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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: The Incas, vol. 6, num. 3, Serial No. 151, March 15, 1918 - -Author: Osgood Hardy - -Release Date: February 28, 2016 [EBook #51322] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: NO. 151, MARCH 15, 1918 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - THE MENTOR 1918.03.15, No. 151, - The Incas - - - - - LEARN ONE THING - EVERY DAY - - MARCH 15 1918 SERIAL NO. 151 - - THE - MENTOR - - THE INCAS - - By - OSGOOD HARDY, M. A. - - DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6 - HISTORY NUMBER 3 - - TWENTY CENTS A COPY - - - - -WORSHIPERS OF THE SUN - - -The deity whose worship the Incas especially inculcated, and which -they never failed to establish wherever their banners were known to -penetrate, was the Sun. It was he who, in a particular manner, presided -over the destinies of man; gave light and warmth to the nations, and -life to the vegetable world; whom they reverenced as the father of -their royal dynasty, the founder of their empire; and whose temples -rose in every city and almost every village throughout the land. - -Besides the Sun, the Incas acknowledged various objects of worship, -in some way or other connected with this principal deity. Such was -the Moon, his sister-wife; the Stars, revered as part of her heavenly -train, though the fairest of them, Venus, known to the Peruvians by -the name of Chasca, or the “youth with the long and curling locks,” -was adored as the page of the Sun, whom he attends so closely in his -rising and in his setting. They dedicated temples also to the Thunder -and Lightning, in whom they recognized the Sun’s dread ministers, and -to the Rainbow, whom they worshiped as a beautiful emanation of their -glorious deity. - -In addition to these, the subjects of the Incas enrolled among their -inferior deities many objects in nature, as the elements, the winds, -the earth, the air, great mountains and rivers, which impressed them -with ideas of sublimity and power, or were supposed in some way or -other to exercise a mysterious influence over the destinies of man. - -But the worship of the Sun constituted the peculiar care of the Incas, -and was the object of their lavish expenditure. The most renowned of -the Peruvian temples, the pride of the capital, and the wonder of -the empire, was at Cuzco, where, under the munificence of successive -sovereigns, it had become so enriched that it received the name of -“The Place of Gold.” It consisted of a principal building and several -chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of ground in the -heart of the city, and completely encompassed by a wall, which, with -the edifices, was all constructed of stone. - -The interior of the temple was most worthy of admiration. It was -literally a mine of gold. On the western wall was emblazoned a -representation of the deity, consisting of a human countenance looking -forth from amidst innumerable rays of light which emanated from it in -every direction, in the same manner as the sun is often personified -with us. The figure was engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous -dimensions, thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones. It was -so situated in front of the great eastern portal that the rays of the -morning sun fell directly upon it at its rising, lighting up the whole -apartment with an effulgence that seemed more than natural, and which -was reflected back from the golden ornaments with which the walls and -ceiling were everywhere encrusted. Gold, in the figurative language -of the people, was “the tears wept by the Sun,” and every part of the -interior of the temple glowed with burnished plates and studs of the -precious metal. - -From Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru.” - - - - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Tellers of the Story_ - -ONE - - -Rude and destructive as were most of the Spanish _conquistadores_ -(con-kees-tä-dõ´-rays), many of them sympathized with the conquered -people, and it is from the records of their impressions that we have -obtained most of what we know about the Incas. Four of these Castilian -diarists whose work is most valued were soldiers. Of their number, -Pedro de Cieza de Leon (pay´-dro day see´-ay-sa day lay´-on) has given -us the fullest and most interesting account of the ancient Peruvians. -Only a boy of fourteen was he when he embarked on the Spanish Main, -and he was only nineteen when, in 1538, he joined an expedition up the -valley of the Cauca (kä-oo´-kä). He commenced his chronicle in 1541, -and for ten years traveled from one end of Peru to the other, writing -down his impressions as he went. The first part of his journal was -published in 1554. Juan de Betanzos (hwän day bay-tän´-sos), another -soldier, has left us but a portion of his work. We have only the record -used by Friar Gregorio de Garcia (gray-go´-rio day gar-see´-a) in the -first two chapters of his “Origen (o-ree´-hen) de los Indios,” and -an incomplete manuscript in the Escurial (ay-skoo-ree-al). This was -edited and printed in 1880 by Jimenez de la Espada (hee-may´-nes day -lä ay-spä´-dä). Betanzos’ work is valuable, as he learned the Quichua -(kee´-choo-a) language and was an official interpreter. Pedro Sarmiento -de Gamboa (pay´-dro sär-mi-ayn´-to day gäm-bo´-ä), a militant sailor, -accompanied the Viceroy Toledo (to-lay´-do), and was employed by him -to write a history of the Incas. Finished in 1572, it is without doubt -the most authentic and reliable we possess as regards the course of -events. Pedro Pizarro, a cousin of the conqueror, was also a historian -of merit, finishing the “Relaciones” (rā-lä-see´-o-nays) at Arequipa -(är-ay-kee´-pä) in 1571. - -The writings of lawyers have been of little value, although Prescott -made use of the unpublished “Relaciones” of Polo de Ondegardo (po´-lo -day on-day-gär´-do), written in 1561 and 1570. - -The priests were the most diligent inquirers respecting the native -religion, rites, and ceremonies. Vincente de Valverde (vis-ayn´-tä day -väl-vayr-day) was the first priest to come to Peru, but he stayed only -a short time and wrote very little. The best known clerical author is -Josef de Acosta (hos´-ayf day ä-cos´-tä), who was in Peru from 1570 -to 1586, and traveled over the greater part of the country. Cristoval -Molina’s (krees-to´-väl mo-lee´-nä) “Report on the Fables and Rites -of the Incas,” written previous to 1584, is also valuable, for he was -a master of the Quichua language. Fernando Montesinos (fayr-nän-do -mon-tay-see´-nos), who, with his amazing list of kings, traced Inca -ancestry back to Noah, was until recently given little consideration. -But lately his work, “Ophir de España, Memorias Historiales (o-feer´ -day ay-spän-yä may-mo´-ree-äs ees-tor-ee-a´-läs) y Políticos del Peru -(po-lee´-tee-cos dayl pay-roo´),” written about 1644, has been given -more credence, since it seems probable that much of it was based on -the writings of Blas Valera (bläs vä-lay-rä). The premature death of -the latter and the disposal of his valuable manuscripts is described -by Markham as the most deplorable loss that Inca civilization has -sustained. His work was used extensively by Garcilaso de la Vega -(gär-see-lä´-so day la vay-gä), a grandnephew of the Inca Huayna Ccapac -(wy´-nä k-kä´-päk). He is the most famous of all the historians, and is -quoted some eighty times by Prescott. - -The works of many of these authors and of others less famous are -available today in English, as a result of the indefatigable efforts -of Sir Clements Markham, whose translations have been published by the -Hakluyt Society. There are still many interesting and valuable old -manuscripts reposing in the archives of Madrid (mäd-reed´) and Seville -(say-veel´-yay), which have yet to be discovered, edited, and given -to the world. Of the Spanish historians who have been engaged in this -work, Dr. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada is probably the best known. An -excellent bibliography of Peruviana has been prepared by Markham and is -published in “The History of the Incas,” Publications of the Hakluyt -Society, Series II, Vol. XXII, Cambridge, England. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACCOCHA NEAR -SICUANI, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Inca Sovereigns_ - -TWO - - -The Inca sovereigns about whom tradition tells us enough so that they -may be considered historical personages are twelve in number. The -first of these, Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok-kä), or Rocca the Great, -was the first ruler after the return of the Incas to Cuzco (coos´-ko) -at the close of their long exile in Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko). He -reigned from 1134-1197, according to the chronology of Dr. Gonzales -de la Rosa (gon-sä-lays day lä ro´-sä), the most eminent of modern -Peruvian historians. Rocca owed his position to a cleverly executed -plot contrived by his mother. She dressed him in glittering gold -apparel, and hid him in the Chingana (cheen-gä´-nä) Cave on Sacsahuaman -(säk-sä-wä´-män) Hill. At intervals for several days excited Cuzqueñans -(koos-kayn-yäns) beheld a golden vision moving on the fortress heights. -Eventually, after their curiosity and fanatical credulity had been -sufficiently aroused, the vision descended into the city. It gave -itself over to the crowd, allowed itself to be conducted to the temple, -and there proclaimed itself the adopted son of the Solar Deity. Under -Rocca, the Temple of the Sun was enlarged and the city greatly improved. - -There is some question among historians as to the acts of Rocca’s -successors, Lloque Yupanqui (lyo´-kay yoo-pän´-kee) and Mayta Ccapac -(my´-tä k-kä´-päk), who reigned from 1197-1246, and 1246-1276, -respectively. Garcilaso (gär-see-lä´-so) records their conquering the -Cana (kä´-nä) and Colla (kol´-yä) people in the southwest, building -a Sun Temple at Hatun-Colla (ä-toom-kol´-yä), carrying on warfare -along the shores of Lake Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä), and Lake Aullagas -(aul-yä´-gas), and on the west, going as far as Lake Parinaccochas -(pär-een-äk-ko´-chäs) and Arequipa (a-ray-kee´-pä). But the majority -of historians represent the first three Incas as confining themselves -more or less to the Cuzco Valley, and gradually, by diplomatic means, -extending their influence over the surrounding inhabitants. - -Ccapac Yupanqui (yoo-pän-kee), 1276-1321, made the region to the -southeast the theatre of his operations, and Garcilaso credits him with -reaching Potosi (po-tos´-ee). Inca Rocca, 1321-1348, improved the water -supply of Cuzco (would that he might come again), founded schools, -and militariwise, attempted to penetrate the Amazonian forests. His -son, Yahuar-Huaccac (yä´-wär-wäk´-käk) (weeping-blood), 1348-1370, was -rather a nonentity. His name was acquired as follows, says tradition: -While a child he fell into hostile hands. At the point of death he was -seen to be weeping tears of blood. This so affected his enemy that he -was permitted to live; he eventually escaped to his own people after a -life of hardship among some shepherds. - -He was followed by Uiraccocha (weer-äk-ko´-chä), 1370-1425, in whose -reign occurred the invasion of the Chancas (chän´-käs). The invaders -were finally driven out, chiefly through the bravery of his son, -Pachacuti (päch-ä-koo´-tee), who reigned from 1425-1478. Under this -rule and that of his successors, Tupac Yupanqui, 1478-1488, and Huayna -Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk), 1488-1525, the Inca dominion grew from a -comparatively small confederation to the great, imperial state found -by the Spaniards. Huascar (wäs´-kär), the successor of Huayna Ccapac, -was overthrown and taken prisoner by his natural brother, Atahuallpa -(ä-tä-wäl´-pä), about the time that Pizarro entered Peru. When the -latter heard of the quarrel between the two brothers he determined to -settle it. Fearful lest the decision should go against him, Atahuallpa -had Huascar murdered, and this act provided Pizarro with an excuse for -the execution of Atahuallpa. - -After he had acquired complete control of the country, Pizarro -elevated the Inca Manco (män´-co) to the throne. This proud youth -soon tired of the farce and fled to the fastnesses of the Vilcabamba -(veel-cä-bäm´-bä) mountains. Here he and his successors, Sayri Tupac -(sigh-ree too´-päk) and Tupac-Amaru (too´-päk-ä-mä´-roo), maintained -their independence until 1571, when the latter was captured by the -Viceroy Toledo, brought to Cuzco, and there beheaded in the great -square. - -In 1781, a descendant of Tupac-Amaru bearing his name, led a revolt -against the barbarous oppression of the Spaniards, only to fail and -suffer torture, together with his whole family. In 1814, Pumacagua -(poo-mäk-ä´-wä), also of Inca ancestry, started an abortive uprising, -which, although a failure, was the beginning of the struggle which was -to eventually break the power of Spain in Peru. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Expansionist Policies of the Incas_ - -THREE - - -Although pacific by nature, the Incas built up their vast empire by -conquest. Not one reign lacked great military campaigns, and in all -of them the necessity of introducing the worship of the Sun gave -rulers a pretext as plausible as the followers of Mahomet had for -their great wars. Wherever it was possible, peaceful methods were -employed. Persuasion, diplomacy and bribery were all tried; if these -were unsuccessful, war was declared, but only after the failure of -all the arts used in the acquisition of an empire by the most subtle -politicians of a civilized land. - -Immediately on the declaration of war, mobilization took place with -extreme rapidity, for the Incas aimed early to secure such an obvious -strategical advantage that their enemies would wisely surrender without -a struggle. This was made possible by the remarkable series of roads -constructed throughout the empire. In times of peace these served -as post roads, which enabled the Incas to have surprisingly rapid -intercommunication. At convenient places storehouses were located. -These were always kept completely equipped, so that the mobilization -of the Inca armies, which sometimes totaled 200,000 men, provided the -minimum of inconvenience for the civilian population. - -Contrary to the customs of some of our supposedly civilized modern -nations, the Incas forbade their soldiers engaging in any unnecessary -outrages, and punished such infractions of the law very severely. Even -after the war had commenced, the Incas were always ready at any time to -bring about peace. At the conclusion of hostilities they adopted the -policy of the Romans, gaining more by clemency to the vanquished than -by their victories. - -As soon as the reduction of a country had been brought about, measures -were taken to insure the loyalty of those newly conquered. The first -step was the introduction of the worship of the Sun. No disrespect -was shown to the local gods, but an acceptance of the priority of -the Sun was always enforced. Often-times the peoples’ own gods were -treated as hostages and removed to Cuzco. The Inca system of government -was, of course, always imposed. Land was cultivated according to the -well-regulated schemes of the Incas, which included fertilization, crop -rotation, and