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diff --git a/44890-8.txt b/44890-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 39c03de..0000000 --- a/44890-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7711 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Printed Book - Its History, Illustration and Adornment, from the Days of - Gutenberg to the Present Time - -Author: Henri Bouchot - -Translator: Edward C. Bigmore - -Release Date: February 13, 2014 [EBook #44890] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - THE PRINTED BOOK, - - Its History, Illustration, and Adornment, - - _FROM THE DAYS OF GUTENBERG TO THE - PRESENT TIME._ - - BY - HENRI BOUCHOT, - OF THE NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS. - - _Translated and Enlarged by_ - EDWARD C. BIGMORE. - - WITH ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS OF FACSIMILES - OF EARLY TYPOGRAPHY, PRINTERS' MARKS, COPIES OF BOOK - ILLUSTRATIONS, AND SPECIMENS OF BINDINGS OF ALL AGES. - - NEW YORK: - SCRIBNER AND WELFORD, - 743 and 745, BROADWAY. - 1887. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Considering that this short study can claim to be nothing more than a -rapid and somewhat summary survey of the history of THE BOOK, it eschews -all controversial matter, nor does it pretend to convey much fresh -information to those already possessing a special knowledge of the -subject. It is rather a condensed, but at the same time, it may be -hoped, a useful, compendium of the thousand unknown or now forgotten -essays, involving endless contradictory statements, that have been -issued on this theme. The mere enumeration of such works would simply -suffice to fill a volume. We have accordingly no intention to attempt a -bibliography, satisfying ourselves with the modest avowal of having -found so many documents in all languages, that the very abundance has -been at least as embarrassing to us as the lack of materials may have -been to others. - -The Book appealing in its present form to a special public interested -more in artistic than in purely typographical topics, our attention has -been more particularly given to the illustrators, the designers, -engravers, etchers, and so forth. Such graphic embellishment seemed to -us of more weight than the manufacture of the paper, the type-casting, -the printing properly so called. This technical aspect of the subject -has been very briefly dealt with in a separate chapter, and has also -been enlarged upon in the early section. To the binding also we have -devoted only a single chapter, while fully conscious that a whole volume -would not have sufficed merely to treat the subject superficially. - -At the same time, we would not have the reader conclude from all this -that our book abounds in omissions, or has overlooked any important -features. The broad lines, we trust, have been adhered to, while each -section has been so handled as to give a fair idea of the epoch it deals -with. This is the first attempt to comprise within such narrow limits an -art and an industry with a life of over four centuries, essaying to -describe its beginnings and its history down to our days, without -omitting a glance at the allied arts. - -The engravings selected for illustration have, as far as possible, been -taken from unedited materials, and have been directly reproduced by -mechanical processes, while fifteen new illustrations, having special -relation to the history of the Book in England, have been added to this -edition, which is also considerably enlarged in the text on the same -subject. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -CHAPTER I. - - PAGE - - 14.. TO 1462 1 - -Origin of the Book--Engravers in relief--The St. Christopher of -1423--Origin of the Xylographs--The Xylographs, _Donatus_, and -_Speculum_--The Laurent Coster legend--From block books to movable -characters--John Gaensefleisch, called Gutenberg--The Strasbourg -trial--Gutenberg at Mayence--Fust and Schoeffer--The letters of -indulgence--The Bible--The "Catholicon"--The Mayence Bible--Causes of -the dispersion of the first Mayence printers--General considerations. - -CHAPTER II. - - 1462 TO 1500 33 - -The Book and the printers of the second generation--The German workmen -dispersed through Europe--Caxton and the introduction of printing into -England--Nicholas Jenson and his supposed mission to Mayence--The -first printing in Paris; William Fichet and John Heinlein--The -first French printers; their installation at the Sorbonne and their -publications--The movement in France--The illustration of the Book -commenced in Italy--The Book in Italy; engraving in relief and metal -plates--The Book in Germany: Cologne, Nuremberg, Basle--The Book in -the Low Countries--French schools of ornament of the Book; Books of -Hours; booksellers at the end of the fifteenth century--Literary taste -in titles in France at the end of the fifteenth century--Printers -and booksellers' marks--The appearance of the portrait in the -Book--Progress in England--Caxton and his followers. - -CHAPTER III. - - 1500 TO 1600 98 - -French epics and the Renaissance--Venice and Aldus Manutius--Italian -illustrators--The Germans; _Theuerdanck_, Schäufelein--The Book in -other countries--French books at the beginning of the century, before -the accession of Francis I.--Geoffroy Tory and his works--Francis -I. and the Book--Robert Estienne--Lyons a centre of bookselling; -Holbein's Dances of Death--School of Basle--Alciati's emblems and -the illustrated books of the middle of the century--The school of -Fontainebleau and its influence--Solomon Bernard--Cornelis de la Haye -and the _Promptuaire_--John Cousin--Copper plate engraving and metal -plates--Woériot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth century--How -a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--Influence -of Plantin on the Book; his school of engravers--General -considerations--Progress in England--Coverdale's Bible--English -printers and their work--Engraved plates in English books. - -CHAPTER IV. - - 1600 TO 1700 151 - -Tendencies of the regency of Marie de Medicis--Thomas de Leu and -Leonard Gaultier--J. Picart and Claude Mellan--Lyons and J. de -Fornazeris--The Book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in -Germany, Italy, and Holland--Crispin Pass in France--The Elzevirs -and their work in Holland--Sebastian Cramoisy and the Imprimerie -Royale--Illustration with Callot, Della Bella, and Abraham Bosse--The -publishers and the Hotel de Rambouillet--The reign of Louis XIV.; -Antoine Vitré syndic at his accession--His works and mortifications; -the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay--Art and illustrators of the grand -century--Sébastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and Chauveau--Leclerc preparing -the illustration and decoration of the Book for the eighteenth -century--The Book in England in the seventeenth century. - -CHAPTER V. - - THE BOOK IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 184 - -The regency--Publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth -century--Illustrators in France; Gillot--The school of Watteau -and Boucher--Cars--The younger Cochin; his principal works in -vignettes--French art in England; Gravelot--Eisen--Choffard--The -_Baisers_ of Dorat; the _Contes_ of La Fontaine--The publisher -Cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--The -younger Moreau and his illustrations--The Revolution--The school of -David--Duplessis-Bertaux--The Book in Germany; Chodowiecki--In England; -Boydell and French artists--Caslon and Baskerville--English books -with illustrations--Wood engraving in the eighteenth century; the -Papillons--Printing offices in the eighteenth century. - -CHAPTER VI. - - THE BOOK IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 218 - -The Didots and their improvements--The folio Racine--The school of -Didot--Fine publications in England and Germany--Literature and art -of the Restoration--Romanticism--Wood engraving--Bewick's pupils, -Clennell, etc.--The illustrators of romances--The generation of -1840--The Book in our days in Europe and America. - -CHAPTER VII. - - TYPES, IMPRESSION, PAPER, INK 239 - -CHAPTER VIII. - - BOOKBINDING 253 - -The binding of the first printed books--Ancient German -bindings--Binding in the time of Louis XII.--Italian -bindings--Aldus--Maioli--Grolier--Francis I.--Henry II. and -Diane de Poitiers--Catherine de Medicis--Henry III.--The -Eves--The "fanfares"--Louis XIII.--Le Gascon--Florimond -Badier--Louis XIV.--Morocco leathers--Cramoisy--The bindings -of the time of Louis XIV.--The regency--Pasdeloup--The -Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesné--The nineteenth century--English -binders--Roger Payne--Francis Bedford. - -CHAPTER IX. - - LIBRARIES 290 - - INDEX 305 - - - - -THE PRINTED BOOK. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -14.. TO 1462. - - - Origin of the Book--Engravers in relief--The St. Christopher of - 1423--Origin of the Xylographs--The Xylographs, _Donatus_, and - _Speculum_--The Laurent Coster legend--From block books to movable - characters--John Gaensefleisch, called Gutenberg--The Strasbourg - trial--Gutenberg at Mayence--Fust and Schoeffer--The letters of - indulgence--The Bible--The Catholicon--The Mayence Bible--Causes of - the dispersion of the first Mayence printers--General - considerations. - - -Like its forerunner, Painting, the Book has ever been the most faithful -reflection of the times when it was written and illustrated. Natural and -genuine from the first, and simply embellished with crude illustrations, -it assumed in the sixteenth century the grand airs of the Renaissance, -gay or serious according to circumstances, decked in what were then -called _histoires_--that is to say, wonderful engravings--and daintily -printed in Gothic, Roman, or choice Italic characters. But at the close -of the century it had already abandoned _wood_ for line engravings, -heightening its mysticism or its satire at the whim of passing politics -and religious wranglings. Then, under the influence of the painters and -courtiers of the _Grand Monarque_, it becomes completely transformed, -donning the peruke, so to speak, indulging in allegory and -conventionalities, pompous and showy, tricking itself out in columns and -pilasters instead of the old arabesques and scroll work of the -Renaissance, thus continuing amid the coquetries of the regency, the -pastorals and insipidities of the following reigns, until at last it -suddenly assumes with the heroes of the Revolution the austere mien and -airs of classic art. The Book has always been as closely connected with -the manners of our predecessors as art itself. The artist submits more -than he thinks to the tendency of his surroundings; and if he at times -makes his taste appreciated, it is because he has more or less received -his first influence from others. - -In the sixteenth century the fashion of emblematic representation placed -under the portrait of Gaston de Foix a figure of a young plant in full -bloom; and the inscription in Latin was "Nascendo maturus"--"Mature at -birth." The Book deserves the same device; from its first day up to now -it is a marvel of simplicity and harmony. The tentative efforts which -preceded the discovery of printing were but few; it may be said that -from the moment that Gutenberg conceived the idea of separating the -characters, of arranging the words in the forme, of inking them, and of -taking a proof on paper, the Book was perfect. At best we see in -following times some modifications of detail; the art of printing was -mature, mature from its birth. - -But before arriving at the movable type placed side by side, and forming -phrases, which appears to us to-day so simple and so ordinary, many -years passed. It is certain that long before Gutenberg a means was found -of cutting wood and metal in relief and reproducing by application the -image traced. Signs-manual and seals were a kind of printing, inasmuch -as the relief of their engraving is impressed upon a sheet by the hand. -But between this simple statement and the uncritical histories of -certain special writers, attributing the invention of engraving to the -fourteenth century, there is all the distance of legendary history. -Remembering that the numerous guilds of _tailleurs d'images_, or -sculptors in relief, had in the Middle Ages the specialty of carving -ivories and of placing effigies on tombs, it can be admitted without -much difficulty, that these people one day found a means of multiplying -the sketches of a figure often asked for, by modelling its contour in -relief on ivory or wood, and afterwards taking a reproduction on paper -or parchment by means of pressure. When and where was this discovery -produced? We cannot possibly say; but it is certain that playing cards -were produced by this means, and that from the year 1423 popular figures -were cut in wood, as we know from the St. Christopher of that date -belonging to Lord Spencer. - -It is not our task to discuss this question at length, nor to decide if -at first these reliefs were obtained on wood or metal. It is a -recognised fact that the single sheet with a printed figure preceded the -xylographic book in which text and illustration were cut in the same -block. This process did not appear much before the second quarter of -the fifteenth century, and it was employed principally for popular works -which were then the universal taste. The engraving also was nothing more -than a kind of imposition palmed off as a manuscript; the vignettes were -often covered with brilliant colours and gold, and the whole sold as of -the best quality. - -The first attempts at these little figures in relief discovered by the -image-makers and diffused by the makers of playing cards were but -indifferent. The drawing and the cutting were equally unskilful, as may -be seen in the facsimiles given by M. H. Delaborde in his _Histoire de -la Gravure_. An attempt had been made to put some text at the foot of -the St. Christopher of 1423, and the idea of giving more importance to -the text was to the advantage of the booksellers. At the mercy of the -writers who fleeced them, obliged to recoup themselves by the -exaggerated prices of the most ordinary books, they hoped to turn -engraving to account in order to obtain on better terms the technical -work needed for their trade. At the epoch of the St. Christopher, in -1423, several works were in vogue in the universities, the schools, and -with the public. Among the first of these was the Latin Syntax of Ælius -Donatus on the eight parts of speech, a kind of grammar for the use of -young students, as well as the famous _Speculum_, a collection of -precepts addressed to the faithful, which were copied and recopied -without satisfying the demand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Part of a _Donatus_ taken from a xylograph, the -original of which is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale.] - -To find a means of multiplying these treatises at little cost was a -fortune to the inventor. It is to be supposed that many artisans of the -time attempted it; and without doubt it was the booksellers themselves, -mostly mere dealers, who were tempted to the adventure by the sculptors -and wood-cutters. But none had yet been so bold as to cut in relief a -series of blocks with engravings and text to compose a complete work. -That point was reached very quickly when some legend was engraved at the -foot of a vignette, and it may be thought that the _Donatus_ was the -most ancient of books so obtained among the "Incunabuli," as we now call -them, a word that signifies origin or cradle. - -The first books then were formed of sheets of paper or parchment, -laboriously printed from xylographic blocks, that is to say wooden -blocks on which a _tailleur d'images_ had left in relief the designs and -the letters of the text. He had thus to trace his characters in reverse, -so that they could be reproduced as written; he had to avoid faults, -because a phrase once done, well or ill, lasted. It was doubtless this -difficulty of correction that gave the idea of movable types. If the -cutter seriously erred, it was necessary to cancel altogether the faulty -block. This at least explains the legend of Laurent Coster, of Haarlem, -who, according to Hadrian Junius, his compatriot, discovered by accident -the secret of separate types while playing with his children. And if the -legend of which we speak contains the least truth, it must be found in -the sense above indicated, that is in the correction of faults, rather -than in the innocent game of a merchant of Haarlem. However, we shall -have occasion to return to the subject of these remarks. It should be -well established that engraving in relief on wood alone gave the idea of -making xylographic blocks and of composing books. Movable type, the -capital point of printing, the pivot of the art of the Book, developed -itself little by little, according to needs, when there was occasion to -correct an erroneous inscription; but, in any case, its origin is -unknown. Doubtless to vary the text, means were found to replace entire -phrases by other phrases, preserving the original figures; and thus the -light dawned upon these craftsmen, occupied in the manufacture and sale -of their books. - -According to Hadrian Junius, Laurent Janszoon Coster (the latter name -signifying "the discoverer") published one of the celebrated series of -works under the general title of _Speculum_ which was then so popular -(the mystic style exercising so great an attraction on the people of the -fifteenth century), the _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_. Written before -the middle of the fifteenth century, made popular by manuscripts, in -spite of its fantastic Latinity and of its false quantities, this -ascetic and crude poem was easy of access to the xylographists. Junius, -as we see, attributes to Laurent Coster the first impression of the -_Speculum_, no longer the purely xylographic impression of the _Donatus_ -from an engraved block, but that of the more advanced manner in movable -types. In point of fact, this book had at least four editions, similar -in engravings and body of letters, but of different text. It must then -be admitted that the fount was dispersed, and typography discovered, -because the same cast of letters could not be adapted to different -languages. On the other hand, the vignettes do not change, indicating -sufficiently the mobility of the types. In comparison to what may be -seen in later works, the illustrations of the _Speculum_ are by no means -bad; they have the appearance, at once naïve and picturesque, of the -works of Van Eyck, and not at all of the style of the German -miniaturists; properly illuminated and gilded, they lent themselves to -the illusion of being confounded with the _histoyres_, drawn by the -hand, and this is what the publisher probably sought. - -All the xylographic works of the fifteenth century may be classed in two -categories: the xylographs, rightly so called, or the block books, such -as the _Donatus_, and the books with movable types, like the _Speculum_, -of which we speak. This mystic and simple literature of pious works for -the use of people of modest resources found in printing the means of -more rapid reproduction. Then appeared the _Biblia Pauperum_, one of the -most celebrated and the most often reproduced, and the _Ars Moriendi_, a -kind of dialogue between an angel and a devil at the bedside of a dying -person, which, inspired no doubt by older manuscripts, retained for a -long time in successive editions the first tradition of its designs. On -labels displayed among the figures are found inscribed the dialogue of -the demons and angels seeking to attach to themselves the departing -soul, the temptations of Satan on the subject of faith, and the -responses of the angel on the same subject. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Xylographic figure from the _Ars Moriendi_, -copied in reverse in the _Art au Morier_.] - -We can see what developments this theme could lend to the mysticism of -the fifteenth century. Composed in eleven designs, the _Ars Moriendi_ -ran up to eight different editions. From the middle to the end of the -fifteenth century, the text was in Latin, then in French, under the -title _L'Art au Morier_. In the French edition will be found the blocks -that served for the second impression of the work. About 1480, more than -fifty years after the first essays, the _Ars Moriendi_ enjoyed so much -vogue that it employed all the resources of typography as much as in its -earliest days. The original subjects, copied in a very mediocre manner, -adorned the text, which was composed in Gothic letters, with a new and -more explicit title: _Tractatus brevis ac valde utilis de Arte et -Scientia bene moriendi_ (4to, s.l.n.d.), but the order is inverted, -figure 5 of the xylograph becoming No. 3 of the edition of 1480. - -The _Ars Memorandi_, another xylographic work, of which the subject, -taken from the New Testament, was equally well adapted to the -imagination of the artists, had also a glorious destiny. The work -originally comprised thirty blocks, the fifteen blocks of text facing -the fifteen engravings. The designs represented the attributes of each -of the Evangelists, with allegories and explanatory legends. Thus, in -that which relates to the Apostle Matthew, - - No. 1 represents the birth and genealogy of Jesus Christ, - No. 2 the offerings of the Magi, - No. 3 the baptism of St. John, - No. 4 the Temptation of Christ, - No. 5 the Sermon on the Mount, - No. 6 the parable of the birds. - -The angel that supports the whole is the emblem of St. Matthew the -Evangelist. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Figure of the school of Martin Schongauer, taken -from the _Rationarium Evangelistarum_ of 1505, and copied from the -corresponding plate of the _Ars Memorandi_.] - -This mnemonic treatment of the Gospels began with symbols of which we -have no means of finding the origin, but which without doubt were -employed many centuries earlier. However that may be, their success was -as great as that of the already-quoted works. In 1505 a German publisher -put forth an imitation, under the title of _Rationarium Evangelistarum_; -and this time the copier of the illustrations, retaining the tradition -of the first xylographers, no less reveals an artist of the first order, -at least a pupil of Martin Schongauer. Some of the conceptions of the -_Rationarium_ recall exactly the engravings of the great German master, -among others that of the Infant Jesus (plate 12), which nearly -approaches the style of the Infant Jesus of Schongauer; besides, the -principal figures leave but little doubt on the subject. The same wings -are on the angels and on the eagles, the same coiffures on the human -characters, often the same attitudes. - -From the preceding can be judged the extraordinary favour these -productions enjoyed. From their origin they were diffused through the -whole of Europe, and attracted the attention of excellent artists. -Nevertheless their beginnings were difficult. The movable types used, -cut separately in wood, were not constituted to give an ideal -impression. We can understand the cost that the execution of these -characters must have occasioned, made as they were one by one without -the possibility of ever making them perfectly uniform. Progress was to -substitute for this irregular process types that were similar, -identical, easily produced, and used for a long time without breaking. -Following on the essays of Laurent Coster, continuous researches bore on -this point; but as the invention was said to be his, and it being of -importance to him not to divulge it, so that he should not lose his -profit, much time was lost over it in his workshop without much success. -Here history is somewhat confused. Hadrian Junius positively accuses one -of Laurent Coster's workmen of having stolen the secrets of his master -and taken flight to Mayence, where he afterwards founded a printing -office. According to Junius, the metal type was the discovery of the -Dutchman, and the name of the thief was John. Who was this John? Was it -John Gaensefleisch, called Gutenberg, or possibly John Fust? But it is -not at all apparent that Gutenberg, a gentleman of Mayence, exiled from -his country, was ever in the service of the Dutch inventor. As to Fust, -we believe his only intervention in the association of printers of -Mayence was as a money-lender, from which may be comprehended the -unlikelihood of his having been with Coster, the more so as we find -Gutenberg retired to Strasbourg, where he pursued his researches. There -he was, as it were, out of his sphere, a ruined noble whose great -knowledge was bent entirely on invention. Doubtless, like many others, -he may have had in his hands one of the printed works of Laurent Coster, -and conceived the idea of appropriating the infant process. In 1439 he -was associated with two artisans of the city of Strasbourg, ostensibly -in the fabrication of mirrors, which may be otherwise understood as -printing of _Speculums_, the Latin word signifying the same thing. These -men needed to surround themselves with precautions; printing was as yet -only a practical means of multiplying manuscripts, to impose a little on -the innocent, and fortune awaited him who, without saying anything, made -this invention serve him. The following will prove this, as well as its -tendency. - -A legal document discovered in 1760 by Wencker and Schoepflin in the -Pfennigthurm of Strasbourg, and afterwards translated into French by -M. Leon de Laborde, makes us at length acquainted with the work of -Gutenberg and of his associates Andrew Dritzehen and Andrew Heilmann. -Apparently these three men were, as we have said, _Spiegelmacher_, -that is makers of mirrors. They had jointly entered into a deed by -the terms of which, if one of the partners died in the course of -their researches, his heirs would have no rights beyond an indemnity -corresponding to the amount invested by him. It happened that -Andrew Dritzehen did die, and that one of his brothers aspired to -occupy his place in the partnership. The dead man left debts behind -him; he had squandered his florins by hundreds in his experiments. -Gutenberg having offered to pay the amounts expended, the heirs of -Dritzehen, who wanted more, summoned him before the courts to show -why he should not make place for them in the work of experiments and -making of mirrors. The witnesses in their testimony before the court -told what they knew of the inventions of the partnership. One among -them deposed that after the death of Dritzehen, Gutenberg's servant -went to the workshop and begged Nicholas Dritzehen, brother of the -deceased, to displace and break up four formes placed in a press. -A second testified that the works of Andrew had cost him at the -least three hundred florins, an enormous sum for those days. Other -witnesses painted Gutenberg in a curious light: they made him out -to be a savage, a hermit, who concealed from his associates certain -arts of which the deed stipulated nothing. One fact proved that the -experiments referred to the manufacture of metallic characters. A -goldsmith, named Dünne, maintained that he had received more than a -hundred florins for printing material "das zu dem trucken gehoret." -"Trucken!"--"Typography!" The word was found, and from that day usage -has consecrated it. - -Before 1439, then, John Gaensefleisch, or Gutenberg, was devoted to the -art of reproduction of texts, and had consecrated his life and feeble -resources to it. Three problems presented themselves to him. He wanted -types less fragile than wooden types and less costly than engraving. He -wanted a press by the aid of which he could obtain a clear impression on -parchment or paper. He desired also that the leaves of his books should -not be anopistograph, or printed only on one side. There were many -unknown things to vex his soul, of which he himself alone could have a -presentiment. Until then, and even long after, the xylographs were -printed _au frotton_ or with a brush, rubbing the paper upon the forme -coated with ink, thicker than ordinary ink. He dreamed of something -better. - -In the course of his work John Gutenberg returned to Mayence. The idea -of publishing a Bible, the Book of books, had taken possession of his -heart. The _Spiegelmacher_ of Strasbourg was on the road to loss. The -cutting of his types had ruined him, and on his arrival in his native -town, his stock in trade, transported by him, was of no great weight: -some boxes of type, an inconvenient forme, and perhaps an ordinary -press, a wine-maker's press, with a wooden screw. The idea of using this -unwieldy instrument for the impression of his formes had already -occurred to him; but would not the _frotton_ serve still better? The -force of the blow from the bar would break the miserable type, the -raised parts of which could not resist the repeated strokes. In this -unhappy situation, Gutenberg made the acquaintance of a financier of -Mayence, named Fust, who was in search of a business, and who put a sum -of eleven hundred florins at his disposal to continue his experiments. -Unfortunately this money disappeared, it melted away, and the results -obtained were absolutely ludicrous. - -It is certain that John Fust did not enter on the engagement without -protecting himself. From the first he bound his debtor in a contract for -six per cent. interest, besides a share in the profits. In addition he -stipulated repayment in case of failure. Gutenberg, improvident, as is -the way of inventors, had signed away all that he possessed to procure -funds. It is presumed, besides, that during the continuance of his -investigations, he composed some current books with the resources at his -disposal, that served a little to lighten his debts. But the printing -house of the Zum Jungen at Mayence was far from shining in the world, -because the association of Fust concerned itself only with the -publication of a Bible, and not at all with the _Speculums_ and -_Donatuses_ that were so much in vogue at this time. Besides, the -money-lender made a point of pressing his debtor, and did not allow him -any leisure to labour outside the projected work. About this time a -third actor enters on the scene. Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, a -writer, introduced into the workshop of Gutenberg to design letters, -benefited by the abortive experiments, and taking up the invention at -its deadlock, conducted it to success. John of Tritenheim, called -Trithemius, the learned abbot of Spanheim, is the person who relates -these facts; but as he got his information from Schoeffer himself, too -much credence must not be given to his statements. Besides, Schoeffer -was not at all an ordinary artisan. If we credit a Strasbourg manuscript -written by his hand in 1449, he was a student of the "most glorious -university of Paris." In the workshop of Gutenberg, his industrious and -inventive intellect found a fecund mine, and this caligraphist dreamt -of other things than shaping letters for the use of wood engravers. -Gutenberg, arrested in his career by the wants of life, the worries of -business, and perhaps also the fatigues of his labours, may have let the -new-comer know something of his experiences. One cannot know, but it is -certain that, shortly after, John Fust was so fascinated by Schoeffer, -so attracted by his youth and his application, that he resolved to put -new capital into the business. He did more: to permanently attach him, -he gave him his grand-daughter in marriage, not his daughter, as was -thought until M. Auguste Bernard rectified this mistake. - -We have now come to 1453, the year preceding the first dated monument of -printing in movable types: _the letters of indulgence_. It may be -acknowledged that the sudden affection of Fust for his workman depended -on some interested motive, and not at all on attraction of the heart. -Had this former student of the university of Paris found the means of -rapidly founding metallic types, the search for which had cost Gutenberg -many sleepless nights? Had he completed it by applying to it the matrix -and punch which had then and for centuries served the makers of seals -and the money-coiners? Perhaps, as was most probable, the two associates -had agreed, and putting their experiences together, had conquered -hitherto insurmountable difficulties. - -The year 1454 witnessed the diffusion throughout Christendom of letters -of indulgence, accorded by Pope Nicholas V., who wished to aid in funds -the King of Cyprus against the Turks. These circular letters, scattered -by thousands to every corner of the world, employed numerous copyists. -Arrived at Mayence, the distributers found a workshop ready prepared to -furnish copies in the shortest possible time. They set to work and -brought together all the type they possessed, cast or engraved, to set -up these famous letters. Among the impressions was that of which we give -a reproduction, which belongs to the edition called that of thirty-one -lines. The original was delivered for a consideration to Josse Ott von -Mospach on the 31st of December, 1454. - -It is not without interest, for the history of the Book and of printing, -to note here that these letters of indulgence, the clandestine traffic -in which was largely accelerated by rapidity of production and the small -cost of each copy, formed one of the causes of the religious reform of -Martin Luther. They afforded a means of raising money, and were so -generally resorted to that in the register of the Hotel de Ville of -Paris preserved in the Archives Nationales (H 1778) it may be seen that -the sheriffs requested the Pope to allow them to employ them in the -reconstruction of the bridge at the Hotel de Ville. - -The ice once broken, Fust and Schoeffer found it hard to nourish a -useless mouth. For them Gutenberg was more of a hindrance than a profit, -and they sought brutally to rid themselves of him. Fust had a most easy -pretext, which was to demand purely and simply from his associate the -sums advanced by him, and which had produced so little. Gutenberg had -probably commenced his Bible, but, in face of the claims of Fust, he had -to abandon it altogether, types, formes, and press. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Letters of indulgence, from the so-called -edition of thirty-one lines, printed at Mayence in the course of 1454.] - -In November, 1455, he had retired to a little house outside the city, -where he tried his best, by the aid of foreign help, to establish a -workshop, and to preserve the most perfect secrecy. Relieved of his -company, Fust and Schoeffer were able to take up the impression of the -Bible and to complete it without him. If matters did so happen, and -Schoeffer had not the excuse that he had previously discovered the -casting of type, there is but one word to designate his conduct: -robbery, and moral robbery, the worst of all. But what can be said -to-day of these people? - -One thing is certain: that the Bible of Schoeffer, commenced by -Gutenberg or not, put on sale by Fust and Schoeffer alone about the end -of 1455 or beginning of 1456, proves to be the first completed book. -Retired to his new quarters, Gutenberg was taking courage, so as not -to appear too much behindhand, but the reconstitution of his workshop -cost him enormous time. And, besides, he missed the letter-maker -Schoeffer, his own Gothic letters, engraved on steel with a punch, not -having the same elegance. When his work appeared, it could not sustain -comparison. The Bible of Schoeffer was more compact, the impression was -more perfect, the ink better, the type less irregular. The original -inventor, in his business with Fust, made an unhappy competition for -himself. We give here a fragment of this celebrated book, a kind of -mute witness of the science and mortifications of the first printer. -It is now called the Mazarine Bible, from the fact that the copy in -the Mazarin Library was the first to give evidence concerning it. The -book was put on sale at the end of 1455 or beginning of 1456, for a -manuscript note of a vicar of St. Stephen at Mayence records that -he finished the binding and illuminating of the first volume on St. -Bartholomew's Day, 1456, and the second on the 15th of August. St. -Bartholomew's Day is the 13th of June, and not the 24th of August, as -the catalogue of the Bibliothèque Nationale has it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Fragment of the Mazarine Bible, printed in two -columns. Beginning of the text in the second column; original size.] - -All these remarks show that the printers did not proclaim themselves, -and were making pseudo-manuscripts. They did not make known their names -or address. The rubricators sided with them, for many of the copies are -illuminated with as much care and beauty as if they were the finest -manuscripts. - -There is no record extant of the number of copies printed, but it was -done on both vellum and paper. Copies are by no means uncommon, most of -the great libraries having one, and many are in private collections. One -is shown among the typographical monuments in the King's Library of the -British Museum, and there is a finely illuminated copy in the show-room -of the Bibliothèque Nationale. From its very great importance as the -first book that is known to have been printed, its value has a constant -increase. Of the copies recently sold, one at the Perkins sale in 1873 -on vellum sold for £3,400, another on paper at the same sale fetched -£2,900, while one on paper in the Syston Park Library sold in December, -1884, for £3,900. It has been asserted that the copies on paper were the -first issued by Gutenberg and his partners, and those on vellum -subsequently printed by Fust and Schoeffer, after they had obtained -possession of the inventor's stock. - -But so many copies absolutely similar in aspect, and of so regular a -style, put in the market from day to day by Fust and Schoeffer, gave -rise to protests from the caligraphists. Criticism always attends upon -success, but having obtained the result, the two associates did not -hesitate to proclaim themselves the printers of the Bible. On the -publication of the Psalter, which followed the Bible at a year's -interval, they gave their names and added a date, 1457, the first -instance of a date being recorded in a book. This second work was of so -skilful a typography, that it might have been shown as the work of an -expert penman; the faults remarked in the letters of indulgence are no -longer seen; type had attained perfection; in two years printing had -reached its culminating point. - -In spite of his disappointments, Gutenberg did not rest idle. If he had -seen his two enemies rob him of his claim of priority in the invention, -he had to show that, reduced to his own exertions and to the restricted -means furnished him by charitable people, he also could print well. Two -years after the Bible a dated book, composed in Gothic letters, appeared -at Mayence; this was the _Catholicon_ of John Balbus, of Genoa. It had -not yet occurred to these first printers to exercise their art otherwise -than on religious works. It is admitted by general opinion that the -_Catholicon_ issued from the press of Gutenberg; on the other hand, M. -Bernard believes that it ought to be attributed to a printer of Eltvil, -who published in 1467 a vocabulary called the _Vocabularium ex quo_ with -the same types. The former theory may be sustained by the words of the -colophon of the book, which is a sort of hymn to God and a recognition -of the city of Mayence without any mention of the name of the printer. -Now in the situation in which Gutenberg found himself, in the face of -his rivals, had he not some claim to regard the great discovery as his -own? But if M. Bernard is mistaken, and if our supposition has no -foundation, what a beautiful act of humility, what a noble idea of his -character, Gutenberg gives us in writing, "With the aid of the Most -High, Who releases the tongues of infants and often reveals to babes -that which is sealed to learned men, this admirable book the -_Catholicon_ was finished in the year of the incarnation of our Saviour -MCCCCLX. in the mother-country of Mayence, famous city of Germany, which -God, in His clemency, has deigned to render the most illustrious and the -first of cities; and this book was perfected without the usual help of -pen or style, but by the admirable linking of formes and types"! - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Colophon of the _Catholicon_, supposed to have -been printed by Gutenberg in 1460.] - -The history of these men, it is easy to understand, has to be regarded -with caution, people of so little consequence then that the authentic -documents relating to them have for ever disappeared. If we except that -of the Pfennigthurm of Strasbourg, of which we have before spoken, and -the deed of claim for money from Fust to Gutenberg dated 1455, we are -forced to quote from authors living long afterwards, who submitted, -without knowing better, to the miserable errors of oral tradition. It is -nearly always the same with men who have occupied a large place in the -history of art; posterity only knows of their genius at the time when no -one knows anything of them. For Gutenberg the situation was still more -terrible; a rival, Peter Schoeffer, survived him, and he did not for his -own reputation care to preserve his rival's memory; and if, as is -believed, Gutenberg left pupils and heirs, Henry Bechtermuncze, Ulrich -Zell, and Weigand Spyes, his misfortune is crowned by Bechtermuncze -being now reputed to be the printer of the _Catholicon_, of which we -have just given the history. Even Albert Pfister, one of his workmen, -dismissed at the end of his work, having obtained from his master some -rejected types, was presumed later to have invented printing. We find -this artisan established at Bamberg about 1460, composing Bibles in -movable types, the first known being that published in 1461. But Albert -Pfister showed that he was not at all an inventor by the mediocrity of -his work, and more by the old types that he used. If he had known the -secret of engraving the punches, he would have cast new letters and have -given a better aspect to his work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Colophon of the Bible printed in 1462 by Fust -and Schoeffer, which is the first dated Bible. There are two different -editions with this signature. The above is from the second edition.] - -In these statements all is supposition and contradiction. That which is -certain--and the dates are there to prove it--is the enormous progress -in the productions of Peter Schoeffer. In 1459 he published his third -book, Durand's _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_, in folio. As in the -Psalter, Schoeffer employed initial letters printed in red, which the -rival workshop could not do in the _Catholicon_, the rubrics of which -are painted by hand, as in manuscripts. In time he put forth a second -edition of the Psalter, always with Fust's name joined to his own. A -great number of types were broken at the beginning, but he dreamed of -doing yet better. In 1460 he gave the _Constitutiones_ of Pope Clement -V., with a gloss and commentaries by John André; here was the first -example of a process much employed in manuscripts, but of which the -typographical composition was very difficult. Again, in 1462 a new Latin -Bible issued from their workshops in two folio volumes. It is the first -dated edition. The first volume has two hundred and forty-two folios in -double columns, the second two hundred and thirty-nine. It commences -with an epistle of St. Jerome, and on the last leaf of the second volume -is the colophon on the preceding page. - -This book, one of the first worthy of the name, and which is called by -preference the Mayence Bible, appeared in one of the most troubled -epochs that the episcopal city had had to go through. Subject to its -archbishops, who were at the head of all the lay lords and fighting men, -the city found itself in 1462 the prey of two prelates of equal title -who refused to give way to one another: Thierry of Isembourg and Adolph -of Nassau-Wiesbaden. Adolph surprised Mayence on the 27th October, 1462, -pursuing his adversary, who scaled the walls with a rope to escape -quicker, and the city was sacked and pillaged from its foundations. In -the middle of this turmoil, what became of the obscure persons who were -then the printers of the Bible? Doubtless their insignificance saved -them from disaster, but as it was long before peace was re-established, -and the entire edition of their last volume could not be kept back, we -incline to believe that they were for a time going about the country as -itinerant booksellers. Paris was to them a well-indicated point of -travel--Paris, toward which all German commerce tended. The university -where Peter Schoeffer was instructed in letters, and that truly passed -for the first in Europe, appeared to them a market of the first order. -If we may believe Walchius (_Decas fabularum generis humani_: -Strasbourg, 1609, 4to, p. 181), John Fust himself went to that city, -where he put books on sale from sixty crowns a copy, then fifty, then -forty, according to the prevailing system in matters of discount. Fust -was above all things a merchant; he led it to be believed that he had -the marvellous establishment of a copyist beyond the Rhine, and he had -disposed of many copies, when the corporate scribes of the university, -becoming aware of the imposition, cried out furiously and declared it a -diabolical invention. We may now take this tale of Walchius as a fable, -as the registers of Parliament, on being consulted, rest silent on the -proceedings instituted against the "magician" of Mayence. Only we must -not lose sight of the fact that the booksellers had their masters, their -syndicate, if we may use the modern word, charged to prohibit fraudulent -publications. They were too much interested in the suppression of -printed books to judge the matter coldly. The Parliament had nothing to -see to in this. - -The revolution of Mayence had otherwise great results, which were not -affected by these minor reverses. The printing workshops, or at least -the successors of Gutenberg, began to be dispersed, and Fust and -Schoeffer having established a school of printers in the city, their -trade was no longer secret. Deprived of their liberties by the new -Archbishop, many of them expatriated themselves. We shall take occasion -later to name some of these exiles, through whom the art of printing -spread itself almost simultaneously throughout the world: to Cologne and -Strasbourg, to Italy and Spain, without reckoning Holland, France, -Switzerland, and the country around Mayence. We have before named the -episcopal city of Bamberg; it had the singular fortune to be the second -city to possess a printing office, but it disappeared as quickly as it -was established, with Albert Pfister, without leaving the least trace; -we do not find printing there again before 1480, more than twenty years -later. - -Gutenberg was dead before 1468. He was interred in the Church of the -Récollets of Mayence, by the pious care of a friend, who attributed the -invention of printing to him on his tomb. - -We may begin to comprehend the influence of this man upon the discovery -of which all the world was then talking, but the troubles of the -archiepiscopal city hampered the respective merit of the inventors. -Peter Schoeffer and John Fust were not much affected by the political -crisis. After two years' suspension, they reappeared with a Cicero, _De -Officiis_, 1465, quarto, always at work and always surpassing -themselves. This time they freely gave up religious publications, and, -still more extraordinary, they employed Greek types. - -Such is, detached from the incredible contradictions of writers on art, -and sketched solely on its main lines, the origin of printing as it is -established at this day. First came the image engraved in relief, which -we have not gone to China to find, with some of our predecessors. Upon -this image were often cut, by the same economical process, legends of -explanation that presented the idea of imitation of manuscript; and the -xylographs appeared with or without illustrations. Then from the -correction of errors in these books followed the discovery of movable -characters. This wooden type, possible when it was used with a _frotton_ -for printing, would quickly break under the press, the idea of which was -gained from the common press of the wine-makers. Then a kind of metallic -type had to be found which would run in a mould struck by a punch. This -punch was not invented for the purpose; it served previously for the -makers of coins and seals. The fabrication of type from the matrix was a -simple adoption. The lead thrown into the matrix gave the desired type. -Thus were made the first books, of which we have briefly related the -composition. - -As to the proportion of glory due to each one of the first printers, it -is necessary equally, to guard against error on one side or the other. -We have sought to separate from the heap of publications probable -opinions or those based on certain documents. That the origin of the -_Donatus_, the block books, was Dutch would be puerile to deny, because, -on one side, the engravings on blocks are surely of the school of Van -Eyck, and, on the other hand, Ulrich Zell, who inspired the "Cologne -Chronicle" of 1499, assigned positively to Holland the cradle of the -_Donatus_. At any rate, it was a pupil of Gutenberg, a question we have -discussed. After that we will trouble ourselves but little about Laurent -Coster. The name makes no difference in a matter of this kind. - -As to Gutenberg, we have not been able to go as far as M. E. Dutuit, who -in his _Manuel a'Estampes_ (vol. i., p. 236, etc.) doubts Gutenberg's -right to the title of inventor. It is stated that in a letter of William -Fichet, prior of the Sorbonne, of whom we shall have more to say -presently, to Robert Gaguin, which M. A. Claudin found at the beginning -of a work entitled _Gasparim Pergamensis orthographiæ liber_, published -in 1470, nearly twenty years after the first work at Mayence, Gutenberg -is proclaimed the inventor of printing. Without any other, this -testimony of a _savant_ who was the first to bring the German printers -to Paris appears to us well nigh irrefutable. - -As to John Fust and his grandson by marriage, Peter Schoeffer, they are -so well defended by their works, that there is no more to say here; -doubtless grave presumptions arise as to the delicacy of their conduct -with Gutenberg, but we are not so bold as to censure them beyond -measure. We know nothing precise either of the time or of the men. - -Let us now imagine humble workmen, the most simple of _gens de -mestiers_, to employ the French expression then in use, shut up in a -kind of dark workshop, like a country forge, formed in little groups of -two or three persons, one designing and the other cutting the wood, -having near them a table, on which is held the engraved block after its -reliefs have been rubbed with sombre ink, who afterwards, by means of -the _frotton_, apply the damped paper to the raised parts of the block; -we shall have without much stretch of thought all the economy of the -xylographic impression. If we add to this primitive workshop the matrix -in which the types are cast, the box in which they are distributed, the -forme on which they are arranged to compose the pages, and a small -hand-press, with blacker ink and paper damped to permit the greasy ink -to take better, we have a picture of the work-room of Gutenberg, Fust, -and Schoeffer, and of the first printers with movable types. - -Thus typography was born of painting, passing in its infancy through -wood-cutting, revolutionising ideas and somewhat the world. But the -mighty power of the new art was not confined to itself; it extended the -circle of engraving, which till then had suffered from the enormous -difficulties of reproduction. As if the time were ripe for all these -things, nearly at the moment when the first printers were distinguishing -themselves by serious works, a Florentine goldsmith accidentally -discovered the cutting of cast metal.[A] What would have become of this -new process if the presses of Gutenberg had not brought their powerful -assistance to the printing of engravings? It will be found then that -printing rendered a hundredfold to engraving for that which it received -from it and bore it along with its own rapid advance. - -Then reappeared, following the new processes, the figures somewhat -abandoned by the Mayence workmen during the period of transformation. -Our object is to speak at length of the Book ornamented and illustrated -according to the means of relief-cutting or casting; to demonstrate the -influence of painting, of sculpture, of art, on the production of the -Book; and thus to help the reader at the same time to understand the -almost sudden and irresistible development of typography, and to mention -its foremost representatives. - -[Footnote A: The opinion that Finiguerra was the unconscious inventor of -casting engravings is now abandoned.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -1462 TO 1500. - - The Book and the printers of the second generation--The German - workmen dispersed through Europe--Caxton and the introduction of - printing into England--Nicholas Jenson and his supposed mission to - Mayence--The first printing in Paris; William Fichet and John - Heinlein--The first French printers; their installation at the - Sorbonne and their publications--The movement in France--The - illustration of the Book commenced in Italy--The Book in Italy; - engraving in relief and metal plates--The Book in Germany: Cologne, - Nuremberg, Basle--The Book in the Low Countries--French schools of - ornament of the Book; Books of Hours; booksellers at the end of the - fifteenth century--Literary taste in titles in France at the end of - the fifteenth century--Printers and booksellers' marks--The - appearance of the portrait in the Book--Progress in England--Caxton - and his followers. - - -Considering the influence of printing on the book trade of the fifteenth -century, as referred to in the preceding pages, the dealers in -manuscripts were not disposed to give way at the first blow. An entire -class of workmen would find themselves from day to day without -employment if the new art succeeded; these were the copyists, miserable -scribes, who for meagre remuneration frequented the shops of the -merchants, where they transcribed manuscripts by the year. Before -printing the publication of books was so effected, and the booksellers -were rather intermediaries between the copyist and the buyer, than -direct dealers having shops and fittings complete. It is evident that -they would not provide themselves with these costly books long in -advance without being sure of disposing of them. - -Small as was the remuneration of the writers, it was much to them; and -they were naturally the first to protest against the new invention. At -the same time, their opposition and that of the booksellers was soon -overcome, swamped, and choked by the growing crowd of printers. Then, as -always happens in similar cases, in place of fighting against the -current, most of the former workers in manuscript followed it. The -writers designed letters for engraving in wood, the booksellers sold the -printed works, and some of the illuminators engraved in relief or cast -their _histoyres_. For a long time these last continued to decorate -books with the ornamental drawings with which they had adorned the -manuscripts, and so contributed to form the fine school of illustrators -who carried their art to so high a point from the end of the fifteenth -century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Imprint of Arnold Ther Hoernen, printer, of -Mayence.] - -As previously related, the revolution of Mayence caused the flight of a -crowd of artisans who found their liberty suddenly compromised by the -conqueror. The want of money at this time always brought a diminution of -patronage, and working printers have been at all times tenacious of -their privileges. It so happened that their guild, in place of remaining -established at Mayence many years longer, was, as it were, turned out, -scattered to the four cardinal points by the dispersion of its members, -and scattered many years before the natural time. In point of fact, in -the common order of things, a workman here and there quits the principal -workshop to try the world. He makes his way timidly, unconscious apostle -of a marvellous art. If he succeeds, he gathers some pupils round him; -if he fails, no trace of him remains; in any case invention propagates -itself more gradually. With printing it was a thunderclap. Hardly had it -made its appearance when the exodus commenced. The greater part of the -Mayence men went to Italy: to Subiaco and to Rome, Arnold Pannartz, -Conrad Sweynheim, Ulrich Hahn; to Venice, John of Spire, Vendelin of -Spire, Christopher Valdarfer, Bernard Pictor (of Augsburg), Erhardt -Ratdolt, Peter Loslein; to Ferrara, Andrew Belfort; to Foligno, John -Neumeister; Henry Alding tried Sicily; Andrew Vyel, of Worms, printed -at Palermo. Lambert Palmart was at Valencia, in Spain, in 1477; -Nicholas Spindeler at Barcelona; Peter Hagenbach at Toledo; not far from -Mayence--that is, at Cologne--Ulrich Zell, a pupil of Gutenberg, who -dated his first work 1466. It was Arnold Ther Hoernen who numbered a -book with Arabic figures; it was Koelhof who first used signatures to -indicate to the binder the order of the sheets; it was at Eltvil that -Henry Bechtermuncze, as we have already said, printed his _Vocabularium_ -in German, with the types of the _Catholicon_; at Basle, Berthold -Rüppel, of Hanau, was the first established in that city which after -Mayence did the most for printing; at Nuremberg, Koburger, who took -nearly the first rank among his contemporaries, set as many as -twenty-four presses to work, and was named by Badius the prince of -printers. And how matters went on! For instance, the very year that -followed the death of Gutenberg, monks, the Brothers of the Common Life -of Marienthal, in the Rheingau, themselves published a copy of the -indulgences accorded by Adolph of Nassau, Archbishop of Mayence. Before -1480, presses were everywhere in Germany: at Prague, Augsburg, Ulm, -Lubeck, Essling, etc. - -It is to be remarked that the Mayence men did not turn towards Holland. -Is it that they found there the descendants of Laurent Coster firmly -established in their workshops? Must the coexistence, the simultaneous -advance, of the invention in Germany and in the Low Countries be -admitted? It is a secret for us and for many others, but we know for -certain that Flemish printers were established at Utrecht in 1473, at -Delft, Bruges, Gouda, Zwoll, Antwerp, and Brussels. At Louvain there -was besides John of Westphalia, who published in 1474 a work of Peter -Crescens, and several other works. - -Colard Mansion was printing at Bruges about 1473; and was employed by -William Caxton, who had been for some years trading as a merchant in the -Low Countries, to print the "Recuyell of the Histories of Troy," by -Raoul Le Fevre, which Caxton had translated into English at the command -of Queen Margaret. This was issued in 1474, and was the first book -printed in the English language. In 1475 or 1476 Caxton returned to -England with a fount of types, which he had employed Mansion to cut and -cast for him, and established himself as a printer in the precincts of -Westminster Abbey. In 1477 he produced the first book printed in -England, "The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers," followed by a -large number of important works, many of them written or translated by -Caxton himself. Thus was typography firmly established in England; and -Caxton's immediate successors, Wynken de Worde, Richard Pynson, William -Machlinia, have had a glorious roll of followers, which has never been -broken to this day. From Westminster the art spread in England to -Oxford, where Theodoricus Rood, from Cologne, printed an _Exposicio -Sancti Jeronimi_ in 1478; and to St. Albans in 1480 by a printer who has -never been identified, and who produced the famous "Chronicle" and "Boke -of St. Albans." - -The invasion, we see, had been most rapid. In less than fifteen years, -every important city had followed the movement, and was ready to -establish printing offices. If we may credit a certain controverted -document, Charles VII. had on the 3rd of October, 1458, sent to Mayence -one of the best medal engravers of the Mint of Tours to study the -process of which marvels were spoken: "The 3rd of October, 1458, the -King having learned that Messire Guthenberg, living at Mayence, in the -country of Germany, a dexterous man in carving and making letters with a -punch, had brought to light the invention of printing by punches and -types, desirous of inquiring into such a treasure, the King has -commanded the generals of his mints to nominate persons well instructed -in the said cutting and to send them secretly to the said place to -inform themselves of the said mode and invention, to understand and -learn the art of them, in order to satisfy the said Lord King; and it -was undertaken by Nicholas Jenson, who took the said journey to bring -intelligence of the said art and of the execution of it in the said -kingdom, which first has made known the said art of impression to the -said kingdom of France" (Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, Hf 467, pp. 410, -411). - -Nicholas Jenson on his return met with a cool reception from Louis XI., -who did not continue the works of his father. It may be supposed that -this coolness was the cause of his expatriating himself and retiring to -a place where his industry could be better exercised. Ten years after -the above mission we find him established at Venice, his art of engraver -of letters joined to that of printer. His Eusebius, translated by -Trapezuntius, and his Justinian, were composed in 1470 with such -marvellous and clear types that from that day the best typographers have -imitated his founts. In spite of its success, he did not confine himself -to these letters, but he made use also of Gothic, in which he printed -by preference pious books. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Imprint of Nicholas Jenson to a Justinian, -printed in 1470 at Venice. This type has prevailed up to now.] - -In spite of the attempts of Jenson in the name of the King of -France--that is, if these attempts ever took place in the manner -indicated above--the invention was not known to have commended itself to -the powerful university of Paris. In general, and especially for the -introduction of innovations in that learned body, it was necessary to -fight, to strike without much chance of success, save in case of having -acquaintance in the place. We have seen John Fust, obliged suddenly to -retake the road to Germany, in a fair way to find himself taxed with -sorcery, not an inconsiderable matter. For others the sale of -unauthorised books had had most unhappy consequences unless the -Parliament intervened. So ten years had passed since the journey of -Jenson, and ten or twelve since the first manifestations of typography -at Mayence, without the diabolical discovery finding admittance to the -Sorbonne. A still more extraordinary thing, a Cologne printer issued -about 1472 a small folio in Gothic type, thirty-one long lines to a -page, which was a work written in French. The _Histoires de Troyes_ of -Raoul Le Fevre, chaplain of the dukes of Burgundy, first found a -publisher in Germany, and soon after another in England, before a single -press was definitely installed at Paris. - -As we have said of Peter Schoeffer, numerous German students were in the -university, where they pursued their studies, and frequently remained -later as masters. It has been found that in 1458 a former student of -Leipzig named John Heinlein, a native of Stein, in the diocese of Spire, -entered as regent of the college of Burgundy, from whence he passed to -the Sorbonne in 1462, the year of the troubles in Mayence. After the -manner of latinising names so common at that time, he called himself -Lapidanus, from the name of his native place, which means Stone in -German. Heinlein met in Paris a Savoyard, William Fichet, born in 1433 -at Petit Bornand, who became an associate of the Sorbonne about 1461, -and finally rector in 1468. These two men were great friends, and their -particular instincts attracted them to men of elevated studies. They -divined at once the enormous help printing would bring to their work. -Besides, it grieved them to see through the whole of France, especially -in Touraine, German colporteurs carrying on their trade under cover of -other commerce, a practice from which the most grave inconveniences -might result. It occurred to them that to prevent fraud they would -themselves create a printing establishment; but if they deliberated on -it, it must have been in secret, for the registers of the Sorbonne are -silent on their enterprise. If Fichet conceived the idea, it may be -believed that, from his German origin, Heinlein put it into execution. -M. Philippe thinks that he was formerly at Basle. In all probability it -was from that city he tried to obtain his workmen. In 1468 six years had -elapsed since the craftsmen were dispersed and fled from Mayence. At all -events, it was from Basle that Ulrich Gering, Michael Freyburger, and -Martin Krantz, printers recommended to the two Sorbonnists, departed, -and in due course arrived in Paris. Of these three men, who were the -first to establish a printing office on the French side of the Rhine, -Ulrich Gering was a student as well as a printer, so was Freyburger, -originally of Colmar. Krantz was a letter-founder, and the only real -workman of the three companions. - -We have often regretted with regard to these men, as also to Gutenberg, -Fust, and Schoeffer, that no really authentic portrait has transmitted -their features to us. Every one will recall the fur cap and loose -pantaloons of the mediocre statue at Mayence, but there is really no -portrait of Gutenberg. As to Gering, M. Philippe, in his _Histoire de -l'Origine de l'Imprimerie à Paris_, publishes a grotesque figure muffled -in the ruff of the sixteenth century, after a picture preserved at -Lucerne, but for which much cannot be said. Lacaille, in his _Histoire -de l'Imprimerie_, gives a full-length portrait of Gering, said to be -taken from a painting in the College Montagu. - -The workshop of the three Germans was set up within the walls of the -Sorbonne--_in ædibus Sorbonnicis_--in 1469. There they set to work at -once, their printing establishment consisting simply of a room, none too -light, a table, a press, and formes. Krantz doubtless struck the types -chosen by the Sorbonnists, for there were then in use two sorts of -letters: German Gothic and Roman. They kept to the Roman, as being more -round and clear; and as soon as they obtained matrices and cast their -type, they entered on their task with ardour. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--"Letters" of Gasparin of Bergamo. First page of -the first book printed at Paris, in 1470.] - -The tendencies of Fichet and Heinlein were not towards transcendent -theology, but rather towards the literature of the ancients and -contemporary rhetorical works. Besides, it may be said, considering that -men are far from perfect, Fichet counted on making the authorised -presses serve his own purpose. We find him publishing a treatise on -rhetoric in quarto in 1471; meantime he supervised the work confided to -his artists. They commenced with a large volume of "Letters" of Gasparin -of Bergamo, which was set up in quarto with the Roman type, the form of -which had been accepted. At the end of the work, the impression of -which cost much time--possibly a year--the three printers placed a -quatrain in Latin distichs, which is at once a statement of identity and -a promise for the future. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Colophon in distichs in the "Letters" of -Gasparin of Bergamo, first book printed at Paris, at the office of the -Sorbonne.] - -If we try to apportion to each of the three printers his share in the -making of the book, it may be supposed that the intellectual part of the -composition and the correction fell to Freyburger and Gering, while the -heavier work of founding, placing in formes, and press work fell to -Krantz. This essay, satisfactory as it appeared, was far from -perfection. The first Parisian printers had multiplied abbreviations and -irregular contractions, and enormous difficulties and inevitable faults -ensued. Further, either they had more than one punch, or the leaden -matrix was deformed, for the characters frequently differ. At the same -time, we must commend them for having used the _æ_ and _[oe]_, which -were uniformly written _e_ in the manuscripts, thus giving rise to -errors without number. Their punctuation was the comma, semicolon, and -full stop. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--_Rhetorique_ of Fichet, printed at Paris in -1471. The marginal ornaments are drawn by hand.] - -Fichet and Heinlein had become the modest librarians of the Sorbonne, -and this new employment gave them greater facilities for surveillance. -The printing office did not remain inactive. It issued successively the -"Orthography" of Gasparin of Bergamo, the "Letters" of Phalaris, two -books of Æneas Sylvius, the "Conspiracy of Catiline" of Sallust, the -"Epitome of Titus Livius" of Florus, and finally the "Rhetorics" of -William Fichet, which, if we may credit a letter addressed to Bessarion, -was finished in 1471. Following came the "Letters" of Bessarion, the -_Elegantia Latinæ Linguæ_ of Valla, the first folio volume from the -Sorbonne presses; and others, thirteen volumes in 1470-71 and seventeen -in 1472. - -At the end of 1472 the workshop was somewhat broken up, Fichet having -left for Rome and Heinlein preaching in Germany. The three printers had -shown by their works that they were in earnest; besides, they had from -the first gratuitously distributed copies among the nobles, who, being -accustomed to pay highly for manuscripts, did not fail to note the -difference. The associates then resolved to quit the Sorbonne and create -an establishment for themselves; their patrons being no longer there to -sustain them in case of failure, and in giving up their presses and -types it may be judged that they were not without anxiety on that point. - -Their oldest dated book, the _Manipulus Curatorum_ of Montrochet, was -also the first that they printed in their new quarters, at the sign of -the "Golden Sun" in the Rue St. Jacques. They remained united up to the -year 1477, when Gering alone printed at the "Golden Sun," but he -obtained associates, George Mainyal in 1480 and Berthold Rembold in -1494, who lived with him in the Rue de la Sorbonne, where he established -himself on leaving the Rue St. Jacques. Ulrich Gering died on the 23rd -of August, 1510, after a half-century of work. - -The movement inaugurated by the Sorbonne was promptly followed. German -workmen opened their shops nearly everywhere in France; then the French -themselves scattered. At Lyons in 1472 a Frenchman was established, the -same at Angers, Caen, Metz, Troyes, Besançon, and Salins. But in the -central provinces we find Henry Mayer at Toulouse, John Neumeister at -Albi; in the east Metlinger at Dijon; and Michael Wensler, of Basle, at -Macon, among others, about 1493. - -We have now arrived at an epoch of greater efforts. The Lyons printers -used ornamental letters, from which were developed engravings in the -Book. Since the block books illustration had been neglected, as the -means were wanting to distribute the plates here and there in the forme; -Schoeffer still employed initial letters in wood very like vignettes. -John Fust was now dead, but Peter Schoeffer continued to print without -intermission. - -If we search for the precise epoch in which illustration appeared in the -history of the Book, we shall perhaps have to go back to the time of -Albert Pfister, printer of Bamberg, who issued in 1461 an edition of the -"Fables of Ulrich Bohner" with a hundred and one figures on wood. This -may be said to be the unconscious combination of xylography with -typography, a kind of transformation of old elements to new things -without other importance; art had no place in this adaptation. - -Up to this time Germany had not, in its school of painters or -miniaturists, men capable of giving a personal impulse to ornament. In -the German editions of the block books the influence of Van Eyck had -made itself felt very sensibly, and the Flemish had preserved their -supremacy on this point; on the other hand, the German printers who went -to seek their fortune in Italy fell into the middle of a circle -admirably prepared to receive them and to communicate their ideas to -them. It is believed that the first book printed in Italy with woodcuts -in the text and with an ascertained date is the work of a German -established at Rome, Ulrich Hahn, in 1467. An account in the _Annuaire -du Bibliophile_, which, being without citation of authority, we quote -for what it is worth, relates that Ulrich Hahn was established as a -printer at Vienna about 1462, but was driven thence by the publication -of a pamphlet against the burgomaster of the city, and was attracted to -Rome by Torquemada, who confided to him the impression of his work the -_Meditationes_. Hahn was an engraver, as were also most of his -_confrères_ at that time--that is, he cut in relief designs to be -intercalated in the text--and Passavant relates that the designs of the -_Meditationes_ were from compositions of Fra Angelico, who died in 1455. -Be that as it may, the book, the printing of which was finished on St. -Sylvester's Day, 1467, is the first known with engravings, and only -three copies of it exist: one at Vienna, one at Nuremberg, and one in -Lord Spencer's library; it is composed in Gothic type in folio. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Wood engraving of Matteo Pasti for Valturius' -_De Re Militari_: Verona, 1472.] - -Illustration found a true artist at Verona, Matteo Pasti, who furnished -designs for a volume on military art by Valturius, printed in Roman -characters in folio, at the expense of John of Verona, and dedicated to -Sigismond Pandolfi. Pasti's eighty-two figures are simple outlines, and -we here reproduce one of the principal--an archer shooting at a butt. -Published in 1472, the volume of Valturius followed soon after the -_Meditationes_, but the engravings enable us to see how the Italian -process, consisting mostly of lines without shadows, differed from the -Dutch and German. One thing to be remarked here is the purity of the -design, in spite of the roughness of the engraving; we see in these -figures Italian art at its height, despite the somewhat coarse -translation of the wood-cutter. - -At Venice the German inventors had reaped their harvest. At the end of -the fifteenth century, fifty years after the invention of typography, -the printing offices and booksellers' shops were counted by hundreds. It -was in this city that for the first time a title with frontispiece -carrying indication of the contents, the place, the date, and the name -of the printer, was given to the Book. We give here this ornamental -title, placed before a _Calendario_ of John de Monteregio, printed by -Pictor, Loslein, and Ratdolt in 1476, folio. - -The German Erhardt Ratdolt was probably the promoter of these -innovations. He soon afterwards published the first geometrical book -with figures, the "Elements of Euclid," 1482, folio; in the same year he -produced the _Poeticon Astronomicum_ of Hyginus, previously printed at -Ferrara, with illustrations on wood of excellent design, but laboriously -and unskilfully engraved. Yet the art of the Book could not remain -mediocre in this city, where the artists were creating marvels. John of -Spire and afterwards Nicholas Jenson, the emigrant from France, of whom -we have spoken above, had created, after Italian manuscripts, that Roman -letter, the primitive type of which has come down to our time very -little retouched. At the death of Jenson in 1481, his materials passed -into the hands of Andrew d'Asola, called Andrea Torresani, who did not -allow the good traditions of his master to die, and who produced among -others a book bearing signatures, catchwords, and paging ("Letters of -St. Jerome," 1488). Torresani was the father-in-law of Aldus Manutius, -who was to be for ever illustrious in the art of printing at Venice, and -raised his art to the highest perfection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Title-page of the _Calendario_, first -ornamental title known. Printed in 1476 at Venice.] - -But if decoration by means of relief blocks found a favourable reception -in Italy and, above all, a group of artists capable of carrying it to -success, there were at the same time other experiments conceived in a -different way. The discovery of Maso Finiguerra gave to the art a new -process of reproduction, and printing presses had now to render possible -and practicable the working of engraved plates. In order to make that -which follows comprehensible, we enter into a few technical details, the -whole subject having been so admirably and fully treated by MM. -Delaborde and Duplessis. - -In the engraved wood block, as in the printing type, it is a projection -in the wood or metal which, being inked and passed under a press, leaves -on paper its lines in black. Naturally then the intercalation of an -engraving of this kind in typographical composition is made without -difficulty, and the impression of both is taken at once. On the other -hand, a line engraving is obtained from incised lines on a plate of -copper; that is, an instrument called a burin traces the lines, which -are filled with greasy ink. These incised lines only are inked. The -surface of the plate is cleaned off to avoid smudging. The sheet of -paper destined for the impression has then to be made very pliable, so -that at the striking of the press it runs, so to speak, to find the ink -in the lines and hold it. It is therefore impossible to take a text from -relief characters at the same time as an engraved plate. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Engraving on metal by Baccio Baldini for _El -Monte Santo di Dio_, in 1477.] - -However, this kind of reproduction, which, contrary to that from -wood, allowed of half-tints or toning down, attracted in good time -the workers at the Book. It appeared to them possible to reconcile -the two printings by the successive passage of the same sheet of -paper through the press, to receive at first the impression from the -type and afterwards to find the ink deposited in the incisions in the -copper. The first manifestation of this new method of illustration was -made at Florence, the home of line engraving, by Nicholas di Lorenzo -in 1477, for the work of Antonio Bettini, of Siena, called _El Monte -Santo di Dio_. Here the artists were never known. Common opinion has -it that Baccio Baldini borrowed from Sandro Botticelli the subjects of -his plates. Italian engraving always seeks its source in Pollajuolo, -Botticelli, and Baldini. It is not the simple work of a niellist, -but it had not yet reached perfection either in the work or in the -impression; the illustrations of the _Monte Santo_ are proof of this, -as are also those of the _Dante_, by Baldini, in 1481, for the same -Nicholas di Lorenzo. From this we reproduce the Misers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Metal engraving by Baccio Baldini from the -Dante of 1481.] - -At this epoch engravings from the burin were taken with a pale ink, the -composition of which is very different from the fine black ink of -Schoeffer as well as of the old Italian printers. And besides in most -cases the proofs were obtained with the _frotton_, like the ancient -block books, an eminently defective process. The press was not yet well -adapted to the delicate work of line engraving, and the workmen, who did -not apply the plates until after the text was printed, preferred not to -risk the loss of their sheets by the use of inappropriate presses. -These, with the insignificant attempts made by the Germans in 1479,[A] -are the beginnings of the process of line engraving in the ornamentation -of the Book. In fact, the process failed to take its due position for -want of a more convenient mode of working. Relief engraving had got -ahead; with it the sheets used for the impression did not require -working more than once to register the figures with the text; in a word, -the labour was not so great. A century had to pass before line engraving -completely dethroned the vignette on wood, a century in which the latter -attained its height, and showed what able artisans could make of a -process apparently the least flexible. - -[Footnote A: _Breviarium ecclesie Herbipolensis_: Et. Dold., 1479, -folio, copper plate engravings.] - - -Not to leave Italy, which had the honour of making the book with -engraved illustrations known to the world, we pass by some years, -during which Arnold Bucking gave at Rome a _Cosmographia_ of Ptolemy, -1478, with incised plates, which is the first printed atlas that was -produced, whilst as regards ordinary publications there appeared in all -parts classical and Italian works, such as Cicero, Virgil, Tacitus, -Pliny, Eusebius, among the ancients, and Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, -etc., among moderns. Among the editions of Dante, we may cite that of -Peter of Cremona, dated 18th November, 1491, with one engraving to -each canto, of which the earlier are after Botticelli, and perhaps -drawn by him directly on the wood. Passavant believes these figures -to be cut in relief in the metal. On some of the plates there is a -signature, a Gothic b, the signification of which leaves a free -field for conjecture, and perhaps for error. Copies of this book with -the complete series of twenty plates are extremely rare; one in the -Hamilton Palace Library sold in May, 1884, for £380; the Royal Library -of Berlin recently agreed to pay £1,200 for a proof set of the plates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Plate from the _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, -printed by Aldus Manutius, in 1499.] - -As we shall see later apropos of German vignettes of the same period, -the characteristic of Italian engraving was sobriety, the complete -absence of useless work and the great simplicity of the human figure. -This special manner will be found in the famous edition of the -_Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_ of Francis Colonna, printed in 1499 by -Aldus, copied sixty years later by a French printer, and lately -reproduced in reduced size. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Plate from Bonino de Bonini's Dante, at -Brescia, in 1487.] - -The Italian illustrators, whether they were working in wood, or, as some -writers have it, in metal, adroitly brought their figures forward by -contrasting some rudimentary work in the persons with the more -accentuated and often stippled ground, which formed a dark background. -This was also the ordinary process in their ornaments, among the most -interesting of which are the borders of the plates to an edition of -Dante by Bonino de Bonini, Brescia, 1487, of which a specimen is here -reproduced. - -If we return from Italy, which then took the lead, to Germany, a school -of _Formschneiders_ is found about the year 1470 at Augsburg, whose -secluded workshops were of no benefit to the booksellers. These -ill-advised artisans went still further. Apparently furious to see -printing so widely spread as to render their bad woodcuts difficult to -get rid of, they united in a body to interdict Gunther Zainer and -Schüssler from putting engravings into their books. They must -nevertheless have come to an ultimate arrangement, for Zainer printed in -1477 a book on chess by Jacopo da Cessole, with vignettes. He was one of -the few German printers who employed Roman characters in place of the -Gothic of Peter Schoeffer. At Cologne in 1474 Arnold Ther Hoernen -published a work entitled _Fasciculus Temporum_, with small -illustrations engraved on wood. A Bible without date contains most -interesting illustrations. As to the celebrated _Todtentantz_, or "Dance -of Death," published about 1485, it contains forty-one relief plates of -the most ordinary kind, the same as in the "Chronicle of Cologne" of -1499, of which the figures, though less German, less distorted, are -worth little compared with those of the Nuremberg books, more German, -but more artistic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--The creation of woman, plate from the -_Schatzbehalter_, engraved after Michael Wolgemuth.] - -At Nuremberg, Antony Koburger, called by Badius the prince of -booksellers, directed an immense establishment, employing more than a -hundred workmen, without counting smaller houses at Basle and Lyons. -Koburger was a capable and a fortunate man. He had at first put forth a -Bible very indifferently illustrated with the cuts of the Cologne Bible, -but he had before him something better than copying others. Michael -Wohlgemuth, born at Nuremberg in 1434, was then in the full vigour of -his talent. To his school the young Albert Dürer came to study; and as -he was able to draw on wood as well as to engrave on copper and paint on -panel, Koburger was attracted to him, and engaged him to make a set of -illustrations for a book. The projected work was the _Schatzbehalter_, a -sort of ascetic compilation, without interest, without arrangement. -Michael Wohlgemuth set to work; and, thanks to the ability of his -engravers, of whom William Pleydenwurff was probably one, Koburger was -able to put the book on sale in the course of 1491 in three hundred and -fifty-two folios of two columns. Without being perfection, the designs -of Wohlgemuth, very German, very striking, present the vigour and merit -of the future school of Nuremberg. The figure is no longer a simple -line, in the manner of the block books, but a combination of interlaced -cuttings, intended to imitate colour. Those representing the creation of -Eve and the daughter of Jephthah are here reproduced. In the search for -harmony between the text and engravings of this curious work, we shall -find grace and gaiety laid aside, on the other hand a freedom and -boldness that interest and permit us to appreciate at their value the -Nuremberg artists and Koburger, the printer. In fact, the German artists -are more individual, each one taken by himself, than the Italian -illustrators could be, condemned as they were to the hierarchical -commonplace and to a certain form of idealism into which the art of -Italy entered little by little. The German painters, naturalists and -believers, presented their heroes in the image of that robust nature -that was before their eyes. It was in this rude and unpolished spirit -that Michael Wohlgemuth decorated the _Schatzbehalter_; he also composed -the designs for the "Nuremberg Chronicle" of Dr. Hartman Schedel, -printed by Koburger in 1493. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--The daughter of Jephthah, plate taken from the -_Schatzbehalter_, engraved after Michael Wolgemuth.] - -With Dürer, at the latter end of the fifteenth century, the Book was no -more than a pretext for engravings. Thausing, his biographer, says that -the great artist felt the necessity of designing an Apocalypse at Rome -at the time that Luther was premeditating his religious revolution in -face of the worldly splendours of the pontifical court. The -"Apocalypse," published in 1511 in Latin, with Gothic characters, was an -album of fifteen large wood engravings. The Four Horsemen is the best of -these plates, and the boldest; but in this gross fancy, in these poor -halting old hacks, the fantastic and grand idea which the artist meant -to convey can hardly be seen. It may be said the genius of Dürer was -little adapted to vignettes, however large they were, and did not easily -lend itself to the exigencies of a spun-out subject. The title of his -"Apocalypse" is of its kind a curious example of German genius, but, in -spite of its vigour, it does not please like an Italian headpiece or -like a French or Flemish frontispiece. The other works of Dürer -published in the fifteenth century, "The Life of the Virgin" and "The -Passion," were also sets of prints that received a text in the sixteenth -century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Title of the "Apocalypse," by Albert Dürer, -printed in 1498. First edition, without text.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Title of Sebastian Brandt's "Ship of Fools," -printed in 1497 at Basle by Bergman de Olpe.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--The _Bibliomaniac_. Engraving from the "Ship of -Fools."] - -For the rest of his illustrations Dürer belongs to the sixteenth -century, and we shall have occasion to recur to his works. At present it -remains to speak of a curious work printed at Basle by Bergman de Olpe -in 1497, which appears to be the first comic conception of fifteenth -century artists: the _Navis Stultifera_, or "Ship of Fools," of -Sebastian Brandt. This work of the school of Basle lacks neither -originality nor vigour. At the time when it was published its success -was immense, from the strange tricks of its clowns, with fools' caps, -with which every page was adorned. Alas! the best things fall under the -satire of these jesters, even the Book and the lover of books, if we may -judge by the sarcasms against useless publications volleyed by the -personage here reproduced. "I have the first place among fools.... I -possess heaps of volumes that I rarely open. If I read them, I forget -them, and I am no wiser." Brunet sees in these humorous caricatures more -art than is really to be found in them. Their value is owing more to -their spirit and humour than to any other artistic merit. Even the -engraving is singularly fitted to the subject, with its peculiar -cutting, somewhat executed in hairlines. The designer was certainly not -a Holbein, but he is no longer the primitive artisan of the first German -plates, and his freedom is not displeasing. - -We have before spoken, apropos of engraving by the burin in Italy, of -the small share of Germany in the essay at illustration by that means, -and we do not see a real and serious attempt in the two little coats of -arms in copper plate in the _Missale Herbipolense_, printed in 1479. - -The Flemish had not taken any great flights in the midst of this almost -European movement. The school of Burgundy, whose influence was felt in -all the surrounding countries, had lost its authority in consequence of -the progress realized at Mayence. Without doubt the great Flemish -artists were there, but they were honoured painters, and their -inclination did not descend to seeking the booksellers beyond making -them offers of service. Besides, the first of these, officially -established in Flanders, were two Germans, John of Westphalia and John -Veldener, of Cologne, who established themselves in the university of -Louvain in 1473, three years after the first Paris printers. John of -Westphalia, who took his own portrait for his mark, edited the -_Fasciculus Temporum_, a book which had enormous success in the -fifteenth century. - -At Haarlem, in spite of the block books attributed to Laurent Coster, -illustration was backward. About 1485, a Dutch translation of the -_Malheurs de Troye_ of Le Fevre was put on sale. This French book was -published at Cologne before France possessed the smallest typographical -workshop. At Bruges Colard Mansion illuminated the cuts of his -_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid in 1484. Simple engraving appeared to him far -remote from manuscripts of which the vogue had not yet passed away. At -Zwoll Peter van Os, the publisher, cut up and used the xylographic -plates of the _Biblia Pauperum_, while the master _à la navette_, John -of Cologne, an artist in the best sense of the word, was ornamenting -certain popular publications with his designs. At Utrecht Veldener came -from Louvain to establish a workshop. He published for the second time a -_Fasciculus_ in 1480; he created a style of decoration with flowers and -leaves, which shortly after developed into the trade of -_Rahmenschneiders_. Antwerp had attracted Gerard de Leeu from Gouda, and -he produced the romance of _Belle Vienne_. Schiedam had an inventive -engraver who illustrated an edition of the _Chevalier Delibéré_ of -Oliver de la Marche, in folio, with Gothic letters, after 1483, as we -read in the colophon:-- - - "Cet traittié fut parfait l'an mil - Quatre cens quatre vings et trois - Ainsi que sur la fin d'avril - Que l'yver est en son exil, - Et que l'esté fait ses explois. - Au bien soit pris en tous endrois - De ceulx à qui il est offert - Par celui qui _Tant a souffert_, - - La Marche." - -The French language, bright and harmonious, thus found hospitality in -other countries. For many examples of French books published abroad, we -cannot cite one German work printed in France. Spreading from the north -to the south, typography had from 1490 its two principal centres at -Paris and Lyons. After the success of the three Germans at the Sorbonne, -events took their own course. In 1474 Peter Cæsaris and John Stol, two -students who had been instructed by Gering and Krantz, founded the -second establishment in Paris, at the sign of the "Soufflet Vert;" and -they printed classical works. Ten years later appeared Antony Vérard, -Simon Vostre, and Pigouchet, the first of whom gave to French -bookselling an impulse that it has not since lost; but before them -Pasquier-Bonhomme published his _Grandes Chroniques_ in 1476, three -volumes folio, the oldest in date of books printed at Paris in French. - -The French school of illustration was at its most flourishing point at -the end of the fifteenth century, but solely in miniature and -ornamentation by the pencil. The charming figures of the manuscripts had -at this time a Flemish and naturalistic tendency. The most celebrated -of the great artists in manuscripts, John Foucquet, could not deny the -source of his talent nor the influence of the Van Eyck school, yet the -touch remained distinctly personal. He had travelled, and was not -confined to the art circles of a single city, as were so many of the -earliest painters of Flanders. He had gone through Italy, and from -thence he transported architectural subjects for his curious designs in -the _Heures_ of Etienne Chevalier, now at Frankfort; a precious fragment -of it is preserved in the National Library of Paris. Side by side with -this undoubted master, whose works are happily known, lived a more -modest artist: John Perréal, called John of Paris, painter to Charles -VIII., Louis XII., and Anne of Brittany. - -In joining with these two masters, to serve as a transition between -Foucquet and Perréal, John Bourdichon, designer to the kings of France -from Louis XI. to Francis I., we obtain already a not despicable -assemblage of living forces. Without doubt these men were not comparable -either with the admirable school of Flanders, or the Germans of -Nuremberg, or the masters of Italy; but, moderate as we may deem their -merit, they did their tasks day by day, painting miniatures, colouring -coats of arms, rendering to the kings, their masters, all the little -duties of devoted servants without conceit, and preparing, according to -their means, the great artistic movement in France of the seventeenth -century. That these men, leaving the brush for the pencil, devoted -themselves to design figures on wood, is undeniable. It is said that one -of them followed Charles VIII. to the Italian wars, and probably -sketched the battles of the campaign as they took place. Now in the -books published at this epoch in France we meet with vignettes which so -very nearly approach miniatures, that we can easily recognise in them -French taste and finish. Such are, for example, the illustrations of the -_Mer des Histoires_, printed by Le Rouge in 1488, where suppleness of -design is blended in some parts with extraordinary dexterity in -engraving. Nevertheless, others leave something to be desired; they maim -the best subjects by their unskilful line and their awkwardness of -handling. Were not these engravers on wood printers themselves: the -Commins, Guyot Marchants, Pierre Lecarrons, Jean Trepperels, and others? -We are tempted to see in certain shapeless work the hasty and light -labour of an artisan hurried in its execution. As mentioned above, the -part taken by the booksellers in the making of the plates does not make -our supposition in itself appear inadmissible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Mark of Philip Pigouchet, French printer and -wood engraver of the fifteenth century.] - -Printing had been established about twenty years in Paris when Philip -Pigouchet, printer and engraver on wood, began to exercise his trade for -himself or on account of other publishers. Formerly bookseller in the -University, he transported his presses to the Rue de la Harpe, and took -for his mark the curious figure here reproduced. At this moment a -veritable merchant, Simon Vostre, conceived the idea of putting forth -Books of Hours, until then disdained in France, and of publishing them -in fine editions with figures, borders, ornaments, large separate -plates, and all the resources of typography. The trials made at Venice -and Naples between 1473 and 1476 warranted the enterprise. Entering -into partnership with Pigouchet, the two were able on the 17th of April, -1488, to place on sale the _Heures à l'Usaige de Rome_, octavo, with -varied ornaments and figures. The operation having succeeded beyond -their hopes, thanks to the combination of the subjects of the borders, -subjects that could be turned and re-turned in all ways so as to obtain -the greatest variety, Simon Vostre reapplied himself to the work, and -ordered new cuts to augment the number of his decorations. Passavant's -idea is commonly received that the engraving was in relief on metal; the -line in it is very fine, the background stippled, and the borders -without scratches. Wood could not have resisted the force of the press; -the reliefs would have been crushed, the borders rubbed and broken. In -all the successive editions hard work and wear are not remarked, and we -are forced to admit the use of a harder material than the pear or -box-wood of ordinary blocks. - -According to his wants, Simon Vostre designed new series of ornaments. -Among them were histories of the saints, Biblical figures, even -caricatures against Churchmen, after the manner of the old sculptors, -who thought that sin was rendered more horrible in the garb of a monk. -Then there were the Dance of Death and sibyls, allying sacred with -profane, even the trades, all forming a medley of little figures in the -margins, in the borders, nestled among acanthus leaves, distorted men, -fantastic animals, and saints piously praying. The Middle Ages live -again in these bright and charming books, French in their style, imbued -with good sense and perfect toleration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Border in four separate blocks in the _Heures à -l'Usaige de Rome_, by Pigouchet, for Simon Vostre, in 1488. Small -figures from the "Dance of Death."] - -The Book rose under Simon Vostre and Philip Pigouchet to the culminating -point of ornamentation. Here design and engraving improve and sustain -each other. It is not only the stippled backgrounds of the borders that -please the eye. And who was this unknown designer, this painter of bold -conceptions, whose work is complete in little nothings? However, the -large full-page figures have not always an originality of their own, nor -the French touch of the borders. Thus that of the Passion here -reproduced is inspired line for line by the German, Martin Schongauer. -Are we to suppose, that duplicates of blocks passed between France and -Germany, or was a copy made by a French designer? It is difficult to -say. Still the coincidence is not common to all the missals of the great -Parisian bookseller. The Death of the Virgin here reproduced is an -evident proof of it. It forms part of the 1488 book, and is a truly -French work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Plate copied from Schongauer's Carrying of the -Cross, taken from the _Heures_ of Simon Vostre.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--The Death of the Virgin, plate taken from the -_Heures_ of Simon Vostre, printed in 1488. The border is separate.] - -It may be said that from the artistic association of Philip Pigouchet -and Simon Vostre was born the art of illustration of the Book in France; -they worked together for eighteen years, in steady collaboration, and, -as far as we know, without a cloud. At Vostre's commencement in 1488 he -lived in the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, at the sign of "St. Jean -l'Evangeliste;" and in 1520 he was still there, having published more -than three hundred editions of the Missal, according to the use of the -several cities. - -Contemporary with Simon Vostre, another publisher was giving a singular -impulse to the Book by his extreme energy, true taste, and the aid of -first-class artists. Antony Verard, the most illustrious of the old -French booksellers, was a writer, printer, illuminator, and dealer. Born -in the second half of the fifteenth century, he established himself in -Paris on the Pont Notre Dame, both sides of which were then covered with -shops, and about 1485 commenced his fine editions with a "Decameron" in -French by Laurent de Premierfait. M. Renouvier remarks in his notice of -Verard that his first books were not good, the plates were often -unskilful, and were probably borrowed or bought from others; this may be -very well understood in a beginner whose modest resources did not permit -bold enterprises; the figures were in most cases groundworks for -miniatures, outlines and sketches rather than vignettes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Border of the _Grandes Heures_ of Antony -Verard: Paris, 1498 (?).] - -Antony Verard was accustomed to take a certain number of fine copies on -vellum or paper of each book published by him, in which authorised -painters added miniatures and ornaments. It is curious now to find what -the cost to one of the great lords of the court of Charles VIII. was of -one of these special copies in all the details of its impression, and we -find it in a document published by M. Senemaud in a provincial journal -(_Bulletin de la Société Archéologique de la Charente_, 1859, part 2, p. -91), which enables us at the same time to penetrate into a printing -office of a great French publisher of the fifteenth century. According -to this document, Verard did not disdain to put his own hand to the -work, even to carrying the book to the house of his patron if he were a -man of consequence. It is an account of Charles de Valois-Angoulême, -father of Francis I. He was then living at Cognac; and he ordered Verard -to print separately for him on vellum the romance of Tristan, the "Book -of Consolation" of Boetius, the _Ordinaire du Chrétien_, and _Heures en -François_, each with illuminations and binding. In the detail of -expenses Verard omits nothing. He reckons the parchment at three sous -four deniers the sheet, the painted and illuminated figures at one écu -the large and five sols the small. We give here the outline of one of -the plates of the Tristan, ordered by the Duc d'Angoulême, reduced by -two-thirds, and from it it may be judged that the profession of the -illuminator, even for the time, was by no means brilliant. The binding -was in dark-coloured velvet, with two clasps with the arms of the Duke, -which cost sixty sous each. The work finished, Verard took the route for -Cognac, carrying the precious volumes. He was allowed twenty livres for -carriage; and this brings the total to 207 livres 10 sous, equivalent to -£200 to £240 of present money. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Plate from the Tristan published by Antony -Verard, a copy of which was illuminated for Charles of Angoulême.] - -Verard had preceded Simon Vostre in the publication of books of hours, -but his first volume dated 1487 was not successful for the want of -borders and frontispieces. At the most he had introduced figures -intended for illumination, which, as well as the vignettes, were cut in -wood. In 1488, the same year that Simon Vostre commenced his -publications, Verard put forth, by "command of the King our lord," the -book called the _Grandes Heures_, which is in quarto, Gothic letter, -without paging, twenty lines to the full page. This _Grandes Heures_ -contained fourteen engravings, large borders in four compartments, -smaller subjects and initials rubricated by hand. He also published more -than two hundred editions between 1487 and 1513, and among them the -_Mystère de la Passion_, with eighty figures; the _Grandes Chroniques_, -in three folio volumes, printed by John Maurand; the _Bataille Judaïque_ -of Flavius Josephus; the _Legende Dorée_ of Voragine, all books for -which he called to his aid rubricators, illuminators, and miniaturists. -From the first he had two shops where he put his productions on sale: -one on the Pont Notre Dame, the other at the Palace of Justice, "au -premier pilier devant la chapelle où l'on chante la messe de -messeigneurs les présidents." From 1499, when the Pont Notre Dame was -burned, Verard transported his books to the Carrefour St. Severin. At -his death in 1513 he was living in the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, "devant -Nostre-Dame de Paris." - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Page of the _Grandes Heures_ of Antony Verard: -Paris, fifteenth century.] - -Besides Verard, Vostre, and Pigouchet, many others will be found who -imitated them in the publication of books of hours. The first was John -du Pré, who published a Paris missal in 1481, and who was at once -printer and bookseller. Like Pigouchet, Du Pré printed books of hours on -account of provincial publishers, without dreaming of the competition he -was creating for himself. The encroachments of the publishers upon one -another, the friendly exchanges, the loans of plates and type, form one -of the most curious parts of the study of the Book. Thielman Kerver, a -German, also began to put forth books of hours in 1497 in Paris, -ornamenting them with borders and figures on wood, and modelling his -work completely upon that of Simon Vostre. But after having imitated -him, he was associated with him in the publication and sale of the Paris -Missal; the competition of these men was evidently an honest one, or the -sale of pious works was sufficient to maintain all engaged in it. -Established on the Pont St. Michel, at the sign of the "Unicorn," he -sold his stock to Gilles Remacle about the beginning of the sixteenth -century. - -Thielman Kerver in his own works shows himself as the rival of Simon -Vostre. The Hardouins, who followed the same profession, do not appear -to have attained the success of their predecessors; and, excepting in -the _Heures à l'Usage de Rome_, published in 1503 by Gilles Hardouin on -the Pont au Change, at the sign of the "Rose," they servilely imitated -them. There was also among the disciples of Vostre William Eustache, -bookseller to the King, "tenant la boutique dedans la grant salle du -palais du costé de messeigneurs les présidens, ou sur les grans degrés -du costé de la conciergerie à l'ymage St. Jean levangeliste." Eustache -made use of the work of Pigouchet and Kerver, not to mention the -printers of the end of the fifteenth century. - -We have named the principal, the fortunate ones; but what becomes of the -crowd of other publishers whose hopes vanished before the success of -Vostre and Verard? There were Denis Meslier, with his quarto _Heures de -Bourges_, and Vincent Commin, bookseller of the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, -who thus appealed to his customers:-- - - "Qui veult en avoir? On en treuve - A tres grand marché et bon pris - A la Rose, dans la rue Neuve - De Nostre-Dame de Paris." - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Plate from a book of hours of Simon Vostre, -representing the massacre of the Innocents.] - -There were also Robin Chaillot, Laurent Philippe, and a hundred others -whose names have died with them or are only preserved on the torn pages -of their works. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Dance of Death, said to be by Verard. The Pope -and the Emperor.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Dance of Death of Guyot Marchant in 1486. The -Pope and the Emperor.] - -But if books of this kind found vogue and a large sale at this epoch, -the dealers did not keep to pious publications only. By a singular -mixture of the sacred and the profane, the bookmen put on sale on their -stalls the "Decameron" of Boccaccio as well as the "Hours of the -Immaculate Virgin," and the purchasers thought fit to make the -acquaintance of the one as well as the other. Besides, the end of the -fifteenth century had its literary preferences, its alluring titles, its -attractive frontispieces. At the commencement of the present century -double titles--"Atala; or, The Child of Mystery;" "Waverley; or, Sixty -Years Since"--were common, although now out of fashion. Since then came -books of travels--_Voyages au Pays des Milliards_, etc. In the fifteenth -century, and even since the fourteenth, a series of titles was in public -favour. There was first the _Débats_, or "Dialogues:" _Débat de la Dame -et de l'Escuyer_, Paris, 1490, folio; "Dialogue of Dives and Pauper," -London, Richard Pynson, 1493; and many other eccentric titles. There -came also thousands of _complaintes_, a kind of lay in verse or prose; -_blasons_, light pieces describing this or that thing; _doctrinals_, -that had nothing to do with doctrine. And among the most approved -subjects, between the piety of some and the gaiety of others, the Dances -of Death established themselves firmly, showing, according to the -hierarchy of classes then prevalent, Death taking the great ones of the -earth, torturing equally pope, emperor, constable, or minstrel, -grimacing before youth, majesty, and love. Long before printing -appeared, the Dances of Death took the lead; they were some consolation -for the wretched against their powerful masters, the revenge of the -rabble against the king; they may be seen painted, sculptured, -illuminated, when engraving was not there to multiply their use; they -may be seen largely displayed on walls, sombre, frightful, at Dresden, -Leipzig, Erfurt, Berne, Lucerne, Rouen, Amiens, and Chaise-Dieu. It was -the great human equality, attempted first by the French, then by the -inimitable Holbein. - -We can imagine the impression these bitter ironies made on the oppressed -and disdained lower classes. The first "Dance of Death" was produced by -Guyot Marchant in 1485, in ten leaves and seventeen engravings, in -folio, with Gothic characters. Marchant describes himself as "demeurant -en Champ Gaillart à Paris le vingt-huitiesme jour de septembre mil -quatre cent quatre-vingtz et cinq." The book must have gone off rapidly, -for it was republished in the following year, with additions and new -engravings. French illustration was already moving forward, as may be -judged by the reproductions here given from the folio edition of 1486. -Pope and emperor, glory and power, are led and plagued by Death, hideous -Death, with open body and frightful grin. - -We could wish that the tendencies and processes of what may be called -the second generation of printers were well understood. In a few years -they surmounted the difficulties of their art, and made the Book a model -of elegance and simplicity. The smallest details were cared for, and -things apparently the most insignificant were studied and rendered -practical. Speaking of titles, an enormous progress was here made in the -publications of the end of the century. In Italy the subjects of -decoration ordinarily formed a framework for the front page, wherein -were included useful indications. The most ancient specimen of this kind -has already been referred to. A model of this species is the "St. -Jerome," published at Ferrara by Lorenzo Rossi, of Valenza, in 1497, -folio; the title, much adorned, is in Gothic letters; the engraved -initial is very adroitly left in outline, so as not to burden or break -the text. - -In Germany there was already the appearance of bad taste and -prodigality, the letters crossing each other, the Gothic type covered -with bizarre appendices, the titles intricate; later they became -illegible even for the Germans. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Typographical mark of Thielman Kerver.] - -In France the first page gave the most circumstantial indications of the -contents of the work, the name and abode of the printer and bookseller. -Often these titles were ornamented with movable frameworks, printed in -Gothic, sometimes in two colours, which necessitated two printings, one -for the black and one for the red ink. The mark of the printer or -publisher generally appeared, and it was nearly always a charming work. -These French marks were all more or less treated heraldically; that is -to say, the initials occupy a shield, sustained by supporters and cut -with extreme care. The first was that of Fust and Schoeffer at Mayence, -of admirable simplicity and grace. In France this early specimen of the -trade mark took with Simon Vostre and Verard the shape of delicate -illustrations, finely designed and carefully engraved; but the custom of -allusive marks did not prevail, as we shall have occasion to see, until -the sixteenth century. The mark of Pigouchet has already been given; -that of Thielman Kerver is conceived in the same principles of taste and -art. The sign of his house being the "Unicorn," Kerver took as -supporters to his shield two unicorns _affrontées_. - -In these colophons are found philosophic aphorisms, satirical remarks, -marvels of poetry. A certain bookseller paid court to the powerful -university, which dispensed glory and riches to the poor tradesmen by -buying many books. Andrew Bocard engraved on his mark this flattery as a -border:-- - - "Honneur au Roy et à la court, - Salut à l'université - Dont nostre bien procède et sourt. - Dieu gart de Paris la cité!" - -The Germans introduced into their colophons some vainglorious notices. -Arnold Ther Hoernen, already mentioned, who printed the _Theutonista_ at -Cologne in 1477, boasted in it of having corrected it all with his own -hands. Jean Treschel, established at Lyons in 1493, proclaims himself a -German, because the Germans were the inventors of an art that he himself -possessed to an eminent degree. He prided himself on being what we may -call a skilled typographer; "virum hujus artis solertissimum," he writes -without false modesty. At times, in the colophons of his books, he -attempted Latin verse, the Sapphic verse of Horace, of a playful turn, -to say that his work was perfected in 1494. - - "Arte et expensis vigilique cura - Treschel explevit opus hoc Joannes, - Mille quingentos ubi Christus annos - Sex minus egit. - - Jamque Lugduni juvenes, senesque, - Martias nonas celebres agebant - Magna Reginæ quia prepotenti - Festa parabant." - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Frontispiece to Terence, published by Treschel -at Lyons in 1493. The author writing his book.] - -The portrait is another element of illustration, the figure of the -author prefixed to his work. It had already been a custom in the -manuscripts to paint on the first leaf of the work the likeness of him -who composed it, frequently in the act of presenting his book to some -noble patron; and in this way is often preserved the only known portrait -of either patron or author. Printing and engraving rendered these -effigies more common, the portraits of one often served for another, and -the booksellers used them without very much scruple. As we shall see -later, this became in the sixteenth century a means of illustrating a -book plainly, but only at the time when the portrait, drawn or painted, -commenced to be more widely used. Previously the _clichés_ of which we -speak went everywhere, from the Italians to the French, from Æsop to -Accursius; these uncertain physiognomies began with the manuscript -romances of chivalry, from whence they were servilely copied in -typography. From the first the Italians mixed the ancient and the -modern. Thus in a _Breviarium_, printed in 1478, there is an engraved -portrait of Paul Florentin. On the same principle, the portrait of -Burchiello, an early Italian poet, was later reproduced in England as a -likeness of William Caxton. - -In France the author is often represented writing, and it was so up to -the middle of the sixteenth century. In an edition of _Des Cas des -Nobles Hommes_, by Jean Dupré, in 1483, Boccaccio is represented seated, -having before him his French translator, Laurent de Premierfait. This -plate is one of the oldest representations of authors in French books. -In the _Roman de la Rose_, first edition of Paris and Lyons, in folio, -probably published by William Leroy about 1485, William de Lorris, the -author, is shown in his bed:-- - - "Une nuyt comme je songeoye, - Et de fait dormir me convient, - En dormant un songe m'advint...." - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Woodcut from Caxton's "Game and Playe of the -Chesse."] - -There is also a portrait of Alain Chartier in his _Faits_, printed in -1489. In the Terence of Treschel, of Lyons, in 1493, we see a grammarian -of the fifteenth century in a furnished room of the time occupied in -writing at a desk; this is Guy Jouvenal, of Mans, the author of the -commentary. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.--The Knight, a woodcut from Caxton's "Game and -Playe of the Chesse."] - -While this good work was progressing so nobly in France, Italy, and -Germany, the typographers of England were by no means idle, although the -illustration of the Book in the fifteenth century was not there so -forward. William Caxton had produced over sixty works, the colophons of -many of them revealing much of the personal life and character of the -first English printer. Some of them were ornamented with woodcuts; we -reproduce two from the "Game and Playe of the Chesse," printed in folio, -about 1476. The first represents a king and another person playing at -chess; the smaller cut is a representation of the knight, who is thus -described in Caxton's own words: "The knyght ought to be maad al armed -upon an hors in suche wise that he have an helme on his heed and a spere -in his right hond, and coverid with his shelde, a swerde and a mace on -his left syde, clad with an halberke and plates tofore his breste, legge -harnoys on his legges, spores on his heelis, on hys handes hys -gauntelettes, hys hors wel broken and taught, and apte to bataylle, and -coveryd with hys armes." The other Caxton block which we reproduce is a -representation of music from the "Mirrour of the World," a thin folio -volume of one hundred leaves printed in 1481, with thirty-eight -woodcuts. These specimens will serve to show the rudimentary character -of English wood engraving in the fifteenth century. No authentic -portrait of Caxton is known, and the one that is generally accepted is -really a portrait of an Italian poet, Burchiello, taken from an octavo -edition of his work on Tuscan poetry, printed 1554; this was copied by -Faithorne for Sir Hans Sloane as the portrait of Caxton, and was -reproduced by Ames in his "Typographical Antiquities," 1749. Lewis -prefixed the portrait here given to his "Life of Mayster Willyam -Caxton," 1737, which is a copy of Faithorne's drawing with some -alterations. John Lettou and William Machlinia issued various statutes -and other legal works. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Music, a woodcut from Caxton's "Mirrour of the -World."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--William Caxton, from Rev. J. Lewis' "Life."