trees, age and death of, 96, 97, 98 - - _Trypanosoma_, 124 - - - Unicellular organisms, death of, 95 - - Urine, analysis of, in a centenarian, 7 - - Utilitarianism, 305 - - - Vacherot, criticism of Kant, 313 - - Varenetz, 172 - - Vascular glands, relation to old age, 33, 34 - - Verworn, Max, on death in infusoria, 95 - - Vinegar, in preservation of food, 165 - - Vivisection, 301 - - Voisin, M., criticism of neuronophagy, 20 - - Voltaire, 92, 235 - - Volz, on swimming power of gibbons, 198 - - - Wales, Mr., quotation from Riley, 174 - - Weber, Dr., on regimen for old age, 140, 141 - - Weichardt, on cause of fatigue, 122, 123 - - Weinberg, Dr., on preparation of human serums, 150 - on thyroid gland in aged, 33 - - Weiske, on digestion in sheep, 78 - - Weismann, A., on cause of old age, 15, 16 - on death in infusoria, 95 - on duration of life, 41, 43, 45, 51 - - “Weltschmerz,” in German poetry, 236 - - _Werther_, Goethe’s, 263, 267 - - Westergaard, statistics of mortality, 142, 144 - - Wiedersheim, on intestinal tract, 60 - - Wine, Goethe and, 271, 279 - - Wolff, J. H., Goethe’s friend, 271 - - Women, education, 224 _et seq._ - - - Yahourth, use in intestinal putrefaction, 168, 170, 175, 177, 178 - - Yeast, conditions of growth, 106 - - - Zeigan, Dr., on adrenaline, 122 - - Zell, Dr., on blind persons, 259 - - Zelter, Goethe’s friend, 265 - - Zola, “La Joie de Vivre,” 248 - - Zoological Gardens of London, 51, 81 - - Zortay, Pierre, age of, 87 - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Prolongation of Life, by Elie Metchnikoff - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE *** - -***** This file should be named 51521-0.txt or 51521-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/5/2/51521/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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- text-align: left; - } - -.poetry .stanza -{ - margin: 0em 0em 0em 0em; -} - -.poetry .line -{ - margin: 0; - text-indent: -3em; - padding-left: 3em; -} - -.poetry .i04 {margin-left: -.4em;} -.poetry .i1 {margin-left: 1em;} -.poetry .i-34 {margin-left: -3.4em;} -.poetry .i-3 {margin-left: -3em;} -.poetry .i8 {margin-left: 8em;} -.poetry .i12 {margin-left: 12em;} -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Prolongation of Life, by Elie Metchnikoff - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Prolongation of Life - Optimistic Studies - -Author: Elie Metchnikoff - -Editor: Peter Chalmers Mitchell - -Release Date: March 21, 2016 [EBook #51521] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"><p>Transcriber’s Note:<br /><br /> -The position of the footnote anchor 171 at page 229 is -a guess of the transcriber as the anchor was missing in the original book.<br /><br /> - -The book cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p></div> - - -<h1>THE PROLONGATION -OF LIFE</h1> - -<p class="center">OPTIMISTIC STUDIES<br /><br /></p> - -<p class="center f06">BY</p> - -<p class="center">ÉLIE METCHNIKOFF</p> - -<p class="center f06">SUB-DIRECTOR OF THE PASTEUR INSTITUTE, PARIS<br /><br /><br /></p> - -<p class="center f08">THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION</p> - -<p class="center f06">EDITED BY</p> - -<p class="center">P. CHALMERS MITCHELL<br /> -<small><small>M.A., D.SC. OXON., HON. LL.D., F.R.S.<br /> -<i>Secretary of the Zoological Society of London; Corresponding Member<br /> -of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia</i></small></small><br /><br /></p> - -<p class="center">G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS<br /> -NEW YORK & LONDON<br /> -<b>The Knickerbocker Press</b><br /> -1908</p> - -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span></p> -<h2>EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">Élie Metchnikoff</span> has carried on the high purpose of the -Pasteur Institute by devoting his genius for biological -inquiry to the service of man. Some years ago, in a series -of Essays which were intended to be provocative and -educational, rather than expository, he described the direction -towards which he was pressing. I had the privilege -of introducing these Essays to English readers under the -title <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, a Study in Optimistic Philosophy. -In that volume, Professor Metchnikoff recounted how -sentient man, regarding his lot in the world, had found it -evil. Philosophy and literature, religion and folk-lore, in -ancient and modern times have been deeply tinged with -pessimism. The source of these gloomy views lies in the -nature of man itself. Man has inherited a constitution -from remote animal ancestors, and every part of his structure, -physical, mental and emotional, is a complex legacy -of diverse elements. Possibly at one time each quality -had its purpose as an adaptation to environment, but, as -man, in the course of his evolution, and the environment -itself have changed, the old harmonious intercourse -between quality and circumstances has been dislocated in -many cases. And so there have come into existence many -instances of what the Professor calls “disharmony,” persistences -of structures, or habits, or desires that are no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">vi</a></span> -longer useful, but even harmful, failures of parallelism -between the growth, maturity and decay of physical and -mental qualities and so forth. Religions and philosophies -alike have failed to find remedies or efficient anodynes for -these evils of existence, and, so far, man is justified of -his historical and actual pessimism.</p> - -<p>Metchnikoff, however, was able to proclaim himself an -optimist, and found, in biological science, for the present -generation a hope, or, at the least, an end towards which to -work, and for future generations a possible achievement of -that hope. Three chief evils that hang over us are disease, -old age, and death. Modern science has already made vast -strides towards the destruction of disease, and no one has -more right to be listened to than a leader of the Pasteur -Institute when he asserts his confidence that rational -hygiene and preventive measures will ultimately rid mankind -of disease. The scientific investigation of old age -shows that senility is nearly always precocious and that its -disabilities and miseries are for the most part due to preventable -causes. Metchnikoff showed years ago that there -exists in the human body a number of cells known generally -as phagocytes, the chief function of which is to devour -intruding microbes. But these guardians of the body may -turn into its deadly enemies by destroying and replacing -the higher elements, the specific cells of the different tissues. -The physical mechanism of senility appears to be in large -measure the result of this process. Certain substances, -notably the poisons of such diseases as syphilis and the -products of intestinal putrefaction, stimulate the activity -of the phagocytes and so encourage their encroachment on -the higher tissues. The first business of science is to remove -these handicaps in favour of the wandering, corroding -phagocytes. Specific poisons must be dealt with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span> -separately, by prevention or treatment, and it is well known -that Metchnikoff has made great advances in that direction. -The most striking practical side of <cite>The Nature of -Man</cite>, however, was the discussion of the cause and prevention -of intestinal putrefaction. Metchnikoff believes that -the inherited structure of the human large intestine and the -customary diet of civilised man are specially favourable to -the multiplication of a large number of microbes that cause -putrefaction. The avoidance of alcohol and the rigid exclusion -from diet of foods that favour putrefaction, such as -rich meats, and of raw or badly cooked substances containing -microbes, do much to remedy the evils. But the -special introduction of the microbes which cause lactic fermentation -has the effect of inhibiting putrefaction. By -such measures Metchnikoff believes that life will be greatly -prolonged and that the chief evils of senility will be -avoided. It may take many generations before the final -result is attained, but, in the meantime, great amelioration -is possible. There remains the last enemy, death. Metchnikoff -shows that in the vast majority of cases death is not -“natural,” but comes from accidental and preventable -causes. When diseases have been suppressed and the -course of life regulated by scientific hygiene, it is probable -that death would come only at an extreme old age. Metchnikoff -thinks that there is evidence enough at least to -suggest that when death comes in its natural place at the -end of the normal cycle of life, it would be robbed of its -terrors and be accepted as gratefully as any other part of -the cycle of life. He thinks, in fact, that the instinct of life -would be replaced by an instinct of death.</p> - -<p>Metchnikoff’s suggestion, then, was that science should -be encouraged and helped in every possible way in its task -of removing the diseases and habits that now prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span> -human life from running its normal course, and his belief -is that were the task accomplished, the great causes of -pessimism would disappear.</p> - -<p>In this new volume, <cite>The Prolongation of Life</cite>, the -main thesis is carried further, and a number of criticisms -and objections are met. The latter, so far as they -relate to technical details, I need say nothing of here, as -Metchnikoff and his staff at the Pasteur Institute are the -most skilled existing technical experts on these matters, -but I cannot refrain from a word of comment on the brilliant -treatment of the objection to the suggested amelioration -of human life that it considered only the individual -and neglected the just subordination of the individual to -society. In the sixth Part of this volume, Metchnikoff discusses -the relation of the individual to the species, society -or colony, from the general point of view of comparative -biology, and shows that as organisation progresses, the -integrity of the individual becomes increasingly important. -Were orthobiosis, the normal cycle of life, attained by -human beings, there still would be room for specialisation -of individuals and for differentiation of the functions of -individuals in society, but instead of the specialisation and -differentiation making individuals incomplete throughout -their whole lives, they would be distributed over the -different periods of the life of each individual.</p> - -<p>As these lines are intended to be an introduction, not a -commentary, I will now leave the reader to follow the -argument in the book itself.</p> - -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap padr1">P. Chalmers Mitchell.</span></p> - -<p><small><span class="smcap">London</span>, <i>August, 1907</i>.</small></p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">ix</a></span></p> - -<h2>PREFACE</h2> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is now four years since I wrote a volume, the English -translation of which was called <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, and -which was an attempt to frame an optimistic conception of -life. Human nature contains many very complex elements, -due to its animal ancestry, and amongst these there are -some disharmonies to which our misfortunes are due, but -also elements which afford the promise of a happier human -life.</p> - -<p>My views have encountered many objections, and I wish -to reply to some of these by developing my arguments. -This was my first task in this book, but I have also brought -together a series of studies on problems which closely -affect my theory.</p> - -<p>Although it has been possible to support my conception -by new facts, some of which have been established by my -fellow-workers, others by myself, there still remain many -sides of the subject where it is necessary to fall back on -hypotheses. I have accepted such imperfections instead of -delaying the publication of my book.</p> - -<p>Even at present there are critics who regard me as incapable -of sane and logical reasoning. The longer I postpone -publication, the longer would I leave the field open -to such persons. What I have been saying may serve also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">x</a></span> -as a reply to the remark of one of my critics, that my ideas -have been “suggested by self-preoccupation.”</p> - -<p>It is, of course, quite natural that a biologist whose attention -had been aroused by noticing in his own case the -phenomena of precocious old age should turn to study the -causes of it. But it is equally plain that such a study could -give no hope of resisting the decay of an organism which -had already for many years been growing old. If the ideas -which have come out of my work bring about some modification -in the onset of old age, the advantage can be -gained only by those who are still young, and who will -be at the pains to follow the new knowledge. This volume, -in fact, like my earlier one on the “Nature of Man,” is -directed much more to the new generation than to that -which has already been subjected to the influence of the -factors which produce precocious old age. I think that -thus the experience of those who have lived and worked -for long can be made of service to others.</p> - -<p>As this volume is a sequel to <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, I -have tried as much as possible to avoid repetition of what -was fully explained in the earlier volume.</p> - -<p>Here I bring together the results of work that has been -done since the publication of <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>. Some -of the chapters relate to subjects upon which I have lectured, -or which, in a different form, have been printed -before. For instance, the section on the psychic rudiments -of man appeared in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletin de l’Institut général psychologique</cite> -of 1904, the essay on Animal Societies was published -in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue Philomatique de Bordeaux et du Sud-Ouest</cite> -of 1904, and in the <cite>Revue</cite> of J. Finot of the same -year, whilst a German translation of it appeared in Prof. -Ostwald’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Annalen der Naturphilosophie</cite>. The chapter -on soured milk first appeared as a pamphlet, published in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">xi</a></span> -1905. The substance of my views on natural death was -published in June last in “Harper’s Monthly Magazine” -of New York, while the chapter on natural death in animals -appeared in the first number of the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue du Mois</cite> for -1906.</p> - -<p>I have to thank most sincerely the friends and pupils -who have helped me by bringing before me new facts, or -other materials; the names of these will appear in their -proper places in the volume. I have not mentioned by -name, however, Dr. J. Goldschmidt, whose continual encouragement -and practical sympathy have made my work -much easier.</p> - -<p>Finally, my special thanks are due to Drs. Em. Roux -and Burnet, and M. Mesnil, who have been so good as to -correct my manuscript and the proofs of this volume.</p> - -<p class="right padr1">É. M.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap f08">Paris</span>, <i>Feb. 7, 1907</i>.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">xii-xiii</a></span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table summary="contents" border="0"><tr> -<td class="tdr" colspan="2"><small>PAGE</small></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">EDITOR’S INTRODUCTION</td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_v">v</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl">PREFACE</td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">THE INVESTIGATION OF OLD AGE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THE PROBLEMS OF SENILITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Treatment of old people in uncivilised countries.—Assassination -of old people in civilised countries.—Suicide of old people.—Public -assistance in old age.—Centenarians.—Mme. -Robineau, a lady of 106 years of age.—Principal characters -of old age.—Examples of old mammals.—Old birds and -tortoises.—Hypothesis of senile degeneration in the lower -animals</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF SENILITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Hypothesis of the causation of senility.—Senility cannot be -attributed to the cessation of the power of reproduction of -the cells of the body.—Growth of the hair and the nails in -old age.—Inner mechanism of the senescence of the tissues.—Notwithstanding -the criticisms of M. Marinesco, the -neuronophags are true phagocytes.—The whitening of hair, -and the destruction of nerve cells as arguments against a -theory of old age based on the failure of the reproductive -powers of the cells</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">MECHANISM OF SENILITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Action of the macrophags in destroying the higher cells.—Senile -degeneration of the muscular fibres.—Atrophy of the -<span class="pagenum3"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">xiv</a></span> -skeleton.—Atheroma and arterial sclerosis.—Theory that -Old Age is due to alteration in the vascular glands.—Organic -tissues that resist phagocytosis.</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THEORIES OF LONGEVITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Relation between longevity and size.—Longevity and the period -of growth.—Longevity and the doubling in weight after -birth.—Longevity and rate of reproduction.—Probable relations -between longevity and the nature of the food</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Longevity in the lower animals.—Instances of long life in sea-anemones -and other vertebrates.—Duration of life of insects.—Duration -of life of “cold-blooded” vertebrates.—Duration -of life of birds.—Duration of life of mammals.—Inequality -of the duration of life in males and females.—Relations -between longevity and fertility of the organism</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND SENILITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Relations between longevity and the structure of the digestive -system.—The cæca in birds.—The large intestine of mammals.—Function -of the large intestine.—The intestinal -microbes and their agency in producing auto-intoxication -and auto-infection in the organism.—Passage of microbes -through the intestinal wall</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">IV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF SENILITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Relations between longevity and the intestinal flora.—Ruminants.—The -horse.—Intestinal flora of birds.—Intestinal -flora of cursorial birds.—Duration of life in cursorial -birds.—Flying mammals.—Intestinal flora and longevity -of bats.—Some exceptions to the rule.—Resistance of the -lower vertebrates to certain intestinal microbes</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">V<span class="pagenum2"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Longevity of man.—Theory of Ebstein on the normal duration -of human life.—Instances of human longevity.—Circumstances -which may explain the long duration of human life</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">INVESTIGATIONS ON NATURAL DEATH</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">NATURAL DEATH AMONGST PLANTS</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Theory of the immortality of unicellular organisms.—Examples -of very old trees.—Examples of short-lived plants.—Prolongation -of the life of some plants.—Theory of the natural -death of plants by exhaustion.—Death of plants from auto-intoxication</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">NATURAL DEATH IN THE ANIMAL WORLD</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Different origins of death in animals.—Examples of natural -death associated with violent acts.—Examples of natural -death in animals without digestive organs.—Natural death -in the two sexes.—Hypothesis as to the cause of natural -death in animals</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">NATURAL DEATH AMONGST HUMAN BEINGS</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Natural death in the aged.—Analogy of natural death and -sleep.—Theories of sleep.—Ponogenes.—The instinct of -sleep.—The instinct of natural death.—Replies to critics.—Agreeable -sensation at the approach of death</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART IV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">SHOULD WE TRY TO PROLONG HUMAN LIFE?</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THE BENEFIT TO HUMANITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Complaints of the shortness of our life.—Theory of “medical -selection” as a cause of degeneration of the race.—Utility -of prolonging human life</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II<span class="pagenum2"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">xvi</a></span></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Ancient methods of prolonging human life.—Gerokomy.—The -“immortality draught” of the Taoists.—Brown-Séquard’s -method.—The spermine of Poehl.—Dr. Weber’s precepts.—Increased -duration of life in historical times.—Hygienic -maxims.—Decrease in cutaneous cancer</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">DISEASES THAT SHORTEN LIFE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Measures against infectious diseases as aiding in the prolongation -of life.—Prevention of syphilis.—Attempts to prepare -serums which could strengthen the higher elements of the -organism</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">IV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION SHORTENS LIFE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Uselessness of the large intestine in man.—Case of a woman -whose large intestine was inactive for six months.—Another -case where the greater part of the large intestine was completely -shut off.—Attempts to disinfect the contents of the -large intestine.—Prolonged mastication as a means of preventing -intestinal putrefaction</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">V</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">LACTIC ACID AS INHIBITING INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">The development of the intestinal flora in man.—Harmlessness -of sterilised food.—Means of preventing the putrefaction of -food.—Lactic fermentation and its anti-putrescent action.—Experiments -on man and mice.—Longevity in races which -used soured milk.—Comparative study of different soured -milks.—Properties of the Bulgarian Bacillus.—Means of -preventing intestinal putrefaction with the help of microbes</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART V</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">PSYCHICAL RUDIMENTS IN MAN</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">RUDIMENTARY ORGANS IN MAN</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Reply to critics who deny the simian origin of man.—Actual -<span class="pagenum3"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span>existence of rudimentary organs.—Reductions in the structure -of the organs of sense in man.—Atrophy of Jacobson’s -organ and of the Harderian gland in the human race</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">HUMAN TRAITS OF CHARACTER INHERITED FROM APES</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">The mental character of anthropoid apes.—Their muscular -strength.—Their expression of fear.—The awakening of -latent instincts of man under the influence of fear</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">SOMNAMBULISM AND HYSTERIA AS MENTAL RELICS</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Fear as the primary cause of hysteria.—Natural somnambulism.—Doubling -of personality.—Some examples of somnambulists.—Analogy -between somnambulism and the life of -anthropoid apes.—The psychology of crowds.—Importance -of the investigation of hysteria for the problem of the origin -of man</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART VI</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">SOME POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL ANIMALS</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Problem of the species in the human race.—Loss of individuality -in the associations of lower animals.—Myxomycetes and -Siphonophora.—Individuality in Ascidians.—Progress in the -development of the individual living in a society</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">INSECT SOCIETIES</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Social life of insects.—Development and preservation of individuality -in colonies of insects.—Division of labour and -sacrifice of individuality in some insects</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE HUMAN RACE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Human societies.—Differentiation in the human race.—Learned -women.—Habits of a bee, Halictus quadricinctus.—Collectivist -theories.—Criticisms by Herbert Spencer and -<span class="pagenum3"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">xviii</a></span> -Nietzsche.—Progress of individuality in the societies of -higher beings</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART VII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">PREVALENCE OF PESSIMISM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Oriental origin of pessimism.—Pessimistic poets.—Byron.—Leopardi.—Poushkin.—Lermontoff.—Pessimism -and suicide</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">ANALYSIS OF PESSIMISM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Attempts to assign reasons for the pessimistic conception of -life.—Views of E. von Hartmann.—Analysis of Kowalevsky’s -work on the psychology of pessimism</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">PESSIMISM IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND AGE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Relation between pessimism and the state of the health.—History -of a man of science who was pessimistic when -young and who became an optimist in old age.—Optimism -of Schopenhauer when old.—Development of the sense of -life.—Development of the senses in blind people.—The sense -of obstacles</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART VIII</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">GOETHE AND FAUST</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">GOETHE’S YOUTH</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Goethe’s youth.—Pessimism of youth.—Werther.—Tendency to -suicide.—Work and love.—Goethe’s conception of life in -his maturity</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">GOETHE AND OPTIMISM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Goethe’s optimistic period.—His mode of life in that period.—Influence -of love in artistic production.—Inclinations -<span class="pagenum3"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">xix</a></span>towards the arts must be regarded as secondary sexual characters.—Senile -love of Goethe.—Relation between genius -and the sexual activities</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">GOETHE’S OLD AGE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Old age of Goethe.—Physical and intellectual vigour of the -old man.—Optimistic conception of life.—Happiness in life -in his last period</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">IV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">GOETHE AND “FAUST”</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent"><i>Faust</i> the biography of Goethe.—The three monologues in -the first Part.—Faust’s pessimism.—The brain-fatigue -which finds a remedy in love.—The romance with Marguerite -and its unhappy ending</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">V</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">THE OLD AGE OF FAUST</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">The second Part of <i>Faust</i> is in the main a description of senile -love.—Amorous passion of the old man.—Humble attitude -of the old Faust.—Platonic love for Helena.—The old -Faust’s conception of life.—His optimism.—The general idea -of the play</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc padt1 f12" colspan="2">PART IX</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">SCIENCE AND MORALITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">I</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">UTILITARIAN AND INTUITIVE MORALITY</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Difficulty of the problem of morality.—Vivisection and anti-vivisection.—Enquiry -into the possibility of rational morality.—Utilitarian -and intuitive theories of morality.—Insufficiency -of these</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">II</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">MORALITY AND HUMAN NATURE</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Attempts to found morality on the laws of human nature.—Kant’s -theory of moral obligation.—Some criticisms of the -Kantian theory.—Moral conduct must be guided by reason</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">III<span class="pagenum2"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">xx</a></span></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">INDIVIDUALISM</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Individual morality.—History of two brothers brought up in the -same circumstances, but whose conduct was quite different.—Late -development of the sense of life.—Evolution of sympathy.—The -sphere of egoism in moral conduct.—Christian -morality.—Morality of Herbert Spencer.—Danger of exalted -altruism</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2">IV</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc f08" colspan="2">ORTHOBIOSIS</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdl"><p class="indent">Human nature must be modified according to an ideal.—Comparison -with the modification of the constitution of plants -and of animals.—Schlanstedt rye.—Burbank’s plants.—The -ideal of orthobiosis.—The immorality of ignorance.—The -place of hygiene in the social life.—The place of altruism -in moral conduct.—The freedom of the theory of -orthobiosis from metaphysics</p></td><td class="tdr vertb"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td> -</tr></table> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span></p> - -<p class="center f16">THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> - -<h2>PART I<br /><br /> - -THE INVESTIGATION OF OLD AGE</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -THE PROBLEMS OF SENILITY</h3> - -<blockquote> -<p>Treatment of old people in uncivilised countries—Assassination -of old people in civilised countries—Suicide of old people—Public -assistance in old age—Centenarians—Mme. -Robineau, a lady of 106 years of age—Principal characters -of old age—Examples of old mammals—Old birds and tortoises—Hypothesis -of senile degeneration in the lower -animals</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the “Nature of Man” I laid down the outlines of a theory -of the actual changes which take place during the senescence -of our body. These ideas, on the one hand, have -raised certain difficulties, and, on the other, have led to new -investigations. As the study of old age is of great -theoretical importance, and naturally is of practical value, -I think that it is useful to pursue the subject still further.</p> - -<p>Although there exist races which solve the difficulty of -old age by the simple means of destroying aged people, -the problem in civilised countries is complicated by our -more refined feelings and by considerations of a general -nature.</p> - -<p>In the Melanesian Islands, old people who have become -incapable of doing useful work are buried alive.</p> - -<p>In times of famine, the natives of Tierra del Fuego kill -and eat the old women before they touch their dogs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> -When they were asked why they did this, they said that -dogs could catch seals, whilst old women could not do so.</p> - -<p>Civilised races do not act like the Fuegians or other -savages; they neither kill nor eat the aged, but none the -less life in old age often becomes very sad. As they are -incapable of performing any useful function in the family -or in the village, the old people are regarded as a heavy -burden. Although they cannot be got rid of, their death -is awaited with eagerness, and is never thought to come -soon enough. The Italians say that old women have seven -lives. According to a Bergamask tradition, old women -have seven souls, and after that an eighth soul, quite -a little one, and after that again half a soul; whilst the -Lithuanians complain that the life of an old woman is so -tough that it cannot be crushed even in a mill. We may -take it as an echo of such popular ideas that murders of -old people are extremely common even in the most civilised -European countries. I have been astonished in looking -through criminal records to see how many cases there are -of the murder of old people, specially of old women. It is -easy to divine the motives of these acts. A convict of the -Island of Saghalien, condemned for the assassination of -several old persons, declared naïvely to the prison doctor: -“Why pity them? They were already old, and would -have died in any case in a few years.”</p> - -<p>In the celebrated novel of Dostoiewsky, “Crime and -Punishment,” there is a tavern scene where young people -discuss all sorts of general topics. In the middle of the -conversation a student declares that he would “murder and -rob any cursed old woman without the least remorse.” -“If the truth were told,” he goes on to say, “this is how -I look at the thing. On the one hand a stupid old woman, -childish, worthless, ill-tempered, and in bad health; no one -would miss her, indeed she is a nuisance to everyone. She<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> -does not even herself know any reason why she should -live, and perhaps to-morrow death will make a good riddance -of her. On the other hand, there are fresh and -vigorous young people who are dying in their -thousands, in the most senseless way, no one troubling -about them, and everywhere the same thing is going on.”</p> - -<p>Old people not only run the risk of murder; they very -often end their own lives prematurely by suicide.</p> - -<p>They prefer death to a life oppressed by material hardships -or burdened by diseases. The daily papers give many -instances of old people who, tired of suffering, asphyxiate -themselves by their charcoal stoves.</p> - -<p>The frequency of suicide in the case of the old has been -established by numerous statistics, and the new facts which -I now cite do no more than confirm it. In 1878, in -Prussia, amongst 100,000 individuals there were 154 cases -of suicide of men between the ages of 20 and 50, but 295, -that is to say, nearly twice as many of men between the -ages of 50 and 80. In Denmark, a country in which -suicide is notoriously common, a similar proportion exists. -Thus, in Copenhagen, in the ten years from 1886 to 1895, -there were 394 suicides of men between 50 and 70. These -figures relate to 100,000 individuals. Of the suicides -36-1/2 per cent. were those of people in the prime of life, -63-1/2 per cent. those of the aged.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> - -<p>In such circumstances, it is natural that politicians and -philanthropists have made many attempts to ameliorate the -old age of the poor. In some countries laws have been -passed to bring about this. For instance, a Danish law -of June 27th, 1891, established compulsory aid for the -aged, enacting that every person more than 60 years -old was to have the legal right to aid if required. In -1896 more than 36,000 people (36,246) were pensioned -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>under this law, at a cost of nearly £200,000. In Belgium, -the indigent old people are not pensioned until they reach -the age of 65. In France, until recently, the aged poor -could be supported at the public expense only by prosecuting -them and sending them to prison for begging. This -state of affairs, however, ceased with the application of the -law of July 15th, 1905, according to which any French -subject without resources, unable to support himself by -work, and either more than 70 years of age, or suffering -from some incurable infirmity or disease, is to receive -public assistance.</p> - -<p>It has been thought the proper course to make such laws, -and to lay the burden on the general population, without -inquiring if it may not be possible to retard the debility -of old age to such an extent that very old people might -still be able to earn their livelihood by work. Old age -can be studied by the methods of exact science, and there -may yet be established some regimen by which health and -vigour will be preserved beyond the age where now it is -generally necessary to resort to public charity. With this -object, a systematic investigation of senescence should be -made in institutions for the aged, where there are always -a large number of people from 75 to 90 years old, although -centenarians are extremely rare. I know many institutions -for aged men where, from their first foundation, there -has been no case of an inhabitant reaching the age of 100, -and even in similar institutions for women, although -women live to much greater ages than men, centenarians -are very rare. At the Salpêtrière, for instance, where there -is always a large number of old women, it is the rarest -chance to find a centenarian. Opportunity for the study -of the extremely aged is to be found only in private -families.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span></p> - -<p>Most of the centenarians whom I have been able to see -have been so defective mentally that all that can be studied -in them are the physical qualities and functions. A few -years ago an old woman who had reached her 100th year -was the pride of the Salpêtrière. She was bedridden and -extremely feeble physically and mentally. She replied -briefly when she was asked questions, but apparently without -any idea of what they meant.</p> - -<p>Not long ago, a lady who lived in a suburb of Rouen -reached her 100th birthday. The local newspapers wrote -exaggerated articles about her, praising the integrity of her -mind and her physical strength. I paid a visit to her -myself, hoping to make a detailed investigation, but I -found at once that the journalists had completely misrepresented -her condition. Although her physical health was -fairly good, her intelligence had degenerated to such an -extent that I had to abandon the idea of any serious investigation.</p> - -<p>The most interesting of all the centenarians with whom -I have become acquainted had reached an extremely -advanced age, having entered upon her 107th year. It is -about two years ago that a journalist, Monsieur Flamans, -took me to see this Mme. Robineau who lived in a suburb -of Paris. I found her a very old-looking lady, rather -short, thin, with a bent back, and leaning heavily on a -cane when she walked. The physical condition (Mme. -Robineau was born on January 12th, 1800), of this woman -of more than 106 years, showed extreme decay. She had -only one tooth; she had to sit down after every few steps, -but, once comfortably seated, she could remain in that -position for quite a long time. She went to bed early and -got up very late. Her features displayed very great age -(see Fig. <a href="#f1">1</a>), although her skin was not extremely wrinkled.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f1" id="f1"></a> -<img src="images/i_p006.jpg" width="400" height="608" alt="Mme. Robineau" /></div> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—Mme. Robineau, a centenarian. From a photograph taken on her -one hundred and fifth birthday.</p> - -<p>The skin of her hands had become so transparent that one -could see the bones, the blood-vessels, and the tendons. -Her senses were very feeble; she could see only with one -eye; taste and smell were extremely rudimentary; her hear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span>ing -was her best means of relation with the external world. -None the less, Dr. Löwenberg, a well-known aurist, had -assured himself that her auditory organs showed in a most -marked degree, the usual signs of old age, such as complete -insensibility to high notes and slight deafness for low -notes. Dr. Löwenberg attributed these changes to senile -degeneration of the ear which affected more and more -seriously the nervous mechanism although it had caused -little change in the conducting apparatus. Notwithstanding -her physical weakness, Mme. Robineau retained her -intelligence fully, her mind remained delicate and refined -and the goodness of her heart was touching. In contrast -with the usual selfishness of old people, Mme. Robineau -took a vivid interest in those around her. Her conversation -was intelligent, connected, and logical. Examination of -the physical functions of this old lady revealed facts of -great interest. Dr. Ambard found that the sounds of the -heart were normal, but perhaps a little accentuated. The -pulse was regular, 70 to 84 a minute, and its tension was -normal. The arterial pressure was 17. The lungs were -sound. All these facts testify to her general health. The -most remarkable circumstance was the absence of sclerosis -of the arteries, although such degeneration is usually -believed to be a normal character of old age.</p> - -<p>Analysis of the urine, made on several occasions, showed -that the kidneys were affected with a chronic disease, -which, however, was not serious.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<p>Although the sense of taste was weak, Madame Robineau -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span>had a fair appetite. She ate and drank little, but her -diet was varied. She took butcher’s meat or chicken extremely -seldom, but ate eggs, fish, farinaceous food, vegetables, -and stewed fruit, and drank sweetened water with -a little white wine, and sometimes, after a meal, a small -glass of dessert wine. The processes of alimentary digestion -and excretion were normal.</p> - -<p>It has sometimes been thought that duration of life is -a hereditary property. There was no evidence for this -in the present case. Madame Robineau’s relatives had -died comparatively early in life, and a centenarian was -unknown in her family. Her great age was an acquired -character. Her whole life had been extremely regular. -She had married a timber merchant, and had lived for -many years in a suburb of Paris in comfortable circumstances. -Her character was gentle and affectionate; she -was thoroughly domesticated, and had been devoted to -home life with very few distractions.</p> - -<p>At the age of 106 years, her intelligence suddenly became -weak. She lost her memory almost completely, and sometimes -wandered. But her gentle and affectionate disposition -remained unaltered.</p> - -<p>The appearance of aged persons is too well known to -make detailed description necessary. The skin of the face -is dry and wrinkled and generally pale; the hairs on the -head and the body are white; the back is bent, and the -gait is slow and laborious, whilst the memory is weak. -Such are the most familiar traits of old age. Baldness -is not a special character; it often begins during youth -and naturally is progressive, but if it has not already -appeared, it does not come on with old age.</p> - -<p>The stature diminishes in old age. As the result of a -series of observations, it has been established that a man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span> -loses more than an inch (3·166 cm.), and a woman more -than an inch and a half (4·3 cm.), between the ages of -fifty and eighty-five years. In extreme cases, the loss -may be nearly three inches. The weight also becomes -less. According to Quételet, males attain their maximum -weights at the age of forty, females at that of fifty. From -the age of sixty years onwards, the body becomes -lighter, the loss at eighty being as much as thirteen -pounds.</p> - -<p>Such losses of height and weight are signs of the general -atrophy of the aged organism. Not merely the soft parts, -such as the muscles and viscera, but even the bones lose -weight, in the latter case the loss being of the mineral -constituents. This process of decalcification makes the -skeleton brittle, and is sometimes the cause of fatal accidents.</p> - -<p>The loss of muscular tissue is specially great. The -volume diminishes, and the substance becomes paler; the -fat between the fibres is absorbed, and may disappear -completely. Movements are slower, and the muscular -force is abated. This progressive degeneration has been -examined by dynamometrical measurements of the hand -and the trunk, and is greater in males than in females.</p> - -<p>The volumes and weights of the visceral organs similarly -become smaller, but the diminution is not uniform.</p> - -<p>The old age of lower mammals presents characters -similar to those found in man. I can now give other -instances than the case of the old dog which I described -in the “Nature of Man.”</p> - -<p>I will first take the case of old elephants, described by -a competent observer. “The general appearance is -wretched, the skull being often hardly covered with skin; -there are deep abrasions under the eyes, and smaller ones<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span> -on the cheeks, whilst the skin of the forehead is very -often deeply fissured or covered with lumps. The eyes -are usually dim, and discharge an abnormal quantity of -water. The margin of the ears, specially on the lower -side, is usually frayed. The skin of the trunk is roughened, -hard, and warty, so that the organ has lost much -of its flexibility. The skin on the body generally is worn -and wrinkled; the legs are thinner than in maturity, the -huge mass of muscles being much shrunken, whilst the -circumference, especially just above the feet, is considerably -reduced. The skin round the toe-nails is roughened -and frayed. The tail is scaly and hard, and the tip is often -hairless.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f2" id="f2"></a> -<img src="images/i_p010.jpg" width="500" height="405" alt="A Mare" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—A Mare, thirty-seven years old.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f3" id="f3"></a> -<img src="images/i_p011.jpg" width="300" height="334" alt="A White Duck" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.—A White Duck, which lived for more than a quarter of a century.</p></div> - -<p>Horses begin to grow old much sooner than elephants. -I reproduce (Fig. <a href="#f2">2</a>) the photograph of a rare instance of -longevity, a mare 37 years old, which belonged to M.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span> -Métaine, in the department of Mayenne. The skin, bare -in places, but elsewhere covered with long hairs, shows -considerable atrophy. The general attitude reveals the -feebleness of the whole body. Many birds, on the other -hand, show at similar ages very slight external change, as -may be seen from the photograph of a duck more than 25 -years old (Fig. <a href="#f3">3</a>) which belonged to Dr. Jean Charcot. At -a still greater age, as may be seen occasionally in parrots, -the general debility of the body reveals itself in the attitude, -in the condition of the feathers, and in the swelling -of the joints. On the other hand, the oldest reptiles which -have been observed do not differ in appearance from -normal adults of the same species. I have in my possession -a male tortoise (<i>Testudo mauritanica</i>) given me by -my friends MM. Rabaud and Caullery, and which is at -least 86 years old. It shows no sign of old age, and in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> -all respects behaves like any other individual of this -species. More than 31 years ago it was wounded by a -blow, the traces of which remain visible on the right side -of the carapace (Fig. <a href="#f4">4</a>). In the last three years the -tortoise lived in a garden at Montauban, along with two -females which laid fertile eggs. The old male, although, -as I have said, probably at least 86 years of age, was still -sexually healthy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f4" id="f4"></a> -<img src="images/i_p012.jpg" width="500" height="325" alt="An Old Land-tortoise" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.—An Old Land-tortoise.</p> -</div> - -<p>I have borrowed from the interesting volume of Prof. -Sir E. Ray Lankester<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> the figure (Fig. <a href="#f5">5</a>) and description -of a giant tortoise from the island of Mauritius, -which is probably the oldest of all living animals. It -was brought to Mauritius from the Seychelles in 1764, -and has lived since then in the garden of the Governor, -and as it has thus already been 140 years in captivity, -its age must be at least 150 years, although we have not -exact information. Notwithstanding this, it shows no -signs of old age.</p> - -<p>The examples which I have brought together show that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>often amongst vertebrates there are some animals the organisms -of which withstand the ravages of time much better -than that of man. I think it a fair inference that senility, -the precocious senescence which is one of the greatest -sorrows of humanity, is not so profoundly seated in the -constitution of the higher animals as has generally been -supposed. It is not necessary, therefore, to discuss at -length the general question as to whether senile degeneration -is an inevitable event in living organisms.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f5" id="f5"></a> -<img src="images/i_p013.jpg" width="500" height="353" alt="A Water-tortoise" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.—A Water-tortoise, more than 150 years old.<br /> -(After Prof. Sir E. Ray Lankester.)</p> -</div> - -<p>I have already shown, in the “Nature of Man,” the difference -which exists between senile degeneration in our own -bodies and the phenomena of senescence amongst Infusoria -which, as M. Maupas described, are followed by -a process of rejuvenescence. According to the more recent -results of several investigators, the difference is still -greater than I had supposed. Enriquez<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> has been able -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>to propagate Infusoria to the 700th generation without any -sign of senility being displayed. Here we are far from -the condition in the human race.</p> - -<p>R. Hertwig,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> one of the best observers of the lower -animals, has recently attempted to show that the very -simple animalculæ of the genus <i>Actinosphærium</i> are -subject to true physiological degeneration. He has several -times seen cultures of this Rhizopod degenerate, until all -the individuals had died, notwithstanding the presence of -abundant food. Prof. Hertwig attributed this to the “constitution -of the <i>Actinosphærium</i> having been weakened by -too great vital activity at an earlier stage.” I should have -thought that it was a much more natural explanation to -suppose that the culture had undergone infection by one -of the contagious diseases which so often destroy cultures -of different kinds of lower animals and plants. As this -idea had not occurred to the observer, he had not searched -for parasitic microbes amongst the granulations which are -always present in the body of an <i>Actinosphærium</i>. However -this may be, I cannot accept the facts brought forward -by this distinguished German as a valid proof of the existence -of senile degeneration in these lowly creatures.</p> - -<p>The facts that I have brought together in this chapter -justify the conclusion that human beings who reach extreme -old age may preserve their mental qualities notwithstanding -serious physical decay. Moreover, it is equally -plain that the organism of some vertebrates is able to -resist the influence of time much longer than is the case -with man under present conditions.</p> - -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>THEORIES OF CAUSATION OF SENILITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Hypothesis of the causation of senility—Senility cannot be -attributed to the cessation of the power of reproduction of -the cells of the body—Growth of the hair and the nails in -old age—Inner mechanism of the senescence of the tissues—Notwithstanding -the criticisms of M. Marinesco, the neuronophags -are true phagocytes—The whitening of hair and -the destruction of nerve cells, as arguments against a theory -of old age based on the failure of the reproductive powers -of the cells</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> it has not been proved that living matter must -inevitably undergo senile decrepitude, it is none the less -true that man and his nearest allies generally exhibit such -degeneration. It is therefore extremely important to recognise -the real causes of our senescence. There have been -many hypotheses on the subject, but there are comparatively -few definite facts known.</p> - -<p>Bütschli has supposed that the life of cells is maintained -by a specific vital ferment which becomes feebler in proportion -to the extent of cellular reproduction, but I cannot -regard this as more than a pious opinion. The ferment -has never been seen, and we do not know of its actual -existence. According to the better-known theory of Prof. -Weismann, old age depends on a limitation in the power -of cells to reproduce, so that a time comes when the body -can no longer replace the wastage of cells which is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span> -inevitable accompaniment of life. As old age appears at -different times in different species and different individuals, -Weismann has concluded that the possible number -of cell generations differs in different cases. He has not -found, however, a solution of the problem as to why multiplication -of cells should cease in one individual, whereas -it proceeds much further in other individuals. Prof. -Minot,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> the American zoologist, has developed a similar -theory, and has employed an exact method to determine -the gradual diminution in the rate of growth of an animal -from its birth onwards. According to him, the power -of reproduction of the cells weakens progressively during -life, until a point is necessarily reached at which the -organism, no longer capable of repairing itself, begins -to atrophy and degenerate. Dr. Buehler<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> has recently laid -stress upon this theory.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt that cells reproduce much more actively -during the embryonic period. The process becomes slower -later on, but, none the less, continues to display itself -throughout the whole period of life. Buehler attributes -the difficulty with which certain wounds heal in the case -of old people to the insufficiency of cellular reproduction. -He thinks in particular that the proliferation of the -cells of the skin, to replace those which are worn off from -the surface, becomes less active with age. According to -him, it is theoretically obvious that a time must come -when the replacement of the epidermic cells completely -ceases. As the superficial layers of the skin continue to -dry up and be cast off, it is plain that the epidermis must -disappear completely. Buehler thinks that there must be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>a similar fate for the genital glands, the muscles, and all -the other organs.</p> - -<p>These theoretical considerations, however, are not compatible -with certain well-known facts indicating that there -is no general cessation of the power of cell reproduction -in old age. The hairs and the nails, which are epidermic -outgrowths, continue to grow throughout life, their growth -being due to the proliferation of their constituent cells. -There is no sign of any arrest in the development of these -structures, even in the most advanced old age. The reverse -is true. It is well known that the hairs on some parts -of the body increase in number and in length in old people. -In some lower races, for instance in the Mongols, the -moustache and the beard grow vigorously in old age, -whilst young people of the same race have only very small -moustaches and practically no trace of beard. So also -in white women the fine and almost invisible down which -covers the upper lip, the chin, and the cheeks in the young -may become replaced by long hairs which form a moustache -or beard.</p> - -<p>Dr. Pohl, a specialist in the growth of hair, has measured -the rate of growth in different circumstances. He has -shown that in an old man of 61 the hair on the temple -grew 11 mm. in a month; on the other hand, the hair on -the same region in boys of 11 to 15 years old grew in the -same time only from 11 to 12 mm. Plainly, there is no -case here of a progressive diminution of cell-proliferation -with age. The same observer, it is true, has shown that -the hair of young men of between 21 and 24 years grew at -the rate of 15 mm. a month, whilst in the same individuals, -at the age of 61 years, the rate of growth was only 11 mm.; -but this diminution in the rate of growth is only apparent. -The first figure concerned the hair taken from different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> -regions of the scalp, whilst the second related only to the -hair on the temples, and Dr. Pohl himself has shown that, -in the latter region, the hair grows slower than in other -regions. Moreover, in many boys of 11 to 15 years old, -studied by this observer, the rate of growth was always -less than 15 mm., and often less even than the 11 mm. -recorded in the old man of 61.</p> - -<p>I have been able to note that the nails grow even in very -old people. In the case of Mme. Robineau, the centenarian, -the nail of the middle finger of the left hand grew -2-1/2 mm. in three weeks. In the case of a lady of 32 years -old, the corresponding nail grew 3 mm. in two weeks, the -difference being out of all proportion to the enormous -difference in the age. The centenarian’s nails had to be -cut from time to time.</p> - -<p>Although the hairs of old people grow, they become -white, which is a phenomenon of senile degeneration. -Although they increase in length, the colouring matter in -them becomes reduced and finally disappears. In the -“Nature of Man” I described the process by which this -blanching takes place, and which may now be regarded as -definitely proved. It is useful as a means of interpreting -the real nature of the process of senescence. In several -published works, I have explained my belief that just as -the pigment of the hair is destroyed by phagocytes, so also -the atrophy of other organs of the body, in old age, is very -frequently due to the action of devouring cells which I -have called macrophags. These are the phagocytes that -destroy the higher elements of the body, such as the nervous -and muscular cells, and the cells of the liver and kidneys. -This part of my theory has encountered very strong criticism, -especially with regard to the part played by the -macrophags in the senescence of nervous tissue.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p> - -<p>Neurologists in particular, have criticised my interpretation. -For several years M. Marinesco<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> has attacked my -theory of the atrophy of the nerve-cells in old age. In the -first place, he has stated that in old people, and even if -these are very old, it is rare to find phagocytes surrounding -and devouring the cells of the brain. In support of this -contention, he has been good enough to send me two preparations -made from the brains of two very old persons. -After careful examination I was convinced that my opponent -had been inexact. In the brain of the two centenarians -(one of whom died at the age of 117 years) there were very -many nerve-cells surrounded by phagocytes and in process -of being destroyed by them. It happened, however, that -as the sections were very weakly stained, it was more difficult -to observe the facts than in the preparations upon -which I had made my own observations. I have already -recorded this fact in the second and third French editions -of the “Nature of Man.”</p> - -<p>Without taking notice of my reply, M. Marinesco has -published another criticism of my theory in an article<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> -entitled “Histological Investigations into the Mechanism of -Senility.” In that work, although he himself had invented -the designation “neuronophag” for a phagocyte that -devours nerve-cells, he denies the existence of such a power. -He thinks that nerve-cells atrophy independently of the -cells that surround them. The latter, the so-called neuronophags, -only contribute to the atrophy inasmuch as they -press against the nerve-cells and deprive them of nutrition. -He is confident that the constituent parts of nerve-cells are -never found in the neuronophags. There is no question of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>phagocytosis, of the existence of cells that devour their -neighbours.</p> - -<p>M. Léri has taken a similar view in a Report on the -Senile Brain<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> presented to a recent congress of alienists -and neurologists. According to him “the nuclei which -surround some of the atrophying nerve-cells do not play -the part of neuronophags.” In his monograph “La -Neuronophagie,”<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> M. Sand elaborates the same view. He -relies on his observation that “neuronophags are usually -either devoid of protoplasm or display only a very thin layer -of it. They never exhibit protoplasmic outgrowths, and -they never have granules in their cellular bodies (p. 86).” -Still more recently MM. Laignel-Lavastine and Voisin<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> -have taken the same view, maintaining that the neuronophags -do not display phagocytosis.</p> - -<p>Although I cannot undertake here to give a detailed reply -to the arguments of my critics, I may point out a fallacy -that vitiates their reasoning. The study of the intimate -structure of nervous tissue involves the treatment of that -very delicate substance by numerous active reagents. It is -extremely important not to forget the possibility of alterations -which may be produced in the processes of preparation -and which are extremely difficult to avoid. A glance at the -figures given by my critics shows me that the neuronophags -in their preparations had been subjected to violent -treatment. When M. Léri speaks of “the nuclei which -surround some of the nerve-cells,” and M. Sand of “cells -without protoplasm,” it is clear that they had been observing -cells destroyed by the processes of the laboratory. The -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>illustrations in the memoir of M. Marinesco show that in -his preparations, too, the neuronophags had been very -greatly altered.</p> - -<p>It is well known that nuclei do not exist free in tissues, -and that when they appear devoid of protoplasm, there has -been some defect in the technical methods of preparing -them for examination. As a matter of fact, neuronophags -do not consist of nuclei with at the most a pellicle of protoplasm; -like other cells, they have protoplasmic bodies -which, however, are frequently destroyed by the violent -processes of histological preparation.</p> - -<p>The arguments of my critics recall to me the words of a -medical student, who, on being asked to describe the -microbe of tuberculosis, said that it was a little red bacillus. -The bacillus in question, like most bacilli, is colourless, -but it is usual to stain it so that it may be visible under -the microscope. The student, knowing it only in particular -preparations, had a false idea of its appearance.</p> - -<p>In well-made preparations, neuronophags are typical cells -with abundant protoplasm. When they have been preserved -by a process that does not dissolve their contents, -they show granules like those found in nerve-cells.</p> - -<p>To study neuronophagy, M. Manouélian,<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> in the laboratory -of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, set himself to improve -the technical methods of preparation. He succeeded in -showing first that in the destruction of nerve-cells that -occurs in cases of hydrophobia, the contents of these cells -are absorbed by the surrounding neuronophags. “My -observations on the cerebro-spinal ganglia of human cases -of hydrophobia,” he wrote, “show clearly that the macrophags -act as phagocytes of the nerve-cells.” “Most of the -cells in the nerve-ganglia contain yellow, brown, and black -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>pigmented granules, usually united in small masses. What -becomes of these granulations on the destruction and disappearance -of the nerve-cell? If, as M. Marinesco has it, -there is no phagocytosis by the surrounding cells, but -merely a mechanical interference, then the granules, on the -destruction of the nerve-cells that contained them, should -be found lying in the interstitial tissue. But this does not -happen. The granules are ingested by cells which are true -macrophags.”</p> - -<p>By the aid of a very delicate mode of preparation, M. -Manouélian has shown that in the case of senile brains -the granules of the nerve-cells are absorbed by neuronophags. -I have myself studied M. Manouélian’s preparations -and can testify to the accuracy of his observations -(Figs. <a href="#f6">6</a> and <a href="#f7">7</a>).</p> - -<p>Doubt is no longer possible. In senile degeneration the -nerve-cells are surrounded by neuronophags which absorb -their contents and bring about more or less complete -atrophy. It has been supposed that in order to devour their -contents, the neuronophags must penetrate the nerve-cells, -and such an event has rarely been seen. But it is well -known, the phagocytosis of red blood corpuscles being a -typical instance, that to absorb a cell a phagocyte does not -necessarily engulf it bodily or penetrate it, but may gradually -denude it of its contents merely by resting in contact -with it.</p> - -<p>There has been some discussion as to the condition of -nerve-cells which are on the point of being devoured by -neuronophags. It has been noticed that such cells may -display a considerable amount of degeneration without -being devoured, whilst, on the other hand, cells apparently -normal have been found undergoing phagocytosis. As I -cannot state definitely what are the conditions that induce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span> -the phagocytosis of nerve-cells, I shall not attempt a discussion -of the problem.</p> - -<p>Although the destruction of nerve-cells by neuronophags -is a general occurrence in senile brains, one may conceive -of cases where this does not occur. And so, in old people -who have preserved their faculties, it may well be that the -neuronophags have refrained from attacking the nerve-cells. -But as such instances are rare, so also phagocytosis is -usually found in senile brains, and I cannot accept M. -Sand’s denial of its existence, based on his study of two -cases.</p> - -<table summary="Figs. 6 and 7" border="0" width="100%"><tr> -<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"><a name="f6" id="f6"></a> -<img src="images/i_p023a.jpg" width="150" height="269" alt="Two nerve-cells" /></div></td> -<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f7" id="f7"></a> -<img src="images/i_p023b.jpg" width="200" height="243" alt="Two nerve-cells" /></div></td> -</tr><tr> -<td><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.</p></td> -<td><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.</p></td> -</tr><tr> -<td colspan="2"><p class="center">FIGS. 6. & 7.—Two nerve-cells from the cortex of the brain of an old dog aged -fifteen years.<br /> -The neuronophags surrounding the nerve-cells contain numerous granulations.<br /> -(From preparations made by M. Manouélian.)</p></td> -</tr></table> - -<p>The general result of my investigation into the criticisms -that have been published on this matter has confirmed me -in my belief that neuronophagy plays a most important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> -part in senescence, and recent observations that I have -made with M. Weinberg have completely supported this -view.</p> - -<p>The bleaching of hair and the atrophy of the brain in -old age thus furnish important arguments against the view -that senescence is the result of arrest of the reproductive -powers of cells. Hairs grow old and become white -without ceasing to grow. The cessation of the power of -reproduction cannot be the cause of the senescence of brain-cells, -for these cells do not reproduce even in youth.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>MECHANISM OF SENILITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Action of the macrophags in destroying the higher cells—Senile -degeneration of muscular fibres—Atrophy of the skeleton—Atheroma -and arterial sclerosis—Theory that old age is -due to alteration in the vascular glands—Organic tissues -that resist phagocytosis</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> instances which I have selected in attempting to -describe the mechanism of senescence of the tissues are not -the only cases in which the importance of phagocytosis is -evident. The blanching of hair is due to the destructive -agency of chromophags; in atrophy of the brain neuronophags -destroy the higher nerve-cells. In addition to -these instances of phagocytosis, in which the active agents -belong to the category of macrophags, there are many other -devouring cells, adrift in the tissues of the aged, and ready -to cause destruction of other cells of the higher type. The -phagocytic action is not so manifest as in the case of infectious -diseases, partly because it is the method of macrophags -to absorb the contents of the higher cells extremely -slowly. The mode of action is well seen in the atrophy of -an egg-cell (Fig. <a href="#f8">8</a>), where the surrounding macrophags -gradually seize hold of the granules within it and carry -these off. As the process goes on, the ovum becomes -reduced to a shapeless mass, and finally leaves only a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> -fragments, or disappears completely. M. Matchinsky<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> has -studied the series of events in my laboratory, and I am -myself well assured of the importance of the action of -macrophags in the atrophy of the ovary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f8" id="f8"></a> -<img src="images/i_p026.jpg" width="400" height="363" alt="Ovum of a Bitch" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8.—Ovum of a Bitch in process of destruction by Phagocytes, which are full -of fatty granules.<br /> -(After M. Matchinsky.)</p></div> - -<p>The phenomena of atrophy in general and of senile decay -afford other cases of tissue destruction in which the phagocytic -character of the process is more modified and obscure -than in nerve-cells and ova.</p> - -<p>It is well known that progressive muscular debility is an -accompaniment of old age. Physical work is seldom given -to men over sixty years of age, as it is notorious that they -are less capable of it. Their muscular movements are -feebler and soon bring on fatigue; their actions are slow -and painful. Even old men whose mental vigour is unimpaired -admit their muscular weakness. The physical -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>correlate of this condition is an actual atrophy of the -muscles, and has for long been known to observers. More -than half a century ago, Kölliker,<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> one of the founders of -histology, devoted some attention to this matter, and -described the senile modification of muscular tissue in the -following words:—“In old age there is a true atrophy of -the muscles. The fibres are much more slender; there are -deposited in their substance numerous yellow or brown -granules and many globular nuclei. These nuclei are frequently -arranged in longitudinal series and present such -signs of active division as are found in embryonic tissue.”</p> - -<p>Other investigators afterwards made similar observations. -Vulpian<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> and Douaud<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> have stated that a multiplication of -nuclei takes places in the atrophying muscles of the old.</p> - -<p>As the senile degeneration of muscular tissue appeared to -be important in my study of the mechanism of senescence, -M. Weinberg and I examined several cases of muscular -atrophy in old human beings and lower animals. We were -able to recognise the phenomena observed by our predecessors. -In senile atrophy the muscular fibres contain -many nuclei, and these, increasing rapidly, bring about an -almost complete disappearance of the contractile substance -(Fig. <a href="#f9">9</a>). The fibres preserve their striation for a certain -time but eventually lose it and appear to contain an amorphous -mass with numerous, rapidly multiplying nuclei.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f9" id="f9"></a> -<img src="images/i_p028.jpg" width="400" height="432" alt="Degeneration of striated muscle Fibres" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9.—Degeneration of striated muscle Fibres from the auricular muscle of a -man aged 87 years.<br /> -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)</p></div> - -<p>The investigators who had recorded these facts thought -of them only as curious. It is plain, in the first place, -however, that this remarkable and rapid multiplication is a -proof that senile atrophy is not due to failure of cell pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>liferation, -although the latter has frequently been suggested -as the mechanism of senescence. In muscular atrophy, cell -multiplication, so far from failing, greatly increases. We -may add muscular atrophy to the blanching of hair and the -decay of nerve-cells as another instance showing that senile -degeneration is not the result of cells ceasing to be able to -multiply. Just as in the atrophy of the brain there is an -increase in the volume of neuroglœa, the substance in which -the neuronophags are found, so also in the atrophy of the -muscles there is an increase of muscular nuclei. Along -with the increase of nuclei, however, there is an increase of -the protoplasmic substance of the fibres known as sarcoplasm. -The latter replaces the myoplasm, the specific -striated substance of muscles, by a process which must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> -regarded as parallel with phagocytosis. In a normal muscle -the two substances and the sarcoplasmic nuclei are in -equilibrium, but in old age the sarcoplasm and its nuclei -increase at the expense of the myoplasm. The equilibrium -is destroyed with the result that the muscular power is -weakened. In these conditions the sarcoplasm acts phagocytically -with regard to the myoplasm, just as the chromophag -becomes the phagocyte of the pigment of the hair, -or the neuronophag devours the nerve-cell.</p> - -<p>The investigation of other cases of muscular atrophy, as, -for instance, that of the caudal muscles of frog-tadpoles, -confirms the significance of the process that I have observed -in old age. In the two cases, what takes place is the -destruction of the contractile material of the muscles by -myophags, a special kind of phagocyte.</p> - -<p>It is one of the curiosities of senile atrophy that whilst -there is hardening or sclerosis of so many organs, the skeleton, -the most solid part of our frame-work, becomes less -dense, so that the bones are friable, the condition often -leading to serious accidents in old people. The bones -become porous, and lose weight. It is difficult to believe -that macrophags, although they destroy softer elements -such as nerve-cells or muscle fibres, can be able to gnaw -through a hard material like bone impregnated with -mineral salts. As a matter of fact, the mechanism of bone -atrophy must be placed in a different category from the -phagocytosis of other organs. It is brought about, however, -by the agency of cells very like some of the macrophags. -These cells contain many nuclei, and are known -as osteoclasts. They form round about the bony lamellæ -and lead to their destruction, but are incapable of breaking -off fragments of bone and dissolving them in their interiors. -Although the intimate mechanism of this destructive action<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span> -is not thoroughly understood, it seems probable that the -cells secrete some acid which softens bone by dissolving -the lime salts. The process can be observed in the different -varieties of caries of the bone, and in the bony atrophy of -old age as is represented in Fig. <a href="#f10">10</a>.</p> - -<p>By the action of the osteoclasts, which themselves are -macrophags, part of the lime in the skeleton is dissolved -during old age and passes into the general circulation. -This is probably a source of the lime which is deposited -so readily in the different tissues of old people. Whilst the -bones become lighter, the cartilages become bony, the inter-vertebrate -discs in particular becoming impregnated with -salts, so that the well-known senile malformation of the -backbone is produced.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f10" id="f10"></a> -<img src="images/i_p030.jpg" width="400" height="185" alt="Destruction by osteoclasts of bony matter" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10.—Destruction by osteoclasts of bony matter in the sternum of a man aged -81 years.<br /> -(From a preparation made by Dr. Weinberg.)</p></div> - -<p>As a result of this displacement of lime in old age, the -blood-vessels become modified in a distinctive fashion. -Atheroma of the arteries is not invariable in old people, but -it occurs extremely frequently. In this form of degeneration, -lime salts are deposited in the walls of the cells, so that -they become hard and friable. Several others, among -whom I may mention Durand-Fardel and Sauvage, have -laid stress on the coincidence of atheromatous lesions of the -arteries and senile degeneration of the bones. The relations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span> -between the two alterations are very evident in the skull; -the meningeal artery becomes sinuous and atheromatous, -and the grooves on the inner side of the bones of the skull in -which it runs, flatten out, and become larger because of -other malformations.<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p> - -<p>There is no disharmony in the nature of old people so -striking as this transference of the lime salts from the -skeleton to the blood-vessels, producing as it does a dangerous -softening of the former, and a hardening of the latter -that interferes with their function of carrying nutrition to -the organs. It is the manifestation of an extraordinary -disturbance of the properties of the cells that compose the -body. The atheromatous condition of the arteries is closely -linked with arterial sclerosis, an affection which is very -common, although not constant, in the aged. The whole -question of these vascular alterations is extremely complex, -and before it can be cleared up, a number of special investigations -must be made.</p> - -<p>Probably diseases of the arteries of different kinds, and -arising from different causes, are grouped under the terms -atheroma and sclerosis. In some cases the lesions are inflammatory -and are due to the poisons of microbes. An -example of such an origin is the case of syphilitic sclerosis, -in which the specific microbes (spirilla of Schaudinn) lead -to precocious senescence. In other cases the arteries show -phenomena of degeneration resulting in the formation of -calcareous platelets which interfere with the circulation of -the blood.</p> - -<p>Investigations which have been made in recent years -have led to very interesting results concerning the origin -of atheroma of the arteries. In most cases, attempts to -produce such lesions of the arteries by experimental -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>methods have not succeeded, but M. Josué<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> has been able -to produce true arterial atheroma in rabbits by injecting -into them adrenaline, the secretion of the supra-renal capsules.</p> - -<p>This experiment has been repeated many times and is -now well known. Later on, M. Boveri<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> obtained a similar -result by injecting nicotine, the poison of tobacco. It is -obvious, therefore, that amongst the arterial diseases which -play so great a part in senescence, some are chronic inflammations -produced by microbes, whilst others are brought -about by poisons introduced from without.</p> - -<p>It is easy to understand, therefore, why these diseases of -the arteries are not always present in old age, although -they are very common.</p> - -<p>The part played by the secretion of the supra-renal glands -in the production of arterial disease has brought renewed -attention to a theory which supposed that certain glandular -organs in the body play a preponderating part in senile -degeneration. Dr. Lorand<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> in particular has argued that -“senility is a morbid process due to the degeneration of the -thyroid gland and of other ductless glands which normally -regulate the nutrition of the body.” It has long been -noticed that persons affected with myxodema, as a result -of the degeneration of the thyroid gland, look like very old -people. Everyone who has seen the cretins in Savoy, -Switzerland, or the Tyrol, must have noticed the aged -appearance of these victims, although very often they are -quite young. The condition of cretinism, with its profound -bodily changes, is the result of degeneration of the -thyroid gland. On the other hand, it is well known that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>in old people the thyroid and the supra-renals frequently -show cystic degeneration. It is quite probable, therefore, -that these so-called vascular glands have their share in -producing senility. Many facts show that they destroy -certain poisons which have entered the body, and it is easy -to see that, if they have become functionless, the tissues -are threatened with poisoning. It does not follow, however, -that their action in producing senility is exclusive, or -even preponderating. M. Weinberg, at the Pasteur Institute, -made special investigations on this point, and found -that the thyroid gland and the supra-renal capsules were -almost invariably normal in old animals (cat, dog, horse), -although the latter showed unmistakable signs of senility. -Similarly in an old man of 80 years, who died from pneumonia, -the thyroid gland was quite normal.</p> - -<p>It must not be forgotten that the aged very often die -from infectious diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, -and erysipelas. In these diseases the vascular glands -generally, and the thyroid gland in particular, are very -often affected, with the result that what is due to infection -has been set down as a symptom of old age.<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> - -<p>Although the appearance of patients from whom the -thyroid gland has been removed, or in whom it has degenerated -spontaneously, recalls that of old people, it is possible -to exaggerate the similarity. In the masterly accounts of -such unfortunates, recently compiled by the well-known -surgeon Kocher<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> there are many points which are characteristic, -without being typical, of old people.</p> - -<p>Oedema of the skin which characterises thyroid patients -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span>is by no means usual in old age. The loss of hair, normal -in the patients, is not a character of old age. In myxedematous -women, menstruation is very active; it ceases -in old women. The great muscular development of -myxedematous patients distinguishes them from old people.</p> - -<p>Physiological investigation does not support the existence -of any strong affinity between old age and affection -of the thyroid gland. It is known that removal of the -thyroid is followed by cachexia only in young subjects, -MM. Bourneville and Bricon<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> having shown that the -tendency to cachexia after extirpation of the thyroid ceases -almost abruptly at the age of thirty. That age may be -taken as the limit of youth, of the time when growth is -vigorous and the function of the thyroid most active. Cases -of cachexia, where the thyroid gland has been removed in -old persons from fifty to seventy, are very rare.</p> - -<p>Rodents (rats, rabbits) support the removal of the thyroid -extremely well, without signs of cachexia, although these -are normally short-lived creatures. According to Horsley<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> -extirpation of the thyroid is not followed by cachexia in -birds or rodents and is followed by it only very slowly in -ruminants and horses; it produces the condition invariably -but slightly in man and monkeys and extremely seriously -in carnivora. If this series be compared with the information -given in the next section of this volume on the relative -ages which the animals in question attain, it will be seen -that there is no correspondence.</p> - -<p>In short, whilst I do not deny that the vascular glands -may take a share in the causation of senility, in so far as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span>they are destroyers of poisons, I cannot agree with the -theory of Dr. Lorand.</p> - -<p>I think it indubitable that in senescence the most active -factor is some alteration in the higher cells of the body, -accompanied by a destruction of these by macrophags -which gradually usurp the places of the higher elements and -replace them by fibrous tissue. Such a process affects the -organs of secretion (kidneys), the reproductive organs, and -in a modified form the skin, the mucous membranes, and -the skeleton. The testes are amongst the organs which -resist invasion by macrophags. -<span class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f11" id="f11"></a> -<img src="images/i_p035.jpg" width="200" height="181" alt="Testis tissue from a dog" /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.—Testis tissue from a dog -aged twenty-two years.<br /> -(From a preparation made by Dr. -Weinberg.)</span></span> -I have already given an example -(“The Nature of Man,” -p. 98) of an old man of 94 in -whom active spermatozoa were -produced. I know of a similar -case, the age being 103 years. -Such cases are not rare, and not -only in old men, but in old -animals, the testes continue to -be active. Dr. Weinberg and -I have investigated these -organs in a dog which died at the age of 22 years after -several years of pronounced senility. Many of the organs -of the animal exhibited serious invasions by macrophags -but the testes were extremely active, the cells being in -free proliferation and producing abundant spermatozoa -(Fig. <a href="#f11">11</a>). In harmony with this condition of the -sexual organs, the sexual instincts of the animal remained -normal. We have investigated another dog which died -at the age of eighteen years. In this case the testes were -cancerous and there was no possibility of the production of -spermatozoa. None the less, this dog although markedly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span> -senile (Fig. <a href="#f12">12</a>) still showed sexual instincts until shortly -before it died.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f12" id="f12"></a> -<img src="images/i_p036.jpg" width="500" height="400" alt="An old dog, aged eighteen years." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12.—An old dog, aged eighteen years.</p></div> - -<p>It is manifest that the tissues do not invariably degenerate -in old age, nor do all the organs that are modified in -old age show destruction by phagocytes and replacement -by connective tissue. Organs which produce phagocytes, -such as the spleen, the spinal marrow and the lymphatic -glands, certainly show traces in old age of fibrous degeneration -but remain sufficiently active to produce macrophags -which destroy the higher cellular elements of the body. I -have frequently noticed cell division in such organs, and -as an example may give the case of the bone marrow taken -from a man of 81 years (Fig. <a href="#f13">13</a>).