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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Mentor: The Incas, vol. 6, num. 3, Serial No. 151, March 15, 1918 - -Author: Osgood Hardy - -Release Date: February 28, 2016 [EBook #51322] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MENTOR: NO. 151, MARCH 15, 1918 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - THE MENTOR 1918.03.15, No. 151, - The Incas - - - - - LEARN ONE THING - EVERY DAY - - MARCH 15 1918 SERIAL NO. 151 - - THE - MENTOR - - THE INCAS - - By - OSGOOD HARDY, M. A. - - DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6 - HISTORY NUMBER 3 - - TWENTY CENTS A COPY - - - - -WORSHIPERS OF THE SUN - - -The deity whose worship the Incas especially inculcated, and which -they never failed to establish wherever their banners were known to -penetrate, was the Sun. It was he who, in a particular manner, presided -over the destinies of man; gave light and warmth to the nations, and -life to the vegetable world; whom they reverenced as the father of -their royal dynasty, the founder of their empire; and whose temples -rose in every city and almost every village throughout the land. - -Besides the Sun, the Incas acknowledged various objects of worship, -in some way or other connected with this principal deity. Such was -the Moon, his sister-wife; the Stars, revered as part of her heavenly -train, though the fairest of them, Venus, known to the Peruvians by -the name of Chasca, or the “youth with the long and curling locks,” -was adored as the page of the Sun, whom he attends so closely in his -rising and in his setting. They dedicated temples also to the Thunder -and Lightning, in whom they recognized the Sun’s dread ministers, and -to the Rainbow, whom they worshiped as a beautiful emanation of their -glorious deity. - -In addition to these, the subjects of the Incas enrolled among their -inferior deities many objects in nature, as the elements, the winds, -the earth, the air, great mountains and rivers, which impressed them -with ideas of sublimity and power, or were supposed in some way or -other to exercise a mysterious influence over the destinies of man. - -But the worship of the Sun constituted the peculiar care of the Incas, -and was the object of their lavish expenditure. The most renowned of -the Peruvian temples, the pride of the capital, and the wonder of -the empire, was at Cuzco, where, under the munificence of successive -sovereigns, it had become so enriched that it received the name of -“The Place of Gold.” It consisted of a principal building and several -chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of ground in the -heart of the city, and completely encompassed by a wall, which, with -the edifices, was all constructed of stone. - -The interior of the temple was most worthy of admiration. It was -literally a mine of gold. On the western wall was emblazoned a -representation of the deity, consisting of a human countenance looking -forth from amidst innumerable rays of light which emanated from it in -every direction, in the same manner as the sun is often personified -with us. The figure was engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous -dimensions, thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones. It was -so situated in front of the great eastern portal that the rays of the -morning sun fell directly upon it at its rising, lighting up the whole -apartment with an effulgence that seemed more than natural, and which -was reflected back from the golden ornaments with which the walls and -ceiling were everywhere encrusted. Gold, in the figurative language -of the people, was “the tears wept by the Sun,” and every part of the -interior of the temple glowed with burnished plates and studs of the -precious metal. - -From Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru.” - - - - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Tellers of the Story_ - -ONE - - -Rude and destructive as were most of the Spanish _conquistadores_ -(con-kees-tä-dõ´-rays), many of them sympathized with the conquered -people, and it is from the records of their impressions that we have -obtained most of what we know about the Incas. Four of these Castilian -diarists whose work is most valued were soldiers. Of their number, -Pedro de Cieza de Leon (pay´-dro day see´-ay-sa day lay´-on) has given -us the fullest and most interesting account of the ancient Peruvians. -Only a boy of fourteen was he when he embarked on the Spanish Main, -and he was only nineteen when, in 1538, he joined an expedition up the -valley of the Cauca (kä-oo´-kä). He commenced his chronicle in 1541, -and for ten years traveled from one end of Peru to the other, writing -down his impressions as he went. The first part of his journal was -published in 1554. Juan de Betanzos (hwän day bay-tän´-sos), another -soldier, has left us but a portion of his work. We have only the record -used by Friar Gregorio de Garcia (gray-go´-rio day gar-see´-a) in the -first two chapters of his “Origen (o-ree´-hen) de los Indios,” and -an incomplete manuscript in the Escurial (ay-skoo-ree-al). This was -edited and printed in 1880 by Jimenez de la Espada (hee-may´-nes day -lä ay-spä´-dä). Betanzos’ work is valuable, as he learned the Quichua -(kee´-choo-a) language and was an official interpreter. Pedro Sarmiento -de Gamboa (pay´-dro sär-mi-ayn´-to day gäm-bo´-ä), a militant sailor, -accompanied the Viceroy Toledo (to-lay´-do), and was employed by him -to write a history of the Incas. Finished in 1572, it is without doubt -the most authentic and reliable we possess as regards the course of -events. Pedro Pizarro, a cousin of the conqueror, was also a historian -of merit, finishing the “Relaciones” (rā-lä-see´-o-nays) at Arequipa -(är-ay-kee´-pä) in 1571. - -The writings of lawyers have been of little value, although Prescott -made use of the unpublished “Relaciones” of Polo de Ondegardo (po´-lo -day on-day-gär´-do), written in 1561 and 1570. - -The priests were the most diligent inquirers respecting the native -religion, rites, and ceremonies. Vincente de Valverde (vis-ayn´-tä day -väl-vayr-day) was the first priest to come to Peru, but he stayed only -a short time and wrote very little. The best known clerical author is -Josef de Acosta (hos´-ayf day ä-cos´-tä), who was in Peru from 1570 -to 1586, and traveled over the greater part of the country. Cristoval -Molina’s (krees-to´-väl mo-lee´-nä) “Report on the Fables and Rites -of the Incas,” written previous to 1584, is also valuable, for he was -a master of the Quichua language. Fernando Montesinos (fayr-nän-do -mon-tay-see´-nos), who, with his amazing list of kings, traced Inca -ancestry back to Noah, was until recently given little consideration. -But lately his work, “Ophir de España, Memorias Historiales (o-feer´ -day ay-spän-yä may-mo´-ree-äs ees-tor-ee-a´-läs) y Políticos del Peru -(po-lee´-tee-cos dayl pay-roo´),” written about 1644, has been given -more credence, since it seems probable that much of it was based on -the writings of Blas Valera (bläs vä-lay-rä). The premature death of -the latter and the disposal of his valuable manuscripts is described -by Markham as the most deplorable loss that Inca civilization has -sustained. His work was used extensively by Garcilaso de la Vega -(gär-see-lä´-so day la vay-gä), a grandnephew of the Inca Huayna Ccapac -(wy´-nä k-kä´-päk). He is the most famous of all the historians, and is -quoted some eighty times by Prescott. - -The works of many of these authors and of others less famous are -available today in English, as a result of the indefatigable efforts -of Sir Clements Markham, whose translations have been published by the -Hakluyt Society. There are still many interesting and valuable old -manuscripts reposing in the archives of Madrid (mäd-reed´) and Seville -(say-veel´-yay), which have yet to be discovered, edited, and given -to the world. Of the Spanish historians who have been engaged in this -work, Dr. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada is probably the best known. An -excellent bibliography of Peruviana has been prepared by Markham and is -published in “The History of the Incas,” Publications of the Hakluyt -Society, Series II, Vol. XXII, Cambridge, England. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACCOCHA NEAR -SICUANI, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Inca Sovereigns_ - -TWO - - -The Inca sovereigns about whom tradition tells us enough so that they -may be considered historical personages are twelve in number. The -first of these, Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok-kä), or Rocca the Great, -was the first ruler after the return of the Incas to Cuzco (coos´-ko) -at the close of their long exile in Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko). He -reigned from 1134-1197, according to the chronology of Dr. Gonzales -de la Rosa (gon-sä-lays day lä ro´-sä), the most eminent of modern -Peruvian historians. Rocca owed his position to a cleverly executed -plot contrived by his mother. She dressed him in glittering gold -apparel, and hid him in the Chingana (cheen-gä´-nä) Cave on Sacsahuaman -(säk-sä-wä´-män) Hill. At intervals for several days excited Cuzqueñans -(koos-kayn-yäns) beheld a golden vision moving on the fortress heights. -Eventually, after their curiosity and fanatical credulity had been -sufficiently aroused, the vision descended into the city. It gave -itself over to the crowd, allowed itself to be conducted to the temple, -and there proclaimed itself the adopted son of the Solar Deity. Under -Rocca, the Temple of the Sun was enlarged and the city greatly improved. - -There is some question among historians as to the acts of Rocca’s -successors, Lloque Yupanqui (lyo´-kay yoo-pän´-kee) and Mayta Ccapac -(my´-tä k-kä´-päk), who reigned from 1197-1246, and 1246-1276, -respectively. Garcilaso (gär-see-lä´-so) records their conquering the -Cana (kä´-nä) and Colla (kol´-yä) people in the southwest, building -a Sun Temple at Hatun-Colla (ä-toom-kol´-yä), carrying on warfare -along the shores of Lake Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä), and Lake Aullagas -(aul-yä´-gas), and on the west, going as far as Lake Parinaccochas -(pär-een-äk-ko´-chäs) and Arequipa (a-ray-kee´-pä). But the majority -of historians represent the first three Incas as confining themselves -more or less to the Cuzco Valley, and gradually, by diplomatic means, -extending their influence over the surrounding inhabitants. - -Ccapac Yupanqui (yoo-pän-kee), 1276-1321, made the region to the -southeast the theatre of his operations, and Garcilaso credits him with -reaching Potosi (po-tos´-ee). Inca Rocca, 1321-1348, improved the water -supply of Cuzco (would that he might come again), founded schools, -and militariwise, attempted to penetrate the Amazonian forests. His -son, Yahuar-Huaccac (yä´-wär-wäk´-käk) (weeping-blood), 1348-1370, was -rather a nonentity. His name was acquired as follows, says tradition: -While a child he fell into hostile hands. At the point of death he was -seen to be weeping tears of blood. This so affected his enemy that he -was permitted to live; he eventually escaped to his own people after a -life of hardship among some shepherds. - -He was followed by Uiraccocha (weer-äk-ko´-chä), 1370-1425, in whose -reign occurred the invasion of the Chancas (chän´-käs). The invaders -were finally driven out, chiefly through the bravery of his son, -Pachacuti (päch-ä-koo´-tee), who reigned from 1425-1478. Under this -rule and that of his successors, Tupac Yupanqui, 1478-1488, and Huayna -Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk), 1488-1525, the Inca dominion grew from a -comparatively small confederation to the great, imperial state found -by the Spaniards. Huascar (wäs´-kär), the successor of Huayna Ccapac, -was overthrown and taken prisoner by his natural brother, Atahuallpa -(ä-tä-wäl´-pä), about the time that Pizarro entered Peru. When the -latter heard of the quarrel between the two brothers he determined to -settle it. Fearful lest the decision should go against him, Atahuallpa -had Huascar murdered, and this act provided Pizarro with an excuse for -the execution of Atahuallpa. - -After he had acquired complete control of the country, Pizarro -elevated the Inca Manco (män´-co) to the throne. This proud youth -soon tired of the farce and fled to the fastnesses of the Vilcabamba -(veel-cä-bäm´-bä) mountains. Here he and his successors, Sayri Tupac -(sigh-ree too´-päk) and Tupac-Amaru (too´-päk-ä-mä´-roo), maintained -their independence until 1571, when the latter was captured by the -Viceroy Toledo, brought to Cuzco, and there beheaded in the great -square. - -In 1781, a descendant of Tupac-Amaru bearing his name, led a revolt -against the barbarous oppression of the Spaniards, only to fail and -suffer torture, together with his whole family. In 1814, Pumacagua -(poo-mäk-ä´-wä), also of Inca ancestry, started an abortive uprising, -which, although a failure, was the beginning of the struggle which was -to eventually break the power of Spain in Peru. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Expansionist Policies of the Incas_ - -THREE - - -Although pacific by nature, the Incas built up their vast empire by -conquest. Not one reign lacked great military campaigns, and in all -of them the necessity of introducing the worship of the Sun gave -rulers a pretext as plausible as the followers of Mahomet had for -their great wars. Wherever it was possible, peaceful methods were -employed. Persuasion, diplomacy and bribery were all tried; if these -were unsuccessful, war was declared, but only after the failure of -all the arts used in the acquisition of an empire by the most subtle -politicians of a civilized land. - -Immediately on the declaration of war, mobilization took place with -extreme rapidity, for the Incas aimed early to secure such an obvious -strategical advantage that their enemies would wisely surrender without -a struggle. This was made possible by the remarkable series of roads -constructed throughout the empire. In times of peace these served -as post roads, which enabled the Incas to have surprisingly rapid -intercommunication. At convenient places storehouses were located. -These were always kept completely equipped, so that the mobilization -of the Inca armies, which sometimes totaled 200,000 men, provided the -minimum of inconvenience for the civilian population. - -Contrary to the customs of some of our supposedly civilized modern -nations, the Incas forbade their soldiers engaging in any unnecessary -outrages, and punished such infractions of the law very severely. Even -after the war had commenced, the Incas were always ready at any time to -bring about peace. At the conclusion of hostilities they adopted the -policy of the Romans, gaining more by clemency to the vanquished than -by their victories. - -As soon as the reduction of a country had been brought about, measures -were taken to insure the loyalty of those newly conquered. The first -step was the introduction of the worship of the Sun. No disrespect -was shown to the local gods, but an acceptance of the priority of -the Sun was always enforced. Often-times the peoples’ own gods were -treated as hostages and removed to Cuzco. The Inca system of government -was, of course, always imposed. Land was cultivated according to the -well-regulated schemes of the Incas, which included fertilization, crop -rotation, and careful supervision to see that the desired amount of -acreage was devoted to each product. The Quichua language was enforced. -The new members of the empire were assigned their particular style of -clothing and hair-dressing. Roads were built to all parts of the new -territories and absolute amalgamation was eventually secured. - -In some instances, where the loyalty of the conquered was doubtful, a -portion of them were removed, bag and baggage, to some locality where -they would be surrounded by inhabitants of whose loyalty there was no -question. Some of the latter were then sent to occupy the lands of the -exiles. - -Through successive reigns the same policy was continued. Each Inca -took up the work where his predecessor had been compelled to leave it, -and tried to do his share in advancing the boundaries of the empire. -Each Inca’s life was a “crusade against the infidel to spread the -worship of the Sun, to reclaim the benighted nations from their brutish -superstitions, and to impart to them the blessings of a well-regulated -government.” - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: LLAMAS LADEN WITH FAGOTS COMING INTO CUZCO, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_The Incas’ Food Supply_ - -FOUR - - -One of the greatest aids to the Incas in extending their domains was -their abundant food supply: the result, largely, of the great progress -they had made along agricultural lines. Although Peru is a very -mountainous country, by taking advantage of every available inch of -fertile ground where the climate permitted the raising of crops, they -were able to carry on a system of agriculture which, in the variety -of products yielded, seems truly marvelous. It is stated by Mr. O. F. -Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture, that a complete -census of the plants cultivated by the ancient Peruvians would probably -include between seventy and eighty species. - -The most important products are the maize and the potato, one world -crop of which is today more valuable than all the gold the conquering -Spaniards were able to take out of the country. The cultivation of corn -goes very far back, for abundant specimens have been found in ancient -graves, and the type of maize that furnishes the bulk of the Peruvian -crop is peculiar to that region. - -Other plants familiar to us are the pineapple, the sweet potato, -peanuts, beans, Lima beans, guava (gwä´-vä), alligator pears, _papayas_ -(pä-pä´-yäs), and _chirimoyas_ (chee-ree-mo´-yäs), as well as many -with which we are not familiar, as _affu_ (äf´-foo), _arracacha_ -(är-rä-cä´-chä), _tintin_ (teen´-teen), _tomate_ (to-mä´-tay), _purutu_ -(poo-roo´-too), _quinoa_ (keen´-o-ä), _occa_ (ok´-kä), and _ullucu_ -(ool-yoo´-koo). From the dried potato a nutritious flour was made -called _chuña_ (choon´-yä), which was used to thicken stews. - -The coca plant (_Erythroxylon_) was widely cultivated, but in the -days of the Incas, if we are to believe the historians, its use was -regulated by the government. Commonly used today by their modern -descendants, it is alcohol’s most potent aid in the degradation of the -Peruvian Indian. - -We must not think, however, that the Incas were vegetarians. Although -they lacked sheep, hogs and cattle, in the _llama_ (lyämä) and _alpaca_ -they had excellent meat, as well as animals to provide them with -wool, and in the case of the _llama_, a serviceable pack animal. The -_guanacos_ (gwä-nä´-kos) and _vicuñas_ (vi-coo´-nyas), first cousins of -the _llama_, were never domesticated, but were hunted in large drives -superintended by representatives of the government. In the mountains -there were rodents, such as the _viscacha_ (vee-scä´-chä), _chinchilla_ -(cheen-cheel´-yä), and guinea-pigs. In the valleys there were monkeys -and parrots. At the sea-shore and near the larger rivers fish were -plentiful. Such excellent means of communication existed between the -capital at Cuzco and the coast, that the Incas were kept constantly -supplied with fresh fish. - -The prevalence of both fishing and hunting is attested by the many -depictions of these industries found on ceramic art objects which have -been encountered by the archeologists. Hunting was carried on to such -an extent, and the country in general was so intensively cultivated, -that the Peruvian highlands today have less to offer the nimrod than -any other section of the world equally uninhabited and desolate. - -Alcoholic beverages were used, of course, but the government saw to -it that their manufacture did not affect other industries. _Chica_ -(chee-cha) was made from both potatoes and maize, but the favorite -brand was brewed from the _molle_ (mol-yay) berry. Then, as today, -religious feasts provided the common people with an opportunity for -debauchery, but under the Incas there was less of the consequent -inebriety. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_Inca Architecture_ - -FIVE - - -Together with the excellence of their governmental system and -the extent of their food supply, the architecture of the ancient -inhabitants of the Peruvian plateau establishes their claim to fame. -Although early historians attempted to give the Incas themselves -the credit for the wonderful structures to be found in Peru, it is -generally believed today that most of the megalithic remains, such as -Tiahuanaco, Sacsahuaman and Ollantaytambo, are the work of a people -living many centuries before the Incas, whose own traditions carry them -back only about 400 years prior to the coming of the Spaniards. However -that may be, the ability to make equally fine structures evidently -existed down to Spanish times, although in later years such work became -less and less common. - -There is a great uniformity in Inca architecture. In the highlands the -edifices are usually built of porphyry or granite, and in the coastal -regions more frequently of brick. The walls often have a thickness -of several feet, but are rather low, seldom attaining more than -ten or twelve feet in height. The apartments seldom open into each -other--usually onto a court. The doors, which ordinarily provide the -only entrance for light, are like the Egyptian, narrower at the top. -The ruins at Machu Picchu (mä-choo peek´-choo) and in that vicinity are -remarkable because windows are quite common in them. As the Incas had -not evolved the arch, their doors, windows and niches were crowned with -a lintel stone, in many cases necessarily a huge affair. Among the most -interesting features of an Inca residence are these niches, probably -used for shelves, perhaps for shrines, although if for that purpose -there would seem to be more of them than necessary in most houses. - -The fineness of the stonework is, of course, the most remarkable -characteristic of the Incas’ architecture. They seemed able to -fit, with equal facility, blocks of stone weighing tons and those -weighing but a few pounds. Although they are not known to have used -the T-square, some of their angles are very true, and when it seemed -desirable, they could build a straight wall. Particularly beautiful are -some of their circular structures, such as the Temple of the Sun in -Cuzco. - -It is probable that only the temples and palaces of the rulers were -so well built, and that the common people lived in houses of mud and -stone. One of the most remarkable structures in Peru, the temple -of Uiraccocha (u-eer-äk-ko´-chä) at Racche (räk´-chay), shows a -combination of fine stonework, and mud and stone. In addition, the -upper part of these walls, which tower some thirty feet high, is -of _adobe_ (a-do´-bay) only, and centuries of weathering has done -but little more damage to the sun-dried bricks than to the granite -foundations. - -There is something incongruous in the fact that the roofs of the -buildings walled so beautifully, and often covered inside with -skilfully woven tapestries and gold adornments, were commonly of -thatch. The rafters were of wood, tied on to ring stones and projecting -cylinder stones with maguey withes. But, although they were ignorant -of iron, did not even mortise their timbers, and were content with a -dingy, unlighted interior, the buildings of the Incas were adapted to -the character of the climate, and the wisdom of their plan is attested -by the number which still survive, while the more modern constructions -of the conquerors have been buried in ruins. - -Providing they escape the destructive hands of the treasure-hunting -Peruvians, only a gigantic cataclysm of the earth’s surface can destroy -these monuments to the stoneworking skill of Peru’s ancient inhabitants. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -[Illustration: DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA] - - - - -_THE INCAS_ - -_Vitcos and Tampu-tocco_ - -SIX - - -The location of Vitcos (veet´-kos), or Pitcos (peet´-kos), the home -of the Inca Manco after he fled from Cuzco to the wilds of Vilcabamba -(veel-kä-bäm´-bä), was one of the questions which students of Inca -history had never answered. Arm-chair archeologists and historians -had selected the site of Choqquequirau (chok-kā-kee-rä´-oo) (cradle -of gold), which consists of a series of extensive ruins above the -Apurimac (a-poo-ree´-mak) River near Abancay (ä-bän-ca´-ee). His visit -to these ruins convinced Dr. Hiram Bingham, of Yale University (now -Lieut.-Colonel Bingham), that Vitcos and Choqquequirau could not be -identical. - -Accordingly, in 1911 he conducted an expedition to Peru, one object of -which was to find a place that would fit the descriptions of the Inca’s -retreat as given by the early Spanish historians, some of whom, _i.e._, -Father Antonio de Calancha (än-to´-nee-o day cä-län´-chä) and Baltasar -de Ocampa (bäl-tä-sär´ day o-cäm´-pä), had actually visited Vitcos. - -The expedition went down the Urubamba (oo-roo-bäm´-bä) Valley -to the mouth of the Vilcabamba River, crossed the Chuquichaca -(choo-kee-chä´-cä) Bridge, and went up the Vilcabamba Valley, -finding place after place which tallied with the accounts of Ocampo -(o-käm´-po) and Calancha (cä-län´-chä). Above the little town of -Puquiura (poo-kee-oo´-ra) were encountered ruins now called Rosaspata -(ro-säs-pä´-tä). Careful study has proved that these fit, in every -detail, the description of the Inca’s last home. - -While on his way to Vitcos, Colonel Bingham was fortunate enough -to discover the ruins of Machu Picchu. Although the problematical -existence of these ruins had long been known, no one had ever taken -the trouble to climb to the top of the ridge and make certain as to -their location. In so doing, Colonel Bingham came upon ruins whose -magnificent beauty alone makes them of more than ordinary interest, -but doubly important is the discovery because in Machu Picchu we seem -to have found at last the Tampu-tocco (tämpoo-tok´-ko) of early Inca -legends. - -The selection of Paccari-tampu (päk´-ka-ree-tam´-poo) as Tampu-tocco -has never seemed justified. The slight similarity in name, the -location of a few ruins and natural caves in that vicinity, and the -non-existence of any place which had a better claim, made up the -evidence to substantiate the theories of those who wished to call -Paccari-tampu the cradle of the Inca race. Machu Picchu, as shown by -Colonel Bingham,[1] corroborates in every detail the descriptions of -Tampu-tocco given by all the historians. - - [1] See The Story of Machu Picchu, by Hiram Bingham. Nat. Geo. - Mag., Feb., 1915, and Vitcos, ibid., Proceedings of the Am. - Antiquarian Soc., April, 1912. - -In addition, it appears that Machu Picchu may also be Vilcabamba, the -old, the mysterious place three days’ journey from Vitcos, to which, -as told by Father Calancha, two monks were taken by the Incas while -they were in that region seeking his conversion. No situation at all -plausible has ever been suggested for this mythical locality. Granting -that Machu Picchu is Tampu-tocco, the presence of two distinct cultures -and skeleton remains, chiefly of women and effeminate men, would seem -to indicate that on his retreat to Vitcos the Inca Manco made use of -the wonderfully concealed first home of the Incas to provide safe -retirement for the priests and priestesses of the Sun. - -A very important part of the work of modern archeology lies in -identifying the location of the cities and towns which have a place in -Inca tradition and history. The finding of the first and last home of -the Incas by Colonel Bingham’s expeditions is only the beginning of a -great deal of similar work which awaits the archeologist in Peru. - - PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION - ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151 - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC. - - - - -THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY - -MARCH 15, 1918 - -[Illustration: RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, PACCARITAMBO--Near view of the -gateway] - -THE INCAS - -By OSGOOD HARDY, M. A. - -_Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and Chief -Assistant and Interpreter of the Peruvian Expeditions of 1914-1915, -under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic -Society_ - -_MENTOR GRAVURES_ - - RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY · SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST - FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU · ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU · - DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA · LLAMAS COMING INTO CUZCO · - RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA, NEAR SICUANI, PERU - -NOTE.--All pictures in this Mentor are reproduced by permission of the -National Geographic Society and the South American Exploration Fund of -Yale University, under whose auspices the Peruvian Expeditions directed -by Dr. Hiram Bingham have taken place. - -NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.--The letter “_ä_” with two dots above is -pronounced as in “father”; the “_ā_” with a horizontal line above is -pronounced as in “ray.” - -Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New -York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The -Mentor Association, Inc. - - -There is probably no part of the world that stimulates more curiosity -in an archeologist or even in a casual traveler than that part -of South America which was once inhabited by the Incas of Peru. -Tiahuanaco’s (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko) finely carved gateway and its ponderous -stone platforms, Sacsahuaman’s (saks-ä-wa´-män) gigantic walls, -Ollantaytambo’s (ol-yän-tie-tam´-bo) monolithic fortress, and Machu -Picchu’s (mä´-choo peek´-choo) picturesque grandeur fill one with an -admiration for their builders which is only equaled by the sorrow that -today, over three centuries after the advent of Pizarro (pee-sä´-ro) -and his _conquistadores_ (con-kees-tä-do´-rays), we can do little more -than make conjectures concerning the ancient Peruvians. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF PATALLACTA--A Typical Inca Temple] - -And, furthermore, it is doubtful if we can ever go very far in -solving the problem of man in the Andes. Although they made great -progress in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and the science of -government, the ancient Peruvians did not achieve the art of writing, -nor did they even reach the stage of hieroglyphics. Their records -were kept on _quipus_ (kee-poos), variously colored strings with many -different kinds of knots. These seem, however, to have been used only -for accounting purposes. Thus far, the _quipus_ in possession of our -archeologists have been of no particular aid in deciphering the history -of their makers. Accordingly, what we know of the Incas consists of -traditions gathered together by early Spaniards, and the work of -present-day students who, by modern archeological methods, are slowly -bringing some light to bear on this apparently insolvable problem. - -[Illustration: PISAC - -Terraces below the principal ruins, still used for growing wheat and -barley] - -[Illustration: DOORWAY - -In ruins, now known as Rosaspata, but which Dr. Bingham has shown are -probably those known to the Incas as “Vitcos,” the last home of the -Incas] - - -_Origin of American Aborigines_ - -Although there are many ideas advanced as to the origin of the American -aborigine, it is commonly believed that he came from northeastern -Asia and gradually moved southward. Archeologists and geologists are -all agreed that he arrived at the close of the glacial epoch, long -after the disappearance of the prehistoric animals which Dr. Matthew -described for Mentor readers some time ago. When he came to this -continent he had probably already reached the higher stages of the -Stone Age, and was possibly already in the Bronze Age. Just how long it -has been since his arrival we cannot tell. - -Although the number of traditions concerning the origin of the Inca -empire is legion, the two best known are the Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä) -and Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko) legends. The former has been given -us by the immortal Prescott, relying on the Commentaries of the Inca -Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-sil´-ä-so day lä vay-gä). From him we know -there was a time when the ancient races of the continent were all -plunged in deplorable barbarism. “The Sun, the grand luminary and -parent of mankind, taking compassion on their degraded condition, sent -two of his children, Manco Ccapac (män´-ko k-kä´-päk) and Mama Occlo -(mä´-mä ok´-klo), to gather the natives into communities and teach them -the arts of civilized life. The celestial pair, brother and sister, -husband and wife, advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood -of Lake Titicaca to about the 16th degree south. They bore with them a -golden wedge, and were directed to take up their residence on the spot -where the sacred emblem should without effort sink into the ground. -They proceeded but a short distance--as far as the valley of Cuzco -(koos´-ko), the spot indicated by the performance of the miracle; there -the wedge speedily sank into the earth and disappeared forever. On this -spot the children of the Sun established their residence, and laid the -foundations of the city of Cuzco.” - -[Illustration: RUINS OF PATALLACTA - -Showing niches with holes for bar locks in the upper room of the temple -on top of the rock] - -[Illustration: INCA FORTRESS WALL, SACSAHUAMAN - -The gigantic size of the stones and the precision with which they are -fitted, without mortar, bear testimony to the engineering genius of the -Inca megalithic builders] - -The Titicaca myth, however, does not receive as much consideration -today as the Tampu-tocco (täm´-poo-tok´-ko) myth. The former is -characterized by the late Sir Clements Markham as an obvious invention -to account for the ancient ruins and statues in the vicinity of -Tiahuanaco (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko), and on the islands of Titicaca and -Koati (ko-ä´-tee). “It has no historical value,” he says, “while the -Tampu-tocco myth is as certainly the outcome of a real tradition, and -is the fabulous version of a distant historical event.” - -[Illustration: CUZCO, PERU - -PALACE OF THE INCA ROCCA - -A large gravure picture of this massive structure will be found in The -Mentor (No. 132) on “Peru”] - -The story is somewhat as follows. At a