careful supervision to see that the desired amount of -acreage was devoted to each product. The Quichua language was enforced. -The new members of the empire were assigned their particular style of -clothing and hair-dressing. Roads were built to all parts of the new -territories and absolute amalgamation was eventually secured. - -In some instances, where the loyalty of the conquered was doubtful, a -portion of them were removed, bag and baggage, to some locality where -they would be surrounded by inhabitants of whose loyalty there was no -question. Some of the latter were then sent to occupy the lands of the -exiles. - -Through successive reigns the same policy was continued. Each Inca -took up the work where his predecessor had been compelled to leave it, -and tried to do his share in advancing the boundaries of the empire. -Each Inca’s life was a “crusade against the infidel to spread the -worship of the Sun, to reclaim the benighted nations from their brutish -superstitions, and to impart to them the blessings of a well-regulated -government.” - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: LLAMAS LADEN WITH FAGOTS COMING INTO CUZCO, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Incas’ Food Supply_ - -FOUR - - -One of the greatest aids to the Incas in extending their domains was -their abundant food supply: the result, largely, of the great progress -they had made along agricultural lines. Although Peru is a very -mountainous country, by taking advantage of every available inch of -fertile ground where the climate permitted the raising of crops, they -were able to carry on a system of agriculture which, in the variety -of products yielded, seems truly marvelous. It is stated by Mr. O. F. -Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture, that a complete -census of the plants cultivated by the ancient Peruvians would probably -include between seventy and eighty species. - -The most important products are the maize and the potato, one world -crop of which is today more valuable than all the gold the conquering -Spaniards were able to take out of the country. The cultivation of corn -goes very far back, for abundant specimens have been found in ancient -graves, and the type of maize that furnishes the bulk of the Peruvian -crop is peculiar to that region. - -Other plants familiar to us are the pineapple, the sweet potato, -peanuts, beans, Lima beans, guava (gwä´-vä), alligator pears, _papayas_ -(pä-pä´-yäs), and _chirimoyas_ (chee-ree-mo´-yäs), as well as many -with which we are not familiar, as _affu_ (äf´-foo), _arracacha_ -(är-rä-cä´-chä), _tintin_ (teen´-teen), _tomate_ (to-mä´-tay), _purutu_ -(poo-roo´-too), _quinoa_ (keen´-o-ä), _occa_ (ok´-kä), and _ullucu_ -(ool-yoo´-koo). From the dried potato a nutritious flour was made -called _chuña_ (choon´-yä), which was used to thicken stews. - -The coca plant (_Erythroxylon_) was widely cultivated, but in the -days of the Incas, if we are to believe the historians, its use was -regulated by the government. Commonly used today by their modern -descendants, it is alcohol’s most potent aid in the degradation of the -Peruvian Indian. - -We must not think, however, that the Incas were vegetarians. Although -they lacked sheep, hogs and cattle, in the _llama_ (lyämä) and _alpaca_ -they had excellent meat, as well as animals to provide them with -wool, and in the case of the _llama_, a serviceable pack animal. The -_guanacos_ (gwä-nä´-kos) and _vicuñas_ (vi-coo´-nyas), first cousins of -the _llama_, were never domesticated, but were hunted in large drives -superintended by representatives of the government. In the mountains -there were rodents, such as the _viscacha_ (vee-scä´-chä), _chinchilla_ -(cheen-cheel´-yä), and guinea-pigs. In the valleys there were monkeys -and parrots. At the sea-shore and near the larger rivers fish were -plentiful. Such excellent means of communication existed between the -capital at Cuzco and the coast, that the Incas were kept constantly -supplied with fresh fish. - -The prevalence of both fishing and hunting is attested by the many -depictions of these industries found on ceramic art objects which have -been encountered by the archeologists. Hunting was carried on to such -an extent, and the country in general was so intensively cultivated, -that the Peruvian highlands today have less to offer the nimrod than -any other section of the world equally uninhabited and desolate. - -Alcoholic beverages were used, of course, but the government saw to -it that their manufacture did not affect other industries. _Chica_ -(chee-cha) was made from both potatoes and maize, but the favorite -brand was brewed from the _molle_ (mol-yay) berry. Then, as today, -religious feasts provided the common people with an opportunity for -debauchery, but under the Incas there was less of the consequent -inebriety. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_Inca Architecture_ - -FIVE - - -Together with the excellence of their governmental system and -the extent of their food supply, the architecture of the ancient -inhabitants of the Peruvian plateau establishes their claim to fame. -Although early historians attempted to give the Incas themselves -the credit for the wonderful structures to be found in Peru, it is -generally believed today that most of the megalithic remains, such as -Tiahuanaco, Sacsahuaman and Ollantaytambo, are the work of a people -living many centuries before the Incas, whose own traditions carry them -back only about 400 years prior to the coming of the Spaniards. However -that may be, the ability to make equally fine structures evidently -existed down to Spanish times, although in later years such work became -less and less common. - -There is a great uniformity in Inca architecture. In the highlands the -edifices are usually built of porphyry or granite, and in the coastal -regions more frequently of brick. The walls often have a thickness -of several feet, but are rather low, seldom attaining more than -ten or twelve feet in height. The apartments seldom open into each -other--usually onto a court. The doors, which ordinarily provide the -only entrance for light, are like the Egyptian, narrower at the top. -The ruins at Machu Picchu (mä-choo peek´-choo) and in that vicinity are -remarkable because windows are quite common in them. As the Incas had -not evolved the arch, their doors, windows and niches were crowned with -a lintel stone, in many cases necessarily a huge affair. Among the most -interesting features of an Inca residence are these niches, probably -used for shelves, perhaps for shrines, although if for that purpose -there would seem to be more of them than necessary in most houses. - -The fineness of the stonework is, of course, the most remarkable -characteristic of the Incas’ architecture. They seemed able to -fit, with equal facility, blocks of stone weighing tons and those -weighing but a few pounds. Although they are not known to have used -the T-square, some of their angles are very true, and when it seemed -desirable, they could build a straight wall. Particularly beautiful are -some of their circular structures, such as the Temple of the Sun in -Cuzco. - -It is probable that only the temples and palaces of the rulers were -so well built, and that the common people lived in houses of mud and -stone. One of the most remarkable structures in Peru, the temple -of Uiraccocha (u-eer-äk-ko´-chä) at Racche (räk´-chay), shows a -combination of fine stonework, and mud and stone. In addition, the -upper part of these walls, which tower some thirty feet high, is -of _adobe_ (a-do´-bay) only, and centuries of weathering has done -but little more damage to the sun-dried bricks than to the granite -foundations. - -There is something incongruous in the fact that the roofs of the -buildings walled so beautifully, and often covered inside with -skilfully woven tapestries and gold adornments, were commonly of -thatch. The rafters were of wood, tied on to ring stones and projecting -cylinder stones with maguey withes. But, although they were ignorant -of iron, did not even mortise their timbers, and were content with a -dingy, unlighted interior, the buildings of the Incas were adapted to -the character of the climate, and the wisdom of their plan is attested -by the number which still survive, while the more modern constructions -of the conquerors have been buried in ruins. - -Providing they escape the destructive hands of the treasure-hunting -Peruvians, only a gigantic cataclysm of the earth’s surface can destroy -these monuments to the stoneworking skill of Peru’s ancient inhabitants. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_Vitcos and Tampu-tocco_ - -SIX - - -The location of Vitcos (veet´-kos), or Pitcos (peet´-kos), the home -of the Inca Manco after he fled from Cuzco to the wilds of Vilcabamba -(veel-kä-bäm´-bä), was one of the questions which students of Inca -history had never answered. Arm-chair archeologists and historians -had selected the site of Choqquequirau (chok-kā-kee-rä´-oo) (cradle -of gold), which consists of a series of extensive ruins above the -Apurimac (a-poo-ree´-mak) River near Abancay (ä-bän-ca´-ee). His visit -to these ruins convinced Dr. Hiram Bingham, of Yale University (now -Lieut.-Colonel Bingham), that Vitcos and Choqquequirau could not be -identical. - -Accordingly, in 1911 he conducted an expedition to Peru, one object of -which was to find a place that would fit the descriptions of the Inca’s -retreat as given by the early Spanish historians, some of whom, _i.e._, -Father Antonio de Calancha (än-to´-nee-o day cä-län´-chä) and Baltasar -de Ocampa (bäl-tä-sär´ day o-cäm´-pä), had actually visited Vitcos. - -The expedition went down the Urubamba (oo-roo-bäm´-bä) Valley -to the mouth of the Vilcabamba River, crossed the Chuquichaca -(choo-kee-chä´-cä) Bridge, and went up the Vilcabamba Valley, -finding place after place which tallied with the accounts of Ocampo -(o-käm´-po) and Calancha (cä-län´-chä). Above the little town of -Puquiura (poo-kee-oo´-ra) were encountered ruins now called Rosaspata -(ro-säs-pä´-tä). Careful study has proved that these fit, in every -detail, the description of the Inca’s last home. - -While on his way to Vitcos, Colonel Bingham was fortunate enough -to discover the ruins of Machu Picchu. Although the problematical -existence of these ruins had long been known, no one had ever taken -the trouble to climb to the top of the ridge and make certain as to -their location. In so doing, Colonel Bingham came upon ruins whose -magnificent beauty alone makes them of more than ordinary interest, -but doubly important is the discovery because in Machu Picchu we seem -to have found at last the Tampu-tocco (tämpoo-tok´-ko) of early Inca -legends. - -The selection of Paccari-tampu (päk´-ka-ree-tam´-poo) as Tampu-tocco -has never seemed justified. The slight similarity in name, the -location of a few ruins and natural caves in that vicinity, and the -non-existence of any place which had a better claim, made up the -evidence to substantiate the theories of those who wished to call -Paccari-tampu the cradle of the Inca race. Machu Picchu, as shown by -Colonel Bingham,[1] corroborates in every detail the descriptions of -Tampu-tocco given by all the historians. - - [1] See The Story of Machu Picchu, by Hiram Bingham. Nat. Geo. - Mag., Feb., 1915, and Vitcos, ibid., Proceedings of the Am. - Antiquarian Soc., April, 1912. - -In addition, it appears that Machu Picchu may also be Vilcabamba, the -old, the mysterious place three days’ journey from Vitcos, to which, -as told by Father Calancha, two monks were taken by the Incas while -they were in that region seeking his conversion. No situation at all -plausible has ever been suggested for this mythical locality. Granting -that Machu Picchu is Tampu-tocco, the presence of two distinct cultures -and skeleton remains, chiefly of women and effeminate men, would seem -to indicate that on his retreat to Vitcos the Inca Manco made use of -the wonderfully concealed first home of the Incas to provide safe -retirement for the priests and priestesses of the Sun. - -A very important part of the work of modern archeology lies in -identifying the location of the cities and towns which have a place in -Inca tradition and history. The finding of the first and last home of -the Incas by Colonel Bingham’s expeditions is only the beginning of a -great deal of similar work which awaits the archeologist in Peru. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY - -MARCH 15, 1918 - -[Illustration: RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, PACCARITAMBO--Near view of the -gateway] - -THE INCAS - -By OSGOOD HARDY, M. A. - -_Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and Chief -Assistant and Interpreter of the Peruvian Expeditions of 1914-1915, -under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic -Society_ - -_MENTOR GRAVURES_ - - RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY · SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST - FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU · ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU · - DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA · LLAMAS COMING INTO CUZCO · - RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA, NEAR SICUANI, PERU - -NOTE.--All pictures in this Mentor are reproduced by permission of the -National Geographic Society and the South American Exploration Fund of -Yale University, under whose auspices the Peruvian Expeditions directed -by Dr. Hiram Bingham have taken place. - -NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.--The letter “_ä_” with two dots above is -pronounced as in “father”; the “_ā_” with a horizontal line above is -pronounced as in “ray.” - -Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New -York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The -Mentor Association, Inc. - - -There is probably no part of the world that stimulates more curiosity -in an archeologist or even in a casual traveler than that part -of South America which was once inhabited by the Incas of Peru. -Tiahuanaco’s (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko) finely carved gateway and its ponderous -stone platforms, Sacsahuaman’s (saks-ä-wa´-män) gigantic walls, -Ollantaytambo’s (ol-yän-tie-tam´-bo) monolithic fortress, and Machu -Picchu’s (mä´-choo peek´-choo) picturesque grandeur fill one with an -admiration for their builders which is only equaled by the sorrow that -today, over three centuries after the advent of Pizarro (pee-sä´-ro) -and his _conquistadores_ (con-kees-tä-do´-rays), we can do little more -than make conjectures concerning the ancient Peruvians. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF PATALLACTA--A Typical Inca Temple] - -And, furthermore, it is doubtful if we can ever go very far in -solving the problem of man in the Andes. Although they made great -progress in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and the science of -government, the ancient Peruvians did not achieve the art of writing, -nor did they even reach the stage of hieroglyphics. Their records -were kept on _quipus_ (kee-poos), variously colored strings with many -different kinds of knots. These seem, however, to have been used only -for accounting purposes. Thus far, the _quipus_ in possession of our -archeologists have been of no particular aid in deciphering the history -of their makers. Accordingly, what we know of the Incas consists of -traditions gathered together by early Spaniards, and the work of -present-day students who, by modern archeological methods, are slowly -bringing some light to bear on this apparently insolvable problem. - -[Illustration: PISAC - -Terraces below the principal ruins, still used for growing wheat and -barley] - -[Illustration: DOORWAY - -In ruins, now known as Rosaspata, but which Dr. Bingham has shown are -probably those known to the Incas as “Vitcos,” the last home of the -Incas] - - -_Origin of American Aborigines_ - -Although there are many ideas advanced as to the origin of the American -aborigine, it is commonly believed that he came from northeastern -Asia and gradually moved southward. Archeologists and geologists are -all agreed that he arrived at the close of the glacial epoch, long -after the disappearance of the prehistoric animals which Dr. Matthew -described for Mentor readers some time ago. When he came to this -continent he had probably already reached the higher stages of the -Stone Age, and was possibly already in the Bronze Age. Just how long it -has been since his arrival we cannot tell. - -Although the number of traditions concerning the origin of the Inca -empire is legion, the two best known are the Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä) -and Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko) legends. The former has been given -us by the immortal Prescott, relying on the Commentaries of the Inca -Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-sil´-ä-so day lä vay-gä). From him we know -there was a time when the ancient races of the continent were all -plunged in deplorable barbarism. “The Sun, the grand luminary and -parent of mankind, taking compassion on their degraded condition, sent -two of his children, Manco Ccapac (män´-ko k-kä´-päk) and Mama Occlo -(mä´-mä ok´-klo), to gather the natives into communities and teach them -the arts of civilized life. The celestial pair, brother and sister, -husband and wife, advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood -of Lake Titicaca to about the 16th degree south. They bore with them a -golden wedge, and were directed to take up their residence on the spot -where the sacred emblem should without effort sink into the ground. -They proceeded but a short distance--as far as the valley of Cuzco -(koos´-ko), the spot indicated by the performance of the miracle; there -the wedge speedily sank into the earth and disappeared forever. On this -spot the children of the Sun established their residence, and laid the -foundations of the city of Cuzco.” - -[Illustration: RUINS OF PATALLACTA - -Showing niches with holes for bar locks in the upper room of the temple -on top of the rock] - -[Illustration: INCA FORTRESS WALL, SACSAHUAMAN - -The gigantic size of the stones and the precision with which they are -fitted, without mortar, bear testimony to the engineering genius of the -Inca megalithic builders] - -The Titicaca myth, however, does not receive as much consideration -today as the Tampu-tocco (täm´-poo-tok´-ko) myth. The former is -characterized by the late Sir Clements Markham as an obvious invention -to account for the ancient ruins and statues in the vicinity of -Tiahuanaco (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko), and on the islands of Titicaca and -Koati (ko-ä´-tee). “It has no historical value,” he says, “while the -Tampu-tocco myth is as certainly the outcome of a real tradition, and -is the fabulous version of a distant historical event.” - -[Illustration: CUZCO, PERU - -PALACE OF THE INCA ROCCA - -A large gravure picture of this massive structure will be found in The -Mentor (No. 132) on “Peru”] - -The story is somewhat as follows. At a distance from Cuzco is a -place called “Tampu-tocco” (“House of the Windows”). This was long -considered to be identical with “Paccari-tampu” (päk´-kä-ree-tam´-poo) -(“House of the Dawn”), but the explorations and study of Dr. Bingham -have shown that the evidence is in favor of his statement that Machu -Picchu is Tampu-tocco. From this locality, at a date placed by -students somewhere between 950 B. C. and 200 A. D., came four brothers -accompanied by four sisters. Their leader, Manco (män´-ko) (the -princely), succeeded in making away with his three brothers, so that -at length, on their arrival at Cuzco, where the golden rod which this -Manco also carried sank into the ground, the first Inca and his sisters -were able to found their kingdom without rivals. Under the leadership -of Manco and his successors, sometimes known as “Pre-Megaliths,” the -empire grew. In the seventeenth or nineteenth reign a change in dynasty -took place, and thenceforth the megalithic monarchs, who were often -distinguished and skilful astrologers and reformers, ruled with the -title of Amauta (ä-mä-oo´-tä). - -About 450 A. D. came the end of this dynasty. Pachacuti -(pä-chä-koo´-tee) VI, a ruler of peoples on the east, south and west -and subject tribes, had risen in revolt. The invaders ultimately -retired, but the power of Cuzco was broken, and the ruler slain. -The city was left to the priests, and the inhabitants, under a new -sovereign, took refuge at Tampu-tocco, where some twenty-four princes -ruled in succession. At length, when the provinces once under the -control of the princes of Cuzco had relapsed into barbarism, a woman -of high birth named Siyu-yacu (see´-yoo-yä´-koo), contrived a plot to -place on the throne one who would initiate a bold attempt to recover -the power once possessed by their forefathers. The individual selected -was Siyu-yacu’s own son, Rocca (rok´-kä). The plot was successful, -and Rocca, later known as Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok´-kä) or the -Great Rocca, was the first of the Inca sovereigns whose reign looms -up clearly enough to remove it from the realm of traditions and give -it a place, although slightly hazy, in history. From the accession of -Rocca to the throne, about 1100 A. D., down to the murder of Tupac -Amaru (too´-päk ä´-mä-roo) in 1671 by the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo -(frän-sees´-ko day to-lay-do), the course of events is fairly well -authenticated. It is to this period that a discussion of the Incas must -necessarily be confined. - -[Illustration: ALPACAS - -A semi-domesticated animal resembling sheep, and yielding a long, fine -wool, usually brown or black] - -[Illustration: GROUP OF LLAMAS IN JULIACA] - - -_When the Spanish Came_ - -When the Spaniards arrived, the little kingdom of Cuzco had already -grown to an empire that extended to the equator on the north, and was -bounded on the south by the River Maule (mä´-oo-lay) in southern Chile -(chee´-lay). On the west it extended to the Pacific Ocean, and on the -east faded away in the torrid forests of the Amazon and the rolling -hills of the Argentine uplands. The Incas had succeeded in conquering -the many tribes scattered over this whole region, and for the most part -had enforced the use of their own language, the Quichua (kee´-choo-a). -They had evolved a system of government which, expanding from that of -a village community, had met the needs of a vast empire; and they had -done it so gradually that the inhabitants at large had been conscious -of little change save in the direction of increased prosperity and -security. - -[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU RUINS - -General view, showing growth covering ruins] - - -_Inca Government and Religion_ - -The Inca government was a despotism. The Inca--the chief magistrate of -the dominant tribe--had absolute powers, and as a direct descendant of -the Sun was also vested with sacred attributes. Surrounding him and -under him were his immediate family. His official wife was his sister, -and from their offspring was chosen the successor of the Inca. The -elder was usually designated, although this rule was broken in several -instances where the younger brother seemed more able. Next in the -social scale were the nobles, or _orejones_ (o-ray-ho´-naze), as they -were called by the Spaniards. These officials wore very large earrings. -The lobe of the ear was often distorted so that ornaments several -inches in diameter were inserted. Under the _orejones_ came the -_caracas_ (cä-rä´-cäs), or inspectors, who had charge of the census, -the estimation of local resources, and the imposition and collection -of tribute. Their work was chiefly administrative, and the actual -government was left to district magistrates and judges, who acted as -tax-collectors also. Finally, there were the common people. These were -divided for military purposes into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s, and -the mobilization of the Inca armies was almost Teutonic in its ease and -precision. - -[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO--The Town and Fortress] - -As might be expected, the Inca religion included the worship of many -things. The priestly historians always characterize it as extremely -vile; but those of Inca ancestry insist that it was remarkably pure and -spiritual, consisting of only one true worship, that of the Sun. Only -those that have experienced life in the Peruvian highlands and have -endured the enervation of its cold altitudes can realize how certainly -must the early peoples have turned to the worship of that force which -alone makes life endurable or possible on the Peruvian plateau. - -The places of worship were usually temples, so located as to catch the -first rays of the rising sun. _Huacas_ (wä´-käs), such as large rocks -or springs, were, of course, worshiped where they were situated, and -oft-times were surrounded by temples. In the case of stones, shelves or -platforms were carved, on which the priests stood while making their -offerings to the Sun god. - -The worship was carried on by priests and _mamaconas_ (mä-mä-ko´-näs), -the latter, the priestesses, directed the lives of the virgins of the -Sun. The most beautiful girls of the kingdom were gathered together -from all parts of the land. The most attractive became the wives of the -Inca, after they had passed through a severe training in the various -feminine arts; others took the vows and became _mamaconas_, while the -rest either became wives of the nobles or were sent back to their homes. - -[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU - -Sacred Plaza and Intihuatana Hill] - -[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO--The Fortress] - -Many different feasts were celebrated, the most famous being those of -Intip Raymi (een´-teep rye´-mee) and Situa (see´-too-a). The former was -celebrated in June at the winter solstice, the object being to secure -the return of the Sun. It lasted for nine days, was celebrated by all -the ruling caste, and was always successful. Situa was celebrated -in August, and the movable _huacas_ were transported to Cuzco from -all over the empire. There were also many feasts of local and family -significance, as those of name-giving and adolescence. - -The rites of worship were sacrifice, prayers, confession, and fasting. -Although there has been a great deal of controversy over this point, -it is generally accepted that, unlike the Mexican peoples, the Incas -did not make human sacrifices. Offerings of food, libations and -animal sacrifices were the customary procedure. Some of the Inca -prayers which have come down to us are remarkable for their beauty -and spiritual qualities. Confession was made to a priest. Fasting was -usually observed by those desirous of entering some sacred spot, as at -the end of a pilgrimage, and is said to have been at times of twenty -days’ duration. The more famous pilgrimages were those to Pachacamac -(pä-chä-kä´-mac) and Titicaca. - - -_Peasant and Labor Conditions_ - -[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO - -Lower terrace of Fortress] - -“The condition of the peasant in Peru,” summarizes Mr. T. A. Joyce, -“approximated nearer to the ideals of the doctrinaire socialist than -in any country of the world. But it was at a price which, perhaps, -the native of no other country would consent to pay. From the cradle -to the grave the life of the individual was marked out for him; as he -was born, so would he die, and he lived his allotted span under the -ceaseless supervision of officials. His dress was fixed according to -his district; he might not leave his village except at the bidding of -the state, and then only for state purposes; he might not even seek -a wife outside of his own community. An individual of ability might, -perhaps, rise to be one of the subordinate inspectors, but the higher -ranks were inexorably closed to him.” - -[Illustration: THE CONCACHA STONE - -A famous “Huaca” (meaning “holy”). The name was applied to material -objects, such as rocks, etc., which were worshiped] - -Because of this despotism, which placed all the labor in the hands -of the state, the Incas were able to achieve marvels in the way of -building, road-making, irrigation works, and agricultural engineering. -Inherently an agricultural people, the greatest efforts of the ancient -Peruvians seem to have been exerted, not in building tombs for the -dead, as did the Egyptians, but in making conditions better for the -living. It is true that a great deal of labor was expended on the -wonderful palaces of their rulers. Each successive Inca thought it -necessary to rear an edifice for himself. But the greater part was -employed for the benefit of the country as a whole, in irrigation and -other projects. Water was brought many miles, and regions which today -are desolate through the Spaniards’ failure to keep in repair the -ditches and canals were flourishing agricultural communities in the -days of the Incas. Rampant streams that threatened to destroy fertile -valleys were penned within stone walls. Roads made throughout the whole -dominion were useful, of course, for the transportation of troops, but -especially valuable because the intershipment of crops was thereby made -easy. - -[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU - -Intihuatana Hill and Stairway] - - -_Agriculture and Architecture_ - -As might be expected in a mountainous country, where a wide stretch of -level ground is but seldom encountered, the construction of miles upon -miles of terraces was necessary. “Many slopes,” writes Mr. O. F. Cook, -of the United States Department of Agriculture, “have more than fifty -terraces, forming huge staircases as high as the Washington Monument, -resting against the lower slopes of mountains that tower thousands of -feet above.” - -[Illustration: RUINS ON KOATI ISLAND - -The famous Island of the Moon] - -The stonework of the prehistoric builders excites the wonder and -admiration of the beholder--admiration for the grand and beautiful -simplicity of the Inca masonry, wonder as to the methods employed in -its accomplishment. What the means were we do not know--at best we -can only conjecture. The modern Indians--in fact, many of the upper -class of Peruvians--prefer to explain it by magical methods, such as -softening the rocks by rubbing them with the juice of some plant or -fruit. Only the combined labor of hundreds of people, understanding the -lever and the inclined plane, could have moved some of the huge rocks -that form many of the walls. And moving them would be the easiest part -of the work. How they succeeded in fitting these monoliths together, so -that in