</p> - -<p>The eye is an organ that is modified in old age without -the action of macrophags. Cataract and the senile arc -which appears as a milky ring at the edge of the cornea<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> -are frequent in old age. These modifications are due to -impregnation of the parts affected by fatty matter which -makes them opaque. This deposition of fat<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> has been -attributed to defective nutrition. In most organs such -fatty degeneration is followed by phagocytosis, but the -cornea and the crystalline lens are exempt from this consequence -for anatomical reasons. Most organs possess in -addition to their higher elements a constant source of -macrophags. Such a source of phagocytosis is the neuroglœa -<span class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f13" id="f13"></a> -<img src="images/i_p037.jpg" width="200" height="185" alt="" /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13.—Bone marrow from the -sternum of a man aged eighty-one -years.<br /> -(From a preparation made by Dr. -Weinberg.)</span></span> -in nervous tissues, the -sarcoplasm in muscular tissues; -the bones contain osteoclasts -and the liver and the -kidneys are readily invaded by -phagocytes from the blood. -The lens and the cornea have -no cells that are able to become -macrophags.</p> - -<p>Some infectious diseases -bring about precocious senility. -A syphilitic child is “a -miniature old man, with wrinkled face, skin dull -and discoloured and flabby and hanging in folds as -if it were too large.”<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> In such a case the active -agent is the microbe of syphilis which has poisoned -the child on the breast of its mother. It is no mere analogy -to suppose that human senescence is the result of a slow but -chronic poisoning of the organism. Such poisons, if not -completely destroyed or eliminated, weaken the tissues, the -functions of which become altered or enfeebled, so that, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>amongst other changes, there is deposition of fatty matter. -The phagocytes resist the influence of invading poisons -better than any of the other cells of the body and sometimes -are stimulated by them. The general result of -such conditions is that there comes to be a struggle between -the higher cells and the phagocytes in which the latter have -the advantage.</p> - -<p>The answer to the question as to whether our senescence -can be ameliorated must be approached from several points -of view. This course I shall now follow.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p> - -<h2><small>PART II</small><br /><br /> - -LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>THEORIES OF LONGEVITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Relation between longevity and size—Longevity and the -period of growth—Longevity and the doubling in weight -after birth—Longevity and rate of reproduction—Probable -relation between longevity and the nature of the food</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> duration of the life of animals varies within very -wide limits. Some, as for instance, the males of certain -wheel animalculæ (Rotifera) complete their cycle of life -from birth to death in 50 or 60 hours, whilst others, like -some reptiles, live more than 100 years, and quite possibly -may live for two or three centuries.</p> - -<p>Enquiry has been made for many years as to whether -there are laws governing these different durations of life. -Even the most casual observation of domesticated animals -has shown that, as a general rule, small animals do not -live so long as large ones; mice, guinea pigs, and rabbits -for instance, have shorter lives than geese, ducks, and -sheep, whilst these again are survived by horses, deer, -and camels. Of all the mammals which have lived under -the protection of man, the elephant is at once the largest, -and the most long-lived.</p> - -<p>However, it is not difficult to show that there is no -absolute relation between size and longevity, since parrots, -ravens, and geese live much longer than many mammals, -and than some much larger birds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p> - -<p>As a general rule it may be said that a large animal takes -more time than a small one to reach maturity, and it has -been inferred from this that the length of the periods of -gestation and of growth were in proportion to the longevity. -Buffon<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> long ago stated his opinion that the “total -duration of life bore some definite relation to the length -of the period of growth.” Therefore, as the period of -growth is, so to say, inherent in the species, longevity -would have to be regarded as a very stable phenomenon. -Just as any species has acquired a fixed and practically -invariable size, so it would have acquired a definite longevity. -Buffon, therefore, thought that the duration of life -did not depend on habits or mode of life, or on the nature -of food, that, in fact, nothing could change its rigid laws, -except an excess of nourishment.</p> - -<p>Taking as his standard the total period of development -of the body, Buffon came to the conclusion that the duration -of life is six or seven times that of the period of -growth. Man, for instance, he said, who takes 14 years -to grow, can live 6 or 7 times that period, that is to say, -90 or 100 years. The horse, which reaches its full size -in 4 years, can live 6 or 7 times that length of time, that -is to say from 25 to 30 years. The stag takes 5 or 6 -years to grow, and reckoned in the same way, its longevity -should be 35 to 40 years.</p> - -<p>Flourens<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> although supporting his principle, thought -that Buffon had been inexact in calculating the period -of growth. In his opinion a better result can be obtained -by taking the limit of growth as that age at which the -epiphyses of the long bones unite with the bones them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>selves. -Using such a mode of computation, Flourens laid -down that an animal lived 5 times the length of its period -of growth. Man, for instance, takes 20 years to grow, and -he can live for 5 times that space, that is to say, 100 years; -the camel takes 8 to grow, and lives 5 times as long, -<i>i.e.</i>, 40 years; the horse, 5 to grow, and lives 25 years.</p> - -<p>However, even if we consider only the mammalia, it is -impossible to accept Flourens’ law, without considerable -reserve. Weismann<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> has referred to the case of the horse, -which is completely adult at 4, but lives not merely 5 -times that period, but 10 or even 12 times. Mice grow -extremely quickly, so that they are able to reproduce at -the age of 4 months. Even if we take 6 months as their -period of growth, their longevity of 5 years is twice as -long as it would be according to the rule of Flourens. -Amongst domesticated animals, the sheep is slow in reaching -maturity; it does not acquire its adult set of teeth until -it is 5 years old, and cannot be regarded as adult until -then. None the less, at the age of 8 or 10 years, it loses -its teeth and begins to grow old, whilst by 14 it is quite -senile.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> The longevity of the sheep, therefore, is not quite -three times its period of growth.</p> - -<p>If we turn to other vertebrates, the variations in the -relation of growth and the duration of life are still greater. -Parrots, for instance, the longevity of which is extremely -great, grow very quickly. At the age of 2 years, they -have acquired the adult plumage and are able to reproduce, -whilst the smaller species are in the same condition -at the age of one. Incubation, moreover, is very short, -not more than 25 days, and in some species not three -weeks. None the less, parrots are birds which enjoy a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>quite remarkable longevity. The incubation period of -domestic geese is 30 days, and their period of growth is -also short. However, they may reach a great age, cases -of 80 years and of 100 years being on record. In contrast -with these, ostriches, the incubation period of which is -42 to 49 days, and which take 3 years to become adult, -have a relatively short life.</p> - -<p>H. Milne-Edwards<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> many years ago contended that -there was no importance in the supposed law of relation -between gestation and longevity. He sums up his criticism -as follows: “Although the period of uterine life is longer -in the horse, that animal does not live so long as a human -being; and some birds, the incubation of which only lasts -a few weeks, can live more than a century.”</p> - -<p>Bunge<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> has recently taken up the study of the relations -between the duration of growth and longevity, and has -suggested a new means of investigation. He has observed -that the period in which the new-born mammal doubles -its weight is a good index of the rapidity of its growth. -He has shown that whilst a human child requires 180 -days to reach double its weight at birth, the horse, the -longevity of which is very much less, doubles its weight -in 60 days; a calf takes only 47 days for this; a kid 15 -days; a pig 14 days; a cat 9-1/2; and a dog only 9 days. -Although these facts are very interesting, the exceptions -are too great to make it possible to base a law of longevity -upon them. The period of weight-doubling in the horse -is nearly 7 times longer than that in the dog, and yet the -longevity of the horse is not more than 3 times that of -the dog. The goat, which takes much longer than the -dog to double its weight, has a shorter total life.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span></p> - -<p>I observed myself that new-born mice quadruple their -weight in the first 24 hours. The doubling of weight -in their case requires a time 36 times less long than that -of the cat, and yet the cat lives only 5 times as long as -the mouse.</p> - -<p>It is fair to say, however, that Bunge himself does not -draw a definite conclusion from these figures and has -published them only to stimulate interest in the subject. -He is against the view of Flourens, and points out that -although the multiple 5 is valid for man, it is not so in -the case of the horse which finishes its growth in 4 years -and yet reaches the age of 40 much less often than human -beings attain that of 100 years.</p> - -<p>Although it is impossible to admit the existence of -exact relations between size and the period of growth on -the one side, and longevity on the other, in the mode -which Buffon and Flourens have followed, it is none the -less true that there is something intrinsic in each kind -of animal which sets a definite limit to the length of years -it can attain. The purely physiological conditions which -determine this limit leave room for a considerable amount -of variation in longevity. Duration of life therefore, is -a character which can be influenced by the environment. -Weismann in his well-known essay on the duration of -life, has laid stress on this side of the problem. Longevity, -according to him, although in the last resort depending -on the physiological properties of the cells of which the -organism is composed, can be adapted to the conditions -of existence and influenced by natural selection, like other -characters useful for the existence of the species.</p> - -<p>If a species is to remain in existence, its members must -be able to reproduce and the progeny must be able to -reach adult life so that they in their turn may reproduce. -Now, it happens that there are some animals the fecundity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span> -of which is extremely limited. Most birds which are -adapted to aerial life, and the weight of which is therefore -to be kept down, lay very few eggs. This happens in -the case of birds of prey, such as eagles and vultures. -These birds nest only once a year, and generally rear two -or frequently only a single nestling. In such circumstances -the duration of life becomes a factor in the preservation -of the species, more important since eggs and chicks -are subject to many dangers. Eggs are devoured by many -kinds of animals, whilst unseasonable cold may kill the -chicks. If the members of such a species were incapable of -living long, the unfavourable conditions of life would soon -lead to extinction. Those animals which reproduce rapidly -generally have a relatively brief duration of life. Mice, rats, -rabbits, and many other rodents seldom live more than 5 or -10 years, but reproduce with enormous rapidity. It is almost -possible to imagine that there is some sort of intimate link, -possibly physiological, between longevity and low fertility. -It is a current opinion that reproduction wastes the maternal -organism and that mothers of many children grow old -prematurely and seldom reach an advanced age. This -would seem to mean that fecundity was the cause of the -short duration of life. However, we must guard ourselves -against such a theory. Longevity, at least in the case of -vertebrate animals, differs extremely little in the two sexes, -although the cost of the new generation to the adult -organism is very much greater in the case of the female -than of the male parent. None the less, females frequently -reach a great age, especially in the human race where -women reach 100 years, or live beyond that time, much -more often than men.</p> - -<p>Low fertility, however, cannot itself be regarded as a -cause of longevity, as there are some very fertile animals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> -which none the less attain great ages. There are parrots -which lay two or three times a year, producing six to nine -eggs in each clutch. The ducks (Anatidæ) are distinguished -for considerable longevity and very high fertility, each -nest containing rarely less than six and sometimes as many -as sixteen eggs. The common Sheldrake lays from twenty -to thirty eggs. Tame ducks, in some parts of the tropics, -lay an egg daily throughout the season. Wild ducks lay -from seven to fourteen eggs in one nest. Ducks and geese, -none the less, frequently attain considerable ages, ducks -having been known to live for 29 years. Even the common -fowl, which is a notoriously prolific bird, may reach an age -of twenty to thirty years.</p> - -<p>It will be said, however, that these birds are exposed to -many enemies during youth. Chickens, ducklings, and -goslings are ready prey for hawks, foxes and small carnivora. -The longevity is possibly to be explained as an -adaptation for the preservation of the species by compensating -for the great destruction of the young. Weismann -explains in this way the longevity of many aquatic birds -and other creatures that are much preyed on. It must be -noted, however, that the longevity cannot depend on the -risks run by the young birds, but must have arisen independently. -If this had not occurred, creatures, the young -of which are destroyed in great numbers, would have ceased -to exist, as many species have disappeared in geological -time. The longevity of prolific animals, the young of -which are destroyed in numbers, must be due to some -cause which is neither fertility nor the destruction of their -offspring. This cause must be sought in the physiological -processes of the organism and can be attributed neither to -the length of the period of growth nor to the size attained -by the adults.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span></p> - -<p>After having discussed various theories of the cause of -the duration of life, M. Oustalet,<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> in a most interesting essay -on the longevity of vertebrates, came to the conclusion that -diet was the chief factor. He thinks that there is a -“definite relation between diet and longevity. For the most -part herbivorous animals live longer than carnivorous -forms, probably because the former find their food with -ease and regularity, whilst the latter alternate between -semi-starvation and repletion.” There are certainly many -instances which give support to the view. Elephants and -parrots, for instance, are vegetarian and reach very great -ages. On the other hand, there exist long-living carnivorous -animals. Many observations have made it certain -that owls and eagles reach great ages, and these birds live -on animal food. Ravens, which live on carrion, are also -notorious for the duration of their lives. There is no exact -knowledge as to the ages reached by crocodiles, but -although these live on flesh, it is certain that their longevity -is great.</p> - -<p>We must seek elsewhere for the real factors that control -duration of life. Before stating my conclusion, I will -review what is known as to the duration of life of different -animals.</p> - -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span></p> - -<h3>II.<br /><br /> - -<small><small>LONGEVITY IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Longevity in the lower animals—Instances of long life in -sea-anemones and other invertebrates—Duration of life of -insects—Duration of life of “cold-blooded” vertebrates—Duration -of life of birds—Duration of life of mammals—Inequality -of the duration of life in males and females—Relations -between longevity and fertility of the organism</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is wonderful to what an extent the duration of life varies -amongst animals, the slightest examination of the facts -showing that very many factors must be involved.</p> - -<p>As the higher animals are nearly always larger than -invertebrates, if there be a definite relation between longevity -and size, one would expect to find that vertebrates -live longer than invertebrates. However, this is not the -case. Amongst animals of extremely simple organisation, -there are some which reach a great age. A striking -example of this is found in sea-anemones. These animals -have a very simple structure, without a separate digestive -canal, and with a badly developed, diffused nervous system, -and yet have lived very long in captivity. More than forty -years ago, I remember having seen in the possession of -M. Lloyd, the Director of the Aquarium at Hamburg, an -anemone that he had kept alive for several dozen years in -a glass bowl. Another sea-anemone, belonging to the -species <i>Actinia mesembryanthemum</i>, is known to have -lived 66 years. It was captured in 1828 by Dalyell, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span> -Scottish zoologist, and was then quite adult, and probably -about 7 years old. It survived its owner for 36 years, and -died in Edinburgh in 1887, the cause of death being unknown. -Although they are thus capable of living so long, -the rate of growth of members of this species is rapid, and -their fertility is very high. According to Dalyell, these -anemones reach the adult condition in 15 months. The -specimen in his possession, in the 20 years from 1828 to -1848 produced 334 larvæ, then after a period of sterility it -gave birth, in one night (1857) to 230 young anemones. -This extraordinary prolificness decreased with age, but even -when it was 58 years old it used to produce from 5 to 20 at -a time. In the seven years from 1872 onwards, it gave birth -to 150 young anemones.<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> This animal, which certainly -was not more than the fortieth or the fiftieth of the weight -of an adult rabbit, lived six or seven times as long.</p> - -<p>Ashworth and Nelson Annandale have published their -observations on another sea-anemone, of the species <i>Sagartia -troglodytes</i>, which was 50 years old. It differed from -younger examples only in being less prolific.</p> - -<p>There are other polyps, such as <i>Flabellum</i>, which do not -live more than 24 years, although we have no knowledge as -to the cause of the different duration of life.</p> - -<p>The variation in the length of the life of molluscs and -insects is extremely great. Some species of gasteropods -(<i>Vitrina</i>, <i>Succinea</i>) live only a very few years, whilst -others (<i>Natica heros</i>) can reach thirty years. Some of the -marine bivalves, as for instance, <i>Tridacna gigas</i>, can live -to sixty or a hundred years.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> - -<p>Insects are animals as variable in their duration of life as -they are in other respects. Some live only a few weeks; -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> -some of the plant-lice, for instance, die in a month. In -the same order of Insects, however, (Hemiptera) there are -species of cicada which live thirteen to seventeen years, that -is to say, much longer than such little Rodents as rats, -mice, and guinea-pigs. The larva of an American species -spends seventeen years buried in the ground in orchards, -where it feeds on the roots of apple trees, and the species is -known as <i>Cicada septemdecim</i>, because of this duration of -life. In the adult stage the insect lives little more than a -month, just time enough to lay the eggs, and bring into -the world the new generation, which in its turn will not -appear above ground until after another period of seventeen -years.</p> - -<p>Between these extremes of long and short life, there is -to be found amongst insects almost every gradation of -longevity. Science, in its present state, has failed to find -any law governing these facts. Rules which hold good up -to a certain point in the case of the higher animals break -down in their application to insects. The large grasshoppers -and locusts, for instance, live a much shorter time -than many minute beetles. Queen bees, the fertility of -which is very great, live two or three years and may reach -a fifth year, whilst worker bees, which are infertile, die in -the first year of their existence. Female ants, although -these are small and extremely prolific, reach the age of -seven years.<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> - -<p>We know so little about the physiological processes of -insects, that we cannot as yet make even a guess at the -cause of this great variation in their longevity. It is more -probable that we shall find some explanation in the case of -vertebrates concerning which we know much more.</p> - -<p>Analysis of the facts shows that whilst in the evolution -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>from fish to mammal there has been a great increase in -complexity of organisation, there has at the same time been -a reduction in the duration of life. As a general rule, it -may be laid down that the lower vertebrates live longer -than mammals.</p> - -<p>The facts about the longevity of fish are not very numerous, -but it seems clear that these animals reach a great -age. The ancient Romans, who used to keep eels in -aquaria, have noted that these fish would live for more than -sixty years. There is reason to believe that salmon can -live for a century, whilst pike live much longer. There is, -for instance, the much quoted instance of the pike stated -by Gessner to have been captured in 1230 and to have lived -for 267 years afterwards. Carps are regarded as equally -long lived, Buffon setting down their period of life as 150 -years. There is a popular idea that the carp in the lakes -at Fontainebleau and Chantilly are several centuries old, -but E. Blanchard throws doubt on the accuracy of this estimate, -inasmuch as during revolutionary times most of the -carp were eaten when the palaces were overrun by the populace. -There is no doubt, however, that the life of carp -may be very long indeed. Not very much is known about -the duration of life in batrachians, but it is certain at least -that some small frogs may live twelve or sixteen years, and -toads as many as thirty-six years.</p> - -<p>More is known about the life of reptiles. Crocodiles and -caymans, which are large and which grow very slowly, -attain great ages. In the Paris Museum of Natural History -there are crocodiles which have been kept for more than -forty years without showing signs of senescence. Turtles, -although they are smaller than crocodiles, live still longer. -A tortoise has lived for eighty years in the garden of the -Governor of Cape Town, and is believed to have reached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> -the age of two hundred years. Another tortoise, a native -of the Galapagos Islands, is known to be 175 years old, -whilst a specimen in the London Zoological Gardens is 150 -years old. A land tortoise (<i>Testudo marginata</i>) has been -kept in Norfolk, England, for a century. I am informed -that in the Archbishop’s palace at Canterbury, there is to -be seen the carapace of a tortoise which was brought to the -Palace in 1623 and which lived there for 107 years.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Another -tortoise, brought to Fulham by Archbishop Laud, lived in -the Palace for 128 years. I have already referred to a -specimen of <i>Testudo mauritanica</i>, the history of which is -known for 86 years, but which is probably much older.</p> - -<p>Very little is known as to the longevity of lizards and -serpents, but it may be inferred from what I have said about -other reptiles that reptiles as a class are able to reach great -ages.</p> - -<p>It is an easy inference that the great duration of life in -cold-blooded animals is associated with the slowness of -the physiological processes in these creatures. The circulation, -for instance, is so slow, that the heart of a tortoise -beats only 20 to 25 times in a minute. Weismann has -suggested that one of the factors influencing the duration -of life is the rapidity or slowness of the vital activities, the -times taken by the processes of absorption and nutrition.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the blood is hot and the vital activities -are rapid in birds, and yet birds may attain great ages. -Although in the last chapter I gave a number of examples, -the subject is so important that I propose to go further into -details. The possibility of this is due to an admirable set -of details brought together by Mr. J. H. Gurney.<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> In his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> -list, in which are included more than fifty species of birds, -the lowest figures are from eight and a half to nine years -(<i>Podargus cuvieri</i>, <i>Chelidon urbica</i>), and a duration of life -so short is an exception, a period of from fifteen to twenty -years being more common. Canaries have lived in captivity -from 17 to 20 years, and goldfinches up to 23 years. -Field larks have lived for 24 years, the Lesser Black-backed -Gull 31 years and the Herring Gull 44 years. Birds of -medium size may live for several dozens of years, whether -they live on animal or on vegetable food, whether they are -prolific or lay very few eggs. I will quote only a few -instances. Of forty parrots the minimum and maximum -ages were respectively 15 and 81 years, and the average 43 -years. Without accepting the truth of the story mentioned -by Humboldt according to which certain parrots survived -an extinct race of Indians, at least we may be certain that -great ages have sometimes been reached by these birds. -Levaillant mentions a parrot (<i>Psittacus erithaceus</i>) which -lost its memory at the age of 60 years, its sight at 90 -years, and which died aged 93 years. Another individual, -probably of the same species, is reported by J. Jennings -to have reached the age of 77. Jones, Layard, and Butler -are the authorities for instances of Sulphur-crested Cockatoos -having reached respectively 30, 72 and 81 years. M. -Abrahams states that an Amazon (<i>Chrysotis amasonica</i>) -lived 102 years. I myself have observed two cases of great -longevity in the same species of parrot. One of these birds -died at the age of 82 years, apparently simply from old -age, whilst the other, which was in my possession for -several years before it died at the age of 70 to 75 years, was -vigorous, showing no signs of senility, but died of pneumonia.</p> - -<p>Mr. Gurney found that parrots were not the only birds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span> -capable of reaching a great age. One raven reached 69 -years and another 50, an Eagle-owl (<i>Bubo maximus</i>) 68 -years, another 53, a condor 52, an imperial eagle 56, a common -heron 60, a wild goose 80, and a common swan 70 -years. None of these examples approaches the legendary -three centuries attributed to the swan, but it is evident that -many different kinds of birds may attain great age. I can -add some cases to those of Mr. Gurney. In the Royal Park -at Schönbrunn, near Vienna, a white-headed vulture (<i>Neophron -percnopterus</i>) died aged 118 years, a golden eagle -(<i>Aquila chrysaëtus</i>) aged 104, and another aged 80 (according -to Oustalet). Mr. Pycraft (<cite>Country Life</cite>, June 25th, -1904) reported that a female eagle, captured in Norway in -1829, had been brought to England and had lived for 75 -years. In the last thirty years of its life, it had produced -ninety eggs. The same writer mentions the case of a falcon -having lived to 162 years.</p> - -<p>The collection of facts that I have passed in review make -it manifest that birds may have a great duration of life, -but that reptiles surpass them in this respect. Birds certainly -do not reach the very great ages of crocodiles and -tortoises.</p> - -<p>Longevity, therefore, is reduced as we ascend in the -scale of vertebrate life. We find a still greater reduction -when we turn from birds to mammals. Some mammals, -it is true, may live as long as birds. Elephants are a -good instance. It used to be thought that these giant -mammals could live three or four centuries, but I can find -no confirmation of the legend, which seems as mythical -as that relating to the life of swans. There are no exact -data as to the ages reached by wild elephants, but it has -been stated that in captivity an elephant rarely but occasionally -has completed its century. In zoological gardens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span> -and in good menageries, where elephants are well cared -for, they seldom live more than 20 to 25 years. Chevrette, -an African elephant presented to the Jardin des Plantes -by Mehemet Ali, in 1825, lived for only 30 years. In the -official list of the Indian Government, which gives the -deaths of elephants, it appears that of 138 examples, only -one lived more than 20 years after it had been purchased -(Brehm’s <cite>Mammals</cite>).</p> - -<p>Flourens, using his own formula, assigned the age of -150 years to elephants as their epiphyses do not fuse with -the long bones until the age of 30. So far, I know of no -fact to support the conclusion, although it seems fairly well -established that occasionally an elephant may reach a -century. It is stated that one elephant was in service -throughout the whole period of more than 140 years in -which Ceylon was occupied by the Dutch. This elephant -was found in the stables in 1656. Natives with special -knowledge of elephants set down their duration of life -as from 80 to 150 years, but say that they begin to grow -old at from 50 to 60 years of age. My general conclusion -from the facts is that the life of these very large mammals -is about the same as that of man who is very much -smaller.</p> - -<p>Centenarians, extremely rare amongst elephants, do not -appear to exist in any other kind of mammals except man. -The rhinoceros, another large mammal which is a native -of the same countries as the elephant, does not reach a -great age. According to Oustalet an Indian rhinoceros -died in the menagerie of the Paris Museum at about the -age of 25 years, and showed all the signs of senility. -Another Indian rhinoceros lived for 37 years in the London -Zoological Gardens. Grindon has stated his opinion that -the rhinoceros may live for 70 or 80 years, but this seems<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span> -rather an inference from the slowness of growth than a -statement of observed fact.</p> - -<p>Horses and cattle are large animals, but do not enjoy -very long lives. The usual duration of life in horses is -from 15 to 30 years. They begin to grow old about 10 -years, and in very rare cases may reach 40 or more. A -Welsh pony is said to have reached the age of sixty, but -such a case is excessively rare. Two other extreme cases -are that of a horse belonging to the Bishop of Metz which -died at the age of 50 years, and the charger of Field-Marshal -Lacy which died at 46.</p> - -<p>The duration of life of cattle is still shorter. Domestic -cattle show the first sign of age, a yellow discoloration -of the teeth, when five years old. In the sixteenth to -eighteenth year the teeth fall out, or break, and the cow -ceases to give milk, whilst the bull has lost reproductive -power. According to Brehm, cattle live for 25 to 30 years -or more. Although the duration of life is short, cattle -are not prolific. The gestation period of a cow approaches -that of the human race (242-287 days), and there is only -one birth a year. The total period of reproductivity lasts -only a few years.</p> - -<p>The sheep, another domesticated Ruminant, has a life -even shorter. According to Grindon, sheep do not live -longer than 12 years as a rule, but may reach 14 years, -which in their case would be extreme age, as they generally -lose their teeth at from 8 to 10 years.</p> - -<p>Some Ruminants, such as camels and deer, apparently -live longer than sheep or cattle, but I do not know exact -facts about them.</p> - -<p>The short life of domesticated carnivorous animals is -well known. Dogs seldom live more than 16 or 18 years, -and even before that, at an age of from 10 to 12, they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> -usually show plain signs of senility. Jonatt has mentioned -as an extreme rarity a dog of 22 years of age, and Sir E. -Ray Lankester (<cite>Comparative Longevity</cite>, p. 60) cites -another instance, in this case the age being 34 years. The -oldest dog that I have been able to procure died at the -age of 22.</p> - -<p>It is generally believed that cats do not live so long as -dogs. The average age which they may attain is usually -thought to be 10 or 12 years, but certainly a cat of that -age has not the decrepid appearance of an old dog. Thanks -to the kindness of M. Barrier, the Director of the Ecole -d’Alfort, I have had in my possession a cat 23 years old. -It appeared to be quite vigorous, and died from cancer -in the liver.</p> - -<p>Most rodents, particularly the domesticated kinds, are -extremely prolific and very short lived. It is extremely -rare for a rabbit to reach the age of 10 years, whilst 7 -years is the utmost limit for a guinea-pig. Mice, so far -as I can ascertain, do not live more than 5 or 6 years.</p> - -<p>It is plain from the facts that I have brought together, -that mammals, whether they are large or small, as a rule, -have shorter lives than birds. It is probable, therefore, -that there is something in the structure of mammals which -has brought about a shortening in the duration of their -lives.</p> - -<p>Whilst most of the lower vertebrates, and all birds, -reproduce by laying eggs, the vast majority of mammals -are viviparous. As the tax on the parent organism is -greater when the young are produced alive than when -eggs are laid, it might be thought that in this difference -lay the cause of the shorter life of mammals. It is well -known that an animal may be made feeble by too great -fecundity, and it is conceivable that the kind of parasitic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span> -life of the embryos within the body of the mother may -weaken her system.</p> - -<p>There are many facts, however, which make it impossible -to accept such a view. The longevity of mammals -is nearly equal in the two sexes, although the tax on the -organism caused by reproduction is much greater in the -case of females than in males. Longevity, however, -cannot be regarded as a character stable in each species -and necessarily identical in the two sexes. The animal -kingdom presents many cases of disparity in this respect, -the difference in longevity in the two sexes being specially -striking in species of insects. Generally, the females live -longer than the males, as, for instance, amongst the Strepsiptera, -where the females have 64 times the duration of -life of the males. On the other hand, amongst butterflies, -there are cases (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Aglia tau</i>) where the males live longer -than the females. In the human race, there is a difference -in the longevity of the sexes, the females having the -advantage.</p> - -<p>As in most cases of disparity in the duration of life the -female lives longer than the male, it is plain that the difference -cannot be assigned to the drain on the organism -caused by reproduction, which, of course, is much greater -in females.</p> - -<p>Moreover, a closer scrutiny of the facts shows that -although mammals do not live so long as birds, the reproductive -drain is greater in the case of birds.</p> - -<p>It is well known that the productivity of an animal is -not necessarily identical with its fecundity. Fish or frogs -which lay thousands of eggs at a time (a pike, for example, -produces 130,000) are obviously more prolific than, for -instance, a sparrow which lays only 18 eggs in a year, -or than a rabbit, which in the same time gives birth to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span> -from 25 to 50. However, to produce this much smaller -quantity of eggs or of young, the sparrow and the rabbit -(I have chosen the most prolific bird and mammal) expend -a much larger quantity of material than the frog or the -fish. The sparrow and the rabbit employ in producing -their progeny a bulk of material greater than the weight -of their body, whilst the enormous quantity of eggs laid -by the frog does not weigh more than one-seventh part of -the body of the frog. It may be laid down, as a general -rule, that although fecundity, that is to say the number -of eggs or of young which are produced, diminishes as -the organism becomes more complex, the productivity on -the other hand increases, expressed in percentage of weight. -The productivity, which is not more than 18 per cent. in -batrachia, reaches 50 per cent. in reptiles, 74 per cent. -in mammals, and 82 per cent. in birds.</p> - -<p>It is plain that if reproduction shortens the life of -mammals by weakening the organism, it must be the -productivity, not the fecundity, which is the important -factor. I have just shown that productivity is greater in -birds than in mammals, and in consequence it cannot be -on account of any greater burden of reproduction that -mammals have a shorter life than birds. The shortness -of mammalian life, again, cannot be attributed to the fact -that mammals give birth to young, whilst the long-lived -reptiles and birds produce eggs, because the longevity of -the males, which produce neither young nor eggs, is none -the less practically equal to that of the females of the same -species. The reason of the short life of mammals must -be sought for elsewhere.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND SENILITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Relations between longevity and the structure of the digestive -system—The Cæca in birds—The large intestine of mammals—Function -of the large intestine—The intestinal microbes -and their agency in producing auto-intoxication and auto-infection -in the organism—Passage of microbes through the -intestinal wall</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">We</span> have seen that the duration of life in mammals is -relatively shorter than that in birds, and in the so-called -“cold-blooded” vertebrates. No indication as to the cause -of this difference can be found in the structure of the organs -of circulation, respiration, or urinary secretion, or in the -nervous or sexual apparatus. The key to the problem is -to be found in the organs of digestion.</p> - -<p>In reviewing the anatomical structure of the digestive -apparatus in the vertebrate series, one soon comes to the -striking fact that mammals are the only group in which the -large intestine is much developed. In fish, the large intestine -is the least important part of the digestive tube, being -little wider in calibre than the small intestine. Amongst -batrachia, where it is a relatively wide sack, it has begun -to assume some importance. In several reptiles it is still -larger, and may be provided with a lateral out-growth, -which is to be regarded as a cæcum. In birds, the large -intestine still remains relatively badly developed; it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> -short and straight. In most birds, at the point where the -large intestine passes into the small intestine, there is a -pair of cæca, more or less developed. These cæca are -absent in climbing birds, such as the wood-pecker, the -oriole, and many others. They are reduced to a pair of -tiny outgrowths in the eagles, sparrow-hawks, and other -diurnal birds of prey, and in pigeons, and perching birds. -These organs are larger in the nocturnal birds of prey, in -gallinaceous birds, and in ducks, etc.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a></p> - -<p>In the large running birds, such as ostriches, rheas, and -tinamous, the cæca are relatively largest. Thus, for -instance, in a rhea (<i>Rhea americana</i>) which I dissected, the -cæca were nearly two-thirds as long as the small intestine. -The latter was 1·65 m. in length, whereas one of the cæca -was 1·01 m., and the other 0·95 m. The weight of the -two cæca with their contents was more than 10 per cent. -of the total weight of the bird.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the exceptions, which are relatively -rare, the large intestine is badly developed in the case -of birds. On the other hand, it reaches its largest size -amongst mammals. In these animals, “only the posterior -portion of the latter, or rectum, which passes into the -pelvic cavity, corresponds to the large intestine of -lower Vertebrates; the remaining, and far larger part, -must be looked upon as a neomorph, and is called the -colon.”<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a></p> - -<p>Gegenbaur,<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> another well-known authority on compara<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>tive -anatomy, writes as follows on this subject:—“The -hind-gut is longest in the Mammalia, where it forms the -large intestine, and is distinguished as such, from the -mid-gut, or small intestine. Owing to its greater length, -it is arranged in coils, so that the terminal portion only -has the straight course taken by the hind-gut of other -Vertebrata.”</p> - -<p>The two series of facts are not to be disputed. On the -one hand mammals are shorter lived than birds and lower -vertebrates, on the other hand the large intestine is much -longer in them than in any other vertebrates. Is there -here any link of causality, binding the two characters, or -is it a mere coincidence?</p> - -<p>To answer the question we must turn to the function of -the large intestine in vertebrates. In the lower members -of the group (fish, batrachia, reptiles, birds, etc.), the -large intestine is not more than a mere reservoir for the -waste matter in the food. It takes no share in digestion, -as that is the function of the stomach and the small intestine. -Only the cæcum can be thought to have some -digestive property. In reptiles, the lowest vertebrates in -which the cæcum is present, it is so little differentiated -from the large intestine itself, that it is difficult to assign -to it any specialised function. In very many birds, however, -the cæca are well separated from the main digestive -tube. The food material passes into them in considerable -quantities, and is retained there sufficiently long -for some digestive process to take place. M. Maumus -has found, in the cæca of birds, secretions which can dissolve -albumen and invert sugar cane, but he has been -unable to make out that the cæcal juice has any action -upon fatty matter. Such digestive power, however, is -slight, and when M. Maumus removed the cæca in fowls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span> -and ducks, no evil consequences followed. As in many -birds the cæca are rudimentary and in others absent, it -may be inferred that these organs are useless, and are -in process of degeneration in the class. The cæca can -be regarded as playing an important part in the organism -only in the case of large running birds, where they are -very highly developed, but we have not precise information -as to their digestive function.</p> - -<p>The variations in the structure in the large intestine -are greater in mammals than in birds. In some mammals, -the large intestine is a simple prolongation of the small -intestine, similar in calibre and in structure. In these conditions -it may fulfil a definite digestive function. Th. -Eimer<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> has determined that in insectivorous bats the -large intestine digests insects like the small intestine. -Such cases, however, are rare. In most mammals the -large intestine is sharply separated from the small intestine -by a valve, and opens directly into the cæcum which -may be very large. In the horse, the cæcum is an enormous -bag, cylindrical and tapering, generally well filled, and -holding on an average 35 litres. It is equally large in -many other herbivorous animals, such as the tapir, the -elephant, and most rodents. In such cases, the food -remains for a considerable time in the organ and without -doubt undergoes some digestive changes. In many other -mammals, particularly carnivorous forms, the cæcum may -be quite absent, whilst in some, as for instance, the cat -and dog, it is very small; in the latter cases its digestive -function must be non-existent or insignificant.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p> - -<p>As for the large intestine itself, apart from the special -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span>cases, such as bats, it cannot fulfil any notable digestive -function. Th. Eimer was unable to find a proof of any -such action in rats and mice, and the very many investigations -that have been made in the case of man seem to -have established the absence of digestive power in the -colon.</p> - -<p>Dr. Stragesco,<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> in a recent investigation carried out -under the direction of the famous Russian physiologist -Pawloff, established that, in normal conditions, digestion -and assimilation of food are confined almost exclusively to -the small intestine in mammals, and that the large intestine -plays only the smallest part. It is only in certain -diseases of the digestive tract, in which, on account of -increased peristaltic action, the contents of the intestine -with the digestive juices are passed quickly from the small -intestine to the large intestine, that some digestive work is -done in the latter organ.</p> - -<p>The large intestine (excluding the cæcum), then, cannot -be regarded as an organ of digestion, although absorption -of the liquids which have been formed in the -small intestine, may take place within its walls. It is -known that in the large intestine the contents of the gut -give up their water and assume the solid form of fæcal -matter. However, whilst the mucous membrane of the -large intestine rapidly absorbs water, it has not a similar -action on other substances.</p> - -<p>The question of the extent to which the large intestine -can absorb has been closely investigated, because of its -practical importance. It sometimes happens that invalids -cannot take food by the mouth, so that their life would be -in danger if it were not possible to supply them with food -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span>otherwise. Attempts have been made to inject nutritive -substances through the skin, or, and this is a more usual -procedure, by the rectum. By such means the organism -can be kept alive for a certain time, but the absorbing -power of the large intestine is extremely small. According -to Czerny and Lautschenberger<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> the entire colon of -the human being can absorb no more than 6 grammes of -albumen in 24 hours, an amount which, from the point of -view of nutrition, is very small. It was thought that the -large intestine might more rapidly absorb albuminous -material which had been previously digested and transformed -to peptones, but the experiments of Ewald<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> showed -that even in that case the absorption was very small. -According to more recent experiments of Heile,<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> carried -out upon dogs which had cæcal fistulas, and in the case -of a man who had an artificial aperture in the colon, the -large intestine does not absorb undigested white of egg, -and absorbs water, cane sugar, and glucose only very imperfectly. -The only substances which are rapidly absorbed -through the wall of the colon are the alkaline fluids -from fæcal matter. It is possible, however, to nourish -invalids by rectal injections of certain nutritious substances, -the most important of which is milk.<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p> - -<p>The large intestine, which has really very slight digestive -properties and cannot absorb any considerable bulk -of nutriment, is an organ which secretes mucus. The -latter serves to moisten the solid fæcal material, so aiding -in its expulsion.</p> - -<p>We must conclude, therefore, that the large intestine, -the organ so highly developed in mammals, is an apparatus -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>the general function of which is the preparation and elimination -of the waste products of digestion. Why should -such an organ be so much more developed in mammals -than in the other vertebrates?</p> - -<p>In answer to the question, I have formed the theory that -the large intestine has been increased in mammals to make -it possible for these animals to run long distances without -having to stand still for defæcation. The organ, then, -would simply have the function of a reservoir of waste -matter.</p> - -<p>Batrachia and reptiles lead a very idle life, and can move -slowly, sometimes because they are protected by poison -(toads, salamanders, serpents), sometimes because they -have a very hard shell (turtles), sometimes because they -are extremely powerful (crocodiles). Mammals, on the -other hand, have to move very actively to catch their prey, -or to escape from their enemies. Such activity has -become possible because of the high development of the -limbs, and because the capacity of the large intestine makes -possible the accumulation of waste matter for a considerable -time.</p> - -<p>In order to void the contents of the intestines, mammals -have to stand still and assume some particular position. -Each act of this kind is a definite risk in the struggle for -existence. A carnivorous mammal which, in the process -of hunting its prey, had to stop from time to time, would -be inferior to one which could pursue its course without -pausing. So, also, a herbivorous mammal, escaping from -an enemy by flight, would have the better chance of surviving -the less it was necessary for it to stand still.</p> - -<p>According to such a view, the extreme development of -the large intestine would supply a real want in the struggle -for existence. M. Yves Delage,<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> the well-known biologist, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span>is unable to accept this hypothesis. He thinks that the -rectal enlargement would fulfil the purpose, and adds that -everyone has seen herbivorous animals pass their excretions -whilst running. The rectum of mammals, however, -cannot serve as a reservoir for waste matter, because as soon -as such matter reaches the rectum it excites the need of -excretion. The waste matter accumulates in the large intestine, -from which it passes into the rectum at intervals. -When it has reached that region, a sensation is caused -which leads to defæcation.</p> - -<p>M. Delage is not quite definite when he speaks of -mammals voiding their excretions whilst they are in -motion. A horse, harnessed to a vehicle, may defæcate -whilst it is walking or even running slowly. But these -animals cannot defæcate when in rapid motion, and competent -observers state that horses never do so whilst racing. -In zoological gardens, where animals have room to run -about, they stand still before emptying the rectum. M. -Ch. Debreuil, who keeps antelopes in a very large park -at Melun, has noticed that the excreta are always to be -found in masses and not scattered about as if they had been -discharged by animals in motion. Antelopes, which are -animals that run and leap extremely actively, have to come -to a standstill before discharging their small pellets of -deer-like excreta.</p> - -<p>In the struggle for existence, when a mammal is pursuing -its prey or escaping its enemy, there is no question of the -leisurely movement of a horse harnessed to an omnibus or -cab, but the greatest possible activity is necessary. In -such circumstances the possession of an organ within which -the excreta could accumulate would be of real importance. -My theory of the origin of the mammalian large intestine -is intrinsically probable.</p> - -<p>Although the capacity of the large intestine may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> -preserve a mammal in emergencies, it is attended with -disadvantages that may shorten the actual duration of life.</p> - -<p>The accumulation of waste matter, retained in the large -intestine for considerable periods, becomes a nidus for -microbes which produce fermentations and putrefaction -harmful to the organism. Although our knowledge of -the subject is far from complete, it is certain that the intestinal -flora contains some microbes which damage health, -either by multiplying in the organism, or by poisoning it -with their secretions. Most of our knowledge on this -matter has come from the study of human patients.</p> - -<p>Persons have been known who do not defæcate except -at intervals of several days, and who, none the less, do not -seem to suffer in health. But the opposite result is more -common. The retention of fæcal matter for several days -very often brings harmful consequences. Organisms -which are in a feeble state from some other cause are specially -susceptible to damage of the kind referred to. Infants -are frequently seriously ill as the result of constipation. -Dr. du Pasquier<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> describes such cases in the following -words:—“The infant is leaden in hue, with sunken eyes, -dilated pupils, and pinched nostrils. The temperature may -reach nearly 104° Fahr.; the pulse is rapid, feeble, and often -irregular. Restlessness, insomnia, sometimes convulsions, -stiffness of the neck and strabism show that the nervous -system is being poisoned by toxins, and even collapse may -be reached. The foul and dry tongue, the vomiting and -fetid discharges show the disturbance of the digestive tract. -Very often an eruption appears, as described by Hutinel, -chiefly on the back and buttocks, the front of the thighs and -fore-arms.” The illness may lead to death but is generally -cured by simple purging.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span></p> -<p>Women in pregnancy and child-birth frequently suffer -much as the result of retention of fæcal matter, and -physicians are familiar with the symptoms, which have -been described as follows by M. Bouchet<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a>:—“After -normal parturition, in the course of which the usual antiseptic -precautions have been fully pursued, and where -delivery has been complete and natural, occasionally the -patient is seized with chill and headache. The breath is -fetid and the tongue foul. The temperature, taken in the -axilla, is nearly 101° Fahr. The abdomen is inflated and -painful in the umbilical region. Palpation in the iliac -fossæ reveals lumps or consolidations along the colon. -Thirst is intense, and there is complete anorexy. On questioning, -it is found that there has not been defæcation for -several days. The treatment consists of purgatives, -enemas, and milk diet. In the next few days the bowels -are emptied freely, the abdominal pain ceases, the temperature -becomes lower, appetite is restored, and the patient -recovers.”</p> - -<p>Those who suffer from affections of the heart, liver, or -kidneys are specially susceptible to the evil results of retained -fæcal matter. In such patients an error of diet or -constipation may bring about most serious consequences.</p> - -<p>Such facts are well known to physicians, and it has been -established that complete emptying of the lower bowels -leads at once to favourable symptoms. From the other -side, it has been shown by experiment that artificial retention -of the fæces by ligature of the rectum puts the body -in a grave condition.</p> - -<p>If we collect our knowledge of all the facts, we cannot -doubt but that the cause of the evil is multiplication of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span>microbes in the contents of the large intestine. When the -fæcal matter is free from microbes, as is the case with the -meconium of the fœtus or new-born infant, it is not a -source of danger to the organism. The waste of cells and -the secretions which are added to the undigested food -cannot do any harm. Amongst the microbes of the gut, -there are some that are inoffensive, but others are known to -have pernicious properties.</p> - -<p>The ill-health which follows retention of fæcal matter is -certainly due to the action of some of the microbes of the -gut. There are difficulties, however, in determining the -precise mode of action of these microbes. It is generally -believed that they form poisonous substances which are -absorbed by the walls of the intestine and so pass into the -system. The phrase auto-intoxication as applied to infants, -women in labour, and patients affected with diseases -of the heart, liver, or kidneys, is based on this interpretation -of the morbid processes involved. Attempts have been -made to isolate and study the poisons in question, but there -are many difficulties in the way. To distinguish between the -actions of the poisons and of the microbes themselves, the -latter have been destroyed by heat or by antiseptics, or been -removed by filtration. Such methods, however, may alter -the poisons and so are inconclusive. MM. Charron and -Le Play<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> have tried to obtain exact results by heating the -intestinal microbes to a temperature of about 136° Fahr., a -process which probably does not seriously deteriorate the -microbial poisons. Such material, injected into the veins -of rabbits in large quantities, rapidly produced death, or in -smaller quantities, proportionate ill-health.</p> - -<p>Kukula<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> has tried to produce this toxic action in animals, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span>employing microbial secretions obtained from cases of intestinal -obstruction. He succeeded in producing serious -symptoms, such as vomiting and curvature of the neck -and back, in fact, precisely the sequence of events familiar -in cases of obstruction of the bowels or other retentions of -fæcal matter.</p> - -<p>Some of the products of the intestinal flora are undoubtedly -toxic, such as the benzol derivatives (phenol, -etc.) ammonium and other salts. Many of these toxins -have been insufficiently studied, but it is well known that -certain of them can be absorbed by the wall of the gut and -act as poisons. A well known case is the toxin of botulism -which was isolated and studied by M. van Ermenghem.<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> -The poison, the product of a microbe which causes serious -intestinal disturbance, is so fatal that a single drop given -to a rabbit produces death after symptoms similar to those -observed in cases of human beings poisoned by stale food. -Butyric acid and the products of albuminous putrefaction -are amongst the most pernicious of the microbial poisons -produced in the large intestine. It is familiar that digestive -disturbance is frequently associated with discharges of -sulphuretted hydrogen and putrid excreta, and there is no -doubt but that the microbes of putrefaction are the cause of -these symptoms.</p> - -<p>It has been assumed for long that the retention of fæcal -matter tends to putrefactive changes in the intestines, and -that the evil consequences of constipation are due to this. -Recently, however, bacteriologists have criticised this -accepted view, on account of the small number of microbes -found in the excreta of constipated persons. Strasburger -was the first to establish the fact, and his associate, Schmidt, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>showed that putrefaction did not follow when readily putrescible -substances were infected with material taken from -cases of constipation. However, notwithstanding the -exactness of these facts, I cannot accept the inference which -has been drawn from them. The excreta discharged -naturally in cases of constipation do not give a correct -indication of the conditions inside the gut; whilst such -matter contains few microbes, the substance removed after -injection by an enema is extremely rich in bacteria. Moreover, -analysis of the urine, in cases of constipation, shows -an excess of the sulpho-conjugate ethers which are -known to be products of intestinal putrefaction.</p> - -<p>Not only is there auto-intoxication from the microbial -poisons absorbed in cases of constipation, but microbes -themselves may pass through the walls of the intestine and -enter the blood. In the maladies that are the result of -constipation some of the symptoms recall those of direct -infection, and it is highly probable that, if special investigations -were made, microbes of intestinal origin would be -found in the blood of the sick children and the pregnant -or parturient women whose symptoms I have described -above.</p> - -<p>The question as to the passage of microbes through the -intestinal walls is one of the most controversial of bacteriological -problems, and there is little agreement in the numerous -publications regarding it. None the less, it is far from -impossible to get a general idea of what goes on in an -intestinal tract richly charged with microbes.</p> - -<p>Although the intestinal wall in an intact state offers a -substantial obstacle to the passage of bacteria, it is incontestable -that some of these pass through it into the organs -and the blood. Numerous experiments performed on different -kinds of animals (horses, dogs, rabbits, etc.) show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span> -that some of the microbes taken with food traverse the wall -of the alimentary canal and come to occupy the adjacent -lymphatic glands, the lungs, the spleen and the liver, -whilst they are occasionally found in the blood and lymph. -Discussion has taken place as to whether the passage takes -place when the wall of the gut is absolutely intact or only -when it is injured to however small an extent. It would -be extremely difficult to settle the question definitely, but -it is easy to see that it has little practical bearing. It is -known that the wall of the gut is damaged extremely -easily, so that the bluntest sound can hardly be passed into -the stomach without making a wound through which -microbes can pass into the tissues and blood. In the -ordinary course of life, the delicate wall of the gut must -often undergo slight wounding, and the frequent presence -of microbes in the mesenteric ganglia of healthy animals -shows clearly what takes place.<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p> - -<p>It is indubitable, therefore, that the intestinal microbes -or their poisons may reach the system generally and bring -harm to it. I infer from the facts that the more a digestive -tract is charged with microbes, the more it is a source of -harm capable of shortening life.</p> - -<p>As the large intestine not only is the part of the digestive -tube most richly charged with microbes, but is relatively -more capacious in mammals than in any other vertebrates, -it is a just inference that the duration of life of mammals -has been notably shortened as the result of chronic poisoning -from an abundant intestinal flora.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span></p> - -<h3>IV<br /><br /> - -<small><small>MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF SENILITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Relations between longevity and the intestinal flora—Ruminants—The -Horse—Intestinal flora of birds—Intestinal -flora of cursorial birds—Duration of life in cursorial birds—Flying -mammals—Intestinal flora and longevity of bats—Some -exceptions to the rule—Resistance of the lower vertebrates -to certain intestinal microbes</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the actual state of our knowledge it is impossible to -make a final examination of my hypothesis, as there are -many factors about which we are incompletely informed. -Nevertheless, it is possible to confront the hypothesis with -a large number of accurately established facts.</p> - -<p>Although the life of most mammals is relatively short, -there are to be found in the group some which live relatively -long, as well as others whose life is short. The -elephant is an example of the long-lived mammals, whilst -ruminants are short-lived forms. In the last chapter, I -stated that sheep and cattle became senile at an early age, -and did not live long. They are striking exceptions to the -rule according to which the duration of life is in direct relation -with the size and length of the period of growth. The -cow, which is much larger than a woman, and the time of -gestation of which is about the same, or a little longer, -acquires its teeth at four years old, and becomes senile at an -early age; it is quite old at between sixteen and seventeen,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> -an age when a woman is hardly adult; at the age of thirty, -practically the extreme limit for bovine animals, a woman is -in full vigour.</p> - -<p>The precocious old age of ruminants, the constitution of -which is well understood, and which are carefully tended, -coincides with an extraordinary richness of the intestinal -flora. Food remains for a long time in the complicated -stomach of these animals, and afterwards the digested -masses remain still longer in the large intestine. According -to Stohmann and Weiske,<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> in the case of sheep it is a -week until the remains of a particular meal have finally -left the body of the animal. The excreta of sheep, normally -solid, do not betray any special putrefaction in the intestine, -but if the body is opened there is abundant evidence -of the process. The intestinal contents are richly charged -with microbes and give off a strong odour of putrefaction. -It is not surprising that under these conditions, the life of -sheep should be short.</p> - -<p>Another large herbivorous animal, the horse, also dies -young, after a premature old age. Although it does not -ruminate and possesses a simple stomach, the process of -digestion is slow, and enormous masses of nutritive material -accumulate in the huge large intestine. Ellenberger -and Hofmeister<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> have shown that food remains in the -alimentary canal for nearly four days. It remains in the -stomach and the small intestine only 24 hours, but about -three times as long in the large intestine. This is remarkably -different from what happens in the case of birds, in -which there is no stagnation during the passage of food -through the digestive canal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span></p> - -<p>The structure of birds is adapted for flight, the body -being as light as possible, many of the bones and the -cavities of the body containing air-sacs. The absence of a -bladder and of a true large intestine prevents the accumulation -of excreta, these being ejected almost as rapidly as -they are formed. The process of ejection, which takes -place often in birds, is not so inconvenient as in mammals. -The hind limbs are not used in flight, so that they offer -no obstacle to evacuation. Thus birds may discharge their -droppings while flying.</p> - -<p>Such structure and habits make it not surprising that -the alimentary canal of many birds contains only a scanty -intestinal flora. Parrots, for instance, which are remarkably -long-lived birds, harbour very few microbes in the -intestine. The small intestine contains almost none, the -rectum so few that the fæcal matter appears to be formed -of mucus, the waste of the food, and only a very few -microbes. M. Michel Cohendy, who has examined the intestinal -flora at the Pasteur Institute, was unable to isolate -more than five different species of microbes living in the -alimentary canal of parrots.</p> - -<p>Even in birds of prey which feed upon putrid flesh, the -number of microbes in the intestine is remarkably limited. -I have investigated the case of ravens which I fed on flesh -which was putrid and swarming with microbes. The droppings -contained very few bacteria, and it was specially -remarkable that the intestines had not the slightest smell of -putrefaction. Although the opened body of a herbivorous -mammal, such as a rabbit, gives off a strong smell of putrefaction, -the body of a raven with the digestive tube exposed -has no unpleasant smell. This absence of putrefaction in -the intestine is probably the reason of the great longevity -of such birds as parrots, ravens, and their allies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span></p> - -<p>It might be said, however, that the long duration of life -in birds is due to the organisation of these animals, rather -than to the scantiness of their intestinal flora. To meet -this objection, it is necessary to turn to the case of cursorial -birds.</p> - -<p>There are some birds incapable of flight, the wings of -which are badly developed, but which have strong limbs, -and can run with great rapidity. Ostriches, cassowaries, -rheas, and tinamous, are well known examples of cursorial -birds. They live on the surface of the ground, and their -habits resemble those of mammals. When they are -attacked by enemies, they escape by running so quickly -that some of them (ostriches and rheas) outstrip even a -horse. However, like mammals, they cannot discharge -their secretions when they are running quickly. Tinamous -(<i>Rhynchotus rufescens</i>), which I have observed in captivity, -however quickly they may be running, stop abruptly to -discharge their excretions. M. Debreuil, at my request, -made observations on this matter, and assured me that the -tinamous and rheas (<i>Rhea americana</i>) in his park always -stood still for this purpose. He has noticed that the droppings, -however abundant, were always deposited in heaps. -With regard to ostriches, M. Rivière, director of the experimental -Gardens at Hamma, Algeria, has been kind enough -to give me the following information. “The discharge of -excreta,” he said in a letter in January, 1901, “is less -frequent than in other birds, but the comparatively small -size of the enclosures here makes it impossible for me to -assert that the animal could discharge its droppings if it -were running for a length of time; <em>a priori</em> I should think -that this did not happen. Normally the bird stands still -for defæcation, the tuft of feathers on the tail is lifted up, -and there is a violent contraction of the abdominal muscles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> -before the sphincters of the cloaca are suddenly opened to -discharge the excrement with violence.”</p> - -<p>I believe that the remarkable development of the large -intestine in these running birds has been acquired to obviate -the danger which is caused by the animal having to stop for -defæcation. Although the huge cæca of these birds have -a digestive function, particularly on plants rich in cellulose, -I cannot think that the cæca of cursorial birds have been -developed for digestion. As a matter of fact, some birds -which are not cursorial live on the same kind of food -(herbage, seeds, and insects) and have much smaller -cæca, the cæca indeed, in some, for instance, the pigeons, -being quite rudimentary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f14" id="f14"></a> -<img src="images/i_p077.jpg" width="300" height="185" alt="Intestinal microbes from the cæca of a Rhea." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14.—Intestinal microbes from the cæca of a Rhea.</p></div> - -<p>It is not surprising that the accumulation of food material -in the large intestine of running birds is associated with -the presence of an extremely rich intestinal flora. Microscopic -examination of the excrement of such birds shows -this at once. Although the intestinal contents and excrement -of many other birds show the presence of very few -microbes, belonging to a small number of species, the same -materials taken from running birds show enormous quantities -of microbes, belonging to a large number of species. -In the cæcum of the rhea (Fig. <a href="#f14">14</a>) there are bacterial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> -threads, spirilla, bacilli, vibrios, and many kinds of cocci. -In the tinamous, the intestinal flora is if possible even -richer. According to the statistical investigations of M. -Michel Cohendy, the quantity of intestinal microbes in -cursorial birds is not less than that found in mammals, even -in man.</p> - -<p>If I am correct in the view that I have been explaining, -cursorial birds, on account of their rich intestinal flora, -ought to have a shorter duration of life than that of flying -birds. I will now turn to this side of the question. Amongst -cursorial forms, there are some of the largest living birds, -ostriches being actually the largest living birds, whilst an -extinct running bird, the <i>Aepyornis</i> of Madagascar, was -the largest known bird. According to the rule that large -animals live longer than small animals, ostriches should be -able to reach a great age. The facts, however, are against -this. M. Rivière, who rears ostriches in Algeria, and has -a great experience of them, writes to me as follows: “I -have no confidence in the stories about the longevity of the -ostrich which were told me in the Sahara; they rest on no -facts. My personal observation is not very large, but it is -quite exact. Some of the ostriches which have been hatched -here have lived for 26 years. I do not estimate the duration -of life of this bird at more than 35 years, and only one case -of this age have I seen myself in 20 years. The bird was -a female, a good layer and sitter; she died of old age, -showing all the signs of decrepitude, the skin excoriated -and lumpy, the feathers degenerate and dry. The bird laid -eggs until nearly the end of her life, but at irregular intervals, -and the shells were granular instead of being smooth -and polished.”</p> - -<p>In a farm near Nice, where ostriches are reared, there was -recently an old male called “Kruger,” which was supposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span> -to be 50 years old.<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> Countess Stackelberg has been good -enough to try to get information for me about this, and -informs me that although they have not exact knowledge -at the farm, they believe that it must be 50 years old. -M. Rivière thinks this statement very surprising, and has -nothing in his own long experience to confirm it.</p> - -<p>The facts which I have been able to get together do not -attribute a long life to other running birds. Gurney mentions -that a cassowary (<i>Casuarius westermanni</i>) lived 26 -years in the Zoological Gardens of Rotterdam, and that -three Australian emus (<i>Dromaeus novae-hollandiae</i>) had -lived in the same Gardens for 28, 22, and 20 years. M. -Oustalet (<i>Ornis</i>, 1899, vol. x, p. 62) mentions another -emu of the same species which died in London at the age of -over 23 years. The rhea (<i>Rhea americana</i>), another large -running bird, does not live so long. “Boecking thinks -that its duration of life should be set down at from 14 to 15 -years. According to him, many of these birds die of old -age.” (Brehm, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Oiseaux</cite>, vol. ii, p. 517).</p> - -<p>It is striking to compare the short life of cursorial birds, -which nevertheless thrive and reproduce in captivity, with -the remarkable longevity of so many other birds (parrots, -birds of prey) which, although they are much smaller, -have been kept alive for from 80 to 100 years. It would be -difficult to find a more striking argument in favour of the -view that richness of the intestinal flora shortens life. When -birds become adapted to terrestrial life and acquire a huge -large intestine in which microbes can abound, their duration -of life is diminished.</p> - -<p>Just as some birds, losing the aerial mode of life, have -come to resemble mammals, so also some mammals have -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span>become flying animals, provided with wings and in some -respects resembling birds. Bats are the most familiar instance. -The large intestine, which is extremely useful to -running animals, not only ceases to be an advantage but is -harmful to flying creatures, insomuch as it increases the -weight of the body uselessly. Bats, accordingly, have no -cæcum whilst the large intestine is changed in structure -and function. Instead of being a capacious tube, serving -as a reservoir for the refuse of the food, the large intestine -of bats has the same diameter as the small intestine. Its -structure is nearly identical. It is provided with glands, -and as I have already mentioned in the last chapter, it -digests the food in the same way as the small intestine. -In fact, the large intestine has become simply a part of the -small intestine, the total length of the gut being reduced. -Bats, therefore, can no longer retain their secretions but -have to empty the intestine almost as often as most birds. -I find that Indian fruit bats (<i>Pteropus medius</i>) discharge -their excreta very often. Microscopic examination shows -that there is an absence of microbes quite unusual in the -case of a mammal. The alimentary canal of bats is nearly -aseptic, containing only a few single bacteria. I have fed -these fruit bats with the same food (carrots) which I have -given to rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice; whilst the bats -accomplished the process of digestion in 1-1/2 hours, and -deposited excreta containing fragments of carrot, the -rodents took very much longer for digestion and large -quantities of waste matter accumulated in the cæca. The -intestinal flora too, although the food in each case was the -same, showed remarkable differences in these animals. It -was almost absent in the bats, whilst in the rabbits, guinea-pigs -and mice it consisted of a mass of microbes of different -species. The excrement of the bats had no unpleasant odour, -and the digestive canal of these bird-like mammals was free<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> -from putrefaction. Fruit bats fed upon fruit discharged -excreta with a pleasant odour of apples and bananas. We -have seen that birds which live a life similar to that of -mammals acquire a rich intestinal flora and do not live so -long as aerial birds. It would be extremely interesting to -ascertain the duration of life of bats, mammals which live -like birds and have a very scanty intestinal flora. I have -been unable to get any exact information as to the duration -of life of the true bats, that is to say, the insectivorous -bats, as all the requests that I have addressed to specialists -have proved fruitless. It appears, however, that it is a -popular belief that bats live long. There is a Flemish -phrase: “as long-lived as a bat,” and a similar phrase is -common in Little Russia.</p> - -<p>As for the fruit-eating bats, I have been able to ascertain -that even in captivity, where the conditions are unfavourable -to them, the duration of life is relatively long. I have had -in my own possession a fruit bat (<i>Pteropus medius</i>) which -was bought in Marseilles 14 years ago. It showed no signs -of old age, and the teeth were in perfect condition. It died -of some acute disease accidentally contracted. I know of -another bat of the same species which lived in captivity for -more than 15 years, and I have been informed that<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> in the -London Zoological Gardens, a fruit bat has lived for 17 -years. If these bats were adult when caught, it would be -necessary to add something to the known figures.</p> - -<p>Although I do not know the exact duration of the life of -bats, it is clearly relatively long for mammals no bigger -than guinea-pigs. The difference is remarkable if we compare -it with the life of sheep, dogs and rabbits, mammals -very much larger in size, but possessed of a rich intestinal -flora.</p> - -<p>The series of facts that I have been discussing strengthens -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>my conviction that the intestinal flora is an extremely important -factor in the causation of senility. It must not be -supposed, however, that all the known facts can be explained -equally easily on this hypothesis. The harm done -by microbes cannot always be measured by their abundance -in the alimentary canal. In the first place, it must be -remembered that some microbes are useful; moreover, -microbes, even although their products are very dangerous, -may exist in quantities in an organism, and yet do no harm -if the organism has the power of resisting bacterial poisons. -Thus, for instance, the bacillus of tetanus, which thrives in -the alimentary canal, and which can endanger life if the -wall of the gut is wounded, does not harm a crocodile or a -tortoise, as these animals are extremely resistant to the -poison of tetanus. Dr. Favorsky, by experiments at the -Pasteur Institute, has shown that the poison of botulism -can be absorbed with impunity by some birds, and by tortoises, -although death follows if a very small quantity of it -be introduced into the alimentary canal of a mammal.</p> - -<p>The bodies of man and of higher animals are possessed -of a complex mechanism which resists the harmful action of -bacteria and their poisons. The various parts of this -mechanism may act differently, with the result that there is -great variation in the power of resistance. Thus, however -abundant microbes may be in the intestine, they may bring -little harm to an organism that has a high power of destruction -or neutralisation of the toxins, or when these harmful -products are unable to pass through the intestinal wall. It -is in this way that I explain some exceptions to the general -rule, which are exceptions only in appearance. Such a case -is that of the nocturnal birds of prey. Although the diurnal -birds of prey (eagles, vultures, etc.) have very short cæca, -in which the food is never found, owls have very large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> -cæca, which may be as long as 10 cm. (Eagle-Owl, <i>Bubo -maximus</i>). These long cæca, however, contain debris of -the food only in the enlarged terminal portion, and the -food masses contain a very small number of microbes. -Notwithstanding a great difference in the length of the cæca -between the owls and the eagles, these two groups of birds -do not differ greatly in longevity. But the difference in the -cæca does not imply a corresponding difference in the intestinal -flora which appears to be very scanty in both cases.</p> - -<p>It is possible that the elephant is a more real exception to -the rule. Here is a case of a mammal with an enormous -large intestine and a capacious cæcum, and which none the -less is capable of surviving for a century. I have had no -opportunity of investigating the elephant from this point -of view, and have no explanation to suggest.</p> - -<p>Monkeys and man differ from most mammals in so far as -they possess a long duration of life, although their large -intestines are very capacious. I have been unable to get -exact information as to the longevity of monkeys, but I -understand that these animals live longer than domesticated -mammals, such as the ox, sheep, dog, and cat. Anthropoid -apes are supposed to be able to reach the age of 50 -years. The only other mammal with a longevity similar -to that of the elephant is man.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span></p> - -<h3>V<br /><br /> - -<small><small>DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Longevity of man—Theory of Ebstein on the normal duration -of human life—Instances of human longevity—Circumstances -which may explain the long duration of human life</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Man</span> has inherited from his mammalian ancestors his -organisation and qualities. His life is notably shorter -than that of many reptiles, but longer than that of many -birds and most other mammals. None the less he has inherited -a capacious large intestine in which a most abundant -intestinal flora flourishes.</p> - -<p>Gestation and the period of growth are long in the human -race, and from the point of view of theoretical considerations, -human longevity should be longer than it generally -is. Haller, a distinguished Swiss physiologist of the 18th -century, thought that man ought to live to 200 years; -Buffon was of the opinion that when a man did not die -from some accident or disease he would reach 90 or 100 -years.</p> - -<p>According to Flourens, man takes 20 years to grow and -ought to live 5 times 20, that is to say, 100 years.</p> - -<p>The actual longevity is much below these figures, which -are based on theory. I have shown, moreover, that even -if the rule based on the theory of growth can be accepted -as generally true, it cannot be applied in every case, as the -factors controlling duration of life are very variable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span></p> - -<p>Statistics show that the highest human mortality occurs -in the earliest years of life. In the first year after birth -alone, one quarter of the children die. After this period -of maximum mortality, the death-rate slowly falls until -the age of puberty, and then rises again slowly and continuously. -It reaches a second maximum between the ages -of 60 and 75, and then slowly falls again to the extreme -limit of longevity.</p> - -<p>Bodio,<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> an Italian man of science, holds the view that -the great mortality of infants is a natural adaptation to -prevent too great an increase of the human race. This -view, however, cannot be supported, and rational hygiene -readily brings about a great diminution in the mortality of -children. The cause of mortality is in most cases maladies -of the intestinal canal, produced by erroneous diet, and -with the advance of civilisation, infant mortality has been -very greatly reduced.</p> - -<p>I find it impossible to accept the view that the high -mortality between the ages of 70 and 75 indicates a natural -limit of human life. As a result of investigations into -mortality in most of the European countries, Lexis came -to the conclusion that the normal duration of human life -was not more than 75 years. Dr. Ebstein<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> accepts this -statistical result and announces that “we now know the -normal limit set by nature to the life of mankind. This -limit is at the age of maximum mortality. If man dies before -then, his death is premature. Everyone does not -reach the normal limit; life ends generally before it, and -only in rare cases after it.”</p> - -<p>The fact that many men of from 70 to 75 years old are -well preserved, both physically and intellectually, makes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>it impossible to regard that age as the natural limit of -human life. Philosophers such as Plato, poets such as -Goethe and Victor Hugo, artists such as Michael Angelo, -Titian and Franz Hals, produced some of their most -important works when they had passed what Lexis and -Ebstein regard as the limit of life. Moreover, deaths of -people at that age are rarely due to senile debility. In -Paris, for instance, in 1902, of cases of deaths between the -ages of 70 and 74, only 8·5 per cent. were due to old age.<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> -Infectious diseases, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, diseases -of the heart and the kidneys, and cerebral -hæmorrhage, caused most of the deaths of these old people. -Such cases of death, however, can often be avoided and -must be regarded as accidental rather than natural.