distance from Cuzco is a -place called “Tampu-tocco” (“House of the Windows”). This was long -considered to be identical with “Paccari-tampu” (päk´-kä-ree-tam´-poo) -(“House of the Dawn”), but the explorations and study of Dr. Bingham -have shown that the evidence is in favor of his statement that Machu -Picchu is Tampu-tocco. From this locality, at a date placed by -students somewhere between 950 B. C. and 200 A. D., came four brothers -accompanied by four sisters. Their leader, Manco (män´-ko) (the -princely), succeeded in making away with his three brothers, so that -at length, on their arrival at Cuzco, where the golden rod which this -Manco also carried sank into the ground, the first Inca and his sisters -were able to found their kingdom without rivals. Under the leadership -of Manco and his successors, sometimes known as “Pre-Megaliths,” the -empire grew. In the seventeenth or nineteenth reign a change in dynasty -took place, and thenceforth the megalithic monarchs, who were often -distinguished and skilful astrologers and reformers, ruled with the -title of Amauta (ä-mä-oo´-tä). - -About 450 A. D. came the end of this dynasty. Pachacuti -(pä-chä-koo´-tee) VI, a ruler of peoples on the east, south and west -and subject tribes, had risen in revolt. The invaders ultimately -retired, but the power of Cuzco was broken, and the ruler slain. -The city was left to the priests, and the inhabitants, under a new -sovereign, took refuge at Tampu-tocco, where some twenty-four princes -ruled in succession. At length, when the provinces once under the -control of the princes of Cuzco had relapsed into barbarism, a woman -of high birth named Siyu-yacu (see´-yoo-yä´-koo), contrived a plot to -place on the throne one who would initiate a bold attempt to recover -the power once possessed by their forefathers. The individual selected -was Siyu-yacu’s own son, Rocca (rok´-kä). The plot was successful, -and Rocca, later known as Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok´-kä) or the -Great Rocca, was the first of the Inca sovereigns whose reign looms -up clearly enough to remove it from the realm of traditions and give -it a place, although slightly hazy, in history. From the accession of -Rocca to the throne, about 1100 A. D., down to the murder of Tupac -Amaru (too´-päk ä´-mä-roo) in 1671 by the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo -(frän-sees´-ko day to-lay-do), the course of events is fairly well -authenticated. It is to this period that a discussion of the Incas must -necessarily be confined. - -[Illustration: ALPACAS - -A semi-domesticated animal resembling sheep, and yielding a long, fine -wool, usually brown or black] - -[Illustration: GROUP OF LLAMAS IN JULIACA] - - -_When the Spanish Came_ - -When the Spaniards arrived, the little kingdom of Cuzco had already -grown to an empire that extended to the equator on the north, and was -bounded on the south by the River Maule (mä´-oo-lay) in southern Chile -(chee´-lay). On the west it extended to the Pacific Ocean, and on the -east faded away in the torrid forests of the Amazon and the rolling -hills of the Argentine uplands. The Incas had succeeded in conquering -the many tribes scattered over this whole region, and for the most part -had enforced the use of their own language, the Quichua (kee´-choo-a). -They had evolved a system of government which, expanding from that of -a village community, had met the needs of a vast empire; and they had -done it so gradually that the inhabitants at large had been conscious -of little change save in the direction of increased prosperity and -security. - -[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU RUINS - -General view, showing growth covering ruins] - - -_Inca Government and Religion_ - -The Inca government was a despotism. The Inca--the chief magistrate of -the dominant tribe--had absolute powers, and as a direct descendant of -the Sun was also vested with sacred attributes. Surrounding him and -under him were his immediate family. His official wife was his sister, -and from their offspring was chosen the successor of the Inca. The -elder was usually designated, although this rule was broken in several -instances where the younger brother seemed more able. Next in the -social scale were the nobles, or _orejones_ (o-ray-ho´-naze), as they -were called by the Spaniards. These officials wore very large earrings. -The lobe of the ear was often distorted so that ornaments several -inches in diameter were inserted. Under the _orejones_ came the -_caracas_ (cä-rä´-cäs), or inspectors, who had charge of the census, -the estimation of local resources, and the imposition and collection -of tribute. Their work was chiefly administrative, and the actual -government was left to district magistrates and judges, who acted as -tax-collectors also. Finally, there were the common people. These were -divided for military purposes into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s, and -the mobilization of the Inca armies was almost Teutonic in its ease and -precision. - -[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO--The Town and Fortress] - -As might be expected, the Inca religion included the worship of many -things. The priestly historians always characterize it as extremely -vile; but those of Inca ancestry insist that it was remarkably pure and -spiritual, consisting of only one true worship, that of the Sun. Only -those that have experienced life in the Peruvian highlands and have -endured the enervation of its cold altitudes can realize how certainly -must the early peoples have turned to the worship of that force which -alone makes life endurable or possible on the Peruvian plateau. - -The places of worship were usually temples, so located as to catch the -first rays of the rising sun. _Huacas_ (wä´-käs), such as large rocks -or springs, were, of course, worshiped where they were situated, and -oft-times were surrounded by temples. In the case of stones, shelves or -platforms were carved, on which the priests stood while making their -offerings to the Sun god. - -The worship was carried on by priests and _mamaconas_ (mä-mä-ko´-näs), -the latter, the priestesses, directed the lives of the virgins of the -Sun. The most beautiful girls of the kingdom were gathered together -from all parts of the land. The most attractive became the wives of the -Inca, after they had passed through a severe training in the various -feminine arts; others took the vows and became _mamaconas_, while the -rest either became wives of the nobles or were sent back to their homes. - -[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU - -Sacred Plaza and Intihuatana Hill] - -[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO--The Fortress] - -Many different feasts were celebrated, the most famous being those of -Intip Raymi (een´-teep rye´-mee) and Situa (see´-too-a). The former was -celebrated in June at the winter solstice, the object being to secure -the return of the Sun. It lasted for nine