places the joints are too fine for the naked eye to discern, -is quite beyond the ken of the modern stone-worker. Formerly it was -thought that the larger terraces were chiefly for defensive purposes; -but the fact that these, as well as those more plainly agricultural -in character, show the underlying strata of stones to be covered with -fine agricultural soils that must have been brought from a distance, -would indicate, according to some of our scientists, that these also -were used to produce crops. The importance attached to agriculture can -be understood from the fact that the majority of the terraces equal in -fineness of masonry even the palaces of the Incas. Lacking timber, the -Incas used stone as the chief building material, and, although they had -not evolved the pure arch, they had learned to secure strength through -the keying together of irregular blocks, and, as Dr. Bingham writes, -“had developed many ingenious devices, such as lock-holes for fastening -a bar back of the door; ringstones, which were inserted in the gables -to enable the rafters to be tied on; and projecting cylinder stones, -which could be used as points to which to tie the roof and keep it from -blowing off.” - -[Illustration: RUINS OF TORONTOY - -Showing window, a projecting cylinder stone and lock-hole] - -Sculpture existed only in a rude form, and the decoration of Inca -pottery did not equal that of the coast people. Their ceramic products -are marked by simple and graceful lines, rather Grecian in effect, and -of striking simplicity and utility. They had arrived at a high degree -of skill in the manufacture of textiles, for the _llama_ and _alpaca_ -provided them with excellent raw material. - -Although they were unfamiliar with refined methods of heat treatment, -and so were compelled to sacrifice extra hardness and strength by -increasing the tin content, they had learned the art of cold working, -and produced many kinds of bronze implements. Some of these were of an -excellent temper, and, together with obsidian knives, were used for -trepanning. Inca methods of warfare, the use of slings and war clubs, -naturally caused many wounds which could be relieved only by such -operations. - -In war their skill was defensive rather than offensive. They built -salients and re-entrant angles in their walls, and dry moats are often -encountered. - -They domesticated the South American camel (the _llama_), which -enabled them to carry out engineering and agricultural works far more -difficult than they could have accomplished had they been obliged to -depend on human bearers. In addition to maize, potatoes, and cassava, -they had many other important crops, such as pineapples, peanuts, and -cotton. Great is the treasure of precious and base metals which has -come, and is to come, from Peru. But that sinks into insignificance -beside the value of one corn and potato crop throughout the world. -And in the future it seems not at all unlikely that the Incas, famous -for centuries for their system of government, their masonry, and the -treasures which the Spaniards took from them, will be yet more famous -for the extent to which they developed agriculture. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF TORONTOY - -The man is seated on a carved rock, probably an altar] - -[Illustration: INCA IMPLEMENTS] - - * * * * * - -We can do no better, in closing this account of the old Peruvian -empire, than to quote from Mr. Prescott’s imperishable work, “The -Conquest of Peru,” the following summary of the characteristics of Inca -culture: - -“Under the rule of the Incas, the meanest of the people enjoyed a -far greater degree of personal comfort than was possessed by similar -classes in other nations on the American continent--greater probably, -than in feudal Europe. Under their scepter, the higher order of the -state had made advances in many of the arts that belong to a cultivated -community. By the well-sustained policy of the Incas, the rude tribes -of the forest were gradually gathered within the folds of civilization, -and of these materials was constructed a flourishing and populous -empire, such as was to be found in no other part of America.” - -[Illustration: INCA POTTERY AND INSTRUMENTS] - - -_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_ - - EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA _By Ales Hrlicka_ - Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 52 - - HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF PERU _By W. H. Prescott_ - - THE INCAS OF PERU _By Sir Clements R. Markham_ - - SOUTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY _By Thomas A. Joyce_ - - STAIRCASE FARMS OF THE ANCIENTS _By O. F. Cook_ - National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5 - - FURTHER EXPLORATIONS IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS _By Dr. Hiram Bingham_ - National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5 - - THE STORY OF MACHU PICCHU _By Dr. Hiram Bingham_ - National Geographic Magazine, Volume 27, No. 2 - - - - -THE OPEN LETTER - - -[Illustration: MONOLITHIC GATEWAY AT TIAHUANACO] - -We are indebted to Dr. Hiram Bingham and his Peruvian Expeditions for -the interesting picture material in this number of The Mentor. Dr. -Bingham (Lieut.-Colonel Bingham) became interested in South America -when he was in Yale University, and in 1906 he took an expedition over -the historic march of Bolivar from Venezuela to Colombia. Two years -later, when Colonel Bingham was appointed a delegate to the first Pan -American Scientific Congress at Santiago, Chile, he went there by -way of Bolivia and Peru, and, while in Peru, he visited the ruins of -Choqquequirau (meaning the “cradle of gold”), said to be the last home -of the Incas. - - * * * * * - -Colonel Bingham’s studies led him to think that the legend was wrong. -So, in 1911, he set off to Peru, with a party of six, his objects -being to hunt for “Vitcos” (the name of the last home of the Incas) -and to make an ascent of Corropuna, reputed to be a rival of Aconcagua -for the honor of being the highest mountain in South America. The -expedition was very successful. Corropuna was scaled, and found to be -somewhat lower than Aconcagua. Vitcos was found at Rosaspata and not at -Choqquequirau. The reputed bottomless lake of Parinaccochas was found -to be no more than four feet in depth, and, best of all, Machu Picchu -was discovered. - - * * * * * - -All this was so important that the National Geographic Society decided -to assist in another expedition to carry on the good work. Accordingly, -the Peruvian Expedition of 1912, under the auspices of Yale University -and the National Geographic Society, was sent out. It cleared the way, -photographed and mapped Machu Picchu, and made many other explorations. -A report of this expedition was received with so much interest, and the -pictures were considered so beautiful, that the Peruvian Expedition -of 1914-1915 was organized under the same auspices. This expedition -accomplished a great amount of additional work in the way of map making -and archeological research, collecting flora and fauna from districts -previously unvisited, and determining the location of several rivers. - - * * * * * - -A vast amount of important historical material has been gathered by -these expeditions, and The Mentor is very fortunate in being permitted -to use photographs collected in the course of the expeditions, and in -having a member of the party as author of this article. In connection -with Mr. Hardy’s account of the Incas, Colonel Bingham writes to The -Mentor as follows: - - “Within the confines of the ancient Inca empire, the - archeologist can find a field for work, which, in the beauty of - its natural surroundings, and the healthfulness of its climate, - together with the interest lent by the present-day inhabitants, - is equal, if not superior to, any other part of the earth’s - surface. - - “In the past, its comparative inaccessibility has been a very - great deterrent to systematic work in the regions once occupied - by the Incas. Now, better steamship connections with the rest - of the world, and increasing railway mileage within, have - greatly lessened the transportation difficulties. - - “The solution of the problem of man in the Andes has only - begun, and it is to be hoped that American students will have - many future opportunities to enter this field of research.” - -[Illustration: W. D. Moffat - -EDITOR] - - - - -The Mentor on the Ranch - - -I want to let you know how this little ranch-woman has enjoyed her part -in The Mentor Course. I would not take the influence of the pictures -alone out of my family for many times the cost. I am deeply interested -in all the subjects, but Nature comes first. When my husband and I ride -among the whispering pines far up the sides of El Capitan or through -the dainty ferns in some deep canyon, where only the tops of the dark -towering firs know what the day is like, and the tiny streams slip -swiftly and songfully over and through the rocks, I feel the quieting -presence of God--and all the worrisome, tawdry business of life sinks -down into the unimportant place where it really belongs. I wish The -Mentor all profit and success in the good work it is doing in bringing -people nearer to the real, big things of the world. - - MRS. C. R. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: The Incas, vol. 6, num. 3, Serial No. 151, March 15, 1918 - -Author: Osgood Hardy - -Release Date: February 28, 2016 [EBook #51322] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: NO. 151, MARCH 15, 1918 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<h1>THE MENTOR 1918.03.15, No. 151,<br /> -The Incas</h1> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 482px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="482" height="700" alt="Cover page" /> -</div> - -<div class="bbox" style="width: 25em; margin: auto;"> - -<p class="center gesperrt smaller">LEARN ONE THING<br /> -EVERY DAY</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">MARCH 15 1918</p> - -<p class="right smaller noindent" style="margin-top: -2em;">SERIAL NO. 151</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="larger">THE<br /> -MENTOR</span><br /> -<br /> -THE INCAS</p> - -<p class="center smaller">By<br /> -OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">DEPARTMENT OF<br /> -HISTORY</p> - -<p class="right smaller noindent" style="margin-top: -3em;">VOLUME 6<br /> -NUMBER 3</p> - -<p class="center smaller">TWENTY CENTS A COPY</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox-dashed"> - -<h2>WORSHIPERS OF THE SUN</h2> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars-nofill.jpg" width="100" height="30" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>The deity whose worship the Incas especially inculcated, and which -they never failed to establish wherever their banners were known to -penetrate, was the Sun. It was he who, in a particular manner, presided -over the destinies of man; gave light and warmth to the nations, and life -to the vegetable world; whom they reverenced as the father of their royal -dynasty, the founder of their empire; and whose temples rose in every -city and almost every village throughout the land.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 25px;"> -<img src="images/star.jpg" width="25" height="25" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>Besides the Sun, the Incas acknowledged various objects of worship, -in some way or other connected with this principal deity. Such was -the Moon, his sister-wife; the Stars, revered as part of her heavenly train, -though the fairest of them, Venus, known to the Peruvians by the name -of Chasca, or the “youth with the long and curling locks,” was adored as -the page of the Sun, whom he attends so closely in his rising and in his -setting. They dedicated temples also to the Thunder and Lightning, in -whom they recognized the Sun’s dread ministers, and to the Rainbow, -whom they worshiped as a beautiful emanation of their glorious deity.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 25px;"> -<img src="images/star.jpg" width="25" height="25" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>In addition to these, the subjects of the Incas enrolled among their -inferior deities many objects in nature, as the elements, the winds, -the earth, the air, great mountains and rivers, which impressed them -with ideas of sublimity and power, or were supposed in some way or other -to exercise a mysterious influence over the destinies of man.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 25px;"> -<img src="images/star.jpg" width="25" height="25" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>But the worship of the Sun constituted the peculiar care of the Incas, -and was the object of their lavish expenditure. The most renowned -of the Peruvian temples, the pride of the capital, and the wonder of the -empire, was at Cuzco, where, under the munificence of successive sovereigns, -it had become so enriched that it received the name of “The Place of Gold.” -It consisted of a principal building and several chapels and inferior edifices, -covering a large extent of ground in the heart of the city, and completely -encompassed by a wall, which, with the edifices, was all constructed of stone.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 25px;"> -<img src="images/star.jpg" width="25" height="25" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>The interior of the temple was most worthy of admiration. It was -literally a mine of gold. On the western wall was emblazoned a representation -of the deity, consisting of a human countenance looking forth -from amidst innumerable rays of light which emanated from it in every -direction, in the same manner as the sun is often personified with us. The -figure was engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous dimensions, -thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones. It was so situated -in front of the great eastern portal that the rays of the morning sun fell -directly upon it at its rising, lighting up the whole apartment with an -effulgence that seemed more than natural, and which was reflected back -from the golden ornaments with which the walls and ceiling were everywhere -encrusted. Gold, in the figurative language of the people, was “the -tears wept by the Sun,” and every part of the interior of the temple glowed -with burnished plates and studs of the precious metal.</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent">From Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru.”</p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> -<img src="images/plate1.jpg" width="450" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE INCAS</i><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>The Tellers of the Story</i></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">ONE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-r.