</p> - -<p>Confirmation of the view that the natural limit is not at -70 to 75 years is to be found in the fact that so many men -reach a greater age. Centenarians are really not rare. In -France, for instance, nearly one hundred and fifty people -die every year, after having reached the age of 100 or more. -In 1836, in a population of thirty-three millions and a half -(33,540,910), there were 146 centenarians, that is to say, one -in about 220,000 inhabitants. In some other countries, -particularly in Eastern Europe, the number of centenarians -is still greater. In Greece, for instance, there is a centenarian -for each set of 25,641 living persons, that is to say, -nine times as many as in France.<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p> - -<p>What age can be reached by the human species? Formerly -it was supposed that individuals might live for -several centuries; to say nothing of Methuselah, whose age -of 969 years, mentioned in the Bible, is the result of a -mistake in calculation, I may mention Nestor, who, accord<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>ing -to Homer, lived for three human ages, that is to say, -300 years, or Dando, the Illyrian, and the King of the -Lacedaemon, who were supposed to have reached ages of five -or six centuries. These ancient records are, of course, quite -incorrect. Much more confidence can be placed in some -facts relating to more modern times, according to which -the extreme old age reached by man was 185 years. -Kentigern, the founder of the Cathedral of Glasgow, -known by the name of St. Mungo, died at the age of 185, -on Jan. 5th, 600.<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> Another astonishing case of longevity -is related from Hungary, where an agriculturist, Pierre -Zortay, born in 1539, died in 1724. The Hungarian -records of the 18th century contain other cases of death at -ages between 147 and 172 years.</p> - -<p>The case of Drakenberg is still more authentic; he was -born in Norway in 1626 and died in 1772, at the age of -146. He was known as the Old Man of the North. He -had been captured by African pirates and was held by -them for fifteen years, and was engaged as a sailor for -ninety-one years. His romantic history attracted contemporary -attention, and the journals of the time (<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Gazette de -France</cite>, 1764, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Gazette d’Utrecht</cite>, 1767, etc.)<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> contain information -regarding him. The well-known instance of -Thomas Parr appears to rest on good authority. Parr was -a poor Shropshire peasant, who did hard work until he was -130 years old, and who died in London at the age of 152 -years and 9 months. The celebrated Harvey examined -the body after death and was unable to discover organic -disease; even the cartilages of the ribs were not ossified and -were elastic as in a young man. The brain, however, was -hard and resisting to the touch, as its blood-vessels were -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span>thickened and dry. Parr was buried in Westminster -Abbey.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> - -<p>It appears, then, that human beings may reach the age -of 150, but such cases are certainly extremely rare, and -are not known from the records of the last two centuries. -I cannot accept without a good deal of reserve the statements -as to two persons who died in the beginning of -the 19th century at the ages of 142 and 145. On the other -hand, cases of duration of life from 100 to 120 years are -not very rare.</p> - -<p>Extreme longevity is not limited to the white races. -According to Prichard,<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> negroes have lived respectively -to 115, 160, and 180 years. In the course of the 19th -century there have been observed, in Senegal, eight negroes -ranging from 100 to 121 years old. M. Chemin<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> saw -himself in 1898 at Foundiougne an old man, whom the -natives stated to be 108 years of age; although he was -in good health, he had been blind for several years. The -same author, on the authority of the <cite>New York Herald</cite> -of June 13th, 1895, mentions the case of a coloured woman -in North Carolina, who was more than 140 years old, and -of a man 125 years old.</p> - -<p>Women more frequently become centenarians than -men, although the difference is not very great. For instance, -in Greece, in 1885, in a population of nearly two -millions (1,947,760), there were 278 persons aged from -95 to 110 years, of whom 133 were male and 145 female.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span></p> - -<p>In the seven years, from 1833 to 1839 inclusive, according -to Chemin, there were in Paris twenty-six men over the age -of 95, and forty-five women. Such facts, and many others, -support the general proposition that male mortality is -always greater than that of the other sex.</p> - -<p>In most cases centenarians are notably healthy and of -strong constitution. There are instances, however, of -abnormal people having reached a great age. A woman, -called Nicoline Marc, died in 1760, at the age of 110. -Since she was two years old, her left arm was crippled. -Her hand was bent under the arm like a hook. She was -a hunch-back, and so bent that she appeared to be no -more than four feet high. A Scotch woman, Elspeth -Wilson, died at the age of 115 years. She was quite a -dwarf, being only a little over two feet high. On the other -hand, although they usually have a very short life, giants -have been known to reach the age of 100.</p> - -<p>Haller, in the eighteenth century, remarked that centenarians -often occurred in the same family, as if longevity -were a hereditary quality. It is certainly the case that the -descendants of centenarians frequently reach extreme age. -Thomas Parr, for instance, left a son who died in 1761, -at the age of 127 years, having retained his mental faculties -until death. In M. Chemin’s list of centenarians, -there are eighteen cases of extreme old age having been -reached by their relations. As all innate characters can be -transmitted, the influence of heredity and longevity must -be admitted. At the same time, it is necessary to remember -the important influence of the similarity of conditions -in the case of parents and children. Many cases of tuberculosis -and leprosy, which used to be assigned to heredity, -are now known to be due to infection in the same conditions -of life, and some of the examples of the attaining<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span> -of a great age by more than one member of a family may -be explained by the influence of surrounding circumstances. -Very frequently the husband and wife, although -not related by blood, both attain extremely advanced age. -I found 22 cases of this kind in M. Chemin’s list; I will -give a few of them. A widow, Anne Barak, died at the -age of 123, in Moravia; her husband died at the age of -118. In 1896, there was alive in Constantinople, M. -Christaki, a retired army doctor of the age of 110; his -wife was 95 years old. In 1886, M. et Mme. Gallot, aged -respectively 105 years and 4 months, and 105 years and -one month, died within two days of each other at Vaugirard, -54, Rue Cambronne. Lejoncourt mentions a South -American of 143 years old, whose wife had lived to the -age of 117.</p> - -<p>It is worth enquiring if there be any relation between -longevity and locality. There are some countries in which -very many of the natives reach old age. It appears that -Eastern Europe (Balkan States, and Russia), although -its civilisation is not high, contains many more centenarians -than Western Europe. I have already mentioned -that Dr. Ornstein had shown the existence of many extremely -old people in Greece. M. Chemin states that -in Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania there were more than -5,000 centenarians (5,545) living in 1896. “Although -these figures appear to be exaggerated,” wrote M. Chemin, -“it is undoubtedly the case that the pure and keen air of -the Balkans, and the pastoral or agricultural life of the -natives, predisposes to old age.” The same author mentions -several localities in France, notable for the numbers -of very old people. In 1898 in the commune of Sournia -(Pyrénées-Orientales) the total population was 600, -amongst which there was one woman of 95 years, a man -of 94, a woman of 89, two men of 85, two of 84, and two of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> -83, three women of 82, and two men of 80. At St. Blimont -in the Department of the Somme, amongst the 400 inhabitants -alive in 1897, there were six men between the ages of -85 and 93 years and one woman in her 101st year.</p> - -<p>It cannot be accepted that it is the keen air which -lengthens the life, because Switzerland, a mountainous -country, is notable for the rarity of centenarians. It is -more likely that some circumstance in the mode of living -influences longevity.</p> - -<p>It has been noticed that most centenarians have been -people who were poor, or in humble circumstances, and -whose life has been extremely simple. There are instances -of rich centenarians, such as Sir Moses Montefiore who -died at the age of 101, but such are extremely rare. It may -well be said that great riches do not bring a very long life. -Poverty generally brings with it sobriety, especially in -old age, and it has been often said that most centenarians -have lived an extremely sober life. They have not all -followed the example of the celebrated Cornaro, who -brought himself to subsist on a daily diet of no more -than twelve ounces of solid food, and fourteen ounces of -wine, and who, although his constitution was weak, lived -for about a century. He has left extremely interesting -Memoirs, and retained his intelligence until his death on -the 26th April, 1566 (Lejoncourt, p. 146).</p> - -<p>In M. Chemin’s list I have counted twenty-six centenarians, -distinguished by their frugal life. Most of them -did not drink wine, and many of them limited themselves -to bread, milk and vegetables.</p> - -<p>Sobriety is certainly favourable to long life, but it is -not necessary, because quite a number of centenarians have -drunk freely. Several of those who are catalogued by -Chemin, drank wine and spirits even to excess. Catherine -Reymond, for instance, who died in 1758 at the age of 107<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> -years, drank much wine, and Politiman, a surgeon who -lived from 1685 to 1825, was in the habit, from his twenty-fifth -year onwards, of getting drunk every night, after -having attended to his practice all day. Gascogne, a butcher -of Trie (Hautes-Pyrénées), died in 1767 at the age of 120, -and had been accustomed to get drunk twice a week. A -most curious example is that of the Irish land-owner -Brawn, who lived to the age of 120, and who had an inscription -put upon his tombstone that he was always -drunk, and when in that condition was so terrible that -even death had been afraid of him. Some districts, even, -are distinguished at once for the longevity of their inhabitants -and for the large local consumption of alcohol. -In 1897, village of Chailly in the Côte-d’Or had no -less than twenty octogenarians amongst 523 inhabitants. -This village is one of the localities in France where most -alcohol is consumed, and the old people are very far from -being distinguished from their younger fellows by any -special sobriety.</p> - -<p>In some cases centenarians have been much addicted to -the drinking of coffee. The reader will recall Voltaire’s -reply when his doctor described the grave harm that -comes from abuse of coffee which acts as a real poison. -“Well,” said Voltaire, “I have been poisoning myself for -nearly 80 years.” There are centenarians who have lived -longer than Voltaire, and have drunk still more coffee. -Elisabeth Durieux, a native of Savoy, reached the age of -114. Her principal food was coffee, of which she took daily -as many as forty small cups. She was jovial and a boon -table companion, and used black coffee in quantities that -would have surprised an Arab. Her coffee-pot was always -on the fire, like the tea-pot in an English cottage (Lejoncourt, -p. 84; Chemin, p. 147).</p> - -<p>It has been noticed that many centenarians do not smoke,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> -but this like all other traits is not universal. M. Ross, -who gained a prize for longevity in 1896 at the age of 102, -was an inveterate smoker. In 1897, a widow named -Lazennec, died at La Carrière, in Kérinou, Finistère, at -the age of 104. She lived in a hovel on charity, and she -had smoked a pipe ever since she was quite young.</p> - -<p>It is plain that any factor to which long duration of life -has been attributed disappears when many cases are -examined. Naturally a sound constitution and a simple -and sober life are favourable to longevity, but apart from -these, there is something unknown which tends to long -life. The celebrated physiologist of Bonn, Pflüger,<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> came -to the conclusion that the chief condition of longevity is -something “intrinsic in the constitution,” something which -cannot be defined exactly, and which must be set down to -inheritance.</p> - -<p>In the present state of knowledge, we cannot denote the -chief cause of human longevity, but the proper course -will be to seek it out as we would seek out that of animal -longevity. As human longevity is often local in its character, -and is exhibited by married people who have nothing in -common except their mode of life, we may enquire into the -intestinal flora and the mechanism by which the organism -resists its harmful effect as factors which influence the -duration of life. It is reasonable to suppose that in persons -living in the same district or under the same roof, the intestinal -flora may be similar. The problem can be settled -only by a series of laborious researches which have yet to -be made. At present I can do no more than bring together -a large number of facts regarding the duration of life in -man and in animals, with the hope of suggesting the lines -for future investigation.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span></p> -<h2><small>PART III</small><br /><br /> - -INVESTIGATIONS ON NATURAL DEATH</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>NATURAL DEATH AMONG PLANTS</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Theory of the immortality of unicellular organisms—Examples -of very old trees—Examples of short-lived plants—Prolongation -of the life of some plants—Theory of the natural -death of plants by exhaustion—Death of plants from auto-intoxication</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> must surprise my readers to find how little science really -knows about death. Although death has a preponderating -place in religions, systems of philosophy, literature and -folk-lore, scientific works pay little attention to it. This -unfortunate fact explains, although it may not justify, the -bitter attack made on science on the grounds that it is -occupied with minutiæ and neglects the great problems of -human life, such as death. When Tolstoi was absorbed by -the problem and searched for some solution in the writings -of scientific men, he found that the explanations were trivial -or inexact. In consequence he was extremely indignant -with the men who devoted themselves to the investigation -of what seemed to him useless problems (such as the insect -world, or the structure of cells and tissues) and who were -yet unable to say what the destiny of man or death might be.</p> - -<p>I am far from claiming to solve these problems; I can do -little more than describe the actual state of the question of -natural death. I hope in this way at least to prepare for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> -scientific investigation, and to call attention to it as the most -important problem of humanity.</p> - -<p>By the use of the phrase “natural death” I mean to -denote a phenomenon that is intrinsic in the nature of an -organism and that is not the mere result of an external accident. -Popular phraseology includes under natural death -all cases due to diseases. But as such deaths can be avoided -and are not due to qualities inherent in the organism, it is -erroneous to include them in the category “natural death.”</p> - -<p>In nature, death comes so frequently by accident that -there is justification for asking if natural death really occurs. -It used to be thought that death was the inevitable -end of life and that the living principle contained within -itself the germ of death. Accordingly, it was a surprising -discovery that many low organisms die only by accident, -and that if such accident be avoided, death does not fall on -them. Unicellular organisms (such as infusoria, many -other protozoa and low plants) multiply by simple division, -the organism thus giving rise to two new organisms; the -parent so to speak loses itself in its offspring without undergoing -death. To criticisms of this mode of presentment -of the facts, Weismann, who has attracted most attention -to the view, replied as follows:—“In cultures of Infusoria, -these little animals continually multiply by division and no -dead bodies are found. The individual life is short, but it -ends not in death but in transformation to two new individuals.”</p> - -<p>Max Verworn,<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> a physiologist of repute, objected that -Weismann had overlooked the occurrence within the organism -of a process of partial destruction, and that under certain -conditions a complete organ of the infusorian body (the -nucleus) dies and is absorbed. Such death of a part, however, -is not followed by death of the whole, and as the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>continuous destruction of some of the cells in our own -bodies is not regarded as our death, the criticism of the -German physiologist cannot be accepted.</p> - -<p>It is not only the extremely short-lived microscopic organisms -that escape death. Some of the higher plants, which -may attain to gigantic size, encounter death only by accidents. -There is nothing to be found in the nature of their -organisation which would seem to indicate that death is the -inevitable or even probable result of their constitutions.</p> - -<p>The longevity of some trees has long been notorious, as -these appear to live for many centuries and to die only -when they are overwhelmed by the ravages of a storm or -killed by human agency.</p> - -<p>When the Canary Islands were discovered, in the beginning -of the fifteenth century, the early explorers were struck -with the gigantic size of a dragon tree which was venerated -by the natives as their tutelary deity. The tree stood in -a Garden at Orotava in Teneriffe, and even in these early -days, its huge trunk contained a gigantic hollow. The tree -did not reward the worship of the natives, who were annihilated -by the Spaniards, and it survived them for nearly -four centuries. At the end of the eighteenth century it was -seen by Humboldt,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> who found that the trunk was forty-five -feet in circumference, and who attributed to it a great -age because dragon trees grow extremely slowly. Early in -the nineteenth century (1819) a furious tempest swept over -Orotava and with a gigantic crash nearly a third of the -crown of leaves and branches fell on the ground. Notwithstanding -this shock, the monster survived for fifty years. -Berthelot,<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> who visited it in 1839, described it as follows:—“A -dragon tree stood in front of my dwelling, grotesque in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>form, gigantic in size, which a storm had smitten without -overwhelming. Ten men would have much ado to girdle -its vast trunk, fifty feet in circumference at the ground. -The huge column had a deep cave within it, hollowed by -the ages; a rustic porch gave access to the interior, and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> -lofty dome, although half had been destroyed by a storm, -still bore an enormous crown of branches.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f15" id="f15"></a> -<img src="images/i_p097.jpg" width="500" height="650" alt="The Dragon-tree of the villa Orotava." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.—The Dragon-tree of the villa Orotava.</p></div> - -<p>The famous dragon-tree got more and more damaged, -and was finally overthrown by a storm in 1868. A few -years after the catastrophe (in 1871) I myself saw the -remains of the colossus, lying on the ground as a huge -grey mass like some antediluvian monster. No accurate -estimate of its age can be formed, but it must have lived -several thousand years.</p> - -<p>Trees have been known which were still older than the -dragon-tree of Teneriffe. One of the best known is the -baobab of Cape Verd, described by Adanson. “This remarkable -tree was thirty feet in diameter when the famous -French naturalist measured and described it. Three centuries -earlier, some English sailors had cut an inscription on -it, and Adanson laid this bare by removing three hundred -layers of wood. On his observations Adanson based an -estimate of 5,150 years as the age of the tree.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> The old -cypresses of Mexico are thought to be still older. A. de -Candolle<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> concluded that the cypress of Montezuma was -2,000 years old when he saw it, and that the cypress at -Oazaca was much older than the tree described by Adanson. -In California, trees of the species <i>Sequoia gigantea</i> -are three thousand years old, and Sargent, an American -botanist, attributes to some of them an age of at least five -thousand years.</p> - -<p>The question of the nature of individuality in the vegetable -world has been raised in connection with the longevity -of trees. It has been asked if a tree is to be regarded as a -single individual or as a colony of many plants like a -branching polyp. It is a difficult question, but only of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span>secondary importance from the point of view of this discussion. -A. de Candolle,<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> having paid special attention to -the subject, came to the conclusion that trees do not die of -old age, that, in the real sense of the phrase, there is no -natural end of their existence. Many botanists agree with -him. Naegeli<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> holds that a tree several thousand years old -dies only from external accidents.</p> - -<p>It is plain that amongst the lower plants and the higher -plants there are cases where natural death does not exist. -Theoretically, life would have an unlimited duration, subject -to the continuous replacement of the substance of the -organism in the normal metabolism. It must not be -inferred, however, that there is no such occurrence as -natural death amongst plants. There are numerous cases -where death comes quite apart from the agency of external -forces. Even amongst closely related plants there are some -cases where natural death does not occur, and others where -it is normal. The lower fungi offer a good instance. Some -of these pass through a longer or shorter vegetative stage -and then the living mass breaks up into spores (<i>Myxomycetes</i>). -The whole bulk of matter is not transformed, but -the remnant consists only of cuticular secretions, not living -cells. In other fungi, only some of the cells transform to -spores, the others dying naturally.</p> - -<p>One stage of the life history of some lower plants is of -short duration. The prothalli of some cryptogams (<i>Marsiliaceæ</i>) -live only a few hours, just long enough for the -appearance of the sexual organs. When these are ripe -the body of the prothallus and all its constituent cells fall -a prey to natural death. In such cases there is a “corpse,” -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span>composed of dead cells and protoplasm. Even amongst the -higher plants there are instances of an extremely short duration -of life. <i>Amaryllis lutea</i> passes through all the stages -of its life-history in ten days, the minimum time necessary -for the sprouting of the leaves and flowers and the production -of the seeds, after which it dies naturally.<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> It is interesting -to find that in the same family there are other plants -notable for long duration of life. The Agave requires a -century to produce its flowers before death comes naturally.</p> - -<p>Everyone is familiar with the so-called “annual” plants -which live only a few months, from the time when they -sprout, until, after the production of seed, death comes to -them naturally. The life of annuals, however, can be preserved -for two or for several years. Rye is normally an -annual, but some varieties are able to live for two years and -produce two crops. The Cossacks of the Don have established -this fact, and have cultivated a biennial variety of -rye for many years.<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Beetroot<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> is normally biennial, but -has been changed to a plant which lives for from three to -five years. Such instances are by no means unique.</p> - -<p>Natural death can be postponed if the plant be prevented -from seeding. Professor Hugo de Vries has prolonged the -life of the Oenotheras he cultivates, by cutting the flowers -before fertilisation. Under ordinary conditions the stem -dies after producing from forty to fifty flowers, but, if cutting -be practised, new flowers are produced until the winter -cold intervenes. By cutting the stem sufficiently early, -the plants are induced to develop new buds at the base, and -these buds survive winter, and resume growth in the fol<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span>lowing -spring.” (Extract from a letter of Prof. H. de -Vries.)</p> - -<p>The grass of lawns is usually mowed before it begins to -flower, so as to prevent the ripening of the seeds and the -death of the plant. When this is done, the grass remains -continually green, and its life lasts for several years.</p> - -<p>The connection between the seeding of plants and their -natural death has been recognised for long, and is usually -explained as being due to the exhaustion of the plant.</p> - -<p>As I am not a botanist, and was anxious to know the -views of botanists on natural death, I wrote to Prof. de -Vries, as a universally accepted authority. The distinguished -botanist replied to me as follows. “Your question -is extremely difficult. I do not think that much is known -as to the exact cause of the death of annual plants, but it is -customary to attribute it to exhaustion.” All the botanists -who have expressed opinions on this matter appear to -hold a similar view. Hildebrand,<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> the author of a memoir on -the duration of life in plants, stated this view again and -again. According to him “the life of annuals is usually -short because they are exhausted by their extensive production -of seeds (p. 116).” “Even amongst plants which produce -seeds for several years, there are some which are prematurely -exhausted by fructification and which die spontaneously” -(p. 67). In the prothallus of many of the -higher cryptogams, the formation of a single embryo is -followed by natural death; as Goebel<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> points out, the -embryo completely absorbs the prothallus.</p> - -<p>As plants generally obtain their food with ease, it is -natural to ask what is the cause of the exhaustion after -seeding. When a plant which cannot resist cold dies after -it has produced its seeds in the end of the summer, the event -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span>is natural enough. But how can we explain the death of an -annual plant which is growing in a rich soil, and which seeds -in the beginning of the summer, as being due to exhaustion -long before the winter cold. It frequently happens that -after harvest new shoots spring up from grains which have -fallen. The soil which can support this new vegetation -cannot have been exhausted by the cereal in question; and -there has been enough warmth for the new crop. It cannot -be the external conditions which have caused the death of -the parent plant. The explanation of this apparent contradiction -has been sought in the constitution of the plant -itself. Hildebrand remarks that “certain species have a -constitution which tends to early fructification. As soon as -the seeds have been set, the strength of the plant is exhausted -in the swelling of the grains, so that the plant -dies.” “Other species, on the contrary, are so constituted -that they vegetate for a long time, before fruiting, after -which, however, they also die. A third set of plants have -such a constitution that “they do not die after seeding, -that they can seed often and live for many years” (p. 113).</p> - -<p>Being unable to indicate exactly the intrinsic mechanism -of these different “constitutions,” several botanists explain -them by a kind of teleological predestination. -According to Hildebrand “the nutritive processes of a -plant have no other purpose than to make it capable of -reproduction; this final end, however, can be reached in -different modes and after different periods of time” (p. -132). Goebel sets down similar views. “In heterosporous -plants the whole course of the development of prothalli -is predetermined. The prothalli, so far as we actually -know, to use the phrase of theologians, are predestined; -their fate is determined once for all” (p. 403). M. Massart<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> -expresses the same kind of view, when he says that “some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>times -cells die because their work is finished, and they have -no longer any reason for existing.”</p> - -<p>Such an interpretation of the facts is quite opposed to -determinism, and makes the problem of natural death in -the plant world more difficult but more interesting.</p> - -<p>The modern scientific conception of the universe excludes -the idea of predestination. The relations between fructification -and natural death must be regulated by the law of -selection, according to which no organism survives if its -reproduction is impossible. It occasionally happens that -children are born without organs which are indispensable -to life. Such monsters of different kinds being non-viable, -cannot be said to be predestined to death, as they die -because of defects in their structure. Others are born with -all that is necessary for life, and survive for that reason, -not because they are predestined to life. So also species -of plants which develop incompletely and which die before -they have produced spores or seeds, cannot survive; whilst -those which die after having given birth to the next generation -survive in their descendants. However quickly death -follow the production of seed, the species will survive -equally well. The cause of the natural death of plants -must be sought, therefore, not in predestination, but in -the mechanism of the organic processes.</p> - -<p>Nothing seems more probable than that a plant should -die when all its organic forces have been exhausted. It -would be interesting, however, to ascertain the mechanism -of that exhaustion, and this especially because it is often -very difficult to imagine a cause for it. Many plants exist -which produce several generations each season, in the same -soil, without exhausting it. In perennial plants, some parts, -such as the flowers, die periodically, although the plant -itself is not exhausted. Everyone has seen that in gera<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>niums -some of the flowers wither whilst others are blooming, -the process going on throughout the season. We can -scarcely attribute such a natural death of the flowers to any -exhaustion of the plant which continues to produce new -flowers.</p> - -<p>The fairly frequent prolongation of the life of plants is -also out of harmony with the theory of natural death as the -result of exhaustion. It sometimes happens that male -plants produce female flowers abnormally; cases of this -kind have been observed in willows, stinging-nettles, hops, -and especially in maize.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Here we have to deal with a -kind of monstrosity, differing, however, from the non-viable -monsters of the human race, in the respect that the -production of female flowers on the male branches results -in the prolongation of their lives. Generally the male -branches die a natural death as soon as the pollen has been -shed, and therefore some time before the death of the -female flowers. If, however, a male branch bears a female -flower which becomes fertilised, then the life of the branch -is prolonged until the seeds ripen. If the natural death of -the male flowers is the result of exhaustion due to the -development of the pollen, how can we reconcile this with -the prolongation of life in a case where the male branch -has also female flowers to nourish and seeds to mature?</p> - -<p>It is quite clear that natural death, in such cases, is the -result of a mechanism more complex than simple exhaustion.</p> - -<p>Prof. de Vries has already noted that the duration of life -in plants depends on their vital processes. That view implies -that there are some qualities inherent in its organisation -which can prolong or shorten the life of a plant, and it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span>is here that we ought to find the key to the problem of -natural death in the vegetable world. However, to gain -exact knowledge of such factors, it would be necessary to -have information on many points in plant physiology -which unfortunately are very imperfectly known. In this -respect, the vital conditions of the simplest plants, such -as yeasts and bacteria, have been investigated much more -fully. It is true that such low organisms reproduce freely -either by division or by budding, so that they are amongst -the organisms in which natural death is not inevitable. -None the less, in their lives phenomena occasionally present -themselves which can be interpreted as cases of natural -death.</p> - -<p>At a time when it was still unknown that all fermentation -was due to the action of microscopic plants, it had -been observed that, in certain conditions, fermentation -ceased much more quickly than in other conditions. For -instance, when sugar is being transformed to lactic acid, -it is useful to add chalk, as otherwise the fermentation stops -before the greater part of the sugar has been acted upon. -When, in 1857, Pasteur made his great discovery of the -lactic acid microbe, he showed that that little organism, -although it could produce lactic acid, was interfered with -by an excess of the acid. To secure complete fermentation, -it was necessary to neutralise the acid by the addition -of chalk.</p> - -<p>When the action of lactic acid is continued too long, it -not only arrests the process of fermentation but definitely -kills the microbe. It is for that reason that it has been -found difficult to preserve the lactic acid ferment for a long -time in a living condition. Amongst the ferments which -have been isolated from Egyptian ‘leben’ by MM. Rist -and Khoury<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> there is one which is extremely delicate.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span></p> -<p>When it is inoculated deep in a nutritive medium, it dies -in a few days, death, without doubt, being due to the -lactic acid produced by the microbe from the sugar and -not neutralised. As this transformation of sugar into -lactic acid is a fundamental property of the microbe, depending -on its constitution, the arrest of the fermentation -and the death of the ferment in these definite conditions -can be interpreted only as natural death due to auto-intoxication, -that is to say to poisoning by a product of the -physiological activity of the microbe itself. As death -takes place at a time when the medium still contains -enough sugar for the nutrition of the microbe, it is certain -that it cannot be the result of exhaustion. This case of -the lactic acid ferment is not unique. The microbe which -produces butyric acid is also interfered with by the acid -it secretes. M. G. Bertrand, who has examined carefully -the microbe which produces fermentation in sorbose (sugar -extracted from fruit of the service-tree) (<i>Sorbus domestica</i>) -has informed me that this fermentation, too, ceases under -the influence of the secretions of the microbes, and that -the microbes undergo natural death at a time when the -medium is far from exhausted of the nutritive material. -The yeast which produces alcohol is also interfered with -by an excess of alcohol, and as soon as a certain limit -of alcoholic strength has been reached, fermentation stops. -When the yeast is grown in media rich in nitrogen and -poor in sugar, the plant takes the nitrogenous material -and produces salts of ammonia. These alkalies damage -the yeast and cause its death by auto-intoxication.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a></p> - -<p>In the examples that I have given, natural death was -a result of the activity of the microbes, and was in correlation -with their organisation. Such death can be -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span>avoided by changing the external conditions, and, if the -acids or alkalies produced by these bacteria are neutralised, -the bacteria survive. The facts are in harmony with those -that I described in the case of the higher plants. By preventing -the ripening of seed, the life of many annual -plants may be preserved and the plants changed to biennials -or perennials. In such cases death, although the -result of the constitution of the plant, may be postponed.</p> - -<p>We may ask then if the natural death of higher plants, -usually attributed to exhaustion, cannot be explained more -simply as the result of poisons produced in their metabolism. -Many plants produce poisons which are fatal to -animals and man. May they not also produce substances -fatal to themselves? There is nothing improbable in the -supposition that some of the poisons may develop when -the seeds are ripening. By preventing the latter process, -the ripening of the whole organism may also be prevented. -Such a theory would explain the many cases of natural -death which occur whilst the cell is far from having reached -exhaustion. The equally numerous cases of partial death, -such as that of flowers, whilst the same stem is still producing -other flowers (<i>e.g.</i> geraniums) would be explained -by a local action of the poisons not strong enough to kill -the whole plant.</p> - -<p>I must insist that this theory, that natural death of the -higher plants, is the result of auto-intoxication, is a mere -hypothesis which future investigations may disprove. If, -however, it comes to be confirmed, it would explain the -coincidence of death and fructification more simply than -the hypothesis of predestination.</p> - -<p>The higher plants may be subjects of auto-intoxication -in the same fashion as bacteria and yeasts. If these -poisons were produced before the ripening of the seeds,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span> -the plants would remain sterile, leaving no descendants, -so that the race would become extinct. The production of -poisons at the time of fructification would not interfere -with the succession of generations, and the race would be -preserved. As the poisoning is not necessary, it is easy -to understand why many plants survive seeding and escape -natural death. The Dragon-tree, baobab, and the cedars, -which I spoke of earlier, would be examples of such escape.</p> - -<p>Although the existence of auto-intoxication in the higher -plants is still only a hypothesis, the natural death of bacteria -and yeasts by poisons which they themselves produce -is an ascertained fact.</p> - -<p>In the plant world, therefore, there are examples of -natural death (bacteria and yeasts) due to auto-intoxication, -and there are other cases where high or low plants -escape natural death.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>NATURAL DEATH IN THE ANIMAL WORLD</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Different origins of natural death in animals—Examples of -natural death associated with violent acts—Examples of -natural death in animals without digestive organs—Natural -death in the two sexes—Hypothesis as to the cause of natural -death in animals</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> cases of natural death amongst animals differ from -those found in the vegetable world by their greater variety -and complexity. As M. Massart has shown for plants, -so also natural death must have become established independently -in different groups of animals. In some cases, -the characters presented are strange and almost paradoxical.</p> - -<p>It is usual to contrast natural death with violent death -on account of the difference between the two. None the -less, natural death may occur in the animal kingdom, that -is to say death resulting directly from the constitution, -and yet in intimate association with violent acts. I will -give some examples.</p> - -<p>Small, helmet-shaped organisms, transparent and graceful, -are common on the surface of the sea. These have -been described by zoologists under the name <i>Pilidium</i>. -The organisation is simple. The body wall is a delicate -pellicle, through which, on the lower surface, a mouth -leads into a capacious stomach. Continual movements of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> -waving cilia direct small particles of food through the -mouth to the digestive stomach. As there are no organs -of reproduction, it was assumed that these creatures were -not adults, but floating larvæ of some marine animal, -and, after a good deal of trouble, it was found that the -Pilidia were the young stages of ribbon-shaped worms of -the group of Nemertines. At a definite stage in the life-history, -a fœtus begins to develop round about the stomach -of the Pilidium, and eventually completely encloses it and -detaches it by violent muscular contractions. The end of -the story is that the fœtus abandons the body of the -Pilidium carrying off with it the stomach, an organ necessary -to the maintenance of life. The remnant of the Pilidium -swims about in the sea-water, but soon dies as the -result of the mortal wound caused by the removal of the -digestive organs.</p> - -<p>The act by which the Nemertine separates from its -mother is violent, and yet the death of the Pilidium -must be regarded as natural. It is the result of agencies -within the body and not, as in most cases of accidental -death, of violence from without.</p> - -<p>The group of Nematode worms contains many common -intestinal parasites of man, such as <i>Ascaris</i>, <i>Trichina</i>, -<i>Trichocephalus</i>, <i>Oxyuris</i>, &c., but also others that live -free in soil or water or in such fluids as vinegar. They -are protected by a strong cuticle, and some of them are -viviparous, that is to say, instead of laying eggs they give -birth to young worms already well grown and capable of -independent activity. Amongst the human Nematode -parasites, the <i>Trichinæ</i> give birth to swarms of small larvæ -which easily escape from the body of the mother by the -female generative aperture. In the case of some free-living -Nematodes, however, the female aperture is too small to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> -give passage to the rather stout larvæ. More than forty -years ago, when I was investigating the life-history<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> of -one of these Nematodes (<i>Diplogaster tridentatus</i>) I was -struck by the fact that the larvæ could leave the body of -the mother only by violence and after they had devoured -most of its substance. These larvæ develop from eggs -produced within the maternal body. As the external reproductive -aperture of the female is minute, the larvæ -cannot escape through it, but wander amongst the tissues -tearing and absorbing them. The mother soon dies, and -although her death is violent, it must be included in the -category of natural death.</p> - -<p>From the teleological point of view it might be said -that Pilidium and Diplogaster cease to live because they -have fulfilled their function of giving rise to a Nemertine -or young Nematodes. Their natural death would thus -be predestined. There is no ground for such an interpretation. -On the other hand, it is certain that this death, -coming after the birth of the new generation, is in no way -against the preservation of the species in which the extraordinary -natural death by violence occurs. If the female -orifice of Diplogaster were slightly larger, the larvæ would -emerge without difficulty and without causing the death of -the mother which none the less would have fulfilled -her purpose.</p> - -<p>All the cases of natural death amongst animals are not -so brutal as those of the Pilidium and the Nemertine worms. -In many instances the death is peaceful. As very frequently -it is difficult to establish definitely that the death is -natural, I shall select clear cases.</p> - -<p>Animals are occasionally found which are devoid of some -organ necessary for prolonged life. The absence of a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>digestive tract in an animal that lives in an environment -rich in dissolved nutritive material (as for instance tapeworms -living in the intestinal tract) is not surprising. -But when creatures of the sea or of fresh water have no -digestive tract, their life can be maintained only at the -expense of nutritive material stored within them during -embryonic life. The death which comes eventually is truly -natural. The best cases, that is to say those which can -be studied most completely, of such natural death occur -amongst the Rotifera. These are minute creatures of fresh -or sea water, at one time confused with the Infusoria, -but possessed of a much more complex organisation. They -have a well-developed digestive tube, organs of excretion, -nervous system, and organs of sense. The animals are diœcious; -in each species both males and females exist. -Whilst the females have the complete structure of the -species, the males are much reduced, and are devoid of -a digestive canal. The cuticle is fairly stout, and they -are unable to absorb dissolved nutriment through it; as -they have no organs of digestion, their life must be -short.</p> - -<p>To study in detail the life and death of these creatures, I -selected a species sent to me by M. Haffkine. So far as -I can judge, the species in question is a hitherto unknown -member of the genus <i>Pleurotrocha</i>, and I propose for it -the name <i>Pleurotrocha haffkini</i>. This rotifer is convenient -to study as it thrives in vessels containing fresh-water to -which some bread-crumb has been added (in the proportion -of a gram of bread to 500 grams of water).</p> - -<p>The sexes of the little rotifer can be distinguished from -the earliest age, for eggs that are to become females are -much larger than those from which males develop. It -is easy to isolate the male eggs and to follow the life-history<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> -up to the moment of natural death. The whole course of -life from the laying of the egg until death lasts only about -three days, and is probably the shortest duration of life -in the animal kingdom. Although some Ephemeridæ live -only a few hours in the adult state, their total life-cycle -is much longer than that of the rotifers, as the larval stages -last for months or even for years.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f16" id="f16"></a> -<img src="images/i_p113.jpg" width="400" height="153" alt=";Male Pleurotrocha haffkini." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16.—Male <i>Pleurotrocha haffkini</i>.</p></div> - -<p>The little males (Fig. <a href="#f16">16</a>) begin to swim soon after -hatching, the wheel-apparatus and the musculature being -vigorous. They seek out the females, as their reproductive -organs are mature almost at the moment of hatching. -The transparent body, which is devoid of digestive apparatus, -swarms with mobile spermatozoa. As soon as -the male has seized a female, he discharges the contents -of his body. It might be supposed that such an evacuation -would cause a violent perturbation of the system leading -to the death of the organism. There is no question of this -however. The males are able to live for twenty-four hours -after having accomplished their function, and the period -represents a third of their total duration of life. Moreover, -I have isolated males from females without any prolongation -of their lives. In one experiment, I isolated -two males and placed a third in company with two females. -It was the third specimen that lived longest.</p> - -<p>The natural death of the males is foreshadowed by a -weakening of the movements; although the muscles and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> -cilia remain mobile, the whole animal moves only spasmodically; -sometimes the muscles of the head contract, -sometimes those of the tail, but no locomotion occurs. -Occasionally there is a violent effort of ciliary motion as if -the attempt were being made to overcome the immobility -of the body. Such a condition lasts for several hours and -is followed by death. The spermatozoa inside the body -retain activity last of all.</p> - -<p>Towards the crisis, bacteria, which abound in the medium -occupied by the rotifers, begin to attack the males. Some -cluster round the head, others round the tail, although -none of them can effect entrance to the body. The death -of the males cannot be attributed to microbial infection, -but comes from some intrinsic cause.</p> - -<p>Is it inanition that is the cause of death? I do not -think so, because up to the time of death the tissues appear -to be unmodified. In the case of the females I have sometimes -seen phenomena of inanition. In old and exhausted -cultures the starved females become thin, flattened and -quite transparent, and the tissues lose their granular appearance. -No such changes are visible in the dying males, -the tissues of which, on the contrary, retain a normal -aspect.</p> - -<p>The most probable explanation is that death comes from -poisoning by the secretions of the tissues themselves. The -large size of the organs of excretion indicates that in the -course of metabolism waste matter is produced some of -which is got rid of. If, after a time, the secretions are -insufficiently eliminated, the tissues must be poisoned. As -death is preceded by a spasm of uncoordinated movement, -it appears as if the fatal intoxication of the males affected -the nervous system first. The vibrating cilia and the -muscles are attacked later.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt but that the death of these male<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> -rotifers is natural in the fullest sense. The females, however, -although they are provided with complete digestive -organs, do not escape a similar fate. Their life is longer -and more complex than that of the males, and so is subject -to many more chances. The females therefore may come -to die from starvation or from other external, accidental -causes. But, if they are kept in favourable conditions, -they may live for about fifteen days, towards the end of -which they die naturally, exhibiting the symptoms that I -have described in the case of the males (Fig. <a href="#f17">17</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f17" id="f17"></a> -<img src="images/i_p115.jpg" width="400" height="174" alt="Female Pleurtrocha haffkini." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17.—Female <i>Pleurtrocha haffkini</i>, which has died a natural death.</p></div> - -<p>Rotifers are not the only animals which undergo natural -death in a fashion quite unlike the violent end of Pilidium -and Diplogaster. There are other cases amongst invertebrates, -but I shall limit myself to describing one that is -well ascertained.</p> - -<p>More than fifty years ago, Dana, the American -naturalist, discovered a pelagic marine creature with characters -so curious that he gave to it the name <i>Monstrilla</i>. -It is a little crustacean akin to the <i>Cyclops</i> of lakes. But -although the latter is endowed with the organs necessary -to capture and digest food, <i>Monstrilla</i> has neither organs -of prehension nor a digestive canal. It is a highly muscular -animal with organs of sense and reproduction and a -nervous system; but it is devoid of apparatus for prolong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>ing -<span class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f18" id="f18"></a> -<img src="images/i_p116.jpg" width="250" height="727" alt="Monstrilla." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.—<i>Monstrilla.</i> (After M. Malaquin.)</span></span> -life by nutrition. -<i>Monstrilla</i> therefore is a -creature doomed to -natural death.</p> - -<p>The detailed observations -of M. Malaquin<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> -have supplied full information -regarding this -strange life-history. <i>Monstrilla</i> -passes a portion of -its life as a parasite on -Annelid worms. In that -stage it accumulates the -necessary material for the -growth of the sexual products -(ova and spermatozoa) -and for free life in -the sea whilst the young -are developing. It is not -only the males which -have no digestive apparatus. -The females also -lack it, which is the more -surprising as they carry -about the eggs attached -to the body (as is done by -many other Crustacea, -such as crayfish and lobsters) -until the young are -ready to hatch (Fig. <a href="#f18">18</a>). -M. Malaquin thinks that -the Monstrillas die of starvation.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span></p> -<p>“As they are without a digestive tube or organs of -prehension or mastication,” M. Malaquin says (p. 192), -“the Monstrillas, which have no means of nutrition, are -doomed to death from inanition after a short pelagic life. -This is a logical inference from their structure.”</p> - -<p>In support of his view, M. Malaquin states that before -death the tissues and organs show plain signs of degeneration.</p> - -<p>“The eyes first show traces of degeneration. The pigment -spreads and disappears little by little and then the -visual elements fade out.”</p> - -<p>“Finally, individuals, usually females, show complete -degeneration. A female taken in a fine-meshed net showed -no trace of organs in the head; the eyes, the brain and -the intestinal tract had disappeared almost completely. -The antennæ were reduced to stumps consisting of the -lowest joint and a portion of the second. These were clear -indications of the senility that precedes death” (p. 194).</p> - -<p>Such evidence not only supports the hypothesis that -the natural death of Monstrilla is due to inanition, but -is opposed to a similar interpretation being applied to the -case of male rotifers, in which death is not preceded by -wasting of the organs. The death of some insects, which -comes rapidly after the adult stage has been reached, cannot -readily be attributed to starvation. In the strange butterflies -known as psychids (<i>Solenobia</i>) some of the females -lay eggs without having been fertilised,<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> and their life in -the adult condition lasts only a day. On the other hand, -other females of the same butterfly are fertilised before -laying their eggs and in this case survive for more than -a week although they take no food. The rapid death of -the first-mentioned set cannot be attributed to inanition.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span></p> -<p>In some Ephemeridæ, which supply good cases of -natural death, the end comes after a few hours of adult -life without any sign of degeneration of the organs. As -in others (<i>Chloë</i>), life lasts for several days without food -having been taken, it is clear that inanition is not the -cause of the swift arrival of death in the first set. It is -much more probable that the natural death is due to an -auto-intoxication which takes effect at different intervals -of time in different circumstances.<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p> - -<p>In the higher animals such as vertebrates the conditions -are less favourable than in the case of insects for the investigation -of the causes of natural death. Vertebrates -have always well-developed organs of digestion and so -live a relatively longer time and encounter a greater number -of chances of accident, with the result that in most cases -death comes from external accidental causes. Vertebrates -usually perish from hunger or cold, or are devoured by -their enemies or killed by the attacks of parasites or diseases. -There remains only the human race amongst the -more highly developed animals, in which to study the -onset of natural death. And in the human race cases -which may be designated as natural are extremely rare.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span></p> -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>NATURAL DEATH AMONGST HUMAN BEINGS</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Natural death in the aged—Analogy of natural death and -sleep—Theories of sleep—<i>Ponogenes</i>—The instinct of sleep—The -instinct of natural death—Replies to critics—Agreeable -sensation at the approach of death</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> death of old people, which has often been described as -natural death, is in most cases due to infectious diseases, -particularly pneumonia (which is extremely dangerous) or -to attacks of apoplexy. True natural death must be very -rare in the human race. Demange<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> has described it as -follows:—“Arrived at extreme old age, and still preserving -the last flickers of an expiring intelligence, the old man -feels weakness gaining on him from day to day. His -limbs refuse to obey his will, the skin becomes insensitive, -dry, and cold; the extremities lose their warmth; the face -is thin; the eyes hollow and the sight weak; speech dies -out on his lips which remain open; life quits the old man -from the circumference towards the centre; breathing grows -laboured, and at last the heart stops beating. The old -man passes away quietly, seeming to fall asleep for the -last time.” Such is the course of what properly speaking -is natural death.</p> - -<p>The natural death of human beings cannot be regarded -as due to exhaustion from reproduction or from inanition, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>as in the case of <i>Monstrilla</i>. It is much more likely that it -is due to an auto-intoxication of the organism. The close -analogy between natural death and sleep supports this -view, as it is very probable that sleep is due to poisoning -by the products of organic activity.</p> - -<p>It is more than fifty years since sleep was explained as the -result of auto-intoxication. Obersteiner, Binz, Preyer, and -Errera are among the competent men of science who have -taken this view. The first two attributed sleep to an -accumulation in the brain of the products of exhaustion -which are carried away by the blood during repose. The -attempt has been made even to discover the nature of these -narcotic substances. Some investigators think that an -acid, produced during the activity of the organs, is stored -up in quantities that cannot be tolerated. During sleep, -the organism gets rid of this excess of acid.</p> - -<p>Preyer<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> tried to put the problem upon a more exact -basis by the theory that the activity of all the organs gives -rise to substances which he called <i>ponogenes</i> and which -he regarded as producing the sensation of fatigue. -According to him these substances accumulate during the -waking hours, and are destroyed by oxidation during -sleep. Preyer thinks that lactic acid is the most important -of the ponogenes, and lays stress on its narcotic effect. If -his theory were correct, there would be a remarkable -analogy between the auto-intoxication by lactic acid in the -cases of man and animals, and the case of bacteria which -produce the same acid and the fermenting activity of which -is arrested as the acid accumulates. Just as sleep may be -transformed to natural death, so also the arrest of lactic -fermentation may be followed by the death of the bacteria -which form the acid.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span></p> -<p>So far, however, there has been no confirmation of -Preyer’s theory. Errera<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> has brought forward against it -another theory according to which the cause of sleep is -not acid products, but certain alkaline substances described -by M. Armand Gautier under the name of <i>leucomaines</i>. -Gautier laid down that these substances act on the nervous -centres and produce fatigue and sleepiness. According to -Errera they might very well be the cause of sleep, as that -comes on at a time when there is the greatest accumulation -of these leucomaines in the body. He thinks that their -action in producing sleep is a direct intoxication of the -nerve centres. During sleep they are removed, and the -disturbance which was produced in the organism is arrested.</p> - -<p>If it were possible to accept Errera’s theory, a kind of -analogy could be established between sleep and natural -death on the one hand, and the arrest of development and -death of yeast grown in nitrogenous media on the other -hand, because in the latter case the poisoning is produced -by an alkaline salt of ammonia. It must be confessed, -however, that the actual state of our knowledge does not -allow of a definite view of the real mechanism of the sleep-producing -intoxication. Our ideas regarding leucomaines -in general are still incomplete, and, recently, one of them, -<em>adrenaline</em>, the product of the supra-renal capsules, has been -investigated. Adrenaline is an alkaloid<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> which is produced -in the supra-renal bodies and is discharged into the -blood. It has the power of contracting arteries strongly, -and has been used to control blood-pressure. When it is -given in large quantities or in frequent doses, it acts as a -true poison, whilst, in small doses, it produces anæmia of -the organs and has a special influence on the nervous -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>centres. Dr. Zeigan<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> has shown that a milligramme of -adrenaline, mixed with five grammes of normal salt solution -injected into the brain of cats, produces a soporific -action. “About a minute after the injection, the animal -appears to be plunged into deep sleep which lasts from 30 to -50 minutes. During this time, the sensitiveness of the animal -has completely ceased throughout the body, and for some -time after that it is much decreased. When they awake -the animals seem to have been drunk with sleep for some -time.” Sleep is generally associated with anæmia of the -brain, and as adrenaline can actually produce such anæmia, -it might be supposed that this narcotic substance is the -most important of the organic products which give rise -to sleep. Against this hypothesis, however, some weight -must be given to recent investigations on fatigue and its -causes.</p> - -<p>Each stage in the advance of knowledge has had its -influence on the study of the interesting and complex -problem of sleep. When it was thought that alkaloids -(ptomaines) were of great importance in infectious diseases, -it was attempted to explain sleep as due to the action of -similar bodies. Now, when we believe that in such diseases -the chief part is played by poisons of extremely complex -chemical composition, the attempt is made to explain -fatigue and sleep by similar bodies.</p> - -<p>Weichardt<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> has recently made the best known investigations -in this direction. This young man maintains with -ardour the view that during the activity of organs there is -an accumulation of special materials which are neither -organic acids nor leucomaines, but which are much more -like the toxic products of pathogenic bacteria.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span></p> - -<p>Weichardt made animals in his laboratory go through -fatiguing movements for hours and then killed them. The -extract from muscles of such animals had a powerful toxic -effect when it was injected into normal animals, producing -lassitude and sometimes death within 20 to 40 hours. As -all attempts to determine the exact chemical nature of this -fatigue-producing substance were baffled, it is impossible -to get an exact account of it. Amongst its properties there -is one of great interest. When it has passed into the circulation -of normal animals in quantities insufficient to -produce death, it excites the formation of an anti-toxin -in the same way as a poison of diphtheria stimulates the -production of a diphtheria anti-toxin.</p> - -<p>When Weichardt injected into animals a mixture of the -poison which produces fatigue with small doses of the -serum antidote, no results followed. The neutralising effect -of the antidote was apparent even when it was introduced -by the mouth. Towards the end of his investigations, -Weichardt supposed that it would be possible to obtain a -material that would prevent fatigue.</p> - -<p>Although it is still impossible to specify exactly the -nature of the substances which accumulate during the -activity of organs and which produce fatigue and sleep, -it is becoming more and more probable that such substances -exist, and that sleep is really an auto-intoxication -of the organism. So far, such a theory has not been shaken -by any argument. Recently M. E. Claparède,<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> a psychologist -of Geneva, has argued against the current theory -of sleep. He thinks that it is contradicted by the fact that -new-born infants sleep a great deal, whilst very old people -sleep very little. This fact, however, can readily be ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span>plained -by the greater sensibility of the nerve centres of -infants, as shown with regard to many harmful agencies. -The other objections of Claparède, such as the fact that -sleepiness is induced by exercise in the open air, or that -excess of sleep itself produces sleepiness, are not really -incompatible with the theory of auto-intoxication. They -are facts of secondary importance probably depending on -some complication which the present state of our knowledge -makes it difficult to indicate exactly. The insomnia -of neurasthenia, which Claparède brings forward as another -objection, can readily be explained as due to hyperæsthesia -of the nervous tissues which lose part of their sensitiveness -to poisons.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, there are many well established facts -in agreement with the theory of auto-intoxication. Leaving -out of the question sleep induced by narcotics, I may -mention in this connection the so-called “sleeping sickness.” -It has been proved that this disease is caused by -a microscopic parasite, the <i>Trypanosoma gambiense</i> of -Dutton, which develops in the blood and spreads to the -liquid of the membranes surrounding the central nervous -system. One of the most typical symptoms of the advanced -stages of this disease is continual drowsiness. “The -drowsiness increases progressively, and the habitual attitude -becomes characteristic; the head is bent on the breast; -the eyelids are closed; in earlier stages the invalid can be -aroused easily, but, after a time, incurable attacks of sleep -overcome the patient in all circumstances, but especially -after meals. These fits of sleepiness become longer and -deeper, until they reach a comatose condition from which -it is almost impossible to arouse the patient.”<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> The total -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>result of medical knowledge of this disease is that it is -impossible to doubt that the sleepiness is due to intoxication -produced by the poison of the trypanosome.</p> - -<p>Claparède has opposed what he calls an “instinctive” -theory to the toxic theory of sleep. According to this -theory, sleep is the manifestation of an instinct “the object -of which is to arrest activity; we do not sleep because we -are intoxicated or exhausted, but to prevent ourselves from -falling into such a condition.” However, in order to bring -this narcotic instinct into play, certain conditions are necessary, -one of which certainly would be the intoxication of -the nerve centres. M. Claparède supposes that sleep is an -active phenomenon, induced when waste matter begins to -accumulate in the organism. “To bring about sleep, the -nerve centres must be influenced by waste matter, and -this influence can readily be regarded as a kind of intoxication.”</p> - -<p>Hunger is an instinctive sensation as much as sleepiness, -but it does not appear until our tissues are in a condition -of exhaustion, the exact nature of which cannot as yet be -indicated. There is no real contradiction between the toxic -and instinctive theories of sleep. The two theories represent -different sides of a special condition of the organism.</p> - -<p>The analogy between sleep and natural death is in favour -of the supposition that the latter, also, is due to an intoxication -much more profound and serious than that which -results in sleep. Therefore, as natural death in human -beings has been studied only very superficially, it is impossible -to do more than frame theories regarding it.</p> - -<p>It would be natural if, just as in sleep there is an instinctive -desire for rest, so also the natural death of man were -preceded by an instinctive wish for it. As I have already -discussed this subject in the “Nature of Man” (chap. xi)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span> -I need not deal with it at length here. I should like, however, -to add some information which I have recently -obtained.</p> - -<p>The most striking fact in favour of the existence of the -instinct for natural death in man appears to me to have -been related by Tokarsky in regard to an old woman. -While Tokarsky was alive I asked one of his friends to -obtain for me further details of this very interesting case. -Unfortunately Tokarsky could add nothing to what he had -already published in his article. I think that I have discovered -the source of his information. In his famous book -on the <cite>Physiology of Taste</cite><a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> Brillat-Savarin relates as follows:—“A -great-aunt of mine died at the age of 93. -Although she had been confined to bed for some time her -faculties were still well preserved, and the only evidence -of her condition was the decrease in appetite and weakening -of her voice. She had always been very friendly to -me, and once when I was at her bedside, ready to tend -her affectionately, although that did not hinder me from -seeing her with the philosophical eye that I always turned -on everything about me, ‘Is it you, my nephew?’ she -said in her feeble voice. ‘Yes, Aunt, I am here at your -service, and I think you will do very well to take a drop -of this good old wine.’ ‘Give it me, my dear; I can always -take a little wine.’ I made ready at once, and gently -supporting her, gave her half a glass of my best wine. -She brightened up at once, and turning on me her eyes -which used to be so beautiful, said: ‘Thank you very -much for this last kindness; if you ever reach my age you -will find that one wants to die just as one wants to sleep.’ -These were her last words, and in half an hour she fell into -her last sleep.” The details make it certain that this was -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span>a case of the instinct of natural death. The instinct showed -itself at an age not very great in the case of a woman who -had preserved her mental faculties. Generally, however, it -seems not to appear till much later, for old men usually -exhibit a keen wish to live.</p> - -<p>It is a well-known saying that the longer a man has lived -the more he wishes to live. Charles Renouvier,<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> a French -philosopher who died a few years ago, has left a definite -proof of the truth of the saying. When he was eighty-eight -years old, and knew that he was dying, he recorded his -impressions in his last days. Let me quote from what he -wrote four days before his death. “I have no illusions about -my condition; I know quite well that I am going to die, perhaps -in a week, perhaps in a fortnight. And I have still -so much to say on my subject.” “At my age I have no -longer the right to hope: my days are numbered, and -perhaps my hours. I must resign myself.” “I do not die -without regrets. I regret that I cannot foresee in any way -the fate of my views.” “And I am leaving the world -before I have said my last word. A man always dies -before he has finished his work, and that is the saddest of -the sorrows of life.” “But that is not the whole trouble, -when a man is old, very old, and accustomed to life, it is -very difficult to die. I think that young men accept the -idea of dying more easily, perhaps more willingly than -old men. When one is more than eighty years old, one is -cowardly and shrinks from death. And when one knows -and can no longer doubt that death is coming near, deep -bitterness falls on the soul.” “I have faced the question -from all sides in the last few days; I turn the one idea over -in my mind; I <em>know</em> that I am going to die, but I cannot -<em>persuade</em> myself that I am going to die. It is not the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span>philosopher in me that protests. The philosopher does not -fear death; it is the <em>old man</em>. The old man has not the -courage to submit, and yet I have to submit to the inevitable.”</p> - -<p>I know a lady, a hundred and two years old, who is so -oppressed by the idea of death, that those about her have to -conceal from her the death of any of her acquaintances. -Mde. Robineau, however, when between one hundred and -four and one hundred and five years old, became quite indifferent -to the close approach of her own death. She often -expressed a wish for it, thinking herself useless in the -world.</p> - -<p>M. Yves Delage<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> in an analysis of my “Nature of -Man” doubted the existence of an instinct for death. -“Animals,” said he, “cannot have the instinct for death, -because they do not know of death. In their case, we must -consider that what happens is an apathy tending to the -abolition of the sense of self-preservation. In man, the -knowledge of death implies that the indifference to its -approach cannot be an instinct.” “There may be developed, -at the end of life, a special state of mind which -accepts death with indifference or with pleasure, but such -a state cannot be designated as an instinct.” M. Delage, -however, does not suggest what the state of mind in question -is to be called. As the aunt of Brillat-Savarin compared -her sensations just before death with the desire to -sleep, and as this desire is an instinctive manifestation, I -think that the cheerful acquiescence in death, exhibited by -extremely old people, is also a kind of instinct. However, -the important matter is that the sentiment exists, and not -what we are to call it. M. Delage is far from denying its -existence.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span></p> -<p>Dr. Cancalon,<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> another of my critics, cannot admit the -existence of an instinct of death, “because of the theory -of evolution. Of what good would it have been, as M. -Metchnikoff tells us that natural death is very rare; how -could it have been transmitted, as it comes into existence -long after the age of reproduction, and how could it have -aided the survival of the species? If its existence were -proved as the result of biological evolution, it would be a -contradiction of adaptation and an argument in favour of -final causes.” I cannot agree in any way with these -opinions. In the first place, it is well known that men and -animals have many harmful instincts that do not tend to -the survival of the species. I need recall only the disharmonic -instincts which I described in the “Nature of -Man,” such as the anomalies of the sexual instinct, the -instinct which drives parents to devour their young or -which attracts insects to flames. The instinct of natural -death is far from being harmful, and may even have many -advantages. If men were convinced that the end of life -were natural death accompanied by a special instinct like -that of the need for sleep, one of the greatest sources of -pessimism would disappear. Now pessimism is the cause -of the voluntary death of a certain number of people and of -many others refraining from reproduction. The instinct -of natural death would contribute to the maintenance of -the life of the individual and of the species. On the other -hand, there is no difficulty in admitting the existence of -instincts hostile to the preservation of the species, especially -in the case of man, in whom individualism has -reached its highest development. As man is the only -animal with a definite notion of death, there is nothing -extraordinary if it is in man that the instinctive wish for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>death develops. M. Cancalon denies the possibility that -death can be pleasant, as it is the arrest of the physiological -functions; but as sleep and syncope are often preceded -by very pleasant sensations, why may not this also -happen in natural death? Several facts prove it beyond -dispute. It is even probable that the approach of natural -death is one of the most pleasant sensations that can exist.</p> - -<p>It is indubitable that in a large number of cases of death, -the cessation of life is associated with very painful sensations. -One has only to see the horror shown in the faces -o£ many dying people to be convinced of this, but there -are diseases and serious accidents in which the approach -of death does not arouse sorrowful sensations. I myself, -in a crisis of intermittent fever, in which the temperature -descended in a very short time from about 106° Fahr. to -below normal, experienced a feeling of extraordinary -weakness, certainly like that at the approach of death. This -sensation was much more pleasant than painful. In two -cases of serious morphia poisoning, my sensations were -more agreeable; I felt a pleasant weakness, associated with -a sensation of lightness of the body, as if I were floating -in the air.</p> - -<p>Those who have noted the sensations of persons rescued -from death have related similar facts. Prof. Heim, of -Zurich, has described a fall in the mountains which nearly -killed him, as well as several similar accidents to Alpine -tourists. In all these cases he states that there was a sensation -of pleasure.<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> Dr. Sollier has told of a young woman -addicted to morphia, who had been convinced that she was -at the point of death. On recovering from a most serious -attack of syncope, from which she was restored only by -giving another dose of morphia, she cried: “I seem to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span>come from far away; how happy I was!” Another of -Dr. Sollier’s patients, a lady who had an attack of peritonitis -from which she expected to die, felt herself “suffused -with a feeling of well-being, or rather the absence of -all pain.” In a third Case of Dr. Sollier, a young woman -suffering from puerperal fever, feeling herself at the point -of death, had a similar sensation “of physical well-being -and of detachment from everything.”<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p> - -<p>As a sensation of happiness occurs even in cases of pathological -death, it is much more likely to occur in natural -death. If natural death be preceded by the loss of the -instinct of life and by the acquisition of a new instinct, it -would be the best possible end compatible with the real -organisation of human nature.</p> - -<p>I do not pretend to give the reader a finished study on -natural death. This chapter of Thanatology, the science -of death, only opens the subject; but it is already apparent -that study of the circumstances of natural death in -plants, in the animal world, and in human beings, may -give facts of the highest interest to science and humanity.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span></p> -<h2><small>PART IV</small><br /><br /> - -SHOULD WE TRY TO PROLONG -HUMAN LIFE?</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>THE BENEFIT TO HUMANITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Complaints of the shortness of our life—Theory of “medical -selection” as a cause of degeneration of the race—Utility -of prolonging human life</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> the duration of the life of man is one of the -longest amongst mammals, men find it too short. From -the remotest times the shortness of life has been complained -of, and there have been many attempts to prolong it. Man -has not been satisfied with a duration of life notably greater -than that of his nearest relatives, and has wished to live -at least as long as reptiles.</p> - -<p>In antiquity, Hippocrates and Aristotle thought that -human life was too short, and Theophrastus, although he -died at an advanced age (he lived probably seventy-five -years) lamented when he was dying “that nature had given -to deer and to crows a life so long and so useless, and to -man only one that was often very short.”<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a></p> - -<p>Seneca (<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De brevitate vitæ</cite>) and later, in the 18th century, -Haller, strove in vain against such complaints, which have -lasted until our own days. Whilst animals have no more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>than an instinctive fear of danger, and cling to life without -knowing what death is, men have acquired an exact idea of -death, and their knowledge increases their desire to live.</p> - -<p>Ought we to listen to the cry of humanity that life is too -short and that it would be well to prolong it? Would it -really be for the good of the human race to extend the duration -of the life of man beyond its present limits? Already -it is complained that the burden of supporting old people is -too heavy, and statesmen are perturbed by the enormous -expense which will be entailed by State support of the -aged. In France, in a population of about 38 millions, -there are two millions (1,912,153) who have reached the age -of 70, that is to say, about five per cent. of the total. The -support of these old people absorbs a sum of nearly -£6,000,000 per annum.<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> However generous may be the -views of the members of the French Parliament, many of -them hesitate at the idea of so great a burden. Without -doubt, men say, the cost of maintaining the aged will become -still heavier if the duration of life is to be prolonged. -If old people are to live longer, the resources of the young -will be reduced.</p> - -<p>If the question were merely one of prolonging the life of -old people without modifying old age itself, such considerations -would be justified. It must be understood, however, -that the prolongation of life would be associated with the -preservation of intelligence and of the power to work. In -the earlier parts of this book I have given many examples -which show the possibility of useful work being done by -persons of advanced years. When we have reduced or -abolished such causes of precocious senility as intemperance -and disease, it will no longer be necessary to give pensions -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>at the age of sixty or seventy years. The cost of supporting -the old, instead of increasing, will diminish progressively.</p> - -<p>If attainment of the normal duration of life, which is -much greater than the average life to-day, were to overpopulate -the earth, a very remote possibility, this could be -remedied by lowering the birth-rate. Even at the present -time, while the earth is far from being too quickly peopled, -artificial limitation of the birth-rate takes place perhaps to -an unnecessary extent.</p> - -<p>It has long been a charge against medicine and hygiene -that they tend to weaken the human race. By scientific -means unhealthy people, or those with inherited blemishes, -have been preserved so that they can give birth to weak -offspring. If natural selection were allowed free play, such -individuals would perish and make room for others, stronger -and better able to live. Haeckel has given the name -“medical selection” to this process under which humanity -degenerates because of the influence of medical science.</p> - -<p>It is clear that a valuable existence of great service -to humanity is compatible with a feeble constitution and -precarious health. Amongst tuberculous people, those -with inherited or acquired syphilis, and those with a constitution -unbalanced in other ways, that is to say, amongst -so-called degenerates, there have been individuals who have -had a large share in the advance of the human race. I need -only instance the names of Fresnel, Leopardi, Weber, -Schumann and Chopin. It does not follow that we ought -to cherish diseases and leave to natural selection the duty of -preserving the individuals which can resist them. On the -other hand, it is indispensable to try to blot out the diseases -themselves, and, in particular, the evils of old age, by the -methods of hygiene and therapeutics. The theory of medical -selection must be given up as contrary to the good of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span> -human race. We must use all our endeavours to allow men -to complete their normal course of life, and to make it possible -for old men to play their parts as advisers and judges, -endowed with their long experience of life.</p> - -<p>To the question propounded at the beginning of this section -of my book, I can make only one answer: Yes, it is -useful to prolong human life.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Ancient methods of prolonging human life—Gerokomy—The -“immortality draught” of the Taoists—Brown-Séquard’s -method—The spermine of Poehl—Dr. Weber’s -precepts—Increased duration of life in historical times—Hygienic -maxims—Decrease in cutaneous cancer</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Men</span> of all times have attempted all manner of devices to -bring about an increase of years, although they have not -considered the problem in its general bearing.</p> - -<p>In Biblical times it was believed that contact with young -girls would rejuvenate and prolong the life of feeble old -men. In the first Book of Kings it is related as follows:—</p> - -<p>“Now King David was old and stricken in years; and -they covered him with clothes, but he gat no heat.</p> - -<p>“Wherefore his servants said unto him, Let there be -sought for my Lord the king a young virgin; let her stand -before the king and let her cherish him, and let her lie in -thy bosom, that my lord the king may get heat” (Kings I., -chap. i.).</p> - -<p>This device, afterwards called <em>gerokomy</em>, was employed -by the Greeks and Romans, and has had followers in -modern times. Boerhave, the famous Dutch physician -(1668-1738), “recommended an old burgomaster of -Amsterdam to lie between two young girls, assuring him -that he would thus recover strength and spirits.” After -quoting this, Hufeland, the well-known author of “Macro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>biotique” -in the eighteenth century, made the following -reflection:—“If it be remembered how the exhalations -from newly opened animals stimulate paralysed limbs, and -how the application of living animals soothes a violent pain, -we cannot refuse our approval to the method.”<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a></p> - -<p>Cohausen, a doctor of the eighteenth century, published a -treatise on a Roman, Hermippus, who had died aged a -hundred and fifteen years. He had been a master in a -school for young girls, and his life, passed in their midst, -was greatly prolonged. “Accordingly,” commented -Hufeland (p. 6), “he gives the excellent advice to breathe -the air of young girls night and morning, and gives his -assurance that by so doing the vital forces will be -strengthened and preserved, as adepts know well that the -breath of young girls contains the vital principle in all its -purity.”</p> - -<p>In the Eastern half of the world equal ingenuity was exercised -in the attempt to rejuvenate the body and renew the -forces of man. The successors of Lao-Tsé searched for a -beverage that would confer immortality and have recounted -extraordinary matters concerning it.