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mark of Wynken de Worde.] - -Wynken de Worde continued printing up to 1534, and issued over four -hundred works. He used no less than nine different marks, all of them -bearing Caxton's initials, evidencing the regard of the pupil for his -master; the mark which we reproduce is one of rare occurrence. Richard -Pynson began in 1493, and continued well into the sixteenth century, and -was one of the first of the "privileged" printers, authorised to issue -the legal and parliamentary publications. One of the marks used by him -is here reproduced. Julian Notary began in 1498. The only style of -illustration used by any of these early printers was the woodcut, and of -this there was very little beyond the title-page and printer's mark. The -artistic form of the Book originated on the Continent, but England was -not slow to adopt it and fashion it to her own ends. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Mark of Richard Pynson.] - -Thus was printing spread abroad, carrying with it to the countries where -it was established the rules of an unchangeable principle; but, -according to its surroundings, it was so transformed in a few years that -its origin was no longer recognised. It was light in Italy, heavy in -Germany, gay in France. Painting, of which it was accidentally the -issue, returned to it under the form of illustration a short time after -its first and fruitful essays. The Gothic character, generally used in -Germany, continued in France with the Vostres, the Verards, and others -up to the middle of the sixteenth century, although the first artisans -before this used Roman type; it was also the prevailing type used in -English books. In Italy it was Jenson, a Frenchman, who gave to the -matrix the alphabet preserved to the present time; and it was the -Venetians and Florentines who learned before all others the art of -judicious ornamentation of the Book. The French came very near -perfection, thanks to their printers and booksellers, at the end of the -century; and the Germans found illustrious artists to scatter their -compositions in their large, heavy works. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -1500 TO 1600. - - French epics and the Renaissance--Venice and Aldus - Manutius--Italian illustrators--The Germans: _Theuerdanck_, - Schäufelein--The Book in other countries--French books at the - beginning of the century, before the accession of Francis - I.--Geoffroy Tory and his works--Francis I. and the Book--Robert - Estienne--Lyons a centre of bookselling; Holbein's Dances of - Death--School of Basle--Alciati's emblems and the illustrated books - of the middle of the century--The school of Fontainebleau and its - influence--Solomon Bernard--Cornelis de la Haye and the - _Promptuaire_--John Cousin--Copper plate engraving and metal - plates--Woériot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth - century--How a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the - century--Influence of Plantin on the Book; his school of - engravers--General considerations--Progress in England--Coverdale's - Bible--English printers and their work--Engraved plates in English - books - - -Our simple division into chapters will be understood without difficulty -as not corresponding exactly with the most momentous epochs in the -history of the Book in France and abroad. Doubtless it would be easy for -France alone to find some limits and to furnish scholastic formulæ by -which contemporary publishers might be grouped. But in order to present, -as in a synoptical table, an essential and abridged sketch of the Book -in all European countries, it appeared to us more convenient to begin -with the confused and tangled notions by centuries and to unfold in our -review the characteristic facts of each country conjointly. Moreover, -after the sixteenth century neither Italy nor Germany could compare with -France, which, less fortunate, perhaps, at the beginning than her -neighbours, surpassed them in all the pride of her genius. - -The commencement of the sixteenth century found the French army in -Italy, under the command of Louis XII. Marching from glory to glory, the -French successively saw Pisa, Capua, and Naples, and that which has -since been called the Renaissance displayed itself little by little to -the conquerors. At Venice was living Aldus Pius Manutius, then the -greatest printer of the entire world. Aldus was proprietor of the -celebrated printing office of Nicholas Jenson, through his -father-in-law, Andrea Torresani, of Asola, who acquired it on the death -of the French printer; and he had in a few years reached a position in -which he was without a rival. We have seen that he composed, at the end -of the fifteenth century, the admirable volume _Hypnerotomachia_, the -renown of which became universal. Aldus was fifty-two years of age, -having been born in 1447; and his learning was increased by daily -intercourse with learned Italians, among them the celebrated Pico de la -Mirandola. His establishment at Venice in 1488 had for its object the -creation of a chair in Greek, in which language he was well instructed -from his youth. Occupied with the idea of issuing editions of the -principal Greek writers, which up to then remained in manuscript, he -engaged himself in the formation of a printing office. He first -published the _Herone et Leandro_ of Musæus in 1494, quarto, in a Greek -character apparently designed by him, and perhaps engraved by Francisco -da Bologna; then the Greek grammar of Constantine Lascaris, with the -date of 1494; and the works of Aristotle in five folio volumes. At the -time of the Italian wars Aldus was making a revolution in typography, by -producing more practical sizes and finer characters, which would permit -a volume of the smallest height to contain the matter of a folio printed -with large type. Legend says that the new letters were copied exactly -from the handwriting of Petrarch, inclining like all cursive writing; -the name of _Italic_ was given to this character, which was also called -_Aldine_, from its inventor. It was engraved by Francisco da Bologna. -Aldus published in octavo size, with this kind of letter, an edition of -Virgil in 1501, then a Horace, a Juvenal, a Martial, and a Petrarch in -the same year. The following year, 1502, he gave an edition of the -_Terze Rime_ of Dante, and for the first time took as his typographical -mark an anchor encircled by a dolphin.[A] - -[Footnote A: Tory in his _Champfleury_ explains thus the mark of Aldus -and his device, which was in Greek the "Make haste slowly" of Boileau: -"The anchor signifies tardiness, and the dolphin haste, which is to say -that in his business he was moderate."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.--The anchor and dolphin, mark of Aldus Manutius, -after the original in the _Terze Rime_ of 1502, where it appears for the -first time.] - -His marriage with the daughter of Andrea Torresani, of Asola, brought -together into his possession two printing houses. The burden became too -heavy for Manutius to think henceforth of publishing by himself. -Besides, the wars did not allow him any repose, of which he bitterly -complained in his prefaces. He attracted learned Greek scholars, who -supervised, each one in his specialty, the works in progress, and -founded a society, an Aldine academy, in which the greatest names of the -epoch were united. Aldus conveys the perfect idea of a great printer of -those times, doing honour to celebrated men, in spite of business -preoccupations and of the annoyance caused by the war. It is said that -Erasmus, passing through Venice, called on him, and not making himself -known, was badly received by the powerful printer. All at once, at the -name of the distinguished visitor, Aldus, overwhelmed for an instant, -rose in great haste and showed him how highly he appreciated men of -letters. - -The war finished by ruining this state of affairs. In 1505 Aldus quitted -Venice to travel, and on his return found it poorer than when he went -away. Andrea d'Asola, his father-in-law, came to his aid; but the great -printer had received his death-blow; and in spite of the activity which -he brought to the new establishment, he further declined until 1515, -when he expired, leaving an inextricable confusion to his son Paul. - -He had early abandoned illustration for the scientific and useful -in his publications; besides, the size of book chosen by him did -not admit of plates; but other publishers employed artists in the -ornamentation of the Book. Lucantonio Giunta, the most celebrated among -them, was printer and engraver, a striking example of the affinity -of the two trades from their origin. In 1508 Lucantonio Zonta, as he -then spelt his name, published a Roman breviary in large quarto, with -twelve engravings in the Lombardo-Venetian manner, signed "L. A.," in -very good style. The same artist-publisher cut a portrait of Virgil for -an edition of that poet about 1515. Furthermore, Giunta did not alone -illustrate the book from his own office. Other designers lent him their -assistance. We find evidence of this in the Bible printed by him in -1519 in small octavo. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Mark of Lucantonio Giunta, of Venice.] - -The most meritorious of the artists of Venice at this time was John -Andrea, known as Guadagnino. He designed the vignettes for Florus's -epitome of Livy, printed at Venice for Melchior Sessa and Peter of -Ravenna (1520, folio); in 1516 he copied the plates of Dürer's -_Apocalypse_ for that of Alexander Paganini, of Venice. A Venetian work -which signalised the beginning of the sixteenth century was the _Trionfo -di Fortuna_ of Sigismond Fanti, of Ferrara, printed by Agostino da -Portese in 1527. - -Venice was the home of Titian, and at the present time the great artist -was at the height of his glory. In 1518 two brothers, Nicholas and -Dominic dal Gesù, published a translation of the celebrated "Golden -Legend" of Voragine. The plates which were added to the work were -manifestly inspired by the school of the Venetian master. Unhappily the -engravers have not always equalled the genius of the drawings. - -To resume, the city of Venice was, at the beginning of the sixteenth -century, one of the most prolific in publishers and artists of talent. -Since the first establishments of the Germans, typography had -successively employed in Venice Nicholas Jenson, a Frenchman, inventor -of the Roman character; Erhard Ratdolt, the first to employ illustration -there; and Aldus Manutius, scholar and printer, whose progress in -printing elevated that art to the highest rank among human discoveries; -there were also remarkable engravers and draughtsmen, among others -Guadagnino and Giunta, besides the anonymous masters of the school of -Titian. The part of Venice in the movement, then, was great, but it may -be explained by the riches of its citizens, the extent of its commerce, -and the genius it possessed. - -If we now return from Venice to the north, to Milan, the school of -Leonardo da Vinci will make itself apparent in the Book. In order of -date we will mention the _Mysterii Gesta Beatæ Veronicæ Virginis_, -published by Gotardo de Ponte 1518, small quarto, with figures in the -style of Luini, and Vitruvius in Italian by Cesariano. On the testimony -of the author, the wood engravings in a book of Fra Luca Pacioli, _De -Divina Proportione_, are attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. M. Delaborde -does not believe this, but M. Passavant does. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Title of the _Theuerdanck_. The flourishes of -the letters are printed.] - -In Germany, Nuremberg continued, with Albert Dürer and the artists of -his school, to furnish book illustrations at the beginning of the -century. The master reprinted his valuable engravings of the "Life of -the Virgin" in 1511, and also the "Apocalypse." But after him the art -commenced to decline; a hundred years later nothing remained of the -honour and glory gained by Germany in the commencement. Among the most -interesting of the Nuremberg publications is a chivalric poem by -Melchior Pfinzfing, composed for the marriage of Maximilian and Mary of -Burgundy. As M. Delaborde in his _Débuts de I'Imprimerie_ well remarks, -this is not a book destined for sale by a bookseller; it is a work of -art destined by an emperor for his friends, and he saw that it was an -unapproachable work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Plate taken from the _Theuerdanck_, -representing Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. Engraved on wood after -Schäufelein.] - -Bold strokes, majestic letters, intertwined ornaments, are here -multiplied. Three persons worked upon it for five years; these were, -Peutinger says, Hans Leonard Schäufelein, the painter, Jost Necker, the -engraver, and Schönsperger, the printer of Augsburg, who quitted his -native city for Nuremberg. When they were able to take a proof, -craftsmen were unwilling to believe it to be a book composed in movable -characters; they were sure, on the contrary, that it was a true -xylograph, cut in wood; and, in fact, from the title here reproduced, -the error was excusable. This work, which is now called the -_Theuerdanck_, from the name of the hero of the romance, is ornamented -with a number of wood engravings, numbered by Arabic figures. We -reproduce one of the last plates, in which Theuerdanck--Maximilian--is -introduced to the Queen--Mary of Burgundy. The designs of Schäufelein -recall very nearly the work of Albert Dürer, his master; but, as we said -of him, these works, heavy and dull, although very clever, do not always -suit as vignettes. Again, our criticism does not extend so much to the -_Theuerdanck_, whose letters, excessively ornamented and much flattened, -furnish a framework more suitable for the engravings than would a more -slender character, which would be completely overshadowed by the German -plate. - -When we have mentioned the _Passional Christi_ of Lucas Cranach, -published by J. Grünenberg at Wittemberg in 1521--twenty-six mediocre -wood engravings--we shall have cited the most important of the -interesting and rare volumes published in Germany at the commencement of -the sixteenth century. - -The Netherlands, Spain, and England were working, but without great -success. In the Low Countries Plantin and his gigantic enterprises may -be recalled. In Spain the taste had not yet developed itself; and -although the drawing of illustrations may be careful enough, the -wood-cutting is pitiable. We will mention the Seneca of Toledo in 1510, -and the "Chronicle of Aragon" in 1523. Of England we will speak later. - -In France, on the contrary, we find an enormous commerce in books at the -commencement of the sixteenth century. All the publishers mentioned in -the preceding chapter were still living, and they were feeling the -effects of the French conquests in Italy. The dithyrambic literature -then inaugurated, and which had its origin under Louis XII., exercised a -bad influence equally upon the printers and decorators of the Book. -Doubtless the composition of the text and engravings was done hastily, -for the great people did not like to wait for this kind of history. _Le -Vergier d'Honneur_, written by Octavian de St. Gelais and Andry de la -Vigne, was thus published about the end of the fifteenth century and -ornamented with hasty vignettes, probably at the expense of Antoine -Verard. Upon the accession to the throne of Louis XII., Claude de -Seyssel, his master of council, composed _Les Louenges du Roy Louis -XII._, and soon after translated it from Latin into French for the same -Verard, who printed it in 1508. - -The taste for historical works induced the publishers to produce _La Mer -des Histoires_, which had already been published in the fifteenth -century; Thielman Kerver put forth the "Compendium" of Robert Gaguin in -1500 on account of Durand Gerlier and John Petit. The French version of -this work was given in 1514 by Galliot du Pré, with vignettes, and -afterwards under the name of _Mirouer Historial_, by Renaud Chaudière in -1520, by Nyverd, and others; the same with the _Rozier Historial_, with -figures, in 1522 and 1528. Among the most popular works was the -_Illustrations de la Gaule et Singularitez de Troye_, by John le Maire -de Belges, printed in Paris and ornamented. In 1512 it was published by -Geoffroy de Marnef, in 1515 by John and Gilbert de Marnef, by Regnault, -by Philip le Noir, and others, always in the Gothic characters which -prevailed in France at the beginning of the sixteenth century. - -We give from the curious book of John le Maire an interesting woodcut -representing Queen Anne of Brittany as Juno, in which we can without -much difficulty see a remarkable sketch by a Bourdichon or a Perréal. -The truly French style of this figure leaves no doubt as to its origin. -At the same time, it may possibly have been inspired by the Virgin of a -German master, say one of 1466, judging from the accessories, and even -from the pose. This engraving will be found in the edition of 1512 of -Gilbert de Marnef, in Gothic letter, quarto. On the reverse are the arms -and device of John le Maire de Belges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Vignette taken from the _Illustrations de la -Gaule et Singularitez de Troye_. Queen Anne of Brittany as Juno.] - -The time that elapsed from the death of Louis XI. until the accession of -Francis I.--that is to say, from 1483 to 1515--was, to employ an old -expression, the golden age of French printing and illustration. Under -Charles VIII. and Louis XII. the designers on wood were not yet affected -by the neighbouring schools; neither the accentuated Italian influence -nor the German processes had reached them; they did in their own way -that which came to them, and they did it in their own fashion and habit, -without foreign influence. Further, the kings did not ignore them, and -Louis XII. preserved to the printers of the university all their rights -and privileges in a magniloquent ordinance, in which the art of -typography was extolled in the highest terms. It restores to them all -the advantages that they had lost. It recites, "In consideration of the -great benefit that has come to our kingdom by means of the art and -science of printing, the invention of which seems more Divine than -human, which, thanks to God, has been invented and found in our time by -the help and industry of booksellers, by which our holy Catholic faith -has been greatly augmented and strengthened, justice better understood -and administered, and Divine service more honourably and diligently -made, said, and celebrated, ... by means of which our kingdom precedes -all others," etc., etc. (Blois, 9th April, 1513). Certainly Louis made -the best of himself and his kingdom in this preamble, but it must be -recognised that France already held a predominant rank in the new -industry, and that beyond the Italians she had no fear of serious -rivalry. The school of ornamentists made constant progress. Before the -books of hours, the booksellers contented themselves with miserable -blocks, placed side by side, forming a framework of good and bad -together; but after Simon Vostre, Verard, and the others they were -singularly refined. The borders, at least in the books of hours, had -become the principal part of the book; they had in them flowers, -architectural, complicated, and simple subjects, all of perfect taste -and extreme elegance; and, as we have observed in the representation of -Anne of Brittany in the _Illustrations de la Gaule_, the figure subjects -were no longer mechanical, commonplace, and tiresome blocks, but, on the -contrary, more often works specially designed and engraved by artists of -merit. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Title of the _Entree d'Eléonore d'Autriche a -Paris_, by Guillaume Bochetel. Printed by Geoffroy Tory in May, 1531, -quarto.] - -Geoffroy Tory, born at Bourges in 1480, continued after Vostre and -Verard the onward march of illustration of the Book. He was a sort of -encyclopædist, who knew and foresaw everything, but with a singularly -subtler and finer genius than his predecessors. There is now very little -doubt that at first Tory was an engraver and printer. Moreover, he -published with Jean Petit one of his first volumes, the geography of -Pomponius Mela, printed by Gilles de Gourmont in 1507. Tory was then an -erudite and diffusive commentator. Later he published a book with poor -engravings (_Valerii Probi Grammatici Opusculum_, 1510), waiting until -his good star should place him on the right road. He had for his mark, -say the bibliographers, the cross of Lorraine [Symbol: double cross], -small enough to be lost in the ornamentation of his plates. Really this -sign is found in Tory's mark--the "Pot Cassé"--the broken jar--and also -sometimes in the letter G, which was his ordinary signature. This -opinion, which we will not try to contradict in a popular work like -this, appears to us to err, as others used this mark, as may be judged -from the essentially different touches of engravings bearing the cross -of Lorraine, and particularly those of Woériot in the middle of the -century. - -If M. A. Bernard[A] may be credited, Geoffroy Tory cultivated all the -sciences with equal success. For our purpose, suffice it to recognise -his right to one of the first places in the art of decoration of books -of hours. Doubtless his travels in Italy had contributed to modify his -taste and to detach him a little from the sober and simple manner that -then characterised French engraving; but he nevertheless preserved the -indelible traces of the origin of his art, in the same way as some -people cannot correct their provincial accent. The _Heures de la -Vierge_, which he designed, and which he had engraved about 1520, on -account of Simon de Colines, is marvellously surrounded by ornaments, -until then unknown in France; at the same time, and in spite of other -tendencies, it is purely a French work, and the specimen given here is a -convincing proof. - -[Footnote A: _Geoffroy Tory, Peintre et Graveur, Premier Imprimeur -Royal, Réformateur de l'Orthographe et de la Typographie_: Paris, 1857, -8vo.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Full page of the _Heures_ of Simon de Colines, -by Tory.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.--_Heures_ of Geoffroy Tory. The Circumcision.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.--_Heures_ of Simon de Colines, with the mark of -the Cross of Lorraine.] - -Geoffroy Tory composed a curious book, as poetic as learned, in which he -studied at once the form of the letter from the typographic and the -emblematic point of view, and also the French orthography of the time. -He tells us himself that he was brought to commence this book on the -fête-day of the kings, 1523, when, after a frugal repast, he was, he -says, "dreaming on my bed and revolving my memory, thinking of a -thousand little fancies, serious and mirthful, among which I thought of -some antique letters that I had made for Monseigneur the treasurer for -war, Master Jehan Grolier, councillor and secretary of our lord the -King, amateur of fine letters and of all learned personages." Tory -called his book _Champfleury, auquel est contenu l'art et science de la -deue proportion des lettres ... selon le corps et le visage humain_, and -he published it himself in small folio, putting upon it the sign of -Gilles de Gourmont, in 1529. - -At heart Tory had been fascinated by the theories of Dürer on the -proportions of the human body; and he says, "The noble German painter -Albert Dürer is greatly to be praised that he has so well brought to -light his art of painting in designing geometrical forms, the ramparts -of war, and the proportions of the human body." He wished to indicate -the true measure of letters to his contemporaries, "the number of points -and turns of the compass that each one requires." The most amusing part -of this curious treatise is his short academical preface, where, under a -playful form, the great publisher studies the orthography of his time, -and exclaims against the forgers of new words, the Latinisers of the -language, "the skimmers of Latin, jesters and gibberers, ... who mock -not only their shadows, but themselves." The entire passage was copied -by Rabelais, nearly literally, and it indicates that its author was -possessed of good sense, which, unhappily, all his contemporaries were -not. - -For the technical part, he added to his theories a number of designs of -geometrical letters, but he was carried away, after the fashion of the -time, by Greek and Roman models, perhaps a little further than he meant, -losing himself in the midst of idle dissertations. To these geometrical -engravings he added small and charming figures, said to be by Jean -Perréal, as well as emblematical letters of the nature of the Y which is -here given, with explanatory text and commentary. To him this Y had two -branches: one of virtue and one of vice; that of virtue shows palms, -crowns, a sceptre, and a book; that of vice birches, a gallows, and -fire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Emblematical letter Y, taken from the -_Champfleury_ of Geoffroy Tory.] - -With the importance that cannot be denied to his works, Geoffroy Tory -founded a school; and it was from his workshop that the plates came for -the book of Paulus Jovius on the dukes of Milan, published by Robert -Estienne in 1549, quarto. The portraits of the dukes in this work have -been attributed to Tory himself, but he died in 1533, and there is not -the least indication that he engraved these sixteen portraits with his -own hand sixteen years before their publication. Besides, our doubts as -to the cross of Lorraine being the exclusive signature of Tory, as has -been believed, lead us to think it the collective mark of a workshop, -as we meet it on works long after the death of the master. As a proof, -the mark is found on the engravings of _L'Entrée du Roi à Paris_ in -1549, which cannot be taken as a posthumous work of Tory, for these -engravings had their origin at a certain and special date. But in spite -of the absence of the monogram, the admirable block from the Diodorus -Siculus of Antoine Macault might, from its design and engraving, be -considered as by Tory himself. Holbein, who, about the same time, -designed a somewhat similar scene, the King of France seated on a -throne receiving poison from the hands of Death, never did anything -better. Within the scanty proportions of the design, all the figures -are portraits. Duprat, Montmorency and the three sons of the King may -be recognised; Macault, on the left, is reading his translation to a -circle of nobles and men of letters. This admirable page is one of the -truest and most skilful of the monuments of French engraving; it is -equal to the best inventions of Holbein, and it marks the culminating -point of the illustration of the Book before the exaggerations of the -school of Fontainebleau. Geoffroy Tory was not the publisher. The -Diodorus Siculus, doubtless prepared two or three years before, was not -published until 1535, in quarto, with his ordinary mark of the "Pot -Cassé." - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Macault reading to Francis I. his translation -of Diodorus Siculus. Wood engraving attributed to Tory.] - -We have now arrived through him at the reign of Francis I., who was -called the father of letters, and who for various reasons favoured the -arts. Doubtless grand paintings and the decoration of the royal palaces -interested him more than vignettes in books and the efforts of printers; -but, at the same time, books occupied him. He studied much, and in his -travels accumulated many volumes. An account in the French National -Archives shows that Claude Chappuis, his librarian, packed entire cases, -which were sent to Dauphiné at the time of the wars of Piedmont, the -carriage costing twenty livres tournois. Francis had, moreover, -following sudden impulses, curious fits of wantonness and mischief. It -was perceived a little later that the doctrines of Luther were -propagated by the Book; and the Sorbonne was up in arms, on the pretence -of imposing its own expurgated text of the Bible on the publishers and -tolerating no other. Theodore Beza, enemy of the Sorbonnists, said with -regard to this (we translate the antique French literally), "Our great -doctors with cherubic visage have forbidden men to see the Holy Bible in -vulgar language, of which every one has knowledge, because, they say, -the desire of knowing everything engenders nothing but error, fear, and -care. _Arguo sic_, if they so, for its abuse, wish to take away this -book, it is clear also that it is their duty to put away the wine with -which each of them makes himself drunk." - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Robert Estienne, after the engraving in the -_Chronologie Collée_.] - -This piece is only cited to show to what lengths matters had gone, -thanks to printing. It is very certain that all the pamphlets, placards, -and other horrors published to raise religious warfare, did not aid in -the progress of the Book. The King was not always disinterested on the -technical question; books merited encouragement, at least as much as -castigation, and besides, as time passed, they gradually transformed men -and ideas. In spite of apparent severities, was not the King himself a -little touched by contact with the new religion, like his sister -Marguerite, or his sister-in-law, Renée of Ferrara? However that may be, -he twice showed himself a resolute partisan of the celebrated Robert -Estienne, son-in-law and associate of Simon de Colines, whose works in -point of erudition and typography assumed day by day more importance. -Robert Estienne had the great honour of being chosen from all his -contemporaries by King Francis as the royal printer. This prince had -ordered to be engraved for him by Claude Garamond, after the design of -Ange Vergèce, the first cutter of matrices of his time, a special Greek -character in three sizes, which was used in 1544 to compose the -"Ecclesiastical History" of Eusebius. These are the famous royal -types--_typi regii_--as Estienne did not fail to indicate on the -title-pages of his works. It has been said since that Francis I. founded -the Royal Printing House, but the truth is that Estienne kept these -characters in his own office for use in the royal editions; they may now -be seen in the Imprimerie Nationale at Paris. - -Robert Estienne married the daughter of Josse Badius, of Asch--Badius -Ascencianus, one of the first Parisian typographers of the time. We -reproduce the mark of Badius, representing the interior of a printing -house, and shall return in a special chapter to the functions of these -workshops. Meantime it appears proper to present to the reader a -printing office of the time of Robert Estienne and Geoffroy Tory. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Printing office of Josse Badius at the -commencement of the sixteenth century.] - -Robert Estienne does not appear to have concerned himself much about the -decoration of the Book. The purity of the text and the characters were -essentials with him, erudition, and not art. He published many works in -Latin and Greek, among them the _Thesaurus_, a great Latin dictionary -published in 1532, also a Bible, with notes by Vatable, revised by Leon -de Juda. From that came trouble. Leon de Juda was a partisan of Zwingli; -the Sorbonne accused the Bible of leaning towards the Huguenots; -Francis I. took the part of Estienne, but when that prince died Estienne -fled to Geneva, where he was accused of having imported the royal types. -The truth was that he simply imported the matrices. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Portrait of Nicholas Bourbon. Wood engraving of -the commencement of the sixteenth century.] - -At this time everything served for the decoration of the Book: -portraits, blazons, topographical plates, costumes, and emblems. Small -portraits engraved on wood usually ornamented the works of the poets, -like that of Nicholas Bourbon, for example, marvel of truth and skill. -The blocks of frontispieces in the folios were multiplied; large initial -letters, ingeniously engraved and stippled, like that at the -commencement of this chapter, were used. Jacques Kerver reproduced in -1545 for himself, and with plates made for him, the famous _Songe de -Poliphile_, published by Aldus in 1499. The widow of the publisher Denis -Janot, Jeanne de Marnef, published one of the most delightful books of -the time, _L'Amour de Cupidon et de Psyche_ of Apuleius, with delicious -figures in wood after Italian engravings. Many more could be named in -the extraordinary profusion of charming books. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.--King and Death. Vignette from the "Dance of -Death" by Holbein.] - -Without entering into detail, something must be said of Lyons, then a -most extensive and prosperous centre of bookselling. Lyons had the -signal honour of publishing first in France the celebrated cuts of the -"Dance of Death" of Holbein, the Basle painter. Doubtless Treschel, the -printer, was not the first, as a copy of a German edition is known, -because in the Lyons edition the cuts are worn and broken. However, the -Cabinet d'Estampes of Paris has some of the figures of the Dance with a -German text, probably printed by Froben at Basle. Treschel's title was -_Les Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort autant elegamment -pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginées_, and the volume in quarto -was printed by Frelon. The _Icones veteris testamenti_, which preceded -the publication of the "Dance of Death," had also been printed at Basle -before Lyons. - -With Holbein, as with Geoffroy Tory, we arrive at the zenith of -illustration and marvellous skill of the engraver. If we were to -institute comparisons, it was Hans Lutzelburger who cut the blocks after -the designs of the Basle master, but, contrary to what generally -happens, the translator reaches almost to the height of his model; the -line is perfection itself, it is precise and intelligent, simple, and, -above all, explicit. If the work of Lutzelburger be admitted, it must -also be admitted that Holbein designed his cuts before 1526, date of the -death of the Basle engraver; but it was precisely before 1526 that -Holbein lived in Basle, and it was after he had travelled. We will add -nothing to the universal praise of the book of Treschel, of Lyons; -everything has been written of Holbein, and repetitions are unnecessary. -We would ask the reader to compare the Francis I. of Tory and the King -in Holbein's "Dance of Death;" there is a certain family resemblance -between the two cuts, which is a singular honour for Tory. - -At the commencement of the century Basle had a school of -_Formschneiders_ working for export. Besides the numerous products used -at Lyons, it had also a trade in wood blocks, which, having been used, -were afterwards sold. Among these exchanges of engravings were many -plates of Brandt's "Ship of Fools," sold in 1520 to Galliot du Pré, -publisher, of Paris, who used them in the _Eloge de la Folie_ of -Erasmus. - -The reign of Francis I. saw a great advance in the national art of -illustration. The arrival at the court of Italian artists of the -decadence, such as Rosso and Primaticcio, produced a revolution in -taste. The exaggerated slightness of the figures brought by these -artists from beyond the Alps was considered as of supreme distinction; -in their twisted draperies and mannered poses was seen a precious beauty -that tempted the ready intelligence of the court of France. The simple -and ingenuous figures of the old French artists were ranked among the -refuse of another age, and their compositions were regarded with -contempt, and deemed antique. - -The rage for emblems and for allegories and mythological figures -generally was well suited to these eccentric and bizarre inventions. -From another side, an entire class of artists or artisans, book -illustrators first, then enamellers and jewellers, made use of these -Italian models, with which the King encumbered his galleries, and which, -at great expense, covered the walls of Fontainebleau. One can understand -what these skilful men made of such a movement and of so thoughtless an -infatuation. The publishers saw the demand, and composed works of which -the sale was assured by the subjects that they furnished to other -designers. This explains the quantity of Alciati's "Emblems" and Ovid's -"Metamorphoses" published at Lyons and Paris, and copied and recopied a -hundred times by the art industries of the time. Without it the enormous -success of mediocre productions, as the "Emblems," for example, in which -the meaning of the enigma or rebus cannot always be seized, is ill -understood. It was Alciati who made this literature the fashion. He was -a sort of Epicurean and miserly jurisconsult, who had as many lords and -masters on earth, as the kings and princes who liked to bid against each -other to engage him. He had quitted Italy, seduced by the offers of -Francis I., but when Sforza paid him a larger sum, he returned, giving -as reason for his vacillation that the sun had to travel the earth and -warm it by its rays; this was an emblematic answer, for his emblems had -all the coarse, sceptical humour which not a few had then already -discovered. At most these philosophical aphorisms, if we take them -seriously, have their droll side in that their author often practised -the reverse of his teaching. A miser, he abuses the avaricious; flying -his country for the love of gain, he blames those to whom "a better -condition is offered by strangers." Yet he is sometimes logical and -consistent, as when he assures us that "poverty hinders the success of -intelligence," and when, finally, lover of good cheer, he died of -indigestion in 1550. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Page of the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid, by Petit -Bernard. Edition of 1564.] - -His book of "Emblems" had a vogue that lasted until the seventeenth -century, and repetitions were infinitely multiplied: at Paris by Wechel -in 1534; at Lyons by Hans de Tornes, of Suabia, one of the greatest -Lyons publishers; by Roville, also one of the first Lyons publishers, -and by Bonhomme; at Venice by the Alduses; in fact, everywhere, -translated into French, Spanish, and Italian. - -Bernard Salomon, called _le Petit Bernard_, born at Lyons, was one of -the designers of the school of Fontainebleau--that is to say, of the -Franco-Italian school of which we have spoken above--who furnished many -of the engravings for books printed at Lyons. He illustrated the edition -of Alciati's "Emblems" published by Bonhomme in 1560; and designed -skilful little plates, which, with the text, were surrounded by a border -from the workshop of Geoffroy Tory, for Ovid's "Metamorphoses," -published by Hans de Tornes in 1564. Bernard had all the defects and all -the qualities of those of his time, from John Cousin to the least of -them; he was a Primaticcio on a small scale, but agreeably so. His -designs for the New Testament were also very careful, but in them more -than elsewhere the manner and the affectation of the school of -Fontainebleau are apparent. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Portraits of Madeleine, Queen of Scotland, and -of Marguerite, Duchess of Savoy, after the originals of Cornelis of -Lyons.