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Rude and destructive as were most of the Spanish -<i>conquistadores</i> (con-kees-tä-dõ´-rays), many of them -sympathized with the conquered people, and it is -from the records of their impressions that we have -obtained most of what we know about the Incas. Four -of these Castilian diarists whose work is most valued -were soldiers. Of their number, Pedro de -Cieza de Leon (pay´-dro day see´-ay-sa day -lay´-on) has given us the fullest and most interesting -account of the ancient Peruvians. -Only a boy of fourteen was he when he -embarked on the Spanish Main, and he -was only nineteen when, in 1538, he joined -an expedition up the valley of the Cauca -(kä-oo´-kä). He commenced his chronicle -in 1541, and for ten years traveled from -one end of Peru to the other, writing down -his impressions as he went. The first part -of his journal was published in 1554. -Juan de Betanzos (hwän day bay-tän´-sos), -another soldier, has left us but a portion -of his work. We have only the record -used by Friar Gregorio de Garcia (gray-go´-rio -day gar-see´-a) in the first two -chapters of his “Origen (o-ree´-hen) de los -Indios,” and an incomplete manuscript in -the Escurial (ay-skoo-ree-al). This was -edited and printed in 1880 by Jimenez de -la Espada (hee-may´-nes day lä ay-spä´-dä). -Betanzos’ work is valuable, as he learned -the Quichua (kee´-choo-a) language and was -an official interpreter. Pedro Sarmiento -de Gamboa (pay´-dro sär-mi-ayn´-to day -gäm-bo´-ä), a militant sailor, accompanied -the Viceroy Toledo (to-lay´-do), and was -employed by him to write a history of the -Incas. Finished in 1572, it is without -doubt the most authentic and reliable we -possess as regards the course of events. -Pedro Pizarro, a cousin of the conqueror, -was also a historian of merit, finishing -the “Relaciones” (rā-lä-see´-o-nays) at Arequipa -(är-ay-kee´-pä) in 1571.</p> - -<p>The writings of lawyers have been of -little value, although Prescott made use -of the unpublished “Relaciones” of Polo -de Ondegardo (po´-lo day on-day-gär´-do), -written in 1561 and 1570.</p> - -<p>The priests were the most diligent inquirers -respecting the native religion, rites, -and ceremonies. Vincente de Valverde -(vis-ayn´-tä day väl-vayr-day) was the -first priest to come to Peru, but he stayed -only a short time and wrote very little. -The best known clerical author is Josef de -Acosta (hos´-ayf day ä-cos´-tä), who was in -Peru from 1570 to 1586, and traveled over -the greater part of the country. Cristoval -Molina’s (krees-to´-väl mo-lee´-nä) “Report -on the Fables and Rites of the -Incas,” written previous to 1584, is also -valuable, for he was a master of the -Quichua language. Fernando Montesinos -(fayr-nän-do mon-tay-see´-nos), who, with -his amazing list of kings, traced Inca ancestry -back to Noah, was until recently given -little consideration. But lately his work, -“Ophir de España, Memorias Historiales -(o-feer´ day ay-spän-yä may-mo´-ree-äs ees-tor-ee-a´-läs) -y Políticos del Peru (po-lee´-tee-cos -dayl pay-roo´),” written about 1644, -has been given more credence, since it -seems probable that much of it was based -on the writings of Blas Valera (bläs vä-lay-rä). -The premature death of the latter and -the disposal of his valuable manuscripts is -described by Markham as the most deplorable -loss that Inca civilization has sustained. -His work was used extensively by -Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-see-lä´-so day -la vay-gä), a grandnephew of the Inca -Huayna Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk). He -is the most famous of all the historians, -and is quoted some eighty times by -Prescott.</p> - -<p>The works of many of these authors and -of others less famous are available today -in English, as a result of the indefatigable -efforts of Sir Clements Markham, whose -translations have been published by the -Hakluyt Society. There are still many interesting -and valuable old manuscripts -reposing in the archives of Madrid (mäd-reed´) -and Seville (say-veel´-yay), which -have yet to be discovered, edited, and -given to the world. Of the Spanish historians -who have been engaged in this -work, Dr. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada -is probably the best known. An excellent -bibliography of Peruviana has been prepared -by Markham and is published in -“The History of the Incas,” Publications -of the Hakluyt Society, Series II, Vol. XXII, -Cambridge, England.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/plate2.jpg" width="650" height="415" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACCOCHA NEAR SICUANI, PERU</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE INCAS</i><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>The Inca Sovereigns</i></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">TWO</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The Inca sovereigns about whom tradition tells us -enough so that they may be considered historical personages -are twelve in number. The first of these, -Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok-kä), or Rocca the -Great, was the first ruler after the return of the Incas to Cuzco -(coos´-ko) at the close of their long exile in Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko). -He reigned from 1134-1197, -according to the chronology of Dr. Gonzales -de la Rosa (gon-sä-lays day lä ro´-sä), -the most eminent of modern Peruvian historians. -Rocca owed his position to a -cleverly executed plot contrived by his -mother. She dressed him in glittering -gold apparel, and hid him in the Chingana -(cheen-gä´-nä) Cave on Sacsahuaman (säk-sä-wä´-män) -Hill. At intervals for several -days excited Cuzqueñans (koos-kayn-yäns) -beheld a golden vision moving on the -fortress heights. Eventually, after their -curiosity and fanatical credulity had been -sufficiently aroused, the vision descended -into the city. It gave itself over to the -crowd, allowed itself to be conducted to -the temple, and there proclaimed itself -the adopted son of the Solar Deity. Under -Rocca, the Temple of the Sun was enlarged -and the city greatly improved.</p> - -<p>There is some question among historians -as to the acts of Rocca’s successors, Lloque -Yupanqui (lyo´-kay yoo-pän´-kee) and -Mayta Ccapac (my´-tä k-kä´-päk), who -reigned from 1197-1246, and 1246-1276, -respectively. Garcilaso (gär-see-lä´-so) -records their conquering the Cana -(kä´-nä) and Colla (kol´-yä) people in the -southwest, building a Sun Temple at -Hatun-Colla (ä-toom-kol´-yä), carrying -on warfare along the shores of Lake -Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä), and Lake Aullagas -(aul-yä´-gas), and on the west, going -as far as Lake Parinaccochas (pär-een-äk-ko´-chäs) -and Arequipa (a-ray-kee´-pä). -But the majority of historians represent -the first three Incas as confining themselves -more or less to the Cuzco Valley, and gradually, -by diplomatic means, extending -their influence over the surrounding inhabitants.</p> - -<p>Ccapac Yupanqui (yoo-pän-kee), 1276-1321, -made the region to the southeast the -theatre of his operations, and Garcilaso -credits him with reaching Potosi (po-tos´-ee). -Inca Rocca, 1321-1348, improved the -water supply of Cuzco (would that he might -come again), founded schools, and militariwise, -attempted to penetrate the Amazonian -forests. His son, Yahuar-Huaccac -(yä´-wär-wäk´-käk) (weeping-blood), 1348-1370, -was rather a nonentity. His name -was acquired as follows, says tradition: -While a child he fell into hostile hands. -At the point of death he was seen to be -weeping tears of blood. This so affected -his enemy that he was permitted to live; -he eventually escaped to his own people -after a life of hardship among some -shepherds.</p> - -<p>He was followed by Uiraccocha (weer-äk-ko´-chä), -1370-1425, in whose reign occurred -the invasion of the Chancas (chän´-käs). -The invaders were finally driven out, -chiefly through the bravery of his son, Pachacuti -(päch-ä-koo´-tee), who reigned from -1425-1478. Under this rule and that of his -successors, Tupac Yupanqui, 1478-1488, -and Huayna Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk), -1488-1525, the Inca dominion grew from a -comparatively small confederation to the -great, imperial state found by the Spaniards. -Huascar (wäs´-kär), the successor -of Huayna Ccapac, was overthrown and -taken prisoner by his natural brother, -Atahuallpa (ä-tä-wäl´-pä), about the time -that Pizarro entered Peru. When the -latter heard of the quarrel between the -two brothers he determined to settle it. -Fearful lest the decision should go against -him, Atahuallpa had Huascar murdered, -and this act provided Pizarro with an -excuse for the execution of Atahuallpa.</p> - -<p>After he had acquired complete control -of the country, Pizarro elevated the Inca -Manco (män´-co) to the throne. This -proud youth soon tired of the farce and -fled to the fastnesses of the Vilcabamba -(veel-cä-bäm´-bä) mountains. Here he and -his successors, Sayri Tupac (sigh-ree too´-päk) -and Tupac-Amaru (too´-päk-ä-mä´-roo), -maintained their independence until -1571, when the latter was captured by the -Viceroy Toledo, brought to Cuzco, and -there beheaded in the great square.</p> - -<p>In 1781, a descendant of Tupac-Amaru -bearing his name, led a revolt against the -barbarous oppression of the Spaniards, -only to fail and suffer torture, together -with his whole family. In 1814, Pumacagua -(poo-mäk-ä´-wä), also of Inca ancestry, -started an abortive uprising, which, -although a failure, was the beginning of -the struggle which was to eventually -break the power of Spain in Peru.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/plate3.jpg" width="650" height="460" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE INCAS</i><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>The Expansionist Policies of the Incas</i></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">THREE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-a.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Although pacific by nature, the Incas built up -their vast empire by conquest. Not one reign lacked -great military campaigns, and in all of them the -necessity of introducing the worship of the Sun -gave rulers a pretext as plausible as the followers of Mahomet -had for their great wars. Wherever it was possible, peaceful -methods were employed. Persuasion, -diplomacy and bribery were all tried; if -these were unsuccessful, war was declared, -but only after the failure of all the arts -used in the acquisition of an empire by -the most subtle politicians of a civilized -land.</p> - -<p>Immediately on the declaration of war, -mobilization took place with extreme -rapidity, for the Incas aimed early to secure -such an obvious strategical advantage -that their enemies would wisely surrender -without a struggle. This was made possible -by the remarkable series of roads -constructed throughout the empire. In -times of peace these served as post roads, -which enabled the Incas to have surprisingly -rapid intercommunication. At convenient -places storehouses were located. -These were always kept completely -equipped, so that the mobilization of the -Inca armies, which sometimes totaled -200,000 men, provided the minimum of -inconvenience for the civilian population.</p> - -<p>Contrary to the customs of some of -our supposedly civilized modern nations, -the Incas forbade their soldiers engaging -in any unnecessary outrages, and -punished such infractions of the law very -severely. Even after the war had commenced, -the Incas were always ready at -any time to bring about peace. At -the conclusion of hostilities they adopted -the policy of the Romans, gaining more -by clemency to the vanquished than by -their victories.</p> - -<p>As soon as the reduction of a country had -been brought about, measures were taken -to insure the loyalty of those newly conquered. -The first step was the introduction -of the worship of the Sun. No disrespect -was shown to the local gods, but -an acceptance of the priority of the Sun -was always enforced. Often-times the peoples’ -own gods were treated as hostages -and removed to Cuzco. The Inca system -of government was, of course, always -imposed. Land was cultivated according -to the well-regulated schemes of the Incas, -which included fertilization, crop rotation, -and careful supervision to see that the -desired amount of acreage was devoted to -each product. The Quichua language was -enforced. The new members of the empire -were assigned their particular style -of clothing and hair-dressing. Roads were -built to all parts of the new territories and -absolute amalgamation was eventually -secured.</p> - -<p>In some instances, where the loyalty of -the conquered was doubtful, a portion of -them were removed, bag and baggage, to -some locality where they would be surrounded -by inhabitants of whose loyalty -there was no question. Some of the latter -were then sent to occupy the lands of -the exiles.</p> - -<p>Through successive reigns the same -policy was continued. Each Inca took up -the work where his predecessor had been -compelled to leave it, and tried to do his -share in advancing the boundaries of the -empire. Each Inca’s life was a “crusade -against the infidel to spread the worship -of the Sun, to reclaim the benighted nations -from their brutish superstitions, and -to impart to them the blessings of a well-regulated -government.”</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/plate4.jpg" width="650" height="415" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">LLAMAS LADEN WITH FAGOTS COMING INTO CUZCO, PERU</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE INCAS</i><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>The Incas’ Food Supply</i></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">FOUR</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-o.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">One of the greatest aids to the Incas in extending -their domains was their abundant food supply: -the result, largely, of the great progress they had -made along agricultural lines. Although Peru is a -very mountainous country, by taking advantage of every -available inch of fertile ground where the climate permitted the -raising of crops, they were able to carry -on a system of agriculture which, in the -variety of products yielded, seems truly -marvelous. It is stated by Mr. O. F. -Cook, of the United States Department of -Agriculture, that a complete census of the -plants cultivated by the ancient Peruvians -would probably include between seventy -and eighty species.</p> - -<p>The most important products are the -maize and the potato, one world crop of -which is today more valuable than all -the gold the conquering Spaniards were -able to take out of the country. The cultivation -of corn goes very far back, -for abundant specimens have been found -in ancient graves, and the type of maize -that furnishes the bulk of the Peruvian -crop is peculiar to that region.</p> - -<p>Other plants familiar to us are the pineapple, -the sweet potato, peanuts, beans, -Lima beans, guava (gwä´-vä), alligator -pears, <i>papayas</i> (pä-pä´-yäs), and <i>chirimoyas</i> -(chee-ree-mo´-yäs), as well as many with -which we are not familiar, as <i>affu</i> (äf´-foo), -<i>arracacha</i> (är-rä-cä´-chä), <i>tintin</i> (teen´-teen), -<i>tomate</i> (to-mä´-tay), <i>purutu</i> (poo-roo´-too), -<i>quinoa</i> (keen´-o-ä), <i>occa</i> (ok´-kä), and <i>ullucu</i> -(ool-yoo´-koo). From the dried potato a -nutritious flour was made called <i>chuña</i> -(choon´-yä), which was used to thicken -stews.</p> - -<p>The coca plant (<i>Erythroxylon</i>) was -widely cultivated, but in the days of the -Incas, if we are to believe the historians, -its use was regulated by the government. -Commonly used today by their modern descendants, -it is alcohol’s most potent aid in -the degradation of the Peruvian Indian.