</p> - -<p>The Emperor of China, Chi-Hoang-Ti (221-209 B.C.), -displayed extreme friendliness to the Taoists, believing that -these had the secret of long life and immortality. In his -reign, Su-Chi, a Taoist magician, persuaded him that eastwards -of China there lay fortunate islands inhabited by -genii whose pleasure it was to give their guests to drink of -a beverage conferring immortality. Chi-Hoang-Ti was so -delighted with the news that he equipped an expedition to -discover the islands.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span></p> - -<p>Later on, in the dynasty of the Tchengs (618-907), when -Taoism had again become a religion in favour at court, -efforts were made to obtain imperial patronage for the -draught of immortality, and magicians were in high favour. -The Taoist writers called this drink <em>Tan</em> or <em>Kin-Tan</em>, the -“golden elixir.” According to Mayers, the chief ingredients -of this marvellous compound were “cinnabar, the red -sulphate of mercury, and a red salt of arsenic, potassium -and mother-of-pearl. The preparation of it required nine -months, and it passed through nine changes. One who -had drunk of it was changed to a crane, and in this form -could ascend to the dwellings of the genii, there to abide -with them.”<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a></p> - -<p>The Taoists represent their saints, in the shade of willows, -seeking the elixir of life, and in Chinese Buddhist temples -there are placed votive cakes shaped like the tortoise, a -sacred animal and the symbol of long life. Worshippers -let stones of divination fall on these cakes and so ascertained -if their lives were to be prolonged, promising for each subsequent -year as many cakes as the divinity might demand.</p> - -<p>The mysticism of the East reached Europe in the Middle -Ages, and then, and even in modern times, drugs were used -to prolong life. Cagliostro, the celebrated quack of the -eighteenth century, boasted that he had discovered an elixir -of life by the use of which he had survived for many -thousand years.</p> - -<p>There still exists, in some modern pharmacopœias, an -“elixir ad longam vitam” compounded of aloes and other -purgatives. Analogous preparations are known, such -as the “vital essence of Augsburg” which is a mixture of -purgatives and resins.</p> - -<p>Serious physicians have rejected such preparations of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span>quacks. They have abandoned the search for a specific, -and, in their efforts to prolong human life, have relied on -common rules of hygiene, such as cleanliness, exercise, -fresh air, and general sobriety. In our own days, Brown-Séquard -is an isolated instance of a seeker for a specific -against senescence. This distinguished physiologist, setting -out from the view that the weakness of old men is due -partly to diminution of the secretions of the testes, hoped -to find a remedy in the employment of subcutaneous injections -of emulsions of the testes of animals (dogs and guinea-pigs). -Brown-Séquard,<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> then aged 72 years, gave himself -several such injections, and declared that he found himself -reinforced and rejuvenated. Since then, numbers of persons -have undergone the treatment which for a time was in -vogue. The observations of physicians, made on old men -and sick persons, have not justified the hopes which were -entertained of the mode of treatment. Fürbringer,<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> in particular, -working in Germany, has discredited the injections -of Brown-Séquard. However, instead of following exactly -the original prescription, Fürbringer employed a testicular -emulsion which had been previously raised to the boiling-point. -Brown-Séquard’s method has not resisted scientific -investigation, and although it is still occasionally employed -in France, it has been given up in many countries.</p> - -<p>Brown-Séquard laid stress on the efficacy of emulsions of -testis as opposed to chemical substances prepared from the -gland. Other scientific men, on the other hand, have -attached value to such substances and in particular to an -organic alkali the salt of which is known as spermine. -That salt, made by Poehl of St. Petersburg, has been -largely used. Several observers declare that its employ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>ment, -injected in solution or even absorbed directly as a -powder, has been followed by a strengthening of bodily -power enfeebled by age or labour.</p> - -<p>As I have no personal experience of spermine, I shall -quote from Professor Poehl<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> some indications of its efficacy. -Several physicians (Drs. Maximovitch, Bukojemsky, -Krieger and Postoeff) have given injections of spermine -to enfeebled old men who had lost appetite and sleep, and -have noted improvement lasting for months. From the -instances given, I have selected that of an old lady of -ninety-five years, afflicted with severe sclerosis of the arteries, -with no appetite, a bad digestion and constipation. -This patient had complained for several years of sacral -pains, and moreover was nearly quite deaf and suffered from -periodic attacks of malarial fever. The injections of spermine, -given for a period of fifteen months, restored the old -lady to such an extent that she recovered her power of -hearing and felt the sacral pains only slightly and after a -long walk. Her general condition was highly satisfactory.</p> - -<p>Spermine, as it has been used medically, is prepared not -only from the testes of animals but from the prostate gland, -ovary, pancreas, thyroid gland and spleen. The substance -is not specially associated with spermatozoa but has a wide -distribution in the mammalian body.</p> - -<p>In the medical treatment of the evils of old age, testicular -emulsions or spermine have not been so favoured as general -hygienic measures. Dr. Weber,<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> a London medical man, -has recently summarised more general measures, and his -evidence is the more important as he has been able to test -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>the efficacy of his precepts in his own case. Dr. Weber is -83 years old, and in his practice has cared for many other -old men.</p> - -<p>The following are the precepts which Dr. Weber formulated: -All the organs must be preserved in a condition -of vigour. It is necessary to recognise and subdue any -morbid tendencies whether these be hereditary or have been -acquired during life. It is necessary to be moderate in -food and drink, and in all other physical pleasures. The -air should be pure in the dwelling and in the vicinity. -It is necessary to take exercise daily, whatever be the -weather. In many cases the respiratory movements must -be specially exercised, and exercise on level ground and -up-hill should be taken. The persons should go to bed -early and rise early, and not sleep for more than six or seven -hours. A bath should be taken daily and the skin should -be well rubbed, the water used being hot or cold, according -to taste. Sometimes it is advantageous to use hot -and cold water. Regular work and mental occupation are -indispensable. It is useful to stimulate the enjoyment of -life so that the mind may be tranquil and full of hope. On -the other hand, the passions must be controlled and the -nervous sensations of grief avoided. Finally, there must -be a resolute intention to preserve the health, to avoid -alcohol and other stimulants as well as narcotics and -soothing drugs.</p> - -<p>By following his own precepts, Dr. Weber has enjoyed a -vigorous and happy old age. A Mde. Nausenne, who died -on March 12th, 1756, at the age of 125 years, in the Dinay -Infirmary (Côtes-du-Nord) explained the secret of her still -greater longevity as follows: “Extreme sobriety, no worry, -body and mind quite calm” (Chemin, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 101).</p> - -<p>Hygienic measures have been the most successful in -prolonging life and in lessening the ills of old age.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span></p> - -<p>Although until quite recently hygiene has rested upon a -very small number of scientifically established facts, and -although its precepts have not been followed rigidly, none -the less it has already succeeded in increasing the duration -of human life. This becomes evident if we compare -the mortality tables of the present day with those of the -past.</p> - -<p>There is reason to state definitely that the mortality in -civilised countries has decreased on the whole in the last -one or two centuries. I have taken some facts regarding -this from the valuable monograph of M. Westergaard.<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> -That author came to the conclusion that the mortality rate -in the 19th century in civilised countries was “much -lower than in most earlier centuries.” This diminution -has been chiefly in infantile mortality. According to -Mallet, the mortality rate of infants in the first year of -their life was, in Geneva, 26 per cent. in the 16th century, -and fell gradually to 16-1/2 per cent. at the beginning of the -19th century. A similar change has been reported from -Berlin, Holland, Denmark and other places. However, -it is not only very young infants that have shown a diminution -in the death-rate. The life of old people has been -prolonged to an extent equally remarkable. The following -are some of the facts which support this statement. -Whilst the old Protestant clergymen of Denmark at ages -varying from 74-1/2 to 89-1/2 years had a mortality rate of 22 -per cent. in the second half of the 18th century, the rate -had sunk to 16·4 per cent. by the middle of the 19th -century. This is not an isolated fact. The old clergymen -of England (65 to 95 years) have also come to live longer, -because in the 18th century the mortality rate was 11·5 -per cent. and in the 19th century (1800-1860) only 10·8 per -cent. There has been a similar decrease in the mortality -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span>rate in the members of both sexes of the Royal Houses -of Europe (Westergaard, p. 284).</p> - -<p>From 1841 to 1850, in England and Wales 162·81 individuals -out of every thousand of both sexes died annually, -but the corresponding figure for the period 1881 to 1890 -was decreased to 153·67 per thousand.</p> - -<p>Westergaard (p. 296) has displayed in a most useful -table the mortality in the chief countries of Europe and -in the State of Massachusetts, in two periods of time. In -the case of old persons from 70 to 75 years, there has -been a constant decrease in the death-rate, without any -exceptions. The exact statistics collected by Pension -Bureaus and Life Assurance Companies exhibit the same -general tendency.</p> - -<p>It cannot be disputed then that there has been a general -increase in the duration of life, and that old people live -longer at the present time than in former ages. This -fact, however, cannot be taken absolutely, and it is still -possible that in particular cases there may have been more -centenarians hitherto than at present.</p> - -<p>The prolongation of life which has come to pass in -recent centuries must certainly be attributed to the advance -of hygiene. The general measures for the preservation -of health, although they were not specially directed to old -people, have had an effect of increasing their longevity. -As in the 18th century and for the greater part of the -19th, the science of hygiene was in a very rudimentary -condition, we may well believe that improvement in cleanliness -and in the general conditions have contributed largely -to the prolongation of life. It is now a long time since -Liebig said that the amount of soap used could be taken -as a measure of the degree of civilisation of a people. As a -matter of fact, cleanliness of the body brought about -in the most simple way, by washing with soap, has had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> -a most important effect in lessening disease and mortality -from disease. In this connection, the fact recently -published by Prof. Czerny,<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> a well-known German -surgeon, has a special interest. Although cancer, the -special scourge of old age, has increased in recent times, -one form of the disease, cancer of the skin, has diminished -notably. “Cancers of the skin,” Prof. Czerny says, “are -met with almost exclusively on uncovered regions of the -body, or on parts accessible to the hands. They develop -especially where the susceptibility is increased by ulcers -or scars which are easily soiled. And so it happens that -in the classes where care is taken as to cleanliness cancer -of the skin is very rare and certainly much more rare -than it used to be.”</p> - -<p>M. Westergaard thinks that vaccination against small-pox -has been of considerable importance in lowering the -death-rate in the 19th century. This, however, can have -had little effect on the duration of life in old people, as -deaths due to small-pox in the old are excessively rare. -For instance, in the second half of the 18th century, that -is to say before the introduction of Jenner’s method, the -mortality from small-pox at Berlin was 9·8 per cent. of -all the deaths, but of these only 0·6 per cent. were cases -of persons more than fifteen years old. The rest, that is to -say, 99·3 per cent. fell on children under that age. It -may be supposed that most of the old people at that time -were already protected by previous attacks of small-pox, -contracted when they were young.</p> - -<p>If hygiene were able to prolong life when it was little -developed, as was the case until recently, we may well -believe that, with our greater knowledge of to-day, a much -better result will be obtained.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span></p> -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>DISEASES THAT SHORTEN LIFE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Measures against infectious diseases as aiding in the prolongation -of life—Prevention of syphilis—Attempts to prepare -serums which could strengthen the higher elements of the -organism</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Attacks</span> of infectious diseases incurred during life frequently -shorten its duration and it has been observed that -most centenarians have enjoyed good health throughout -their lives. Syphilis is the most important of these diseases. -It is not really a cause of death itself, but it predisposes -the organism to the attacks of other diseases, -amongst the latter being some particularly fatal to old -people, such as diseases of the heart and blood-vessels -(angina pectoris and aneurism of the aorta) and some -malignant tumours, especially cancer of the tongue and -of the mouth. To lengthen human life, it is a fundamental -necessity to avoid infection by syphilis. To reach this -result everything must be done to spread medical knowledge -about such diseases. It is absolutely necessary to -overcome the deeply rooted prejudice in favour of concealing -everything relating to sexual matters. Complete -information should be widely spread as to the means of -protecting humanity against this awful scourge. It has -now been possible to apply experimental methods to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> -investigation of this disease, and science has obtained a -series of results of the highest practical utility. Prof. -Neisser of Breslau, one of the most distinguished of modern -venereal physicians, has summed up the present state of -knowledge of these matters in the following lines.<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> “It -is our duty as medical men,” he says, “to recommend -strongly as a means of disinfection in all possible cases -of contagion the calomel ointment which Metchnikoff and -Roux have advised.” It is to be hoped that future generations, -by following this advice, will see an enormous -diminution in the number of cases of syphilis.</p> - -<p>Syphilis, however, although a very important factor, is -not alone in shortening the life of man. A very large number -of persons die prematurely although they have not contracted -that disease. We do not know the duration of -human life before the arrival of syphilis in Europe, but -there is no reason to think that it was very different from -what it is to-day. We must, therefore, try to prevent as -many infectious diseases as possible, and recent advances in -medicine have made this task much less difficult. Pneumonia, -it is true, the most common infectious disease -amongst the old, cannot yet be easily avoided. All the anti-pneumonic -serums which have hitherto been prepared have -turned out to have little efficacy; but there is no reason to -give up the hope that this problem will yet be solved.</p> - -<p>Diseases of the heart, which are common in extreme -old age, are particularly difficult to avoid, because in most -cases we do not know sufficiently well their primary causes. -In so far as they depend upon intemperance or infectious -diseases such as syphilis, they can be avoided by the employment -of suitable measures.</p> - -<p>As the higher elements of the body in old people become -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>weaker and are devoured by the macrophags, it seems -probable that the destruction or deterioration of these -voracious cells would tend to the prolongation of life. -However, as the macrophags are indispensable in the -struggle against the microbes of infectious diseases, and -particularly of chronic disease, such as tuberculosis, it is -necessary to preserve them. We must turn rather to the -idea of a remedy which could strengthen the higher -elements and make them a less ready prey to the macrophags.</p> - -<p>In the “Nature of Man” (Chap. III.) in discussing the -simian origin of mankind, I touched on the existence of -animal serums that have the power of dissolving the -blood corpuscles of other species of animals. There is -now, in biological science, a new chapter upon such -serums, which have been called cytotoxic serums because -they are able to poison the cells of organs.</p> - -<p>The blood and blood serum of some animals act as -poisons when they are introduced into an organism. Eels -and snakes, even non-poisonous snakes, are cases in point. -A small quantity of the blood of a snake, an adder for -instance, injected into a mammal (rabbit, guinea-pig, or -mouse) soon brings about death. The blood of some -mammals is poisonous to other mammals, although in a -lesser degree than that of snakes. The dog is specially -notable from the fact that its blood is poisonous to other -mammals, whilst, on the other hand, the blood and blood -serum of the sheep, goat, and horse have generally little -effect on other animals and on man. It is for this reason -that these animals, and particularly the horse, are used in -the preparation of the serums employed in medicine.</p> - -<p>Now, these harmless serums become poisonous when -they have been taken from animals which have been first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span> -treated with the blood or the organs of other species of -animals. For instance, the blood serum of a sheep which -has been treated with the blood of a rabbit becomes -poisonous because it has acquired the power of dissolving -the red blood corpuscles of the rabbit. It is a poison in -the case of the rabbit, but is harmless to most other -animals. The injection of the rabbit’s blood into the sheep -has conferred on the sheep a new property which comes -into operation only with regard to the red blood corpuscles -of the rabbit. We have here to do with something analogous -to what has been observed in the cases of serums -used to arrest infectious disease. When the bacilli of -diphtheria, or their products, have been injected into -horses, there is produced an anti-diphtheric serum, capable -of curing diphtheria, but powerless against tetanus or -plague. After M. J. M. Bordet of the Pasteur Institute -had made his discovery of serums that had acquired -the power of dissolving the red blood corpuscles of other -animals, the attempt was made to prepare similar serums -directed against all the other elements of the body, such -as white blood corpuscles, renal and nervous cells. In -the course of these investigations it was proved to be necessary -to employ a certain dose of the serum in order to -obtain the poisonous result. If smaller quantities of the -poisonous dose were used, the reverse effect was produced. -Thus a serum, strong doses of which dissolved the red -blood corpuscles and so made them less numerous in the -blood, increased the number of these when given in very -small doses.</p> - -<p>M. Cantacuzène was the first to establish this fact in -the case of the rabbit, whilst M. Besredka and I myself -did it in the case of man.<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> Since then M. Bélonovsky of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span>Cronstadt has confirmed the result on anæmic patients, -treating them with small quantities of serum. He has -been able to produce in them an increase in the number -of the red blood corpuscles, and in the quantity of the red -colouring matter (hæmoglobin) in the blood. Later on -M. André<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> devoted much attention to this matter at -Lyons. He prepared a serum by injecting human blood -into animals and made use of it in the case of several -persons who suffered from anæmia from different causes. -In the case of patients, the anæmic condition of which had -hitherto remained stationary, Dr. André found a sudden -increase in the number of red corpuscles after injecting -small doses of the serum. M. Besredka, in the case of -laboratory animals, increased the number of white corpuscles -by injecting them with a small quantity of a serum, -strong doses of which destroyed these cells.</p> - -<p>These facts are only a special case of the general rule -that small doses of poisons increase the activity of the -elements that are killed by large doses. In order to -increase the activity of the heart, medical men give successfully -small doses of cardiac poisons such as digitalis. -As a commercial process, the activity of yeasts is increased -by submitting them to weak doses of substances (fluoride -of sodium) which, given in larger quantities, would kill -them.</p> - -<p>My general conclusion from these facts is that it is -logical to lay down the principle that the higher elements -of our body could be strengthened by subjecting them to -the action of small doses of the appropriate cytotoxic -serums. There is, however, much difficulty in putting -this into practice. It is quite easy to obtain human blood -to inject into animals with the object of preparing a serum -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>which can increase the number of red corpuscles. On the -other hand, it is extremely difficult to get human bodies -sufficiently fresh to use them for a practical purpose. -According to law, <em lang="la" xml:lang="la">post mortem</em> examinations can be made -only after an interval of time in course of which the tissues -have changed; besides, the organs obtained in this way are -frequently affected by injuries or diseases militating -against their use. Even in Paris, with its three million -inhabitants, it is extremely rare that there is a good opportunity -for the preparation of human cytotoxic serums. -In two or three years, during which Dr. Weinberg has -collected the organs from human bodies fairly fresh, he -has been unable to obtain sufficiently active serums.</p> - -<p>The best results have been obtained from new-born -infants which have been killed by some accident in the -process of child-birth, as in them the organs are in a -normal state. However, owing to the advance in the -practice of obstetrics, such accidents, already infrequent, -are becoming extremely rare. In such conditions we -may have to wait long before getting a positive result, -unless the future will find some method of obtaining the -necessary materials for this difficult and interesting -purpose.</p> - -<p>As it is so difficult to prepare a remedy which can -strengthen the weakened higher elements of the body, it -may be easier to find a means of preventing the weakening -which interferes so much with our desire to live long. -As the products of microbes are the most active agents in -deteriorating our tissues, we must look towards them for -the solution of the problem.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span></p> - -<h3>IV<br /><br /> - -<small><small>INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION SHORTENS LIFE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Uselessness of the large intestine in man—Case of a woman -whose large intestine was inactive for six months—Another -case where the greater part of the large intestine was completely -shut off—Attempts to disinfect the contents of the -large intestine—Prolonged mastication as a means of -preventing intestinal putrefaction</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> general measures of hygiene directed against infectious -diseases play a part in prolonging the lives of old -people, but, in addition to the microbes which invade the -body from outside, there is a rich source of harm in the -microbes which inhabit the body. The most important -of these belong to the intestinal flora, which is abundant -and varied.</p> - -<p>The intestinal microbes are most numerous in the large -intestine. This organ, which is useful to mammals the -food of which consists of rough bulky vegetable matter, -and which require a large reservoir for the waste of the -process of digestion, is certainly useless in the case of -man.<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> In the “Nature of Man” I have dealt with this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>question at length, as it was an important example of -what I regard as the disharmonies of the human constitution. -A case upon which I have always laid great stress -is that of a woman who lived for thirty-seven years, -although her large intestine was atrophied and inactive, as -this seems to be a remarkable proof of the uselessness of -the organ in the human body. The small size or complete -absence of the large intestine in many vertebrates confirms -my conclusion. None the less, some of my critics think -that my argument is incomplete. To strengthen it, I may -call their attention to a medical observation which is as -valuable as if it had been an experiment. It relates to a -woman, sixty-two years old, a patient of Prof. Kocher at -Berne. She had been suffering from a strangulated hernia -associated with gangrene of part of the intestine, and had -to be operated upon suddenly.</p> - -<p>The gangrenous portion of the ileum having been removed, -the healthy part was implanted in the skin so as -to form an artificial aperture through which waste matter -from the food passed to the exterior without traversing the -large intestine. Although the patient was old and seriously -ill, the operation, performed by M. Tavel, was quite successful. -Six months later, in a new operation, the small -intestine was rejoined to the large intestine so that the -fæces were again able to pass to the exterior by the natural -channel. In this case, then, the large intestine was thrown -out of use for half a year, not only without injury to the -general health, but with the result that the patient was com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>pletely -cured and gained in weight. MM. Macfadyen, -Nencki, and Mde. Sieber<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> studied the digestive processes -in the small intestine and the nutritive metabolism, and -determined that these were active and healthy, the absence -of intestinal putrefaction, that evil of the constitution, being -specially favourable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f19" id="f19"></a> -<img src="images/i_p153.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="Diagram of the lower bowel in a female patient." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.—Diagram of the lower bowel in a female patient.<br /> -<i>A.C.N.</i>, Artificial anus: <i>A.S.</i>, Insertion of the ileum to the colon.<br /> -(After M. Mauclaire.)</p></div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"><a name="f20" id="f20"></a> -<img src="images/i_p154.jpg" width="300" height="320" alt="Diagram of the lower bowel, after a third operation." /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.—Diagram of the lower bowel, after a third operation, on the case -in Fig. <a href="#f19">19</a>.<br /> -(After M. Mauclaire.)</p></div> - -<p>In six months of non-action, the part played by an organ -can be satisfactorily estimated. M. Mauclaire,<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> however, -has put on record a case the history of which was longer. -In 1902 he operated on a young woman and produced an -artificial anus, there being no escape of fæcal matter by -the ordinary channel. Ten months later M. Mauclaire -operated a second time and shut off a portion of the intestine. -He left the artificial anus, but cut across -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>the lower end of the small intestine and inserted -it near the iliac end of the descending colon (Fig. -19). For several days after the operation the fæces -were passed by the normal aperture, as the small intestine -now communicated directly with the large intestine, -near the rectum. This condition, however, did not persist, -for the fæcal matter began to flow back through the excluded -portion of the large intestine, so reaching the artificial -anus, and causing inconvenience. Giving up the hope -that this would cease, M. Mauclaire performed a third -operation twenty months later. He cut across the large -intestine near the point where the small intestine had been -artificially led into it (Fig. <a href="#f20">20</a>), so dividing the digestive -tube into two parts, one of which remained in communication -with the natural anus, whilst the other, consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span> -nearly the whole of the large intestine, communicated with -the exterior by the artificial anus. In the new state of -affairs, the food refuse passed directly into the terminal -portion of the large intestine, and thence, by way of the -rectum, to the exterior through the normal anus without -being able to pass up the large intestine towards the artificial -anus. In this last operation about a yard of the small -intestine and the greater part of the large intestine, the -cæcum, and ascending, transverse and descending colons -were removed from activity.</p> - -<p>By the kindness of M. Mauclaire, I have been able to -watch his patient during the last four years. I satisfied -myself that after the supposed exclusion of the large intestine, -food dejecta ascended the colon and emerged by the -artificial anus. There was such an accumulation of waste -in the large intestine that fragments did not emerge until -three weeks after the meal of which they had formed part. -It was only after the final operation, that in which the large -intestine was separated, that the dejecta escaped only by the -natural anus, whilst a little mucus containing microbes was -passed through the artificial aperture. Even three years -after the operation, mucus continued to escape by the latter -aperture, it being shown thus that after the large intestine -had ceased to be a channel for the fæces, its walls continued -to secrete although otherwise it had lost its function completely. -Nevertheless the condition of this patient improved -and she lived perfectly well without a functional large intestine. -She takes food well but has to go to stool three -or four times a day and has a tendency to diarrhœa. The -excreta are smooth and often nearly liquid, especially after -fruit has been eaten.</p> - -<p>The case I have been describing, and which I am still -keeping under observation, demonstrates once more the uselessness -of the human large intestine; it should convert the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> -most sceptical critic. But it also shows that the suppression -of nearly the entire large intestine for several years -does not completely get rid of the intestinal flora. Even -without this evidence, however, I do not suggest that removal -of the large intestine can be thought of as a means to -prevent the pernicious effect of the intestinal flora.</p> - -<p>Is it possible, without operative interference, to take -direct action against the intestinal flora by the use of antiseptics? -Consideration of this is already ancient history. -When the theory that the intestine was a source of auto-intoxication -was propounded, M. Bouchard<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> made the attempt -to cure such cases by disinfecting the digestive tube -with [Greek: b]-naphthol. He found, however, that that antiseptic, -like many others, not only did not completely disinfect -the intestine but sometimes had a harmful effect on -the body.</p> - -<p>M. Stern<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> has shown, in an elaborate memoir, that such -antiseptics as calomel, salol, [Greek: b]-naphthol, naphthaline, and -camphor, when administered in quantities compatible with -health, do not disinfect the digestive tube at all. More -recently M. Strasburger<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> has shown that when naphthaline -has been given in quantities sufficient to impart its odour to -the fæces, the intestinal microbes, so far from being diminished, -are even increased in numbers. On the other hand, -after meals consisting of milk to which there has been -added an antiseptic in the proportion of a quarter of a gram -to the litre, the intestinal microbes are really reduced in -number. Strasburger obtained his best results with tanocol. -Two persons who used, according to this method, -three to six grams of tanacol per day, displayed a notable -reduction in quantity of the intestinal flora.</p> - -<p>Strasburger’s conclusion was that “the attempt to destroy -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>the intestinal microbes by the use of chemical agents has -little chance of success.” It cannot be denied that under -special circumstances it is possible to decrease the number -of microbes, especially in the small intestine. But this -result is small and may be followed by the contrary effect, -for the natural means of defence of the intestine against -microbes are weakened, and the intestine itself may be -harmed more than the microbes.</p> - -<p>Strasburger, moreover, is no convinced advocate of the -use of purgatives. The diminution of the sulpho-conjugate -ethers in the urine, which certainly may follow the -use of purgatives, does not necessarily indicate reduced -putrefaction in the intestine, but may point only to a lessened -absorption of the bacterial products. Such an interpretation -is supported by an observed fact; in the case of a -dog belonging to Strasburger, which had a fistula of the -small intestine, the diarrhœa induced by calomel was accompanied -by an indubitable increase in the total quantity -of intestinal microbes.</p> - -<p>Strasburger thinks that the most favourable results can -be obtained by aiding the intestine in the discharge of its -normal function. If it can be brought to digest the food -more completely, there is the less pabulum left for the -microbes. A similar result can be reached by lowering the -amount of food taken, and to this course the beneficial -effects of starvation in acute diseases of the intestine may -be attributed.</p> - -<p>The general conclusion, reached after many experiments -on the disinfection of the intestine, is unfavourable. Very -little is to be expected from the method. None the less I -cannot regard the matter as definitely settled. Cohendy -has investigated the effect on the intestinal flora of thymol -which was administered in several cases with the object<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> -of destroying parasites. From nine to twelve grammes of -thymol were administered to each patient in the space of -three days, and there was a notable antiseptic effect, -Cohendy believing that the quantity of microbes had been -reduced to a thirteenth.</p> - -<p>Such facts prove only that the antiseptic treatment is -available up to a certain point. To attain the results, however, -such large quantities must be used that the treatment -can be applied only in special cases and at long intervals. -More use can be made of simple purgatives which do not -kill the microbes but eliminate them by the normal channel. -It has been urged repeatedly that calomel, which is often -used as a purgative, acts also as an intestinal antiseptic; -but it is probable that its influence in reducing the intestinal -flora is merely mechanical. It has been shown that -calomel, like some other purgatives, lessens intestinal -putrefaction, the evidence being the decrease in the -sulpho-conjugate ethers in the urine. But although the -diarrhœa induced by purgatives generally has such a result, -spontaneous diarrhœas such as those of typhoid fever and -of intestinal tuberculosis are associated with increased -putrefaction.<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a></p> - -<p>It is clear, however these matters may be settled, that -regular activity of the bowels, increased by the occasional -use of purgatives, must diminish the formation of intestinal -poisons, and therefore also the damage done by these to -the higher elements of the body.</p> - -<p>When I asked the relatives of Mde. Robineau if they -could tell me of any special circumstance which in their -opinion had contributed to the extreme duration of the life -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span>of this old lady, they replied as follows:—“We are convinced -that a slight bodily derangement, present for the last -fifty years, has tended to prolong the life of the old lady. -It cannot be said that she has suffered from diarrhœa, but -she has been often subject to frequent calls of nature.” It -was most remarkable that the old lady showed no traces of -sclerosis of the arteries. I may mention the strongly contrasting -case of one of my old colleagues to whom a natural -desire to empty the bowels came only once a week. A -more frequent call was a sign of illness in his case. Now -sclerosis of the arteries appeared in so marked a form that -he died from it before he had reached the age of fifty years. -This may be added to the list of facts which point to a -close association between sclerosis of the arteries and the -functions of the digestive tube.</p> - -<p>Recently, at the suggestion of Mr. Fletcher,<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> the advantage -of eating extremely slowly has been recognised, the -object being to prepare for the utilisation of the food materials, -and to prevent intestinal putrefaction. Certainly the -habit of eating quickly favours the multiplication of -microbes round about the lumps of food which have been -swallowed without sufficient mastication. It is quite harmful, -however, to chew the food too long, and to swallow it -only after it has been kept in the mouth for a considerable -time. Too complete a use of the food material causes want -of tone in the intestinal wall, from which as much harm -may come as from imperfect mastication. In America, -where Fletcher’s theory took its origin, there has already -been described under the name of “Bradyfagy” a disease -arising from the habit of eating too slowly. Dr. Einhorn,<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span>a well-known specialist in the diseases of the digestive system, -has found that several cases of this disease were -rapidly cured when the patients made up their minds to eat -more quickly again. Comparative physiology supplies us -with arguments against too prolonged mastication. Ruminants, -which carry out to the fullest extent Mr. Fletcher’s -plan, are notable for extreme intestinal putrefaction and for -the short duration of their lives. On the other hand, birds -and reptiles, which have a very poor mechanism for breaking -up food, enjoy much longer lives.</p> - -<p>Prolonged mastication, then, cannot be recommended as -a preventative of intestinal putrefaction any more than the -surgical removal of the large intestine or the disinfection of -the digestive tube. The field lies open for other means -which may probably solve the problem more completely -and more practically.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span></p> - -<h3>V<br /><br /> - -<small><small>LACTIC ACID AS INHIBITING INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The development of the intestinal flora in man—Harmlessness -of sterilised food—Means of preventing the putrefaction -of food—Lactic fermentation and its anti-putrescent action—Experiments -on man and mice—Longevity in races which -use soured milk—Comparative study of different soured -milks—Properties of the Bulgarian <em>Bacillus</em>—Means of preventing -intestinal putrefaction with the help of microbes</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">At</span> birth the human intestine is full, but contains no -microbes. Microbes very soon appear in it, because the -meconium, the contents of the intestines of new-born children, -composed of bile and cast-off intestinal mucus cells, -is an excellent culture medium for them. In the first hours -after birth, microbes begin to reach the intestine. In the -first day, before the child has taken any food whatever, -there is to be found in the meconium a varied flora, composed -of several species of microbes. Under the influence -of the mother’s milk this flora is reduced and comes to be -composed almost entirely of a special microbe described by -M. Tissier and called by him <i>Bacillus bifidus</i>.</p> - -<p>The food, therefore, has an influence on the microbes of -the intestine. If the child be fed with cow’s milk, the flora -is richer in species than in the case of a child suckled by -its mother. Later on, also, the flora varies with the food, -as has been proved by MM. Macfadyen, Nencki, and Mde.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> -Sieber in the case of a woman with an intestinal fistula. -The dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food -makes it possible to adopt measures to modify the flora in -our bodies and to replace the harmful microbes by useful -microbes. Unfortunately, our actual knowledge of the intestinal -flora is still very imperfect because of the impossibility -of finding artificial media in which it could be -grown. Notwithstanding this difficulty, however, a -rational solution of the problem must be sought.</p> - -<p>Man, even in the savage condition, prepares his food before -eating it. He submits much of it to the action of fire, -thus notably lessening the number of microbes. Microbes -enter the digestive tube in vast numbers with raw food, -and in order to lessen the number of species in the -intestines, it is important to eat only cooked food and to -drink only liquids that have been previously boiled. In -that way, although we cannot destroy all the microbes in -the food, because some of them can withstand the temperature -of the boiling point of water, we can kill the great -majority of them.</p> - -<p>It has sometimes been supposed that cooked or completely -sterilised food (that is to say food that has been -subjected to a temperature of from 248°-284° Fahr.) is -harmful to the organism and that much of it is not well -digested. From this point of view protests have been -made against the feeding of infants with sterilised milk -or even with boiled milk. Although in certain cases sterilised -milk is not well supported by infants, it cannot be -doubted but that boiled milk and cooked food are generally -successful. The large number of children brought up successfully -on boiled cow’s milk and the health of travellers -in arctic regions are ample proof of this. I have been -told by M. Charcot that in his voyage to the antarctic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span> -regions, he and his companions lived entirely on sterilised -food, or on cooked food such as the flesh of seals and -penguins. As they had no green food nor fresh fruit, the -only raw food that they ate was a little cheese. Living -under these conditions, all the members of the expedition -enjoyed good health, and there was no case of digestive -disturbance in the whole period of sixteen months.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that abstaining from raw food, and so -reducing largely the entrance of new microbes, by no -means causes the disappearance of the intestinal flora -already existing. We must reckon with that and with -the evil that it does by weakening the higher cells of the -tissues. As the part of the flora that does most damage -consists of microbes which cause putrefaction of the contents -of the intestine and harmful fermentations, particularly -butyric fermentation, it is against these that our -efforts must be directed.</p> - -<p>Long before the science of bacteriology was in existence, -men had turned their attention to methods of preventing -putrefaction. Food, especially if it be kept in a -warm place or in a moist atmosphere, soon begins to -putrefy and to become unpleasant to the taste and dangerous -to the health. Everyone has known cases of poisoning -from putrid flesh or other food material. Foà,<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> the -explorer of Central Africa, has related that once, when -they were starving, he and his men came on the putrefying -body of an elephant. The negroes rushed to lay hold of -the carrion, but Foà tried to dissuade them, explaining -that to eat flesh in such a state was as bad as taking -poison. All did not listen to him, and three negroes, who -had taken pieces of the body, swallowed them before they -had been properly cooked. All three died in a few days, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>with the neck and throat swollen, the tongue almost paralysed, -and the abdomen inflated.</p> - -<p>In another case, sausages made of putrid horse flesh -caused an epidemic at Rohrsdorf, in Prussia, in 1885.<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> -About forty people fell ill after having eaten the sausages, -which, according to witnesses, were green in colour, smelt -badly, and had a revolting appearance. One person died, -whilst the others recovered after cholera-like symptoms. -It is true that all putrefying food does not produce the -same effect. MM. Tissier and Martelly<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> found no digestive -trouble after having eaten food that was quite putrid. -Everyone knows that the Chinese prepare a dish particularly -pleasant to gourmets by allowing eggs to putrefy. -Some decaying cheeses are harmful to the health, but -others can be eaten with impunity. The reason of this -is that whilst putrefying food may contain microbes and -dangerous toxins, it does not contain them in all cases. -On the other hand, we must take into account the different -susceptibilities of people to the harmful action of microbes -and their products. Some can swallow without any evil -result a quantity of microbes which in the case of other -individuals would produce a fatal attack of cholera. Everything -depends upon the resistance offered to the microbes -by the invaded organism.</p> - -<p>Experiments on animals fed on putrefying food have -also given varied results. Some animals eat it without -any harm resulting, others have attacks of vomiting and -show such a repugnance that it is impossible to continue -the experiment.</p> - -<p>Not only flesh and other animal substances, but vegetables -can undergo putrefaction and fermentation (butyric) -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span>which make it dangerous to eat them. Many accidents -have occurred in man as the result of deteriorated preserved -fruit. Vegetables, preserved in silos to feed cattle, -sometimes go wrong. “If, for instance, rainy days come -after sunny days, so that the uncovered fodder is wetted -again, the resulting ensilage is poor and has an extremely -unpleasant butyric odour, so that the animals turn from it.” -Sometimes the fodder grows black in the silo, and acquires a -special smell. “The animals will take it only in the -absence of other food; their excreta become black, and if -they are kept on such a diet for a time they waste in a -marked manner.”<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a></p> - -<p>In popular practice, the value of acids for preserving -animal and vegetable food and for preventing putrefaction -has long been recognised. Meats of all kinds, fish and -vegetables have been “marinated” with vinegar, as the -acetic acid in that substance, the product of bacteria, -wards off putrefaction. If the materials which it is desired -to preserve give off acids themselves, the addition of -vinegar may be unnecessary. For this reason some animal -products such as milk, or vegetables rich in sugar become -acid spontaneously and so can be preserved. Soured -milk can be made into many kinds of cheese, and these -last for longer or shorter times. Many vegetables can -undergo a natural process of souring, when they “keep” -without difficulty. Thus cabbage becomes “sauerkraut” -and beetroot and cucumbers pass into an acid state. In -many countries, as for instance in Russia, the use of acidified -vegetables is of great importance in the food-supply -of the populace. Fresh fruit and vegetables cannot be -obtained in the long winters, during which the people con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span>sume -large quantities of cucumbers, melons, apples, and -other fruits which have undergone an acid fermentation -in which lactic acid is the chief product. During summer, -milk, which acidifies readily, is the chief source of acid -materials for consumption. The chief beverage is -“kwass,” of which black bread is the main ingredient, -and this passes through not only an alcoholic fermentation, -but an acidifying change in which lactic acid is the most -important product.</p> - -<p>Rye bread, the chief food of the populace, is also a -product of fermentations amongst which the lactic acid -fermentation is most important, but in other kinds of bread -also there is a fermentation in which some of the sugar -is transformed to lactic acid.</p> - -<p>Soured milk, because of the lactic acid in it, can impede -the putrefaction of meat. In certain countries, accordingly, -meat is preserved in acid skimmed milk with the -result that putrefaction is prevented. Lactic acid fermentation -is equally important in the food supply of cattle. It -is the chief agent that, in the process of preserving vegetation -in silos, hinders putrefaction. Finally, the same -fermentation serves in distilleries to preserve the must from -which alcohol is prepared.</p> - -<p>This short review is in itself enough to show the great -importance of lactic fermentation as a means of stopping -putrefaction and butyric fermentation, both of which hinder -the preservation of organic substances and are capable -of exciting disturbances in the organism.</p> - -<p>As lactic fermentation serves so well to arrest putrefaction -in general, why should it not be used for the same -purpose within the digestive tube?</p> - -<p>It is a matter of common knowledge that putrefaction -and butyric fermentation are arrested in the presence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> -sugar. Whereas meat preserved without special care soon -putrefies, milk in exactly the same conditions does not -putrefy, but becomes sour, the reason being that meat is -poor in sugar whereas milk contains a good deal of it. -However, the scientific explanation of this fundamental -fact is difficult. It has been shown conclusively that sugar -itself cannot prevent putrefaction. Milk, for instance, however -rich in sugar it may be, readily putrefies in certain -conditions. Sugar preserves organic matter from putrefaction -only because it can readily undergo lactic fermentation, -and this fermentation is the work of the microbes -described fifty years ago by Pasteur. That great discovery -proved the part played by microbes in fermentation -and founded bacteriology, a science equally rich in -theory and in practice.</p> - -<p>I need not pause to develop the theme that the anti-putrescent -action of the lactic fermentation depends on the -production of lactic acid by microbes, because I have -explained the matter at length in the tenth chapter of the -“Nature of Man.” If the lactic acid be neutralised, the -organic matter soon putrefies, notwithstanding the presence -of the lactic microbes. The most important point -is as to whether lactic fermentation really arrests intestinal -putrefaction. Several sets of observations have been made -upon this matter. Dr. Herter,<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> of New York, injected -directly into the small intestine of a number of dogs -quantities of different microbes. To test the action of -these on intestinal putrefaction, he investigated the sulpho-conjugate -ethers in the urine, as he believed, in accordance -with current and well justified opinion, that -these substances are the best proofs of the existence of -putrefaction. He found that whilst the introduction of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>quantities of <i>Bacillus coli</i> or <i>Bacillus proteus</i> increased the -intestinal putrefaction, lactic bacilli notably lessened it. -Herter found a notable diminution of sulpho-conjugate -ethers in the urine of dogs which had been treated with -the lactic microbes.</p> - -<p>The experiments which Dr. M. Cohendy<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> performed -upon himself during a period of nearly six months are -still more interesting.</p> - -<p>When Dr. Cohendy had proved that much intestinal -putrefaction occurred during a period of 25 days, in which -he lived on an ordinary mixed diet, he began to take pure -cultures of lactic bacillus, taken from yahourth. In a -period of 74 days, he took quantities varying from 280 -to 350 grams of the culture.</p> - -<p>Analysis of the urine during the progress of the experiment -showed that intestinal putrefaction had notably decreased -whilst the lactic bacilli were being taken, and that -the diminution persisted seven weeks after the taking of -the bacilli ceased. Dr. Cohendy gives it as the direct -result of his experiment that the introduction of lactic -ferment into the intestine definitely arrests putrefaction. -He obtained this result on a diet consisting of 400 -grams of soup, 150 of meat, 700 of grain-food, 400 of -green vegetables, 300 of fruits and dessert and a litre of -water. He came to the conclusion that the elimination of -meat from the diet was unnecessary, as the particular kind -of lactic ferment he employed was extremely active in inhibiting -the proteolytic ferments.</p> - -<p>Later experiments made by Dr. Cohendy showed that -the lactic bacillus became so acclimatised in the human -intestine that it was to be found there several weeks after -it had been swallowed.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span></p> -<p>Dr. Pochon, assistant to Professor Combe<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> at Lausanne, -has repeated on himself the experiments of Cohendy. He -took for several weeks milk curdled with pure cultures of -lactic acid microbes and obtained “results that were quite -definite as to intestinal putrefaction.” Analysis of his -urine showed that there was a marked diminution of indol -and phenol, substances which are certain indexes of intestinal -putrefaction.</p> - -<p>In addition to such observations on lactic bacilli there -is a good deal of knowledge as to the effect of lactic acid -taken in bulk. The result of the various observations<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> -shows that the acid lessens intestinal putrefaction and -lowers the quantity of sulpho-conjugate ethers in the -urine. This fact explains why favourable results follow -the use of lactic acid in many intestinal diseases such as -infantile diarrhœa, tuberculous enteritis and even Asiatic -cholera. The addition of this remedy to practical therapeutics -is due chiefly to Professor Hayem. It is employed -not only in the treatment of diseases of the digestive -system (dyspepsia, enteritis and colitis), but is indicated -also in diabetes and is used locally in tuberculous ulcerations -of the larynx. As quantities up to twelve grams -can be given by the mouth daily, it is plain that the system -is tolerant of this acid. It is either oxidised in the tissues -or excreted with the urine. In the case of a -diabetic woman who had taken 80 grams of lactic acid -in four days, Nencki and Sieber<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> found no traces of it -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>in the urine. On the other hand, Stadelmann<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> found a -notable quantity of the acid in another diabetic patient -who had been taking over four grams daily.</p> - -<p>The general interpretation of the benefits gained from -the use of lactic acid ferments is that they depend solely -on the action of the lactic acid which they produce in -preventing the multiplication of the microbes which cause -putrefaction. Recent investigations made by Dr. Bélonowsky, -at the Pasteur Institute, show that a lactic ferment -isolated from yahourth and described as the Bulgarian -bacillus owes its antiseptic powers not only to lactic acid -but to another substance which it secretes. Dr. Bélonowsky -has studied the effects of this bacillus upon mice, by -adding to their previously sterilised food quantities of -this lactic microbe. As control experiments he fed other -mice on food to which lactic acid had been added in -quantities corresponding to the quantity produced by the -Bulgarian bacillus, or which had been mixed with other -kinds of bacilli. Another set of mice were given normal -food without the addition of either microbes or lactic -acid.</p> - -<p>Out of these groups of mice, those which had been given -the Bulgarian bacillus thrived best and had most progeny. -Their droppings showed fewest microbes, particularly -microbes of putrefaction.</p> - -<p>The next stage in Dr. Bélonowsky’s experiments was -to feed mice not with living quantities of the Bulgarian -bacillus, but with cultures which had been sterilised by heat -(120°-140° Fahr.). These mice lived as well as those to -which living cultures had been supplied, and notably better -than those supplied with pure lactic acid. It is evident -therefore that there is some other product of this -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span>bacillus which favours life by preventing intestinal -putrefaction.</p> - -<p>Dr. Bélonowsky showed, moreover, that the Bulgarian -bacillus cures a special intestinal disease known as mouse -typhus.</p> - -<p>The experiments which I have described show that intestinal -putrefaction is to be combated not by lactic acid -itself, but by the introduction into the organism of cultures -of the lactic bacilli. The latter become acclimatised in -the human digestive tube as they find there the sugary -material required for their subsistence, and by producing -disinfecting bodies benefit the organism which supports -them.</p> - -<p>From time immemorial human beings have absorbed -quantities of lactic microbes by consuming in the uncooked -condition substances such as soured milk, kephir, sauerkraut, -or salted cucumbers which have undergone lactic -fermentation. By these means they have unknowingly -lessened the evil consequences of intestinal putrefaction. -In the Bible soured milk is frequently spoken of. When -Abraham entertained the three angels he set before them -soured milk and sweet milk and the calf which he had -dressed (Genesis xviii. 8). In his fifth book, Moses -enumerates amongst the food which Jehovah had given -his people to eat “Soured milk of kine and goat’s milk, -with fat of lambs and rams of the breed of Bashan, and -goats with the fat of kidneys” (Deut. xxxii. 14).<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a></p> - -<p>A food known as “Leben raib,” which is a soured milk, -prepared from the milk of buffaloes, kine or goats, has -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span>been used in Egypt from the remotest antiquity. A similar -preparation known as “yahourth” is familiar to the -populations of the Balkan Peninsula. The natives of -Algiers make a kind of “leben” not identical with the -Egyptian form.</p> - -<p>Soured milk is consumed in great quantities in Russia -in two forms, “prostokwacha,” which is raw milk spontaneously -coagulated and soured, and “varenetz,” which -is boiled milk soured with a yeast.</p> - -<p>The chief food of many natives of tropical Africa consists -of soured milk. The staple diet of the Mpeseni is -“a curdled milk, almost solidified.” “Meat is eaten only -on ceremonial occasions.” According to Foà, a tribe of -the Nyassa-Tanganyika plateau, like the Zulus, take milk -only in the form of a raw cheese mixed with salt and -pepper.</p> - -<p>Dr. Lima of Mossamedes, in West Africa, has told me -that the natives of many regions south of Angola live -almost entirely on milk. They employ the cream as an -ointment for the skin, whilst the milk, soured and curdled, -is their staple food. M. Nogueira reported the same circumstances -nearly fifty years ago after his journey in the -province of Angola.</p> - -<p>Just as cheeses vary in different countries, so curdled -milk varies slightly according to the nature of the flora -of microbes. Taking all the soured milks that are produced -by natural processes, it may be said that the greater -number of them contain not only microbes that produce -lactic acid, but also yeasts that cause alcoholic fermentations. -Kephir, which is prepared from the milk of kine, -and koumiss, which is a product of mares’ milk, are -notably alcoholic. Koumiss is the well-known national -beverage of the Kirghises, Tartars and Kulmucks, nomads<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> -of Asiatic Russia who are famous horse breeders, whilst -kephir is the native drink of the mountaineers of the -Caucasus, the Ossetes, and some other tribes.</p> - -<p>It has been supposed that the chief merit of kephir was -that it was more easy to digest than milk, as some of its -casein is dissolved in the process of fermentation. Kephir, -in fact, was supposed to be partly digested milk. This -view has not been confirmed. Professor Hayem thinks -that the good effects of kephir are due to the presence of -lactic acid which replaces the acid of the stomach and -has an antiseptic effect. The experiments of M. Rovighi, -which I spoke of in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, have confirmed -the latter fact, which now may be taken as certain. The -action of kephir in preventing intestinal putrefaction depends -on the lactic acid bacilli which it contains.</p> - -<p>Kephir, although in some cases certainly beneficial, -cannot be recommended for the prolonged use necessary if -intestinal putrefaction is to be overcome. It is produced -by combined lactic and alcoholic fermentations, and as it -contains up to one per cent. of alcohol, its use as a food -for years would involve the absorption of considerable -quantities of alcohol. The yeasts which produce it can be -acclimatised in the human digestive tract, in which, however, -they are harmful, as they are favourable to the germs -of infectious diseases such as the bacillus of typhoid fever, -and the vibrio of Asiatic cholera.</p> - -<p>Kephir has also the disadvantage that its flora varies -considerably and is not well known. There has been little -success in producing it by pure cultures as would be -necessary were it to be brought into general use. When -it is prepared from a dried remnant there is the risk of -stray microbes being included, and these may bring about -pernicious fermentations. Professor Hayem prohibits its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> -use in the case of persons in whom food is retained for -long in the stomach. “When it is retained in the stomach, -kephir goes on fermenting, and there are developed in the -contents butyric and acetic acids which aggravate the digestive -disturbances.”<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a></p> - -<p>As it is the lactic and not the alcoholic fermentation on -which the valuable properties of kephir depend, it is -correct to replace it by soured milk that contains either no -alcohol or merely the smallest traces of it.</p> - -<p>The fact that so many races make soured milk and use -it copiously is an excellent testimony to its usefulness. -M. Nogueira has written to me to say how much he was -astonished, on revisiting after a long period of absence -the district of Mossamedes, to find the natives so well preserved -and displaying so few traces of senility. Dr. Lima -has stated that amongst the natives of the region south -of Angola “many individuals of extraordinary longevity -are to be found.” Although they are thin and withered, -these old people are very active and can make long -journeys.</p> - -<p>Mr. Wales, a lawyer at Binghampton, U.S.A., has been -so good as to make me acquainted with some extremely -interesting facts taken from a work by James Riley which -is now a bibliographical rarity.<a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> In the narrative of a shipwreck -of the vessel on which he made a voyage in 1815, -James Riley states that the wandering Arabs of the desert -live almost wholly on the milk of camels, fresh or soured.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span></p> - -<p>On this diet they enjoy excellent health, display great -vigour and reach advanced ages. Riley estimated that -some of the old men must have lived for two to three -hundred years. No doubt these figures are much too high, -but it is probable that the Arabs Riley encountered lived -really unusually long.</p> - -<p>Mr. Wales has examined Riley’s work critically, and -is of the opinion that that author was a well-informed, -sagacious and conscientious observer.</p> - -<p>M. Grigoroff, a Bulgarian student at Geneva, has been -surprised by the number of centenarians to be found in -Bulgaria, a region in which yahourth, a soured milk, is -the stable food. Some of the centenarians, described by -M. Chemin in his memoir, lived chiefly on a milk diet. -Marie Priou, for example, who died in the Haute-Garonne -in 1838 at the age of 158 years, had lived for the last ten -years of her life entirely on cheese and goat’s milk (<i>op. cit.</i> -p. 100). Ambroise Jantet, a labourer of Verdun, who died -in 1751 at the age of 111 years, “ate nothing but unleavened -bread and drank nothing but skimmed milk” (p. -133). Nicole Marc, who died aged 110 years, at the chateau -of Colemberg (Pas-de-Calais), a hunch-back and cripple, -“lived only on bread and milk-food. It was only towards -the end of her life and after much persuasion that she took -a little wine” (Chemin, p. 139).</p> - -<p>I owe to the kindness of M. Simine, an engineer in -the Caucasus, the following communication, taken from -the newspaper <cite>Tiflissky Listok</cite>, Oct. 8th, 1904. “In the -village of Sba, in the district of Gori, there is an old Ossete -woman, Thense Abalva, whose age is supposed to be -about 180 years (?). This woman is still quite capable -and looks after her household duties and sews. Although -she is bent, she walks firmly enough. Thense has never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span> -taken alcoholic liquors. She rises early in the morning, -and her chief food is barley bread and butter milk, taken -after the churning of the cream. Butter milk is a liquid -containing very many lactic microbes.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Jenny Read, an American, has written to me that -her father, eighty-four years old, “owes his health to the -curdled milk which he has taken for the last 40 years.”</p> - -<p>Curdled milk and the other products of milk to which -I have referred are the work of the lactic microbes which -produce lactic acid at the expense of milk sugar. As many -different kinds of soured milk have been consumed on a -vast scale and have proved to be useful, it might be -supposed that any of them is suitable for regular consumption -with the object of preventing intestinal putrefaction.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of flavour I find that soured -milk, prepared from raw milk, is much the more agreeable. -However, when a food is to be selected for consumption -during a long period of time, we must keep -hygiene strictly in view. It is certain, therefore, that the -Russian “prostokwacha,” as well as any other soured -raw milk, must be rejected. Raw milk contains a large -assortment of microbes, and frequently some of these are -harmful. The bacillus of bovine tuberculosis, as well -as other pernicious microbes, may be found in it. According -to the investigations of Heim<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> the vibrios of Asiatic -cholera, when placed in raw milk, survive even when the -milk has become quite soured. In similar conditions the -bacillus of typhoid fever remains alive for 35 days and dies -only after it has been kept for 48 days in completely soured -milk.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span></p> -<p>As raw milk nearly always contains traces of fæcal -matter from the cow, it sometimes happens that pernicious -microbes are introduced from that source, and remain alive -notwithstanding the acid coagulation of the milk. The -lactic microbes certainly prevent the multiplication of other -microbes, as, for instance, those of putrefaction, but are -incapable of destroying them. Moreover, raw milk often -contains fungi (yeasts, torulas, and oïdia) the presence of -which is favourable to the development of such pernicious -microbes as the cholera vibrio and the bacillus of typhoid -fever.</p> - -<p>Prolonged consumption of raw milk increases the risk -of introducing dangerous microbes into the organism, and -this possibility drives me to recommend soured milk prepared -after heating. Theoretically, it would be best to -sterilise the milk completely so that all the contained -microbes would be destroyed. This, however, requires -heating the milk to a temperature of from 226° to 248° -Fahr., by which it acquires an unpleasant flavour. On -the other hand, the pasteurising of milk at a temperature -of about 140° Fahr. is not sufficient to get rid entirely of -the bacilli of tuberculosis and the spores of the butyric -bacilli. We have, therefore, to fall back on a middle -course, and be content with boiling the milk for several -minutes. By so doing we certainly kill the tubercle bacilli -and the spores of some of the butyric bacilli,<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> there being -left only some butyric spores and the spores of <i>Bacillus -subtilis</i>, to destroy which a much higher temperature is -necessary.</p> - -<p>As some kinds of soured milk, such as “varenetz,” -“yahourth,” “leben,” etc., are prepared from boiled milk, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>it might be supposed that they fulfil the conditions necessary -for prolonged use. A closer examination, however, -makes us reject them.</p> - -<p>Boiled milk, to make it undergo the lactic fermentation -properly, must have added to it a prepared ferment. What -is necessary is not merely rennet, as was formerly supposed, -but a number of organised ferments, that is to say, -microbes. In the preparation of these soured milks, a -leaven is employed, one of the names of which is “Maya,” -and which contains not only lactic microbes, but several -others. MM. Rist and Khoury<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> have come to the conclusion -that the Egyptian “leben” contained a flora composed -of five species, three of which are bacteria and two -yeasts. The bacteria produce lactic acid and the yeasts -alcohol. Although the result is that “leben” is a nearly -solid substance, whilst kephir is a liquid, the two are closely -similar. In both cases we have to do with coincident lactic -and alcoholic fermentations, and my remarks regarding -kephir apply equally well to the Egyptian “leben.”</p> - -<p>Through the agency of Prof. Massol of Geneva, I have -obtained a specimen of the Bulgarian “yahourth.” Working -with his pupil, M. Grigoroff, M. Massol<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> has isolated -several microbes from this milk, amongst these being a -very active lactic bacillus. The same soured milk has been -studied in my laboratory by Drs. M. Cohendy<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> and -Michelson. They found in it a very powerful lactic ferment, -which has been named the Bulgarian bacillus. This -was the microbe employed in the experiments of M. Bélonowsky, -to which I have already referred. More recently, it -has been carefully investigated from the chemical point of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>view by MM. G. Bertrand and Weisweiler<a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> at the Pasteur -Institute. It proved to be an extremely active producer of -lactic acid, supplying 25 grammes per litre of milk. The -other acids which this bacillus produces, such as succinic -and acetic acids, are formed only in very small quantities -(about 50 centigrams a litre). Formic acid is produced -only in traces. On the other hand, the Bulgarian bacillus -forms neither alcohol nor acetone, two frequent products of -bacterial fermentation. The bacillus also differs from other -lactic ferments inasmuch as it has no action on albuminoids -(casein, etc.), nor on fats. All these qualities make -the Bulgarian bacillus much the most useful of the microbes -which can be acclimatised in the digestive tube for the -purpose of arresting putrefactions and pernicious fermentations, -such as the butyric fermentation.</p> - -<p>As in all the known soured milks (yahourth, leben, prostokwacha, -kephir, and koumiss) the lactic bacilli are associated -with a rich flora in which pernicious microbes may -be met (such as the red torula, a microbe which predisposes -to cholera and typhoid fever, which I found in the -leaven of yahourth, bought in Paris), it is necessary to -work out a method by which good curdled milk can be -produced with the aid of pure cultures of the lactic microbes.</p> - -<p>It was the obvious course to begin with the Bulgarian -bacillus, as that is known to be the best producer of lactic -acid. It coagulates milk rapidly, giving it a strongly acid -flavour, but it often also gives a disagreeable taste of tallow. -It is true that after it has been kept for a long time in the -laboratory in the form of pure cultures in sterilised milk, -the bacillus loses to a large extent its power of saponifying -fats, the taste of the curdled milk being then more agreeable. -If necessary, therefore, soured milk prepared exclu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span>sively -with the Bulgarian bacillus can be used. In practice, -however, it is useful to associate with it another lactic -microbe, known as the paralactic bacillus, as the latter, -although producing less lactic acid than the Bulgarian -bacillus, does not break up the fats and gives the curdled -milk a very pleasant flavour.</p> - -<p>As it is undesirable to absorb too much fatty matter, it -is necessary to prepare curdled milk for regular use from -skimmed milk. After the milk has been boiled and -rapidly cooled, pure cultures of the lactic microbes are -sown in it, in sufficient quantities to prevent the germination -of spores already in the milk and not destroyed in -the process of boiling. The fermentation lasts a number -of hours, varying according to the temperature, and finally -produces a sour curdled milk, pleasant to the taste and -active in preventing intestinal putrefaction. This milk, -taken daily in quantities of from 300 to 500 cubic centimetres, -controls the action of the intestine, and stimulates -the kidneys favourably.<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> It can therefore be recommended -in many cases of disorder of the digestive apparatus, of -the kidneys, and in several skin diseases.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian bacillus taken from yahourth or from -soured milk, prepared from pure cultures of lactic microbes, -can live in warm temperatures, and, as has been shown -by Dr. Cohendy, is able to take its place in the intestinal -flora of man.</p> - -<p>Soured milk, prepared according to the receipt which -I have given, has been analysed by M. Fouard, an assistant -at the Pasteur Institute. When it was ready to be taken, -M. Fouard found in it about 10 grammes of lactic acid per -litre. Moreover, a large proportion (nearly 38 per cent.) -of the casein had been rendered soluble during the fer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span>mentation, -which shows that its albuminous matter is prepared -for digestion much as in kephir. Of the phosphate -of lime (which is the chief mineral substance of milk) 68 per -cent. was rendered soluble during the fermentation. These -facts all confirm the utility of the soured milk prepared -from pure cultures of lactic bacteria.</p> - -<p>Those persons who, from some reason or other, cannot -take milk, may swallow the bacilli in a pure culture without -milk. However, as the microbes need sugar to produce -lactic acid, it is necessary to take with them a certain -quantity of sweet food (jam, sweet-meats, and especially -beetroot).</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian bacillus produces lactic acid not only -from milk sugar, but also from many other sugars, for instance, -cane sugar, maltose, levulose and especially glucose.</p> - -<p>Cultures of the bacillus can be made not only in milk, -but in vegetable broths, or broths of animal peptone to -which sugar has been added. The cultures can be taken -in a dry form (powders or tabloids), or in the liquid in -which the bacilli had themselves been developed.</p> - -<p>A reader who has little knowledge of such matters may -be surprised by my recommendation to absorb large quantities -of microbes, as the general belief is that microbes -are all harmful. This belief, however, is erroneous. There -are many useful microbes, amongst which the lactic bacilli -have an honourable place. Moreover, the attempt has -already been made to cure certain diseases by the administration -of cultures of bacteria. M. Brudzinsky<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> has used -cultures of lactic microbes in certain intestinal diseases of -infants, whilst Dr. Tissier<a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> has used them in similar -affections of infants and adults.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span></p> - -<p>From the general point of view of this book, the course -recommended consists of the absorption either of soured -milk prepared by a group of lactic bacteria, or of pure -cultures of the Bulgarian bacillus, but in each case taking -at the same time a certain quantity of milk sugar or -saccharose.</p> - -<p>For more than eight years I took, as a regular part -of my diet, soured milk at first prepared from boiled milk, -inoculated with a lactic leaven. Since then, I have changed -the method of preparation and have adopted finally the pure -cultures which I have been describing. I am very well -pleased with the result, and I think that my experiment has -gone on long enough to justify my view. Several of my -friends, some of whom suffered from maladies of the intestine -or kidneys, have followed my example, and have been -well satisfied. I think, therefore, that lactic bacteria can -render a great service in the fight against intestinal putrefaction.</p> - -<p>If it be true that our precocious and unhappy old age is -due to poisoning of the tissues (the greater part of the -poison coming from the large intestine inhabited by numberless -microbes), it is clear that agents which arrest intestinal -putrefaction must at the same time postpone and -ameliorate old age. This theoretical view is confirmed by -the collection of facts regarding races which live chiefly on -soured milk, and amongst which great ages are common. -However, in a question so important, the theory must be -tested by direct observations. For this purpose the numerous -infirmaries for old people should be taken advantage of, -and systematic investigations should be made on the relation -of intestinal microbes to precocious old age, and on -the influence of diets which prevent intestinal putrefaction -in prolonging life and maintaining the forces of the body. -It can only be in the future, near or remote, that we shall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> -obtain exact information upon what is one of the chief -problems of humanity.</p> - -<p>In the meantime, those who wish to preserve their intelligence -as long as possible and to make their cycle of life -as complete and as normal as is possible under present -conditions, must depend on general sobriety and on habits -conforming to the rules of rational hygiene.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span></p> - -<h2><small>PART V</small><br /><br /> - -PSYCHICAL RUDIMENTS IN MAN</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>RUDIMENTARY ORGANS IN MAN</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Reply to critics who deny the simian origin of man—Actual -existence of rudimentary organs—Reductions in the -structure of the organs of sense in man—Atrophy of Jacobson’s -organ and of the Harderian gland in the human race</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Several</span> critics of <cite>The Nature of Man</cite> have protested -against my theory of the simian origin of man. Some of -these found my arguments unsatisfactory and unconvincing. -Others have attacked generally my suggestion that -some anthropoid had been suddenly transformed to a -primitive human being.</p> - -<p>It is true that so long as we have little palæontological -evidence as to the actual descent of man, we cannot -discuss the subject without the aid of hypotheses. I think, -however, that recent additions to knowledge confirm the -theory of the descent of man in a way that ought to influence -the most resolute opponents. I have in mind chiefly -the arguments supplied by the embryology of anthropoid -apes, and by the investigation of their blood. None the -less, there are still many authors who maintain their opposition. -One of my critics, Dr. Jousset,<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> enumerates certain -differences in the structure of the skeleton in man and apes, -and concludes that these radically separate man from apes.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span></p> -<p>No one has ever doubted that man was not identical in -structure with the anthropoid apes, or that he differs from -them in several characters of the skeleton and of many -other organs. The differences, however, do not justify any -radical separation of the two. The unusual length of arm, -upon which my opponents throw so much weight, is in -harmony with the mode of life of apes, as these climb on -trees and walk on all four limbs. The difference between -apes and Europeans in length of arm is certainly considerable, -but is much less in the case of some lower races, such -as the Veddahs. In the Akkas of Central Africa, the arms -are so long that the hands nearly reach the knees. The -fœtus of Europeans also shows an unusual length of arm, -probably an ancestral feature. It is only after birth that -the arms become relatively shorter.</p> - -<p>All the other characters different in man and the apes, -are equally secondary. On the other hand, just as apes -differ amongst themselves, so also, the different races show -differences often strongly marked. M. Michaelis,<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> in a -comparative study of the muscular systems of monkeys, -has made known many details of the musculature in the -orang-outan and the chimpanzee, and it appears from his -investigations that, although there are some differences -between these two apes, they are both closely similar to man.</p> - -<p>There are many variations in the muscular structure of -man, and these find parallels in the muscles of apes. This -is also the case with other abnormalities of structure, some -of which resemble the condition in mammals much lower -than apes. An example of this is the presence of additional -pairs of nipples, arranged symmetrically on the sides -of the chest and occasionally found in human beings. A -similar abnormality has been found in some monkeys, and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>the best explanation of such an occurrence is that monkeys, -like man, are descended from mammals which possessed -several pairs of mammary glands.</p> - -<p>The large number of abnormalities and rudimentary -organs which may be found in man affords important -evidence in favour of the descent of man from lower -animals. Some authors, however, have tried to dispute -this view and even deny the existence of rudimentary -organs. M. Brettes,<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> amongst my opponents, has brought -together most facts upon this matter, with the object of -proving that such organs fulfil some function indispensable -to the body and bear witness to the existence of a general -plan of organisation. My opponent, however, confines -himself to general propositions, laying much stress on a -law of “the subordination of organs” without proving -that rudimentary organs have an actual function. In <cite>The -Nature of Man</cite> I remarked on the uselessness of the -wisdom teeth, which are not cut until long after childhood -and which are useless in mastication. In many human -beings these teeth never cut through the gum, and their -absence is no disadvantage. This is a typical case of a -rudimentary organ. To maintain the contrary it would be -necessary to prove that the wisdom teeth fulfil an indispensable -function and that their absence was in some way -harmful to the organism. No one has been able to show this.</p> - -<p>The mammary glands in males are another case of rudimentary -organs. The function of these, of course, is well -known in females, but it is only in the rarest cases that -they are active in males.</p> - -<p>The organs of sense supply many cases of rudimentary -structures. Animals which live in caves, in the dark, do -not discern objects by sight, and in these cases the eyes are -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span>rudimentary. It is quite impossible to deny the existence -of rudimentary organs. They are extremely important -guides to us in our investigation of the past history of the -human race. The comparative study of the organs which -are rudimentary in man and more or less well developed in -lower animals is of fundamental importance in the problem -of our origin.</p> - -<p>The higher apes, or anthropoids, display reduction in -some parts of the organs of sense. The organ of smell, -for instance, is much less developed in them than in many -other animals. Man has inherited the imperfect condition -of this organ, and his sense of smell is much less developed -than that of mammals which are lower in the scale of life. -Man, however, because of his intelligence, has been able -to tame domestic animals, such as dogs, ferrets, and pigs, -and to make use of their acute sense of smell for tracking -game or obtaining edible plants. The imperfect condition -of the sense of smell in man in other cases is well replaced -by his mental powers. He no longer recognises the -approach of an enemy by the sense of smell, in order that -he may take flight, because he has better means of defence -than those of animals. It is not surprising, therefore, that -the olfactory apparatus of man is much reduced as compared -with that of lower mammals. In apes and man the -nasal region of the head is much smaller than in their -mammalian ancestors, and in the deep-lying parts of the -system there are corresponding differences. Most -mammals, for instance, and the dog in particular, have four -turbinal bones, the purpose of which is to increase the -surface of the mucous membrane of the nose, whilst in -man there are only three, one of which is rudimentary.</p> - -<p>The olfactory apparatus in most mammals contains a -well-developed portion known as the organ of Jacobson,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> -the probable function of which is to appreciate the flavour -of food in the mouth. In man, this organ is in a rudimentary -condition and cannot fulfil its function, as it is -devoid of its proper nerve. This remnant, now useless, -gives us information as to the evolution of the organ of -smell in man. In the human fœtus, Jacobson’s organ is -not only better developed than in adult man, but it is also -provided with a stout nerve trunk, which disappears towards -the end of embryonic life. The organ, however, -cannot perform any olfactory function. The human fœtus, -moreover, possesses five turbinals which later on become -reduced to three, and of these only two develop completely.