days, was celebrated by all -the ruling caste, and was always successful. Situa was celebrated -in August, and the movable _huacas_ were transported to Cuzco from -all over the empire. There were also many feasts of local and family -significance, as those of name-giving and adolescence. - -The rites of worship were sacrifice, prayers, confession, and fasting. -Although there has been a great deal of controversy over this point, -it is generally accepted that, unlike the Mexican peoples, the Incas -did not make human sacrifices. Offerings of food, libations and -animal sacrifices were the customary procedure. Some of the Inca -prayers which have come down to us are remarkable for their beauty -and spiritual qualities. Confession was made to a priest. Fasting was -usually observed by those desirous of entering some sacred spot, as at -the end of a pilgrimage, and is said to have been at times of twenty -days’ duration. The more famous pilgrimages were those to Pachacamac -(pä-chä-kä´-mac) and Titicaca. - - -_Peasant and Labor Conditions_ - -[Illustration: OLLANTAYTAMBO - -Lower terrace of Fortress] - -“The condition of the peasant in Peru,” summarizes Mr. T. A. Joyce, -“approximated nearer to the ideals of the doctrinaire socialist than -in any country of the world. But it was at a price which, perhaps, -the native of no other country would consent to pay. From the cradle -to the grave the life of the individual was marked out for him; as he -was born, so would he die, and he lived his allotted span under the -ceaseless supervision of officials. His dress was fixed according to -his district; he might not leave his village except at the bidding of -the state, and then only for state purposes; he might not even seek -a wife outside of his own community. An individual of ability might, -perhaps, rise to be one of the subordinate inspectors, but the higher -ranks were inexorably closed to him.” - -[Illustration: THE CONCACHA STONE - -A famous “Huaca” (meaning “holy”). The name was applied to material -objects, such as rocks, etc., which were worshiped] - -Because of this despotism, which placed all the labor in the hands -of the state, the Incas were able to achieve marvels in the way of -building, road-making, irrigation works, and agricultural engineering. -Inherently an agricultural people, the greatest efforts of the ancient -Peruvians seem to have been exerted, not in building tombs for the -dead, as did the Egyptians, but in making conditions better for the -living. It is true that a great deal of labor was expended on the -wonderful palaces of their rulers. Each successive Inca thought it -necessary to rear an edifice for himself. But the greater part was -employed for the benefit of the country as a whole, in irrigation and -other projects. Water was brought many miles, and regions which today -are desolate through the Spaniards’ failure to keep in repair the -ditches and canals were flourishing agricultural communities in the -days of the Incas. Rampant streams that threatened to destroy fertile -valleys were penned within stone walls. Roads made throughout the whole -dominion were useful, of course, for the transportation of troops, but -especially valuable because the intershipment of crops was thereby made -easy. - -[Illustration: MACHU PICCHU - -Intihuatana Hill and Stairway] - - -_Agriculture and Architecture_ - -As might be expected in a mountainous country, where a wide stretch of -level ground is but seldom encountered, the construction of miles upon -miles of terraces was necessary. “Many slopes,” writes Mr. O. F. Cook, -of the United States Department of Agriculture, “have more than fifty -terraces, forming huge staircases as high as the Washington Monument, -resting against the lower slopes of mountains that tower thousands of -feet above.” - -[Illustration: RUINS ON KOATI ISLAND - -The famous Island of the Moon] - -The stonework of the prehistoric builders excites the wonder and -admiration of the beholder--admiration for the grand and beautiful -simplicity of the Inca masonry, wonder as to the methods employed in -its accomplishment. What the means were we do not know--at best we -can only conjecture. The modern Indians--in fact, many of the upper -class of Peruvians--prefer to explain it by magical methods, such as -softening the rocks by rubbing them with the juice of some plant or -fruit. Only the combined labor of hundreds of people, understanding the -lever and the inclined plane, could have moved some of the huge rocks -that form many of the walls. And moving them would be the easiest part -of the work. How they succeeded in fitting these monoliths together, so -that in places the joints are too fine for the naked eye to discern, -is quite beyond the ken of the modern stone-worker. Formerly it was -thought that the larger terraces were chiefly for defensive purposes; -but the fact that these, as well as those more plainly agricultural -in character, show the underlying strata of stones to be covered with -fine agricultural soils that must have been brought from a distance, -would indicate, according to some of our scientists, that these also -were used to produce crops. The importance attached to agriculture can -be understood from the fact that the majority of the terraces equal in -fineness of masonry even the palaces of the Incas. Lacking timber, the -Incas used stone as the chief building material, and, although they had -not evolved the pure arch, they had learned to secure strength through -the keying together of irregular blocks, and, as Dr. Bingham writes, -“had developed many ingenious devices, such as lock-holes for fastening -a bar back of the door; ringstones, which were inserted in the gables -to enable the rafters to be tied on; and projecting cylinder stones, -which could be used as points to which to tie the roof and keep it from -blowing off.” - -[Illustration: RUINS OF TORONTOY - -Showing window, a projecting cylinder stone and lock-hole] - -Sculpture existed only in a rude form, and the decoration of Inca -pottery did not equal that of the coast people. Their ceramic products -are marked by simple and graceful lines, rather Grecian in effect, and -of striking simplicity and utility. They had arrived at a high degree -of skill in the manufacture of textiles, for the _llama_ and _alpaca_ -provided them with excellent raw material. - -Although they were unfamiliar with refined methods of heat treatment, -and so were compelled to sacrifice extra hardness and strength by -increasing the tin content, they had learned the art of cold working, -and produced many kinds of bronze implements. Some of these were of an -excellent temper, and, together with obsidian knives, were used for -trepanning. Inca methods of warfare, the use of slings and war clubs, -naturally caused many wounds which could be relieved only by such -operations. - -In war their skill was defensive rather than offensive. They built -salients and re-entrant angles in their walls, and dry moats are