</p> - -<p>We must not think, however, that the -Incas were vegetarians. Although they -lacked sheep, hogs and cattle, in the <i>llama</i> -(lyämä) and <i>alpaca</i> they had excellent -meat, as well as animals to provide them -with wool, and in the case of the <i>llama</i>, a -serviceable pack animal. The <i>guanacos</i> -(gwä-nä´-kos) and <i>vicuñas</i> (vi-coo´-nyas), -first cousins of the <i>llama</i>, were never -domesticated, but were hunted in large -drives superintended by representatives -of the government. In the mountains -there were rodents, such as the <i>viscacha</i> -(vee-scä´-chä), <i>chinchilla</i> (cheen-cheel´-yä), -and guinea-pigs. In the valleys there were -monkeys and parrots. At the sea-shore -and near the larger rivers fish were plentiful. -Such excellent means of communication -existed between the capital at Cuzco -and the coast, that the Incas were kept -constantly supplied with fresh fish.</p> - -<p>The prevalence of both fishing and -hunting is attested by the many depictions -of these industries found on ceramic -art objects which have been encountered -by the archeologists. Hunting was carried -on to such an extent, and the country in -general was so intensively cultivated, that -the Peruvian highlands today have less to -offer the nimrod than any other section of -the world equally uninhabited and desolate.</p> - -<p>Alcoholic beverages were used, of -course, but the government saw to it that -their manufacture did not affect other -industries. <i>Chica</i> (chee-cha) was made -from both potatoes and maize, but the -favorite brand was brewed from the <i>molle</i> -(mol-yay) berry. Then, as today, religious -feasts provided the common people with -an opportunity for debauchery, but under -the Incas there was less of the consequent -inebriety.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> -<img src="images/plate5.jpg" width="650" height="450" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE INCAS</i><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>Inca Architecture</i></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">FIVE</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">Together with the excellence of their governmental -system and the extent of their food supply, the -architecture of the ancient inhabitants of the Peruvian -plateau establishes their claim to fame. Although -early historians attempted to give the Incas themselves -the credit for the wonderful structures to be found -in Peru, it is generally believed today -that most of the megalithic remains, -such as Tiahuanaco, Sacsahuaman and -Ollantaytambo, are the work of a people -living many centuries before the -Incas, whose own traditions carry them -back only about 400 years prior to the -coming of the Spaniards. However that -may be, the ability to make equally fine -structures evidently existed down to Spanish -times, although in later years such -work became less and less common.</p> - -<p>There is a great uniformity in Inca -architecture. In the highlands the edifices -are usually built of porphyry or -granite, and in the coastal regions more -frequently of brick. The walls often have -a thickness of several feet, but are rather -low, seldom attaining more than ten or -twelve feet in height. The apartments -seldom open into each other—usually onto -a court. The doors, which ordinarily provide -the only entrance for light, are like -the Egyptian, narrower at the top. The -ruins at Machu Picchu (mä-choo peek´-choo) -and in that vicinity are remarkable -because windows are quite common in -them. As the Incas had not evolved the -arch, their doors, windows and niches were -crowned with a lintel stone, in many cases -necessarily a huge affair. Among the most -interesting features of an Inca residence -are these niches, probably used for shelves, -perhaps for shrines, although if for -that purpose there would seem to be -more of them than necessary in most -houses.</p> - -<p>The fineness of the stonework is, of -course, the most remarkable characteristic -of the Incas’ architecture. They seemed -able to fit, with equal facility, blocks of -stone weighing tons and those weighing -but a few pounds. Although they are -not known to have used the T-square, -some of their angles are very true, and -when it seemed desirable, they could build -a straight wall. Particularly beautiful are -some of their circular structures, such as -the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco.</p> - -<p>It is probable that only the temples and -palaces of the rulers were so well built, -and that the common people lived in -houses of mud and stone. One of the most -remarkable structures in Peru, the temple -of Uiraccocha (u-eer-äk-ko´-chä) at Racche -(räk´-chay), shows a combination of fine -stonework, and mud and stone. In addition, -the upper part of these walls, which -tower some thirty feet high, is of <i>adobe</i> -(a-do´-bay) only, and centuries of weathering -has done but little more damage to the -sun-dried bricks than to the granite foundations.</p> - -<p>There is something incongruous in -the fact that the roofs of the buildings -walled so beautifully, and often covered -inside with skilfully woven tapestries and -gold adornments, were commonly of -thatch. The rafters were of wood, tied on -to ring stones and projecting cylinder -stones with maguey withes. But, although -they were ignorant of iron, did -not even mortise their timbers, and were -content with a dingy, unlighted interior, -the buildings of the Incas were adapted -to the character of the climate, and the -wisdom of their plan is attested by the -number which still survive, while the -more modern constructions of the conquerors -have been buried in ruins.</p> - -<p>Providing they escape the destructive -hands of the treasure-hunting Peruvians, -only a gigantic cataclysm of the -earth’s surface can destroy these monuments -to the stoneworking skill of Peru’s -ancient inhabitants.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 475px;"> -<img src="images/plate6.jpg" width="475" height="650" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><i>THE INCAS</i><br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>Vitcos and Tampu-tocco</i></span></h2> -</div> - -<p class="line"><span class="linebg">SIX</span></p> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-plain-t.jpg" width="100" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">The location of Vitcos (veet´-kos), or Pitcos -(peet´-kos), the home of the Inca Manco after -he fled from Cuzco to the wilds of Vilcabamba -(veel-kä-bäm´-bä), was one of the questions which -students of Inca history had never answered. Arm-chair archeologists -and historians had selected the site of Choqquequirau -(chok-kā-kee-rä´-oo) (cradle of gold), which -consists of a series of extensive ruins -above the Apurimac (a-poo-ree´-mak) -River near Abancay (ä-bän-ca´-ee). His -visit to these ruins convinced Dr. Hiram -Bingham, of Yale University (now Lieut.-Colonel -Bingham), that Vitcos and Choqquequirau -could not be identical.</p> - -<p>Accordingly, in 1911 he conducted an -expedition to Peru, one object of which -was to find a place that would fit the -descriptions of the Inca’s retreat as given -by the early Spanish historians, some of -whom, <i>i.e.</i>, Father Antonio de Calancha -(än-to´-nee-o day cä-län´-chä) and Baltasar -de Ocampa (bäl-tä-sär´ day o-cäm´-pä), -had actually visited Vitcos.</p> - -<p>The expedition went down the Urubamba -(oo-roo-bäm´-bä) Valley to the -mouth of the Vilcabamba River, crossed -the Chuquichaca (choo-kee-chä´-cä) Bridge, -and went up the Vilcabamba Valley, finding -place after place which tallied with the -accounts of Ocampo (o-käm´-po) and Calancha -(cä-län´-chä). Above the little town -of Puquiura (poo-kee-oo´-ra) were encountered -ruins now called Rosaspata (ro-säs-pä´-tä). -Careful study has proved that these -fit, in every detail, the description of the -Inca’s last home.</p> - -<p>While on his way to Vitcos, Colonel Bingham -was fortunate enough to discover the -ruins of Machu Picchu. Although the -problematical existence of these ruins had -long been known, no one had ever taken -the trouble to climb to the top of the ridge -and make certain as to their location. In -so doing, Colonel Bingham came upon ruins -whose magnificent beauty alone makes -them of more than ordinary interest, -but doubly important is the discovery -because in Machu Picchu we seem to -have found at last the Tampu-tocco -(tämpoo-tok´-ko) of early Inca legends.</p> - -<p>The selection of Paccari-tampu (päk´-ka-ree-tam´-poo) -as Tampu-tocco has never -seemed justified. The slight similarity -in name, the location of a few ruins and -natural caves in that vicinity, and the -non-existence of any place which had a -better claim, made up the evidence to -substantiate the theories of those who -wished to call Paccari-tampu the cradle -of the Inca race. Machu Picchu, as -shown by Colonel Bingham,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> corroborates -in every detail the descriptions of Tampu-tocco -given by all the historians.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See The Story of Machu Picchu, by Hiram -Bingham. Nat. Geo. Mag., Feb., 1915, and Vitcos, -ibid., Proceedings of the Am. Antiquarian Soc., -April, 1912.</p> -</div> - -<p>In addition, it appears that Machu Picchu -may also be Vilcabamba, the old, the mysterious -place three days’ journey from -Vitcos, to which, as told by Father -Calancha, two monks were taken by the -Incas while they were in that region seeking -his conversion. No situation at all -plausible has ever been suggested for this -mythical locality. Granting that Machu -Picchu is Tampu-tocco, the presence of -two distinct cultures and skeleton remains, -chiefly of women and effeminate men, would -seem to indicate that on his retreat to Vitcos -the Inca Manco made use of the wonderfully -concealed first home of the Incas to -provide safe retirement for the priests and -priestesses of the Sun.</p> - -<p>A very important part of the work of -modern archeology lies in identifying the -location of the cities and towns which have -a place in Inca tradition and history. The -finding of the first and last home of the -Incas by Colonel Bingham’s expeditions -is only the beginning of a great deal of -similar work which awaits the archeologist -in Peru.</p> - -<p class="center smaller">PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION<br /> -ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151<br /> -COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.</p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<p class="center larger">THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY<br /> -MARCH 15, 1918</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/illus15.jpg" width="500" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, PACCARITAMBO—Near view of the gateway</p> -</div> - -<h2>THE INCAS</h2> - -<p class="center">By OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and Chief Assistant and Interpreter of the Peruvian -Expeditions of 1914-1915, under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society</i></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><i>MENTOR GRAVURES</i></p> - -<p class="center">RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY · SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST -FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU · ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU · -DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA · LLAMAS COMING INTO CUZCO · -RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA, NEAR SICUANI, PERU</p> - -</div> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p>NOTE.—All pictures in this Mentor are reproduced by permission of the National Geographic Society and the South American Exploration -Fund of Yale University, under whose auspices the Peruvian Expeditions directed by Dr. Hiram Bingham have taken place.</p> - -<p>NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.—The letter “<i>ä</i>” with two dots above is pronounced as in “father”; the “<i>ā</i>” with a horizontal -line above is pronounced as in “ray.”</p> - -<p>Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, -1918, by The Mentor Association, Inc.</p> - -</div> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-italic-t.jpg" width="113" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">There is probably no part of the world that stimulates more -curiosity in an archeologist or even in a casual traveler than -that part of South America which was once inhabited by the -Incas of Peru. Tiahuanaco’s (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko) finely carved -gateway and its ponderous stone platforms, Sacsahuaman’s -(saks-ä-wa´-män) gigantic walls, Ollantaytambo’s (ol-yän-tie-tam´-bo) -monolithic fortress, and Machu Picchu’s (mä´-choo peek´-choo) picturesque -grandeur fill one with an admiration for their builders which is -only equaled by the sorrow that today, over three centuries after the advent -of Pizarro (pee-sä´-ro) and his <i>conquistadores</i> (con-kees-tä-do´-rays), we can -do little more than make conjectures concerning the ancient Peruvians.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus16a.jpg" width="300" height="189" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF PATALLACTA—A Typical Inca Temple</p> -</div> - -<p>And, furthermore, it is doubtful if we can ever go very far in solving -the problem of man in the Andes. Although they made great progress -in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and the science of government, -the ancient Peruvians did not achieve the art of writing, nor did they -even reach the stage -of hieroglyphics. -Their records were -kept on <i>quipus</i> -(kee-poos), variously -colored strings -with many different -kinds of knots. -These seem, however, -to have been -used only for accounting -purposes. -Thus far, the <i>quipus</i> -in possession of our -archeologists have -been of no particular -aid in deciphering the history of their makers. Accordingly, what -we know of the Incas consists of traditions gathered together by early -Spaniards, and the work of present-day students who, by modern -archeological methods, are slowly bringing some light to bear on this -apparently insolvable problem.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus16b.jpg" width="300" height="178" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">PISAC</p> -<p class="caption">Terraces below the principal ruins, still used for growing wheat -and barley</p> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> -<img src="images/illus17a.jpg" width="179" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">DOORWAY</p> -<p class="caption">In ruins, now known as Rosaspata, -but which Dr. Bingham has -shown are probably those known -to the Incas as “Vitcos,” the last -home of the Incas</p> -</div> - -<h3><i>Origin of American Aborigines</i></h3> - -<p>Although there are many ideas advanced as to the origin of the American -aborigine, it is commonly believed that he came from northeastern -Asia and gradually moved southward. Archeologists and geologists are -all agreed that he arrived at the close of the glacial epoch, long -after the disappearance of the prehistoric animals which Dr. Matthew -described for Mentor readers some time ago. When he came to this -continent he had probably already reached the higher stages of the -Stone Age, and was possibly already in the Bronze Age. Just how -long it has been since his arrival we cannot tell.