</p> - -<p>The history of the evolution of the organ of smell, as it -has been made out by comparative anatomy and embryology, -links this apparatus in man with the corresponding -organs of other mammals by means of these useless rudiments, -which, however, are important evidence in scientific -theory.</p> - -<p>The auditory apparatus also has become reduced in man. -Many animals, in the struggle for existence, require a very -acute sense of hearing, more so than man or some of the -most intelligent mammals. We have all seen how horses -raise their ears to hear better when there is the slightest -sound near them. Monkeys and man have lost this power, -and man sometimes tries to supply the defect by artificial -means. When a lecturer, for instance, is not speaking -sufficiently loud some of the audience put their hands to -their ears, making a kind of trumpet which serves to catch -the sound. The human external ear is supplied with -muscles, but in most cases these are too feeble to move it. -In very rare cases persons can move their ears, the muscles -inserted to the shell in most of us being mere rudiments of -those that existed in our ancestors.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span></p> - -<p>In the organ of sight, the little fold in the inner angle -of the eye, known as the semilunar fold, is of special -interest. This membrane is a useless vestige of a structure -much better developed in lower mammals. In the -dog it is present as a small third eyelid, supported by a -special cartilage provided with a secreting gland, known -as the Harderian gland. In birds, reptiles and frogs, the -corresponding structures are much better developed. -Everyone has seen the delicate membrane which, in the -case of a bird, may shoot out from the inner angle of the -eye and cover the whole of the exposed part of the eyeball -(nictitating membrane). In these animals, the eye is protected -by this third lid, which has its own muscles. As -in the dog, this third eyelid of birds and lower vertebrates -is generally provided with a large Harderian gland, which -produces a liquid secretion like tears.</p> - -<p>In most monkeys, this apparatus is much reduced. -Many of them have still a small Harderian gland and a -weak third eyelid. In man, as I have already said, there -are only vestiges of these organs, the gland being almost -atrophied and the third eyelid represented only by an insignificant -crescentic fold. In the lower races the fold -sometimes contains a small cartilage. Giacomini found it -twelve times in sixteen negroes, whilst in 548 white people -it was found only in three cases.</p> - -<p>The interpretation of these facts is not doubtful. This -little fold is the last vestige in use of an organ which was -useful only in our remote ancestors.</p> - -<p>The organs of reproduction in the human race also show -a number of rudiments. There remain even traces of a -hermaphrodite condition, a very low degree of organisation, -going back to extremely remote ancestors. The -evidence given by the very large number of abnormalities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> -that are found in these organs makes it clear that, in the -long period of the evolution of the human race, they have -been subjected to a series of modifications. Thus, for instance, -there is occasionally present in women a form of -uterus resembling that of the lower mammals, or even the -double uterus of marsupials.</p> - -<p>The evolution of man has been dominated by the great -development of the brain and of the intelligence, and man, -accordingly, has lost many organs and functions which -were of use in his more or less remote ancestors.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>HUMAN TRAITS OF CHARACTER INHERITED FROM APES</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The mental character of anthropoid apes—Their muscular -strength—Their expression of fear—The awakening of latent -instincts of man under the influence of fear</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> facts of which I have given a résumé serve to show -that evolution always leaves definite traces indicating its -successive stages in the form of rudiments. It is probable, -therefore, that the pre-human mental functions or psycho-physiological -qualities, which have so long a history -behind them, have also left more or less appreciable traces. -These, however, must be more difficult to find than rudimentary -organs which can be made visible by dissection.</p> - -<p>If we turn first to the animals most nearly related to -man, we find that the living anthropoid apes show in the -clearest way their close relationship with the human race, -and suggest that their kinship with our remoter ancestors -must be even greater.</p> - -<p>The anthropoid apes alive to-day are animals inhabiting -chiefly virgin forests, and feeding on fruits and shoots, -although they do not despise eggs or even little birds. To -satisfy their wants, they climb with the greatest ease. -Orang-outans and chimpanzees climb slowly and carefully, -whilst gibbons show a greater agility and more perfect -acrobatic power. They may be seen throwing themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> -from branch to branch across spaces of forty feet with -the greatest precision. They play at the top of very tall -trees, hardly grasping the branches through which they -pass, making leaps of from twelve to eighteen feet for -hours together with little apparent exertion.</p> - -<p>To give an idea of the dexterity and swiftness of -gibbons, Martin took the case of a female which he observed -in captivity. One time she hurled herself from a -perch across a space at least twelve feet wide, against a window -which one would have thought would have been -immediately broken. To the great surprise of the spectators -it was not broken. The gibbon seized with her hands -the narrow board between the panes, and then in an instant -twisted herself round and jumped back to the cage she had -left, performing this manœuvre with great strength and -the most marvellous precision.</p> - -<p>The muscular force implied in the above narrative is -possessed by all the anthropoid apes. Battel, an English -sailor who gave the first description of the gorilla in the -beginning of the 17th century, stated that the strength of -that animal was so great that ten men could hardly master -an adult specimen. The other anthropoids, although not so -strong as the gorilla, nevertheless display surprising force.</p> - -<p>Edouard, the young male chimpanzee which I used in -my experiments on syphilis, struggled so much at the -least touch that it took four men to master him. I had to -give up allowing him to leave his cage because there was -no way of getting him back to it. Even quite young -chimpanzees, females not yet two years old, cannot be -handled easily. Although they are very friendly, my -specimens used to resist with all their strength when it was -necessary to put them back in their cages for the night. -Two men had much ado to shut them up.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span></p> - -<p>Notwithstanding this great muscular force, the anthropoid -apes are cowardly. They have no idea of their -strength, but fly from the approach of the slightest imagined -danger. My young chimpanzees, although their teeth and -muscles were already formidable weapons, showed the -greatest fear when I put with them animals even so weak -and harmless as guinea-pigs, pigeons and rabbits. Mice -frightened them very much at first, and it took them a considerable -time before they got over their fear of so insignificant -an enemy. When living in a state of nature the -anthropoid apes scarcely ever assume the offensive. -“Though possessed of immense strength,” wrote Huxley,<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a> -“it is rare for the Orang to attempt to defend itself, especially -when attacked with fire-arms. On such occasions -he endeavours to hide himself, or to escape along the topmost -branches of the trees, breaking off and throwing down -the boughs as he goes.” Savage<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> wrote of chimpanzees -that “they do not appear ever to act on the offensive, and -seldom, if ever really, on the defensive.” When a female -was surprised on a tree with her young ones “her first -impulse was to descend with great rapidity and make off -into the thicket.”<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a></p> - -<p>The gorilla, the strongest and most ferocious of the -apes, has sometimes been observed to take the offensive. -Savage, quoted by Huxley, said that “they are exceedingly -ferocious, and always offensive in their habits, never running -from man, as does the chimpanzee. The females -and young, at the first cry, quickly disappear. He (the -male) then approaches the enemy in great fury, pouring -out his horrid cries in quick succession.”<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> Only males -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>take the offensive, nor can this be of frequent occurrence, -as one of the most recent observers, Koppenfels,<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> states -that “the gorilla never attacks man spontaneously; he -tries to avoid him, and, as a rule, takes to flight as soon as -he sees a man, uttering peculiar guttural cries.”</p> - -<p>Which of these characters are preserved in the human -race? Man is naturally feebler and less of a gymnast than -the great apes, but his disposition is cowardly. One of -the earliest signs of mental activity in an infant is the fear -of surrounding circumstances. The smallest change in its -balance or its being put in a bath cause it to show signs of -real terror. Later on, it is alarmed when it sees any kind -of animal, exactly in the fashion of a young chimpanzee. -The most harmless spider is enough to frighten it.</p> - -<p>Although mental culture subdues fear to a large extent, -fear reveals itself more or less strongly from time to time, -and it is on such occasions that we may find in the human -being psychological relics of his ancestors. An analysis -of fear is of special interest.</p> - -<p>The first result of the emotion of fear is flight. Consciousness -of danger sets our limbs in motion, and our -instinctive desire to escape displays itself even when flight -is more dangerous than what we wish to avoid. At the -first alarm of fire in a public building, people rush towards -the exits and in so doing often perish from their wish to -escape. Even in the extreme of terror, the desire of flight -is one of the earliest impulses. Mosso, a well-known -Italian physiologist, in a monograph on fear, relates that -when a Calabrian brigand was sentenced to death “he -uttered a sharp cry, heart-rending and terrible, looked -around him as if he were eagerly seeking for something, -and then stepped backwards as if to fly, and threw himself -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>against the wall of the court, writhing, with arms outstretched, -scratching at the wall as if he were trying to -break through it.”</p> - -<p>Although in such a case it was futile and often is -harmful, the instinct of flight from danger is inherited -from ancestors from a time when it served to save life. -Attempts to escape are not the only signs of fear. There -is often a trembling fit which would make flight impossible. -In Mosso’s case of the Calabrian brigand, “after -his struggles, cries and contortions, he fell on the ground -in a motionless heap, like a wet rag; he became pale and -trembled more than I have seen any other person tremble; -his muscles seemed changed into a soft and quivering -jelly.” This condition of trembling inertia is another -legacy from animals. Quivering of the muscles often -manifests itself in terrified animals. Darwin<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> wrote of it, -“trembling is of no service, often of much disservice, -and cannot at first have been acquired through the will, -and then rendered habitual in association with any -emotion.” The phenomenon seemed to him obscure and -difficult to explain, a view shared by Mosso. The trembling -of the musculature of the body is a generalised and -exaggerated form of the movements of the cutaneous -muscles in the condition known popularly as “goose-skin.” -The latter, however, is a relic of an adaptation -useful to some animals. The hedgehog rarely takes to -flight at the approach of danger, but stands still, and using -strongly developed muscles, rolls itself into a ball. In -birds and many mammals, the muscles of the skin cause -erection of the feathers or hairs. These movements often -are performed during fright, and according to Darwin, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span>serve not only to warm the skin, but sometimes to make -the animal appear larger and more terrifying to enemies.</p> - -<p>Fear and cold alike cause contraction of the superficial -blood-vessels, and, in man, excite the contraction of the -minute rudimentary muscles inserted to the roots of the -hairs. “Goose-skin” is caused by the contraction of these -muscles, the condition being a functional rudiment, no -longer serving to warm the skin nor to make the body -appear larger. In a few exceptional cases, “goose-skin” -can be produced voluntarily. In the normal condition, -the rudimentary cutaneous muscles of man are immobile, -and it requires some special stimulation to set them in -action.</p> - -<p>Fear, which is occasionally able to excite the contraction -of the involuntary muscles, also stimulates other -muscles against the will. Under the influence of emotions -that powerfully affect the nervous system, and particularly -under that of fear, contractions of the bladder and intestines -may be so violent that it is impossible to prevent the -voiding of their contents. Accidents of this kind are not -infrequent in the case of youthful candidates at examinations. -Mosso relates of a friend, a volunteer in the war -of 1866, that he was seized with terror during a battle and -that the utmost efforts of his will failed to make his body -endure the terrible spectacle.</p> - -<p>The involuntary action of the bladder and intestines -during fear is a legacy from animals. The phenomenon is -common in dogs and monkeys. Chimpanzees, when laid -hold of, discharge their urine and fæces. At Madeira I -had an unusually cowardly <i>Cercopithecus</i> monkey which -when at all alarmed discharged the contents of the rectum. -Quite possibly such a mechanism was useful for the preservation -of the individual. The emission of various kinds -of excretions is of use in the struggle for existence. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span> -that way the fox drives the badger from its earth and takes -possession of it, whilst polecats and skunks defend themselves -against more powerful carnivorous animals by discharging -on them fœtid secretions.</p> - -<p>Instinctive fear is therefore a very powerful stimulant, -awakening functions which are rudimentary and almost -completely extinct. Sometimes it sets in operation -mechanisms which have long been paralysed. Pausanias -gives an example of a dumb young man who recovered -his speech when he was terrified by seeing a lion. Herodotus -relates that the son of Crœsus, who was dumb, on -seeing a Persian about to kill his father, cried out: “You -must not kill Crœsus,” and from that time onwards was -able to talk. These ancient narratives have been confirmed -by many modern observations. A woman, for -instance, who had been dumb for several years, on seeing -a fire, was terrified and cried out suddenly “Fire!” after -which her speech was restored. Such are cases of the -awakening of a function which has been arrested only -for several years. But fear can bring into activity other -mechanisms which have been inactive from time immemorial.</p> - -<p>Many different kinds of animals can swim instinctively. -This is true in the case of most birds and mammals. -There are some species which show a repugnance to water, -but none the less swim well enough if they are thrown -into it. Cats shun water as much as possible, but, none the -less, can swim quite easily. Historians relate that Hannibal -had great difficulty in getting his elephants to cross -the Rhone. Some females were ferried across first, upon -which the other elephants threw themselves into the water -to pursue them and swam across the river without any -difficulty (Lenthéric, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Rhône</cite>, 1892, p. 81).</p> - -<p>The lower monkeys can swim without being taught, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> -the anthropoid apes have lost this power, and man also is -without it. M. Volz<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> states that the different species of -gibbons which live in Sumatra are separated by rivers. -Their inability to swim makes these a complete barrier. -It is probable that the lower races, in this respect, are -better endowed than we are. It is said that in the case of -negroes, children run to the sea or to rivers almost as soon -as they leave the cradle, and learn to swim almost as -quickly as to walk.<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> In the case of white people, many -find it very difficult to learn to swim, and it is at least -certain that swimming is not instinctive as in the case of -our animal ancestors. Christmann,<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> the author of a treatise -on swimming, states that the reason of man is a worse -guide than the infallible instinct of the animal. Fear is -able to stifle reason and to allow the instinct to come into -play. It is known that children or adults may be taught to -swim by throwing them into the water. Under the influence -of fear, the instinctive mechanism inherited from animals -awakens, and man soon becomes a swimmer. There are -some teachers of swimming who use this method successfully. -I have myself known an individual who learnt the -art in that way, and M. Troubat, librarian at the International -Library, has informed me that one of his friends, -a journalist who died at Noyon several years ago, bathed -in the Seine one evening at Neuilly when he could not swim. -Unexpectedly finding himself beyond his depth, a sudden -movement of fear saved him. Since then, he said, he -knew how to swim.</p> - -<p>Just as there are cases in which terror provokes flight, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>and others in which it causes an arrest of motion, so also -fear may do a disservice to a swimmer. Those who -employ fear as a means of teaching to swim, know that -they must intervene if there is real danger. It is true, none -the less, that up to a certain point fear can awaken functions -which have been atrophied for numberless generations, -and that we can learn from it something as to the -evolution of the human race.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>SOMNAMBULISM AND HYSTERIA AS MENTAL RELICS</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Fear as the primary cause of hysteria—Natural somnambulism—Doubling -of personality—Some examples of somnambulists—Analogy -between somnambulism and the life -of anthropoid apes—The psychology of crowds—Importance -of the investigation of hysteria for the problem of the origin -of man</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> study of fear is interesting in other respects than those -with which I have been dealing. It is also a primary cause -of the obscure and complicated phenomena of hysteria.</p> - -<p>Thus, for instance, amongst twenty-two hysterical women -observed by Georget<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> the primary causes were: terror, 13 -cases; extreme grief, 7 cases; extreme annoyance, one case. -A patient of M. Pitres, of Bordeaux, first exhibited hysteria -after being extremely terrified. A man with a tame bear -had come to the village. The patient went to see the performance -and elbowed her way through the crowd until -she got to the front row. The bear, whilst dancing, passed -so close that its cold muzzle touched the cheek of the young -girl. Marie—for that was the patient’s name—was terrified. -She ran quickly home, and almost on her arrival -fell on her bed in an attack of convulsion and extreme -delirium. Since then the attacks have been repeated many -times, and the delirium associated with them always turns -upon the terror caused by the bear touching her.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span></p> -<p>A hysterical woman at the Salpétrière is haunted by -terrifying dreams. She thinks someone is trying to murder -her, or to cut her throat, or that she is falling into water, -and she keeps crying for help.<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a></p> - -<p>Some of the most curious phases of hysteria are the paradoxical -and extraordinary cases of so-called natural somnambulism, -in which the patients, whilst asleep, perform -all sorts of acts of which they remember nothing in their -waking hours. Cases of duplication of personality are -also known, in which the patients live in two different -states without, in one of these, having the slightest remembrance -of what takes place in the other. One of the most -curious observations was that of the somnambulist who -became <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">enceinte</em> whilst in her second state. In her first, -or normal condition, she was ignorant of the reason of her -physical changes, although in the second state she knew -about it quite well and spoke freely of it (Pitres, <i>op. cit.</i> II, -215).</p> - -<p>In the state of natural somnambulism the patients generally -reproduce the normal acts of their daily life which -they have acquired the habit of performing unconsciously. -Artisans devote themselves to their manual work, sempstresses -begin to sew, maid servants brush shoes or clothes, -lay the table and so forth. Educated persons devote themselves -to intellectual work to which they are accustomed. -Clergymen have been known to compose their sermons in -the somnambulistic condition, and to read them over to -correct mistakes in style or in spelling.</p> - -<p>However, besides somnambulists who during slumber -simply repeat the usual acts of their life, there are others -who do special things to which they are unaccustomed.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span></p> -<p>It is these cases which are most interesting from my point -of view. I shall take one case which has been specially -well reported. A hysterical patient, a girl of 24 years of -age, was admitted as an in-patient to the hospital Laënnec. -One Sunday, she got up about one o’clock in the morning. -The night watchman, who was alarmed, went for the night -doctor, who witnessed the following scene. “The patient -went to the staircase leading to the nurses’ quarters, then -suddenly turned round and walked towards the wash-house. -The door of that being closed, she then groped -for a time and turned towards the women’s dormitory in -which she had formerly slept. She went up to the top of -the house where this dormitory was, and when she got on -the landing, opened a window leading to the roof, went -out of the window, walked along the gutter, under the -horrified eyes of the nurse who followed her and who did -not dare to speak to her, went in again by another window -and went down the stairs.” “It was at this moment that -I saw her,” said the night doctor; “she was walking noiselessly, -her gait was automatic, her arms hanging by her -sides, a little bent, the head erect and fixed, her hair -disordered, her eyes wide open; she seemed like some -strange apparition.”<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> This is obviously the case of -a hysterical subject, who in a normal condition was -not accustomed to climb upon roofs and walk along the -gutters.</p> - -<p>Another observation, reported by Charcot, related to a -young man, seventeen years old, the son of a large manufacturer, -and of good address. Tired out by working for -his final examination, he had gone to bed early. Some -time later he rose from the bed in his college dormitory, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>went out by a window, and without accident climbed on -the roof and took a long and dangerous walk along the -gutters. He was awakened before any accident occurred -(Feinkind, p. 70).</p> - -<p>A case observed by Dr. Mesnet and M. Mottet was still -more interesting. A lady thirty years old and extremely -hysterical got out of bed in the night, “dressed herself, -completed her toilet without help, removed the furniture -in her way without stumbling against it. She was indifferent -and idle by day, but strenuous at night in performing -the most varied acts. I have seen her walking about -in her rooms, opening doors, going down to the garden, -leaping on seats with the utmost agility, running about, -in fact doing all these things much better than in her -waking hours, in which she got about only slowly and with -aid” (Feinkind, p. 84).</p> - -<p>Horst has related an extraordinary incident which took -place in the sixteenth century. “A soldier walked in his -sleep to a window, and with the help of a rope climbed a -high tower, secured a jackdaw’s nest with its young birds, -and regained his bed, where he remained asleep until the -morning.”<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> Unfortunately there are not sufficiently detailed -facts regarding this incident, and for fully described -cases we must return to modern times. Dr. Guinon has -related one case in ample detail. A man thirty-four years of -age, by occupation an interpreter, was taken into hospital -for hysterical attacks. “One night soon after he came under -the care of the physicians, this patient, towards one o’clock -in the morning, suddenly arose from bed, threw open a -window and jumped across the sill into the courtyard of -the hospital. The attendants on duty ran after him, and -saw him hurrying away, undressed and carrying a pillow -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span>in his arms. He traversed a series of gardens and walks, -with the topography of which he was unacquainted, climbed -a ladder and got on the roof of the hydrotherapeutic establishment, -up and down which he proceeded to run with the -greatest agility. Sometimes he stopped in his flight and -rocked the pillow he was carrying, kissing and soothing it -as if it were a child. Then he retraced the route he had -taken.” On being questioned next morning, he had not -the faintest remembrance of his nocturnal exploit. “A -similar fit came on him five or six times” (Feinkind, p. 108).</p> - -<p>The same patient, “after having turned over in bed -several times, seized a pillow and held it to his breast. He -then got out of bed, and, in his nightgown, ran through the -dormitory to a door leading to the lavatories. He opened -the door, readily but with violence, and entered one of the -closets. Then, still holding the pillow against his chest -with one arm, by a gymnastic feat both difficult and dangerous, -yet which he performed with the utmost precision, -using his feet and the free arm, he got hold of the edge of -the frame of an open window, through which he swung -himself to the sill, alighting on both feet, after which, -preserving the pillow carefully from contact or shocks, he -jumped to the ground (the infirmary ward was on -the ground floor). He then ran quickly to the opposite -corner of the courtyard, passing the whole length of the -great building at full speed, holding the pillow carefully. -By a path which led round the building, he reached a -corner where there was a tower supporting a great water-tank. -A kind of metallic ladder, placed almost vertically -and with rounded steps, led up the side of the tower to -a sort of observation-landing which at one point was adjacent -to the edge of the roof of the bath-house.</p> - -<p>“The patient set himself to climb this ladder without any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span> -hesitation, holding on by his free hand and placing his -naked feet on the rounded steps with extreme precision. -When he reached the nearest point to the roof of the bath-house -he leapt upon that, and at a running pace climbed -the zinc roof to the crest, looking round him from time -to time to see if his imaginary pursuers were near. He -ran along the crest which was so narrow that his feet -had to be placed alternately on either side on the slopes -of the steep-pitched roof, a performance so dangerous that -none of the officials would follow him, and which none the -less he performed with complete assurance and without a -single slip.</p> - -<p>“When he reached the middle of the building he sat down -on the crest of the roof, leaning against a ventilating -chimney. He then took the pillow which he had been -carrying carefully, placed it on his knees with a corner -against his shoulder, and began to rock it as if it were a -child, crooning to it, stroking it with his hand or with his -cheek that he pressed gently against the corner. From -time to time his eyebrows contracted and his looks hardened, -and he gazed around him as if he were being pursued -or watched, then gave a growl of rage, and took to flight -again, carrying the pillow on his dangerous path. All the -time he kept speaking, but we could not hear what he -said. He saw nothing that was not in his dream; he did -not understand when his name was called aloud; but he -could hear, for at the slightest sound near him he rushed -off again as if his pursuers were upon him. This episode -lasted about two hours, during which he had climbed over -all the roofs in the vicinity, defying our pursuit of him” -(Feinkind, pp. 106-112).</p> - -<p>I could give other similar cases, but I think that I have -shown sufficiently that man, when in the condition of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> -natural somnambulism, exhibits qualities that he does not -possess in the normal state, becoming strong, adroit, and -a good gymnast, like his anthropoid ancestors. The close -resemblance between the manœuvres of Martin’s gibbon, -which I described earlier in this chapter, and the dangerous -exploits of some sleep walkers is most striking.</p> - -<p>The impulses to climb on roofs and poles, to run along -in rain gutters, to climb a tower to take a bird’s nest, are -characteristic examples of the instinctive actions of climbing -animals, like the anthropoid apes. Dr. Barth<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> defines -somnambulism as “a dream with exaltation of the memory -and automatic action of the nervous centres, without voluntary -and conscious control.” “The striking exaltation of -the memory is the dominating condition. The extreme -exactness of the memory of places displayed by the somnambulist -makes us understand how he performs his nocturnal -wanderings, doing almost without the aid of his -senses numberless deeds of which he would be practically -incapable in a waking condition.” However, as such a -patient performs new acts which he has never accomplished -before in his own individual life, we must suppose -that the exaltation of memory includes extremely ancient -facts, dating perhaps from the pre-human period. Man has -inherited from his ancestors a number of mechanisms of -the brain, the activity of which is inhibited by restraints -which have been developed later. Just as man possesses -mammary glands which under ordinary conditions cannot -secrete milk, so also, in his brain, there are contained -groups of cells which are inactive in the normal condition, -but, also, just as in some exceptional cases man and the -males of several species of mammals are able to give milk, -so also in abnormal conditions the atrophied mechanisms -of other nervous centres begin to act.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span></p> -<p>The secretion of milk by males is a return to an extremely -ancient condition in which both sexes were able to nourish -the young; so, also, the gymnastic feats and the extraordinary -strength of somnambulists are a return to a normal -condition much less remote from us than lactation in males.</p> - -<p>It is curious to find that, in some cases, natural somnambulism -is associated with power to move the shell of -the ear. I know two brothers, who, when they were young, -used to walk in their sleep in the most typical way. One -of them, a chemist, used to climb on a high cupboard, or -simply walk about in the room. The other brother, a -sailor, in a fit of somnambulism, climbed to the top mast -of a sailing ship. These brothers, who were somnambulists, -had the cutaneous muscles extremely well developed -and were able to move their ears voluntarily.</p> - -<p>In this case the abnormality was hereditary in the family, -and the two daughters of one of the brothers were also -somnambulistic and had control over the muscles of the -ears. Here, then, is a case of the simultaneous recurrence -of two characters of our ancestors: mobility of the ear and -agility in gymnastic feats. M. Barth characterises the -somnambulist as “a living automaton in whom conscious -will is for the time being destroyed.” According to him, -the somnambulist “acts at the suggestion of circumstances, -and what seem most extraordinary in what he does -are in reality instinctive reactions.” This description -agrees well with my view that in natural somnambulism -the instincts of our pre-human ancestors are awakened, instincts -which under normal conditions are latent and rudimentary.</p> - -<p>Sometimes, under the stimulus of fear, the instinctive -mechanism of swimming is awakened in man. It would be -extremely interesting to know if a similar occurrence took -place in somnambulists. I have been unable to find in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span> -literature any sufficient facts upon this subject. I can -quote only one case, and that with all reserve, which was -published in the article “Somnambulism” in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire -des Sciences Médicales</cite>. “It is related that a somnambulist -who took to swimming during one of his fits -was called by his name several times, and became so -frightened when he awoke that he was drowned.” It -would be extremely interesting to collect more numerous -facts on the instincts shown by somnambulists.</p> - -<p>I have given a good deal of attention to natural somnambulism -with the idea that I should find in it traits -recalling those of the life of anthropoid apes. I think that -the extremely varied phenomena of hysteria could supply -us with other facts, useful in investigating the psycho-physiological -history of man. Perhaps some of the facts -of so-called “lucidity” which are well established could -be explained as the awakening of special sensations atrophied -in the human race, but present in animals. It is -known that in vertebrate anatomy organs are found which -have the structures of organs of sense, but which are -absent or quite rudimentary in the human body. On the -other hand, it is known that animals perceive some phenomena -of the surrounding world, for the perception of which -man has no organs of sense. Fish, for instance, appreciate -gradations in the depth of water, birds and mammals have -a sense of orientation and can anticipate changes in the -weather more exactly than our meteorological science. -When under the influence of hysteria, man may possibly -be able to recover these senses of our remote ancestors, -and to know things of which he is ignorant in the normal -condition.</p> - -<p>Hysteria is common to man and animals. Amongst the -numerous chimpanzees which I have owned, several have -shown signs of hysteria. Some, when they were in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span> -slightest degree annoyed, lay on the ground, screaming -terribly, and rolling about like children in a fit of passion. -One young chimpanzee used to pull out its hair when it -was in a fit of temper. The view that hysteria is a relapse -to the condition of our animal ancestors is supported by -the conception of hysterical phenomena, suggested by Dr. -Babinsky.<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> This well-known neurologist thinks that “the -phenomena of hysteria have two special characters, the one -being that they can be reproduced by suggestion in some -cases with the most complete fidelity, and the other that -they can disappear under the sole influence of persuasion.” -M. Babinsky thinks that “the hysteric patient is neither -unconscious nor completely conscious, but is in a state of -special consciousness.” In my opinion the latter condition -corresponds to the state of mind of our more or -less remote ancestors.</p> - -<p>Occasionally a man, under some sudden impulse, falls -into a condition of extreme violence, and, being unable to -control himself, commits acts of which he repents immediately -afterwards. It is the custom to say that at such -times the brute has awakened in the man. This is more -than a metaphor. (Probably some nervous mechanism -from a remote ancestor has come into action, at the call -of some stimulation.) As our anthropoid ancestors and -primitive man lived in tribes, it is natural that when men -are grouped together, certain savage instincts should -awaken. In this connection it is interesting to study the -psychology of crowds. When man is surrounded by a -great many of his fellows, he becomes particularly responsive -to suggestion. This condition is characterised as -follows by M. G. Le Bon,<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> the author of a study on the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span>psychology of crowds: “The most careful observations -seem to prove that an individual immerged for some length -of time in a crowd in action soon finds himself—either in -consequence of the magnetic influence given out by the -crowd, or from some other cause of which we are ignorant—in -a special state, which much resembles the state of -fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds himself -in the hands of the hypnotiser. The activity of the -brain being paralysed in the case of the hypnotised subject, -the latter becomes the slave of all the unconscious activities -of his spinal cord, which the hypnotiser directs at will. -The conscious personality has entirely vanished; will and -discernment are lost. All feelings and thoughts are bent -in the direction determined by the hypnotiser” (p. 11). -Man, under the influence of the crowd, gets into a condition -like that of a hysterical patient and displays a state of -mind identical with that of our ancestors. “Moreover, by -the mere fact that he forms part of an organised crowd, a -man descends several rungs in the ladder of civilisation. -Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a crowd, he -is a barbarian—that is, a creature acting by instinct” -(p. 13).</p> - -<p>It is quite natural to find relics of our prehistoric past -in all kinds of hysterical phenomena. We could reach -extremely interesting facts regarding the tribal and sexual -life of apes, if we tried to compare with them the phenomena -of human hysteria. The passionate gestures which -are characteristic of some hysterical cases could probably -be explained in this way quite simply, and the wild cries -uttered by patients in acute hysteria would be similarly -explicable.</p> - -<p>I think that just as anatomists seek for points of comparison -between man and animals, as palæontologists make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span> -excavations to discover the buried remains of creatures -intermediate between man and apes, so also, psychologists -and doctors should investigate the rudimentary psycho-physical -functions with the object of building up the history -of the evolution of our psychical life. It cannot be doubted -that in this branch of science new arguments would be -found to support the already well founded theory of the -simian origin of the human race.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span></p> - -<h2><small>PART VI</small><br /><br /> - -SOME POINTS IN THE HISTORY OF -SOCIAL ANIMALS</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE RACE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Problem of the species in the human race—Loss of individuality -in the associations of lower animals—Myxomycetes -and Siphonophora—Individuality in Ascidians—Progress -in the development of the individual living in a society</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the following pages I shall try to reply to the criticism -on <cite>The Nature of Man</cite> that in that book I only considered -the individual without thinking of the interests of -society or of the race. I have been reproached for having -lost sight of the truth that in the general course of evolution -the interests of the individual must yield to the higher -interests of the community. It was asserted, in fact, that -by advising orthobiosis, that is to say, the most complete -cycle of human life, ending in extreme old age, I was -suggesting something to the detriment of humanity as a -whole.</p> - -<p>This objection rests on a misunderstanding which it will -be interesting to clear up. I think that the complete -development of the individual not only would not injure the -community but would be of great advantage to it. Moreover, -we must not lose sight of the fact that the individual -has rights which must not be ignored.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span></p> - -<p>In the attack on my theory many facts were brought -forward which show that in the animal and vegetable -kingdoms the individual is always sacrificed to the advantage -of the race. There is no doubt as to this, and in the -course of this book I have given exact facts bearing on it. -I instanced plants such as the Agave and some Cryptogams -which die as soon as they have reproduced; I have -also spoken of the small female round worms (<i>Nematoda</i>) -which are brutally torn in pieces and devoured by their -progeny. It would be difficult to find better cases of the -sacrifice of the individual to the species. The rule, however, -does not apply to man, who, in this respect, stands -in a special position.</p> - -<p>Since the arrival of man, several species of animals have -disappeared from the earth. Man has played a large part -in the destruction of the Moa (<i>Aepyornis</i>) of Madagascar, -the largest member of the class of birds. He destroyed -the Dodo of the Island of Mauritius and Steller’s sea cow -(<i>Rhytina stelleri</i>), a harmless relative of the Manatee, from -the shores of the Aleutian Archipelago. Man is about -to cause the extinction of several species of harmful carnivorous -animals, such as the wolf and the bear, and possibly -it will not be long before automobiles have replaced the -horse, which would then become extremely rare. However, -although he has destroyed so many other species, -man has taken good care of himself. The progress already -made by civilisation has considerably reduced our mortality. -Every year, a large number of young infants are -kept alive by the aid of hygiene and medicine. The decrease -of war and of assassination has also played a part -in maintaining the race. The position which man has -acquired in the world makes it more likely that what we -have to fear is too great an increase of population, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> -although the theory of Malthus has not been verified in -all its details, it is still true that man could multiply on -the face of the earth too abundantly. It is already clear -that almost in the proportion that humanity stops the -effusion of its blood in war, it tends to limit the propagation -of the race.</p> - -<p>As the future of the species seems to be safe, it is natural -to consider in the first place that of the individual. In this -respect the facts of general biology are of special interest.</p> - -<p>Man is not the only social animal on the earth. Long -before his appearance other living beings existed in organised -societies. The splendid colonies of Siphonophora -float on the surface of the seas, whilst in the ocean depths -there are societies of corals of extraordinary variability, -whilst again, on land, many kinds of insects live in highly -organised societies.</p> - -<p>This social life has been developed without external -assistance, and without any code to regulate the conduct -of the individuals united for a common purpose.</p> - -<p>It will be interesting to give a slight survey of the fundamental -principles of such societies; I intend to draw special -attention to one of the essential points in the societies -of animals, hoping to elucidate the relations between the -individuals and society.</p> - -<p>In the organisation of human society the most difficult -points are the extent to which the society may encroach on -the individual and the degree to which the individual may -preserve his rights and his independence. Disputes on -these have been interminable, and I do not propose to -discuss the theories according to which an individual must -be sacrificed for the good of the community to which he -belongs. I shall limit myself to reviewing the fate of the -individuals in societies of beings much inferior to man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span></p> - -<p>There are examples of societies composed of many individuals, -even amongst living things on the borderland -between the animal and vegetable kingdoms.</p> - -<table summary="Figs. 21, 22" border="0" width="100%"><tr> -<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f21" id="f21"></a> -<img src="images/i_p215a.jpg" width="200" height="212" alt="Isolated individuals -of a Myxomycete." /></div></td> -<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f22" id="f22"></a> -<img src="images/i_p215b.jpg" width="200" height="232" alt="Myxomycete individuals -united to form a plasmodium." /></div></td> -</tr><tr> -<td><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.—Isolated individuals -of a Myxomycete.<br /> -(After Zopff.)<br /> -<i>a</i>, spore; <i>b-f</i>, escape of the -zoospores.</p></td> -<td class="tdc vertt"><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22.—Myxomycete individuals -united to form a plasmodium.<br /> -(After Zopff.)</p></td> -</tr></table> - -<p>There may be found in woods, on dead leaves or on -decaying timber, minute plants resembling tiny mushrooms. -These are Myxomycetes, and the visible portions -are minute sacs filled with microscopical rounded bodies, -known as spores. When one of the spores is moistened, -there emerges a minute organism with a mobile appendage -by which it can be impelled through water. A drop of -water on a leaf or on a fragment of timber may be filled -with numbers of these tiny swimming bodies (Fig. <a href="#f21">21</a>). -Their free life as individuals, however, is of brief duration. -When they come into contact, their bodies fuse, forming -a gelatinous mass which may be quite large (Fig. <a href="#f22">22</a>). -This mass is called a plasmodium, and is composed of a -living substance which can move slowly over leaves and -which exhibits streaming movements in the interior, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> -that the whole resembles in some respects the lava from a -volcano.</p> - -<p>The plasmodia may be regarded as societies in the constitution -of which the individuality of the members has -been completely sacrificed. The ideal of those philosophers -who have urged that man should renounce his individuality -and merge himself in the community has been -realised in the fullest way at the lower end of the scale -of life, at an epoch inconceivably remote from the appearance -of the human race.</p> - -<p>Amongst animals, even the most lowly, there are no -societies in which the members are sacrificed so completely -to the whole. Individuality is always preserved to a -greater or lesser extent. Consider the polyps, colonies of -which form reefs in the sea and may even become -islands. These creatures live in aggregations, the members -of which are incapable of living an independent -life. They are united by living substance and resemble -double monsters, such as Doodica and Radica, who were -so much talked of some years ago when M. Doyen operated -upon them. The peritoneal cavities of these twins -were in free communication, and the blood-vessels were -united so that the blood of the one passed freely into the -body of the other. In another double monster, the two -Tscheck girls, Rosa and Josepha, the intestinal tracts -communicate, both leading to a common rectum. In -these, who are still alive, the peritoneum is joined and -there is a single urethra.</p> - -<p>In the case of the coral polyps, the fusion of the individuals -of the colony is nearly always much more complete. -Each individual has its own mouth and stomach, whilst the -other organs cannot be assigned to individuals but must -be regarded as common to the whole.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span></p> - -<p>In the swimming polyps or Siphonophora, the loss of -individuality is still more remarkable. These graceful and -transparent creatures, sometimes large in size, live in the -sea and may appear on its surface in great numbers. They -possess many whip-like filaments provided with tentacles, -swimming bells and stomachs. There can be no doubt as -to their colonial nature (Fig. <a href="#f23">23</a>), but it is difficult to -<span class="figright" style="width: 150px;"><a name="f23" id="f23"></a> -<img src="images/i_p217.jpg" width="150" height="255" alt="One of the -Siphonophora." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23.—One of the -Siphonophora.<br /> -(After Chun.)<br /> -<i>pn</i>, pneumatic chamber; -<i>clh</i>, swimming bells; -<i>stl</i>, stolon.</span></span> -decide as to whether each piece of the -colony, each swimming bell, stomach -and so forth, is to be regarded as an -individual or an organ, different zoologists -having taken different views -on the question. One interpretation -is that colonial life has brought with -it such modifications that of each individual -there remains only a single -organ. Some individuals have been -reduced to simple stomachs, attached -to the central stem, whilst others have -lost all organs except that of locomotion -which has become one of the -swimming bells of the colony. Other -zoologists, and I myself amongst them, -think that the Siphonophora are -colonies of organs in which there has -been as yet practically no development of individuality. -A living chain of Siphonophora is simply a number of -organs such as stomachs, tentacles, swimming bells and so -forth, united on a common stem. I need not discuss the -disputed point further, for the only matter pertinent to my -argument is that in the Siphonophora the loss of individuality, -the sacrifice of the parts to the whole, is not so great -as in the Myxomycetes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span></p> - -<p>In support of my view, I must recall the small forms of -Siphonophora known as <i>Eudoxia</i>. These are detached -pieces of the common trunk which swim freely in the -sea and have a remarkable structure (Fig. <a href="#f24">24</a>). Their -mobility is due to a bell provided with strong muscular -fibres. The bell is a portion of an individual which possesses -organs of reproduction but which is devoid of the -means to capture or digest food. These two functions -are performed by a second individual which is closely -united with the first. The nutrient individual has a long -tentacle by which the prey is captured, and a capacious -stomach in which it is digested. The products of digestion -pass by channels into the reproductive individual, -carrying as it were a ready-made blood. <i>Eudoxia</i> in fact -is a double being composed of an individual incapable of -locomotion or of reproduction, but adapted for prehension -and digestion, and of a second individual which can reproduce -and which is mobile. <i>Eudoxia</i> is an association -resembling that of the blind man and the paralytic, in -Florian’s fable.</p> - -<table summary="Figs. 24, 25" width="100%"><tr> -<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f24" id="f24"></a> -<img src="images/i_p218a.jpg" width="200" height="245" alt="Eudoxia." /></div></td> -<td><div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f25" id="f25"></a> -<img src="images/i_p218b.jpg" width="200" height="261" alt="Botryllus" /></div></td> -</tr><tr> -<td><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24.—<i>Eudoxia.</i><br /> -(After Chun.)</p></td> -<td><p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25.—<i>Botryllus</i> -colonies.<br /> -<i>o</i>, mouth ; <i>A</i>, common -cloaca.</p></td> -</tr></table> - -<p>Advance in the organisation of social animals is plainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span> -incompatible with complete loss of individuality, and this -becomes the more apparent the higher we reach in the scale -of life. In the social Ascidians, each member retains all -the organs necessary to life. Animals of the genus <i>Botryllus</i> -(Fig. <a href="#f25">25</a>), perhaps the most interesting of these Ascidians, -occur in the form of circular colonies. The individuals -which compose the colony are grouped radially around a -common centre which is occupied by the cloaca. Each individual -has its own mouth and digestive tube, but the -latter opens into a cloaca, common to all the individuals, -by which the excreta are voided. There is, in fact, a single -anus, as in the case of Rosa and Josepha which I have just -mentioned.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>INSECT SOCIETIES</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Social life of insects—Development and preservation of -individuality in colonies of insects—Division of labour and -sacrifice of individuality in some insects</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hitherto</span> I have dealt with associations of animals the -members of which are linked by an actual material bond. -In the insect world there are many cases of highly developed -colonies. But the organisation of insects is high, and -is incompatible with the existence of actual physical connection -between the members of the society.</p> - -<p>In early stages of the development of the social instinct in -bees, fully formed and similar individuals join together -with the object of securing the safety of their individual -lives. Sometimes they act together to drive away a -common enemy, sometimes, as in winter, they cling in a -mass to maintain their temperature. In such primitive -societies, the young are not reared in common. It is only -in much more highly developed colonies, such as those of -some bees and wasps, and of ants and termites, that the -chief object of the common action is care of the progeny. -Such an extreme development of the colony is attained only -by sacrificing the individuality of the members. There is -a far-reaching division of labour, so that the queens, for -instance, are mere machines for laying eggs. In hive-bees<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span> -the queen can no longer judge of what is good for the -colony, her intellectual functions being degenerate. She -is enclosed in her cell and supported by the workers, who -see in her the future of the race. In times of want the -worker-bees sacrifice their own lives and give the queen the -last remnants of the food-supply so that she survives them. -The males are incomplete individuals and are tolerated only -so long as they are required, after which the workers kill -them remorselessly.</p> - -<p>The workers, which take such pains for the well-being of -the hive, are incomplete individuals. Their brains are well -developed and they are well equipped with organs for -making wax and collecting food, but their reproductive -organs are reduced to mere vestiges incapable of fulfilling -their functions.</p> - -<p>Here then is a case of loss of individual characters increasing -with the perfection of the colony. Amongst ants -and termites, the social life of which arose quite independently -of that of bees, the same course of events has been -repeated. High intelligence and skill are confined to the -workers, in which the reproductive organs are atrophied. -The soldiers have powerful jaws used in defence of the -camp, but they, too, are sexually incomplete. The females -and males, in which the reproductive organs have attained -huge proportions so that the bodies are little more than -sacs containing the sexual elements, have no intelligence -and very little skill.</p> - -<p>An extremely curious specialisation, consisting in the -formation of honey-bearing workers, occurs in some Mexican -ants. Some of the workers of these races absorb so -much honey that their bodies become swollen honey-bags. -The limbs can no longer support the expanded body, and -the insects, reduced to immobility, do not quit the burrows.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span> -Normal life has become impossible for these individuals, -who soon die for the good of the community. When the -normal workers or the sexual individuals are hungry, they -approach the honey-bearers and take honey from their -<span class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"><a name="f26" id="f26"></a> -<img src="images/i_p222.jpg" width="150" height="103" alt="A Honey-ant." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26.—A Honey-ant.<br /> -(After Brehm.)</span></span> -mouths. The honey-bearers have become -no more than animated cupboards -(Fig. <a href="#f26">26</a>).</p> - -<p>The termites belong to quite another -class of the group Insecta, but in their -case a similar sacrifice of the individual -to the state is practised. The females -become transformed to shapeless bags of eggs. They -cannot move, but remain secluded in the recesses of the -“ant”-hill, where they lay as many as 80,000 eggs a day. -The soldiers have become provided with jaws so enormous -that these unsexed insects can perform no function other -than defence of the colony.</p> - -<p>The partial reduction of individuality in social insects -never goes so far as in the cases of the lower animals I have -described. It may be stated as a general rule that increase -in the perfection of organisation brings with it a more or -less complete preservation of individuality in the members -of a community.</p> - -<p>I shall now examine to what extent this law can be -applied in the case of man.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>SOCIETY AND THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE HUMAN RACE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Human societies—Differentiation in the human race—Learned -women—Habits of a bee, <i>Halictus quadricinctus</i>—Collectivist -theories—Criticisms by Herbert Spencer and -Nietzsche—Progress of individuality in the societies of higher -beings</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Social</span> life is for the most part little developed amongst -vertebrate animals. The birds and fishes which live in -communities present no organisation of society even comparable -with that found amongst insects. There is little -advance in this respect in the case of mammals, and it is not -until we come to man that highly organised societies are to -be found. Man is the first vertebrate to develop an organised -social life. But, whilst in the insect world, instincts -are of supreme importance in the regulation of the community, -there is little instinctive action in human communities. -The consciousness of individuality, or egoism, -is very powerful in human beings, and perhaps for that -reason our ancestors made little progress in the development -of social relations.</p> - -<p>Anthropoid apes adhere in little groups or in families -without any true social organisation. Love of the neighbour, -or altruism, appears to be a recent and feeble human -acquisition.</p> - -<p>Although the organisation of human society is far ad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>vanced -and division of labour very complete, there is no -differentiation of the individuals comparable with what is -found amongst insects. Although in animals so different as -Siphonophora, bees, wasps, and termites the development -of the community, proceeding along different lines, -has brought into existence non-sexual individuals, there is -no trace of this specialisation amongst human beings.</p> - -<p>Certain abnormalities in the condition of the sexual organs -are occasionally found in men and women, but these cannot -be compared with the production of sexless individuals that -has taken place amongst other social creatures. I cannot -accept the view that we are to see something analogous to -the case of worker bees in the prohibition of sexual relations -imposed by some religious systems on a certain number of -individuals. But in any event there is little importance in -this occurrence, which is rapidly becoming rarer.</p> - -<p>In recent times, both in Europe and the United States of -America, there has been an active development of a femininist -movement impelling women towards higher education. -Women, no longer content with the avocations of mother -and housewife, have pressed into professions such as law -and medicine. There is a steady increase in the number of -women who study at the Universities, and countries like -Germany, which have tried to exclude women from higher -studies, will soon have to yield before an irresistible pressure.</p> - -<p>Can we regard the results of this movement as analogous -to the production of sexless workers which has taken -place amongst social insects? I think not. It is undoubtedly -true that a certain number of young women, who, -for some reason or other are unlikely to marry, devote themselves -to scientific study. In these cases, however, celibacy -is the cause, not the result of the increased intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> -activity. On the other hand, it must be remembered that -many women students of science eventually marry. In St. -Petersburg, for instance, there were 1,091 women in the -Medical School; of these 80 were already married and 19 -were widows. Of the remaining 992, 436 or 44 per cent. -married during the course of their studies.</p> - -<p>Observation of the femininist movement, which has lasted -for more than forty years, shows that in most cases there -is no tendency towards the formation of individuals resembling -the infertile worker insects. Most lady doctors -and learned women would like nothing better than to be -the founders of a family. Even the women who have been -most distinguished in the scientific world are no exception -to the rule. In this relation it is very interesting to follow -the details of the life of Sophie Kowalevsky, one of the -most notable of learned women. In her youth, when she -began to study mathematics, she would not admit that feelings -of love had any importance. Later on, however, when -she felt herself growing old, these sentiments awoke in her -to such an extent that on the day when the prize of the -Academy of Sciences was bestowed on her, she wrote to -one of her friends, “I am getting innumerable letters of -congratulation, but by the strange irony of fate, I have -never felt so unhappy.”</p> - -<p>The cause of this discontent reveals itself in the words -which she addressed to her most intimate woman friend. -“Why is it,” she said, “that no one loves me? I could -give more than most women, and while the most ordinary -women are loved, as for me, I am not loved.”<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a></p> - -<p>It is, in fact, impossible to regard the celibacy of persons -devoted to religion or to scientific studies as the beginning -of a special organisation analogous to that of worker bees.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span></p> -<p>However, it is still probable that in the human race a -special differentiation has been established for the accomplishment -of different and essential functions.</p> - -<p>The organisation of human societies has certainly not followed -the path by which social insects attained the formation -of sexless individuals. It much more closely resembles -what has taken place in some isolated animal types. -A solitary bee, named <i>Halictus quadricinctus</i> (Fig. <a href="#f27">27</a>), is -characterised by the fact that the female does not die when -she has laid her last eggs, as generally happens amongst -insects, but remains alive to cherish her offspring. This -final portion of her life does not last long, and the bee cannot -play the prominent part of governess in a society of -insects organised by this specialisation of elderly females. -<span class="figleft" style="width: 100px;"><a name="f27" id="f27"></a> -<img src="images/i_p226.jpg" width="100" height="73" alt="Halictus -quadricinctus." /> -<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27.—<i>Halictus -quadricinctus.</i><br /> -(After Buffon.)</span></span> -In the human race the individual life lasts -longer and a division of labour takes place -in the fashion suggested by <i>Halictus quadricinctus</i>.</p> - -<p>An ordinary woman ceases to be fertile at -between forty and fifty years old, that is to -say, at a time when, according to statistics, -she has still on the average twenty years to live. During -this long period, she can perform an extremely useful -function in society, a function resembling that of the -old mothers of <i>Halictus quadricinctus</i>, and consisting -chiefly in the bringing up and education of the children. -Who does not know the extraordinary devotion of grandmothers, -and, as a general rule, of old women, who are -extremely useful in bringing up children. And none the -less, it must not be forgotten that, actually, old age begins -too soon, that it is not what it ought to be under normal -conditions, and that human life itself does not last nearly -so long as it ought to do in ideal conditions. We may pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>dict -that when science occupies the preponderating place in -human society that it ought to have, and when knowledge -of hygiene is more advanced, human life will become much -longer and the part of old people will become much more -important than it is to-day.</p> - -<p>The members of human society are not divided into -sexual and neuter individuals as amongst insects, but the -active life of every individual can be divided into two -periods, the first one of productive activity, and the second -of sterility but none the less devoted to work useful to the -community. The essential difference between the two cases -may be reduced to the contrast that whilst the individuals -of which animal societies are composed are structurally incomplete, -in human societies the individual preserves his -integrity.</p> - -<p>We come, then, to the result that the more highly -organised a social being may be, so also the more highly -developed is his individuality. It follows that amongst the -theories which seek to control social life, those are the best -which leave a field sufficiently wide and free for the development -of individual initiative. The ideal which has been so -often advocated and according to which the individual is to -be sacrificed as completely as possible to society, cannot be -regarded as in harmony with the general law of organic -associations. Special conditions exist in social life in which -great sacrifices are inevitable, but such an arrangement -cannot be considered as general and permanent. We may -predict that the more human beings succeed in advancing -communal life, the fewer cases there will be in which the -individual has to be sacrificed.</p> - -<p>In the hope of subduing the egoism rooted in human -nature, moralists have preached renunciation of individual -happiness and the need of subordinating it to the good of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> -the community. Very often such doctrine has borne little -fruit, but there are cases where it has been embraced with -such ardour that men and, still more, young women have -been led to sacrifice their well-being for what they have -taken to be the common good. However it may involve -self-abnegation, there has been continued insistence on the -duty of sacrificing the individual to the community.</p> - -<p>The existing great inequalities in the distribution of -wealth have revived doctrines the object of which is to -redress such injustice. For more than a century, different -forms of socialism have claimed to formulate rules for the -amelioration of mankind. They agree in a verdict -against existing conditions, but follow different paths -in their proposals for the reformation of society. The -varieties of socialism are so numerous that it is difficult -even to define the word. Although collectivist theories -have lost much of their early thoroughness, they are still -far from admitting the just claims of the individuals constituting -the society. At socialist assemblies and congresses -the resolutions adopted frequently proclaim -aggressively the sacrifice of the rights of the individual. -The members of one socialist party have been seen refusing -the collaboration of newspapers which are not the official -organs of the party, or declining any co-operation with a -government they have proscribed. In strikes organised by -socialists, work is forbidden to men who ardently desire it. -Recently printers have refused to set up newspapers the -opinions of which they did not share, and even doctors -have been known to decline to treat those belonging to -another political party.</p> - -<p>It is no new charge against collectivists that they would -encroach too much on individual liberty. They reply that -“in social-democratic society of the future, tyranny and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> -oppression will be impossible. The secret of the bond will -reside in a discipline totally different from the inanimate -obedience of the soldier, a discipline depending on a willing -submission of the individual to the group because of the -common object.”<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> But such discipline and submission -may go so far that the conscience of the individual is seriously -offended. And so amongst the socialists themselves -there has arisen a small group which declines to accept this -submergence of the individual in the whole. This group -is composed of anarchists, who, in the name of liberty and -the individual, attack the property and sometimes the lives -of their opponents.</p> - -<p>It appears that there has been a notable evolution of -collectivist theories in the century or more in which the -abolition of human misery has been an accepted problem. -Whilst there was formerly advocated the total abolition of -private property and the establishment of phalansteries for -communal life, at the present time the demand is limited -to the nationalisation of the means of production, leaving -housing and food to be provided by individual property.<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a></p> - -<p>Through a publication, of M. Kautsky, one of their best -known representatives, the social democrats have announced -that “the nationalisation of the land does not necessarily -bring with it the abolition of private dwellings. The customary -attachment of the dwelling to agricultural employment -will cease, but there is no reason why the peasants’ houses -should become collective property.” “Modern socialism -does not exclude individual property in food. One of the -most important, perhaps the most important factor, in making -human life happy and adding to its pleasures is the -possible attainment of a private house. Collective owner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>ship -of the land does not exclude this.” It is very difficult -to separate house and garden, especially from the point of -view of considering the pleasures of life. A garden furnishes -the opportunity for endless improvements, many of -which cannot be separated from the idea of individual property. -The concessions which collectivists have been compelled -to make show conclusively the importance of private -property.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding such modifications, many voices have -been raised against the prospect of the socialisation of the -means of production and the concomitant limitations of -individual enterprise. The great English philosopher, -Herbert Spencer,<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> against whom narrowness of view or -conservatism could be urged, energetically attacked collectivist -doctrines as tending to reduce human individuality to -a dead level. By a series of cogent instances, he showed -the evil results of the best intentioned efforts to equalise -opportunities and to abolish poverty. He foretold that -slavery would be the real outcome if the State interfered too -much in spheres that ought to be left to individual enterprise. -He believed that the institution of a collectivist State -would bring great dangers.</p> - -<p>Nietzsche has attacked socialism with his customary -exaggeration. “Socialism,”<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> he wrote, “is the fanatical -younger brother of dying despotism, whose goods he -wishes to inherit; his efforts are, in the deepest sense of the -word, reactionary. He wishes a wealth of power in the -State greater than despotism ever enjoyed, but he goes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>beyond all the past inasmuch as he strives absolutely to -stifle the individual; for him the individual is a useless -efflorescence of nature to be tamed into a useful organ of -the community.” Further, “Socialism at least teaches -brutally and convincingly the danger of concentrating -power in the State, for it is a covert attack on the State -itself. When its harsh voice raises the war-cry ‘Let the -State control as much as possible,’ the cry will at first -become louder; but soon another phrase will grow equally -clamant, ‘Let the State control as little as possible.’”</p> - -<p>It is most probable that no shade of socialism will be able -to solve the problem of social life with a sufficient respect -for the maintenance of individual liberty. None the less -the progress of human knowledge will inevitably bring -about a great levelling of human fortunes. Intellectual -culture will lead men to give up many things that are -superfluous or even harmful, and that are still thought indispensable -by most people. The conceptions that the -greatest good fortune consists in the complete evolution of -the normal cycle of human life and that this goal can be -reached most easily by plain and sober habits will convince -men of the folly of much of the luxury that now shortens -human existence. Whilst the rich will choose a simpler -mode of life and the poor will be able to live better, none the -less, private property, acquired or inherited, may be maintained. -Evolution must be gradual and much effort and -new knowledge is required. Sociology, a new-born science, -must learn of biology, her older sister. Biology teaches us -that in proportion that the organisation becomes more complex, -the consciousness of individuality develops, until a -point is reached at which individuality cannot be sacrificed -to the community. Amongst low creatures such as <i>Myxomycetes</i> -and <i>Siphonophora</i>, the individuals disappear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> -wholly or almost wholly in the community; but the sacrifice -is small, as in these creatures the consciousness of individuality -has not appeared. Social insects are in a stage -intermediate between that of the lower animals and man. -It is only in man that the individual has definitely acquired -consciousness, and for that reason a satisfactory social -organisation cannot sacrifice it on pretext of the common -good. To this conclusion the study of the social evolution -of living beings leads me.</p> - -<p>It is plain that the study of human individuality is a -necessary step in the organisation of the social life of -human beings.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span></p> - -<h2><small>PART VII</small><br /><br /> - -PESSIMISM AND OPTIMISM</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>PREVALENCE OF PESSIMISM</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Oriental origin of pessimism—Pessimistic poets—Byron—Leopardi—Poushkin—Lermontoff—Pessimism -and suicide</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the attempt to formulate a pessimistic theory of human -nature, we are naturally led to ask why it is that so many -famous men have come to a purely pessimistic conception of -human life.</p> - -<p>Pessimism, although it has been most prominent in -modern times, is extremely old. Everyone knows the pessimistic -wail of Ecclesiastes, written nearly ten centuries -before our era: “Vanity of Vanities, all is vanity.” -Solomon, the supposed author, states that he “hated life, -because the work that is wrought under the sun is grievous -unto me, for all is vanity and vexation of spirit” (Eccl. ii., -17).</p> - -<p>Buddha raised pessimism to the rank of a doctrine. All -life seemed to him sorrow. “Birth is sorrow, old age is -sorrow, disease is sorrow, union with one whom we do not -love is sorrow, separation from one whom we love is sorrow, -not to gratify desire is sorrow, in short, our five bonds -with the things of the earth are sorrow.”<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> This Buddhistic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>pessimism has been the source of most of the modern -pessimistic theories.</p> - -<p>Pessimism arose in the East and was much in vogue in -India even apart from Buddhism. In the poems known -under the name of Bhartrihari, and dating from the beginning -of the Christian era, human life has been commiserated -in the following fashion. “One hundred years are the -limit of the life of man; night takes half of them, half of -the other half is childhood and old age, the rest is filled -with diseases, with separations and the misfortunes that -come from them, with working for others and with wasting -one’s time. Where can happiness be found in an existence -most like to the bubbles in broken water?” “Man’s -health is destroyed by every kind of care and disease. -When fortune comes to him, evil follows as if by an open -door. Death takes all human beings, one after the other, -and they can offer no resistance to their fate. What is there -assured amongst all that the mighty Brahma has created?”<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a></p> - -<p>Pessimistic theories spread from the Asiatic East to -Egypt and Europe. Three centuries before the Christian -era, there arose the philosophy of Hegesias, which maintained -that experience was generally deceptive and that enjoyment -was quickly followed by satiety and disgust. According -to him, the sum of pain surpassed the sum of -pleasure in life, so that happiness was unattainable, and in -reality never existed. It was vain to seek pleasure and happiness, -as these could not be realised. It was better to try to -be indifferent, dulling feeling and desire. In fact, life was no -better than death, and it was often preferable to end it by -suicide. Hegesias was called <i>Pisithanatos</i>, the adviser of -death. “Listeners thronged around him, his doctrine -spread rapidly, and his disciples, persuaded by his voice, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>gave themselves to death. Ptolemy was perturbed by it, -and fearing that the dislike of life would become contagious, -closed the school of Hegesias and exiled its master.”<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a></p> - -<p>The pessimistic tendency sometimes appears in the writings -of many Greek and Latin philosophers and poets. -Seneca wrote: “The spectacle of human life is lamentable. -New misfortunes overwhelm you before you have freed -yourself from the old ones.”<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a></p> - -<p>It is in modern days, however, that there has been the -greatest spread of pessimism.</p> - -<p>Besides the philosophical theories of the last century, -those of Schopenhauer, von Hartmann and Mailaender, -which I discussed sufficiently in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, poets -have formulated a pessimistic view of life. Even Voltaire -was a pessimist in the following lines:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Alas! what are the course and the goal of life?</div> -<div class="line">Only follies and then the darkness.</div> -<div class="line">Oh Jupiter! in creating us you made</div> -<div class="line">A heartless jest.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>In <cite>The Nature of Man</cite> I described Byron’s expression -of his conception of the evils of human life. Soon after the -death of the great English poet, a celebrated Italian poet, -Giacomo Leopardi, sounded a note of abandoned pessimism.</p> - -<p>Here are words which he addressed to his own heart<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a>: -“Be quiet for ever, you have beaten enough, nothing is -worthy of your beating and the earth is not worthy of your -sighs. Life is nothing but bitterness and weariness, there -is nothing else in it. The world is nothing but mire. -Repose from now onwards. Be in despair for ever. Destiny -has given us nothing but death. Despise henceforth your<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>self -and nature, and the shameful concealed power which -decrees the ruin of all and the infinite variety of all.”</p> - -<p>Leopardi makes his readers witnesses of his distraction -and his grief: “I shall study the blind truth”—he wrote in -a poem dedicated to Charles Pépoli—“I shall study the -blind fates of things mortal and immortal. Why humanity -came into existence, and was burdened with pain and -sorrow, to what final end destiny and nature are driving it, -for whose pleasure or advantage is our great pain, what -order, what laws rule this mysterious universe which wise -men cover with praise, and I am content to wonder at” -(<i>ibid.</i>, p. 15).</p> - -<p>Quite a school of poets has been developed, singing -the pain of the world, the “Weltschmerz” of German -authors, amongst whom Heine and Nicolas Lenau are -specially distinguished.</p> - -<p>Russian poetry was born under the influence of Byronism, -and its best exponents, Poushkin and Lermontoff, -often laboured over the problem of the object of human -existence, finding only sad answers. Poushkin, who is -justly regarded as the father of lyric poetry in Russia, -stated his pessimistic conception in the following lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Useless gift, gift of chance,</div> -<div class="line">Life, why wert thou given me?</div> -<div class="line">And why from the beginning art thou doomed</div> -<div class="line">Irrevocably to death?</div> -<div class="line"> </div> -<div class="line">What unfriendly power</div> -<div class="line">Has drawn me from the darkness,</div> -<div class="line">Has filled my soul with passion,</div> -<div class="line">And breathed doubt into my soul?</div> -<div class="line"> </div> -<div class="line">There is no goal for me,</div> -<div class="line">My heart and my soul are empty;</div> -<div class="line">And the dull emotion of life</div> -<div class="line">Has filled me with black care.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span></p> - -<p>Recently, Mde. Ackermann, in a series of short poems, -has given voice to the grief caused to her by the world and -life as they are, although she does not state exactly the -reason of her bitter complaints.</p> - -<p>Whilst pessimistic philosophers and poets reflect the -thoughts and feelings of their contemporaries, it is certain -that they also seriously influence their readers. And so -there has come into existence a deeply rooted conviction -that the miseries of human life are far from being countervailed -by its happiness. Probably such ideas have influenced -the number of suicides. We do not know with any -certainty the real motives of most cases of self-destruction, -but it cannot be denied that the trend of modern thought -has played an important part. According to statistics, the -chief causes of suicide are “hypochondria, melancholia, -weariness of life, and unbalancing of the mind.” Thus from -the Danish statistics it appears (and Denmark is the country -in which suicide is most prevalent) that of 1,000 cases of -suicides of males, between 1866 and 1895, 224, or one-quarter, -were referred to the causes I have just mentioned. -In the case of women, the corresponding figures are higher, -amounting to nearly one-half (403 out of 1,000). The -second most common cause of male suicides is alcoholism -(164 in 1,000).<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> It is very probable that pessimism was the -determining condition in most of the suicides referred to -these two categories of causes. Leaving out of the question -the true cases of mental alienation, amongst the victims of -melancholia, hypochondria and weariness of life, in whom -the mental condition was not pathological in the strict sense -of the word, there must have been many who killed themselves -because their view of life was pessimistic. And -amongst the victims of drink, there are many who take to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span>alcohol because they are convinced that life is not worth -preserving.</p> - -<p>The progressive increase in the numbers of suicides in -modern times is an index of the great influence of pessimism. -There have been even societies for the promotion -of suicide. In such a society, founded in Paris in the beginning -of last century, members placed their names in an urn, -to be drawn by chance. He whose name was drawn had -to kill himself in the presence of the other members. -According to its rules, this society admitted only persons -of honour who must have had experience of “the injustice -of man, the ingratitude of a friend, the infidelity of a wife -or mistress, and who, moreover, for many years had had a -void in their souls and a distaste of what this world can -offer.”<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a></p> - -<p>Although such societies no longer exist, individuals continue -to put their lives to an end, in greater numbers every -year.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span></p> -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>ANALYSIS OF PESSIMISM</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Attempts to assign reasons for the pessimistic conception of -life—Views of E. von Hartmann—Analysis of Kowalevsky’s -work on the Psychology of Pessimism</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> view of the facts I brought together in my last chapter, -there is occasion to inquire if it be possible to discover the -intimate mechanism by which men arrive at a conception of -life as an evil to be got rid of as quickly as possible. Why -do so many think that man is less happy than the beasts, -and that cultured and intelligent men are more unhappy -than those who are ignorant or feeble-minded ?</p> - -<p>I have related how in a society of friends of suicide, -injustice and unfaithfulness were regarded as prime factors -in arousing a distaste for life. Shakspeare made Hamlet -exclaim that if it were possible to put an end to our days no -one would continue to live:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">For who would bear the whips and scorns of time,</div> -<div class="line">The oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely?</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>For Byron, besides diseases, death and slavery, the evils -that we see, there are others:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">And worse, the woes we see not—which throb through</div> -<div class="line">The immedicable soul, with heart-aches ever new.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>In many of his works he insists on the feeling of satiety<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span> -which was almost continually upon him. Every sensation -of pleasure that came to him was rapidly succeeded by a -still stronger feeling of disgust.</p> - -<p>Heine thought that existence was evil and saw</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line i3">... across the hard surfaces of the rocks</div> -<div class="line i1">The homes of men and the hearts of men—</div> -<div class="line">In the one as in the others, lies, imposture and misery.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>As I urged in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, consciousness of -the shortness of human life has been an important factor -in exciting pessimism, and we find this theme recurring in -pessimistic writers. Leopardi returns to it again and again -in his poems. “Falling in peril of death from some mysterious -disease,” he said in his <cite>Souvenirs</cite>, “I lamented -over my sweet youth and the flower of my poor days which -was to fall so soon, and often in the midnight hours wove -from my sorrows, by the pale light of my lamp, a sad poem, -and in the silence of the night wept over my fleeting life, -and half fainting, sang to myself my funeral song” (<i>loc. -cit.