often -encountered. - -They domesticated the South American camel (the _llama_), which -enabled them to carry out engineering and agricultural works far more -difficult than they could have accomplished had they been obliged to -depend on human bearers. In addition to maize, potatoes, and cassava, -they had many other important crops, such as pineapples, peanuts, and -cotton. Great is the treasure of precious and base metals which has -come, and is to come, from Peru. But that sinks into insignificance -beside the value of one corn and potato crop throughout the world. -And in the future it seems not at all unlikely that the Incas, famous -for centuries for their system of government, their masonry, and the -treasures which the Spaniards took from them, will be yet more famous -for the extent to which they developed agriculture. - -[Illustration: RUINS OF TORONTOY - -The man is seated on a carved rock, probably an altar] - -[Illustration: INCA IMPLEMENTS] - - * * * * * - -We can do no better, in closing this account of the old Peruvian -empire, than to quote from Mr. Prescott’s imperishable work, “The -Conquest of Peru,” the following summary of the characteristics of Inca -culture: - -“Under the rule of the Incas, the meanest of the people enjoyed a -far greater degree of personal comfort than was possessed by similar -classes in other nations on the American continent--greater probably, -than in feudal Europe. Under their scepter, the higher order of the -state had made advances in many of the arts that belong to a cultivated -community. By the well-sustained policy of the Incas, the rude tribes -of the forest were gradually gathered within the folds of civilization, -and of these materials was constructed a flourishing and populous -empire, such as was to be found in no other part of America.” - -[Illustration: INCA POTTERY AND INSTRUMENTS] - - -_SUPPLEMENTARY READING_ - - EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA _By Ales Hrlicka_ - Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 52 - - HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF PERU _By W. H. Prescott_ - - THE INCAS OF PERU _By Sir Clements R. Markham_ - - SOUTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY _By Thomas A. Joyce_ - - STAIRCASE FARMS OF THE ANCIENTS _By O. F. Cook_ - National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5 - - FURTHER EXPLORATIONS IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS _By Dr. Hiram Bingham_ - National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5 - - THE STORY OF MACHU PICCHU _By Dr. Hiram Bingham_ - National Geographic Magazine, Volume 27, No. 2 - - - - -THE OPEN LETTER - - -[Illustration: MONOLITHIC GATEWAY AT TIAHUANACO] - -We are indebted to Dr. Hiram Bingham and his Peruvian Expeditions for -the interesting picture material in this number of The Mentor. Dr. -Bingham (Lieut.-Colonel Bingham) became interested in South America -when he was in Yale University, and in 1906 he took an expedition over -the historic march of Bolivar from Venezuela to Colombia. Two years -later, when Colonel Bingham was appointed a delegate to the first Pan -American Scientific Congress at Santiago, Chile, he went there by -way of Bolivia and Peru, and, while in Peru, he visited the ruins of -Choqquequirau (meaning the “cradle of gold”), said to be the last home -of the Incas. - - * * * * * - -Colonel Bingham’s studies led him to think that the legend was wrong. -So, in 1911, he set off to Peru, with a party of six, his objects -being to hunt for “Vitcos” (the name of the last home of the Incas) -and to make an ascent of Corropuna, reputed to be a rival of Aconcagua -for the honor of being the highest mountain in South America. The -expedition was very successful. Corropuna was scaled, and found to be -somewhat lower than Aconcagua. Vitcos was found at Rosaspata and not at -Choqquequirau. The reputed bottomless lake of Parinaccochas was found -to be no more than four feet in depth, and, best of all, Machu Picchu -was discovered. - - * * * * * - -All this was so important that the National Geographic Society decided -to assist in another expedition to carry on the good work. Accordingly, -the Peruvian Expedition of 1912, under the auspices of Yale University -and the National Geographic Society, was sent out. It cleared the way, -photographed and mapped Machu Picchu, and made many other explorations. -A report of this expedition was received with so much interest, and the -pictures were considered so beautiful, that the Peruvian Expedition -of 1914-1915 was organized under the same auspices. This expedition -accomplished a great amount of additional work in the way of map making -and archeological research, collecting flora and fauna from districts -previously unvisited, and determining the location of several rivers. - - * * * * * - -A vast amount of important historical material has been gathered by -these expeditions, and The Mentor is very fortunate in being permitted -to use photographs collected in the course of the expeditions, and in -having a member of the party as author of this article. In connection -with Mr. Hardy’s account of the Incas, Colonel Bingham writes to The -Mentor as follows: - - “Within the confines of the ancient Inca empire, the - archeologist can find a field for work, which, in the beauty of - its natural surroundings, and the healthfulness of its climate, - together with the interest lent by the present-day inhabitants, - is equal, if not superior to, any other part of the earth’s - surface. - - “In the past, its comparative inaccessibility has been a very - great deterrent to systematic work in the regions once occupied - by the Incas. Now, better steamship connections with the rest - of the world, and increasing railway mileage within, have - greatly lessened the transportation difficulties. - - “The solution of the problem of man in the Andes has only - begun, and it is to be hoped that American students will have - many future opportunities to enter this field of research.” - -[Illustration: W. D. Moffat - -EDITOR] - - - - -The Mentor on the Ranch - - -I want to let you know how this little ranch-woman has enjoyed her part -in The Mentor Course. I would not take the influence of the pictures -alone out of my family for many times the cost. I am deeply interested -in all the subjects, but Nature comes first. When my husband and I ride -among the whispering pines far up the sides of El Capitan or through -the dainty ferns in some deep canyon, where only the tops of the dark -towering firs know what the day is like, and the tiny streams slip -swiftly and songfully over and through the rocks, I feel the quieting -presence of God--and all the worrisome, tawdry business of life sinks -down into the unimportant place where it really belongs. I wish The -Mentor all profit and success in the good work it is doing in bringing -people nearer to the real, big things of the world. - - MRS. C. R. 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