</p> - -<p>Although the number of -traditions concerning the -origin of the Inca empire is -legion, the two best known -are the Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä) -and Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko) -legends. The former -has been given us by the -immortal Prescott, relying on -the Commentaries of the Inca -Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-sil´-ä-so -day lä vay-gä). From him -we know there was a time -when the ancient races of the continent were all -plunged in deplorable barbarism. “The Sun, the -grand luminary and parent of mankind, taking -compassion on their degraded condition, sent two -of his children, Manco Ccapac (män´-ko k-kä´-päk) -and Mama Occlo (mä´-mä ok´-klo), to gather the -natives into communities and teach them the arts -of civilized life. The celestial pair, brother and -sister, husband and wife, advanced along the high -plains in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca to -about the 16th degree south. They bore with -them a golden wedge, and were directed to take -up their residence on the spot where the sacred -emblem should without effort sink into the ground. -They proceeded but a short distance—as far as the -valley of Cuzco (koos´-ko), the spot indicated by -the performance of the miracle; there the wedge -speedily sank into the earth and disappeared forever. -On this spot the children of the Sun established -their residence, and laid the foundations of -the city of Cuzco.”</p> - -<div class="figleft"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus17b.jpg" width="300" height="178" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF PATALLACTA</p> -<p class="caption">Showing niches with holes for bar locks in the upper room of the temple on -top of the rock</p> -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus18a.jpg" width="300" height="175" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">INCA FORTRESS WALL, SACSAHUAMAN</p> -<p class="caption">The gigantic size of the stones and the precision with which they are fitted, -without mortar, bear testimony to the engineering genius of the Inca megalithic -builders</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<p>The Titicaca myth, however, does not receive as much consideration -today as the Tampu-tocco (täm´-poo-tok´-ko) myth. The former is characterized -by the late Sir Clements Markham as an obvious invention to -account for the ancient ruins and statues in the vicinity of Tiahuanaco -(tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko), and on the islands of Titicaca and Koati (ko-ä´-tee). -“It has no historical value,” he says, “while the Tampu-tocco myth is as -certainly the outcome of a real tradition, and is the fabulous version of a -distant historical event.”</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 212px;"> -<img src="images/illus18b.jpg" width="212" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">CUZCO, PERU</p> -<p class="caption">PALACE OF THE INCA ROCCA</p> -<p class="caption">A large gravure picture of this massive -structure will be found in The Mentor -(No. 132) on “Peru”</p> -</div> - -<p>The story is somewhat as follows. At a distance from Cuzco is a -place called “Tampu-tocco” -(“House of the -Windows”). This was -long considered to be -identical with “Paccari-tampu” -(päk´-kä-ree-tam´-poo) -(“House of -the Dawn”), but the -explorations and study -of Dr. Bingham have -shown that the evidence -is in favor of his -statement that Machu -Picchu is Tampu-tocco. -From this locality, at a -date placed by students -somewhere between -950 B. C. and 200 A. -D., came four brothers -accompanied by four -sisters. Their leader, -Manco (män´-ko) (the -princely), succeeded in -making away with his -three brothers, so that -at length, on their arrival -at Cuzco, where -the golden rod which -this Manco also carried -sank into the ground, -the first Inca and his -sisters were able to found their kingdom without rivals. Under the -leadership of Manco and his successors, sometimes known as “Pre-Megaliths,” -the empire grew. In the seventeenth or nineteenth reign a change -in dynasty took place, and thenceforth the megalithic monarchs, who -were often distinguished and skilful astrologers and reformers, ruled with -the title of Amauta (ä-mä-oo´-tä).</p> - -<p>About 450 A. D. came the end of this dynasty. Pachacuti (pä-chä-koo´-tee) -VI, a ruler of peoples on the east, south and west and subject -tribes, had risen in revolt. The invaders ultimately retired, but the power -of Cuzco was broken, and the ruler slain. The city was left to the priests, -and the inhabitants, under a new sovereign, -took refuge at Tampu-tocco, where some -twenty-four princes ruled in succession. At -length, when the provinces once under the control -of the princes of Cuzco had relapsed into -barbarism, a woman of high birth named Siyu-yacu -(see´-yoo-yä´-koo), contrived a plot to -place on the throne one who would initiate -a bold attempt to recover the power once -possessed by their forefathers. The individual -selected was Siyu-yacu’s own son, -Rocca (rok´-kä). The plot was successful, -and Rocca, later known as Sinchi Rocca -(seen´-chee rok´-kä) or the Great Rocca, was -the first of the Inca sovereigns whose reign -looms up clearly enough to remove it from the -realm of traditions and give it a place, although -slightly hazy, in history. From the accession -of Rocca to the throne, about 1100 A. D., down -to the murder of Tupac Amaru (too´-päk ä´-mä-roo) in 1671 by the Viceroy -Francisco de Toledo (frän-sees´-ko day to-lay-do), the course of events is -fairly well authenticated. It is to this period that a discussion of the -Incas must necessarily be confined.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus19a.jpg" width="300" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">ALPACAS</p> -<p class="caption">A semi-domesticated animal resembling sheep, and -yielding a long, fine wool, usually brown or black</p> -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus19b.jpg" width="300" height="157" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">GROUP OF LLAMAS IN JULIACA</p> -</div> - -<h3><i>When the Spanish Came</i></h3> - -<p>When the Spaniards arrived, the little kingdom of Cuzco had already -grown to an empire that extended to the equator on the north, and was -bounded on the south by the River Maule (mä´-oo-lay) in southern Chile -(chee´-lay). On the west it extended to the Pacific Ocean, and on the east -faded away in the torrid forests of the Amazon and the rolling hills of the -Argentine uplands. The Incas had succeeded in conquering the many -tribes scattered over this whole region, and for the most part had -enforced the use of their own language, the Quichua (kee´-choo-a). -They had evolved a system of government which, expanding from that -of a village community, had met the needs of a vast empire; and they had -done it so gradually that the inhabitants -at large had been conscious of little -change save in the direction of increased -prosperity and security.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus20a.jpg" width="400" height="238" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MACHU PICCHU RUINS</p> -<p class="caption">General view, showing growth covering ruins</p> -</div> - -<h3><i>Inca Government and Religion</i></h3> - -<p>The Inca government was a despotism. -The Inca—the chief magistrate -of the dominant tribe—had absolute -powers, and as a direct descendant of -the Sun was also vested with sacred attributes. -Surrounding him and under -him were his immediate family. His -official wife was his sister, and from their -offspring was chosen the successor of -the Inca. The elder was usually designated, -although this rule was broken in -several instances where the -younger brother seemed -more able. Next in the -social scale were the nobles, -or <i>orejones</i> (o-ray-ho´-naze), -as they were called by the -Spaniards. These officials -wore very large earrings. -The lobe of the ear was -often distorted so that -ornaments several inches -in diameter were inserted. -Under the <i>orejones</i> -came the -<i>caracas</i> (cä-rä´-cäs), -or inspectors, -who had -charge of the -census, the estimation -of local -resources, and -the imposition -and collection of -tribute. Their -work was chiefly -administrative, -and the actual -government was -left to district -magistrates and judges, who acted as tax-collectors also. Finally, there -were the common people. These were divided for military purposes into -10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s, and the mobilization of the Inca armies was -almost Teutonic in its ease and precision.</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus20b.jpg" width="300" height="176" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OLLANTAYTAMBO—The Town and Fortress</p> -</div> - -<p>As might be expected, the Inca religion included the worship of many -things. The priestly historians always characterize it as extremely vile; -but those of Inca ancestry insist that it was remarkably pure and spiritual, -consisting of only one true worship, that of the Sun. Only those that -have experienced life in the Peruvian highlands and have endured the -enervation of its cold altitudes can realize how certainly must the early -peoples have turned to the worship of that force which alone makes life -endurable or possible on the Peruvian plateau.</p> - -<p>The places of worship were usually temples, so located as to catch the -first rays of the rising sun. <i>Huacas</i> (wä´-käs), such as large rocks or springs, -were, of course, worshiped where they were situated, and oft-times were surrounded -by temples. -In the case of stones, -shelves or platforms -were carved, on which -the priests stood while -making their offerings -to the Sun god.</p> - -<p>The worship was -carried on by priests -and <i>mamaconas</i> (mä-mä-ko´-näs), -the latter, -the priestesses, directed -the lives of the virgins -of the Sun. The most -beautiful girls -of the kingdom -were gathered -together from all -parts of the land. -The most attractive -became the -wives of the Inca, -after they had -passed through a -severe training -in the various -feminine arts; -others took the -vows and became -<i>mamaconas</i>, -while the -rest either became wives of the nobles or were sent back to their homes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus21a.jpg" width="400" height="239" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MACHU PICCHU</p> -<p class="caption">Sacred Plaza and Intihuatana Hill</p> -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus21b.jpg" width="400" height="238" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OLLANTAYTAMBO—The Fortress</p> -</div> - -<p>Many different feasts were celebrated, the most famous being those -of Intip Raymi (een´-teep rye´-mee) and Situa (see´-too-a). The former -was celebrated in June at the winter solstice, the object being to secure -the return of the Sun. It lasted for nine days, was celebrated by all the -ruling caste, and was always successful. Situa was celebrated in August, -and the movable <i>huacas</i> were transported to Cuzco from all over the -empire. There were also many feasts of local and family significance, -as those of name-giving and adolescence.</p> - -<p>The rites of worship were sacrifice, prayers, confession, and fasting. -Although there has been a great deal of controversy over this point, it is -generally accepted that, unlike the Mexican peoples, the Incas did not -make human sacrifices. Offerings of food, libations and animal sacrifices -were the customary procedure. Some of the Inca prayers which -have come down to us are remarkable for their beauty and spiritual qualities. -Confession was -made to a priest. Fasting -was usually observed -by those desirous -of entering some -sacred spot, as at the -end of a pilgrimage, -and is said to have -been at times of twenty -days’ duration. The -more famous pilgrimages -were those to -Pachacamac (pä-chä-kä´-mac) -and Titicaca.</p> - -<h3><i>Peasant and Labor Conditions</i></h3> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;"> -<img src="images/illus22a.jpg" width="179" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">OLLANTAYTAMBO</p> -<p class="caption">Lower terrace of Fortress</p> -</div> - -<p>“The condition of the peasant in Peru,” -summarizes Mr. T. A. Joyce, “approximated -nearer to the ideals of the doctrinaire -socialist than in any country of the world. -But it was at a price which, perhaps, the -native of no other country would consent -to pay. From the cradle to the grave the -life of the individual was marked out for -him; as he was born, so would he die, and -he lived his allotted span under the ceaseless -supervision of officials. His dress was -fixed according to his district; he might not -leave his village except at the bidding of -the state, and then only for state purposes; -he might not even seek a wife outside of his -own community. An individual of ability -might, perhaps, rise to be one of the subordinate -inspectors, but the higher ranks were -inexorably closed to him.”</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus22b.jpg" width="300" height="200" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">THE CONCACHA STONE</p> -<p class="caption">A famous “Huaca” (meaning “holy”). The name was -applied to material objects, such as rocks, etc., which -were worshiped</p> -</div> - -<p>Because of this despotism, which placed -all the labor in the hands of the state, -the Incas were able to achieve marvels in the way of building, road-making, -irrigation works, and agricultural engineering. Inherently an -agricultural people, the greatest efforts of the ancient Peruvians seem to -have been exerted, not in building tombs for the dead, as did the Egyptians, -but in making conditions better for the living. It is true that a -great deal of labor was expended on the wonderful palaces of their rulers. -Each successive Inca thought it necessary to rear an edifice for himself. -But the greater part was employed for the benefit of the country as a -whole, in irrigation and other projects. Water was brought many miles, -and regions which today are desolate -through the Spaniards’ failure to -keep in repair the ditches and canals -were flourishing agricultural communities -in the days of the Incas. -Rampant streams that threatened -to destroy fertile valleys were penned -within stone walls. Roads made -throughout the whole dominion were -useful, of course, for the transportation -of troops, but especially -valuable because the intershipment -of crops was thereby made easy.</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;"> -<img src="images/illus23a.jpg" width="182" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MACHU PICCHU</p> -<p class="caption">Intihuatana Hill and Stairway</p> -</div> - -<h3><i>Agriculture and Architecture</i></h3> - -<p>As might be expected in a mountainous country, where a wide stretch -of level ground is but seldom encountered, the construction of miles upon -miles of terraces was necessary. “Many slopes,” writes Mr. O. F. Cook, -of the United States Department of Agriculture, “have more than fifty -terraces, forming huge staircases as high as the Washington Monument, -resting against the lower slopes of mountains that tower thousands of -feet above.”