</i>, p. 28). The bas-relief on an ancient tomb, representing -the departure of a young girl who took farewell of -her friends, suggested to Leopardi the following thoughts: -“Mother, who from their birth makes her family of living -beings tremble and weep, Nature, monster unworthy of our -praise, who brings into the world and nurtures only to kill, -if the premature death of a mortal be evil, why do you bring -it on so many innocent heads? If it be a good, why do you -make it sad for those who go and for those left behind? -Why is it the hardest grief to console? The only relief -from our woes is death, death, the inevitable end, the immutable -law which you have established for human beings. -Why, alas, after the sad voyage of life, do you not make -the arrival joyful? This certain end, this end which is in -our souls all our lives, which alone can soothe our troubles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span> -why do you drape it in black and surround it with mournful -shades? Why do you make the harbour more terrible than -the open seas?” (<i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 55).</p> - -<p>The three chief grievances—injustice, disease, and death—often -come together. From the anthropomorphic point -of view fate is represented as a sort of wicked being who -commits injustice by visiting all kinds of evils on mankind.</p> - -<p>A pessimistic conception of life is arrived at by a complex -psychological process in which both feelings and reflection -are involved, and hence it is difficult to analyse it satisfactorily. -Formerly, therefore, writers were content with -general and very vague estimates of the process by which -we may become pessimists. Ed. von Hartmann has tried -to deal more exactly with this inner process of the human -mind. In the first place, he lays stress on the fact that -pleasures always bring less satisfaction than pains bring -grief. False notes in music, for instance, are more painful -than the best music is delightful. The pain of toothache -is much more violent than the pleasure when relief comes. -So also with all diseases. In love, according to Hartmann, -the pleasure is always very greatly over-balanced by the -pain. Muscular work brings pleasure only in a very small -degree, and devotion to science and art and intellectual -work in general brings more pain than pleasure to the -votaries. As the result of an analysis, Hartmann is convinced -that there is much more pain than pleasure in the -world. Pessimism is founded upon the essential nature of -human feelings.</p> - -<p>M. Kowalevsky,<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> a German philosopher at Koenigsberg, -adopting the modern habit of measuring mental processes -as exactly as possible, has recently published an attempt -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span>to analyse pessimism psychologically. Although this has -not solved the problem, it is extremely interesting as an -instance of the application of the methods now being -adopted in modern psychology.</p> - -<p>M. Kowalevsky took advantage of all the known methods -of estimating the relative values of our emotions; he tried -to make use of the notes of Munsterberg, another living -psychologist who kept a journal in which he set down daily -his psychical and psycho-physical impressions. The object -of the work had no relation to the question of pessimism, -and for that reason Kowalevsky thought that it was specially -important in his investigations.</p> - -<p>Munsterberg was not content with the existing classification -of emotions as agreeable or painful. He subdivided -them much further. He recognised, for instance, emotions -of tranquillity and excitement, serious and pleasant impressions. -Having completed the reckoning, Kowalevsky -came to the conclusion that his colleague, who was by no -means a pessimist, but a psychologist of well-balanced -mind, experienced many more painful emotions (about 60 -per cent. as compared with 40 per cent.) than agreeable -emotions. “Such a result is in favour of pessimism,” concluded -Kowalevsky.</p> - -<p>However, he went beyond the foregoing enquiry. By -several other methods, he tried to gain an exact idea of the -value of our emotions. He visited elementary schools in -order to investigate the pleasures and pains of the scholars. -In the case of 104 boys, of eleven to thirteen years of age, -he found that pain was much more deeply felt than corresponding -pleasure. Thus, while in 88 cases illness was -set down as an evil, only in 21 was health reckoned as a -good. One-third of the pupils noted down war amongst -evils, whilst only one noted peace amongst the good things.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span> -Poverty was written down thirteen times as an evil, against -twice in which riches were put down as a good. In another -series of investigations, Kowalevsky took notes on the -pleasures and pains felt by pupils of the two sexes attending -the same school. The result was that the greatest evil, -according to them, was illness, noted 43 times, then death -42 times, after which came fire 37 times, hunger 23 times, -floods 20 times. Amongst the good things, the first place -was given, as might have been expected, to games (30) and -the second to presents.</p> - -<p>As Kowalevsky did not find that such investigations -could solve the problem, he tried to discover a more exact -method. With this object, he turned to different sensations, -such as those of smell, hearing and taste, to which -he applied methods of exact measurement. In the case -of taste, for instance, he determined the minimum quantity -of different substances which could excite definitely pleasant -or unpleasant sensations. In his experiments, Kowalevsky -found that doses which gave bad tastes were not -balanced by those which gave good tastes. For instance, -to neutralise the unpleasant taste of quinine, it was necessary -to employ a much larger quantity of sugar. He was -specially pleased with one experiment. Four persons were -given definite mixtures of sugar and quinine in order to -discover the proportion of the two substances necessary to -obtain a neutral sensation. He found that to take away -the bad taste of quinine, it was necessary to double the -quantity of sugar given. Similarly with smells, he found -that those which were unpleasant were appreciated much -more strongly than those which were pleasant. Here, -then, was a series of scientific results supporting the view -of the pessimists. Must we really conclude from them -that the world is very badly arranged? The analysis of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> -good and bad temper made by Kowalevsky is in favour -of such an interpretation. In order to estimate these conditions -of mind, he measured the gait, that is to say, the -number of steps taken in a minute. This method depended -upon the following idea. It is an accepted view that the -condition of mind is shown by the rapidity of the human -walk; we have only to compare the slow pace of a man in -deep grief with the rapid steps of a man in a state of joy. -Pain, as a general rule, depresses, while joy stimulates -voluntary movements. The result of the measurements -taken according to this method give a new argument in -favour of pessimism. However, it is useless to attempt -to analyse these figures on which Kowalevsky had to employ -the integral calculus, because the principle of his -method cannot be supported. As a matter of fact, the -rapidity of walking is an index of the degree of excitation, -and not of the happy or unhappy condition of the mind. -When a person suddenly undergoes a strong impression, -either pleasant or unpleasant, he takes to walking actively -about in his room, and may even want to go out of doors -to walk more quickly. A letter which has been received -and which gives some unexpected news, as for instance -of the infidelity of a person one loves, or of an inheritance -which one did not expect, produces a condition of excitement -shown chiefly by rapid walking. Many orators and -professors have to make gestures and to walk about in -the course of their lectures. A man of science to whom -some new idea comes and who wishes to think it out, rises -from his chair and begins to walk. But not only on such -pleasant occasions, but when one has to face an insult or -an act of defiance which makes one very angry, the need -to walk actively is felt. It is therefore impossible to utilise -records of movements in the study of the pessimistic state -of mind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span></p> - -<p>M. Kowalevsky employed still another mode of attacking -the problem. He examined the recollection of painful -or pleasant impressions. He asked the children of both -sexes, whom he was investigating, questions which gave -him indications as to whether pleasures or pains made the -more lasting impression on the memory, and he registered -the answers. The result, which agreed with what had -already been obtained by Mr. Colegrove, an American -psychologist, was unfavourable to the pessimistic view. -He found, in fact, that in the majority of cases (70 per -cent.) recollection of pleasant impressions predominated. -However, in such investigations there is a facile source of -error arising from the condition of mind of those who are -being questioned. It is probable that Kowalevsky made -his enquiry in school during recreation time, when most -of the pupils were free from the boredom of the actual -class. When we are happy the tendency exists in us to -recall pleasant impressions of the past. If the enquiry had -been made during a difficult or wearying lesson, or on -children shut up in a hospital, or undergoing punishment, -it is probable that the result would have been reversed.</p> - -<p>It is evident that all such attempts to solve a problem -so complex as that of pessimism, even by the so-called -exact methods of physiological psychology, cannot lead to -any convincing result. Thus Kowalevsky’s different investigations -led to contradictory conclusions. Whilst some -of his series of facts supported the pessimistic conception, -others were opposed to it, and he obtained no definite -general conclusion. How can one expect to apply a -method of measurement to sensations and emotions so -different, not only from the qualitative point of view, -but also in relation to their intensity? Take, for instance, -the case of an individual who has experienced in one day -nine sensations which were painful and one which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> -agreeable. According to the valuation of experimental -psychologists, he ought to have reason to become a pessimist. -However, this may be far from the case, if the nine -painful impressions were much weaker than the single -happy impression. The first were provoked by small -wounds to his pride, fleeting pains of no importance, and -small losses of money, whilst the happy emotion came from -receiving a love letter. The sum of the ten impressions -would be a happy one, and might well put him in an optimistic -frame of mind. The learned attempts of experimental -psychologists must be abandoned, as incapable of illuminating -the problem. If, however, the human spirit still seeks -some means of explaining the psychology of pessimism, -there remains only the less subtle method given by the biographical -study of human beings.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>PESSIMISM IN ITS RELATION TO HEALTH AND AGE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Relation between pessimism and the state of the health—History -of a man of science who was pessimistic when young, -and who became an optimist in old age—Optimism of -Schopenhauer when old—Development of the sense of life—Development -of the senses in blind people—The sense of -obstacles</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Animals</span> and children in good health are generally cheerful -and of optimistic temperament. As soon as they fall ill -they become sad and melancholy until their recovery. We -may infer from this that an optimistic view is correlated -with normal health, whilst pessimism arises from some -physical or mental disease. And so in the case of the -prophets of pessimism, we may seek for the origin of their -views in some affliction. The pessimism of Byron has -been attributed to his club-foot, and that of Leopardi to -tuberculosis, these two nineteenth century exponents of pessimism -having died whilst young. Buddha and Schopenhauer, -on the other hand, reached old age, whilst Hartmann -died when sixty-four years old. Their diseases at the -time when they formed their theories could not have been -very dangerous, and none the less they took a most gloomy -view of human existence. The recent historical investigations -of Dr. Iwan Bloch<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> make it very probable that -Schopenhauer, in his youth, contracted syphilis. There -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span>has been found a note-book of the great philosopher in -which he wrote down the details of the severe mercurial -treatment which he had to undergo. The disease, however, -was not contracted until several years after the appearance -of his great pessimistic work.</p> - -<p>Although we must attach due weight to the connection -between disease and pessimism, we can assure ourselves -that the problem is more complex than it appears at first -sight. It is well known that blind people often enjoy a -constant good humour, and, amongst the apostles of optimism, -there has been the philosopher Duering,<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> who lost -his sight during his youth.</p> - -<p>Moreover, it has been noticed that persons affected with -chronic diseases frequently have a very optimistic conception -of life, whilst young people in full strength may -become sad, melancholic, and abandoned to the most extreme -pessimism. Such a contrast has been well described -by Émile Zola in his novel <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Joie de Vivre</cite>, where a -rheumatic old man, tried by severe attacks of gout, maintained -his good humour, whilst his young son, although -vigorous and in good health, professed extreme pessimism.</p> - -<p>I have a cousin who lost his sight in early youth. When -he grew up he formed a most enviable judgment of life. He -lived in his imagination and everything in life seemed to -him good and beautiful; he married, and pictured his wife -to himself as the most beautiful woman in the world, and -thus he feared nothing more than the recovery of his sight. -He had adapted himself to live without sight, and was convinced -that the reality was much lower than his imagination. -He feared that if he were able to see his wife she -would appear to him less beautiful.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span></p> -<p>I know a girl twenty-six years old, blind from her birth, -the subject of infantile paralysis and liable to fits of -epilepsy. She is nearly an idiot, lives in a carriage, and -sees life from its best side. She is certainly the most -happy member of all her family.</p> - -<p>The good humour and megalomania of those affected -with general paralysis of the insane also is well known. All -such examples show that pessimism cannot be explained as -depending on bad health.</p> - -<p>Examination of the state of mind of a pessimist may -throw some light on the subject. There has been within -my own circle a typical case of a person who went through -a phase of life in which everything seemed as gloomy as -possible. My intimate knowledge of him makes it possible -to apply my observations to the matter under discussion.</p> - -<p>The subject was born of parents of good health and in -comfortable circumstances, so that, from the beginning of -his life, he was surrounded by a favourite environment. He -lived in the country and escaped the diseases of childhood, -so that he reached maturity in good health, and passed well -through college and the university. Science attracted him, -and he had the ambition to become a distinguished investigator. -He threw himself into a scientific career with zeal -and ability. His ardent disposition, although certainly -favourable to work, was the cause of many troubles. He -wished to succeed too quickly, and the obstacles he encountered -embittered him. As he thought himself naturally -talented, he conceived it to be the duty of his seniors to aid -his development. And so, when he met with natural and -very common indifference from those who had already become -successful, the young man thought that there was a -plot against him, to bring to nothing his scientific talents. -From this view, many quarrels and difficulties arose, and as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> -he could not overcome these sufficiently quickly, he fell -into a mood of pessimism. In this life, he said to himself, -the main thing is to adapt oneself to external conditions. -According to Darwin’s law of natural selection, the individuals -who do not succeed in adapting themselves go to the -wall. The survivors are not the best but only the most -cunning. In the history of the earth it has been seen that -many lower animals have long survived creatures much -higher in organisation and general evolution. Whilst so -many of the higher mammals, the nearest relatives of man, -have been crushed out of existence, simpler animals, such -as evil-smelling cockroaches, have survived from the remotest -times, and multiply in the neighbourhood of man -in despite of his efforts to exterminate them. The animal -series and human evolution itself show that delicacy of the -nervous system, with its concomitant extreme development -of the sensibilities, hinders the power of adaptation and -brings with it insuperable evils. The least blow to his pride, -or a slighting word from a comrade, threw this pessimist -into a most painful condition. No, he would cry, it would -be better to be without friends, if one is to be wounded so -deeply by them. It would be best to seclude oneself in -some remote spot and be engrossed in one’s work. He was -very impressionable and a lover of music, and from his -visits to the opera, he retained in his mind an air from the -“Flûte enchantée.” “Were I as small as a snail, I would -hide myself in my shell.” His moral hypersensibility was -associated with physical hyperæsthesia. Noises of all -kinds, such as the whistling of railway-trains, the cries of -street-vendors, or the barking of dogs, excited extremely -painful sensations. The least trace of light prevented him -from sleeping at night. The unpleasant flavour of most -drugs made it impossible for him to take medicine. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> -agreed thoroughly with the pessimistic philosophers who -declare that the ills of life far surpass the good things. He -required no experiments on the sense of taste to convince -him. He believed that the organisation of his body prevented -him from becoming adapted to external conditions -and that he would have to disappear like the mammoth and -the anthropoid apes.</p> - -<p>The course of his life confirmed the convictions of our -pessimist. He had no private fortune and married a woman -who became affected with tuberculosis, and so was confronted -with the greatest evils of existence. A young lady, -hitherto in good health, contracted influenza in some -northern town. It was a mere nothing, said the doctors; -influenza is everywhere and no one escapes it; after a little -patience and rest, she will be well again. However the -“influenza” persisted and brought with it feebleness and -wasting. The doctors then found that there was a little -dullness in the apex of the left lung, but as there was no bad -family history, there was nothing to fear. I need not -describe the familiar course of events. The trifling influenza -was replaced by degeneration of the left lung, and -brought death after four years of great suffering. Towards -the end, when there was no hope, the patient found her only -solace in morphine. Under the influence of that drug, she -passed hours free from pain and in relative calm, but her -excited imagination passed almost into hallucination.</p> - -<p>It is not surprising that the death of his wife was a severe -shock to the husband. His pessimism became complete. -He was a widower at the age of twenty-eight years, and, in -his condition of mental and physical exhaustion, took to -morphine like his wife. He knew that it was a poison which -would complete the ruin of his constitution and make his -work impossible. But what was the value of his life? As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> -his organisation was too nervous for him to adapt himself -to external conditions, was it not as well to come to the aid -of natural selection and so make room for others? As it happened, -a large dose of morphia did not solve the problem. -It produced in him a condition of extraordinary happiness -combined with extreme physical weakness. Little by little -the instinct of life awoke in him, and he resumed his work. -Pessimism, however, remained the fundamental quality in -his character. Life was not worth the pains necessary to -protect it. It would be a true crime to bring into the world -other living beings doomed to elimination by natural selection. -Moral and physical sensibility, as they continued to -develop, brought with them so much evil that there could -be no good end. The “injustice” of those who were unwilling -to “understand” him made life painful to the man -himself and to those about him. The closest absorption -and hard work made his existence more tolerable, but his -pessimistic conception was not in the least altered. Thus, -he was easily driven to morphia for consolation, when he -suffered from some act of “injustice” or vexation. A -severe fit of poisoning, however, stopped this excess.</p> - -<p>Years passed. When he discussed with his friends the -problem of the goal of human life and similar topics, he -was always ardent in supporting the point of view of pessimism. -However, he occasionally wondered if his pleading -for this were really sincere. As his nature was honest and -frank, this question which he put to his conscience appeared -most curious to him. Analysis of what passed in his mind -revealed to him a change. It was not that his conceptions -had changed in the course of years, but rather his feelings -and sensations. As he was now in full maturity, between -forty-five and fifty years old, he found that there was a great -change in the intensity of these last. Disagreeable sounds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span> -did not trouble him to the same extent as formerly, and -he was undisturbed by the caterwauling of cats or by harsh -street cries. As his hypersensibility diminished his -character became more tolerant. Even the injustices or -wounds to his pride which formerly drove him to morphia, -no longer provoked in him any painful reaction. He -could easily conceal the bad effect of these upon him, and -no longer felt them with the same intensity. Thus his -character had become much more supportable to those with -him, and much better balanced.</p> - -<p>“It is old age which is come upon me,” he cried; “I feel -painful impressions much less acutely and pleasant impressions -have less effect on me. The relative proportions of the -two remain as before, that is to say, unpleasant things still -impress me much more strongly than pleasant things.” By -analysing and comparing his emotions, he discovered something -new, in fact that some impressions were, so to speak, -neutral. As he was less sensitive to unharmonious sounds, -and at the same time less affected by music itself, he found -himself in a more tranquil condition. Awakening in the -middle of the night, he experienced a kind of happiness -which reminded him of that formerly produced by morphine, -and which was characterised by his hearing no sound, -either pleasant or unpleasant. He became less disgusted -by drugs, but at the same time indifferent to the pleasures -of the table which he had appreciated in his youth. He -also delighted in consuming more and more simple food. -A piece of black bread and a glass of water became real -treats to him. Insipid dishes, which he formerly despised, -were now specially agreeable to him.</p> - -<p>Just as in the evolution of art, violent coloration has -yielded to the low tones of Puvis de Chavannes, as views of -fields and meadows are preferred to those of mountains and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> -lakes; just as in literature, tragic and romantic studies have -been successfully replaced by scenes of daily life, so the -psychical development of my friend displayed a similar -change. Instead of taking his pleasure in mountains or in -places famed for their picturesqueness, he was content to -watch the budding of the leaves of the trees of his garden, -or a snail overcoming its fears and putting out its horns. -The simplest occurrences, such as the lisping or the smile -of a baby or the first words of a child, became sources of -real delight to this elderly man of science. What was the -meaning of these changes which took so many years to -be accomplished? It was the growth of his sense of life. -The instinct of life is little developed in youth. Just as a -young woman gets more pain than pleasure from the earlier -part of her married life, just as a new-born baby cries, so -the impressions from life, especially when they are very -keenly felt, bring more pain than pleasure during a long -period of human life. The sensations and feelings are not -stable; they undergo evolution, and when that takes place -more or less normally, it brings about a state of psychical -equilibrium.</p> - -<p>And thus my friend, formerly so entrenched in pessimism, -came to share my optimistic view of life. The discussions -that we had had for so many years ended in complete agreement. -“However,” said he, “to understand the value of -life, one must have lived long; otherwise one is in the position -of a man blind from his birth to whom are recounted -the beauties of colours.” In a word, my friend towards the -end of his life changed from abject pessimism to complete -optimism.</p> - -<p>Such a transformation or evolution cannot be regarded -as unusual. In <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, I showed that most -of the great pessimistic writers had been young men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> -Such were Buddha, Byron, Leopardi, Schopenhauer, Hartmann, -and Mailaender, and there might be added many -other names of less well known men.</p> - -<p>The question has often been asked why Schopenhauer, -who was certainly sincere in his philosophy and who extolled -Nirvana as the perfect state, came to have a strong -attachment to life, instead of putting it to a premature end -as was done later on by Mailaender. The reason was that -the philosopher of Frankfort lived long enough to acquire -a strong instinct of life. M. Moebius,<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> a well-known authority -on madness, has made a close investigation of Schopenhauer’s -biography, and has established the fact that towards -the end of his life his views were tinged with optimistic -colours. On his seventieth anniversary, he took pleasure in -the consoling idea of the Hindoo Oupanischad and of -Flourens that the span of man’s life might reach a century. -As Moebius put it, “Schopenhauer as an old man enjoyed -life and was no longer a pessimist” (p. 94). Not long -before his death he still hoped to survive yet another -twenty years. It is true that Schopenhauer never -recanted his early pessimistic writings, but that was -probably because he did not fully realise his own mental -evolution.</p> - -<p>In looking through the work of modern psychologists, I -cannot find recognition of the cycle of evolution of the -human mind. In Kowalevsky’s able and conscientious -study of pessimism, I was specially struck by one phrase. -“Evils such as hunger, disease, and death are equally terrible -at all stages of life and in every rank of society” -(p. 95) said that author. I notice here a failure to recognise -the modification of the emotions in the course of life -which, none the less, is one of the great facts of human -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>nature. Fear of death is by no means equally great at -all stages of life. A child is ignorant of death and has -no conscious aversion from it. The youth and the young -man know that death is a terrible thing, but they have not -the horror of it that comes to a mature man in whom the -instinct of life has become fully developed. And we see -that young men are careless of the laws of hygiene, whilst -old men devote to them sedulous attention. This difference -is probably a notable cause of pessimism in young -men. In his studies of the mind, Moebius<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> has stated his -view that pessimism is a phase of youth which is succeeded -by a serener spirit. “One may remain a pessimist in -theory,” he says, “but actually to be one, it is necessary -to be young. As years increase, a man clings more firmly -to life.” “When an old man is free from melancholia, he -is not a pessimist at heart.” “We cannot yet explain -clearly the psychology of the pessimism of the young, but -at least we can lay down the proposition that it is a disease -of youth” (p. 182).</p> - -<p>The cases of Schopenhauer and of the man of science -whose psychical history I have sketched fully confirm the -view of the alienist of Leipzig.</p> - -<p>The conception that there is an evolution of the instinct -of life in the course of the development of a human being -is the true foundation of optimistic philosophy. It is so -important that it should be examined with the minutest -care. Our senses are capable of great cultivation. Artists -develop the sense of colour far beyond the point attained by -ordinary men, and distinguish shades that others do not -notice. Hearing, taste, and smell also can be educated. -Wine tasters have an appreciation of wine much more acute -than that of other men. A friend of mine, who does not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>drink wine, can distinguish burgundy from claret only by -the shapes of the bottles, but is devoted to tea and has a -very fine palate for different blends. I do not know if a -good palate is a natural gift, but however this may be, it is -certain that the palate can be brought to a high condition -of perfection.</p> - -<p>The development of the senses is specially notable in -the case of the blind in whom other powers become extremely -acute. As I thought that investigation of the -educability of other senses in blind persons very important -from the point of view of the development of the sense of -life, I have tried to obtain the best available information -on the question. The perfection of touch in the blind is -accepted so generally as a truth that one would have expected -to find convincing facts in its favour. However, it -is not true. Griesbach,<a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> using a well-known method for -estimating tactile discrimination, found that the sense of -touch is not more acute in the blind than in normal persons. -Blind persons distinguished the points of a pair of compasses -as separate, only when they were at least as far apart -as in case of normal persons. Dr. Javal,<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> a well-known -oculist who himself became blind, stated his surprise at finding -that “tactile discrimination is quite notably less acute in -the case of the blind than in the case of those with unimpaired -vision. For instance, the index finger of a blind man who -was a great reader got separate sensations from the points -of a pair of compasses only when these were three millimetres -apart, whilst a man with normal sight had the -double sensation at a distance of two millimetres” (p. 123). -Griesbach goes still farther, stating that neither hearing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>nor smell is better developed in the blind than amongst -normal people. Although these senses may come to replace -to a certain extent the sense of sight, this occurs -merely because the blind person uses impressions which -the clear-sighted person hardly notices. As we see what -is going on around us, we do not concentrate our attention -on the different sounds and smells or other such phenomena. -The blind person, on the other hand, not being -absorbed by impressions of sight, gives attention to the -others. Such and such a sound tells him that the garden -gate of his neighbour has been opened to let out a carriage -which he must avoid. A particular smell lets him recognise -the place where he is, as stable or kitchen.</p> - -<p>From the present point of view, it is not exactly the -acuteness of the senses which is most important. The -acuteness might be equal in a blind person and in a normal -person. It might even be greater in the latter, and yet it -is only the blind person who can decipher without difficulty -raised points so as to understand their meaning as well as -when a normal person reads a printed book. This power -of the blind person is developed only after a long period -of learning, and depends on the appreciation of very delicate -tactile impressions. I must point out, moreover, that -the method of deciding by means of a pair of compasses -gives information only with regard to one side of the tactile -sense.</p> - -<p>However, although we admit that blind people do not -really gain anything in the four remaining senses, there -is developed in them a special kind of sensibility, which is -spoken of in their case as a sixth sense, the “sense of -obstacles.” Blind people, especially those who have lost -their sight in youth, acquire a surprising habit of avoiding -obstacles and of recognising at a distance objects round<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> -about them. Blind children, for instance, can play in a -garden, without knocking themselves against the trees.</p> - -<p>Dr. Javal<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> states that some blind people, when passing in -front of a house, can count the ground floor windows. A -professor, who had been blind from the age of four years, -could walk in the garden without striking against a tree -or post. He appreciated a wall at a distance of two metres -from it. One day, going for the first time into a large -apartment, he recognised the presence of a big piece of -furniture in the middle, which he took to be a billiard table.</p> - -<p>Another blind man, walking in the street, could distinguish -houses from shops and could count the number of -doors and windows. The existence of this sense of obstacles -rests upon so many exact facts that it is indubitable. -The opinions as to the mechanism by which it operates, -however, are very varied. Dr. Zell<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> thinks that it is not -a sense peculiar to blind people and “that those of normal -sight could equally well acquire it by practice, because it -exists in nearly everyone without being noticed.” None -the less, there are some blind people who, even in the course -of years, do not acquire it. M. Javal, for instance, learnt -to read with his fingers extremely well, but was never able -to distinguish obstacles at a distance.</p> - -<p>The most probable hypothesis refers this sixth sense to -the action of the tympanic membrane and the auditory -apparatus. It is known that loud noise makes it more -difficult to perceive obstacles, and snow, by dulling the -sound of steps, has a precisely similar effect. Blind tuners, -in whom the sense of hearing is well developed, have the -sixth sense very marked.</p> - -<p>The examples I have given show that the human body -possesses senses which come into operation only in special -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>conditions, and which require a special education. The -“sense of life” to a certain extent comes within this -category. In some persons it develops very imperfectly, -generally revealing itself only late in life, but sometimes -a disease or the danger of losing life stimulates its -earlier development. Occasionally in persons who have -tried to commit suicide, a strong instinct of life wakens -suddenly, and impels them to make frantic efforts to escape.</p> - -<p>It happens, therefore, that the sense of life develops -sometimes in healthy people, sometimes in those who suffer -from acute or chronic disease. These variations are parallel -with the development of the sexual instinct, which in some -women is completely absent and in others develops only -very late. In certain cases, it is awakened only by special -conditions, such as child-birth, or even some defect of -health.</p> - -<p>As the sense of life can be developed, special pains ought -to be taken with it, just as with the making perfect of the -other senses in the blind. Young people who are inclined -to pessimism ought to be informed that their condition of -mind is only temporary, and that according to the laws of -human nature it will later on be replaced by optimism.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p> - -<h2><small>PART VIII</small><br /><br /> - -GOETHE AND FAUST</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>GOETHE’S YOUTH</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Goethe’s youth—Pessimism of youth—Werther—Tendency -to suicide—Work and love—Goethe’s conception of life in -his maturity</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">There</span> can be drawn from analysis of the lives of great men -information that is very important in the study of the constitution -of man. I have chosen Goethe for several -reasons. He was a man of genius distinguished by the -comprehensive character of his ability. He was a poet and -dramatist of the highest rank, his mind was stored with -the most varied knowledge, and he contributed to the advancement -of natural science. As minister of state and as -the director of a theatre, he was occupied with practical -affairs. He reached the age of eighty-three years, and he -passed through the phases of life in relatively normal -circumstances; in his many writings there are most valuable -facts which throw a keen light on his life and nature. The -Goethe cult in Germany has brought about the existence -of fuller biographical details than exist regarding any other -great man. He aspired to lead “the higher life,” and, -throughout his existence, he occupied himself with the -most serious problems of humanity.</p> - -<p>It is not surprising that Goethe became a subject of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> -investigation for me, but as the main facts as to his history -are widely known I need not elaborate them here.</p> - -<p>Goethe was reared in circumstances that were favourable -in every respect, and from his earliest years showed remarkable -traits. As his memory was good and his imagination -vast, the study of ancient and modern languages -and the routine curriculum of a classical education were -little more than an amusement to him. The rich library -of his father placed all sorts of books at his disposal, and -whilst he was still young he devoted himself to reading -with the enthusiasm and passion that were the chief qualities -of his character. When he was fifteen years old he -began to write verses, although he was still unconscious -of his destiny as a poet. He intended to be a learned man, -and looked forward to the career of a professor.</p> - -<p>At the age of sixteen, he entered the University of Leipzig -with the intention of studying natural science seriously. -Law and philosophy interested him but little; he turned to -natural science and medicine, although his actual study -was rather superficial. His disposition was lively and restless; -he made many friends, frequented the theatre and -plunged into all kinds of gaiety. Extracts from letters he -wrote during this period show the kind of life he led. -When he was a student, eighteen years old, he wrote to a -friend, “And so good-night; I am drunk as a hog.” A -month later, to the same friend, he summed up his life as -a “delirium in the arms of Jetty.”</p> - -<p>He graduated in law at Strassburg, and became a -barrister, but realising that such a career was unsuitable, -he became a man of letters, encouraged by the success of -his first literary efforts.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of a writer, he sought all kinds of -experiences. He devoted himself to literature and science,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> -including even the occult sciences, and frequented the -theatre and society. He was specially attracted by the -imaginative side and gave little thought to the problems of -science. “I must have movement,” he wrote in one of -his note-books.</p> - -<p>When he was young, his temper was violent and he fell -into fits of passionate rage. His contemporaries have related -that when he was in such a condition he would destroy -the illustrations and tear up the books on his work-table. -These experiences have been vividly described in his -famous romance, <cite>The Sorrows of Werther</cite>. I shall give -a few extracts to show the exact state of mind of the young -pessimist. “It is the fate of some men not to be understood.” -“Human life is a dream; I am not the first to say -that, but the idea haunts me. When I reflect on the narrow -limits which circumscribe the powers of man, his activities -and intelligence; when I see how we exhaust our forces in -satisfying our wants and that these wants are for no more -than the prolongation of a miserable existence; that our -acquiescence in so much is merely resignation engendered -by dreams, like that of a prisoner who has covered the -walls of his cell with pictures and new landscapes; such -things, my friend, plunge me into silence.” “Our learned -teachers all agree that children do not know why they have -desires; but that grown men should move on the earth -like children, and, like these, be ignorant whence they have -come and whither they go, like these strive little for real -things, but be ruled by cakes and sweets and rods; no one -will believe such things, though their truth is patent. I -admit readily (for I know what you will say) that they are -the happiest men who live from day to day like children, -who play with their dolls, dress them and undress them, -who reverence the cupboard where mamma keeps the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> -gingerbread, and who, when they have got what they wish, -cry, with their mouths full, ‘How happy we are!’”</p> - -<p>Werther proclaimed his pessimism before his romance -with Charlotte, and it was his view of life that made his -love-affair turn out unhappily. But the fame of Goethe’s -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite> was due, not to the tragic fate of the young lover, -but to the general views which were in harmony with the -conception of the world held by the best minds of the time. -Byronism was born before Byron.</p> - -<p><cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite> affords a good illustration of the disharmonies -in the development of man’s psychical nature. Inclination -and desires develop extremely strongly and before will. -Just as in the development of the reproductive functions, -as I showed in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, the different factors -develop unequally and unharmoniously, so there is inequality -and disharmony in the order of the appearance of -the higher psychical faculties. Sexual appreciation and a -vague attraction to the other sex appear at a time when -there can be no possibility of the normal physical side of -sex, with the result that many evils come about in the long -period of youth. The precocious development of sensibility -brings about a kind of diffused hyperæsthesia which -may lead to trouble. The infant wishes to lay hold of -everything he sees before him; he stretches out his arms to -grasp the moon and suffers from his inability to gratify his -desires. In youth there is still well-marked disharmony. -Young people cannot realise the true relations of things, and -formulate their desires before they understand that their will-power -is not strong enough to gratify them, as will is the -latest of the human powers to develop.</p> - -<p>Werther fell in love with a kindred spirit and gave way -to his passion without consideration of the difficulties, -Charlotte being already betrothed to another. This is the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> -plot of the tragedy of the young man, who committed -suicide, having given way to pessimism. He had not the -will-power to conquer his sentiments and so fell into a state -of lassitude, until, weary of life, he could see no other end -than to blow out his brains.</p> - -<p>I need not linger over the last phase of the story of -Werther, for it is the character of Goethe himself that is of -interest. Goethe was able to subdue his passion for Lotte, -and, after many amorous woes, consoled himself with -another woman. Notwithstanding this difference, it is certain -that in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite>, Goethe was telling part of the story -of his own youth. Goethe himself is a witness to this, for -in a letter to Kestner he wrote that “he was at work on the -artistic reproduction of his own case.” The letter was -written in July, 1773, whilst Goethe, then a writer twenty-four -years old, was relating the sorrows of young Werther.</p> - -<p>The general tendency of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite> has been described -excellently by Carlyle.<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> “<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite>,” he wrote, “is but the -cry of that dim, rooted pain, under which all thoughtful -men of a certain age were languishing; it paints the misery, -it passionately utters the complaint; and heart and voice, -all over Europe, loudly and at once responded to it.” -Werther was “the first thrilling peal of that impassioned -dirge which, in country after country, men’s ears have listened -to, till they were deaf to all else.”</p> - -<p>In the pessimistic period of his life, Goethe often cherished -the idea of suicide. In his biography he relates that at this -time he used to have, by his bedside, a poisoned dagger, -and that he had repeatedly tried to plunge it in his bosom. -Of these times he wrote to his friend Zelter<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a>—“I know -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span>what it has cost me in effort to resist the waves of death.” -The suicide which was the subject of the end of his romance -made a deep impression upon him. Although he overcame -his passion for Charlotte, his view of life remained tinged -with pessimism for many years; in a note-book of 1773, for -instance, he wrote “I am not made for this world.”<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> These -words are the more striking as they date from a period when -exact ideas regarding the adaptation of the organism and -the character to the environment did not exist. Goethe, -with his too delicate sensibility, felt himself out of harmony -with his environment.</p> - -<p>It is very interesting to trace Goethe’s subsequent development -and the transformation of a youthful pessimist -into a convinced optimist. Goethe found a remedy for his -crises of grief in work, poetical creation and love. He -declared that the mere describing his woes on paper brought -assuagement. The tears that they shed console women and -children; and the poetry in which he expresses his suffering -consoles the poet. Goethe’s romance with Charlotte -was not quite at an end when he found himself ready to -love her sister Helen. He wrote to Kestner in December, -1772:—“I was about to ask you if Helen had arrived, -when I got the letter telling me of her return.” “To judge -from her portrait she must be charming, even more charming -than Charlotte. Well, I am free and I am thirsting -for love.” “I am here at Frankfort again with new plans -and new dreams, and all will be well if I find someone to -love.” Soon afterwards, in another letter to Kestner, he -wrote:—“Tell Charlotte that I have found here a girl -whom I love with all my heart; if I wanted to marry, I -should choose her before anyone else.”</p> - -<p>As he had not yet realised his true vocation, Goethe -became a court minister at Weimar. He devoted himself -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span>to his duties with an enthusiasm that carried him far beyond -the usual affairs of state. He wished to deepen his knowledge -of such administrative problems as the construction -of roads and the management of mines, and he studied -geology and mineralogy with a real zest. Forest administration -and agriculture led him seriously into botany, and as -he had the direction of a school of design, he thought it -necessary to learn anatomy. Such varied work gave him -a real taste for science. It was no longer the superficial -interest that characterised his work at Leipzig and Strassburg -but a true devotion which led him to important discoveries, -some of which have become classic.</p> - -<p>Even such varied occupations did not absorb his prodigious -genius. In his leisure he wrote poetry and prose. -Engrossed in so much work, he was happy. His discovery -of the human intermaxillary bone suffused him with joy. -His intense activity was strengthened by his love for -Madame von Stein, a love that he declared was “a life-belt -supporting him in the sea.” A few hours with her in the -evenings set free his soul.</p> - -<p>The powerful influence of love on the life of Goethe was -specially prominent in this period when he was passing -from pessimistic youth to optimistic maturity. Being -forced to separate from Madame von Stein, he gave way to -grief that plunged him again in the worst hours of his life. -At the age of thirty-seven he fell back into a crisis like that -of the days of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite>. “I have discovered,” he said in -1786, “that the author of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite> would have done well to -blow out his brains when he had finished his work.” Soon -afterwards he wrote that “death would have been better -than the last years of his life.”</p> - -<p>This relapse into pessimism was shorter and less acute -than his first experience. He began to find that frequently -his delight in existence and sense of life were proved by his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> -fear of death. When he was little more than thirty years -old, he began to take precautions against the chance of his -death. He wrote to Lavater:—“I have no time to lose; -I am already getting on in years, and it may be that fate -will destroy me in the midst of my life.” On all sides his -wish to live and his shrinking from death reveal themselves. -It was at this time, a few days after his thirty-first birthday, -that he wrote those famous lines, counted amongst the -finest of his poetry, on the summit of the Gickelhahn, on -the wall of a small room, and which end with the presentiment -of his own death, “Before long, you also will be at -rest.”</p> - -<p>The crisis through which he passed at the age of thirty-seven, -as the immediate result of his separation from -Madame von Stein, but perhaps also partly due to brain -fatigue, brought about his sudden departure from Weimar -and his long sojourn in Italy. There he came to life again, -and everything interested him, archæology, art and nature. -The joy of life came back to him, and he soon consoled himself -for the lost love of the blue-stocking Baroness in the -arms of a pretty, blue-eyed girl of Milan. This girl, whose -name was Maddalena Riggi, like Charlotte, was already betrothed, -a circumstance, however, that had a different result. -Even after she had given up the man to whom she had been -engaged, Goethe avoided any permanent bond and soon -abandoned her definitely. He chose to associate with -Faustine, another Italian girl, with whom he lived during -the last period of his stay at Rome. This affair, which was -less ideal and much simpler than his love for Madame von -Stein, he has described in his <cite>Roman Elegies</cite>, which throw -a vivid light on his temperament. I shall give some characteristic -extracts.</p> - -<p>“A sacred enthusiasm inspires me on this classic soil; -the old world and the world around me raise their voices<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> -and draw me to them. Here I follow the ideas and turn -over the pages of the ancient writers, giving myself no rest -whilst day lasts and ever reaching new delights. By night -love calls me to other cares; and if I am only half a philosopher, -I am twice happy. But may I not say that I am -also learning when my eye follows the contours of a loving -breast, when with my hand I trace the lines of her form? -It is then that I understand marble, I think and compare, I -see with an eye that touches and touch with a hand that -sees.” “Often I have made verses in her arms; often my -playful finger has softly beaten out my hexameters on her -back. As she breathes in her sweet sleep, her breath burns -me to my innermost soul.”<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a></p> - -<p>His stay in Italy brought Goethe definitely to maturity. -On this important stage in his life let us hear his biographer, -Bielschowsky. “The voyage to Italy made a -new man of him. His sickliness and nervousness disappeared. -The melancholy which led him to think of early -death and made him regard death as better than the former -conditions of his life was replaced by a sublime serenity -and joy in living. The taciturn and preoccupied man who -in no society abandoned his grave thoughts had become -happy as a child” (vol. i, p. 412). “From this time on, -in calm and enviable security, he passed through the cycle -of life which seemed so mysterious to others. Goethe -became the serene Olympian, the wonder of posterity, -whilst many of his contemporaries no longer saw in him -the passionate pilgrim” (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 417).</p> - -<p>It was after reaching the age of forty years that Goethe -entered on the optimistic phase of his life.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>GOETHE AND OPTIMISM</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Goethe’s optimistic period—His mode of life in that period—Influence -of love in artistic production—Inclinations towards -the arts must be regarded as secondary sexual characters—Senile -love of Goethe—Relation between genius and the -sexual activities</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> moral equilibrium of the great writer was not established -once for all. In the course of his life, Goethe had -several relapses into pessimism which, however, were ephemeral, -and after which he became a man as complete and -harmonious as was possible in the circumstances of his life. -He reached a serene old age, and his activity did not relax -until after his eightieth year, when he died.</p> - -<p>As I have already said, Goethe realised the value of life -in good time. Having become an optimist, he experienced -the joy of existence and coveted as much of it as possible. -When he was an old man, he declared that life, like the -Sibylline books, became more valuable the fewer of them -were left. There appeared in him a normal phase of human -nature. The conditions under which he lived, however, -were far from ideal. His health was indifferent. In his -youth he suffered from severe hæmorrhage, probably tuberculous, -and throughout his life he was subject to various -more or less serious maladies, such as gout, colic, nephritis, -and intestinal troubles. His habits were unwholesome. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> -was brought up in a region of vineyards, and in his youth -he acquired the habit of drinking wine in quantities certainly -harmful. This he himself realised, and when he was -thirty-one years old, after he had acquired the instinct of -life, he gave it serious attention. “I wish I could abstain -from wine,” he wrote in his note-book. Some weeks later -he wrote, “I now drink almost no wine.”<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a></p> - -<p>But he had not the strength of character to remain temperate, -and soon after his decision, he had fits of bleeding -at the nose, which he attributed to “having taken some -glasses of wine.”<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> To his last day, he took wine regularly, -and sometimes to excess. J. H. Wolff, who dined with him -at Weimar, when he was in his eightieth year, was surprised -by his appetite and by the quantity of wine he -drank. “In addition to other food, he ate an enormous -portion of roast goose, and drank a bottle of red wine.”<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> -In Eckermann’s interesting narrative of the last ten years -of Goethe’s life (1822-1832) there is repeated mention of -wine. Goethe seized every occasion to drink it. Sometimes -it was the visit of a stranger, sometimes a present of -some famous vintage. It was said that he drank from one -to two bottles of wine daily (Moebius). None the less, he -was convinced that wine was not good for intellectual work. -He had remarked that when his friend Schiller had drunk -more than usual, to increase his strength and stimulate his -literary activity, the result was deplorable. He said to -Eckermann (March 11, 1828), “He will ruin his health -and will spoil his work. That is why he has made the -faults the critics have pointed out.” In another conversation -(March 11, 1828) he stated that what was written -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>under the influence of wine was abnormal and forced, and -ought to be deleted.</p> - -<p>Love was the great stimulus of Goethe’s genius. The -love affairs, the histories of which fill his biography, are -well known. Many have been shocked by them; others -have tried to justify them. It has been suggested that his -disposition made it necessary for him to impart his ideas -and obtain sympathy for them, and that his love for women -was the expression of a purely artistic feeling and had -nothing in common with the ordinary passion.</p> - -<p>The truth is that artistic genius and perhaps all kinds of -genius are closely associated with sexual activity. I agree -with the proposition formulated by Dr. Moebius<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> that -“artistic proclivities are probably to be regarded as -secondary sexual characters.” Just as the beard and some -other male characters are developed as means of attracting -the female sex, so also bodily strength, strong voice and -many of the talents must be regarded as due to the need to -fulfil the sexual relations. In primitive conditions woman -worked more than man; man’s superior force served him -principally in fighting with other males, the object of the -combats usually being possession of a woman. Just as a -victorious combatant covets the presence of a woman as -witness of his prowess, so an orator speaks better in the -presence of a woman to whom he is devoted. Singers and -poets are stimulated in their arts by the love they awaken. -Poetic genius is intimately associated with sexual power -and castration inhibits it. Just as castrated animals retain -their physical strength, but become changed in character, -losing in particular their combative nature, so a man of -genius loses much of his quality with the sexual function. -Amongst the eunuchs on record, Abelard is the only poet, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span>but Abelard was forty years old when he ceased to be a -man, and at the same time he ceased to be a poet. Many -singers have been eunuchs, but they have been merely -executants, and have taken no part in musical creation. -Some musical composers have been eunuchs, but these -were of mediocre ability and their names have been forgotten. -When castration has taken place at an early age, -it has a much more powerful influence in modifying the -secondary sexual characters.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of a naturalist, I cannot agree -with the moralists who have blamed Goethe for his sexuality, -nor do I share the views of those defenders of him -who have wished to deny the facts or to explain them away -by the suggestion that they did not relate to sexual love.</p> - -<p>Extracts from the <cite>Roman Elegies</cite> show quite clearly -what was the nature of Goethe’s love affairs. His feelings -towards the Baroness von Stein have been taken as revealing -merely idealistic love. But some of his letters to her -are clear evidence that their relations were erotic (Moebius, -<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</em>, vol. ii, p. 89). The love which he bore for -Minna Herzlieb, the girl who inspired him to write <cite>Elective -Affinities</cite> (<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wahlverwandschaften</cite>), has been described -by Goethe himself in a poem so crudely erotic that it has -been impossible to publish it (Lewes, vol. ii, p. 314).</p> - -<p>A fact to which I specially desire to call attention is that -Goethe’s amorous temperament survived until the end of -his life, and all the world has been astonished by the vigour -of his poetic genius in extreme old age.</p> - -<p>Goethe has been the subject of derision because at the -age of seventy-four years he fell deeply in love with Ulrique -de Lewetzow, who was quite a young girl. This incident, -however, merits close attention as it is a typical case of -senile love in a man of genius.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span></p> - -<p>Whilst he was at Carlsbad, Goethe became acquainted -with a pretty girl seventeen years old, with beautiful blue -eyes, brown hair, and of an ardent, good-humoured and -happy disposition. In the first two seasons nothing in -particular happened. But in the third summer, at Marienbad, -Goethe became passionately enamoured of Ulrique, -who was then nineteen years old and in the full bloom of -her young womanhood. His love made him young again; -he passed long hours with her and took to dancing with -her. “I am quite certain,” he wrote to his son, “that it -is many years since I have enjoyed such health of body -and mind” (Aug. 30, 1823). His passion became so -serious that the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, on behalf -of his friend, made a formal proposal of marriage for -Mademoiselle de Lewetzow. The mother gave an evasive -answer, and the matter rested in suspense for long, and -ended in a refusal. Goethe withdrew to his family, but -encountered there strong opposition to his project of -marriage.</p> - -<p>This misadventure troubled the old poet so seriously that -he fell ill. He suffered from pain in the region of the heart -and from profound mental disturbance. He complained to -Eckermann “that he could do nothing, that he could get to -work on nothing, and that his mind had lost its power.” -“I can no longer work,” he said. “I cannot even read, -and it is only in rare and fortunate moments that I can -think, feeling myself partially soothed” (Eckermann, Nov. -16, 1823). Eckermann makes the following reflection on -the state of mind of the great old man. “His trouble -seems to be not merely physical. The passionate desire -which he acquired for a young lady at Marienbad this -summer, and against which he is still struggling, must be -regarded as the chief cause of his illness” (Nov. 17, 1823).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span></p> - -<p>As in all earlier crises, Goethe sought consolation in -poetry and love. He left Marienbad in a carriage and -began to set down verses astonishingly vigorous for so old -a man. His Marienbad elegy is held to be one of the best -of his poetical achievements. The following extracts will -give an idea of his state of mind at that period.</p> - -<p>“I am lost in unconquerable desire; there is nothing left -but everlasting tears. Let them flow, let them flow unceasingly. -But they can never extinguish the fire that burns -me. My heart rages; it is torn in pieces, this heart where -life and death meet in a horrible combat.” “I have lost -the universe, I have lost myself, I who until now have been -the favourite of the gods; they have put me to the question, -they offered me Pandora, rich in treasure and still richer in -perilous seductions; they made me drunken with the kisses -of her mouth, which gave me its sweets; they have torn -me from her arms, and have struck me with death.”</p> - -<p>Goethe concealed his elegy for some time, guarding it as -something sacred, but eventually handed it over to Eckermann. -Poetic creation soothed his mind only for a time. -His nature demanded some more efficacious consolation. A -few weeks after the separation he began to complain bitterly -of the absence of the Countess Julie von Egloffstein, whom -he wanted very much. “She cannot know what she is -keeping from me and what she makes me lose, nor can -she know how I love her and how she engrosses my -mind.” He derived a little comfort from the visits of -Madame Szymanowska, whom he admired “not only as a -great artist, but as a pretty woman” (Eckermann, Nov. 3, -1823). “I am deeply grateful to this charming woman,” -he said to the chancellor, “for her beauty, her sweetness, -and her art have soothed my passionate heart” (Bode, p. -151). He also renewed his relations with Marianne Jung,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span> -the retired actress and dancer. “When Goethe had to -turn his thoughts from Ulrique, the image of the pretty -owner of Gerbermühle again occupied his mind. A visit -to her, and intimate correspondence with her, restored peace -to his heart so greedy of love” (Bielschowsky, vol. ii, -p. 487).</p> - -<p>His devotion to Ulrique was Goethe’s last acute attack of -love; but until the end of his days he felt the need of being -surrounded by pretty women. As director of the theatre, -he came in contact with many young women who wished -engagements. He confessed to Eckermann that he required -much strength of mind to resist feminine charms which -tempted him to be unjustly favourable to the prettiest of -those who sought employment. “If I allowed myself to -fall into an intrigue of gallantry, I would become like a demagnetised -needle as soon as the girl found a real lover” -(Eckermann, March 22, 1825).</p> - -<p>His daughter-in-law’s sister has related that Goethe liked -to have young girls in his study whilst he was at work. -They had to sit quietly, neither working nor talking, often -a difficult task for them (Bode, p. 155).</p> - -<p>Even on the last day of his life, whilst in delirium, he -cried out, “What a pretty woman’s head with black curls -on a black ground” (Lewes, vol. ii, p. 372). After uttering -several other more or less incoherent phrases, he drew -his last breath.</p> - -<p>The facts which I described in the chapter of this book -dealing with old age have made clear how long -sexuality persists in men. As the testes resist atrophy -better than other organs, and even in extreme old age still -form active spermatozoa, it is natural that their condition -should be reflected on the organism generally, and that feelings -of love should still be excited. If by some accident<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span> -Goethe had become a eunuch early in life, he would have -been a different being. The moralists who have been -shocked by his amorous intrigues would have been satisfied, -but the world would have lost a great poet. Moreover, -Goethe is no exceptional case amongst writers. The -temperament of Victor Hugo and his devotion to women up -to the end of his days are well known. More recently, after -the death of Ibsen, a profound sensation was made by the -revelation of his love for Mademoiselle Bardach, who inspired -his genius during the last period of his life.</p> - -<p>Not only poetic creation but other forms of genius are -intimately associated with the sexual function. The philosopher -Schopenhauer, who was no ascetic, wrote as follows, -at the age of twenty-five, when he was in full creative -activity, “In the days and at the hours when the voluptuous -instinct is strongest, when it is a burning covetousness, -it is then that the greatest forces of the mind and the greatest -stores of knowledge are ready for the most intense activity.” -“At such moments life is truly at its strongest and most -active, for its two poles are then operating most actively; -and this is plain in the man of the highest intelligence. In -these hours one sees more than in years of passivity” -(quoted in Moebius’ <em lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Schopenhauer</em>, p. 55). “This means -that in Schopenhauer intellectual creation was linked with -erotic excitement” (<i>ibid.</i>, p. 57).</p> - -<p>It was facts of such a nature that led Brown-Séquard to -his idea of strengthening cerebral activity by injections of -the substance of testes. To obtain the same effect, he prescribed -another means, the value of which was proved in -the case of two individuals aged from forty-five to fifty -years, the observations being continued over several years. -“By my advice,” he said, “when these had to perform -any great physical or intellectual work, they got themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span> -into a condition of sexual excitement.” “The testes being -in this way thrown into functional activity, there was soon -produced the desired increase in the power of the nerve -centres.”<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a></p> - -<p>Although I insist on the existence of a close relation -between intellectual activity and the sexual function, I do -not mean to assert that there have not existed exceptions -to the rule.</p> - -<p>Now that I have described certain important factors in -the genius of Goethe, I shall pass on to a study of his state -of mind in the last period of his life, the splendour and -harmony of which have been so often admired.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span></p> -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>GOETHE’S OLD AGE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Old age of Goethe—Physical and intellectual vigour of the -old man—Optimistic conception of life—Happiness in life -in his last period</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Drinkers</span> of wine may take the case of Goethe as an argument -against temperance. Although he was not healthy in -his youth, his large consumption of wine did not prevent -him from enjoying an old age full of force and intellectual -work. Eckermann, who was his intimate and constant -companion in the last ten years of his life, was never weary -of expressing his surprise and delight at the physical and -moral vigour of the distinguished old man. He found -Goethe on his return to Jena, at the age of seventy-four, in a -condition “very pleasant to see; he was in good health and -robust, so that he could walk for hours” (Sept. 15, 1823). -His eyes were “brilliant and clear and his whole expression -was that of joy, vigour and youth” (Oct. 29). In -walks with Eckermann, Goethe forced the pace and showed -strength which filled his companion with delight (March, -1824). His voice was full of character and of force (March -30, 1824), and every word showed his vitality (July 9, -1827).</p> - -<p>In a conversation that Eckermann had with Goethe when -the latter was seventy-nine years old “the sound of his -voice and the fire in his eyes were of such strength as would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span> -have been normal in the full flush of youth” (Mar. 11, -1828). Such characters were preserved until the end of the -life of the great man, and a few months before his death -Eckermann jotted in his book that he saw him every day in -full vigour and freshness, looking as if his health might be -prolonged indefinitely (Dec. 21, 1831). In the beginning of -the following spring, Goethe caught a feverish cold, possibly -pneumonic, and died, probably from weakness of the -heart. His illness lasted a week. If he had not been a -drinker of wine he would have been able to withstand this -attack and to live still longer.</p> - -<p>The intellectual vigour of Goethe was even greater and -more remarkable than his physical strength. His interests -were extremely wide, and his thirst for knowledge was -never appeased. Once, when he was absorbed by the interest -of hearing d’Alton describe in detail the skeleton of -rodents, Eckermann states his surprise that a man not far -short of eighty years old “did not give up seeking for and -gaining knowledge.” But in these matters he never lost his -interest. He wished always to go further and further, -always to learn, so showing himself to be a man of eternal -and undying youth (April 16, 1825). Goethe’s aptitude for -understanding and his memory were most unusual. When -he was more than eighty, he surprised those who heard -him “by the incessant flow of his ideas and by his extraordinary -fertility in invention” (Oct. 7, 1828).</p> - -<p>“The old age of Goethe is the most striking proof of the -extreme force of his constitution,” said his medical biographer, -Dr. Moebius. Works which were written in his -last years are for the most part beyond praise, both because -of their finished form, and by their wisdom and feeling. -What other man of eighty has written anything of the -same character? From the physiological point of view I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> -am more surprised at his works when he was old than at those -of his youthful activity” (Moebius, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</cite>, i, 200, 201).</p> - -<p>Although Goethe’s character, which was fiery and intense -in his youth, became much more calm with age, there still -came to him moments when he was carried away. He had -certain eccentricities of an old man, and in particular was -often very despotic, and this trait has been the occasion of -many stories. His temper, however, became much more -certain in his old age, and his general conceptions much -more optimistic. Apart from certain short crises, he was -happy in his life. In 1828, he settled down at Dornburg -and there passed a tranquil existence. “I stay out of -doors nearly all day and engage in private conversations -with the tendrils of the vine which communicate their -excellent ideas to me, ideas about which I shall have -marvellous things to tell you”—he wrote to Eckermann on -June 15, 1828—“I am composing verses which are quite -good, and I hope that it will be given to me to live long -in this condition. I am quite contented,” he said to his -collaborator, “at the beginning of spring, when I see the -first green leaves, I am pleased to watch how, from week -to week, one leaf after another appears on the stem. I am -delighted in May, when I see a flower-bud; I feel really -happy, when in June the rose offers to me its splendour and -its perfume” (Eckermann, April 27, 1825). His delight -in life at this epoch is also revealed in many letters. “I -wish to whisper this in your ear,” he wrote to Zelter on -April 29, 1830. “I am delighted to find that even at -my great age, ideas come to me the pursuit and development -of which would require a second life.”</p> - -<p>His conception of life had changed enormously since the -epoch of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite>. Goethe himself said: “When one is -old, one thinks many things about this world quite -different from when one was young” (Eckermann, Dec.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span> -1829). The youthful sensitiveness which had brought him -so much suffering was notably dulled. Eckermann was -astonished at the way he accepted wounds to his pride. It -happened that his design for the new theatre at Weimar -was abandoned while it was being constructed, and replaced -by another not his own work. Eckermann was -much disturbed by this, and went to see Goethe in a state -of apprehension. “I was afraid,” he said, “that so unexpected -a step would profoundly wound Goethe. Well, -there was nothing of the sort; I found him in the best of -tempers, quite calm, absolutely above all feelings in the -matter.” When he had reached his eighty-fourth year, -Goethe had no weariness of life. In his last illness, he -showed not the smallest desire to die. He expected to get -better, and thought that the approach of summer would restore -his strength. The desire to live was strong in him. -None the less, he recognised that his cycle of life was -finished, and although he had no weariness of life, he felt a -kind of satisfaction that life was over. “When, like me, a -man has lived eighty years,” he said, “he has hardly the -right to live, but ought to be ready every day to die, and to -think of putting his house in order” (Eckermann, May -15, 1831). None the less, he continued his work, in particular -revising the last two chapters of the second part of -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite>. When he had finished them, Goethe was extremely -pleased. “I can consider,” he said, “any days which -come to me yet as a real gift, as it is a matter of no moment -if I write anything more or what such work should be” -(Eckermann, June 1, 1831).</p> - -<p>Goethe gave Faust one hundred years of life, and it is -probable that he thought of that period as his own span. -Although he did not reach it, he approached it, after -having lived a most active life, full of most valuable lessons -for posterity.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span></p> - -<h3>IV<br /><br /> - -<small><small>GOETHE AND “FAUST”</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p><cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> the biography of Goethe—The three monologues -in the first Part—Faust’s pessimism—The brain-fatigue -which finds a remedy in love—The romance with Marguerite -and its unhappy ending</p></blockquote> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Goethe</span> was Faust, Faust Goethe,” said the biographer -of the great poet (Bielschowsky, vol. ii, p. 645). Most -people admit that in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> Goethe gave his autobiography -on a more detailed scale than in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite>. -Why then should I follow my analysis of Goethe himself, -which was based on exact facts, with an analysis of Faust? -I do so because in addition to the biographical details in -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite>, there are many ideas which illuminate the poet’s -conception of life. Goethe’s life explains <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite>, and -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> explains the soul of its author. And I am convinced -that an accurate study of so great a man is of high -importance in the investigation of human nature.</p> - -<p>The two Parts of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> correspond with two distinct -periods in Goethe’s life. In the first Part, Faust was pessimistic, -in the second optimistic. Although many of the -high problems that occupy humanity are raised and discussed -in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite>, love is the centre on which the drama -turns.</p> - -<p>In the first Part, conceived and for the most part written<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span> -during his youth, the chief theme is the love of a young -man for a pretty and attractive girl towards whom the hero -acts in a fashion opposed to conventional morality. As in -most of his principal works, Goethe has made an episode in -his own life the basis of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite>. It is the well-known -story of Frederique, the daughter of a clergyman, for whom -the brilliant young author conceived a violent passion and -who returned his affection with a deeper and more enduring -feeling. Goethe was alarmed at the possibility of definitely -settling his future, and deserted the poor victim of love in -an unfortunate state. Later on, he confessed to the Baroness -von Stein that he had abandoned Frederique at a time -when his desertion was likely to cause the death of the poor -girl. “I had wounded to the quick,” he wrote (Bielschowsky, -vol. i, p. 135), “the best heart in the world, and I -had to repent of it long and almost unendurably.” As an -atonement, he made Frederique the heroine of “Goetz” -and of “Clavigo,” but not thinking these worthy of her, -he immortalised her as the Marguerite of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite>.</p> - -<p>A learned doctor, skilled in all human knowledge, but -who had found no satisfaction in his studies, found consolation -in the beauty and charm of a young girl with whom -he fell passionately in love. It will be interesting to trace -the psychological process which induced him to leave the -scene of his scientific studies for the streets and resorts -where he found Marguerite.</p> - -<p>Although Faust was represented as an old man, who had -had time enough to absorb all human learning, his image -bears the stamp of green youth. “Discontented with all -his knowledge, he wished to know the secret entrails of the -world, to be a witness of the centre of all activity, to unveil -the principle of life.”<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> These are the demands of a young -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> -man seeking to resolve the most intricate problems at one -stroke. The speech in question dates from the period of -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Werther</cite>, when Goethe was twenty-five years old, and -for that reason leaves no very serious impression.<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> The -second monologue, which ends with the attempt to take -poison, is later, and is absent in the edition of 1790 (Fragment). -It was revised when Goethe had reached his -fiftieth year, and displays a riper maturity. Although -lacking exactness, it depicts in an interesting fashion the -miseries of life.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Some alien substance more and more is cleaving</div> -<div class="line">To all the mind conceives of grand and fair;</div> -<div class="line">When this world’s Good is won by our achieving,</div> -<div class="line">The Better, then, is named a cheat and snare.</div> -<div class="line">The fine emotions, whence our lives we mould,</div> -<div class="line">Lie in the earthly tumult dumb and cold.</div> -<div class="line">If hopeful Fancy once, in daring flight,</div> -<div class="line">Her longings to the Infinite expanded,</div> -<div class="line">Yet now a narrow space contents her quite,</div> -<div class="line">Since Time’s wild wave so many a fortune stranded.</div> -<div class="line">Care at the bottom of the heart is lurking;</div> -<div class="line">Her secret pangs in silence working,</div> -<div class="line">She, restless, rocks herself, disturbing joy and rest;</div> -<div class="line">In newer masks her face is ever drest,</div> -<div class="line">By turns as house and land, as wife and child, presented,—</div> -<div class="line">As water, fire, as poison, steel;</div> -<div class="line">We dread the blows we never feel,</div> -<div class="line">And what we never lose is yet by us lamented.<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Fear of the evils which lie in wait for us and against -which we can make no provision render life insupportable. -Faust’s frame of mind as described in these lines recalls -Schopenhauer, who was always afraid of something; fear, -sometimes of thieves, sometimes of diseases, tormented -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>him. He would never go to a barber’s to be shaved, and -always carried his own drinking cup with him.</p> - -<p>“Is it not better to end such a life, and to kill oneself, -even if it mean annihilation?” asked Faust. He took up -the poisoned goblet and put it to his lips, but, arrested by -singing and the sound of bells outside, he refrained, and -life laid hold of him. Not religious faith, however, but -memories of childhood, “the happy sports of youth and -the gay festivals of spring” were the agencies that recalled -Faust to the earth. He went out of doors, mingled with -the crowd, tried to amuse himself amongst men, and -savoured the beauty of the new-born spring, but all these -could not make him forget the evil of life. He met his -pupil, talked with him, and again displayed his pessimism.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">O happy he, who still renews</div> -<div class="line">The hope, from Error’s deeps to rise for ever!</div> -<div class="line">That which one does not know, one needs to use;</div> -<div class="line">And what one knows, one uses never.<a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Then follows the celebrated monologue of Faust over -which so many commentators have lost their heads and -wasted oceans of ink.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Two souls, alas! reside within my breast,</div> -<div class="line">And each withdraws from, and repels, its brother.</div> -<div class="line">One with tenacious organs holds in love</div> -<div class="line">And clinging lust the world in its embraces;</div> -<div class="line">The other strongly sweeps, this dust above,</div> -<div class="line">Into the high ancestral spaces.<a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>On this passage has been built up a whole theory of -“double natures” with which has been incorporated the -dualism of Manicheism, the two natures of Christ and what -not besides.<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span></p> - -<p>There exists in literature no better expression of human -disharmony than this monologue “of the two souls.” It -portrays the unbalanced condition so frequent in youth and -is a valuable indication of the real youth of Faust.</p> - -<p>On his return to his study, Faust again revealed his -pessimism.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">But ah! I feel, though will thereto be stronger,</div> -<div class="line">Contentment flows from out my breast no longer.</div> -<div class="line">Why must the stream so soon run dry and fail us,</div> -<div class="line">And burning thirst again assail us?</div> -<div class="line">Therein I’ve borne so much probation!<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>It is at this point that Faust addresses the Spirit “that -denies” and that is called “sin” and “evil.” This spirit -invokes before his eyes “the fairest images of dreams,” -that is to say, a woman’s body in its beautiful nudity. Faust -declares himself</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Too old to play with passion,</div> -<div class="line">Too young to be without desire.<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Pursued by desire</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">... when night descends, how anxiously</div> -<div class="line">Upon my couch of sleep I lay me.</div> -<div class="line">There, also, comes no rest to me;</div> -<div class="line">But some wild dream is sent to fray me.<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>So that</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Death is desired, and Life a thing unblest.</div> -<div class="line">O fortunate, for whom, when victory glances,</div> -<div class="line">The bloody laurels on the brow he bindeth!</div> -<div class="line">Whom, after rapid, maddening dances,</div> -<div class="line">In clasping maiden-arms he findeth!<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Faust thus reached the ecstasy of passion. Soon afterwards -in the Witches’ kitchen, he saw in a mirror a -“heavenly form” and cried:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">O lend me, Love, the swiftest of thy pinions,</div> -<div class="line">And bear me to her beauteous field.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span></p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">A woman’s form, in beauty shining!</div> -<div class="line">Can woman, then, so lovely be?</div> -<div class="line">And must I find her body, there reclining;</div> -<div class="line">Of all the heavens, the bright epitome?</div> -<div class="line">Can Earth with such a thing be mated?<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Discontent with life, sense of the insufficiency of human -knowledge and the most gloomy pessimism lead to the -passion of love which, eventually, after many devious paths, -throws Faust into the arms of Marguerite. The story is one -of the world’s great romances and everyone knows it. -Faust all unconsciously was following the prescription of -Brown-Séquard. Brain-fatigue had made the continuation -of the study which caused it impossible. The condition is -plainly stated in the following lines:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">The thread of Thought at last is broken,</div> -<div class="line">And knowledge brings disgust unspoken.</div> -<div class="line">Let us the sensual deeps explore.<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>The brain has refused to work, and blind instinct, in the -guise of dreams, whispers that there is in the organism -something that can restore the intellectual forces. This -something, however, is what is called sin, and much -courage is needed to plunge into it. Without this evil, -life cannot last. Faust has to choose between love and -death, and chooses love.</p> - -<p>The end of the romance of Goethe and Frederique was -bad, and that of Faust and Marguerite was still worse. The -poet painted it in the most sombre colours. Marguerite -killed her child, poisoned her mother, became crazy, and -was beheaded. Faust’s cup of misery was filled to the -brim; he blamed his evil genius, he made desperate efforts -to save the poor woman, and cried “O that I had never -been born.”</p> - -<p>To sum up: in the first Part, Faust is a young, learned -man who expects too much from science and life, and whose -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span>genius requires extra-conjugal love as a stimulant; he is -unbalanced and inevitably pessimistic. It is not surprising -that his life goes badly, and that his conduct leaves him -much to repent of. But although, at first, a vague general -discontent nearly drives him to suicide, later on the terrible -evil which he had wrought on a poor creature he loved passionately -did no more than plunge him into misery that -was bitter but far from mortal. His mind had developed -far in the direction of optimism. The crisis through which -he passed, serious as it was, ended by his return to a life of -great activity and enterprise.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span></p> - -<h3>V<br /><br /> - -<small><small>THE OLD AGE OF FAUST</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>The second Part of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> is in the main a description of -senile love—Amorous passion of the old man—Humble attitude -of the old Faust—Platonic love for Helena—The old -Faust’s conception of life—His optimism—The general idea -of the play</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> first Part of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> was acclaimed by the world almost -as soon as it appeared, but the second Part met a very -cold reception. Everyone knows and reads the first Part; -the second Part has few readers, and these chiefly poets and -dramatists. No doubt it has more effect on the stage than -when it is read, but this is due to subsidiary features in -which it resembles a fine ballet. There is general agreement -that the real meaning of the second Part is obscure, -complex and difficult to interpret. Many literary critics -have racked their brains in the effort to discover the -author’s central idea. When Eckermann, who persuaded -Goethe to revise and finish the second Part, -asked what was the meaning of some of the scenes in -it, Goethe evaded the question and played the sphinx. -Thus, with regard to the famous “mothers” Goethe -answered, with a mysterious air:—“You have the manuscript; -study it, and see what you can make of it” (January -10, 1830). G. H. Lewes, although one of Goethe’s most -resolute admirers, admitted the impossibility of grasping<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> -the sense of the second Part. The Wanderjahre and the -second Part of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> were arsenals of symbols, and it -pleased the old poet to see acute critics labouring to interpret -them whilst he was silent and refused to help them. -Lewes thought that Goethe, so far from showing the -smallest wish to clear up their difficulties, took a pleasure in -giving them new problems to puzzle over. Lewes himself -thought that the second Part was poor in idea and execution, -and admitted that he had failed after repeatedly trying -to get a conception of it that would reveal its beauties. In -writing about it, he contented himself with giving a summary -of it. Now this second Part, although its general lines -had been laid down for long, was actually written during -several years in the last period of the poet’s life. The fact -that it was composed out of the regular sequence of the -Acts and Scenes gives us an important clue. The third Act -and then the second Part of the fifth Act were put on paper -first. Next followed the first Act and part of the second; -the classical Walpurgis night was written in 1830, the -fourth Act in 1831, and last of all the beginning of the fifth -Act.</p> - -<p>As the second Part of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> is a crowded motley, containing -many subjects, obviously of minor importance, -such as the volcanic theory of the earth and the disquisition -on paper-money, the key-note may be found in the portions -which were first composed. Now Act III. contains the -story of Helena, and the second part of Act V. Faust’s -activity for the general welfare.</p> - -<p>Setting out from the conception that the works of Goethe -reflect the acts and incidents of his own life, I shall try to -explain on that basis the meaning of the most obscure of -his writings.</p> - -<p>I have already stated that love was the stimulus of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span> -Goethe’s activity in youth and age; it is the scarlet thread -running through his history. There was no difficulty in -his using his love for Frederique as material for a play; that -a young man should love a young girl was natural enough. -The story of an old man enamoured of a young beauty was -quite another matter. It was said that one of the reasons -that prevented his marriage with Ulrique de Lewetzow was -the fear of ridicule (Lewes, <i>op. cit.</i>, ii, p. 345), a fear that -plays a large part in human affairs. It is easy to understand -that the old poet was in a difficulty when he came to -write of senile love. Faust’s love for Helena was not that -of a supposed old man who became young by doffing his -beard and changing his cloak, but of a real old man whom -no mystery nor magic was to make young again. And yet -old Faust’s love was a true passion, and Goethe has written -no finer lines than those describing it.</p> - -<p>When the second Part begins, Faust has passed through -the terrible crisis of the first Part. Wearied and restless, -he seeks a new mode of life.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Life’s pulses now with fresher force awaken</div> -<div class="line">To greet the mild ethereal twilight o’er me;</div> -<div class="line">This night, thou, Earth! hast also stood unshaken,</div> -<div class="line">And now thou breathest, new-refreshed before me,</div> -<div class="line">And now beginnest, all thy gladness granting,</div> -<div class="line">A vigorous resolution to restore me,</div> -<div class="line">To seek that higher life for which I’m panting.<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>The invoked image of the most beautiful woman in the -history of the world transforms Faust’s desire of love into -an overwhelming passion.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Have I still eyes? Deep in my being springs</div> -<div class="line">The fount of Beauty, in a torrent pouring!</div> -<div class="line">A heavenly gain my path of terror brings.</div> -<div class="line">The world was void, and shut to my exploring,—</div> -<div class="line"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span> -And, since my priesthood, how hath it been graced!</div> -<div class="line">Enduring ’tis, desirable, firm-based.</div> -<div class="line">And let my breath of being blow to waste,</div> -<div class="line">If I for thee unlearn my sacred duty!</div> -<div class="line">The form, that long erewhile my fancy captured,</div> -<div class="line">That from the magic mirror so enraptured,</div> -<div class="line">Was but a frothy phantom of such beauty!</div> -<div class="line">’Tis Thou, to whom the stir of all my forces,</div> -<div class="line">The essence of my passion’s courses,—</div> -<div class="line">Love, fancy, worship, madness,—here I render.<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>In the throes of this passion, Faust is tortured by jealousy -when he sees the lovely woman clinging to and kissing a -young man. He desires her at all costs.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line i8">Am I nothing here? To stead me,</div> -<div class="line">Is not this key still shining in my hand?</div> -<div class="line">Through realms of terror, wastes and waves it led me,</div> -<div class="line">Through solitudes, to where I firmly stand,</div> -<div class="line">Here foothold is! Realities here centre!</div> -<div class="line">The strife with spirits here the mind may venture,</div> -<div class="line">And on its grand, its double lordship enter!</div> -<div class="line">How far she was, and nearer, how divine!</div> -<div class="line">I’ll rescue her and make her doubly mine.</div> -<div class="line">Ye Mothers! Mothers! Crown this wild endeavour!</div> -<div class="line">Who knows her once must hold her, and for ever.<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>The disappearance of the beautiful woman so moved -Faust that he fainted and fell into a prolonged sleep. As -soon as he recovered consciousness he asked: “Where is -she?” and set out to seek for her. When he learned that -Chiron had already carried off Helena on his back Faust -cried out:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Her didst thou bear?</div> -<div class="line i-34"><i>Chiron</i>: This back she pressed.</div> -<div class="line i-3"><i>Faust</i>: Was I not wild enough, before;</div> -<div class="line">And now such seat, to make me blest!</div> -<div class="line">O, I scarcely dare</div> -<div class="line">To trust my senses!—tell me more!</div> -<div class="line">She is my only Aspiration!</div> -<div class="line">Whence didst thou bear her—to what shore?<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a></div> -<div class="line"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> -Thou saw’st her once; <em>to-day</em> I saw her beam,</div> -<div class="line">The dream of Beauty, beautiful as Dream!</div> -<div class="line">My soul, my being, now is bound and chained;</div> -<div class="line">I cannot live, unless she be attained.<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Chiron found this attitude of passionate emotion so strange -that he advised Faust to take care of his health.</p> - -<p>After many wanderings and difficulties Faust again met -the woman he coveted and spoke to her as follows:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">What else remains, but that I give to thee</div> -<div class="line">Myself, and all I vainly fancied mine?</div> -<div class="line">Let me, before thy feet, in fealty true,</div> -<div class="line">Thee now acknowledge, Lady, whose approach</div> -<div class="line">Won thee at once possession and the throne!<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">216</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>This language, so very different from what the same man -had formerly addressed to Marguerite, is much more like -that of an old lover to a young beauty whom he admires. -When Helena invited Faust to sit on the throne beside her, -he replied:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">First, kneeling, let the dedication be</div> -<div class="line">Accepted, lofty Lady! Let me kiss</div> -<div class="line">The gracious hand that lifts me to thy side.</div> -<div class="line">Confirm me as co-regent of thy realm,</div> -<div class="line">Whose borders are unknown, and win for thee</div> -<div class="line">Guard, slave and worshipper, and all in one!<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">217</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>The old man in the throes of a passion so great that he -was wholly absorbed by it did not dare to address the -beloved woman except in the most humble terms.</p> - -<p>Helena made no declaration of love, but was complacent -to him, and when Faust suggested: “Now let our throne -become a bower unblighted,” Helena agreed to follow him -to a secluded and green bower. There they remained alone -for some time, cared for by an old servant.</p> - -<p>The result of this union was not a child like that to which -Marguerite gave birth and afterwards killed. It was a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>strange and peculiar being; a boy who immediately after -his birth began to leap about and to alarm his parents by -the activity of his movements.</p> - -<p>Although Goethe preserved an obstinate silence when he -was asked to explain many of the scenes in the second Part, -he had no hesitation in explaining the significance of this -astonishing child. “The child was not a human being but -an allegory, in which was personified poetry, which is not -bound to any time, to any place, or to any person” (Eckermann, -December 20, 1829). Struck by the tragic fate of -Byron, Goethe made the son of Faust and Helena a symbol -of the English poet.</p> - -<p>Literary critics, setting out from the categorical explanation -of Goethe himself, have declared that the union of -Faust and Helena was meant to denote the alliance of -romanticism and classicism, a marriage from which was -born modern poetry, personified in its highest representative, -Byron. This, however, cannot be the idea of Goethe, -who himself was far from an enthusiast about classicism -and romanticism. “What,” he said, “is all this noise -about the classic and the romantic? The essential thing is -that a piece of work should be wholly good and serious; -then it will also be classic” (Eckermann, October 17, 1828). -It is much more probable that Goethe intended poetry to -spring from the relations between the old Faust and his -adorable companion, relations of a kind to be included in -so-called platonic love. Such love inspires the creation of -perfect work even in an old poet, when he is stimulated by -a beautiful woman.</p> - -<p>When Faust and Helena emerged from the grotto with -their son, Helena said:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line i-34"><i>Helena</i>: Love, in human wise to bless us,</div> -<div class="line">In a noble pair must be;</div> -<div class="line"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> -But divinely to possess us,</div> -<div class="line">It must form a precious Three.</div> -<div class="line"></div> -<div class="line i-3"><i>Faust</i>: All we seek has therefore found us;</div> -<div class="line">I am thine and thou art mine!</div> -<div class="line">So we stand as love hath bound us;</div> -<div class="line">Other fortune we resign.<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">218</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>After the death of her son, Helena abandoned Faust, -leaving him her garments:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container padl2"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line i-34"><i>Helena</i>: Also in me, alas! an old word proves its truth,</div> -<div class="line">That Bliss and Beauty ne’er enduringly unite.</div> -<div class="line">Torn is the link of Life, no less than that of Love;</div> -<div class="line">So, both lamenting, painfully I say: Farewell!</div> -<div class="line">And cast myself again,—once only,—in thine arms.<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">219</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>After this crisis the old Faust sought to console himself -in the bosom of nature, just as after the terrible catastrophe -with Marguerite the contemplation of nature had given him -the strength to live. On this occasion he reached the summit -of a high mountain from which he watched the changing -vapours of a cloud which seemed to him to assume the -form of female beauty. But Faust was old, and now saw -only memories of love. He cried out:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line i12">Yes! mine eyes not err!—</div> -<div class="line">On sun-illumined pillows beauteously reclined,</div> -<div class="line">Colossal, truly, but a godlike woman-form,</div> -<div class="line">I see! The like of Juno, Leda, Helena,</div> -<div class="line">Majestically lovely, floats before my sight!</div> -<div class="line">Ah! now ’tis broken! Towering broad and formlessly,</div> -<div class="line">It rests along the east like distant icy hills,</div> -<div class="line">And shapes the grand significance of fleeting days.</div> -<div class="line">Yet still there clings a light and delicate band of mist</div> -<div class="line">Around my breast and brow, caressing, cheering me.</div> -<div class="line">Now light, delaying, it soars and higher soars,</div> -<div class="line">And folds together.—Cheats me an ecstatic form,</div> -<div class="line">As early-youthful, long-foregone and highest bliss?</div> -<div class="line">The first glad treasures of my deepest heart break forth;</div> -<div class="line">Aurora’s love, so light of pinion, is its type,</div> -<div class="line">The swiftly-felt, the first, scarce-comprehended glance,</div> -<div class="line">Outshining every treasure, when retained and held.</div> -<div class="line"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> -Like Spiritual Beauty mounts the gracious Form,</div> -<div class="line">Dissolving not, but lifts itself through ether far,</div> -<div class="line">And from my inner being bears the best away.<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">220</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>This state of mind resembles Goethe’s condition after the -rupture with Ulrique.</p> - -<p>Love and poetry alike were over for him. None the less -his craving for the higher life was not yet weakened. The -desire to live was still very strong in the old Faust. But -now he no longer as in the days of his youth dreamed of -an ideal which could not be attained. When Mephistopheles -asked him ironically:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line i13">Then might one guess whereunto thou hast striven?</div> -<div class="line">Boldly-sublime it was, I’m sure.</div> -<div class="line">Since nearer to the moon thy flight was driven,</div> -<div class="line">Would now thy mania that realm secure?</div> -<div class="line"><i>Faust</i>: Not so! This sphere of earthly soil</div> -<div class="line">Still gives us room for lofty doing.</div> -<div class="line">Astounding plans e’en now are brewing:</div> -<div class="line">I feel new strength for bolder toil.<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">221</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Such optimistic language, extraordinarily different from -Faust’s lamentations in the first Part, becomes still more -marked. When he was approaching his centenary he -made the following profession of faith:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">I only through the world have flown:</div> -<div class="line">Each appetite I seized as by the hair;</div> -<div class="line">What not sufficed me, forth I let it fare,</div> -<div class="line">And what escaped me, I let go.</div> -<div class="line">I’ve only craved, accomplished my delight,</div> -<div class="line">Then wished a second time, and thus with might</div> -<div class="line">Stormed through my life: at first ’twas grand, completely,</div> -<div class="line">But now it moves most wisely and discreetly.</div> -<div class="line">The sphere of Earth is known enough to me;</div> -<div class="line">The view beyond is barred immutably:</div> -<div class="line">A fool, who there his blinking eyes directeth,</div> -<div class="line">And o’er his clouds of peers a place expecteth!</div> -<div class="line">Firm let him stand, and look around him well!</div> -<div class="line">This World means something to the Capable.</div> -<div class="line">Why needs he through Eternity to wend?</div> -<div class="line">He here acquires what he can apprehend.<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">222</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span></p> - -<p>When he had reached the maturity of his wisdom, -Faust organised drainage works, the object of which was -to increase the area of land that could be utilised:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">To many millions let me furnish soil,</div> -<div class="line">Though not secure, yet free to active toil;</div> -<div class="line">Green, fertile fields.</div> -<div class="line">A land like Paradise here, round about.</div> -<div class="line">Yes! to this thought I hold with firm persistence;</div> -<div class="line">The last result of wisdom stamps it true:</div> -<div class="line">He only earns his freedom and existence,</div> -<div class="line">Who daily conquers them anew.</div> -<div class="line">Thus here, by dangers girt, shall glide away</div> -<div class="line">Of childhood, manhood, age, the vigorous day:</div> -<div class="line">And such a throng I fain would see,</div> -<div class="line">Stand on free soil among a people free!</div> -<div class="line">Then dared I hail the Moment fleeing:</div> -<div class="line">“<em>Ah, still delay—thou art so fair!</em>”</div> -<div class="line">The traces cannot, of mine earthly being,</div> -<div class="line">In æons perish,—they are there!—</div> -<div class="line">In proud fore-feeling of such lofty bliss,</div> -<div class="line">I now enjoy the highest Moment,—this!<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">223</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>These were the last words of the wise centenarian. It -has been said that they contain the quintessence of -Goethe’s moral philosophy, and that they preach the sacrifice -of the individual for the benefit of society. Lewes, for -instance, takes this view, holding that Faust was the exposition -of a man who had conquered the vanity of individual -aspirations and joys, and had come to the knowledge -of the great truth that man must live for man, and -can find lasting happiness only in work for the benefit of -humanity. For my own part, it seems to me that according -to Goethe’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> man must dedicate a large part of his -life to the complete development of his own individuality, -and that it is only in the second half of his life, when he -has grown wise by experience and feels satisfied as an -individual, that he should use his activity for the good of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>mankind. It was no part either of the ideas of Goethe or -of the nature of his work to preach the sacrifice of individuality.</p> - -<p>Goethe was thus absorbed in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> by the problem -of the conflict between certain actions and guiding principles. -The misdeeds of the hero in the first Part of his -life had to be redeemed. He said to Eckermann that “the -key to the salvation of Faust was to be found in the Angels’ -Chorus”:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">The noble spirit now is free,</div> -<div class="line">And saved from evil scheming:</div> -<div class="line">Whoe’er aspires unweariedly</div> -<div class="line">Is not beyond redeeming.<a name="FNanchor_224" id="FNanchor_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">224</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>However, that of which he did not speak, and which -none the less was most important in Faust and in Goethe -himself, is the action of love as a stimulant to artistic -creation, and it was probably to this that he referred at the -end of his tragedy. The mystical chorus sent up prayers -in a religious and erotic ecstasy, and their mysterious song -is:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">The Indescribable,</div> -<div class="line">Here it is done;</div> -<div class="line">The Woman-Soul leadeth us</div> -<div class="line">Upward and on!<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">225</a></div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>Although these verses have been interpreted as love -which sacrifices or even love which leads to the grace of -God (Bode, p. 149), it is much more probable that it is -love for feminine beauty, a love which makes possible the -execution of wonderful things. Such an interpretation -agrees with the fact that the verses are spoken by a <em>mystic</em> -choir which speaks of the <em>indescribable</em> (<em lang="de" xml:lang="de">das Unbeschreibliche</em>) -in which we must see the amorous passion of the -old man. In such an interpretation the whole of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> -(and especially the second Part) is an eloquent pleading -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>for the importance of love in the higher activity of man, -in accordance with the law of human nature, which is a -much better justification of Goethe’s conduct than all the -arguments of his interpreters and admirers.</p> - -<p>I do not agree with the common idea that the two Parts -of <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust</cite> are two distinct works, but regard them as complementary. -In the first Part we see the young pessimist, -full of ardour and of desires, ready to make an end -of his days and stopping at nothing to satisfy his thirst -for love. In the second Part we have a mature old man -still loving women, but in a different way, a man who is -wise and optimistic, and who, having satiated the wants -of his individual life, dedicates the rest of his days to mankind, -and who, having reached a century, dies extremely -happy, in fact almost exhibiting the instinct of natural -death.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span></p> - -<h2><small>PART IX</small><br /><br /> - -SCIENCE AND MORALITY</h2> - -<h3>I<br /><br /> - -<small><small>UTILITARIAN AND INTUITIVE MORALITY</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Difficulty of the problem of morality—Vivisection and anti-vivisection—Enquiry -into the possibility of rational morality—Utilitarian -and intuitive theories of morality—Insufficiency -of these</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> the course of this book I have from time to time approached -subjects closely related with the problem of -morality. For instance, in considering the prolongation -of human life, it was necessary to show that extension of -longevity far beyond the reproductive period of man in -no way is opposed to the principles of the highest morality, -although there exist races who find the sacrifice of old -people in harmony with their conception of morality.</p> - -<p>Experimental biology, which lies at the root of most of -the doctrines exposed in this work, depends on vivisection -of animals. There are, however, very many persons who -regard it as immoral to operate on living animals when it -is not for the direct benefit of these. The attempts which -have been made in France and Germany to prevent or to -limit vivisection in laboratories have not succeeded, but -in England there is a severe law controlling operations on -animals and submitting them to oppressive regulations to -which many of the scientific men in the country are opposed.</p> - -<p>The question of experiments upon human beings is still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span> -more delicate. Just as formerly the examination of a -human corpse could be made only in secret, so at the present -time, if the slightest experiment is to be made upon a -human being, it can be only by devious ways. People who -are hardly shocked at all at the numberless accidents caused -by automobiles and other means of transit, or in field -sports, make the strongest protest against any proposal -to try some new method of treatment upon a human -being.</p> - -<p>A large number of people, amongst them even men of -science, regard as immoral any attempt to prevent the -spread of venereal diseases. Recently, in connection with -the investigations into the action of mercurial ointment as -a means of preventing syphilis, the members of the Faculty -of Medicine in France made a public protest, declaring -that it would be “immoral to let people think that they -could indulge in sexual vice without danger,” and that it -was “wrong to give to the public a means of protection in -debauch.”<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> None the less, other men of science, equally -serious, were convinced that they were performing an absolutely -moral work in attempting to find a prophylactic -against syphilis which would preserve many people, including -children and other innocent persons who, if no -preventive measures existed, would suffer from the terrible -disease.</p> - -<p>Such examples show the reader what confusion exists -in the problem of morality. Although at every moment, -in every act of human conduct, the precepts of morality -must be reckoned with, even the most authoritative persons -are far from agreeing as to what rules to follow. About a -year ago in a Parisian journal<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> an enquiry into the subject -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span>of rational morality was directed to distinguished authors. -The object was to discover if, at the present time, moral -conduct could be based not on religious dogma, which -binds only those who believe in it, but on rational principles. -The answers were most contradictory. Some -denied the possibility of rational morality, others admitted -it, but in very different fashions. Whilst one philosopher, -M. Boutroux, held that “morality must be founded on -reason and could have no other foundation,” a poet, M. -Sully-Prudhomme, turned to feeling and conscience as the -basis of morality. According to him, “in the teaching of -morality, it is the heart and not the mind which is at -once master and pupil.” In the contradictions which I -mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, these two -views appear. When antivivisectionists are protesting -against experiments on animals, they are inspired by sympathy -for poor creatures which cannot defend themselves. -Guided by conscience, they think immoral any suffering inflicted -upon a living being for the benefit of another being, -whether human or animal. I know distinguished physiologists -who have determined to limit their experiments to -animals with little sensibility, such as frogs. The great -majority of scientific men, however, would have no scruple -in opening bodies and subjecting their victims to severe -suffering in the hope of clearing up some scientific problem -which sooner or later would increase the happiness of -human beings and animals. If vivisection had not been performed, -or if it had been restricted, the great laws of infectious -diseases would not have been discovered, nor would -the discovery of many valuable remedies have been made. -To justify investigation, men of science set out from the -utilitarian theory of morality, which approves everything -that is useful to the human race. The antivivisectionists, on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> -the other hand, rely on the intuitive theory, according to -which conduct is controlled by the spontaneous activity of -our conscience.</p> - -<p>In the case which I have selected the problem is easy to -solve. It is plain that vivisection is inevitable in the experimental -investigation of vital processes, as it is the only -means by which serious progress can be made. None the -less, very many people cannot accept this necessity, -because of the intensity of their love for animals.</p> - -<p>In the question of the prevention of syphilis, the moral -problem is still more easy to settle. Whilst in the case of -vivisection a real suffering may be inflicted upon animals, -in preventive measures against syphilis, the evil is more -or less intricate and very problematic. The certainty of -safety from this disease might render extra-conjugal relations -more frequent, but if we compare the evil which -might come from that with the immense benefit gained in -preventing so many innocent persons from becoming diseased, -it is easy to see to which side the scale dips. The -indignation of those who protest against the discovery of -preventive measures can never either arrest the zeal of the -investigators or hinder the use of the measures. This -example again shows that reasoning is necessary in the -solution of most moral questions.</p> - -<p>However, the problems which arise in actual life are -often very much more complicated than the two cases I -have taken as an introduction. It is easy to prove the -high utility of the work of vivisectors and of those who -are seeking means of preventing syphilis, whilst their -adversaries have nothing to invoke but their feelings. The -situation is quite different in many questions which border -on morality. The sexual life abounds in extremely difficult -problems, in which it is almost impossible to deter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>mine -what is right. Let me recall the vagaries in the life -of Goethe, whose great genius was so often in conflict with -the morality of his time. Was he wrong in giving up -Frederique and Lili from the fear that a permanent bond -would damage his poetic productivity? Then there is the -moral question of the marriage of men affected with -syphilis, or other diseases which might influence the offspring. -The problems of the continence of young people -before marriage, of prostitution and of means of preventing -conception are without doubt questions of great importance, -the solution of which is extremely difficult from -the point of view of morality. Differences of opinion are -revealed in nearly everything relating to punishment. -The question of the death penalty is much in dispute -and requires numerous investigations of different kinds. -Statistics have been collected to give information as to the -utility or inutility of the death penalty. According to -some results, capital punishment does not diminish the -number of crimes, whilst according to others it has a real -preventive effect. Punishments less violent than death, -and particularly the punishments of children, are equally -troublesome, and schoolmasters have difficulty in finding -a solution.</p> - -<p>The utilitarian theory of morality often finds it impossible -to prove the advantage of the conduct it prescribes, -and this the more because in many cases we do not exactly -know who is to profit by it. Is the utility of any particular -act to be considered so far as it affects relatives, -members of the same religion, of the same country, or -of the same race, or all humanity?</p> - -<p>In face of these difficulties, many moral philosophers have -given up the utilitarian theory and declared for an intuitive -theory. The basis of morality is to be found in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span> -feeling innate in every man, a sort of social instinct urging -him to do good to his neighbour, and which, by the voice -of his own conscience, dictates how he ought to act much -more precisely than could be done by any comprehension -of the utility of his conduct.</p> - -<p>It is certainly true that man is an animal living in society -because of his need for association with other human -beings. But whilst in the animal world the members of -societies are actuated by an instinct which is blind and -generally very precise, in man we find nothing of the kind. -The social instinct appears in him in endless variety. In -some of us love of neighbours is extremely highly -developed, so that some persons are only happy when -sacrificing themselves for the public good. They give all -that they have to the poor, and often die for some ideal -which is necessarily altruistic. Such examples are rare. -Many men, however, profess an affection for some of their -kind, devote themselves to their relations, their friends, or -their compatriots, and remain practically indifferent to all -others. Other individuals, again, have an even narrower -sphere of affection, and take advantage of their fellows, -either in their own interest or in that of their own family. -Still more rare are the really wicked persons who have no -love for anyone but themselves and who take pleasure in -doing harm to those about them. Notwithstanding this -diversity in the development of the social instinct, all men -have to live together.</p> - -<p>If it were possible to know the inner motives of men, -these might be used as a basis for classifying conduct. -Those acts might be described as moral which were inspired -by neighbourly love, and those as immoral the -motive of which was egoism. But it is seldom that the -real motives are discovered; they lie deep down in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span> -individual mind, sometimes unknown even to the man himself. -We can nearly always harmonise our acts with the -dictates of our consciences and find reasons for the harm -we inflict upon others. It is only rare natures that possess -a conscience so delicate as to be always tormented lest they -are not doing good to their neighbours.</p> - -<p>In the course of life, men are disposed to attribute bad -motives to their opponents. Such an attitude makes -criticism easier and panders to the common wish to speak -evil of one’s neighbours. Notwithstanding the numerous -precedents for such an attitude amongst politicians and -journalists, it must be discarded from any serious study of -morality.</p> - -<p>The motives and the conscience are elusive elements of -little use in any attempt to value human conduct. We -have to fall back on the consequences of action. Now it -is easy to show that the social instinct often leads to action -which is not good. It frequently happens that men, acting -with the highest and best intentions, do much harm. -Schopenhauer long ago pointed out that morality based on -sentiment is a mere caricature of real morality. Impelled -by the altruistic wish to do good, men often lavish unreflecting -charity and do harm to others and to themselves. -In <cite>Timon of Athens</cite> Shakespeare depicted</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">A most incomparable man; breathed, as it were,</div> -<div class="line">To an untirable and continuate goodness,</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>and who gave away to the right and the left, creating -around him a cloud of parasites. He finally ruined himself -and became a hopeless misanthrope. Shakespeare put -his verdict in the mouth of Flavius:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="stanza"> -<div class="line">Undone by goodness. Strange, unusual blood,</div> -<div class="line">When man’s worst sin is, he does too much good.</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span></p> - -<p>Morality, founded purely on sentiment, has inspired the -attacks on vivisectors which in all confidence spread evil -amongst men.</p> - -<p>It is a surprising result of the great complexity of human -affairs, that society is sometimes better served by wicked -acts than by acts inspired by the most generous feelings. -Thus extremely rigorous measures of repression are often -more successful than the half-measures employed by -humane and charitable administrators.</p> - -<p>The intuitive theory of morality has had no greater success -than utilitarianism. Even if the sentiment of society -were a true basis of moral conduct, it fails in actual practice. -On the other hand, although utility is the object of all -morality, it is in most cases so difficult to determine what is -really useful, that utilitarianism breaks down as the foundation -of morality.</p> - -<p>We must look elsewhere for principles which can guide -us towards right conduct.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span></p> - -<h3>II<br /><br /> - -<small><small>MORALITY AND HUMAN NATURE</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Attempts to found morality on the laws of human nature—Kant’s -theory of moral obligation—Some criticisms of the -Kantian theory—Moral conduct must be guided by reason</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Even</span> in antiquity, there were efforts to find a basis for -morality other than the precepts of religion based on revelation, -but the failure of such attempts has long been admitted. -In the first chapter of <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, I -described such efforts to find a basis for morality in human -nature itself. The Epicureans and the Stoics, although -their doctrines were opposed, each claimed to set out from -human nature. The principle is too vague for practical -use, as human nature can be interpreted in very different -fashions.</p> - -<p>When several attempts to find a rational basis for morality -had failed, Kant’s theory appeared and was hailed by many -as a real advance. None the less, it has not met with -general approval and may be taken as a supreme instance -of the failure to solve the great problem of morality by -reason. I do not wish to deal with it at length, but a -review of its main outlines is pertinent to my argument.</p> - -<p>According to Kant, morality cannot be founded on the -feeling of sympathy, nor can it have as its object the happiness -of men. Nature would have been an unskilful work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span>man -were her object the happiness of human beings, for -many lower animals have much more happiness. An inner -law is the force compelling us to morality, and without that -we should have to seek our guide in happiness.</p> - -<p>Kant’s doctrine is an intuitive theory of morality. It is -based neither on sympathy nor on any inherent charity, -which would make us covet happiness for our fellows, but -solely on the consciousness of duty. Kant thought that -the action of a man who wished to do good to his fellows -was devoid of merit. Conduct was moral only in so far -as it was obedience to the inner sense of duty. Schiller’s -epigram has thrown into relief this part of the great philosopher’s -theory, “When I take pleasure in doing good to -my neighbour, I am uneasy, as I fear that I have been -lacking in virtue.”</p> - -<p>In his criticism of Kant’s system, Herbert Spencer drew -a picture of a world inhabited by men who had no sympathy -for their fellows and who did good to them against -their natural instincts and only from a pure sense of duty. -Spencer thought that such a world would be uninhabitable. -Clearly, moral conduct, on the Kantian basis, could be -followed only by exceptional persons, for most men follow -their inclinations rather than any sense of duty. People -of lower culture would accept kindnesses from others without -caring whether the motive were kindness or a sense of -duty, but highly civilised people would not endure service -from those whom they knew to be acting against their -instincts in obedience to a sense of duty. And so men -would be driven to hide the real motives of their conduct, -lest they should offend the sensibility of those towards -whom their moral conduct was directed. Such cases, where -the real motive is concealed, show how impossible it is to -judge of conduct from the motives which may be supposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span> -to have inspired it. As it is generally impossible to know -whether some altruistic conduct has been inspired by kindness -or has been performed as a duty, it is better to give -up any attempt to appraise the springs of moral conduct.</p> - -<p>Kant himself realised the need of some other standard -for appraising human conduct. With such a purpose he -arrived at his well-known maxim:—“Let your conduct be -such that your motive might serve as a standard of universal -application.” To explain the maxim he gave a -number of examples. A man who is without money and -cannot pay a debt is in doubt as to whether he should -promise to repay his creditor. According to Kant, he -ought to ask himself what would be the result if such a -promise were to be made under similar circumstances by -everyone. It is plain that if such false promises became -universal, they would cease to be believed and so would -be impracticable in actual life. Kant’s formula, therefore, -would supply a rational basis for the discrimination of -immoral conduct. In the case of theft it would operate as -follows: if it became the custom for everyone to take whatever -he wanted, private property and theft would simultaneously -cease to exist. So also suicide is immoral, since -if it became general the human race would cease to exist.</p> - -<p>Kant, however, was looking at only one side of the -problem. Moral conduct is frequently limited to an individual, -and cannot be generalised for all humanity. Thus, -for instance, if one about to sacrifice his life for the good -of his fellows were to estimate his action according to -Kant’s formula, he would reach a conclusion similar to that -in the case of suicide; if everyone were to sacrifice his life -for others, no one would remain alive, and so, according to -Kant, the sacrifice of one’s life for the good of others would -be an immoral act.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span></p> - -<p>It is plain that in his search for a rational basis of morality, -Kant found only a hollow form, void of any substantial -body of morality. It is not enough that a moral man -should take his consciousness of duty as a guide. He must -know what would be the result of his acts. If it is immoral -to make a false promise, it is because people would lose -confidence in such promises, and confidence is necessary -to our well-being. When the formula of Kant condemns -theft, it is because, if theft became general, there could be -no private property, and property is regarded as necessary -to the well-being of men. Suicide is immoral, according to -Kant, because it would lead to the disappearance of the -human race, and human life is of course a good.</p> - -<p>Kant tried to found his theory of morality on a rational -basis which excluded the idea of the general good, but it -was impossible for him to avoid it. His “practical reason,” -when it raised the consciousness of duty to a principle, -should have pointed the goal towards which moral acts -were to be directed. In this matter, I find that Kant’s -ideas are very vague, although extremely interesting.</p> - -<p>The innate feeling of duty implies the <em>will</em> to pursue -moral conduct. This will is independent of the circum-ambient -conditions. Kant in his nebulous language explains -this consideration as follows:—“Our reason informs -us of a law to which all our maxims are subject, as if our -will had created its own natural order of things. This law, -then, is in the sphere of a nature which we do not know -empirically but which the freedom of the will makes possible, -a nature which is supra-sensible, but which from the practical -point of view we make objective, because it is created -by our will in virtue of our existence as rational beings. -The difference between the laws of a nature to which the -will is subject and a nature subject to the will subsists in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span> -this, that in the first the objects must be the causes which -determine the will, whilst in the second, the will itself -causes the objects so that the causality of the will resides -exclusively in pure reason, pure reason being thus practical -reason” (<cite>Critique of Practical Reason</cite>).</p> - -<p>So far as I can follow the argument of Kant, it seems to -me to imply that rational morality cannot be bound by -human nature as it exists. I may perhaps interpret Kant’s -thought as if he had the intuition that the moral will was -capable of modifying nature by subjecting it to its own -laws.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, several critics of Kant have attempted -to improve his theory of morality by reconciling it with -human nature as it actually exists. Vacherot,<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> for instance, -has taken such an attitude in the most definite fashion. -He insists that Kant “did not appreciate the capital importance -of the object of the moral law. The problem -which under the designation <em lang="la" xml:lang="la">summum bonum</em> absorbed -the schools of antiquity plays a minor part in the Kantian -theory. Kant should have recognised that human destiny -is not limited to duty but must include happiness” (p. 316).</p> - -<p>But what is this “happiness” which is to be the standard -of human actions? To answer this Vacherot places himself -in the position of those ancient philosophers whom I -discussed in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>. He makes his point -absolutely clear. “What is the ‘good’ for any being? -The attaining of its purpose. What is the purpose of a -being? The simple development of its nature. Apply -this to man and morality. When human nature is known -by observation and analysis, the deduction can be made as -to what is the purpose, and the good, and therefore the law -of man. For the conception of the good necessarily in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span>volves -the idea of duty and of law to be imposed on the -will. We have to fall back, then, on knowledge of man, but -it must be complete knowledge, a recognition of the faculties, -feelings, and inclinations that are peculiar to him and -that distinguish him from animals” (p. 319). Here is a -summary of this doctrine:—“Develop all our natural -powers, subordinating those which are subsidiary to those -which form the peculiar quality of human beings; this is -the true economy of the little world we call human life; -this is its purpose and this its law. The formula states in -the most scientific and least doubtful form a very old truth, -the foundation of all morality and the test of all its applications. -If we seek to know what are justice, duty and -virtue, we must look in the world itself, and not above or -below it” (Op. 301).</p> - -<p>Professor Paulsen, a more recent critic of Kant, comes -to a similar conclusion.<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> He thinks that Kant should have -modified his formula in some such way as follows:—“The -laws of morality are rules which might serve for a natural -legislation for human life; in other words, rules that, when -they guided conduct according to natural law, would result -in the preservation and supreme development of human -life.”</p> - -<p>From whatever side we examine the problem of morality, -we come to submit conduct to the laws of human nature. -Sutherland, a modern author who discusses morality by -the scientific method, defines morality as “conduct guided -by rational sympathy.” Such sympathy would not subordinate -the chief good of others to an advantage less important -but more immediate. Thus a mother may sympathise -with her child when it has to take some unpleasant -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span>medicine; but if her sympathy be rational she will not let -it interfere with the health of the child.</p> - -<p>In the foregoing case, sympathy has to be controlled by -medical knowledge. In moral conduct generally, reason -must be the determining factor, whatever be the inspiring -motive of the conduct, whether it come from sympathy or -from the sense of duty. And thus morality in the last resort -must be based on scientific knowledge.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span></p> - -<h3>III<br /><br /> - -<small><small>INDIVIDUALISM</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Individual morality—History of two brothers brought up in -same circumstances, but whose conduct was quite different—Late -development of the sense of life—Evolution of sympathy—The -sphere of egoism in moral conduct—Christian -morality—Morality of Herbert Spencer—Danger of exalted -altruism</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">Although</span> moral conduct refers specially to the relations -between men, there exists a morality of the individual. -As this latter is simpler, I shall consider it first in my -investigation of rational morality.</p> - -<p>When a man, seeking his individual happiness, gives -way to his inclinations without restraint, he often comes to -behave in a way that is generally regarded as immoral. -Following his inclination, he may become idle and drunken. -Idleness may depend on some irregularity of the brain, and -may thus be as natural as is the wish to take drink in the -case of a man to whom alcohol brings a feeling of well-being -and gaiety. Why is it that idleness and alcoholism -are immoral? Is it because they prevent the living of life -in its completest and widest sense, according to the theory -of Herbert Spencer? But it is precisely in this way that -the adherents of the theory justify all kinds of excess without -which fullness and width of life seem to them impossible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span></p> - -<p>Whilst vices such as idleness and drunkenness arise -directly from qualities of the human constitution, they -must be regarded as immoral because they prevent the -completion of the ideal cycle of human life. I knew two -brothers, almost the same age, subject to the same influences, -and brought up in the same environment. None -the less, their tastes and conduct were very different. The -older brother, although very intelligent, during his college -career devoted himself eagerly to bodily exercises and -indulged in every way his inclination for pleasure. “As -the chief end of life is happiness,” he said, “one must try -to get as much of it as possible,” and so he got into the -habit of visiting places where there was most amusement. -Cards, good living, and women furnished for him the means -of pleasure. As his ability was unusual, he passed his -examinations almost without having worked. The example -of his younger brother, always a devoted student, did not -attract him. “It is all very well for you,” he said, “as -you find your happiness in work; as for me, I detest books, -and I am happy only when I am giving myself up to -pleasure. Everyone must take his own road to the goal -of life.” As a result, the health of the older brother was -seriously affected by his mode of life. He acquired some -disease of the circulatory system, had to face the end, -and died at the age of fifty-six. The last years of his life -were very unhappy, as the instinct of life developed in him -extremely strongly. He was a victim of his own ignorance -because when he was young he did not know that the sense -of life would develop later on, and would become much -stronger than in his youth. His brother was equally unaware -of this fact, but, absorbed in scientific study, he kept -himself apart from the indulgences of youth and lived a -sober life. In this way he found that his strength and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span> -activity were fully preserved at a time of life when his -older brother was already a physical wreck.</p> - -<p>I have quoted this example, not to repeat the banal idea -that a sober life is followed by a healthier old age than an -intemperate life, but because I wish to insist on the importance -of the development of the instinct of life in the course -of each individual life. I see that this idea is very little -known. I was present at the last moments of my older -brother (he was called Ivan Ilyitch, and he was the subject -of the famous story of Tolstoi: <cite>The Death of Ivan Ilyitch</cite>). -Knowing that he was going to die from pyemia, at the -age of forty-five, my brother preserved his great intelligence -in all its clearness. As I sat by his bedside he -told me his reflections in the most objective fashion -possible. The idea of his death was for long very terrible -to him, but “as we all die” he came to “resign himself, -saying that after all there was only a quantitative difference -between death at the age of forty-five and later on.” This -reflection, which relieved the moral sufferings of my -brother, is none the less untrue. The sense of life is very -different at different ages, and a man who lives beyond the -age of forty-five experiences many sensations which he did -not know before. There is a great evolution of the mind -during the advance of age.</p> - -<p>Even if we do not accept the existence of an instinct of -natural death as the crown of normal life, we cannot deny -that youth is only a preparatory stage and that the mind -does not acquire its final development until later on. This -conception should be the fundamental principle of the -science of life and the guide for education and practical -philosophy.</p> - -<p>Individual morality consists of conduct permitting the -accomplishment of the normal cycle of life and ending in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> -a feeling of satisfaction as complete as possible and which -can be reached only in advanced age. And so, when we -see a man wasting his health and strength and youth, and -thus making himself incapable of feeling the most complete -pleasure in life, we call him immoral.</p> - -<p>A man entirely isolated does not exist in nature. We -are born weak and incapable of satisfying our needs and -at once come into relations with the human being who -feeds us and protects us. The child, although egoistic, -becomes attached to his protector, and in this way the feeling -of sympathy is born. Guided by this feeling as well -as by the sense of his own interest, the child soon begins -to employ his will in restraining some of his instincts, which, -none the less, are quite natural. Thus, the fear of being -deprived of food makes him obedient to his protectors. -The child cannot complete his normal cycle without pursuing -a certain moral conduct.</p> - -<p>When he becomes adult, man experiences the instinctive -need of relations with someone of the other sex. This need -lays certain duties on him, and although the love of a -young man is less egoistical than that of the child, it is -far from presenting the characters of self-abnegation and -sacrifice.</p> - -<p>A young woman, after having passed through the usual -cycle of life with her mother and with a man, becomes -herself a mother. Maternal instinct furnishes her with -certain rules of conduct, but this natural instinct is not -enough to fulfil its object, that is to say, to rear the child -until an age when it can live independently. Directed by -a feeling of sympathy for her child, the young mother -learns from women with more experience to ward off -dangers from her child. In the first years, moral conduct -on the part of the mother consists almost entirely in bring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span>ing -up the child in a healthy way. For this purpose she -must acquire much knowledge. If she remains ignorant, -her conduct must be regarded as immoral.</p> - -<p>So far as concerns the bringing up of a child, the moral -problem is quite simple, because we are all agreed that the -object is to rear the child to maturity in the healthiest possible -condition. When the child exhibits any habits -harmful to this object, although due to natural instincts, -the mother applies her knowledge to restrain them without -paying attention to the theory that happiness consists in the -fulfilment of everything that is natural. When a child has -passed through the perilous first period of its life, the -mother has to ask what general object she is to follow in -its education. She wishes her child to be as happy as -possible. Here the conception of orthobiosis will serve -her, and it will teach her that the greatest happiness consists -in the normal evolution of the sense of life, leading -to serene old age, and finally reaching the fulness of satiety -of life. Man, who has passed his apprenticeship to life -from his birth, with his protectors, and, later on, with -persons of the other sex, inevitably acquires certain -elements necessary for social life. Persuaded that in order -to succeed in his individual life he must have help from -his fellows, he learns to subdue his anti-social tendencies, -at first in his own interests. Let me take an example of -this. When a man has reached a certain stage of civilisation, -it generally becomes impossible to him to supply his -bodily wants without the help of persons less cultured than -himself. He takes into his house one or more servants, -with whom he enters into definite relations. He wishes for -himself and those about him a normal life, such as I have -described in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>. To attain this it is indispensable -in his own interest and in that of his family,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span> -that his domestic servants should be well treated. The -health of the family very often depends on the conduct of -the servants, who will follow conscientiously the hygienic -rules only if they themselves are living in good conditions. -The custom according to which the masters live in luxuriously -furnished rooms, while their servants have mean -quarters in the attics, is immoral from the point of view of -the well-being of the masters themselves. The crowded -servants’ quarters are a nest of all sorts of infection, which -may spread in the families of the masters. Very often -people who think that they are following the rules of exact -hygiene contract diseases without knowing that the infection -has come from their servants.</p> - -<p>Anger gives us another example. It is certainly harmful -to the health, and so should be controlled in the interest -of the bad-tempered person himself. Fits of rage are frequently -followed by ruptures of blood-vessels, and by -diabetes, and even cataracts have developed after some -violent passion.</p> - -<p>Luxurious habits are also well known to be harmful to -the health. Heavy meals, evenings passed in the theatre -and in society may seriously affect activity of the organs. -Moreover, the luxury of some people is often the cause of -misery to others. The knowledge that luxurious habits -shorten life and prevent man from reaching the greatest -happiness may warn people against luxury better than -the appeal to the feeling of sympathy.</p> - -<p>As it is a fact that most men guide their lives generally -from egoistic motives, any theory of morality which is to -be put into practice must reckon seriously with this factor. -All other systems have recognised it. In the Sermon on -the Mount, which is a summary of Christian morality, each -moral act is recognised on the ground that it will bring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span> -some reward or obviate some punishment. “Rejoice,” -said Jesus, “and be exceeding glad; for great is your -reward in heaven” (Matt. v., 12). “Take heed that ye -do not your alms before men, to be seen of them; otherwise -ye have no reward of your Father which is in heaven” -(Matt. vi., 1). “That thine alms may be in secret; and -thy Father which seeth in secret himself shall reward thee -openly” (Matt. vi., 4). “Judge not, that ye be not -judged” (Matt. vii., 1). “But if ye forgive not men -their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses” -(Matt. vi., 15). Jesus had no high opinion of -the influence of altruism on human conduct.</p> - -<p>Herbert Spencer in his treatise on morality (<cite>The Data -of Ethics</cite>) also insists that laws of conduct, to be of -general application, must not require men to make too great -sacrifices, as otherwise the best teaching would remain a -dead letter. He imagines, however, that in the future the -human race will be so much improved that moral conduct -will become instinctive, needing no compulsion. The English -philosopher presents a view of the future of the human -race totally at variance with the Kantian conception. -Instead of human beings becoming filled with a sense of -duty opposed to their natural instincts, the world will be -peopled with men acting morally from inclination, so -making the world delightful.</p> - -<p>The ideal is so far removed from existing conditions that -the possibility of its attainment is hardly worth considering. -It is probable that a world whose inhabitants had -the feeling of sympathy very highly developed would not -be so delightful. For sympathy is generally a reaction -against evil. When evil disappears, sympathy would be -not merely useless, but annoying and harmful.</p> - -<p>George Eliot in <cite>Middlemarch</cite> describes a young woman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span> -enthusiastically anxious to do good to her fellows. When -she came to live in a village, she made great plans to -succour its poor. Her disillusion and annoyance were -great when she found that the villagers were quite comfortably -off, and had no need of her charity.</p> - -<p>John Stuart Mill in his <cite>Autobiography</cite> relates that when -he was young he dreamed of reforming society and making -everyone happy. But when he asked himself if the accomplishment -of his beautiful ideas would make him happy, -he was compelled to answer “No!” and this discovery -plunged the young philosopher into a lamentable condition. -He described himself as quite overcome, all that -supported him in life crumbling away. His happiness -could lie only in the constant pursuit of his object, and the -charm seemed broken, because if attainment were not to -please him, how could the means be of any interest to -him? It seemed to him that nothing was left to which -he could dedicate his life.</p> - -<p>As it is highly probable that with the advance of civilisation -the greatest evils of humanity will become lessened, -and may even disappear, the sacrifices to be made will also -become less. Now that there is a serum which protects -against plague, there is no room for the heroism of the -doctors who used to incur the greatest danger in fighting -epidemics. Until lately doctors used to risk their life in -treating the throats of diphtheric patients. A young doctor -who was a friend of mine, of high ability and promise, died -from diphtheria contracted under these conditions. He -met his death, in isolation from his friends in case of infecting -them, with the utmost heroism. Now that the anti-diphtheric -serum has been discovered, such heroism would -be unnecessary. The advance of science has removed the -occasion of such sacrifices.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span></p> - -<p>It is now very long since there has been opportunity for -the heroism which steeled the hand of Abraham to sacrifice -his only son to his religion. Human sacrifice, based on -the highest morality, has become more and more rare, and -will finally disappear. Rational morality, although it may -admire such conduct, has no use for it. So also, it may -foresee a time when men will be so highly developed that -instead of being delighted to take advantage of the sympathy -of their fellows, they will refuse it absolutely. -Neither the Kantian idea of virtue, doing good as a pure -duty, nor that of Herbert Spencer, according to which -men have an instinctive need to help their fellows, will be -realised in the future. The ideal will rather be that of -men who will be self-sufficient and who will no longer -permit others to do them good.</p> -<hr /> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span></p> - -<h3>IV<br /><br /> - -<small><small>ORTHOBIOSIS</small></small></h3> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Human nature must be modified according to an ideal—Comparison -with the modification of the constitution of -plants and of animals—Schlanstedt rye—Burbank’s -plants—The ideal of orthobiosis—The immorality of ignorance—The -place of hygiene in the social life—The place of -altruism in moral conduct—The freedom of the theory of -orthobiosis from metaphysics</p></blockquote> - -<p><span class="smcap">As</span> I have shown in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>, the human constitution -as it exists to-day, being the result of a long -evolution and containing a large animal element, cannot -furnish the basis of rational morality. The conception -which has come down from antiquity to modern times, of -a harmonious activity of all the organs, is no longer appropriate -to mankind. Organs which are in course of atrophy -must not be reawakened, and many natural characters -which perhaps were useful in the case of animals must be -made to disappear in men.</p> - -<p>Human nature, which, like the constitutions of other -organisms, is subject to evolution, must be modified according -to a definite ideal. Just as a gardener or stock raiser -is not content with the existing nature of the plants and -animals with which he is occupied, but modifies them to -suit his purposes, so also the scientific philosopher must -not think of existing human nature as immutable, but must -try to modify it for the advantage of mankind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span></p> - -<p>As bread is the chief article in human food, attempts -to improve cereals have been made for a very long time. -Rimpau made one of the greatest steps in this direction -when he introduced into cultivation a variety of rye known -as Schlanstedt rye, now fairly abundant in France and -Germany. Rimpau set himself the task of producing a -variety with the longest ears and containing many and -heavy grains. Having conceived his ideal, he began to -seek out what was nearest to it in a very large number of -examples of rye. After patient and continued labour, -using careful selection and cross-fertilisation, Rimpau -succeeded in making the new variety, and so did a great -service to mankind.</p> - -<p>Burbank,<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> an American horticulturist, has recently -gained a wide reputation because of his improvements of -useful plants. He has produced a new kind of potato -which has raised the value of potato crops in the United -States by about £3,500,000 per annum. Burbank cultivated -great numbers of fruit trees, flowers, and all kinds of -plants, with the object of increasing their utility. One of -his objects was to produce varieties which could resist -dry conditions, which reproduced rapidly and so forth. -He has modified the nature of plants to such an extent that -he has cactus plants and brambles without thorns. The -succulent leaves of the former provide an excellent food for -cattle, whilst the absence of thorns in the latter makes -their pleasant fruit more suitable for gardens. Burbank -has enormously improved the production of stoneless -plums, and has very much reduced the price of many bulbs -and lilies by increasing their productivity.</p> - -<p>To obtain such results much knowledge and a long -period of time were necessary. To modify the nature of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span>plants it was necessary to understand them well. To frame -the new ideal of the plant it was necessary not only to have -an exact conception of what was wanted, but to find out if -the qualities of the plants in question furnished any hope -of realising it.</p> - -<p>The methods which have been successful in the case of -plants and animals must be much modified for application -to the human race. In the case of human beings the selection -and cross-breeding which were imposed upon rye and -plum trees are not possible, but, at the same time, the -ideal of human nature, towards which mankind ought to -press, may be formed. In our opinion this ideal is orthobiosis, -that is to say, the development of the human life -so that it passes through a long period of old age in active -and vigorous health, leading to the final period in which -there shall be present a sense of satiety of life, and a -wish for death. I do not think that the ideal should be -that of Herbert Spencer, a simple prolongation of human -life. When the instinct of death comes at a not very late -period of life, there would be no inconvenience in shortening -the life, if death did not come soon after the appearance -of the instinct. Probably this would be the only case -where suicide was justified in the conception of orthobiosis.</p> - -<p>The foregoing is the case of an action in conformity -with the ideal, but quite contrary to human nature as it is -at present. A similar contradiction appears in reproduction. -Man came from animals amongst which unlimited -reproduction was an important factor in the preservation -of the species, as it allowed the species to survive -under all sorts of bad conditions, such as diseases, combats, -attacks of enemies, and changes of climate. Although -man, according to the laws of human nature, is capable -of reproducing extremely rapidly, the ideal of his happiness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span> -makes a restriction of this power necessary. Thus orthobiosis, -based upon knowledge of human nature, would set -limits to a function which is perhaps the most natural of -all. The restriction which is already partially adopted -will come more and more into operation as the struggle -against diseases, the prolongation of human life, and the -suppression of war make progress. It will be one of the -chief means of diminishing the most brutal forms of the -struggle for existence, and of increasing moral conduct -amongst mankind.</p> - -<p>Just as Rimpau began to study the nature of plants -before trying to realise his ideal, so also varied and profound -knowledge is the first requisite for the ideal of moral -conduct. It is necessary not only to know the structure -and function of the human organism, but to have exact -ideas on human life as it is in society. Scientific knowledge -is so indispensable for moral conduct that ignorance -must be placed among the most immoral acts. A mother -who rears her child in defiance of good hygiene, from want -of knowledge, is acting immorally towards her offspring, -notwithstanding her feeling of sympathy. And this also -is true of a Government which remains in ignorance of the -laws which regulate human life and human society.</p> - -<p>It must be well understood that I am not here thinking of -written knowledge, set down in treatises and volumes. -Rimpau and Burbank went outside manuals of botany to -obtain their knowledge. Besides books, wide ideas on the -practice of life are required to direct aright the conduct of -men. A doctor who has just finished his studies at the -hospital, notwithstanding all his knowledge, is not yet sufficiently -trained to be a good practitioner. He must acquire -the habit of treating patients, and for this years are required. -So also is it with regard to the practical applica<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span>tions -of the principles of morality. The regulation of -conduct requires profound knowledge both theoretical and -practical, and men selected to frame or to apply laws of -morality must have this double qualification. If the human -race come to adopt the principles of orthobiosis, a considerable -change in the qualities of men of different ages will -follow. Old age will be postponed so much that men of -from sixty to seventy years of age will retain their vigour, -and will not require to ask assistance in the fashion now -necessary. On the other hand, young men of twenty-one -years of age will no longer be thought mature or ready to -fulfil functions so difficult as taking a share in public affairs. -The view which I set forth in <cite>The Nature of Man</cite> regarding -the danger which comes from the present interference of -young men in political affairs has since then been confirmed -in the most striking fashion.</p> - -<p>It is easily intelligible that in the new conditions such -modern idols as universal suffrage, public opinion, and the -<em>referendum</em>, in which the ignorant masses are called on to -decide questions which demand varied and profound knowledge, -will last no longer than the old idols. The progress -of human knowledge will bring about the replacement of -such institutions by others, in which applied morality will -be controlled by the really competent persons. I permit -myself to suppose that in these times, scientific training -will be much more general than it is just now, and that it -will occupy the place which it deserves in education and in -life.</p> - -<p>It is equally clear that if a mother is to act morally with -regard to her child, she must teach herself properly. In -place of mythology and literature, she must learn hygiene -and all that relates to the rational rearing of children. So, -also, in the education of men, the study of the exact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span> -sciences must occupy by far the most important place. -Then only will moral conduct and scientific knowledge -begin to unite. An ignorant mother will bring up a child -very badly notwithstanding all her good will and her affection. -A doctor, however imbued with strong sympathy for -his patients, could do them much harm if he had not the -appropriate knowledge. Are not politicians open to the -reproach from the point of view of morality that very often -through ignorance they do the very worst evil in public -administration? With the progress of knowledge, moral -conduct and useful conduct will become more and more -closely identified.</p> - -<p>I have been reproached because in my system the health -of the body occupies too large a place. It cannot be otherwise, -because health certainly plays the chief part in existence. -Notwithstanding his pessimism, Schopenhauer was -convinced that health was the greatest treasure, a treasure -before which everything else yielded. In many religions -care of the health is laid down amongst the chief duties. -Although many scientific men do not hold the opinion -that circumcision was ordained for hygienic reasons, it -is certain that hygiene was extremely important in the -Jewish religion. It is only in Christianity, which despises -the human body, that hygiene is excluded from the religious -code, as in the words of Jesus:-</p> - -<p>“Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat, or -what ye shall drink; nor yet for your body, what ye shall -put on. Is not the life more than meat, and the body -than raiment?” (Matt. vi., 25). As for long ages -hygiene was very imperfectly known, it is not surprising -that it played a small part in human affairs. Probably -the objection to the importance that I assign to it in orthobiosis -is a relic from the old order of things. Now, how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span>ever, -the situation is different. Bacteriology has placed -hygiene on a scientific foundation, so that the latter is now -one of the exact sciences. It has now become necessary -to give it the chief place in applied morality as it is the -branch of knowledge that teaches how men ought to live.</p> - -<p>It has been objected that I have left no place for altruism -in my system.<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> Certainly I have tried to find an egoistic -basis for moral conduct, as I have shown above. I think, -however, that the wish to live according to the ideal of -orthobiosis and to make others live a normal life would be -a powerful agency in improving social life, in preventing -mutual damage, and promoting mutual help. Such a -motive, within the reach of persons whose altruistic feelings -are not specially strong, must largely extend moral -conduct amongst human beings, and even although in -future such manifestations of high morality as the sacrifice -of life and health will become wholly or nearly wholly -useless, I think that for the present there is still room for -altruism. The practical application of scientific knowledge -already gained admits much self-denial and good feeling. -Struggle against prejudices of all kinds and the development -and diffusion of sound ideas require a conduct very -highly altruistic.</p> - -<p>The fears of my opponents are still less justified when -we reflect that the feelings of sympathy and of cohesion -must play a large part in the business of helping the -evolution of man towards the goal of normal life.</p> - -<p>Although our actual knowledge already provides a basis -of rational morality, it may be admitted that in the -future, if science continues its forward march, the rules of -moral conduct will become still more improved. There will -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span>be no ground for reproaching me for a blind faith in the -all-powerfulness of science. Much more trust can be given -to one who has faithfully carried out his promises, than to -one who has promised much and fulfilled nothing. Science -has already justified the hopes which have been placed in it. -It has saved people from the most terrible diseases, and -has made life much easier. On the other hand, religions, -which demand an uncritical faith as the means of curing the -ills which afflict humanity, have not fulfilled their promises.</p> - -<p>The reproach that I preach blind faith in the progress of -science, destined to replace religious faith, is unjust, because -my faith depends on a confidence that science has already -deserved. Equally unjust is the reproach that I have built -my system on a partly metaphysical principle. According -to M. Parodi,<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> the hypothesis of physiological old age -and of natural death seem to “involve the idea of a natural -duration of human life, which, however, from accidental -reasons man does not complete at present. M. Metchnikoff -repeatedly uses the expression ‘normal cycle.’ Now do -we not see here the surreptitious repetition of the old teleological -conception of nature, although at first he so energetically -disavowed it? It is the belief that the species is -a necessary reality, corresponding to a definite type of its -own, in fact a special design of nature; that nature, to -guide herself, had an ideal which circumstances could -mistake or degrade, but which had to be restored to its -perfect form? Otherwise, why does he insist that there -must be a condition of perfect and stable equilibrium -between individual and environment? that there is a normal -cycle and that it must be possible to harmonise the disharmonies?”</p> - -<p>I can show easily that all these objections rest upon a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>simple misunderstanding. I have never conceived of the -existence of any ideal of nature or of the inevitable necessity -of transforming disharmonies to harmonies. I have -no knowledge of the “designs” and “motives” of nature; -I have never taken my stand on metaphysical ground. I -have not the remotest idea if nature has any ideal and if -the appearance of man on the earth were a part of such an -ideal. What I have spoken of is the ideal of man corresponding -to the need to ward off the great evils of old age -as it is now, and of death as we see it around us. I have -said, moreover, that human nature, that collection of complex -features of multiple origin, contains certain elements -which may be used to modify it according to our human -ideal. I have done nothing but what the horticulturist -does when he finds in the nature of plants elements which -suggest to him to try and make new and improved races. -Just as the constitution of some plum trees contains elements -which make it possible to produce plums without stones -which are pleasanter to eat, so also in our own nature there -exist characters which make it possible to transform our -disharmonious nature into a harmonious one, in accordance -with our ideal, and able to bring us happiness. I -have not the smallest idea what ideal nature may have on -the subject of plums, but I know very well that man has -such designs and such an ideal as form a point of departure -for the transformation of the nature of plums. -Substitute man for the plum tree and you are at my point -of view. When I have spoken of the normal cycle of life -or of physiological old age, I have used the words normal -and physiological only in relation to our ideal of the -human constitution. I might just as well have said that a -cactus without thorns is the normal cactus in the conditions -where it was desired to obtain a succulent plant useful as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span> -food for cattle. The words “normal” and “physiological” -seemed to me more convenient than such a phrase -as “in correspondence with human ideals.”</p> - -<p>I am so little convinced of the existence of any disposition -of nature to transform our ills into goods, and -our disharmonies into harmonies, that it would not surprise -me if such an ideal were never reached. Even in unmetaphysical -circles it is said that nature has the intention of -preserving the species at the expense of the individual. The -ground of this is that the species survives the individual. On -the other hand, very many species have completely disappeared. -Amongst these species were animals very highly -organised, such as some anthropoid apes (<i>Dryopithecus</i>, -etc.). As nature has not spared these, how can we be -certain that she is not ready to deal with the human race -in the same way. It is impossible for us to know the unknown, -its plans and motives. We must leave nature on -one side and concern ourselves with what is more congruous -with our intelligence.</p> - -<p>Our intelligence informs us that man is capable of much, -and for this reason we hope that he may be able to modify -his own nature and transform his disharmonies into harmonies. -It is only human will that can attain this ideal.</p> -<hr /> - - -<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> Westergaard, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mortalitaet u. Morbilitaet</cite>, 2nd. Edit., 1901, pp. 653-655.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> The volume of the urine excreted in 24 hours (in January 1905) -was 500 c.c., with a density of 1019. There was no albumen or -sugar. The quantity, per litre, of urea was 11·50 gr., of chlorides 9 gr., -of phosphates 1·15 gr. The sediment contained crystals of uric acid, -some pavement epithelium cells, a very few cells from the tubules, some -hyaline platelets and isolated white corpuscles.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> <cite>Extinct Animals</cite>, London, 1905, pp. 28, 29.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> <cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Rendiconti d. Accad. d. Lincei</cite>, 1906, vol. xiv. pp. 351, 390.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueb. d. physiologische Degeneration bei Actinosphærium eichhornii.</cite> -Jena, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> “Senescence and Rejuvenation,” <cite>Journal of Physiology</cite>, 1891, -t. xii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Biologisches Centralblatt</cite>, 1904, pp. 65, 81, 113.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences</cite>, 23 April, 1900.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue générale des sciences</cite>, 30 Dec., 1904, p. 1116.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Bulletin médical</cite>, 1906, p. 721; <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Cerveau sénile</cite>, Lille, 1906, -pp. 64-69.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Mémoires couronnés publiés par l’Académie royale de Belgique</cite>, -Bruxelles, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue de Médecine</cite>, Nov., 1906, p. 870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, Oct. 1906, p. 859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1900, vol. xiv. p. 113.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Eléments d’histologie humaine</cite>, French translation, 1856, p. 222.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons sur la physiologie du système nerveux</cite>, 1866.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la dégenérescence graisseuse des muscles chez des vieillards.</cite> -Paris, 1867.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> Demange, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Étude sur la vieillesse</cite>, 1886, p. 118.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">C. R. de la Société de Biologie</cite>, 14 November, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Clinica medica</cite>, 1905, <i>n.</i> 6.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletins de la Société royale des sciences-medicales de Bruxelles</cite>, 1905, -<i>n.</i> 4, p. 105.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> Sarbach, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mittheilungen a. d. Grenzgeb. d. Med. u. Chir.</cite>, vol. xv. -1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen d. Kongr. f. innere Medicin.</cite> Wiesbaden, 1906, pp. -59, 98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archives de Neurologie</cite>, 1886.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Die Function d. Schilddrüse, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Virchow’s Festschrift</cite>, vol. i. 1891, -p. 369.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> Fuss, Der Greisenbogen, in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Virchow’s Archiv</cite>, 1905, vol. clxxxii. p. -407; S. Toufesco, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sur le cristallin</cite>, Paris, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Edmond Fournier, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Stigmates dystrophiques de l’hérédosyphilis</cite>, Paris, -1898, p. 4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire naturelle générale et particulière</cite>, vol. ii. Paris, 1749.