</p> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/illus23b.jpg" width="400" height="247" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS ON KOATI ISLAND</p> -<p class="caption">The famous Island of the Moon</p> -</div> - -<p>The stonework of the prehistoric builders excites the wonder and -admiration of the beholder—admiration for the grand and beautiful -simplicity of the Inca masonry, wonder as to the methods employed in -its accomplishment. What the means were we do not know—at best we -can only conjecture. The modern Indians—in -fact, many of the upper class of Peruvians—prefer -to explain it by magical methods, such as softening -the rocks by rubbing them with the juice of some -plant or fruit. Only the combined labor of hundreds -of people, understanding the lever and the -inclined plane, could have moved some of the huge -rocks that form many of the walls. And moving -them would be the easiest part of the work. How -they succeeded in fitting these monoliths together, -so that in places the joints are too fine for the naked -eye to discern, is quite beyond the ken of the -modern stone-worker. Formerly it was thought -that the larger terraces were chiefly for defensive -purposes; but the fact that these, as well as those -more plainly agricultural in character, show the -underlying strata of stones to be covered with fine -agricultural soils that -must have been -brought from a distance, -would indicate, -according to -some of our scientists, -that these also -were used to produce -crops. The importance -attached to -agriculture can be -understood from the -fact that the majority -of the terraces -equal in fineness of -masonry even the -palaces of the Incas. Lacking -timber, the Incas used stone as -the chief building material, and, -although they had not evolved -the pure arch, they had learned -to secure strength through the -keying together of irregular -blocks, and, as Dr. Bingham -writes, “had developed many -ingenious devices, such as lock-holes -for fastening a bar back of -the door; ringstones, which were -inserted in the gables to enable -the rafters to be tied on; and projecting cylinder stones, which could be -used as points to which to tie the roof and keep it from blowing off.”</p> - -<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;"> -<img src="images/illus24b.jpg" width="179" height="300" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF TORONTOY</p> -<p class="caption">Showing window, a projecting cylinder -stone and lock-hole</p> -</div> - -<p>Sculpture existed only in a rude form, and the decoration of Inca pottery -did not equal that of the coast people. Their ceramic products are -marked by simple and graceful lines, rather Grecian in effect, and of -striking simplicity and utility. They had arrived at a high degree of -skill in the manufacture of textiles, for the <i>llama</i> and <i>alpaca</i> provided -them with excellent raw material.</p> - -<p>Although they were unfamiliar with refined methods of heat treatment, -and so were compelled to sacrifice extra hardness and strength by increasing -the tin content, they had learned the art of cold working, and produced -many kinds of bronze implements. Some of these were of an excellent -temper, and, together with obsidian knives, -were used for trepanning. Inca methods of -warfare, the use of slings and war clubs, naturally -caused many wounds which could be -relieved only by such operations.</p> - -<p>In war their skill was defensive rather than -offensive. They built salients and re-entrant -angles in their walls, and dry moats are often -encountered.</p> - -<p>They domesticated the South American -camel (the <i>llama</i>), which enabled them to carry -out engineering and agricultural works far -more difficult than they could have accomplished -had they been obliged to depend on -human bearers. In addition to maize, potatoes, -and cassava, they had many other important -crops, such as pineapples, peanuts, and -cotton. Great is the treasure of precious and -base metals which has come, and is to come, -from Peru. But that sinks into insignificance -beside the value of one corn and -potato crop throughout the world. -And in the future it seems not -at all unlikely that the Incas, famous -for centuries for their system -of government, their masonry, and -the treasures which the Spaniards -took from them, will be yet more -famous for the extent to which they -developed agriculture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus24a.jpg" width="300" height="185" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">RUINS OF TORONTOY</p> -<p class="caption">The man is seated on a carved rock, probably an altar</p> -</div> - -<div class="figmulti" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus25a.jpg" width="300" height="210" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">INCA IMPLEMENTS</p> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 220px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>We can do no better, in closing -this account of the old Peruvian empire, than to quote from Mr. -Prescott’s imperishable work, “The Conquest of Peru,” the following -summary of the characteristics of Inca -culture:</p> - -<p>“Under the rule of the Incas, the -meanest of the people enjoyed a far -greater degree of personal comfort than -was possessed by similar classes in other -nations on the American continent—greater -probably, than in feudal Europe. Under -their scepter, the higher order of the state -had made advances in many of the arts -that belong to a cultivated community. -By the well-sustained policy of the Incas, -the rude tribes of the forest were gradually -gathered within the folds of civilization, -and of these materials was constructed -a flourishing and populous empire, such as -was to be found in no other part of America.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 312px;"> -<img src="images/illus25b.jpg" width="312" height="400" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">INCA POTTERY AND INSTRUMENTS</p> -</div> - -<h3><i>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</i></h3> - -<table summary="Books"> - <tr> - <td>EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA</td><td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><i>By Ales Hrlicka</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="smaller">Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF PERU</td><td class="tdr"><i>By W. H. Prescott</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>THE INCAS OF PERU</td><td class="tdr"><i>By Sir Clements R. Markham</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>SOUTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY</td><td class="tdr"><i>By Thomas A. Joyce</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>STAIRCASE FARMS OF THE ANCIENTS</td><td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><i>By O. F. Cook</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="smaller">National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>FURTHER EXPLORATIONS IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS</td><td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><i>By Dr. Hiram Bingham</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="smaller">National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>THE STORY OF MACHU PICCHU</td><td class="tdr" rowspan="2"><i>By Dr. Hiram Bingham</i></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="smaller">National Geographic Magazine, Volume 27, No. 2</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bordered"> - -<h2>THE OPEN LETTER</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> -<img src="images/illus26.jpg" width="300" height="263" alt="" /> -<p class="caption">MONOLITHIC GATEWAY AT TIAHUANACO</p> -</div> - -<p>We are indebted to Dr. Hiram Bingham -and his Peruvian Expeditions for -the interesting picture material in this -number of The Mentor. Dr. Bingham -(Lieut.-Colonel Bingham) became interested -in South America when he was -in Yale University, and in 1906 he took -an expedition over the historic march of -Bolivar from Venezuela to Colombia. -Two years later, when Colonel Bingham -was appointed a -delegate to the -first Pan American -Scientific -Congress at Santiago, -Chile, he -went there by -way of Bolivia -and Peru, and, -while in Peru, -he visited the -ruins of Choqquequirau -(meaning -the “cradle of -gold”), said to be -the last home of -the Incas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>Colonel Bingham’s -studies led -him to think that -the legend was wrong. So, in 1911, he -set off to Peru, with a party of six, his -objects being to hunt for “Vitcos” (the -name of the last home of the Incas) -and to make an ascent of Corropuna, reputed -to be a rival of Aconcagua for the -honor of being the highest mountain in -South America. The expedition was -very successful. Corropuna was scaled, -and found to be somewhat lower than -Aconcagua. Vitcos was found at Rosaspata -and not at Choqquequirau. The -reputed bottomless lake of Parinaccochas -was found to be no more than four feet in -depth, and, best of all, Machu Picchu was -discovered.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>All this was so important that the National -Geographic Society decided to assist -in another expedition to carry on the -good work. Accordingly, the Peruvian -Expedition of 1912, under the auspices of -Yale University and the National Geographic -Society, was sent out. It cleared -the way, photographed and mapped -Machu Picchu, and made many other explorations. -A report of this expedition -was received with so much interest, and the -pictures were considered so beautiful, that -the Peruvian Expedition of 1914-1915 was -organized under the same auspices. This -expedition accomplished a great amount -of additional work -in the way of map -making and archeological -research, -collecting flora -and fauna from -districts previously -unvisited, and -determining the -location of several -rivers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px;"> -<img src="images/stars.jpg" width="100" height="19" alt="(decorative)" /> -</div> - -<p>A vast amount -of important historical -material -has been gathered -by these expeditions, -and The -Mentor is very -fortunate in being -permitted to -use photographs collected in the course -of the expeditions, and in having a -member of the party as author of this -article. In connection with Mr. Hardy’s -account of the Incas, Colonel Bingham -writes to The Mentor as follows:</p> - -<div class="smaller"> - -<p>“Within the confines of the ancient Inca empire, -the archeologist can find a field for work, which, in -the beauty of its natural surroundings, and the healthfulness -of its climate, together with the interest lent -by the present-day inhabitants, is equal, if not superior -to, any other part of the earth’s surface.</p> - -<p>“In the past, its comparative inaccessibility has -been a very great deterrent to systematic work in the -regions once occupied by the Incas. Now, better -steamship connections with the rest of the world, and -increasing railway mileage within, have greatly lessened -the transportation difficulties.</p> - -<p>“The solution of the problem of man in the Andes -has only begun, and it is to be hoped that American -students will have many -future opportunities to enter -this field of research.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> - -<img src="images/signature.jpg" width="200" height="94" alt="(signature)" /> -<p class="caption">W. D. Moffat<br /> -<span class="smcap">Editor</span></p> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<div class="bbox-dashed"> - -<h2>The Mentor on the Ranch</h2> - -<div> -<img class="dropcap" src="images/dropcap-ornate-i.jpg" width="76" height="100" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="dropcap">I want to let you know how this little -ranch-woman has enjoyed her part in -The Mentor Course. I would not take -the influence of the pictures alone out of -my family for many times the cost. I am deeply -interested in all the subjects, but Nature comes -first. When my husband and I ride among the -whispering pines far up the sides of El Capitan or -through the dainty ferns in some deep canyon, -where only the tops of the dark towering firs know -what the day is like, and the tiny streams slip -swiftly and songfully over and through the rocks, -I feel the quieting presence of God—and all the -worrisome, tawdry business of life sinks down -into the unimportant place where it really belongs. -I wish The Mentor all profit and success in the -good work it is doing in bringing people nearer to -the real, big things of the world.</p> - -<p class="right">MRS. C. R. DEAN, Lincoln, New Mexico</p> - -<div class="bordered2"> - -<p class="center larger"><span class="smcap">The Mentor Association</span></p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="noindent">ESTABLISHED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A POPULAR INTEREST -IN ART, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, HISTORY, NATURE, AND TRAVEL</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center">THE MENTOR IS PUBLISHED TWICE A MONTH</p> - -<p class="noindent">BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC., AT 114-116 EAST 16TH STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. -SUBSCRIPTION, FOUR DOLLARS A YEAR. FOREIGN POSTAGE 75 CENTS EXTRA. -CANADIAN POSTAGE 50 CENTS EXTRA. SINGLE COPIES TWENTY CENTS. PRESIDENT, -THOMAS H. BECK; VICE-PRESIDENT, WALTER P. TEN EYCK; SECRETARY, W. -D. MOFFAT; TREASURER, J. S. CAMPBELL; ASSISTANT TREASURER AND ASSISTANT -SECRETARY, H. A. CROWE.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<hr /> - -<p class="center larger">THE MENTOR</p> - -<p class="center larger">Just a Word About -Railroads and Mails</p> - -<div class="bordered2"> - -<p>The railroads are in an unprecedented -condition of congestion, and the mail -trains, carrying second-class matter, -are from two to eight days late in -arriving at their destinations.</p> - -<p>If you do not receive your copy of -The Mentor on the day it is due, please -do not take it for granted that you -have been neglected. Your copy is -probably being held up somewhere -along the line. Wait a few days before -you write us; it will save us both a -great deal of trouble, and your copy -will probably be delivered to you -before we can reply to your letter.</p> - -<p>We wish it were in our power to prevent -this annoyance, but as we are -helpless, we can only ask you to be -patient and considerate.</p> - -</div> - -<p class="center larger">The Mentor Association</p> - -<p class="center larger">MAKE THE SPARE<br /> -MOMENT COUNT</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 481px;"> -<img src="images/back.jpg" width="481" height="700" alt="Back cover page: Just a Word About Railroads and Mails" /> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Mentor: The Incas, vol. 6, num. 3, -Serial No. 151, March 15, 1918, by Osgood Hardy - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: NO. 151, MARCH 15, 1918 *** - -***** This file should be named 51322-h.htm or 51322-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/1/3/2/51322/ - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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