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la longévité humaine et de la quantité de vie sur le globe</cite>, Paris, -1855.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber die Dauer des Lebens</cite>, Jena, 1882, p. 4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Brehm, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La vie des animaux, Mammifères</cite>, vol. ii. p. 623.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons sur la physiologie et l’anatomie comparée</cite>, vol. ix. 1870, -p. 446.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv f. die gesammte Physiologie</cite>, Bonn, 1903, vol. xcv. p. 606.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Nature</cite>, May 12, 1900, p. 378.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> Ashworth and Annandale, <cite>Proceedings of the R. Society of Edinburgh</cite>, -vol. xxv. part iv. 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Bronn’s Klassen u. Ordnungen des Thierreichs</cite>, vol. iii. p. 466.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Weismann, <cite>The Duration of Life</cite>, in “Essays on Heredity” (English -translation), Oxford, 1889.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Oustalet, “<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Longévité chez les Animaux vertébrés</cite>,” <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Nature</cite>, -May 12, 1900, p. 378.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> “<cite>On the Comparative Ages to which Birds live</cite>,” <cite>The Ibis</cite>, Jan., -1899, vol. v. p. 19.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> J. Maumus, “Les cæcums des oiseaux,” <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales des sciences naturelles</cite>, -902. See also P. Chalmers Mitchell, “On the Intestinal Tract of -Birds,” <cite>Trans. Linnæan Soc. of London</cite>, vol. viii. part 7, 1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Weidersheim, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Elements of the Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates</cite>, -translated by W. Newton Parker, p. 236, 1886.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> <cite>Elements of Comparative Anatomy</cite>, English translation by F. Jeffrey -Bell, B.A., London, 1878, p. 562.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> <cite>Virchow’s Archiv</cite>, 1869, vol. xlviii. p. 151.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> P. Chalmers Mitchell, “On the Intestinal Tract of Mammals,” <cite>Trans. -Zool. Soc. of London</cite>, vol. xvii. part 5, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Travaux de la Société des médecins russes à Saint-Pétersbourg.</cite> -September-October, 1905, p. 18 (in Russian).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> <cite>Virchow’s Archiv</cite>, 1874, vol. lix, p. 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschrift f. klinische. Medicin</cite>, 1887, vol. xii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Mittheilungen a. d. Grenzgebieten d. Medicin u. Chirurgie</cite>, 1905, -vol. xiv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> Aldor, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Centralblatt f. innere Medicin</cite>, 1898, p. 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’année biologique</cite>, 7th year, 1902. Paris, 1903, p. 590.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Gazette des Hôpitaux</cite>, 1904, p. 715.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Accidents dus à la Constipation pendant la Grossesse, l’Accouchement -et les Suites des Couches.</cite> Thèse, Paris, 1902, p. 32.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptes rendus de l’Académie des Sciences</cite>, Paris, 1905, 10 July, -p. 136.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archiv. f. klinische Chirurgie</cite>, 1901, vol. lxiii, p. 773.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> Kolle u. Wassermann, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Handb. d. pathogenen Mikro-organismen</cite>, vol. ii, -1903, p. 678.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> Ficker, in the <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv. für Hygiene</cite>, vol. lii, p. 179, has recently -published the results of an investigation into this.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> Quoted by Frédericq et Nuel, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Eléments de physiologie humaine</cite>, 4th -edition, 1899, p. 256.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> Quoted by Frédericq et Nuel, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’aviculture</cite> (a fortnightly Russian journal), Oct. 1st, 1904, No. 19, -p. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> <cite>Country Life</cite>, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> Quoted by Ebstein, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Kunst d. mensch. Leben zu verlängern</cite>, 1891.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annuaire statistique de la ville de Paris</cite>, 23rd year, 1904, p. 164-171.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> Ornstein, Virchow’s <cite>Archiv.</cite>, 1891, vol. cxxv, p. 408.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> Ebstein, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> Lejoncourt, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Galerie des centenaires</cite>, Paris, 1842, p. 96-98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> Lejoncourt, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 101.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> <cite>Researches into the Physical History of Mankind</cite>, 1836, vol. i, p. 1157.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> I owe to the kindness of M. Chemin a memoir in which he has -brought together the ancient and new records on the centenarians of all -countries up to the end of the nineteenth century. M. Chemin was -unable to find a publisher, but has given me his manuscript, extending to -182 pages.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber die Kunst d. Verlängerung d. mensch. Lebens</cite>, Bonn, 1890, p. 23.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Physiologie générale</cite>, 1900, p. 381.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tableaux de la nature</cite> (French translation), 1808, vol. ii, p. 109.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Webb and Berthelot, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries</cite>, 1839, vol. i, -part 2, pp. 97-98.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bibliothèque universelle de Genève</cite>, 1839, vol. xlvi, p. 387.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 392.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bibliothèque universelle de Genève</cite>, vol. xlvii, p. 49.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Entstehung u. Begriff d. naturhistorischen Art</cite>, 2nd edit., Munich, -1865, p. 37.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> Griesebach, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Vegetation der Erde</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> Batalin, <i>Acta Horti Petropolitani</i>, vol. xi, no. 6, 1890, p. 289.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> I am indebted to Prof. Hugo de Vries for this and other instances of -the prolongation of life in plants.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> Engler’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Botanische Jahrbücher</cite>, Leipzig, 1882, vol. ii, p. 51.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Organographie der Pflanzen</cite>, Iéna, 1898-1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletin du jardin botanique de Bruxelles</cite>, vol. i, no. 6, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> Hugo de Vries, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Jahrbücher für wissensch. Botanik</cite>, 1890, vol. xxii, -p. 52.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1902, p. 71.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> Duclaux, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Microbiologie</cite>, vol. iii, 1900, p. 460.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv. für Anatomie und Physiologie</cite>, 1864.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archives de Zoologie expérimentale</cite>, 1901, vol. ix, p. 81.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> Observations of Dr. Speyer, quoted by Weismann.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> See <cite>The Nature of Man</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Étude clinique sur la vieillesse</cite>, Paris, 1886, p. 145.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue scientifique</cite>, 1877, p. 1173.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue scientifique</cite>, 1887, 2nd part, p. 105.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> Gabriel Bertrand, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1904, p. 672.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Therapeutische Monatshefte</cite>, 1904, p. 193.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Münchener medicinische Wochenschrift</cite>, 1904, No. 1; <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Verhandlungen -der physiologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin</cite>, Dec. 5th, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles</cite>, Geneva, March, 1905, -vol. xvii; <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archives de physiologie</cite>, vol. iv, p. 245.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> Laveran and Mesnil, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Trypanosomes et Trypanosomiases</cite>, Paris, 1904, -p. 328.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> Paris, 1834, 4th edition, vol. ii, p. 118.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue de métaphysique et de morale</cite>, March, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Année biologique</cite>, vol. vii, p. 595.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue occidentale</cite>, July 1st, 1904, vol. xxx, p. 87.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> Egger, “<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le moi des mourants</cite>,” Revue philosophique, 1896, i, p. 27.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 303-307; v. also <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bulletin de l’Institut général phycholog.</cite>, -1903, p. 29.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> Cicero, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tusculanes</cite>, chap, xxviii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> Rapport de M. Bienvenu-Martin à la Chambre des députés, Paris, -1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’Art de prolonger la vie humaine</cite> (French translation), Lausanne, -1809, p. 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> A. Réville, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire des religions</cite>, vol. iii, Paris, 1889, p. 428.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> A. Réville, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 455.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptes rendus de la Societé de Biologie</cite>, 1899, p. 415.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsche medicin. Wochenschrift</cite>, 1891, p. 1027.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die physiologisch-chemisch. Grundlagen d. Spermintheorie</cite>, Berlin, -1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, 1904; <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Deutsche Mediz. Wochenschr.</cite>, 1904, -Nos. 18-21.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">114</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die Lehre von d. Mortalitaet u. Morbilitaet</cite>, 2nd edition, Jena, 1901.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">115</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Medizinische Klinik</cite>, 1905, No. 22.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">116</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Die experimentelle Syphilisforschung</cite>, Berlin, 1906, p. 82.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">117</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1900, pp. 369-413.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">118</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les sérums hemolytiques</cite>, Lyon, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">119</span></a> According to a recent publication of M. Ellenberger (<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv. f. -Anatomie u. Physiologie, Physiologische Abtheilung</cite>, 1906, p. 139), the -cæca of the horse, pig and rabbit, play an active part in the digestion -of vegetable matter, which is rich in cellulose. At the end of his -treatise, Ellenberger insists that the vermiform appendix of the cæcum -is not a rudimentary organ. The reason why the appendix can be -removed in the case of man without disturbance to the functions of -the body, is that this work can be performed by the Peyer’s patches of the -intestine. The existence of the appendix is not necessary to the normal -processes of the body, and is a real danger to health and sometimes -to life. Comparative study of the cæca in birds shows that these organs -are in process of degeneration.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">120</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Archiv. für experimentelle Pathologie</cite>, vol. xxviii, p. 311.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">121</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Sixième Congrès de Chirurgie</cite>, Paris, 1903, p. 86.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">122</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons sur les auto-intoxications</cite>, Paris, 1886.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">123</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschrift für Hygiene</cite>, 1892, vol. xii, p. 88.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">124</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschrift für klinische Medicin</cite>, 1903, vol. xlviii, p. 491.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">125</span></a> There is a summary of this question in Gerhardt’s work on intestinal -putrefaction, in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ergebnisse der Physiologie</cite>, 3rd year, section 1, -Wiesbaden, 1904, pp. 107-154.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">126</span></a> <cite>The A B C of our Nutrition</cite>, New York, 1903; Dr. Regnault, Nov. -1, “L’art de manger,” <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Revue</cite>, 1906, p. 92.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">127</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschr. f. diatetische u. physikal. Therapie</cite>, t. viii, 1904, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">128</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Du Cap au lac Nyassa</cite>, Paris, 1897, pp. 291-294.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">129</span></a> Gaffky and Paak, in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Arbeiten d. k. Gesundheitsamtes</cite>, vol. vi, 1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">130</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">131</span></a> Cormouls-Houlès, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Vingt-sept années d’agriculture pratique</cite>, Paris, -1899, pp. 57-58.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">132</span></a> <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, 1897, Dec. 25th, p. 1898.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">133</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptes rendus de la Soc. de Biologie</cite>, 1906, March 17th.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">134</span></a> Dr. Combe, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’auto intoxication intestinale</cite>, Paris, 1906. This valuable -work contains much useful information on the subject.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">135</span></a> Grundzach, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschrift für klinische Medezin</cite>, 1893, p. 70; Schmitz, -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie</cite>, 1894, vol. xix, p. 401; Singer, -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Therapeutische Monatshefte</cite>, 1901, p. 441.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">136</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Journal für praktische Chemie</cite>, 1882, vol. xxvi, p. 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">137</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv. für experimentelle Pathologie</cite>, 1883, vol. xvii, p. 442.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">138</span></a> In the English authorised version as in the translation of Osterwald -the word “butter” is used in place of “soured milk.” Professor -Metchnikoff follows the translation given by Ebstein in his work on -the Medicine of the Old Testament.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">139</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Presse médicale</cite>, 1904, p. 619.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">140</span></a> “An authentic narrative of the loss of the American brig <i>Commerce</i> -wrecked on the western coast of Africa in the month of August, 1815, -with an account of the sufferings of the surviving officers and crew, -who were enslaved by the wandering Arabs on the African desert or -Zaharah; and observations historical, geographical, etc.” by James -Riley. Hartford, S. Andrus and Son, 1854.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">141</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Arbeiten a. d. k. Gesundheitsamte</cite>, 1889, vol. v, pp. 297-304.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">142</span></a> See Grasberger and Schattenfroh, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv. für Hygiene</cite>, 1902, vol. -xlii, p. 246.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">143</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1902, p. 65.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">144</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue médicale de la Suisse romande</cite>, 1905, p. 716.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">145</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptes rendus de la Soc. Biologique</cite>, March 17th, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">146</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1906, p. 977.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">147</span></a> Soured milk can be taken at any time of the day, with or in between -meals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">148</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Jahrbuch für Kinderheilkunde, N. F. 12 Ergænsungsheft</cite>, 1900.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">149</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Institut Pasteur</cite>, 1905, p. 295; <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Tribune médicale</cite>, Feb. -24th, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">150</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La nature humaine et la philosophie optimiste</cite>, Paris, 1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">151</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Anatom. Abtheil</cite>, 1903, p. 205.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">152</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L’univers et la vie</cite>, p. 592.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">153</span></a> Huxley, <cite>Man’s Place in Nature</cite>. Collected Essays, vol. vii, p. 54.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">154</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 60.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">155</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 62.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">156</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 67.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">157</span></a> Ménégaux, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Mammifères</cite>, p. 24.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">158</span></a> Darwin, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals</cite>, 1873, -p. 67.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">159</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Biologisches Centralblatt</cite>, 1904, p. 475.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">160</span></a> J. de Fontenelle, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Nouveau manuel complet des nageurs</cite>, Paris, 1837, -p. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">161</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La natation et les bains</cite>, Paris, 1887.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">162</span></a> Quoted by M. Pitres in <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Leçons cliniques sur l’hystérie</cite>, 1891, vol. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">163</span></a> Bourneville et Regnard, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Iconographie photographique de la Salpétrière</cite>, -1879-1880, vol. iii, p. 50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">164</span></a> Stéphanie Feinkind, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Du somnambulisme dit naturel</cite>, Paris, 1893, -p. 55.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">165</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Dictionnaire des sciences médicales</cite>, 1821, vol. lii, p. 119.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">166</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Du Sommeil non naturel</cite>, Paris, 1886.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">167</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Conférence faite à la Société de l’Internat</cite>, June 28th, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">168</span></a> <cite>The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind.</cite> English translation, -London, 1896.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">169</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Souvenirs d’enfance de S. Kowalevsky</cite>, 1895, pp. 301-311.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">170</span></a> W. Herzberg, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Sozialdemokratie und Anarchismus</cite>, 1906, p. 17.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">171</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le problème agraire</cite>, 1905, p. 147.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">172</span></a> “The Coming Slavery” in <cite>Man versus the State</cite>, 1888, p. 18.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">173</span></a> <cite>Human, too Human.</cite> French translation, 1899, pp. 405-407. A -German critic has reproached me for my ignorance of Nietzsche’s works. -I have read several of them, but the mixture of genius and madness in -them makes them difficult to use. In this connection Moebius’ volume, -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber das Pathologische bei Nietzsche</cite> (Wiesbaden, 1902), is of interest.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">174</span></a> Quoted by Oldenberg, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Bouddha</cite>, French translation, Paris, 1894, -p. 214.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">175</span></a> P. Régnaud, “Le pessimisme brahmanique,” in <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales du Musée -Guimet</cite>, 1880, vol. i, pp. 110-111.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">176</span></a> Guyau, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Morale d’Epicure</cite>, 4th edition, 1904, p. 116.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">177</span></a> <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ad Marciam</cite>, chap. x.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">178</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Poésies et œuvres morales</cite>, by Leopardi. Translated into French -1880, p. 49.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">179</span></a> These facts are taken from Westergaard, 2nd edit., 1901, p. 649.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">180</span></a> Dieudonné, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Archiv für Kulturgeschichte</cite>, 1903, vol. i, p. 357.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">181</span></a> Kowalevsky, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Studien zur Psychologie des Pessimismus</cite>, Wiesbaden, -1904.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">182</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Medicinische Klinik</cite>, 1906, n. 25 and 26.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">183</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Werth des Lebens.</cite></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">184</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber Schopenhauer</cite>, Leipzig, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">185</span></a> Moebius, <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</cite>, vol. i, Leipzig, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">186</span></a> V. Kunz, “Zur Blindenphysiologie,” <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Wiener medicin. Wochenschrift</cite>, -1902, No. 21.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">187</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Physiologie de la Lecture et de l’Écriture</cite>, Paris, 1905.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">188</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Entre aveugles</cite>, Paris, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">189</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Der Blindenfreund</cite>, Feb. 15th, 1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">190</span></a> <cite>Critical and Miscellaneous Essays</cite>, vol. i, pp. 164-5, in the Essay on -<cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</cite>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">191</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter.</cite> Letter of Dec. 3, 1812.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">192</span></a> Quoted in Moebius’ <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</cite>, vol. ii, p. 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">193</span></a> <cite>The Fifth Roman Elegy</cite>, Blaze’s French translation, 1873 p. 186. -Some of Goethe’s biographers, and amongst them G. H. Lewes, maintain -that these lines relate to Christine, Goethe’s wife. This is erroneous; -they refer to Faustine (see Bielschowsky, i, p. 517).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">194</span></a> Moebius’ <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 84-87.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">195</span></a> Moebius’ <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Goethe</cite>, vol. ii, pp. 84-87.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">196</span></a> Quoted by Bode <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">in Goethe’s Lebenskunst</cite>, Berlin, 1905, p. 59.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">197</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Ueber die Wirkungen d. Castration</cite>, Halle, 1903, p. 82.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">198</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Comptes rendus de la Société de Biologie</cite>, 1889, p. 420.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">199</span></a> The word <em>Samen</em> of the original is the expression of the alchemists -for the “principle of life.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">200</span></a> Erich Schmidt, Goethe’s <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Faust in ursprünglicher Gestalt</cite>, 6th edit., -Weimar, 1905, p. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">201</span></a> <cite>Faust</cite>, Bayard Taylor’s translation. London: Warne & Co., -pp. 20-21.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">202</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 32.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">203</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, pp. 33, 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">204</span></a> Details of this will be found in Kuno Fischer’s <cite>Goethe’s Faust</cite>, -pp. 328-330.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">205</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, pg. 36.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">206</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, pg. 45.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">207</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 46.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">208</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 46.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">209</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 71.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">210</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 51.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">211</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 151.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">212</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 203.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">213</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 205.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">214</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 230.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">215</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 231.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">216</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 284.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">217</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 287.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">218</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p 298.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">219</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 305.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">220</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 309.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">221</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 313.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">222</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 351.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">223</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, pp. 354-355.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">224</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 365.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">225</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i>, p. 370.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">226</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">V. Tribune médicale</cite>, 1906, p. 449.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">227</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Revue</cite>, Nov. 15th and Dec. 1st.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">228</span></a> <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Essais de Philosophie critique</cite>, Paris, 1864.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">229</span></a> <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">System der Ethik</cite>, 7th and 8th editions, vol. i, p. 199. Berlin -1906.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">230</span></a> De Vries, in <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Biologisches Centralblatt</cite>, 1906, Sept. 1st, p. 609.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">231</span></a> Dr. Grasset, “La fin de la vie” in the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue de philosophie</cite>, Aug. -1st, 1903.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">232</span></a> “Morale et biologie,” <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Revue philosophique</cite>, 1904, vol. lviii, p. 125.</p></div> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span></p> - -<h2>INDEX</h2> - -<ul class="IX"><li> -Abelard, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li><li> -Abraham, use of soured milk, 1<a href="#Page_71">71</a></li><li> -Ackermann, Mde., <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li><li> -<i>Actinosphærium</i>, degeneration in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -Adanson, on age of Baobab-tree, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -Adrenaline, effect of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li><li> -Agave, duration of life of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li><li> -Aged, treatment of in uncivilised countries, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li> -Alcohol and longevity, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li><li> -Algeria, ostriches at, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li> -Altruism, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li><li> -Ambard, Dr., on Mde. Robineau, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li> -Anæmia, of brain, and sleep, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><ul><li> - use of serums in, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li></ul></li><li> -André, M., use of serums in anæmia, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li><li> -Anger, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li><li> -Annandale, Nelson, on age of anemones, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li><li> -Annuals, change to biennials or perennials, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><ul><li> -death of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li></ul></li><li> -Antelopes, excreta of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li><li> -Anthropoids, mental characters of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Antiseptics, use of, in intestinal putrefaction, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li><li> -Ants, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li><li> -Apes, anthropoid, mental characters of, 191 <i>et seq.</i><ul><li> -relationship to man, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li></ul></li><li> -Arabs, use of milk by, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li><li> -Aristotle, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li><li> -Arteries, sclerosis of, in the aged, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Ascidians, social, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li><li> -Ashworth, Mr., on age of anemones, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li><li> -Atheroma, in the aged, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Atrophy, of cells, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><ul><li> -of muscles, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li></ul></li><li> -Auditory apparatus, rudimentary organism, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li><li> -Augsburg, elixir of life, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li><li> -Auto-intoxication, from intestinal putrefaction, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><ul><li> -in plants, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li><li> -sleep, due to, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /><br /></li></ul></li><li> - -Babinsky, Dr., hysteria a relic from apes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li><li> -Balkan States, centenarians frequent in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li><li> -Baobab-tree, age of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -Barth, Dr., definition of somnambulism, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li><li> -Batrachia, longevity of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Bats, intestinal flora of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li> -Bees, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li><li> -Beetroot, perennial variety of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li><li> -Belgium, old age pensions, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li><li> -Bélonovsky, M., on serums in anæmia, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li><li> -Bélonowsky, Dr., on Bulgarian bacillus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li> -Berthelot, on dragon-tree of Orotava, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li><li> -Bertrand, M. G., on sorbose fermentation, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li><li> -Bertrand and Weisweiler, on <i>Bacillus bulgaris</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li><li> -Besredka, M., on blood serums, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li><li> -Bielschowsky, biographer of Goethe, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li><li> -Blanchard, E., on age of carp, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Birds, intestinal flora of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><ul><li> - longevity of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li></ul></li><li> -Blindness, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li> -Bloch, Dr. I., on Schopenhauer, 247<br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span><br /> -Blood-vessels, hardening of, in the old, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Bodio, on infant mortality, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li><li> -Boerhave, on gerokomy, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li><li> -Bones, degeneration of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Bordet, M. J. M., on serums, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li><li> -Botulism, poison of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li><li> -Bouchard, M., on disinfection of intestines, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li><li> -Bouchet, M., on constipation after parturition, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li><li> -Bourneville, M., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -Boveri, M., produced atherana by nicotine, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Bone, marrow, in old age, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li><li> -<i>Botryllus</i>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li><li> -Boutroux, definition of morality, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li><li> -Bradyfagy, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li> -Brain, anæmia of, as cause of sleep, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li><li> -Brehm, on age of cattle, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li><li> -Brettes, criticism of “rudimentary organs,” <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li><li> -Bricon, M., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -Brigand, Calabrian, fear of death, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li><li> -Brillat-Savarin, quotation from, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li><li> -Brown-Séquard, specific for long life, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li><li> -Brudzinsky, M., on use of lactic microbes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li><li> -Buddha, on pessimism, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li><li> -Buehler, Dr., on cause of old age, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li> -Buffon, on duration of life, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Bulgarian bacillus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li><li> -Bunge, on relation between growth and longevity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -Burbank, American horticulturist, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li><li> -Butterflies, longevity of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li><li> -Bütschli, O., on life of cells, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li><li> -Byron, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Cachexia, after extirpation of thyroid gland, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -Caeca, of vertebrates, <a href="#Page_60">60</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Cagliostro, elixir of life, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li><li> -Calomel, as an intestinal antiseptic, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><ul><li> - and syphilis, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li></ul></li><li> -Camphor, as an intestinal antiseptic, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li><li> -Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li><li> -Cancalon, Dr., on instinct of death, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li><li> -Cancer, and cleanliness, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li><li> -Candolle, A. de, on cypresses of Mexico, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><ul><li> - on age of trees, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li></ul></li><li> -Cantacuzène, M., on blood serums, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li><li> -Capital punishment, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li><li> -Carlyle, on “Werther,” <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li><li> -Castration, effects of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li><li> -Cats, longevity of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li><li> -Cattle, longevity of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li><li> -Celibacy, and education of women, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li> -Cell reproduction, rate of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li> -Centenarians, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li><li> -Charcot, on sterilised food, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><ul><li> - on hysteria, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li></ul></li><li> -Charron, M., on putrefactive poisons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li><li> -Chemin, M., on centenarians, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li><li> -Chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li><li> -China, Emperor Chi-Hoang-Ti and immortality, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li> -Chopin, a degenerate, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Christian morality, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li><li> -Chromophags, action of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li><li> -Claparède, E., on theory of sleep, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li><li> -Cleanliness, and increase of life, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li><li> -Clergymen, increasing duration of life of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li><li> -Coffee and longevity, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li><li> -Cohausen, on gerokomy, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li> -Cohendy, Dr. M., on Bulgarian bacillus, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><ul><li> - on intestinal flora, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li> - on intestinal putrefaction, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li><li> - on thymol as a disinfectant, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li></ul></li><li> -Collectivism, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li><li> -Colon, absorption in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li><li> -Constipation, evil results of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li><li> -Cooking, effect of, on microbes in food, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li><li> -Copenhagen, suicide in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li><li> -Coral polyps, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li><li> -Cornaro, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li><li> -Cossacks, and biennial rye, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li><li> -Cretinism, compared with senility, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Crœsus, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li><li> -Cryptogams, life of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span> -Cursorial birds, intestinal flora of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li><li> -Cypress, age of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -Czerny, M., on absorption in colon, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><ul><li> - on cancer, 144<br /><br /></li></ul></li><li> - -D’Alton, and Goethe, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li><li> -Dalyell, old anemone of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li><li> -Dana, on <i>monstrilla</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li><li> -Darwin, on fear, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li><li> -David, King, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li><li> -Death, instinct of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><ul><li> - natural, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li><li> - sensations at approach of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li></ul></li><li> -Debreuil, Ch., on defecation in rheas, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><ul><li> - on excreta of antelopes, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li></ul></li><li> -Degenerates, famous, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Delage, Yves, criticism of instinct of death, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><ul><li> - on function of large intestines, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li></ul></li><li> -Demange, M., on old age, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li><li> -Denmark, suicide in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li><li> -Descent of man, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li><li> -Despotism, and socialism, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li><li> -de Vries, H., on duration of life of plants, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><ul><li> - on prolongation of life of plants, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li><li> - on natural death in plants, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li></ul></li><li> -Diet and longevity, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li><li> -Digestive system and senility, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li><li> -<i>Diplogaster</i>, mother killed by larvæ, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li><li> -Diphtheria, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li><li> -Disease, and shortening of life, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Doctors, lady, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li><li> -Dodo, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Dogs, longevity of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li><li> -Dostoiewsky, quotation from, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li><li> -Doyen, M., operation on double monsters, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li><li> -Dragon-tree, of Orotava, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -Drakenberg, age of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li><li> -Drunkenness, and morality, <a href="#Page_317">317</a></li><li> -<i>Dryopithecus</i>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a></li><li> -Ducks, old, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li><li> -Duering, on pessimism, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li> -Durand-Fardel, M., on atheroma, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Duration of life, in animals, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Eagles, intestinal flora of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li><li> -Ecclesiastes, quotation from, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li><li> -Eckermann, narrative of Goethe’s last years, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li><li> -Egoism, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></li><li> -Egyptian milk, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li><li> -Eimer, Th., on intestines of bats &c., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li><li> -Einhorn, Dr., on bradyfagy, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li> -<cite>Elective Affinities</cite>, Goethe’s, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li><li> -Elephants, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li><li> -Eliot, George, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li><li> -<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Elixir vitæ</cite>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li><li> -Ellenberger, on digestion in horse, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li><li> -Enriquez, on infusoria, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li><li> -Ephemeridæ, duration of life of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li><li> -Epicureans, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li><li> -Epiphyses of bones, as giving period of growth, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li><li> -Ermenghem, van, on botulism, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li><li> -Errera, Dr., on cause of sleep, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li><li> -<i>Eudoxia</i>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li><li> -Ewald, on absorption in colon, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li><li> -Exhaustion, as cause of plant death, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li><li> -Extinction of animals, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Eye, in old age, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Fatigue, Weichardt on cause of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li><li> -“<i>Faust</i>” and Goethe, <a href="#Page_283">283</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Favorsky, Dr., on botulism, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li><li> -Fear, analysis of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li><li> -Fecundity and duration of life, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li><li> -Feinkind, case of somnambulism quoted from, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li><li> -Femininist movement, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li> -Fermentation, cause of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li><li> -Fertility and longevity, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li><li> -Fish, longevity of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Flamans, M., <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li><li> -Fletcher, on chewing, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li> -Flora, of intestines, poisonous effect of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Flourens, on duration of life, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li><li> -Foà, on use of soured milk in Africa, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li><li> -Food, evil effects of putrefaction in, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li><li> -Fouard, M., on soured milk, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li><li> -Fürbbinger, on Brown-Séquard’s emulsions, 139</li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span> -Gautier, A., on leucomaines, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li><li> -Gegenbaur, on intestinal tract, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li><li> -Genius and sexual power, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li><li> -Gerokomy, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li><li> -Gessner, on age of pike, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Gestation and longevity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -Giacomini, on Harderian gland, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li><li> -Gibbons, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li><li> -Goebel, on duration of life of prothalli, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li><li> -Goethe, 260-300, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li><li> -“Goose-skin,” <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li><li> -Gorilla, strength of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li><li> -Griesbach, on sense of touch in blind, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li> -Grigoroff, on Bulgarian yahourth, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li><li> -Grindon, on age of sheep, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li><li> -Guinon, Dr., on a case of hysteria, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li> -Gurney, J. H., on longevity of birds, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Haeckel, on medical selection, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Haffkine, M., <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li><li> -Hair, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li><li> -<i>Halictus</i>, a solitary bee, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li><li> -Haller, on human longevity, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li><li> -<cite>Hamlet</cite>, quotation from, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li><li> -Hannibal, his elephants swim the Rhone, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li><li> -Harderian gland, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li><li> -Hartmann, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li><li> -Harvey, on Parr, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li><li> -Hayem, Prof., on use of lactic acid, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li><li> -Heart, diseases of, and syphilis, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li><li> -Hegesias, and suicide, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li><li> -Heile, on absorption in colon, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li><li> -Heim, on microbes in milk, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li><li> -Heim, Prof., on Alpine accidents, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li><li> -Heine, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li><li> -Hermippus, and gerokomy, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li> -Herter, Dr., experiments on lactic acid in dogs, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li> -Hertwig, R., on <i>Actinosphærium</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li><li> -Hildebrand, on duration of life of plants, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li><li> -Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li><li> -Hofmeister, on digestion in horse, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li> -Honey-ant, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></li><li> -Horse, cæcum, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><ul><li> - digestion, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li> - use of serum, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li></ul></li><li> -Horsley, Sir V., on effects of extirpation of thyroid, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -Horst, on a somnambulistic soldier, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li> -Hufeland, quotation from “Macrobiotique,” <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li> -Hugo, V., and sexuality, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li><li> -Humboldt, on dragon-tree of Orotava, 96<ul><li> - on longevity of parrots, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li></ul></li><li> -Hunger, compared with sleep, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li><li> -Huxley, on character of Orang, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li><li> -Hygiene, and old age, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li><li> -Hypnotism, of a crowd on individuals, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li><li> -Hysteria, analysis of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> <i>et seq.</i><ul><li> - in monkeys, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /><br /></li></ul></li><li> - -Ibsen, and sexuality, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li><li> -Idleness, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li><li> -Immortality, Chinese beverage for, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li><li> -Incubation, duration of, compared with longevity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -India, government of, and age of elephants, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li><li> -Individualism, <a href="#Page_316">316</a></li><li> -Individuality, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Infusoria, death of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><ul><li> - senescence of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li></ul></li><li> -Insects, ages of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><ul><li> - social, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li><li> -Instinct, of death, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><ul><li> - maternal, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a></li><li> - social, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li></ul></li><li> -Intestine, large, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li><li> -Intuitive theory of morality, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Jacobson, organ of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li><li> -Javal, Dr., on characters of the blind, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li> -Jenner, effect of vaccination on mortality rate, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li><li> -Josué, M., artificial production of atheroma, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Jousset, Dr., on difference between man and apes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Kant, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li><li> -Kautsky, on socialism, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li><li> -Kentigern, age of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span> -Kephir, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li><li> -Khoury, M., on ferment of Egyptian milk, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li><li> -Kocher, Dr., on effects of extirpation of thyroid gland, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li><li> -Kocher, Prof., case of removal of large intestine, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li><li> -Kölliker, on degeneration of muscles, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Koppenfels, on character of gorilla, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li><li> -Koumiss, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li><li> -Kowalevsky, Sophie, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li><li> -Kowalevsky, analysis of pessimism, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li><li> -Kukula, experiments on intestinal poisons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li><li> -Kwass, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Lactic bacilli, and putrefaction in intestine, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li><li> -Laignel-Lavastine, M., criticism of neuronophagy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Lankester, Sir E. Ray, on longevity, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li><li> -Lao-Tsé, and immortality, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li><li> -Laud, Archbishop, old tortoise of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li><li> -Lautschenberger, on absorption in colon, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li><li> -Lavater, Goethe’s letter to, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li><li> -Laws aiding the aged, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li><li> -“Leben,” Egyptian, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li><li> -Le Bon, G., on hysteria in crowds, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li><li> -Lenau, M., <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li><li> -Lenthéric, on elephants swimming, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li><li> -Leopardi, G., pessimistic poet, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li><li> -Le Play, M., on putrefactive poisons, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li><li> -Léri, M., on senile brain, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Lermontoff, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li><li> -Leucomaines, as cause of sleep, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li><li> -Levaillant, on longevity of parrots, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li><li> -Lewes, G. H., on Goethe, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></li><li> -Lexis, on duration of human life, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li><li> -Life, duration of, in animals, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Life, prolongation of human, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <i>et seq.</i><ul><li> - “sense” of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li></ul></li><li> -Lima, Dr., on use of soured milk in Africa, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li><li> -Lloyd, M., old anemone of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li><li> -Loewenberg, Dr., on Mde. Robineau, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li> -London Zoological Gardens, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li> -Longevity, in animal kingdom, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> <i>et seq.</i><ul><li> - human, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> - rules for, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li> - in sexes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li><li> - theories of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li></ul></li><li> -Lorand, Dr., on ductless glands, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Love, Goethe and, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li><li> -Luxury, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Macfadyen, Nencki and Mde. Sieber, on digestion, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li><li> -Macrophags, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li><li> -Mailaender, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li><li> -Malaquin, M., on <i>Monstrilla</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li> -Male rotifers, death of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li><li> -Malthus, theory of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li><li> -Mammals, longevity of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li><li> -Mammary glands, in males, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li><li> -Man, compared with apes, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><ul><li> - natural death of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> - longevity of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li><li> -Manouélian, M., on neuronophagy, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li><li> -Marinesco, M., on neuronophogs, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li><li> -Marrow of the bones, in old age, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li><li> -<i>Marsiliaceæ</i>, duration of life of prothallus, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li> -Martin, on Gibbons, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li><li> -Massart, on cause of death in plants, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li><li> -Massol, Prof., <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li><li> -Mastication, and intestinal putrefaction, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li><li> -Matchinsky, M., on atrophy of ovary, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li><li> -Maternal instinct, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a></li><li> -Mauclaire, M., operations on large intestine, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li><li> -Maumus, M., on digestion in cæca, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li><li> -Mauritius, giant tortoise from, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li><li> -Maupas, M., on infusoria, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li><li> -Maya, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li><li> -Mayers, on Chinese elixir, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li><li> -Meconium, appearance of microbes in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span> -Medical selection, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Mesnet and Mottet, Drs., cases of hysteria, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li><li> -Mice, duration of life, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li><li> -Michaelis, on muscles of monkeys, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li><li> -Microbes, as cause of senility, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><ul><li> - in food, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li><li> - passage through intestinal walls, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li></ul></li><li> -<i>Middlemarch</i>, G. Eliot’s, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></li><li> -Milk, importance of boiling, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><ul><li> - microbes of disease in, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li><li> - putrefaction and fermentation of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li> - use of soured milk, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li></ul></li><li> -Mill, J. S., <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li><li> -Milne-Edwards, H., on laws of duration of life, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li><li> -Minot, Prof., on cause of old age, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li><li> -Moa, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Moebius, on Goethe, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><ul><li> - on Schopenhauer, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li></ul></li><li> -Molluscs, ages of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li><li> -Mongols, hair in old, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li><li> -Monkeys, longevity of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li><li> -Monsters, double, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li><li> -<i>Monstrilla</i>, life-history of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li> -Montefiore, Sir M., <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li><li> -Morality, Christian, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><ul><li> - definitions of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li><li> - Kantian, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></li><li> - science and, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li><li> -Mortality rates of old persons, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li><li> -Moses, use of soured milk, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li><li> -Mosso, on fear, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li><li> -Muscles, degeneration of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li><li> -Myxomycetes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Naegeli, on age of trees, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li> -Nails, growth of, in the old, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li><li> -Naphthaline, as an intestinal antiseptic, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li><li> -Nature, human, <a href="#Page_325">325</a></li><li> -Nausenne, Mde., cause of longevity, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li> -Negroes, longevity of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li><li> -Neisser, Prof., on protection against syphilis, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li><li> -Nematodes, death of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li><li> -<i>Nemertines</i>, life-history of <i>Pilidium</i> of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Nencki and Sieber, on digestion, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li><li> -Neuronophags, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li><li> -Nicotine, use of in experimental production of atheroma, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Nietzsche, criticism of Socialism, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li><li> -Nogueira, M., on use of soured milk in Africa, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Obstacles, sense of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li><li> -Old age, Goethe and, <a href="#Page_279">279</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Olympian, Goethe as an, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li><li> -Optimism, foundation of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><ul><li> - Goethe’s transformation to, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li><li> -Orang-outan, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li><li> -Orotava, dragon-tree of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li><li> -Orstein, Dr., on centenarians in Greece, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li><li> -Orthobiosis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Ossetes, use of soured milk, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li><li> -Osteoclasts, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Ostrich, defecation of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li><li> -Oustalet, M., on longevity of vertebrates, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li><li> -Ovary, atrophy of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li><li> -Owls, intestinal flora of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li><li> -Ownership, collective, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Parodi, on old age, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li><li> -Parr, Thomas, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li><li> -Parrots, duration of life, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><ul><li> - scanty intestinal flora of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li></ul></li><li> -Pasquier, Dr. du, on constipation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li><li> -Pasteur, discovery of lactic microbe, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li><li> -Paulsen, criticism of Kant, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></li><li> -Pensions, old age, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li><li> -Pessimism, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li><li> -Pessimist, study of life-history of a, <a href="#Page_249">249</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Pflüger, on longevity, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li><li> -Phagocytes, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li><li> -Phagocytosis, examples of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li><li> -Phalansteries, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li><li> -<i>Pilidium</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Pitres, M., hysteric patients of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li><li> -Plague, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></li><li> -Plants, death of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li><li> -Plasmodia, of Myxomycetes, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li><li> -<i>Pleurotrocha haffkini</i>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li><li> -Pochon, Dr., experiments on use of lactic bacilli, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li><li> -Poehl, Dr., on spermine, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li><li> -Pohl, Dr., on growth of hair, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li><li> -<i>Ponogenes</i>, as cause of sleep, 120</li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span> -Potatoes, improved by Burbank, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li><li> -Poushkin, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li><li> -Predestination, and plants, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li><li> -Preyer, Dr., on <i>Ponogenes</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li><li> -Prichard, on longevity of negroes, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li><li> -Productivity compared with fecundity, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li><li> -Prostokwacha, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li><li> -Prolongation of life, <a href="#Page_132">132</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Prothalli, life of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li><li> -Psychids, death of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li><li> -Ptolemy, fear of Hegesias’ philosophy, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li><li> -Punishment, capital, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li><li> -Purgatives, use of, in intestinal putrefaction, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li><li> -Putrefaction, intestinal, <a href="#Page_151">151</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Quételet, on stature of the aged, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Rabbit, fecundity of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li><li> -Ravens, absence of putrefaction in intestines of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li><li> -Reagents, action of, in distorting tissues, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Renouvier, C., on his own death, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li><li> -Reproduction, organs of, rudiments in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li><li> -Reptiles, longevity of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li><li> -Rhea, cæca of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li><li> -Rhinoceros, longevity of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li><li> -<i>Rhytina</i>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Riley, James, on food of Arabs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li><li> -Rimpau, on cultivation of rye, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li><li> -Rist and Khoury, on milk, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li><li> -Rist, M., on ferment of Egyptian milk, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li><li> -Rivière, M., on defecation in ostriches, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li><li> -Robineau, Mde., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li><li> -“<i>Roman Elegies</i>,” Goethe’s, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li><li> -Rotifera, duration of life, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><ul><li> - death of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li></ul></li><li> -Roux, anti-syphilitic ointment, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li><li> -Rovighi, on Kephir, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li><li> -Rudimentary organs, <a href="#Page_185">185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Rye, duration of life of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><ul><li> - Rimpau’s improvement of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a><br /><br /></li></ul></li><li> - -Salpétrière, hysterical patients at, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><ul><li> - old women in the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li></ul></li><li> -Sand, M., on senile brain, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Sargent, on age of Sequoia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -Sauer-kraut, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li><li> -Sauvage, M., on atheroma, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li><li> -Savage, on character of anthropoids, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li><li> -Saxe-Weimar, Grand Duke of, and Goethe, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li><li> -Schaudinn, spirillum of syphilis, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Schiller, Goethe on, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li><li> -Schiller, on moral conduct, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li><li> -Schlanstedt, rye of, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li><li> -Schmidt, on microbes in constipation, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li><li> -Schopenhauer, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></li><li> -Schumann, a degenerate, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Science, and morality, <a href="#Page_301">301</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Sclerosis, in the aged, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li><li> -Sea-anemones, longevity of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li><li> -Sea-cow, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Selection, medical, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li><li> -Seneca, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li><li> -Senescence, Brown-Séquard’s specific against, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><ul><li> - mechanism of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li><li> - phagocytosis as cause of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li></ul></li><li> -Senility, characters of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><ul><li> - and digestive system, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li><li> - theories of causation of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li><li> -Sensation, analysis of, with regard to pain and pleasure, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li> -Sense of life, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><ul><li> - of obstacles, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li></ul></li><li> -Sense, organs of, rudimentary structures in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li><li> -“Sermon on the Mount,” <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li><li> -Serums, cytotoxic, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li><li> -Servants, care of, <a href="#Page_321">321</a></li><li> -Sex, and longevity, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li><li> -Sexuality, Goethe and, <a href="#Page_273">273</a> <i>et seq.</i><ul><li> - and old age, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li><li> - moral problems of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a></li></ul></li><li> -Sexual organs, abnormalities of, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li><li> -Sexual power and genius, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li><li> -Shakespeare, quotations, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li><li> -Sheep, digestion of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><ul><li> - longevity, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li></ul></li><li> -Sight, rudimentary organs of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li><li> -Silos, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li><li> -Siphonophora, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li><li> -Skeleton, atrophy of, in the aged, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li><li> -Sleep, and anæmia of brain, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><ul><li> - and auto-intoxication, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li><li> - and death compared, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li></ul></li><li> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span> -Sleepiness, compared with hunger, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li><li> -Sleeping-sickness, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li><li> -Small-pox, and mortality rates, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li><li> -Smell, analysis of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li> -Smell, rudimentary organs of sense of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li><li> -Smoking and longevity, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li><li> -Social animals, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Socialism, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li><li> -Society <i>v.</i> the individual, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Society, and morality, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li><li> -Sociology, dependent on biology, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li><li> -Sollier, Dr., on sensations at death, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li><li> -Solomon, quotation from “Ecclesiastes,” <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li><li> -Somnambulism, analysis of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Sorbose, fermentation of, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li><li> -Soured milk, use of, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li><li> -Sparrow, fecundity of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li><li> -Spencer, Herbert, criticism of Kant, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><ul><li> - criticism of socialism, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li><li> - theory of morality, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></li></ul></li><li> -Spermatozoa, in old age, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li><li> -Spermine, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li><li> -Stadelmann, on lactic acid in diabetes, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li><li> -Statistics on suicide, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li><li> -Stature, in old age, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li><li> -Stein, Mde. von, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li><li> -Steller’s sea-cow, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li><li> -Stern, M., on disinfection of intestine, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li><li> -Stohmann, on digestion in sheep, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li><li> -Stoics, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li><li> -Stragesco, Dr., on digestion in mammals, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li><li> -Strasburger, on disinfection of intestine, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><ul><li> - on microbes in constipation, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li></ul></li><li> -Suicide, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></li><li> -Sully-Prudhomme, definition of morality, <a href="#Page_303">303</a></li><li> -Suprarenal capsules, and atheroma, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li><li> -Swimming, instinctive power of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li><li> -Syphilis, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a></li><li> -Switzerland, centenarians rare in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Tanacol, as an intestinal antiseptic, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li><li> -Taoism and immortality, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li><li> -Taste, analysis of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li><li> -Tavel, M., operations on large intestine, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et seq.</i></li><li> -Taylor, Bayard, translation of <i>Faust</i>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li><li> -Termites, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li><li> -Testis, emulsion of, as used by Brown-Séquard, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><ul><li> - resistance of, to senescence, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li></ul></li><li> -Thanatology, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li><li> -Theophrastus, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li><li> -Thymol, as an intestinal antiseptic, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li><li> -Thyroid, effects of extirpation of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -<i>Timon of Athens</i>, quotation from, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li><li> -Tissier, Dr., on <i>Bacillus bifidus</i>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><ul><li> - on use of lactic microbes, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li></ul></li><li> -Tissier, and Martelly, on putrid food, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li><li> -Tobacco and longevity, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li><li> -Tokarsky, on natural death, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li><li> -Tolstoi, and death, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><ul><li> - “Death of Ivan Ilyitch,” <a href="#Page_318">318</a></li></ul></li><li> -Tortoise, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li><li> -Touch, sense of, in the blind, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></li><li> -Troubat, M., on instinctive swimming, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li><li> -Trees, age and death of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li><li> -<i>Trypanosoma</i>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Unicellular organisms, death of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li><li> -Urine, analysis of, in a centenarian, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li><li> -Utilitarianism, <a href="#Page_305">305</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Vacherot, criticism of Kant, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></li><li> -Varenetz, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li><li> -Vascular glands, relation to old age, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li><li> -Verworn, Max, on death in infusoria, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li><li> -Vinegar, in preservation of food, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li><li> -Vivisection, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li><li> -Voisin, M., criticism of neuronophagy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li><li> -Voltaire, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li><li> -Volz, on swimming power of gibbons, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Wales, Mr., quotation from Riley, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li><li> -Weber, Dr., on regimen for old age, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li><li> -Weichardt, on cause of fatigue, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span></li><li> -Weinberg, Dr., on preparation of human serums, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><ul><li> - on thyroid gland in aged, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li></ul></li><li> -Weiske, on digestion in sheep, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li><li> -Weismann, A., on cause of old age, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><ul><li> - on death in infusoria, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li><li> - on duration of life, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li></ul></li><li> -“Weltschmerz,” in German poetry, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></li><li> -<i>Werther</i>, Goethe’s, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li><li> -Westergaard, statistics of mortality, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li><li> -Wiedersheim, on intestinal tract, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li><li> -Wine, Goethe and, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></li><li> -Wolff, J. H., Goethe’s friend, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></li><li> -Women, education, <a href="#Page_224">224</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /><br /></li><li> - -Yahourth, use in intestinal putrefaction, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li><li> -Yeast, conditions of growth, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /><br /></li><li> - -Zeigan, Dr., on adrenaline, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li><li> -Zell, Dr., on blind persons, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li><li> -Zelter, Goethe’s friend, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></li><li> -Zola, “La Joie de Vivre,” <a href="#Page_248">248</a></li><li> -Zoological Gardens of London, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li><li> -Zortay, Pierre, age of, 87</li></ul> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Prolongation of Life, by Elie Metchnikoff - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PROLONGATION OF LIFE *** - -***** This file should be named 51521-h.htm or 51521-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/5/2/51521/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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