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Portraits of Francis, dauphin, and of Charles, -Duke of Angoûleme, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons. Woodcuts -taken from Roville's _Promptuaire des Médailles_.] - -The workshops of the second city of France, we see, had at this time -attained considerable importance; but before the books of which we shall -speak, Roville published two anonymous books, one _L'Entrée du Roi Henri -II. à Lyon_, in 1549, ornamented with very graceful woodcuts, the other -the _Promptuaire des Médailles_, comprising a series of charming -portraits under the pretence of reproductions from the antique. The -designs of the _Entrée_ are often attributed to John Cousin, as it is a -rule with certain amateurs to give a known name to a work; but it must -be remembered that Lyons then had celebrated artists, Petit-Bernard, -alluded to above, and Cornelis de la Haye, of whom we have more to say; -and it is not necessary to go to Paris or to Rome to find the author of -these illustrations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Captain of foot from the _Entree de Henri II. à -Lyon_ (1549).] - -Cornelis de la Haye was a painter who executed nearly the same work as -Francis Clouet in Paris, portraits on panel, in a clear and harmonious -tone, then much the fashion. During a journey of the King, he had, if -Brantôme may be credited, portrayed the entire court, keeping the -sketches for himself. Ten or fifteen years after, Catherine de Medicis, -passing through Lyons, saw these portraits and highly praised them, -recognising the old costumes, astonished at the courtiers of the day, -whom she had never seen in such dress. This artist is now known, thanks -to various works that have been found, among others two portraits of the -sons of Francis I., preserved by Gaignières, who attributed them -resolutely to Cornelis, doubtless on the faith of inscriptions that have -disappeared. Both of them were engraved on wood at Lyons and published -in Roville's book the _Promptuaire des Médailles_, mentioned above, -with small differences of detail altogether insignificant. It is not -impossible then that Cornelis designed these portraits, and that they -were drawn on wood after the cabinet models spoken of by Brantôme. The -delicate figures of the _Promptuaire_ are the work of a master; and the -differences mentioned are those of the artist, not of the copyist, who -would not be permitted to change anything. It is the first time, we -believe, that these comparisons have been made; they will perhaps help -the learned Lyonnais to pierce the mystery, but in any case our -suppositions are more honourable to Cornelis de la Haye than the fancies -of Robert Dumesnil (_Peintre-graveur Français_, tome vi., p. 343). To -judge by the four little medallions here reproduced, the art of -engraving on wood was rarely more skilful than in these portraits. It -would not be astonishing if a man like Cornelis had designed the figures -of the _Entrée de Henri II._ In any case, why should we choose John -Cousin instead of Petit-Bernard? At this time, we know, the kings -carried in their suite their ordinary painters; but we do not know that -John Cousin followed the court to Lyons in 1549. He did not hold an -official position, like Clouet. - -This artist produced well-authenticated works; one of them is signed, -and leaves no doubt: the _Livre de Perspective de Jehan Cousin Senonois, -Maistre Painctre_, published in 1560 by Jean le Royer, printer to the -King for mathematics. This profession of printer for mathematics had its -difficulties of engraving, for Le Royer tells us in his preface that he -had himself finished the plates commenced by Albin Olivier. In another -practical treatise, entitled _Livre de Portraiture_, published in 1593, -John Cousin is styled _peintre géometrien_. It is beyond doubt that this -master produced for many works figures and ornaments, but what were the -books? The manner was then to repeat the engraved borders of titles, the -_passe-partout_, in the centre of which the text was printed. Cousin -designed many of these title-pages on wood; that of the _Livre de -Portraiture_ affords a curious element of comparison; but he was not by -any means the inventor. In 1555 was sold at Antwerp a book printed from -engraved plates after John Vriedman, by Gerard Juif, which is simply a -collection of engravings for title-pages for the use of publishers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Title of John Cousin's _Livre de Portraiture_, -published in 1593 by Le Clerc. (The spot on the title is in the -original, preserved among the prints of the Bibliothèque Nationale.)] - -It is about this time that metal plates may be seen in conjunction with -wood engraving in the illustration of the Book, and the best artists -attached their names to important publications of this kind. We have -explained in a former chapter in what this process is least convenient -in the impression of a book. In fact, two successive printings, that of -the plates and that of the text, were additional trouble and a frequent -cause of errors; but wood-cutting was somewhat abandoned in the middle -of the sixteenth century, especially for separate plates, and engraved -plates took a considerable importance under different artistic -influences. The first was the facility of engraving a metal plate -compared to the difficulty of cutting a wood block. It thus naturally -happened that the artists of the burin wished to employ their art in -illustration, and taste was soon drawn to the new process. - -In France the first volume of this kind was printed in 1488 by Topie de -Pymont in folio: the _Pérégrinations en Terre Sainte_ of Bernard de -Breydenbach, with figures on engraved plates copied from the Mayence -edition of 1486. Since this manner was abandoned until about 1550, as -much for the reasons given above as for others, we only meet with a -stray plate now and again, which remains as a bait, and relates to -nothing. Under the reign of Henri II. the smallness of the volumes did -not always admit of wood engravings, and the artists in metal found a -footing among illustrators; they made attempts, such as that of the -_Histoire de Jason_ of Réné Boivin in 1563, which came out under -Charles IX. in a charming volume of engraved plates by P. Woériot. - -The "Emblems" of Georgette de Montenay were also in the burlesque style -of Alciati, but they had an advantage, as the author assures us:-- - - "Alciat fist des emblèmes exquis, - Lesquels, voyant de plusieurs requis, - Désir me prist de commencer les miens, - Lesquels je croy estre premiers chrestiens." - -This orthodoxy does not make them more intelligible, but the engravings -of Woériot, unskilful as they are, import an element of interest which -surpasses the rest. It was always at Lyons, the rival and often the -master of Paris in typography, that the author printed his work. - -By the privilege dated 1566, five years before publication, we see that -it is permitted to Peter Woériot, engraver of the Duke of Lorraine, to -portray, engrave, and cut in copper the said figures called emblems for -the time and term of five years (18th October, 1566). Peter Woériot -sometimes signed his prints with the small Lorraine cross adopted by -Geoffroy Tory's workshop, as may be seen in our engraving. - -Copper plate engraving had by this time established itself, and the -works that were so illustrated spread themselves. Du Cerceau published -his admirable collection of _Plus Beaux Bastiments de France_ in folio -1576-79, which had numerous plans and views of the royal and princely -castles. Thevet put forth his _Cosmographie Universelle_ and his _Hommes -Illustres_, the latter adorned with skilfully engraved portraits. In -Paris the publishers Mamert Patisson, who married the widow of Robert -Estienne and took his mark, Adrien le Roy, and Robert Ballard, published -the celebrated _Ballet Comique de la Royne Faict aux Nopces de Monsieur -le Duc de Joyeuse_, composed by Balthasar de Beaujoyeux, valet de -chambre to Henri III.; and in this book, in which were put hasty -etchings, the King displayed all his immodesty and depravity. The Book -has often had the unconscious mission of transmitting to posterity the -unworthiness of its author or of its heroes. From this time the Book has -left its golden age to enter into the boastings of courtiers and -political abstractions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Engraving by P. Woériot for Georgette de -Montenay's _Emblèmes_.] - -Among the publications opposed to the Government of the time, the two -associates James Tortorel and John Perrissin, of Lyons, had published a -celebrated collection of plates on the religious wars that stained the -reign of Charles IX. with blood. At first engraved on metal, these -plates were worn out, and were gradually replaced by others engraved on -wood, on which several artists worked, among them James le Challeux and -also John de Gourmont, one of the most celebrated wood-cutters of the -sixteenth century. This was a work composed of single leaves in folio -size, which had an extraordinary sale among the religious people of the -time. - -At the same time, illustration on wood did not stand still. The -portraits of authors diffused by the pencil of Clouet and his school -were commonly put at the head of their works. We cannot say whether -Clouet himself designed the portraits of Tiraqueau and of Taillemont in -1553; of Du Billon, the author of the _Fort Inexpugnable_, in 1555; -Papon and Ambroise Paré in 1561; Grevin, Ramus, and others; but the -precision of these physiognomies recalls the peculiar manner of the -French artists of the sixteenth century. The "Poems" of Ronsard in 1586 -contains a series of very clever portraits, among them that of Muret, -his commentator, one of the most perfect of its kind. Christopher de -Savigny, author of the _Tableaux Accomplis de Tous les Arts Liberaux_, -published by John and Francis de Gourmont in 1587, is represented at -full length in the frontispiece of his work, offering the book to the -Duc de Nevers, to whom it is dedicated. This plate in folio, probably -engraved by John de Gourmont, is the best finished that we have seen. -The work of Savigny, forgotten as it may be now, had a great reputation -in its own time; and Bacon took from it the idea of his "Advancement of -Learning." - -Speaking of the Duc de Nevers, it will not be without interest to our -readers to mention here a manuscript found by us in the Bibliothèque -Nationale, which enables us to give an account of the work then -necessary for the publication of an illustrated book. In 1577 the Duke -arranged for the impression of an apologetic book, of which no trace -remains; and his _intendant_ writes a long letter to him on the subject -of composition and bindings. It was necessary that the work should be -produced quickly, bound and gilt, for presents. The _intendant_ thinks -calf will be the most expeditious covering. "It would be much the best -to use black or red calf, ... well gilt above, and not vellum, which is -a thin parchment that quickly shrinks." The statements of this man of -business show that five proofs of each sheet were taken for -typographical correction, and that twelve full days were wanted for the -binding. The most interesting part of this memoir is that which treats -of the engraving on wood of the portrait. The plate was designed by an -artist who had afterwards gone away; it was not satisfactory, but the -ornaments would pass. The _intendant_ proposes to "fix a little piece of -wood in the block that could be drawn upon." Here we see correction by -elimination. The pear-wood on which the original figure was engraved was -to be cut out, and a square of boxwood substituted, "forasmuch as in -this task the pear-wood, which is the successful, well-cut block, is the -wood that is harder." - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Portrait of Christopher Plantin, printer of -Antwerp. Engraved by Wierix.] - -The portrait of the Duchesse de Nevers was better, yet the pear-wood had -given way under the work. "That of Madame is more passable. -Nevertheless, there is still something to say to one eye. The wood -cannot carry the subtlety of the line." Here, in a few clear and -explicit lines by a man of the time, we see the economy of a publication -of the sixteenth century, at a time when wood engraving was declining, -to give place to engraving on metal, which was soon to reign supreme, -through the most important book house of the century: the Plantins of -Antwerp. - -Christopher Plantin, like Jenson, came originally from Tours. After -having learned his art with Macé at Caen, he went to Paris, from which -the wars soon drove him. He left for the Low Countries, and there Philip -II. nominated him as chief printer--"architypographus." Established at -Antwerp in 1555, he surrounded himself, as had the Estiennes and -Alduses, with most of the learned and literary men of his time, among -them Justus Lipsius, to whom Balzac attributed the Latin prefaces signed -by Plantin. It is certain that he was neither an Estienne nor an Aldus. -His artistic probity caused him to submit the proofs of his works to -strangers, with promise of recompense for faults indicated; the -Estiennes employed the same system. Plantin, not to be behind any of his -contemporaries in typographical perfection, brought from France the -celebrated type-founder William Lebé, and charged him to furnish a -special fount.[A] Under the orders of Philip II., he printed the -celebrated Polyglot Bible, in eight folio volumes, absolutely perfect in -its execution; unfortunately the Spanish Government, having advanced -funds in the course of publication, prosecuted him with the utmost -rigour to obtain repayment. This very nearly shut up his printing house, -but he took courage and overcame his difficulties, until he became, in -1589, the year of his death, the principal publisher of Flanders. His -mark was a hand holding a compass, with the motto "Labore et -constantia." - -[Footnote A: In the Bibliothèque Nationale is a copy of an octavo _Album -de Caractères_, in which Lebé has written, "This gloss, made in Paris -(1574) by me, is my fourteenth letter, and the text is made on the -pattern of the preceding one for size, but of a better art; and from -this was printed the great Bible of Antwerp by Plantin, to whom I sold a -fount" (folio 6). On folio 20 he wrote, "I do not know whence came this -small Hebrew that I received from Plantin to make a smaller one for him. -He sent me this half-sheet, and I have not seen at Venice another -part."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Plantin's mark.] - -Plantin died at the age of seventy-four, leaving a prosperous business -to be divided between his three daughters. His first house at Antwerp -employed seventeen presses even at the time when he was in trouble, and -he had branches at Paris and Leyden, of less consequence. His second -daughter married Moretus, and to him descended the Antwerp workshop; he -and his descendants continued the printing house until recently; the -house of the great printer and publisher is now a typographical museum. -The Plantin printing office--"Officina Plantiniana"--was as well managed -by its descendants as by himself. The fashion of engraving in metal -spread itself before the death of the head of the house, and his -successors continued it. The principal engravers with the burin of the -Low Countries were employed by them: Wierix, Galle, Pass, Mallery, Van -Sichern; it was a real school of illustration, that created by degrees a -precious and sustained style, not without influence on the artists of -that epoch. It was from this particular manner that came Thomas de Leu -and Leonard Gaultier in France; and from Antwerp came those small -religious figures that have lasted to our time in their incomprehensible -mysticism. - -The title-pages of the Plantin printing office inaugurated the -_passe-partout_ engraved by the burin, overloaded and complicated, of -which the seventeenth century took advantage. To tell the truth, these -elaborate displays, blackened by ink, do not accord well with the -titles; and there is a long distance between this decadence and the -books ornamented with wood blocks by the Italians and French of the -commencement of the century. Exception must be made in favour of Rubens, -who designed many of these titles. The heavy and squat architecture of -the time was least of all appropriate to these decorations, which wanted -grace. It passed from Plantin into France through the engravers; it went -to Rome with Martin de Vos and John Sadeler; it imposed itself -everywhere; and from that day to this it has not ceased. At the time of -which we write it had taken its flight in France, and spread itself in -Europe with extraordinary success. Engraving in relief, holding its -own until then, gave way little by little before this invasion. When -Henri IV. mounted the throne wood engraving had finished its upward -movement, it still remained in the _canards_, or popular pieces sold at -low prices, but it is easy to see what these hasty vignettes are worth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Frontispiece of a book from Plantin's printing -office. Metal engraving.] - -We have now seen the history of the Book and its decoration in the -sixteenth century in France: at first French epics in Italy, books of -hours, romances of chivalry; then about 1550, with the reign of Henri -II., the religious pamphlets commenced, bookselling spread itself; the -strife between illustrations on metal plates and those in relief assumed -shape, it continued under Henri III., and terminated abruptly by the -victory of the first at the extreme end of the century. With political -passions, printing had become a weapon of warfare, which it will never -cease to be. They knew in the sixteenth century what perfidious -accusations or excessive praises were worth. The Book followed the fate -of its author. If the writer was burned, so was his book. Witness the -_Christianismi Restitutio_ of the Catholic Servetus, printed at Vienne, -in Dauphiné, and consigned to the flames with its author at Geneva in -1553. A single copy was saved from the fire, and is now preserved in the -Bibliothèque Nationale; it is the identical copy annotated by Colladon, -the accuser of the unhappy Servetus, and still bears traces of fire on -its leaves. - -Typography and the illustration of the Book in England in the sixteenth -century did not make the same progress as in France and Italy. Much good -work was done, but it was mostly with foreign material. Type was -obtained from French and Dutch founders, and most of the woodcuts had -the same origin. In the early part of the century most of the -publications were translations of popular foreign books, such as -Voragine's "Golden Legend," Caxton's translations of Cicero, Boetius, -etc. Too many restrictions and privileges obtained to encourage or allow -of the establishment of an English school, which was to come later with -the spread of wealth and education. Books were mostly printed in Gothic -type, or "black letter," and the woodcuts were of the coarsest kind. An -exception was the beautiful Prayer-book of John Day, 1578, known as -Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book, from the fine portrait of the Queen, -which we reproduce, on the previous page; but in this the woodcuts were -designed by Albert Dürer and Hans Holbein. Pynson was the first to use -Roman type in England, in the _Oratio in pace nuperrimâ_, 1518, quarto; -and the first English Bible in Roman type was printed at Edinburgh in -1576. It is thought that until about 1600 printers were their own -type-founders, as no record exists of founding as a separate trade until -that time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Portrait of Queen Elizabeth from the "Book of -Christian Praiers," printed by John Day, 1578.] - -The greatest achievement of the sixteenth century in England was the -printing of the first English Bible, in Coverdale's translation, in -1535, folio, but even this was printed abroad, the latest investigation -giving it to Van Meteren at Antwerp. The woodcuts in it are by Hans -Sebald Beham; we reproduce one representing Cain killing Abel. Tyndall -had previously printed abroad an English New Testament. Another -importation was Brandt's "Shyp of Folys," printed by Pynson, 1509, and -John Cawood, 1570, the woodcuts in both being copied from the originals -before referred to. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Woodcut from Coverdale's Bible, 1535. Cain -killing Abel.] - -Folio was the size usually adopted, and in this size the series of -chronicles appeared: Arnold, printed abroad in 1502; Fabian, in 1516; -Froissart, by Pynson, in two volumes, 1523-5; Harding, by Grafton, 1543; -Hall, by the same, 1548; Holinshed, in two volumes, 1577. In the same -size Chaucer was first given to the world entire by T. Godfrey in 1532, -and many times reprinted, and Sir Thomas More in 1557. Polemical and -religious treatises were mostly printed in quarto, as were the poets: -Spenser's _Faerie Queene_, in 1590; Langland's _Pierce Plowman_, in -1550; and Sidney's _Arcadia_, in 1590. Plays were also printed in -quarto, in which shape at the end of the century some of Shakespeare's -single plays were issued. - -From the great perfection to which the liturgies, or books of hours, had -been brought by Vostre, Verard, and others in France, it is not perhaps -extraordinary that the service books for English use should have been -mostly printed abroad. Those for Salisbury and York were produced at -Paris, Rouen, and Antwerp. A Salisbury Primer in English was printed by -John Kyngston and Henry Sutton in 1557, and Wynken de Worde printed a -York Manual in 1509. The first English Common Prayer Book, known as -Edward VI.'s, was printed by Grafton in 1549, who also printed in 1545 -Henry VIII.'s Primer in Latin and English. Edward's book is curious as -having on the last page a royal order as to the price at which it was to -be sold: "No maner of persone shall sell the present Booke vnbounde -aboue the price of two shillynges and two pence. And bound in Forell for -ii_s._ x_d._, and not aboue. And the same bound in Shepes Lether for -iii_s._ iii_d._, and not aboue. And the same bounde in paste or in -boordes, in Calues Lether, not aboue the price of iiii_s._ the pece." -Cranmer's Catechism was printed by Nicholas Hill in 1548, with -twenty-nine woodcuts by Hans Holbein, one of which we reproduce, -representing Christ casting out devils. - -Translations from the classics were popular, and in the second half of -the century arose that passion for voyage and travel which has so -largely contributed to the wealth and extension of England. This was -begun by Eden's translation of Peter Martyr's "Decades of the New World; -or, West India," London, 1555, quarto, followed by Hakluyt's "Principall -Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries," 1589, folio. Many accounts of -single voyages and discoveries were issued, and the taste thus created -culminated in the establishment of the East India Company in the last -year of the century. - -The first specimen of copper plate engraving for books in England is a -frontispiece to Galen's _De Temperamentis_, printed at Cambridge 1521, -and the number of books containing copper plates engraved before 1600 is -extremely limited, the most notable being portraits of Queen Elizabeth, -Lord Leicester, and Lord Burleigh in Archbishop Parker's Bible of 1568; -Saxton's Atlas, 1579, the first atlas in England; Harrington's -translation of Ariosto, 1591, with forty-seven engraved plates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Woodcut by Hans Holbein from Cranmer's -Catechism, 1548.] - -The first printer at Cambridge was John Siberch, 1521. Peter of Treves -established himself at Southwark in 1514. Among his productions is a -Higden's _Polychronicon_, 1527, folio. John Oswen printed at Ipswich -1538, and among the English towns in which printers established -themselves in the century were York, Canterbury, Tavistock, Norwich, and -Worcester. - -The establishment of the Reformed Church, and the diffusion of education -among the people which followed, created an original English school of -literature in the sixteenth century, and this gave employment and great -impetus to typography in England, so that by the time we reach the end -of the century we find a great improvement in the art of the Book, to be -carried to still greater perfection in the next. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -1600 TO 1700. - - Tendencies of the regency of Marie de Medicis--Thomas de Leu and - Leonard Gaultier--J. Picart and Claude Mellan--Lyons and J. de - Fornazeris--The Book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in - Germany, Italy, and Holland--Crispin Pass in France--The Elzevirs - and their work in Holland--Sebastian Cramoisy and the Imprimerie - Royale--Illustration with Callot, Della Bella, and Abraham - Bosse--The publishers and the Hotel de Rambouillet--The reign of - Louis XIV., Antoine Vitré syndic at his accession--His works and - mortifications; the polyglot Bible of Le Jay--Art and illustrators - of the grand century--Sébastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and - Chauveau--Leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the - Book for the eighteenth century--The Book in England in the - seventeenth century. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Letter engraved by A. Bosse.] - -Now we have arrived at a critical epoch, in which the science of the old -printers transformed itself gradually into commerce, in which taste lost -itself under the influence of religious architecture. The title of the -Book represents the portico of a cathedral, with columns, mitred saints, -and crosses, of little decorative aspect. Figures on copper plates -replaced the foliage and arabesques of the older booksellers. Through -the Plantins and their imitators, the architectural passion was far -spread. It inundated France, ran through Germany and Italy, and reigned -pre-eminent in Holland. Literary taste also underwent change; manners -were no longer those of the sixteenth century: bold, free, and gay; from -the religious wars a certain hypocrisy arose; bombast replaced the -natural; the gods were preparing, as a contemporary said, to receive -Louis and his spirit. - -It is not that artists were wanting at the opening of the seventeenth -century who could, in giving scope to their talent, show themselves -worthy successors of those who went before them. Unhappily the -booksellers no longer had a loose rein; they had the rope, for they were -hung or burned at the least infraction of political or religious -propriety. Yet the reign of Henri IV. was relatively an easier period -for the artisans of the Book, in which they were less confined to the -strict terms of excessive regulations; but after this prince severity -increased, and during the year 1626 a new law was promulgated punishing -with death the printers or distributers of prohibited books. Doubtless -the books that were thus secretly sold, and prohibited in defence of -good manners, were neither _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of typography nor art. The -author threw off the indecencies by which he hoped to make profit and -fame, regardless of type or illustration. But during the regency of -Marie de Medicis, it was not only the authors of a bad standard that -were in danger of being hung; the printer or seller of the pamphlet or -book of a reputed heterodox author was also hung, and it became -difficult to steer safely among the prohibitions. Enormous numbers of -works were made with frontispieces decorated with colonnades and mitred -saints, and bearing high-sounding titles of sound orthodoxy. A somewhat -gross mysticism, from the office of Plantin, formed the most solid stock -of every respectable dealer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Title of the _Metanealogie_, engraved by -Leonard Gaultier.] - -Under Henri IV. and the minority of Louis XIII., two French illustrators -received from the school of Antwerp their inspiration for the ornament -of the Book. Thomas de Leu, probably from Flanders, was allied with the -old Parisian painter and engraver of celebrated portraits, Antoine -Caron, in furnishing the engraved plates for the _Images de Plate -Peinture des Deux Philostrates, Sophistes Grecs_, Paris, Claude -Cramoisy, 1609, folio; and Leonard Gaultier, his contemporary, -collaborated with Jaspar Isaac and other artists in the Book. Leonard -Gaultier contributed most to spread in France the Plantinian style, and -his somewhat cold but characteristic talent suited this art more than -that of any one else then could. He was an engraver of portraits, now -rare and valuable, in the style of Wierix or Thomas de Leu; but, at the -demand of publishers and booksellers, he composed other plates, at first -historical figures representing the royal family and the nobles for the -publisher Leclerc, in a simple and true manner; he also designed pious -figures, recording a miracle or representing the ceremonies of a jubilee -and other devotional things. But he made his great success in the -composition of frontispieces to theological and pious works, printed for -nearly all the booksellers. Leonard Gaultier had a fashion of his own -with pilasters and Grecian columns, under which he boldly placed entire -councils of cardinals and bishops; witness the heading of the -_Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum_, into which he crowded nearly forty -figures. He united also with a certain grace the sacred and the profane, -placing among ideal saints the sinning fine ladies of the time, with -their large collarettes and jewels falling on naked breasts. The work of -Andrew Valladier, chaplain of the King, entitled _Métanéalogie Sacrée_, -published by Peter Chevallier in 1609, was adorned with a title of this -particular kind, in which Gaultier had no rival, and which preserves the -precision of Flemish masters in the detail of ornaments of the toilet. - -He was one of the first to work for Sebastian Cramoisy, printer and -publisher, who had established his shop in the Rue St. Jacques at the -sign of the "Stork." We shall have occasion to speak of him later in -connection with the Royal Printing House, of which he was the first -director; he is mentioned now because in 1611 Leonard Gaultier engraved -for him the frontispiece of _L'Aigle Français_, a collection of sermons -by Thomas Girault. The publisher used the same plate in 1618 for the -sermons of Raymond de Hézèque. - -Besides the publications of Sebastian Cramoisy and Chevallier, Leonard -Gaultier adorned also those of Nicholas Buon and many other publishers -of the time in Paris and Lyons. With such a profusion of works emanating -from a single artist, without reckoning those which were produced in -great quantity by men of less note, wood engraving was dead. At most it -dared to put a wood block of a printer's mark on a title; more -ordinarily this mark was not alone sufficient, and showed the disdain in -which taste then held wood-cutting. Thus goes fashion, heedless of the -most elementary rules of art. To put type within an engraved title, or -to ornament a printed text with engravings, is a heresy of principle -that was established in the eighteenth century, by the strength of its -cleverness and talent. But at the beginning of the seventeenth, in spite -of Leonard Gaultier or Thomas de Leu, these overloaded titles, -overpowering the opening of the Book, offend the eye by their excessive -blackness, and incontestably make us regret the admirable frontispiece -on wood of the preceding century. - -This is all the ornament, properly so called, of the reign of Louis -XIII. Leonard Gaultier composed also small vignettes for an edition of -Homer, but they are mediocre and unskilful, and it must be said that -there were others following the same path. John Picart made a -frontispiece with architecture and figures for the _Histoire de la -Maison de Châtillon-sur-Marne_ for account of Sebastian Cramoisy. A cold -and hard artist he was, the rival of Gaultier, and one of the most -employed of the vignette engravers of Paris. There was also Jaspar -Isaac, a mediocre craftsman, but who could design clever titles, among -them that of the continuation of the _Annales_ of Baronius for the -publisher Denis de la Noue. Then Claude Mellan, whose great and clever -talent did not disdain second-rate works, in which he gave free play to -his burin. It must be said, however, that his bold touch did not well -accommodate itself to reduced spaces, and that he was not working in the -field necessary to his inventive powers. We mention his portrait of -Louis XIV. at the head of the _Code Louis XIV._; the title of the -_Perfection du Chrestien_, in which is included a portrait of Cardinal -Richelieu, A. Vitré, 1647, folio; that of the _Instruction du Dauphin_ -for Cramoisy, 1640; that of the works of St. Bernard for the Royal -Printing House; and, perhaps the best of all, the _Poésies_ of Pope -Urban VIII., of which we here give a copy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Title engraved by Claude Mellan for Urban -VIII.'s _Poésies_, printed at the Royal Printing House, in 1642.] - -Lyons did not remain far behind in the movement, but how changed from -its great reputation of the sixteenth century! J. de Fornazeris engraved -the frontispieces to Justus Lipsius, published by Horace Cardon in 1613. -Peter Favre and Audran imitated them. C. Audran designed for Claude -Landry the _Theologia Naturalis_ of Theophilus Reynaud, and the -bookseller Picquet ordered from him the title for the _Annales Minorum_ -in 1628. Everywhere taste was modelled on the works of the capital, to -name only the principal centres, Rouen, Rheims, Sens, down to Venes, a -small town of Tarn, where William de Nautonnier published in 1603 his -curious book _Mécométrie_, whose frontispiece was bordered by views of -cities, with an equestrian portrait of King Henry. - -And if we pass to Germany, we find Mayence with mediocre engravings for -titles according to the formula and process used elsewhere, the title of -the _Droit Civil_ of Aymar Vailius, that of the works of St. Bonaventura -in 1609 for the bookseller Antoine Hiérat, and that of the _Viridarium -Virtutûm_, rather cleverly treated by the burin in 1610. What a period -had passed since Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoeffer! There was still one -Yves Schoeffer at Mayence, but only the name lived; nothing more -remained of the old printers of the other century. It was the same at -Bamberg, Cologne, Nuremberg, and Basle, in all the cities that made the -honour of typography and the Book in former times. Cologne was neither -better nor worse favoured than others. The booksellers Boetzer, Kinck, -and De Binghy had passable engravings for their titles; and the -Commentaries of Salmeron may be mentioned, with portraits from the -German originals of the fifteenth century. At Nuremberg there was a -curious specimen treating of natural history by Basil Besler, in which -the artist gives the interior of a zoological cabinet of the time; but -the blocks and the typography of the city of Koburger are wanting. Basle -held its own later in relief engraving. Meantime there was a mediocre -set of the Dance of Death on copper, published by Miegen, 1621. - -At Jena and Frankfort-on-the-Main were prosperous printing houses, but -engravings and ornamentation were neglected. Frankfort employed the -frontispiece in the _Traité du Commerce_ of Sigismond Scaccia, published -by Zuner in 1648; it was divided into compartments, in which the Bourse, -the Exchange, and the port of the city were represented. - -It is scarcely necessary to mention the Italian cities which followed -the movement. Venice from the middle of the sixteenth century had used -engraved frontispieces, among which was that of Domenic Zenoi for the -_Portraits des Hommes Illustres_ of Nicholas Valegio. In the same city -James Piccini worked for account of Sgava in 1648, but he was equally at -the service of Roman publishers, for whom he designed a number of -titles. Along with him Frederic Greuter adorned the publications of -Alexander Zanetti, not without talent, but without individuality. -Bologna, Brescia, Florence, and Naples, had no original sentiment; they -followed indifferently the manner of the day. - -In Holland, artists were rather numerous. The family of the Passes -designed vignettes for books, and engraved frontispieces, admirably -studied and composed. The clear and truly personal style of their works -places their illustrations in the first rank among those of their time. -They had, at the same time, the genius that created and the intelligent -burin that faithfully translated an idea. They imagined with art the -scenes that they depicted without at all copying their predecessors. -From 1599, the date of the publication of the _Hortus Deliciarum_, one -of their best works, up to about 1623, they were in Holland, at Arnheim -and at Amsterdam. In 1623 we find one of them, the most celebrated, -Crispin the younger, designing figures for the _Manège Royal_ of -Pluvinel, published by Angelier in Paris, and for another edition, with -folding plates, in 1624 for William Lenoir, at the sign of the "White -Rose Crowned." This magnificent work, in which the King, Louis XIII., is -represented receiving lessons from the rider Pluvinel, had a third and -more complete reimpression in 1625 with another publisher, Michael -Nivelle. Here we see the Dutch accredited in France, in Paris, in the -city then the most ready to understand and pay for the works of eminent -artists. In 1624 Gombauld published an _Endymion_--Boileau later -associated Gombauld with other poets to declare him a maker of pitiable -sonnets--Nicholas Buon, the bookseller named above, undertook the -publication, and employed Pass, Leonard Gaultier, and J. Picart to -furnish plates in octavo size. Heavy and black as were these vignettes, -they do not the less make a good appearance in the edition of the -forgotten poet; and it is due to truth to recognise how much Pass was -above his collaborators. The following year, 1625, he engraved the -_Dionysiaques_ of Nonus, for Robert Fouet, and the _Roman des Romans_ of -Du Verdier, comprising more than ten engravings, in a very free and bold -manner. The _Berger Extravagant_ and the _Académie de l'Espée_ came in -1628, among numerous others. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Title of Pluvinel's _Manège Royal_, engraved by -Crispin Pass in 1624.] - -To speak truly, Crispin Pass did not devote himself entirely to Parisian -publishers; he always preserved interests in Flanders so as to return -there from time to time; but he did not find in his own country the -ready and assured sales of Paris. Still the city of Leyden had then one -of the most renowned workshops of typography; the Elzevirs had commenced -to make a good place for themselves among the printers of Europe by the -extreme correctness of their editions, the distinctness of their work, -and their marvellous art in the taste and economy of the Book. In -reality, the sizes and characters of their books were very small, but if -the smallness of the page did not allow room for vignette or ornament, -they bore a certain practical elegance that was not without charm. The -origin of the printing house was due to Louis Elzevir, who published in -1592 an edition of Eutropius at Leyden. He left sons, who associated -themselves together, and founded a house which was unrivalled. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Title of the _Imitation_ of the Elzevirs.] - -Bonaventure Elzevir, grandson of Louis, was the most illustrious of this -family, so remarkably devoted to its art. He took Abraham as partner, -and together they put forth those little Latin classics in duodecimo of -which the value is now so great. Among others, Pliny issued from their -presses in the year 1635, in three volumes, Virgil in 1636, and Cicero -in 1642. To-day amateurs, above all those afflicted with bibliomania, -hunt for unbound Elzevirs, because they have full margins. From about -1633 to 1639 these volumes were composed of paper of rather small size, -making a page of a hundred and thirty to a hundred and thirty-three -millimetres; from 1639 onwards the paper was larger, and the page from -about a hundred and thirty-five to a hundred and thirty-seven. One must -be a book-lover to understand the interest attaching to these figures, -and employ his entire activity in the discovery of these undiscoverable -books, which are concealed as soon as they are met with. - -One of the most esteemed of their works is the _De Imitatione_ of Thomas -à Kempis, printed by John and Daniel Elzevir about 1653, and known as -the edition without date. But as the association of John and Daniel is -known to have lasted from 1652 to 1654, the date 1653 appears to be very -plausible. We reproduce the entire title of this typographical _bijou_, -which merited a cleverer engraver. - -The rarest of all the numerous Elzevirs, possibly by reason of the -popularity of its subject, is the _Pastissier François_, Louis and -Daniel Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1655, of which M. Morgand had an uncut copy, -measuring a hundred and forty-three millimetres, in 1878. The Benzon -copy sold in 1875 for three thousand two hundred and fifty-five francs. - -It is to be remarked that the Elzevirs frequently avoided dating or even -signing their books, for reasons easy to comprehend. Publishing numerous -works, they were afraid of compromising themselves in the eyes of the -powerful, and they let them go forth without any trade mark. These -artists in typography were, besides, the most prudent and subtle of men. -Working at a time when bookselling had become an acknowledged commerce, -and a trade requiring all the skill and resources of others, they wisely -availed themselves of these, gathering for themselves honour and profit -without having done more than seize their opportunity. Employing the -characters of Claude Garamond, of James Sanlecques, and the papers of -Angoulême, M. Didot thence claims them as French publishers. - -In France the Elzevirs had no rivals; but a fashion was introduced from -the end of the sixteenth century of associating together publishers in -the production of important and costly books. There were, among others, -the company of the "Grand Navire" in 1610, of the "Source" in 1622, and -of the "Soleil" in 1629. In 1631 several publishers united and founded a -second company of the "Grand Navire." These were the two Cramoisys, -Sebastian and Gabriel, Denis Béchet, John Branchu, Denis Moreau, Claude -Sonnius, and Denis Thierry. The associates took a ship as their mark, -but without putting their names on the masts, as the original company of -the "Grand Navire" had done. They published, at common expense and -divided profits, great works, of which each one of them had the right of -sale, but of course reserving to themselves the right to publish such -others as they pleased. Sebastian Cramoisy passes as the chief, the -moral director of another company, formed to publish the Fathers of the -Church, with the royal types, a company affiliated to the "Grand Navire" -and signed in 1638 by Denis Moreau, Gille Morel, Stephen Richer, Claude -Sonnius, and Gabriel Cramoisy. But as regards their personal works, if -they had neither the perfection nor the aspect of those of Froben, -Aldus, the Estiennes, or even of Plantin, they at least surpassed the -French books of the time. Formerly syndic of the Corporation in 1602, -twenty-nine years before the constitution of the "Grand Navire," -Cramoisy was besides sheriff of Paris, and he exercised his trade in a -shop in the Rue St. Jacques which had been that of Father Nivelle, the -_doyen_ of booksellers, who died in 1603 at the age of eighty years. - -The position of Cramoisy made it natural for Cardinal de Richelieu to -fix his eyes on him for the direction of the Royal Printing House. This -establishment, founded by the King in 1640, was installed within the -Louvre, in a long series of rooms which formed a workshop without rival -in the world. Sublet des Noyers was named superintendent, Trichet du -Fresne corrector; and under this triple direction the presses commenced -to work. The first book was the _Imitation de Jésus-Christ_, dated 1640, -folio, a fine book enough, but not to be compared to the Elzevir -editions. The types used in this book are attributed to Claude Garamond, -founder of the sixteenth century, to whom are due the Greek types of -Francis I. With the Royal Printing House, as often happens with State -enterprises, the cost was great, and the return nothing. Only a few -years after its foundation it had swallowed up nearly 400,000 livres, a -very heavy sum for a badly balanced treasury; it had produced sixty or -seventy volumes of moderate value; and after Cramoisy the management was -so little in earnest that it turned the workshops into a stable, called -"the little stable of the King," at the commencement of the eighteenth -century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Plate taken from the _Lumière du Cloistre_. -Copper plate by Callot.] - -To return to the artists of the Book under Louis XIII. and Cardinal -Richelieu, we must go back a little, before the foundation of the Royal -Printing House, and we shall find the French school of illustration at a -time when Callot was giving it a vigorous lift and trying to do away -with its affected and hard style. It must be acknowledged that Callot -was not a vignettist, a special designer; his art aimed higher, and -ordinarily succeeded better; yet he did not disdain frontispieces, and -made them for the _Coustumier de Lorraine_, the _Harpalice_ of -Bracciolini, and for a crowd of others of which the enumeration would be -tedious. Certain of his works passed into Italy, where they raised a -little the debased level of the Book. Then he adorned several works with -etchings, among them the _Lumière du Cloistre_, published by Francis -Langlois 1646. It was one of the symbolic and sententious works with -which the public taste is never satiated, and a kind of guide for the -priest. At the bottom of the little etching here given, representing -birds falling from a tree, we read,-- - - "Ses petits hors du nid le courbeau jette en bas, - Lorsque par leur blancheur ils lui sont dissemblables. - Le bon prélat de mesme au cloistre n'admet pas - Ceux qui n'ont rien d'esgal à ses moeurs vénérables." - -Callot also made another set of emblems on the life of the Virgin Mary, -and published in 1620 a series of prints in quarto for the tragedy of -_Soliman_ of Bonarelli, for the account of Cecconnelli. France imposed -herself on fallen Italy, she got her works dispersed there, and if an -engraver arose there, he did not disdain to consecrate himself to -France. Witness Della Bella, who went from Italy to France, where he was -taken under the protection of Cardinal Richelieu. It was about the time -of the establishment of the Royal Printing House, and it was expected -that employment would be found at once for him. - -Callot was the model chosen by the young Italian artist, and this choice -might have been less happy. Della Bella took from his master the -philosophic vein, the drollery of design, which he exercised at first in -humorous frontispieces, among others that of Scarron's works, where nine -fish-women, taking the place of the Muses, dance around the poet. But he -passed from gay and pleasant to severe, and made large pages of -architecture for serious titles. In 1649 he designed the plates for the -large and undigested volume of Valdor on Louis XIII., published by -Antoine Estienne at the Royal Printing House. His success was not there; -Della Bella was a painter of groups, of ornaments, of subjects somewhat -heavy and overdrawn, but which, after numerous transformations, opened a -new way to the vignettists of the eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Title of the _Manière Universelle_, by -Desargues, in 1643, by Abraham Bosse.] - -With Abraham Bosse the decoration of the Book took a considerable -extension. Numerous and charming ornamented letters, heads of pages, and -tailpieces appear. There are few artists that have done so much as he -for graceful illustration and harmony between the vignette and the -printed page. His prodigious fecundity made him attempt every style; and -after the gaieties of the print in which he laughed with his -contemporaries, he adopted a grave air to trace more severe subjects on -copper. However, the book entitled _La Manière Universelle_, by -Desargues, with numerous geometrical figures and an agreeable -frontispiece, bearing the dedication to the Seigneur de Noyers, -superintendent of the Royal Printing House, was a critical work, in -which Bosse, under a serious standard, did not spare an enemy. We do not -bear ill-will to the artist, however, for the following year he -published fourteen plates for the Suetonius printed at the Louvre. - -He successively designed plates for the _Histoire de St. Louis_, -numerous vignettes for pious books, figures for the _Pucelle_ of -Chapelain and for the _Larcins de la Fortune_. He was always himself, -refined and ingenious, whether in the most barren or the most -complicated subjects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Print by Abraham Bosse representing the -booksellers of the Palace under Louis XIII.] - -He has left us in a celebrated print a representation of a bookseller's -shop of his time. It is for us an interesting page, in which is shown -simply and rather naïvely the picturesque side of these stores, with the -dealer and his wife selling new works to their customers. The shop is -compact, and very much like the open-air stalls of to-day; posting-bills -above the shelves indicate the "new books;" and if the inscriptions -given by Bosse be credited, the Palace dealer offered his books with -singular eclecticism: Boccaccio, Aretin, the _Astrée_ of D'Urfé, the -Bible, and Machiavelli. In the hands of the woman is seen the romance -_Marianne_: - - "Icy les cavaliers les plus adventureux - En lisant les romans s'animent à combattre; - Et de leur passion les amants langoureux - Flattent les mouvements par des vers de théâtre," - -says the text of Bosse. What was commonly done then is still done, -shopping and rummaging the stalls, and those of the Palace were -attractive. - -If we credit Sauval, the great number of booksellers, in the middle of -the century, was due to the wits of the Hotel de Rambouillet. The -passion for novelty, for recent works, had produced that quantity of -publishers, he says, that we have seen on the Pont Neuf, and that we -still see to-day at the Palace and the University, but of which the -number is so multiplied in all these places that in the Palace they -count more than other dealers; and as to the neighbourhood of the -University, they are obliged, in order to lodge the rest, to extend the -ancient bounds from St. Yves to the river (Sauval, _Antiquités de -Paris_, viii., 354). - -In fact, each year saw an increase in the number of publishers in -corporation, with syndicate and adjuncts. Under the reign of Louis -XIII., the single year 1610 had fifty to take rank, and among them -Antoine Vitré, who was to become the most illustrious of his -contemporaries. But, as there were no more than six printers, it may be -inferred that all the rest were booksellers, in the true sense of the -word, of those who encumbered afterwards the great _salle_ of which -Sauval speaks. Antoine Vitré was syndic in May, 1643, on the accession -of Louis XIV. He had four adjuncts. With him the Book marked the solemn -style that the commencement of the century had given to it. Royal -printer for the Oriental languages from 1621, he undertook a Syriac -work, the first that was attempted in Paris. The project of a Polyglot -Bible gave him the idea of acquiring for the King the Oriental -manuscripts and matrices of Savary de Brèves. The King left to him the -care of negotiating the business, but did not reimburse him without -numerous difficulties, in the midst of which the printer was made to -lose the means of conveniently continuing his trade. The advocate Le Jay -charging himself with the enormous expenses necessitated by the Polyglot -Bible, it was composed in the hope that Cardinal Richelieu would pay the -cost. He was willing to do so, but required that his name should figure -on the book; and as Le Jay, an independent man, formally opposed it, -Vitré met with ill-will from the Minister, which increased from day to -day. In 1645 the impression was finished, but Le Jay was ruined, and if -we admire the paper, the type, and the extraordinary size of the nine -volumes of the Polyglot Bible, we find in it so many faults, errors, and -misprints that it has fallen to nearly nothing, hardly being worth its -binding. There were terrible mortifications in the business, and Vitré -had to submit to them more than any one. Nevertheless he did not let his -presses stand still, and he published successively Arabic, Turkish, and -Persian works. His action against the Savary heirs, as representing the -King, in the acquisition mentioned above, continued also after the -impression of the Bible, and hindered his progress. He struggled on; and -the assembly of clergy, of which he was the printer, sought to help him -out of his difficulties. The matter being once terminated, the Cardinal -being dead, and Vitré having been named by Colbert director of the Royal -Printing House in place of Cramoisy, he died in his turn, and was later -accused of having destroyed the types and matrices of the Polyglot -Bible, so that they should not be used after him. This fable, long -accredited, has since been ascertained to be false, for the punches and -matrices passed to the Royal Library, thence to the Royal Printing -House, reorganised in 1691. - -Antoine Vitré, in spite of his misfortunes, was a great personage. He -was painted by Champagne and engraved by Morin, as was Richelieu -himself. The portrait was reproduced in the book of M. Delaborde, _La -Gravure_ (p. 189). Such was the man whom we meet at the beginning of the -reign of Louis XIV. as syndic of booksellers; and it was by no means a -sinecure, a canonry giving honour and profit, quite the other way. With -the Draconian rules on the subject, the syndic assumed a heavy burden -towards the King, as well as towards his kinsmen. Religious quarrels -envenomed questions, and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes was to -have for its immediate corollary new and more severe royal ordinances. - -The reign of Louis XIV. saw the zenith of engraving with the burin, but -not that of printing or illustration. Doubtless it would be puerile to -pretend that typography had not made any material progress; it had done -so in engraving and in composition; work was done more quickly, because -the presses had been made more perfect. But the wise harmony of the old -printers, their sure taste, even in their old irregular blocks, was no -longer there to form a graceful and charming whole, which is to modern -precision as a picture by Van Eyck is to a chromo-lithograph. Under -Louis XIV., titles became regular, following, as we have said above, and -modelling themselves on, the affected and peruked people who read them. -All art entered on this path of sublimity and grandeur. The painter Le -Brun is the highest exponent of this false Olympus, where an heroic pose -became necessary for the most humble movements. Made popular by -engraving by Pesne, Audran, Poilly, Edelinck, and a hundred others, this -tendency overran everything: art and industry, painting and tapestry, -illustration and typography itself. All was grand, in reverse of other -times, when all was small and mean. The embellishments of the Book were -full of gods in perukes and goddesses in armour, Louis XIV. as Apollo, -as the sun illuminating the world. "Nec pluribus impar" was not the -device of one man; it was the mighty and glorious cry of a whole people, -from great to small, from the sublime painter to the modest printer. - -Ordinarily these exaggerations are not useful to the arts. Here they -were. But, for the matter that specially occupies us, it does not appear -that the Book was much advanced. It approached a marvellous epoch of a -delicate and graceful art; but it did not find its form; it dragged -painfully after the Plantinian works, heavily throwing its etchings and -burins in the middle of texts, gross and in bad taste. Yet taste in -literature had an onward tendency; Molière and La Fontaine produced on -their contemporaries the effect that in our day the naturalists have -produced on the romanticists; but this was not for long. Majesty -recovered its rights with Bossuet, Boileau, and the others. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Tailpiece of Sébastien Leclerc for the -_Promenade de St. Germain_.] - -Sébastien Leclerc was one of the rare artists of the end of the -seventeenth century who dreamed of the vignette in the midst of this -invasion of pompous commonplace. Successor of Callot in manner, induced -by the publishers, he began this style with a romance of La Calprenède, -and continued with the _Promenade de St. Germain_ of Louis le Laboureur, -bailie of Montmorency, of whom Boileau said such curious things. This is -one of the rarest books of Leclerc, and we reproduce one of the pages, -with a charming tailpiece, which comes very near those of the eighteenth -century. There was, moreover, a charm in this ingenious designer; he -adorned the works of his contemporaries with graceful vignettes and -decorations full of suppleness. It may be believed, besides, that he did -not remain behind his _confrères_ in figure composition or allegorical -and Divine emblems. His art did not throw off the errors of the existing -school; he was content not to copy any one and to make his works truly -his own. Such were, for example, the vignettes of the _Histoire de -Turenne_, where the heads of the chapters, the ornamented letters, and -the tailpieces, harmoniously agree, and make the book, a little heavy in -impression, a most agreeable work. Leclerc then found himself ready to -design vignettes for the works of Racine for the publisher, Claude -Barbin, another name frequently encountered in Boileau. The title of -Vol. ii. merits attention. - -The same year of this last publication, 1676, Sébastien Leclerc -illustrated the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid for Benserade, the engraving of -which cost the King more than 10,000 livres. Thus adorned, the book had -not a bad appearance, but a satirist of the time, Hardin very probably, -made on it this quatrain:-- - - "Mais quant à moi j'en trouve tout fort beau: - Papier, dorure, images, caractère, - Hormis les vers qu'il fallait laisser faire - A La Fontaine." - -It may be imagined what an engraver could produce working from 1650 and -dying in 1715, that is, a life of work the longest that could be hoped -for. Leclerc was the absolute contemporary of the King. He died, like -him, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, leaving work widely -scattered among books, funeral orations, and placards. After the example -of Callot and Bosse, he did not disdain satire. One of his prettiest -vignettes served to illustrate some pamphlet of Richesource against the -journalists of his time; it represents a dandy of about 1679 offering -his gazette. - -By the side of this unrivalled antagonist it is permitted to place -Lepautre, twenty years older than Leclerc, but whose studies had been -principally on architecture. In the moments that he left his special -work he devoted himself to frontispieces and vignettes; nevertheless, -although he had before him the charming designs of Leclerc, he confined -himself to a cold and hard manner, keeping, besides, as much as possible -to titles, in which his particular talent could find scope. He designed -also the Chartreux Missal of 1679, the _Gallia Christiana_ after Marot, -the _Dioptrique Oculaire_ of P. Chérubin, engraved by Edelinck, and a -thousand other works of small repute. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Small figure of Sébastien Leclerc for -Richesource's pamphlet.] - -Very different was Francis Chauveau, who, without having the delicacy of -Sébastien Leclerc or his art of arrangement, treated at least with grace -little figures and illustrations. Certainly there is an enormous -distance between these correct and commonplace engraved plates and the -delightful wood engravings of the time of Geoffroy Tory, for example. -But, be their worth what it may, they suited very well; and even with -Molière they did not make such a bad figure. Chauveau was associated -with many of the works of Leclerc, who caused him often to be less -heavy, inasmuch as Leclerc corrected in engraving many of his -compositions. It was so with Molière, and still more with Racine in the -plate of the _Plaideurs_, in which Chauveau revealed himself a precursor -of the eighteenth century. Unhappily he did not always follow this -manner. Successively, and with various luck, he illustrated _Alaric_, -_Andromaque_, and the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid for Benserade, with -Leclerc; the _Pucelle_ of Chapelain, and the _Tragédies_ of Racine, to -which Le Brun did not disdain to put his hand. - -In short, the connecting link between the beginning of the seventeenth -and that of the eighteenth century in the development of illustration is -Sébastien Leclerc. He had known the artists of the first period; he was -to see at his death appear one of the precursors of the vignettists of -the following century, Claude Gillot. Thanks to him, overburdened titles -and unskilful vignettes underwent a gradual transformation. In the -delicacy and tenuity of his designs may be seen the dominant note of the -eighteenth century, coquetry, and Choffard is divined. He was nearly the -only one who did not fall into the exaggerations of the engravers of the -time; he kept beside them without touching them, and preciously -preserved his own well-accentuated personality. By the smallness and -slenderness of his figures, Leclerc recalls somewhat the school of -Fontainebleau; but he is above all the reflection of Callot, a Lorrainer -like himself. - -In Holland, a Frenchman, Bernard Picart, son of Stephen and pupil of -Leclerc, was making a great name as an illustrator. He established -himself as a print-seller at Amsterdam at the sign of "L'Etoile," and -successively designed vignettes for many works, among others the -Boileau of 1718. His vignettes and tailpieces, without possessing either -the spirit of Leclerc or the grace of the eighteenth century, express an -ingenious and inventive art that had broken with the strained traditions -of preceding epochs. - -From these two artists the decoration of the Book rapidly advanced. The -form is found, and charming designers are not wanting to apply it. - -The troubled state of England during the greater part of the seventeenth -century no doubt accounts for the fact that the art of the Book made but -very little progress. Theological controversies, the persecutions by the -Puritans, and, above all, the great civil war and its antecedents and -results, gave rise to a flood of publications of an ephemeral kind, -which from their nature were hurriedly produced; and there was little -room for pure literature and art. In the early part of the century, -under the influence which Elizabeth left, and which James fostered, some -important works were issued, with finely engraved illustrations; but -wood engraving declined further and further, until it was artistically -dead, to be revived in the next century. The works of the numerous poets -and dramatists were printed in quarto, and collected editions of them in -folio. Thus were issued the works of Shakespeare, first collected by -Jaggard and Blount, 1623, folio, with an engraved portrait by Droeshout, -the faithfulness of which was vouched in an opposite page of verse -signed by Ben Jonson. "Don Quixote" first appeared in an English dress -in 1612-20, published by E. Blount in quarto; and Jaggard, Blount's -partner in the Shakespeare, published Boccaccio's "Decameron," in two -volumes folio, 1620. Among other notable works of the early part of the -century were Drayton's "Polyolbion," 1613; Chapman's Homer, 1611-15, -folio, three volumes; Lord Bacon, whose essays and other single -publications appeared in the seventeenth, to be collected as his "Works" -in the next century; and William Prynne, whose _Histrio Mastrix_, 1633, -so offended Charles I. by its references to the Queen and the court -ladies, that the author had to undergo a severe and degrading -punishment. Many of these works were illustrated with meritorious -engravings on steel and copper by W. Hollar, P. Lombart, W. Marshall, -Hole, W. Pass, W. Faithorne, and R. Vaughan. So that here were all the -materials for the foundation of an English school, to be cruelly broken -up shortly afterwards by the distractions of civil warfare. - -In 1611 Robert Barker first printed the Authorised Version of the Holy -Bible, which has been more often reprinted than any other book, and -which exists to this day as the great standard of the English language. - -The taste for books of travel which arose in the last century was -largely increased by the voyages and discoveries of the English in North -America and the subsequent Puritan exodus there. These early accounts of -Virginia and New England, many of which are tracts of a few leaves only, -now command fabulous prices. The great collection of voyages under the -name of "Purchas: his Pilgrimes," was printed in five folio volumes, -1625-6, while De Bry, Hulsius, and Linschoten were enriching the world -with their collections of travels, printed in Germany and Holland. All -of these works were adorned with finely engraved plates, those to -"Purchas" being engraved by Elstrack, and, besides, it had a famous map -of the world, engraved by Hondius. - -The controversial spirit engendered by the religious quarrels of the -century and by the great civil war gave incessant work to the printers; -and the many tracts and pamphlets thus produced were frequently -illustrated by rude and coarse woodcuts, of no value from an artistic -point of view, but curious from the indications they afford of the -costumes and manners of the time. - -The first edition of Walton's "Angler" was printed by R. Marriott in -1653, 16mo, with plates in the text, engraved on steel by Lombart. -Butler's "Hudibras" appeared in 1663-78, and Milton's "Paradise Lost" in -1667, quarto. Fuller's "Worthies of England" was printed 1662, folio. We -have roughly mentioned the principal English books of the century, and -next approach the revival of literature and art in the eighteenth -century. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE BOOK IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. - - The regency--Publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth - century--Illustrators in France; Gillot--The school of Watteau and - Boucher--Cars--The younger Cochin; his principal works in - vignettes--French art in England; Gravelot--Eisen--Choffard--The - _Baisers_ of Dorat; the _Contes_ of La Fontaine--the publisher - Cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--The - younger Moreau and his illustrations--The Revolution--The school of - David--Duplessis-Bertaux--The Book in Germany; Chodowiecki--In - England; Boydell and French artists--Caslon and - Baskerville--English books with illustrations--Wood engraving in - the eighteenth century; the Papillons--Printing offices in the - eighteenth century. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Letter by Cochin for the _Mémoires d' -Artillerie_ of Suvirey de St. Remy.] - -Like experience has shown us in our time, but in another manner, the -beginning of the eighteenth century produced, in the manners and tastes -of the French, an unconscious but tenacious reaction. It seemed as if -the conceptions of romanticism had lasted long enough, and that the -cycle of Middle Age chevaliers had passed away, and that a return to -what is called nature was effected in literature and art. At the death -of Louis XIV., Olympus and its gods, majestic poses and suns, had become -wearisome. By a little half-open door, gaiety escaped from its prison -and fled. For the Book that door was the hand of Sébastien Leclerc. - -The ancient school was replaced. Constrained during three quarters of a -century, French manners began to be joyous under the regency of the Duc -d'Orleans. If the representatives of another age still lived, if Rigaud -always painted his portraits in peruke, there were new-comers, enlivened -by the new fashions, less solemn and more bewitching. Le Brun was then -far in the past, and as amusing to the ladies of the regency as are now -to us the fashions of the Second Empire. - -The Book, after its manner, followed the movement, and gradually found -the elements of its decoration in the tendencies of the day. Small sizes -were multiplied, types showed elegance, and vignettes became more and -more agreeable and intellectual. Amateurs had their _ex-libris_ -engraved. The smallest pamphlets were covered with ornamental letters, -vignettes, and tailpieces, already very clever. Costume also, in its -shorter and lighter form, gave to designers a means of agreeably -composing a page of illustration and disseminating fancy in the figures. -These revolutions worked themselves simply from day to day, as taste -became more pronounced and exacting. - -The commerce of the Book was still extending from the end of the -preceding century; and if the number of printers was limited and -arrested by certain somewhat hard laws, production in Paris was -enormous. Among regulations that weighed most heavily on publishers -figured the obligation put upon them by the ordinance of 1713 to -deposit eight copies of illustrated books. In 1725 the King issued other -regulations to affirm the rights of the university against the -corporation, forcing the masters to assist in a body at the processions -of the Sorbonne and to offer on the Day of the Purification a candle to -the rector. In spite of this ordinance, more religious than useful to -commerce, the fashion of vignettes increased. The principal shops were -searched, as they are still, for novelties; the Rue St. Jacques and the -Quai des Augustins, where they were grouped, were resorted to. The most -important booksellers in 1727 were Coignard, the Barbous--who essayed -afterwards, with Lengley Dufresnoy, to copy the Elzevirs,--Cavalier, -Robustel, Fournier, Ballard, and D'Houry. Of the two last, D'Houry -printed the calendars, and Ballard had the privilege for music. Another, -Leonord, published the books of the Dauphin. At these and other -publishers', recent works were examined, those who did not buy gave -their advice and took ideas, and so fashion slowly formed itself. It was -thus that Houdart de la Motte published with G. Dupuis in 1719 a -collection of fables, with illustrations of Claude Gillot, which was the -talk at the booksellers'. - -In this book all was original: the author, who had had, five years -before, the eccentric idea of translating the Iliad without knowing a -word of Greek; the text, a kind of imitation of La Fontaine, without -salt or savour; the size, quarto, admirably printed by Dupuis, in the -Rue St. Jacques, with plates by Coypel, Massé, and, above all, the -charming vignettes of Gillot, the most pleasing and clever of all his -collaborators, a sort of Callot fallen into the eighteenth century, and -who ought to take the first place by birthright. Gillot has been -called, not without reason, "the last pagan of the Renaissance;" and -this pagan had the honour to give us Watteau. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Vignette by Gillot for the _Chien et le Chat_, -fable by Houdart de la Motte, in 1719.] - -The Count de Caylus tells the story. Gillot had quitted the pencil for -the etching needle on seeing the work of his pupil. He had no reason to -complain; his pictures were of no value, and his prints gave other -artists the idea of imitating them. The whole French school of the -eighteenth century may have had its origin in this forgotten book, -illustrated by the master of Watteau. In fact, in the manner of the -little etching here given we may easily perceive the coquetry and -affectation that were later the dominant tone of vignettes. For, it may -well be said, the graceful, feminine, and arch manner of which we speak -was, above all, conventional and false. In opposition to the designers -and engravers of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century, -who reproduced naturally scenes of daily life in ideal conceptions, it -came, through the moral education of the artists, that they put forth -the ideal in the most ordinary things of life. Shepherds were no longer -the gross, rustic peasants that we find in primitive Flemish paintings -or in the "Hours" of Simon Vostre; they were coxcombs, pomaded and -adorned with ribbons, playing the bagpipes, and making love to the -shepherdesses of the court. - -At first it was Watteau who influenced all the engravers in the pretty -and the smart; Boucher did the rest; and fatally the Book followed, and -followed impetuously, surpassing, if possible, the painted works. If the -severe poses, the grave touch, of the preceding century are no longer -found, they often go a little far in the contrary sense. It may be well -said here that the arts are ordinarily the result of the manners of an -epoch. The system of Law was not without influence on the entire -eighteenth century, by the terrible manner in which he upset fortunes, -awoke appetites, gave rein to aspirations hitherto held in check. Claude -Gillot, the designer, was one of the first victims of the Scotch banker; -he lost his fortune on the Exchange; but who may say what his artistic -ambition dreamed of in the midst of all these disorders? One thing is -certain: that Watteau, his pupil, broke off very short with the style of -the seventeenth century. - -Laurent Cars was the engraver who multiplied the compositions of -Boucher, and made them the fashion. He engraved also, after the painter -of shepherds and nymphs, illustrations to Molière, the most agreeable -that there are for style and spirit. In engraving certain works of -Lemoyne, Cars did not completely desert the ancient school. He appears -at the beginning of the eighteenth century as if divided between two -manners each equally possible to him. - -The work of these engravers was almost exclusively in etching, biting -with acid a copper plate covered with varnish, on which the drawing was -made by means of a point. This process, always previously used for -sketches, served also for finishing vignettes, which up to then had been -finished by the burin. The suppleness of the work was greater, and the -artist remained more himself than he could be with the stiff cutting -instrument of the seventeenth century. - -The sizes of books had not yet all come to octavo or duodecimo. The -works of Molière published by Prault in 1734 in six volumes quarto, -under the direction of Marc Antoine Joly, give the idea of an important -work, not at all of theatrical pieces. To tell the truth, these somewhat -exaggerated dimensions allow artists more room for illustration; later, -when smaller forms predominated, text and engravings were so compressed -that they were not always clear and readable to every eye; but the -quarto was not graceful, it was not in harmony with the finikin, the -pastoral pieces, then presented, and it had to disappear as a current -size in illustrated publications. - -The class of artisans employed on the Book is not identical in the -eighteenth century with that of printers and publishers. In the -beginning, as we have seen, the cutters of wood blocks and the printers -were often the same people, preparing their characters or their blocks, -and afterwards putting them under the press. Large printing offices had -very quickly changed that. Each particular work had its special workman. -Typography had its type-founders, compositors, forwarders, inkers, and -pressmen. In the eighteenth century this was complicated by designers, -engravers, plate-printers, and these different professions occupied -themselves on the Book in manipulating the sheets in their turn. In the -midst of this crowd, the designers and engravers, esteemed as was their -collaboration, were not the most honoured. Their homes often reflected -the effect of their life as clever artists, quick to spend the money -earned during the week; and we shall have occasion to name some of the -more miserable among them. - -The booksellers, on the contrary, had become great personages. In the -preceding chapter we have seen Cramoisy and Vitré, to name only them, -acquire the greatest honours, the latter painted by Philip de Champagne, -with many others lords of the court. In the eighteenth century there -were Brunet, Ballard, Mariette, Chardon, Didot, and a host of others, -during the time of Watteau, Boucher, and Cars, of which we shall shortly -speak; and these several publishers had houses of their own, and -furnished shops and printing offices with the best apparatus. Saved from -falling into negligences by royal regulations on printing, they composed -with admirable characters, on paper of the first order, imperishable -works; and, usual consequence of their high situation, they paid the -artists badly charged with their work. It would be long and tedious to -enter into this matter in detail. They made progress by slow degrees, -and in good time they marvellously united copper plate engraving to -printed text, so marvellously, that in comparing their works to the wood -blocks of the sixteenth century, it may be asked which of the two styles -is superior in elegance and good taste. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Vignette for _Daphnis et Chloe_ by Cochin, for -Coustelier's edition.] - -One of the ancestors of this group of vignettists was the younger -Cochin, who had engraved the plate of the monks in the fables of -Houdart, illustrated by Gillot. Cochin, in spite of his passion for -allegory and his very marked taste for affectation, gave, it may be -said, with the designer-engraver St. Aubin, an enormous impulse to the -art of adorning books. From the beginning of his career he worked for -the publishers, composing frontispieces, ornamented letters, and -tailpieces, or transferring to copper the drawings of others. Singular -type of artist, besides, educated, well brought up, epicurean and -spendthrift, friend of great lords, and protected by Madame de -Pompadour. When he travelled in Italy with her young brother Abel -Poisson, Cochin did everything, was ready at the least request, -inventing curious menus, giving representations of fêtes, and yet -finding the time to decorate books and design vignettes profusely. - -He worked chiefly for Jombert, a sort of learned bookseller, King's -printer for the artillery, who dates from July, 1736. Jombert was -visited by painters. He gave little private soirées, which Cochin -attended, and where he daily made numerous friends. It was in this -house, of so special a character, and, it may be said, so little -artistic at first sight, that Cochin invented his best frontispieces, -among them that of the _Calcul Différentiel_, that of the _Astronomie -Physique_, and the plates of the _Méthode de Dessin_, after Boucher. He -was one of the first to produce engraved titles, with which the -publisher Prault ornamented his dainty volumes, and which were imitated, -up to the end of the eighteenth century, by all the illustrators who -followed. In that to the works of Madame Deshoulières the letter itself -is engraved. Since then the open letter has been copied in typography. -These vignettes were used many times by publishers, sometimes simply -effacing the inscription, sometimes reproducing the original design by -a different artist. The boy with the swan had decorated in 1744 a -"Jerusalem Delivered" in Italian, by the same publisher, Prault; it was -then engraved by Aveline. Fessard engraved the second plate, which is -here reproduced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Title-page engraved by Fessard after Cochin for -the works of Madame Deshoulières, 1747.] - -Nearly all the frontispieces of the Book with vignettes of the -eighteenth century preserve this arrangement: an ornamented and draped -border, with garlands of roses, symbols, and cupids, in the middle the -title, in red and black, composed in open letter, often a scroll with -the address of the publisher, but rarely a mark. It was the time of -little winged cupids, goddesses, and gods. The goddesses were the -favourites of the kings, Madame de Pompadour or the princesses, but -rarely the virtuous Marie Leczinska, too homely and too much ignored to -tempt the artists; the kings or the princes were the gods. - -After Jombert, Prault, and Coustellier, Cochin worked for François -Didot, syndic of the printers, for whom he prepared a set of -illustrations to Molière. Unfortunately Didot died in 1757, and the -project fell with him. Of the work of Cochin there only remains the set -of _Tartufe_ etchings in octavo. - -In the vortex into which he was plunged, he successively illustrated the -works of Rousseau, published at Brussels, quarto; those of Boileau, -published by David and Durand, octavo; and Henault's "History of -France," in the same size, with numerous vignettes. One of these should -be noted in a book treating of printing; it is that in which Cochin -pretends to show to his contemporaries the interior of a workshop in -1470. Without doubt the sketch of this print was taken in one of the -houses frequented by him--at Jombert's, Didot's, or David and -Durand's--for that room in which compositors are working and printed -sheets drying was not an invention of Cochin, and served to reproduce a -printing office of the eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Vignette taken from P. Corneille's _Théâtre_, -by Gravelot.] - -With Cochin soon worked a number of designers and aqua-fortists, too -prudent to lose the opportunity. The fashion arrived for books -beribboned, festooned, and flowered. Hubert François Gravelot had -carried to London this style of new works, which he knew how to -decorate, in his manner, better than any one, with letters, figures, and -tailpieces. He did not engrave much himself, leaving this work to lesser -artists, and contenting himself with subtle invention and graceful -subjects. With Eisen, Cochin, and Moreau, he is the French artist in the -sense of the time, free, bold, and ingenious, but perhaps a little out -of place in England. He published his plates to the "Decameron" in 1757, -one of the most curious of his sets of plates, and a hundred various -vignettes. On his return to France he designed the _Théâtre_ of P. -Corneille, from which the _Galerie de Palais_ is here reproduced, on -account of the illustration of bookselling which it gives. In 1764 the -large _salon_ of the Palace was still, as in the time of Abraham Bosse, -a place where shops were fitted up and the new books discussed. Side by -side with the dressmakers and merchants of every category, the -bookseller offers to his customer the recent products of Parisian -presses. Certain works were sold under cover and not shown; there is -here something to pique the curiosity of unoccupied young men who -strolled about and prolonged their stay in the galleries. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Border designed by Choffard in 1758.] - -Eisen has a simplicity, a good taste, and a special and singularly -perfect economy of artistic effect combined with typography. It appears -hard that the designer had no consultative voice in the choice of -impression and disposition of the Book. The union of the two forces, -the vignette and the composition, is so close that it may be believed -one was made for the other, neither venturing to assert itself. In the -pretty and elaborate inventions of the artists reigned a lackadaisical -affectation that was delightfully becoming; the rock-work, which it -still had, suited admirably the borders of the first page. The _Lettres -d'une Peruvienne_ has a very agreeable title, but little different, on -the whole, from that of Madame Deshoulières, by Cochin. It is the same -with the _Lettres Turques_, published at Amsterdam in 1750, and -generally in all the frontispieces signed by him. As to the other -decorations of the Book, there were also a number of ingenious artists, -confusing cupids and flowers, imposing blazons, delighting in playing -with accumulated difficulties. Under this assuredly involuntary but real -direction, publications attained proportions of luxury and coquetry -until then unknown. The volume of _Baisers_ of Dorat would not have -lived but for Eisen and the delightful fancies with which he adorned it. - -At the same time, we find Choffard, another designer and etcher of much -repute, and sought after by the booksellers. Under his pencil the -vignette became a _chef-d'oeuvre_, the tailpiece was a delightful -compound of judicious and sportive ornament, the taste for which grew -more and more. From delicate foliage are suspended roses, shepherds' -pipes, lyres, and zithers. With the zephyrs scrolls or ribbons float, -carried by winged cupids. The initial letters are real pictures, of such -fineness and precision that the difficulties of their reproduction -prevent us from putting them before the reader. - -When the _fermiers généraux_, those great amateur financiers of the last -century, conceived the idea of an edition of the _Contes_ of La Fontaine -at their expense, their eyes naturally fell upon the artists best -prepared to illustrate the inimitable fancies of the great poet, Eisen -and Choffard. The first had for his task the composition of the plates, -Choffard the general decoration. Ficquet was added for the portrait of -the _bonhomme_ La Fontaine--Ficquet, whose specialty in this _genre_ was -dazzling in its delicacy and spirit; Diderot wrote a short introduction; -the composition was confided to a printer of the first order, and it was -put on sale by Barbou. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Vignette by Eisen for the Quiproquo in the -Contes of La Fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers généraux.] - -It is not a book to be recommended from a moral point of view, but the -typographical art, joined to that of designers and engravers, never -obtained a more complete success: the size in octavo, the impression -clear, united with the dimensions of the plates in a harmonious -elegance, well calculated to please the three rich personages and the -joyous amateurs to whom the _Contes_ address themselves. True, Eisen has -dressed the greater part of the characters in the costume of his time, -which is a little hurtful to one's feelings to-day; it may be imagined, -however, that it was La Fontaine who was mistaken, so that these -delicate, risky tales appear to be created for the seigneurs of the time -of Louis XV. - -All the special literature sought for then by rich people had not the -value of the _Contes_. There was at Rheims a person, who has to-day -become the _mode_, as he was in the time of Louis XVI., who sold under -cover a quantity of licentious books of the better kind, adorned with -figures by Eisen, Marillier, or Cochin; this was Cazin, an artist in his -way, but whose good name suffered under a scandalous trial. An order of -the Council of State in 1764 enjoined him to cease his trade in the -Place Royale at Rheims, where he sold his particular merchandise. It -appears that the sentence was not without appeal, for we find Cazin at -Paris about 1785. He was one of those who were ruined by the Revolution, -after he had popularised the editions known as _Petits Formats_, printed -by Valade, of Paris. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Card of the publisher Prault, uncle by marriage -of Moreau le Jeune.] - -We have come to the most beautiful illustrated books of the eighteenth -century, and to the illustrious artists of whom we shall speak in good -time should be added the younger Moreau and St. Aubin, the former nephew -by marriage of the publisher Prault, and therefrom a decorator of the -Book, the other thrown by Gravelot into full work, and rapidly becoming -the most subtle and adroit of the etchers of the time. Moreau did not -wait long after his marriage before setting to work. He began with -ornaments destined for the _Histoire de France_ of President Henault; -then he composed, in his own personal manner, titles and tailpieces for -his uncle. In the Book he is the propagator of garlands of roses, which -he grouped with an ideal grace; he twined them in the borders of his -frontispieces, and put them judiciously in his tailpieces. He excelled -in inventing subjects referring to the text which were not commonplace -ornaments suitable for anything. The tailpiece on p. 202, taken from the -works of Molière, brings forcibly to mind the _Médecin malgre Lui_, with -its wood-cutter unmercifully beaten with sticks and muffled in a -scientific robe. It is the same with other illustrations, that cannot -be displaced from the position assigned to them by the artist without -disappointment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Tailpiece from the _Médecin malgre Lui_, by -Moreau le Jeune.] - -The year 1773, which saw the publication by De Bret of the works of -Molière, may perhaps be considered as that in which the French Book of -the eighteenth century reached its culminating point. M. de Laborde, -first valet de chambre of the King and governor of the Louvre, published -with De Lormel, printer to the Academy of Music, his celebrated -collection of _Chansons_, dedicated to the young Dauphiness Marie -Antoinette, and partly illustrated by the younger Moreau. The work is -exquisite, of powerful yet simple grace. The sentimental note of the -century was struck in it, the insipid love of shepherdesses there -tenderly sighed, and the designer has delightfully rendered this arch -side of the pastoral song. - -Our task does not permit us to linger over the works of this prodigious -and charming artist, but we must mention his inimitable plates to J. J. -Rousseau, the finest and most agreeable of his compositions and -vignettes, also his _chef-d'oeuvre_, the _Histoire du Costume_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Vignette of the "Pardon Obtenu," designed by -Moreau le Jeune, for Laborde's _Chansons_, in 1773.] - -As evidencing the activity of French artists of the Book in the -eighteenth century, we cite the number of works illustrated by the -respective artists enumerated in the last edition of M. H. Cohen's -valuable _Guide de l'Amateur de Livres à Gravures du XVIII^e -Siècle_:-- - - Aliamet, 34. - Audran, 16. - Aveline, 33. - Baquoy, 87. - Basan, 9. - Binet, 48. - Borel, 29. - Boucher, 47. - Bovinet, 34. - Cars, 13. - Chedel, 21. - Chenu, 18. - Choffard, 50. - Cochin, 143. - Coypel, 24. - Dambrun, 77. - Delaunay, N., 95. - Delignon, 50. - Delvaux, 66. - Duclos, 49. - Duflos, 56. - Dunker, 15. - Duplessis-Bertaux, 22. - Eisen, 135. - Elluin, 14. - Fessard, E., 69. - Ficquet, 14. - Flipart, 24. - Fokke, 14. - Folkema, 17. - Fragonard, 10. - Freudeberg, 7. - Gaucher, 55. - Ghendt, 78. - Godefroy, 29. - Gravelot, 86. - Grignion, 13. - Gutenberg, 20. - Halbou, 58. - Helman, 22. - Ingouf, 18. - Langlois, 18. - Le Barbier, 54. - Le Bas, 39. - Lebran, 21. - Leclerc, 11. - Legrand, 45. - Lemire, 77. - Lempereur, 68. - Leveau, 31. - Longueil, 97. - Marillier, 116. - Martinet, 27. - Masquelier, 42. - Massard, 40. - Monnet, 67. - Monsiau, 22. - Moreau, 138. - Née, 48. - Pasquier, 18. - Patas, 65. - Pauquet, 23. - Petit, 23. - Picart, 62. - Ponce, 65. - Prévost, 40. - Prud'hon, 14. - Queverdo, 54. - Rigaud, 18. - Roger, 17. - Romanet, 26. - Rousseau, 24. - St. Aubin, 70. - Scotin, 27. - Sève, 29. - Simonet, 83. - Tardieu, 64. - Tilliard, 15. - Trière, 39. - -Doubtless some of these ascriptions are for frontispieces only, but as a -list of the principal book illustrators of the time, and as showing the -measure of their popularity, this table is of much interest. - -With the Revolution the decline of the Book arrives, as that of all the -arts. Moreau, friend of David, had become affected by the new ideas and -the burlesque renaissance of Greek and Roman art. He made his apology on -the altar of the gods, and engraved portraits on wood to punish himself -for having painted the elegancies of fallen tyrants. At this game, -nerve, as well as suppleness, was lost; and if he had had only the -artistic knack of the Revolution, his daughter, married to Charles -Vernet, could not have written of him, "That which can be most admired -is, at the same time, the fecundity and flexibility of Moreau's talent, -that marvellous facility of conceiving a picturesque scene and disposing -it in an interesting and truthful manner in the least extended space." -This was true before, but after? - -In spite of his passion for the ideas and men of the Revolution, Moreau -found himself at the end of his resources. Renouard, the publisher, -received him as he had received St. Aubin, to whom he advanced sum -after sum to prevent him dying of hunger. Like most of his -contemporaries, Moreau, pressed by want, "took, quitted, and retook the -cuirass and the hair-shirt." He had drawn for everybody: for Louis XVI., -for the Republic, for Napoleon I. - -The worst of it is that after his designs for Ovid, Molière, and -Rousseau, dating from the reign of Louis XVI., he should have done them -again in 1804, 1806, and 1808. The difference was great, even probably -for his publishers, Renouard and Dupréel. It does not appear that the -pontiff of the new school, David, knew of his distress; and Moreau -succumbed in 1814 to a cancerous scirrhus of the right arm, forgotten -and in the greatest misery. - -We have passed a little quickly to the end of the century because it is -of no importance to name each of the publishers and artists, but only to -sketch briefly their tastes or their manner. We have not dwelt long on -the engravers so called, because of their number; but their dexterity -remains proverbial; they handled etching with extreme suppleness, and -often interpreted the drawings of illustrators in remitting them to the -needle. Many of these, not to say all, made use themselves of the -etching needle, St. Aubin for example, who knew how to give to the work -of others his personal mark and distinction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Title designed by Moreau le Jeune in 1769 for -the publisher Prault.] - -The Revolution passed over some among those that it ruined, and, as -stated above, they followed the movement, and lost themselves in the -school of David. It was Duplessis-Bertaux who, after having furnished to -Cazin, the publisher, vignettes for his _Recueil des Meilleurs Contes -en Vers_, 1778, and many other books, after having worked for Didot, -devoted himself to patriotic engraving and to the reproduction of scenes -of the Revolution. When he published his _Tableaux Historiques_, in -three volumes folio, adorned with nearly two hundred large plates, it -was under the Consulate, that is to say far from the time when the work -was begun. Renouvier assures us, with his exclusive disdain for the -eighteenth century, that Duplessis-Bertaux was a mystifier, and that his -scenes of the Revolution were a hoax, "in the kind of spirit in vogue -under the Directory." The truth is that the artist, in place of being a -cheerful Callot, as might be thought from his manner of engraving, so -like that of the Lorraine artist, was imbued with the emphatic and -exaggerated impressions of the first Republic, its _sans-culottes_ in -the poses of the Sabines and its _tricoteuses_ apeing Penelope. - -The immense artistic advance made in France in the eighteenth century in -the manufacture and illustration of the Book made itself felt throughout -Europe. In Germany, Chodowiecki, born at Dantzic of a family of -apothecaries, developed his talent from ornamenting the boxes of his -father, and from 1758 to 1794 he designed numerous plates for books and -almanacs, a little heavy in engraving, but singularly clever in -composition. There were a few others also designing, and Kilian, -Folkema, and Ridinger produced some fine engravings, but the Book did -not make so much progress in Germany as in France and England. - -In England a vast improvement was manifested. Fine types were cast by -Baskerville and Caslon; printing machines were perfected. The -illustration of books by engraved plates was in the first half of the -century almost entirely done by foreigners, but an English school was -arising, which attained perfection in the latter half of the eighteenth -and first half of the nineteenth century. Wood engraving also, which, -with the exception of blocks for head and tailpieces, had become almost -a lost art, was revived by Bewick, to become later one of the chief -adornments of the Book. - -Before 1716 English printers obtained their best founts of type from -Holland, but the establishment of the Caslon foundry rendered them -independent. William Caslon, the first great English type-founder, was -born 1692, and died 1766. The foundry still exists, pre-eminent in the -beauty of its characters. Baskerville established a foundry about 1750, -and printed at Birmingham with his own types a number of extremely -beautiful books. The impetus given to fine printing by these two men -rapidly spread itself, and laid the foundation of the perfection which -English book-making reached. - -As mentioned above, Gravelot illustrated many English books in the early -part of the century. He designed a set of plates to Shakespeare in 12mo, -1740, and another in quarto, 1744, besides numerous frontispieces and -other plates in all kinds of books. Among other foreigners who engraved -for English publishers were Grignion, Kip, Van der Gucht, Houbraken, and -Bartolozzi. Bartolozzi, who was very prolific in the production of -engraved plates, may perhaps be called the founder of that great English -school of engraving which arose with the establishment of the Royal -Academy in 1769 and the encouragement given by Alderman Boydell. -Houbraken and Vertue engraved a set of fine portraits in folio for -Rapin's "History of England," 1736; William Hogarth designed plates for -Butler's "Hudibras," 1744; and among other curiosities of English -engraving before 1750 were Sturt's edition of the Common Prayer, -entirely engraved on copper plates, 1717, and an edition of Horace -entirely engraved by Pine, 1733. That the taste for illustrated books -soon grew to be great is evidenced by the publication of such expensive -works as Boydell's edition of Shakespeare, in nine volumes folio, -commenced in 1791, and adorned with a hundred plates from pictures -specially commissioned by the spirited publisher; Claude's _Liber -Veritatis_, with three hundred engravings by Richard Earlom 1777, Sir -Robert Strange's engravings of fifty historical prints about 1750, -collections of views in Great Britain by Kip, Buck, and Boydell; -Holbein's "Collection of Portraits" 1792, a hundred and fifty plates to -Shakespeare engraved by S. and E. Harding 1793, all of which cost great -sums to produce, and greatly contributed to the elevation of public -taste. Among the artists of the latter half of the century who -contributed to the decoration of the Book are Thomas Stothard, whose -very beautiful designs, extending into the next century, excelled those -of all his contemporaries in their grace and spirit; Robert Smirke, best -known by his plates for Shakespeare, "Don Quixote," and "Gil Blas;" -Burney; and Richard Westall. It may be said generally that the English -books of the eighteenth century were of a more solid character than the -French, although English art, especially in the decoration of the Book, -owes much to French initiation. It is curious to read now the opinion of -a contemporary French engraver on English art. Choffard, in the preface -to Basan's _Dictionnaire_ 1767, wrote, "They" (the English), "having -been supported by some foreign talent, are trying to create talent among -themselves; but they have not seized the flame of genius that vivifies -all art in France." - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Tailpiece engraved on wood by John Baptist -Papillon (before 1766).] - -However, what had become of engraving by cutting in reverse, the figure -in relief, from which printing could be done? It had, we may think, -nearly disappeared in the midst of the continued invasion of the burin -and etching. It only appeared from time to time in head and tailpieces, -remaining purely typographical and lost in other decorations. There were -always wood engravers, not very clever, capable only of working simple -lines without charm. One of them resolved to resuscitate the art, and -made various attempts about the end of the reign of Louis XIV. and -beginning of that of Louis XV. He was named John Papillon, and was born -at St. Quentin in 1661. His experiments did not go beyond a book of -prayers, with thirty-six figures in relief after Sébastien Leclerc. His -son, John Baptist, succeeded him, and continued to engrave without -ceasing subjects of ornament, letters, often tailpieces, of a good style -upon the whole, and taking an excellent place in an elaborate book. -Unfortunately, grace had fled; the processes that the practitioners -exhibited one after the other were lost; and the Papillons -reconstituted, we may say, a vanished art. John Baptist also published -in 1766 a theoretical treatise on wood engraving, abounding in -historical errors, but in which something to learn may be found if taken -with discernment. He says in his preface, "Now that excellent work is -done on copper, wood engraving is neglected, and the use lost of -designing and cutting the shadows of the pencil on the wood block; most -of those who work in it have neither design nor taste, and only follow -their own ideas; it is not astonishing that only very mediocre pieces -come from their hands, to say nothing stronger; the profound ignorance -of nearly all who meddle with it contrives more and more to destroy the -beauties of this art in which many people find neither pleasure nor -grace. To obviate all this, if it be possible to me, I have undertaken -to give my precepts and observations to those who wish to apply -themselves to my engraving." - -It was probably the essays of Papillon that provoked curious experiments -on the part of other wood engravers. Duplat, at the beginning of this -century, proposed to prepare a relief on stone, and as this would be -broken under pressure, he invented a mould; that is to say, he took a -leaden matrix from the stone cutting, and ran a resistant metal into -this mould, thus obtaining a relief similar to the stone. Renouard, the -publisher, made the trials; and the younger Moreau made the designs. -Moreau become an essayer of processes in 1811! One of the plates of La -Fontaine's _Fables_, published by Renouard in 1812, in two volumes, -12mo, is here reproduced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Experiment in engraving in relief by Moreau le -Jeune for Renouard's edition of La Fontaine's _Fables_.] - -It appears, however, that the publisher was thwarted by bad printing. -The printers of Didot or Mame, much as they consecrated all their care -to it, did not yet know perfect workmanship; they put the most intense -blacks into fine sheets. The great publishers trusted that better days -would leave to more clever men the task of perfecting the invention. - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Portrait of Thomas Bewick.] - -Wood engraving owes its revival and almost perfection in England to -Thomas Bewick, who published his first work in 1770, his "General -History of Quadrupeds" 1790, and his "Birds" 1797. In these works he not -only depicted his subjects with the most scrupulous fidelity, but in the -tailpieces of the several chapters he drew the most quaint, humorous, -and faithful representations of country life. He, with his brother, John -Bewick, and their pupils, among whom was Luke Clennell, had an influence -upon English art and the decoration of the Book in England which exists -to our day. Not alone with us, for he may be said to have repaid the -debt which we owed to France for her illustrated books of the eighteenth -century by stimulating the art of wood engraving, which was practised by -Tony Johannot and the other illustrators of the nineteenth century. - -To return to the eighteenth century, with which this chapter is -specially occupied, we have said that the Royal Printing House, after -various fortunes, still existed; and in 1788 it worked, for better or -for worse, at the Louvre. According to the budget of that year, it cost -the King 90,000 livres, of which the director had 1,400. - -There were, on the other hand, a certain number of official printing -offices, that of war, for example, which was devoted entirely to the -work of the Ministry. It was situated at Versailles, and was created in -1768. It is told of Louis XV. that, being one day in this workshop, he -found a pair of spectacles, left as if in inadvertence on a printed -sheet. As his sight was weakening, he took the spectacles and looked -through them. The sheet was a hyperbolical eulogium composed, as if at -random, by the director Bertier, in honour of the King. Louis XV., -having read the dithyramb, replaced the spectacles, and quietly said, -"They are too strong; they make objects too large." - -Who would believe that at the end of the century of Voltaire and -Rousseau a craftsman would be found desirous of leading back the -typographical art to its cradle, and of making xylographs again, under -the name of polytypes? A German was the original who conceived the plan. -He obtained an order of council for the establishment of his presses in -1785, but the same council suppressed them 1st November, 1787. His -process was to substitute for movable characters a plate of fixed -letters, and probably engraved. - -Another eccentricity of typography at the end of the century was the -introduction of "logography" by John Walter, the proprietor and printer -of the _Times_ newspaper, which consisted in casting whole the words in -most common use, in place of separate letters. The system had soon to be -abandoned, but the early numbers of the _Times_, which was started -January 1st, 1785, were printed on it. - -In the eighteenth century there was a printing establishment for each of -the constituted bodies; the King, the Queen, the princes, each had their -own. The royal lottery occupied a special printing house. - -The young inmates of the blind asylum worked under the direction of M. -Clousier, royal printer. Louis XVI. authorised the celebrated Haüy, -their master, to allow them to print; and in 1786 they composed an essay -on the education of the blind. Pierre François Didot was in 1785 printer -to the Prince, afterwards Louis XVIII.; and he published the _Aventures -de Télémaque_, in two quarto volumes, from this special printing office. - -The English colonies in North America early established printing there, -their first book, the "Book of Psalms," known as the Bay Psalm Book, -being dated 1640. By the middle of the eighteenth century literature -held a strong position in the colonies, the greater part of it being, as -might be expected, English; but the revolution and subsequent -establishment of the United States created a national American -literature, which has flourished to this day. Among the printers of -North America in the eighteenth century, the most famous was the -celebrated philosopher Dr. Benjamin Franklin, who served his -apprenticeship to the printing press in London. He returned to America -in 1726, and worked as a printer with his brother at Philadelphia. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE BOOK IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - The Didots and their improvements--The folio Racine--The school of - Didot--Fine publications in England and Germany--Literature and art - of the Restoration--Romanticism--Wood engraving--Bewick's pupils, - Clennell, etc.--The illustrators of romances--The generation of - 1840--The Book in our days in Europe and America. - - -Political imitators had not been found for the French Revolution in all -the neighbouring countries of Europe, but its Greco-Roman art -established itself, and by degrees was introduced into the studios of -painters and the printing offices. Prud'hon, Gerard, Girodet, and later -Desenne, without counting the younger Moreau and his contemporaries of -the older regime, rallied to the new study, forming a school of -illustrators and vignettists with which the publishers could resolutely -advance. England followed suit with Flaxman, West, Fuseli, Barry, and a -crowd of others. Among the publishers the powerful family of the Didots -took first rank, and its members, at once type-founders, printers, -booksellers, and _savants_ of the first order, were the best fitted to -direct an artistic and literary movement. When Napoleon crowned himself -emperor of the French, the elders of the family had already brought -about a number of perfections and discoveries in their profession by -which their workshops had profited. François Ambroise, who died in the -year of the Empire, had given an exact proportion to types, a free and -elegant turn, but perhaps too regular and precise to be agreeable. He -had also invented a press called the _presse à un coup_, in which the -impression was taken by a single pull instead of being produced by a -series of successive strikings. His brother, Pierre François, spoken of -in the preceding chapter, was a type-founder and paper-maker at Essones, -and counted among his official titles "printer to the Comte de -Provence," as François Ambroise was to the Comte d'Artois. - -Of these two branches equally faithful to typography, Pierre Didot, son -of François Ambroise, became the head on the death of his father. Born -in 1760, he had studied his art with passion, and had merited the -installation of his workshops in the Louvre, where he published a -celebrated collection known as the Louvre editions, the -_chef-d'oeuvre_ of which was the works of Racine. The splendid -execution of this book, in three large folio volumes, was a true -typographical revolution. Never in any country had scrupulous perfection -of detail been joined to so masterly a knowledge of disposition and form -of characters. The great artists of the Davidian school had the honour -of seeing their drawings reproduced as illustrations, and those named -above designed the fifty-seven plates with which the edition was -adorned. Pierre Didot displayed a great affectation in only printing two -hundred and fifty copies of his irreproachable and marvellous work, of -which a hundred had proofs of the plates before letters. Published by -subscription, the ordinary edition was issued at 1,200 francs, and with -proofs 1,800 francs. - -To these superb works Firmin Didot, his brother, added ingenious -discoveries. Struck with certain difficulties of printing as well as of -correction, he imagined the welding together of the types of a forme, -when once obtained without faults, so as to avoid the trouble of new -composition. This process, useless for books of small number, had a -capital importance in the case of reimpressions of popular and -successful works. He named this method stereotype, and from 1799 he -published a Racine in 18mo by this method; but the originality of the -method, which he was the first to call stereotype, ended with its name, -for the process had already been discovered by William Ged, a goldsmith -of Edinburgh, in 1725, the first book produced in this manner being an -edition of Sallust, printed in 1744, 8vo, "non typis mobilibus ut vulgo -fieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excudebat." - -This admirably directed house, we may indeed say this school of -typography, formed with Renouard, Claye, Rignoux, and others, the -greater number of the French publishers of the middle of the century. -When the Czar Alexander went to Paris, he wished to do honour to the -greatest French practitioners in the science of printing, in the persons -of the brothers Pierre and Firmin Didot. But these were not the only -ones. The sons of Pierre François, Henri and Pierre François II.--the -latter specially applied himself to paper-making, under the name of -Didot St. Leger--followed in the footsteps of their father and uncle. -Pierre François made at Essones an excellent paper, which he brought to -the perfection of making it in endless rolls, such as are made to-day -for rotary machines. Bernardin de St. Pierre retired to Essones about -the end of the last century, and there married the daughter of Pierre -François II. It is a curious coincidence that the same village contained -at once the man whose works at the beginning of the century had so -extraordinary a success and the great family of printers who had given -definitive impetus to typographical work. It was in this tranquil circle -that the author of "Paul and Virginia," at the age of sixty, sought -repose; that the publication of his book was resolved upon with all the -luxury due to its success, with admirable type and with plates by -Prud'hon and others. He added to it the _Chaumière Indienne_, written in -1790, on the eve of the Terror, which is one of the most delicate novels -of the time. - -The homely and sweet literature of Bernardin de St. Pierre, the heroic -inventions of Girodet, Gerard, and Chaudet in the Greek or Roman style, -the clever but severe typography of the Didots--such is the composition -of the Book at the beginning of the century, and also its avowed -tendency and good taste. Under Louis XV. the nymphs carried panniers; -Polyeucte had peruke and sword. It would be unbecoming not to give Juno -or Venus the head-dress adopted in paintings and vignettes. At the time -which now occupies us fashion in clothing directed designers also. The -hair of goddesses was _à la Titus_; the waist was under the arms; golden -circles were on the brow. Simple mortals walked naked on the roads, -with plumed casques and superb shields. There were heroes putting forth -their disproportioned arms, others raising their eyes to heaven in -impossible attitudes. Such were all the vignettes, from Girodet to the -humblest, the last, the most forgotten. - -It happens, by an oddity of which the cause is vainly sought, that this -classic and revolutionary school of David identifies itself so well with -the Napoleonic epoch, then with the people of the Restoration, that it -seems expressly made for them. At the same time, under Louis XVIII. and -Charles X. the Romans and Greeks had not the bold carriage of their -early days; they became more citizenised, and assumed the air of the -national guards of the kingdom of which later an excessive use was made. - -England also had a splendid series of publishers and printers. From -Boydell, Harding, the Murrays, Fisher; from Bulmer, Bensley, Strahan, -the Whittinghams, and Hansard, to our day, there has been an unbroken -and constantly increasing line of clever, practical men, adorning the -professions to which they devoted their energies, often realising that -fortune which properly directed energies command. In the first half of -the century a vast number of splendidly printed books were issued, -ornamented in the most lavish manner with beautiful illustrations, -engraved on steel or copper plates, and with delicate woodcuts. Book -illustration in England may be said now to have reached perfection. When -the banker-poet Samuel Rogers wished to bring out an illustrated edition -of his works, he employed the two most capable artists of the time, -Thomas Stothard and J. M. W. Turner; and they produced an admirable -series of designs, which were exquisitely engraved by Finden, Goodall, -and Pye. The work was printed by T. Davidson, in two volumes, octavo: -the "Italy" in 1830 and the "Poems" in 1834; these two volumes, from the -perfect harmony of the typography and illustration and their combined -beauty, may be referred to as the perfection of book-making. A very -charming series of volumes is found in the "Annuals," "Keepsakes," -"Amulets," and similar annual publications, illustrated with beautiful -steel plates by the best engravers. The splendidly printed and -illustrated bibliographical works of Dr. T. F. Dibdin may also be -mentioned. They extend to several volumes, and were printed by Bulmer -and his successors Nicoll and T. Bensley, illustrated by engraved plates -and woodcuts by F. C. Lewis and others. H. G. Bohn, besides the fine -series known as "Bohn's Libraries," numbering over six hundred volumes, -in every branch of literature, art, and science, published many finely -illustrated books, and as a bookseller had the largest stock of his day. -Charles Knight did marvels in popularising literature in his day. -William Pickering published a long series of very beautiful books, and -in conjunction with Charles Whittingham, printer, of the far-famed -Chiswick Press, revived the Aldine or old-faced types; one of the most -beautiful of his publications was Sir Harris Nicolas's edition of -Walton's "Angler," in two volumes, imperial octavo, with a very fine set -of steel plates, designed by Stothard and engraved by Augustus Fox and -W. J. Cooke, besides engraved vignettes and representations of fish -drawn by Inskipp. - -In Germany perhaps the most remarkable achievement of the century is the -extraordinary series of volumes of English authors, now (1887) numbering -2,500, issued by Baron Tauchnitz, of Leipzig, which, although eminently -popular in their character, are well and tastefully printed. Among the -most notable of the printing and publishing houses of Germany, many of -them combining the two trades, are J. G. Cotta, dating from 1640; -Breitkopf and Härtel, dating from 1719; Justus Perthes, founded 1796; T. -O. Weigel, 1797; F. A. Brockhaus, 1805; B. G. Teubner, 1811; W. -Drugulin, 1829; J. J. Weber, 1834, etc. Germany has advanced with -England and France in fine typography and illustration in their several -kinds. The modern school of book illustration in Germany undoubtedly has -its origin in the influence given to it by the designs of the artist -Adolph Menzel, amongst which a series of two hundred illustrations to -the works of Frederick the Great, engraved on wood by the Vogels, -Unzelman and Müller, show him to be one of the most powerful and -accurate draughtsmen of the century. - -To return to France, a new literature arose that was to react against -the Greek full of Gallicisms; but the movement, in reversing the ancient -state of things, in wishing to replace antiquity by the Middle Ages, old -Romans by old French, completely changed the physiognomy of the Book. -The engraved vignette and the copper plate of the seventeenth and -eighteenth centuries were to lose their supremacy and to give way to -etching and wood engraving, also a revival of the Middle Ages. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Wood engraving by Clennell after West, for the -diploma of the Highland Society.] - -It is not sufficiently known that wood engraving, after the unfortunate -attempts of Papillon in France, was restored in England by Thomas -Bewick, who founded a school, of which, at the commencement of our -century, Clennell and the brothers Thompson were members. One of the -Thompsons went to France about the middle of the Restoration, doubtless -with the hope of profiting by his art, and he offered to the Print -Department of the National Library the diploma of the Highland Society, -a large folio wood block, very adroit and very curiously cut, after the -drawing of the celebrated Benjamin West, and copied from Clennell's -original block of the same subject. M. Duchesne, then Keeper of the -Prints, speaks of this last process as of an apparition: "This print -makes apparent the long-neglected and often reappearing art of wood -engraving, which, though it could never equal copper engraving, -nevertheless merits the attention of amateurs when a capable hand is -exercised upon it." It was, we see, a curiosity then, this relief -cutting, of which the resurrection was to give an enormous impulse to -the Book from the facilities of printing and the economies realised by -the possibility of intercalation in periodicals. In fact, metal printing -necessitated so much trouble, more for engraving than for the -impression. With wood blocks surrounded by type the ordinary press -sufficed. The _Magasin Pittoresque_, which was commenced in 1833, and -the success of which from the first was very great, was born of these -new combinations. Before it the _Messager Boiteux_ of Strasbourg and -other popular almanacs progressed very well with their illustrations on -wood. A kind of firm of engravers, at the head of which were Best and -Andrew, undertook the illustrations of the _Magasin Pittoresque_. In a -few years progress was immense, other publications came into existence, -and a definitive return was made to the vignette in relief. The French -illustrated paper preceded our _Illustrated London News_ by nine years. - -Lavish use was now made of wood engraving, which had thus been suddenly -revived in the very midst of the new romantic effervescence, amid a war -of books, which, in order to please, had above all to captivate the eye, -reacting at once against the spirit and the art of the Restoration. -Never before had artists to such an extent taken active part in a purely -literary warfare. All the fantastic tendencies of young France were -embodied in the lame and halting lines of the time and similar wretched -doggerel. Doubtless the leaders of the school did not go quite so far, -and their reputation even suffered from such theories; but, as always -happens in such cases, the disciples outstripped their masters. - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Vignette by Devéria for the _Fiancé de la -Tombe_.] - -The brothers Johannot were the first to join in the fray, under the flag -of the poets and others of the romantic school, such as Victor Hugo, De -Vigny, Paul Lacroix, George Sand, and Devéria, most ruthless of -illustrators. The last-named had designed vignettes on wood, of all -others, for Baour-Lormian, that is to say for the foe of the new ideas, -at once the interpreter of Ossian and the bourgeois bard, full of fire -and fury against everything in turn. The _Légendes, Ballades, et -Fabliaux_, illustrated by Devéria in 1829, although a sort of compromise -with the lovesick swains of mediæval times, did not escape the shafts of -ridicule. - -In the midst of this movement the Book became democratic; it was printed -on sugar-paper for reading-rooms and scullery maids. The generation of -romancists diffused its paper-covered works, printing a thousand copies -and selling five hundred with great difficulty. Poets publishing five -hundred were happy with a sale of two hundred and fifty. Unheard-of -titles were then needed to catch the eye, ridiculous and ghastly -frontispieces to tickle the fancy of the riffraff. Paul Lacroix called -himself the "Bibliophile Jacob," and invented surprising headpieces and -foolish designs. And then, as in the fifteenth century, as in the old -times, certain signs become popular with the reading public. In the -place of the Doctrinals, Complaints, and Disputes, so common in the -titles of those epochs, new fancies spring up and have their day. -Eccentric devices recommend romantic trash, in which the assassin's -dagger, blood, and the horrors of the tomb have replaced the insipid -fantasies of the fallen regime. Pétrus Borel, the werewolf, a sort of -historic ghoul prowling about the graveyards, enjoyed a monopoly, as it -were, of the ghastly titles and contents of this charnel-house -literature; it was for his _Champavert_, published in 1833, that Gigoux -composed a kind of Bluebeard surrounded by female skeletons, that opened -the eyes of publishers to his value as a vignettist. - -Although he threw himself soul and body into the romantic movement, the -young artist did not alone design subjects called "abracadabrants," -following the neologism of the time, any more than the booksellers only -published romances. An attempt was made, by publishing them in parts, to -still further popularise the old writers at all harmonising with the -current taste. The publisher Paulin thus issued the _Gil Blas_ of Le -Sage, with illustrations in the text by the younger Gigoux, of which the -best was hoped. The history of this celebrated enterprise has been -written by the artist himself in the curious _Causeries_ published -recently by him, fifty years after his work on Gil Blas; and this -interesting view of an epoch already far distant gives us in a few words -the ordinary economy of these popular impressions in parts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Vignette by John Gigoux for _Gil Blas_.] - -It appears that Paulin, publisher in the Rue de Seine, not being very -well off, had associated himself with a man of business named Dubochet, -who had before made an enormous fortune with gas. The two represented -fifteen thousand to twenty thousand francs, and they ordered a hundred -drawings on wood from the young artist. He set to work with precaution, -for Dubochet was hard to please, without knowing much about the -business, and fined the engravers for the least faults. Gigoux set -himself to give his compositions in simple line, without complicated -shadows, so as to allow the wood-cutters to preserve a free outline. It -was nearly the same thing as the process of the old artists of the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of Vostre and Holbein: true engraving -in relief. The success of the first sheets was extraordinary; new -vignettes were ordered from Gigoux; in place of a hundred they wanted -three hundred, then four hundred; then at the end of the work they -counted six hundred at least. Money filled the chests of the firm, but -when the artist claimed a small share of the benefits, they laughed in -his face. - -Properly speaking, it was the first serious attempt at illustration by -the recovered method of engraving in relief, but it was not the only -one. Curmer, the publisher of the Rue Richelieu, prepared a Bible in -1835 and several other volumes, among which were the "Paul and Virginia" -and the _Chaumière Indienne_ of Bernardin de St. Pierre. He had also -collected around him a circle of artists that included Wattier, Devéria, -and Meissonier, who was the most perfect and correct of the designers on -wood. Meissonier designed very soberly, without effects of light, little -scenes admirably cut by an engraver named Lavoignat, a master in the -largest sense of the word. Curmer wrote in 1835 in the preface to one of -his books, "We hope we have raised a monument to wood engraving. It is -easy to judge of the resources presented by this art. We are compelled -to have recourse to England to accomplish our work. Peace to willing -publishers!" - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Vignette by Daumier for the _Cholera à Paris_.] - -Curmer acknowledges the importance of English specialists in this new -process for vignettes, and the willing publishers were not wanting; they -came from all parts. He himself did not stop on the way; he continued -his work on a large scale; and Charles Blanc was able to say of him -later, as well as of Furne, "He desired to illustrate books for -everybody, as the great booksellers of the last century had illustrated -their rare editions for a small number of privileged persons." But he -did not always confine himself to wood engraving; he also employed -etching and lithography. These, requiring separate printing, did not -make intercalation with the text any easier than engraving with the -burin; but they served to illustrate periodicals, the _Charivari_ and -_L'Artiste_, as well as some books, where they replaced the engraved -plates of the preceding century. At the same time, the latter process -was not altogether neglected; about 1840 it was revived, and steel was -used in place of copper, as it better resisted repeated impressions. The -publisher Furne, while he employed wood engraving, adorned with separate -plates on steel his better publications. For him worked Raffet, one of -the romanticists enamoured of the Napoleonic epic, which he had -popularised, with Charlet and Bellangé, by the pencil, wood, and -lithography. Raffet had transferred upon wood, as if in play, the three -hundred and fifty-one vignettes of the _Histoire de Napoléon_, by De -Norvins, which would to-day suffice for the glory and reputation of many -artists. In fact, the analytical and inductive spirit of the artist led -him to leave nothing to the chances of inspiration and commonplace of -illustration. He laboriously reconstituted, fragment by fragment, the -physiognomy of the "old army;" and imbued with the perfect science of -detail, he allowed his pencil full play in bold and luminous inventions, -where may be seen again, with their peculiar appearance, the heroes of -other days, the soldiers of the Rhine and Italy, of Austerlitz and -Waterloo. - -A truly lively period was that of 1840, a living and unthinking -generation. By the side of those great artists of whom we have spoken, -and who will be more admired some day, there were the fantasists Traviès -and Daumier, who adorned the illustrated journals with innumerable -sketches, and Grandville and Gavarni, one caricaturing animals in a -celebrated book, _Les Animaux Peints par Eux-mêmes_, which is more than -a _chef-d'oeuvre_; the other coolly studying the vices and faults of -his time, with the precision of an anatomist, in _Les Anglais Peints par -Eux-mêmes_ of Labedollière, in the _Diable à Paris_, without counting a -thousand other works which his penetrating imagination produced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Vignette by Gavarni for _Paris Marié_.] - -Presently photography came, which was to reverse completely the -conditions of illustration of the Book by the numerous means of -reproduction to which it gave birth. Then wood engraving entered on a -new phase, a complete transformation of its ordinary terms, under the -influence of Gustave Doré. Little by little it had been attempted to -render in relief that which engraved plates only had hitherto done. -Black, half-tints, lowered tones, were tried where formerly a simple -line, bold and spirited, signified everything. The house of Hachette, -founded by one of the normal teachers of the liberal movement, at the -beginning of the century, was, together with Lahure, the promoter of -relief so inclusive and practical. The numerous periodicals of these -publishers spread the taste afar. England, for its part, entered on the -road, followed by America and Germany. To-day wood engravings have -reached perfection, finesse, and suppleness; but they are not, properly -speaking, engravings on wood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Balzac writing his _Contes Drôlatiques_. -Vignette by Gustave Doré.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Wood block by Bewick, from his "Fables," 1818. -The fox and the goat.] - -We have seen that French publishers were largely indebted to English -wood engravers for their blocks. The school that was established by -Bewick and his pupils made enormous progress. From the "Fables," -published in 1818, we reproduce an illustration as also a specimen from -the second volume of the "British Birds." Luke Clennell was one of the -most distinguished of Bewick's pupils; and he made some excellent -blocks, among them the illustrations to an edition of Rogers's "Poems" -(1812), engraved from pen-and-ink drawings by Thomas Stothard. It was -Stothard's opinion that wood engraving best reproduced pen-and-ink -drawings. Other pupils of Bewick were J. Jackson, John Thompson, who -engraved Harvey's beautiful illustrations to Milton and Henderson's -"History of Wines," S. Williams, Orrin Smith, Robert Branston, and C. -Nesbit. The most prolific and perhaps the most popular book-illustrator -of the century in England, was George Cruikshank, who engraved most of -his own designs on wood, steel, or with the etching needle; the -catalogue of his works by Mr. G. W. Reid, formerly keeper of the Prints -in the British Museum, occupies three quarto volumes. The designs of -"Phiz," as H. K. Browne called himself, largely contributed to the -popularity of the works of Charles Dickens; and the mere mention of -Richard Doyle and John Leech will recall the palmy days of _Punch_, -although both of these artists did excellent work in book illustration. -From the days of the Bewicks to the present wood engraving has formed -the most widely used means of illustration in England and the United -States. Its adaptability to the printing machine renders it admirably -suited to the production of books in large numbers and at low expense. -Without it we could not have our _Graphics_ and _Illustrated News_, nor -the floods of cheap but splendidly illustrated magazines which are -appearing on both sides of the Atlantic. True, many of these blocks are -due to the "processes" which photography has made available, but they -are nevertheless the outcome of wood engraving. We cannot leave this -subject without mentioning the admirable "Treatise on Wood Engraving," -by W. A. Chatto, with numerous illustrations, published originally by H. -G. Bohn in 1839 and since reprinted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Wood block from Bewick's "British Birds." The -common duck.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Wood engraving by Clennell, after Stothard, -for Rogers's Poems, 1812.] - -In our days the great Paris publishers have returned to the books of the -eighteenth century, ornamented with vignettes on copper; many of them -purely and simply imitate by photographic processes the pretty editions -of Eisen and Moreau, but they do not merit the name which they bear. As -to those whose specialty is handsome books with figures by contemporary -artists, those who always are in the front, as the Mames, Quantins, -Hachettes, Plons, Jouausts, of France; the Longmans, Murrays, -Macmillans, Kegan Pauls, Cassells, and Chattos of England; the Harpers, -Scribners, Lippincotts, and Houghtons of the United States, they are to -us what the ancients of whom we have spoken were to their -contemporaries. Now the processes of illustration are without number: -wood, metal, heliogravure, phototype, and others. And if the mechanical -means, if the heliogravures, have at present the importance claimed, -they by no means add to the intrinsic value of wood engravings, but to -the rapidity and economy of their manufacture. The Book, the true Book, -has nothing to do with all these inventions, and may well confine itself -to the burin or the relief block. - -But as regards the Book, properly so called, it never was the object of -more excessive care or of more unfortunate precipitation. It may be -remarked that works least destined to live in the libraries, those -thousands of lame pamphlets on questions of small provincial erudition -or the cap-and-sword romances, are ordinarily the best and most -carefully printed, in opposition to other more important works composed -in heads of nails and on worn-out paper. There are in reading-rooms a -good number of pamphlets that will not be found in fifty years, and will -be worth their weight in banknotes, even if dirty and tattered, on -account of their intrinsic value. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -TYPES, IMPRESSION, PAPER, INK. - - -After this summary, and necessarily very compressed, sketch of the -general history of the Book, it will not be without importance to place -some technical information before the reader, to explain as clearly as -possible the function of the presses, the practical side of typography, -from the engraving of the character and the founding of types up to the -binding, taking by the way composition, impression, and collation. Many -of these operations have been already sketched in the preceding part of -our work; we have spoken of engraving of the punch, of impression, of -the thousand details that constitute the typographic art, and the -knowledge of which is so little diffused. We return to it now, with more -method, on the different subjects, and shall try to point out the -principal features. - -We have seen in our first chapter what patient researches the discovery -necessitated for the Mayence printers in the founding of the character -in matrix. True, the punch and the matrix had existed from time -immemorial for coins and seals. To engrave in relief a punch of -material hard enough to strike a resisting metal, and to run into the -space obtained by this blow a melted alloy, which took at its extremity -the same form as the punch had given, is, in a few words, the whole -economy of the process. For the engraving of the punches a sort of burin -of tempered steel was used, which scooped out the part intended to -remain white in the letter. - -From the beginning the printers themselves engraved their own -characters. The most ancient, whose constant preoccupation was the -imitation of manuscript, copied the Gothic letter of ordinary writing. -Soon afterwards, Jenson, the French refugee at Venice, designed a round -letter, like that of Sweynheim and Pannartz, the Roman publishers, in -1467; and his type, absolutely perfect, is used to this day. - -In France the introducers of the invention in Paris also imitated the -Roman, but multiplied abbreviations until they became tedious. We can -imagine what the engraving of a character could be where so few letters -stood alone, where lines abridged the nasals; the words _pro_, _pre_, -figured as in manuscripts; the sign 9 signified _cum_ or _con_ in Latin -or French words, without reckoning a thousand other rigorous usages. -This truly perplexing profusion of signs as well as the want of -precision and clearness in the letter enables us now to recognise the -first Parisian _incunabula_.[A] - -[Footnote A: See above, figs. 10, 11, 12.] - -The first English printers used Gothic or black letter. Caxton brought -his first fount from Cologne, but that which he made afterwards for -himself was of the same character. Wynkyn de Worde, Pynson, and their -successors used the same style; and for official publications and Bibles -the black letter was used up to the seventeenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Type-founder in the middle of the sixteenth -century. Engraving by Jost Amman.] - -But the art of the founder-engraver was destined to specialise itself. -There were artisans in this branch, and among them in France, in the -fifteenth century, Simon de Collines, who engraved good Roman characters -about 1480. Later was Claude Garamond, of Paris, who died about 1561, a -pupil of Geoffroy Tory, the most celebrated of all of them; Tory -definitely proscribed the Gothic character, of which Vostre and Verard -had made constant use. Garamond worked in this way, producing with -microscopical precision new letters, among others those of Robert -Estienne, the most marvellous and the most distinct. It was he who was -charged by Francis I. to form the celebrated royal Greek types. He -assisted in getting up the _Champfleury_ of Geoffroy Tory. - -On his death William Lebé succeeded him, and inherited his punches. Lebé -engraved by preference Hebrew characters, of which he made a specialty. -His travels to Rome and Venice had given him a singular value in his -art; and when he died about the end of the century, he was incontestably -the first cutter of Oriental characters in the whole world. Philip II. -of Spain had begged him to engrave the letters of the Bible of which -Plantin had undertaken the impression, and Francis I. had charged him to -make types for the Estiennes. - -At the commencement of the seventeenth century we find James Sanlecque, -pupil of Lebé, and his son. During this period several women succeeded -their husbands as type-founders. In the eighteenth century Philip -Grandjean, an artist who was royal printer to Louis XIV., was keeper of -the foundry afterwards united, in 1725, to the Royal Printing House; -Fournier succeeded the Lebés, then P. S. Fournier the younger, who -engraved with great success. In our days we have seen above the Didots -themselves working their punches; and one of them, Henri, founded -microscopical characters for a La Rochefoucauld about the middle of the -nineteenth century. - -We have referred to English type-founders of the eighteenth century in -Chapter V. - -The type, or character used in printing, is a composition of lead and -pure antimony, which, melted, form a resisting and at the same time -supple mixture. Lead alone would be crushed, and the first printers -often suffered in making their experiments. The proportion of the -mixture is four of lead to one of antimony. - -The matrix is combined in such manner that the _eye_--that is to say, -the part of the character intended to produce the impression--and also -the shank intended to hold the letter are cast together. - -The letters, once founded according to their different forms, are -afterwards disposed in boxes with compartments, or "cases." These cases -serve to classify the character by letters, italics, capitals, lower -case, punctuations, accents, etc. - -As we have said, the relation of letters among themselves in the -composition of a language is called the "fount." For example, it is -certain that the Italian employs the letter _a_ more than _b_, the -letter _a_ appearing in nearly every word; a compositor to compose in -this language should therefore have more of _a_ than of _b_. The -relation between these two letters and all the others is the "fount." In -French the proportion of a fount is about 5,000 _a_ for 800 _b_, 3,000 -_c_, 3,000 _d_, 11,000 _e_, etc. The fount varies with the languages. In -English the proportion is 8,500 _a_ to 1,600 _b_, 3,000 _c_, 4,400 _d_, -etc. - -Before 1789 there were in all twenty different "bodies" of letters that -bore fantastic names. The "Parisienne" was the smallest size, and the -"Grosse Nonpareille" the largest. In the sixteenth century a character -called "Civilité" was invented. It sought to imitate fine cursive -writing. In the last century this idea was reproduced, and the "Bâtarde -Coulée," which did not have great success, was made. In English types, -Joseph Moxon in 1669 had eleven sizes; Caslon in 1734 had thirty-eight. - -[Illustration: Specimen of imposition] - -When a printer wishes to compose a work, he first decides in which body -he will print it. His choice made, he places in the compositors' -"cases"--that is, in the boxes placed before each one of his -workmen--the chosen character, with its italics, capitals, signs, etc. -Then he gives them the "copy," that is to say the manuscript of the -author to be reproduced. The compositors take a "galley" according to -the size of the book; and, letter by letter, by running their fingers -through the different cases, they place side by side the words -laboriously composed, and necessarily presenting their reverse, so that -they will show their proper face when printed. - -The composition terminated, the process of "imposition" takes place. -This is the disposition by pages in an iron chase, in such manner that -the sheet of paper shall be printed on both sides, the pages exactly -following one another. - -It will be seen by the specimen on the preceding page that if the two -sheets be brought together, page 2 of II. will fall exactly opposite -page 1 of I, page 7 opposite page 8, and so on. Nothing is easier than -this combination for folio, quarto, or octavo sizes, but as the smaller -sizes are multiplied even to 128mo, tables are necessary to prevent -error. - -The imposition is completed by building up the composition in a chase by -means of pieces of metal called "furniture," which regulate the margins. -When the whole is in proper place, it is squeezed up and adjusted by -means of sunk reglets. The chase may now be placed under the press -without fear of the characters falling out or getting mixed. - -A pressman takes a "proof" after having rubbed the relief of the -characters with ink, and on this proof are corrected the author's or -compositor's faults by indications in the margin by understood signs. By -this amended proof the compositor amends his faults one by one: leaves -out superfluous characters, puts turned characters straight, spaces or -draws closer the lines, etc. - -The corrections finished, the time has come to print. In the time of -Geoffroy Tory this operation was made as we shall explain; it was the -same before and the same after. Two pressmen have tempered with water -the tympan, or more elastic part of the carriage, against which will be -directed in good time the blow from the type; they have also damped the -paper intended for the impression, so that it may retain the greasy ink -with which the characters are charged; then the formes are washed before -putting them under the press. - -In the figure which we reproduce, which dates from about 1530, we see -the workshop of Jodocus Badius, of Asch, father-in-law of two celebrated -printers, Vascosan and Robert Estienne. The press rolls--that is to say, -the formes--have been placed in the "carriage," or movable chase, which, -coming forward, receives the sheet of paper and the ink, and returns -under the press to receive the blow of the "bar." In the room, lighted -by two windows, the compositors work. In front one works at the bar, -while his comrade distributes the ink on the "balls." These balls are -leather pads, on which the greasy ink, made of lampblack and oil, is -spread, to more easily rub the forme after each blow. Ordinarily the -inker had two functions: he prepared the ink, distributed it, and kept -his eye on the printed sheets to correct faults, blots, and difference -of tint. Here the workman is simply occupied by the balls. Printed -sheets and prepared paper are on a table by the side of the press. This -press is composed of the rolling chase, the tympan, and the "frisket," a -smaller tympan, which work against one another. The tympan, we have said -above, receives directly the blow. And it was so for nearly four -centuries; the mechanical means of our days have a little changed the -work, but the principle is always the same. - -[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Mark of Jodocus Badius of Asch, representing -the interior of a printing office about 1535. Engraving _à la croix de -Lorraine_.] - -Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a press cost about a hundred -and twenty-seven crowns, with its diverse utensils, as may be seen in an -unpublished piece analysed by Dr. Giraudet, of Tours, in a very -interesting pamphlet: _Une Association d'Imprimeurs et de Libraires de -Paris Réfugiés à Tours au XVI^e Siècle_. The workshop of Jamet Métayer, -of Tours, cost a rent of eighty-three crowns--about twenty pounds of -current money. - -Workmen were then paid by the "day;" and it came to be one of the -expressions then so much used in manual labour, corresponding to the sum -of the least work of a good workman. M. Ladevèze, printer, thought that -the "day" represented the work of about twenty thousand Roman or Cicero -letters employed by a compositor. - -With us the "day" of compositors and pressmen is differently calculated. -The latter have to take a certain number of sheets. - -The sheet, composition and press work, cost nearly seven crowns, or -nearly two pounds. Jamet Métayer paid twenty crowns for four sheets in -Italics; he demanded three months for the work. - -The primitive presses were wooden screw presses, and they so remained -until the beginning of this century, when Lord Stanhope, a celebrated -electrician, author, and politician, perfected them and gave his name to -a new machine. His improvement consisted in that the bar was no longer -fixed to the vice, but to a cylinder outside. A counter-weight brought -back the platen at each blow. Pierre Didot had previously made metal -platens. In 1820 the use of the Stanhope press commenced in France. - -England had, besides, taken a preponderating place in typographical -invention. The printer of the _Times_, John Walter, at the beginning of -the nineteenth century, seeking to publish his journal quicker, -associated himself with craftsmen who constructed mechanical presses for -him. The Didots lost no time, and themselves made improvements. - -In 1848, the presses of the _Constitutionnel_, thanks to the application -of steam, produced twenty thousand papers an hour. In our time there are -machines that print only on one side, as well as double machines, -printing both sides at once. The rotary machines, with endless paper, -take thirty-five thousand impressions an hour. In the newspaper machines -of Marinoni, the great inventor, the paper is unrolled, printed, cut, -and folded without leaving the machine, and falls into a place from -which it is taken ready for the subscriber. The latest perfection of the -printing press is the Walter press and the rotary machine of R. Hoe and -Co., of New York, extensively used throughout the world. The elaborate -book has little to do with these marvellous processes, although in its -turn it largely benefits by the improvement of the printing machine. - -It is apart from our purpose to speak at length on the manufacture of -paper. It is certain that it was well made before the invention of -printing, for most of the accounts of the fifteenth century are written -on linen paper, very resisting and well sized. Later on rags were used -in this manufacture; and here, in a few words, is how paper was made in -the mould, or "hand-made" before the invention of machinery for the -purpose:-- - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Paper-making. Workman engaged on the tub with -the frame of wires. Engraving by Jost Amman.] - -The rags, having been thoroughly cleansed, were put into vats, where -they were worked up under a beating press until they were reduced to -pulp. This pulp was thrown into hot water and stirred until the mixture -was uniformly made. Then a mould of fine wire cloth, fixed upon a wooden -frame, and having a "deckle" to determine the size of the sheet, was -taken; in the middle of this frame was disposed, also in brass wire, a -factory mark, intended to appear in white in the sheet of paper, and -called the "water mark." This mould was dipped into the vat of pulp and -drawn out again. After gently shaking it to and fro in a horizontal -position, the fibres of the pulp became so connected as to form one -uniform fabric; and the water escaped through the wires. The deckle was -then removed from the mould, and the sheet of paper turned off upon a -felt, in a pile with many others, a felt intervening between each sheet, -and the whole subjected to great pressure, in order to absorb the -superfluous water. After being dried and pressed without the felts, the -sheets were dipped into a tub of size and again pressed to remove -surplus size. This primitive method of paper-making is represented in -fig. 104, and the same principle is still in use for the production of -hand-made paper. Machinery has effected many improvements and economies -in the production of woven paper. - -China and Japan have their special paper manufacture. In Japan the -material employed is the bark of the _morus papifera sativa_. - -[Illustration: Balance used by Jenson, at Venice.] - -According to their fineness, size, and weight, papers have received -different names, proceeding from the water mark. - -Faust at Mayence used paper marked with a bull's head. Jenson at Venice -used a balance of which the form varied. This latter came from a mill -which furnished Vicenza, Perugia, and Rome. Jenson used, besides a -crown, a cardinal's hat. - -The bull's head underwent transformations, it had stars and roses, and -was special to Germany, and it may sometimes be found in Italy. - -The wires and bridges served to determine the size of a book. Looking at -a folio leaf against the light, the wires will be seen to be -horizontal, and the bridges vertical. In quarto they will be reversed, -the paper having been folded in four instead of in two. The bridges -become horizontal. They return to the vertical in octavo, and so on. - -As for ink, it was from the beginning a composition of lampblack and oil -of different quality and nature, mixed with resin to obtain a greater -and quicker dryness. Ink for engravings was more carefully made. For -coloured inks various powders are mixed with the oil and resin, and a -title in red and black has to go through the press twice: once for the -red and once for the black. - -From the above it can be understood that illustrations in relief can -easily be introduced into the composition, whether in combination with -text or in separate pages. Another question presents itself: Did the old -printers employ casting, or did they print directly from the wood block -itself? In other words, the block having been cut, did they make with it -a mould into which melted metal could be poured to obtain a more -resistant relief? The fact is difficult to elucidate. It appears to-day -that Simon Vostre, Verard, and others printed relief engravings on -metal, but were they cut directly or obtained by casting, as they are -now? It cannot be determined yet. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -BOOKBINDING. - - The binding of the first printed books--Ancient German - bindings--Binding in the time of Louis XII.--Italian - bindings--Aldus--Maioli--Grolier--Francis I.--Henri II. and Diane - de Poitiers--Catherine de Medicis--Henri III.--The Eves--The - "fanfares"--Louis XIII.--Le Gascon--Florimond Badier--Louis - XIV.--Morocco leathers--Cramoisy--The bindings of the time of Louis - XIV.--The regency--Pasdeloup--The - Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesné--The nineteenth - century--English binders--Roger Payne--Francis Bedford. - - -Leading the reader now towards the final perfection of the Book: -printing, which had stirred up and reversed so many things, created, so -to speak, the art of binding. Previously the binder was simply a workman -sewing together the leaves of a manuscript, with no science or device -but to clasp the whole together solidly with cord and string. As luxury -increased the old binder was no longer thought of. On the wooden boards -which closed the Book, jewellers encrusted their wares, lavishing ivory -and precious stones to the taste of the amateur or the bookseller. -Generally these works covered books of precious miniatures, the -_Horoe_, or manuscripts that were deemed worthy of such magnificent -clothing, rarely copies without importance. Printing at once disordered -the tribe of copyists as well as the binders did jewellers. The demand -increasing, rich bindings were soon abandoned, and each bookseller -applied himself to the work, or at least covered in his own house books -intended for sale. The fashion was not then to expose for sale, as now, -unbound books. Purchasers wanted an article easy to handle, and which -they were not obliged to return for ulterior embellishment. - -So to the public were presented the works laboriously composed by -Gutenberg, Schoeffer, and Fust, somewhat after the manner of -manuscripts, which they pretended to imitate, with their solid wooden -boards covered with pig or calfskin. At the four corners, copper nails, -with large heads, prevented rubbing against the shelves of the bookcase, -for at that time books were ranged on their sides, and not as they are -to-day. We must return to the bibliomaniac of the "Ship of Fools" to get -an idea of these depositories; before him may be seen ranged on a desk -large folios, with nails on their sides, in the shelves, so defying the -dust, in place of being placed upright on their edges, which rendered -them liable to spots and stains. (See fig. 23.) - -Unhappily the wooden sides had in themselves a germ of destruction, the -worm, capable first of reducing the sides to powder and then ravaging -the body of the work, the ligatures and cords. Certain preparations -destroy the insect, but the precaution often has no effect, and it is -thus that the disappearance of volumes formerly so abundant, but almost -impossible to find now, may be explained. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Bookbinder's shop in the sixteenth century. -Engraving by Jost Amman.] - -From the beginning the operations of the binder were what they still -are, except for improvements. They consist in the collation of the -sheets of a book, folding them, beating them to bring them together and -give them cohesion, and sewing them, first together, then on the cords -or strings, which form the five or six bands seen on the backs. -Primitively these cords were united to the wooden boards, and over both -was placed a resistant skin, on which from relief or metal engravings -were struck the most pleasing decorative subjects. Pigskin, white and -fine, lent itself, especially among the Germans, to these fine -editions; and although they were issued in great number, the wooden -boards have not permitted them all to exist in our time. - -The most ancient that we are able to cite are German works of the time -of Louis XI.; they are very strong and coarse. The cords in them form an -enormous and massive projection. The inside of the board was often -without lining of paper or stuff. In the case of fine editions a sombre -velvet was sometimes used, such as Verard used to bind the books of the -father of Francis I., as we have before said. - -Art did not enter into these works of preservation until about the end -of the fifteenth century, with arms and emblems. At the beginning of the -sixteenth century, some bindings were ornamented for Louis XII. and the -Queen, Anne de Bretagne; but not more than five or six specimens remain. -They are of coarse aspect. The workman who tooled the binding here -reproduced from the curious example of M. Dutuit, of Rouen, has thrown -his subjects one upon another. Arms, porcupines, ermines, are treated so -as to be confusing, and form a medley that is not pleasing. In recalling -the delightful borders of Vostre and Pigouchet, contemporaries of this -mediocre work, it is astonishing to see the degree of inferiority -reached by a profession that should be inspired by graceful subjects of -decoration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Binding for Louis XII. Collection of M. -Dutuit, of Rouen.] - -It happened that France again found in Italy masters capable of -revealing secrets of composition and arrangement to enable her to strike -out a new road. The Italian wars would not have had these artistic -results if it had not been for the enormous sums that they swallowed up. -The curious part of the enterprise was that a war treasurer, a -financier, employed by the French kings in these expeditions, through -his relations of taste and friendship with the Alduses of Venice, -brought to France the love of sumptuous bindings, of editions superbly -clothed. He was named Jean Grolier, that bibliophile of the sixteenth -century, who was, above all others, even King Francis, the first to -appreciate the art of binding. It is not too much to say art, for if -better had not been done before, it may safely be said that nothing -better has been done since; and the books of Grolier remain as the most -perfect and most admirable types of this kind of decoration. - -Born of an Italian family established at Lyons, where most of his -relatives did a great business, Jean Grolier had the good fortune to -succeed his father, Stephen Grolier, treasurer of the Duke of Milan. He -became in his turn Minister of Finances, and was called to accompany the -kings in their expeditions in Italy. The situation of the treasurers -during these campaigns was important; they handled the pence levied with -great trouble in the cities of France "for making war." Many abused -their trust, and were punished, and among others the Lallemants, whom -documents show us to have been in connection with Grolier, and who -suffered, with Semblançay, the most terrible trials of the time. - -Italian art gave then a free course in the decoration of books. Of the -interior we have spoken in our first chapters on the wood engravings; -for the exterior, the cover of the volume, foliage, golden flowers -worked with a hot iron, and polychromatic compartments obtained by -coloured pastes were multiplied. Thus was produced on the outside that -which it was not sought to obtain on the inside, the variation of tints -so select among the Italians, and so forsaken since the invention of -printing. In the midst of these literary men was a lover of books and -fine connoisseur who, not content with choosing the best editions, such -as those of Ferrara, Venice, and Basle, bound them superbly, with -compartments of admirable tone, and had his name and device inscribed on -the sides in the fashion of the time. He was named Thomas Maioli, and -following the custom of the amateurs of the time, he offered the -enjoyment of his library to his friends. "Tho. Maioli et amicorum," he -inscribed, as did later Grolier, as also did others, but he somewhat -modified the enthusiasm of his friendship by a sceptical device, -"Ingratis servire nephas," which might very well be the cry of the owner -of books betrayed by his borrowers. - -Maioli did not alone use these devices; he had also a macaronic phrase -of which the sense is not very clear: "Inimici mei mea michi, non me -michi." He also sometimes used his monogram, which was composed of all -the letters of his name. - -The relations of Grolier with this unknown and mysterious bibliophile, -whose name is not always found outside his volumes, are not doubtful. -Brunet possessed a volume that had belonged to Maioli and had passed -through the hands of Grolier. What better proof could be wished of the -communion of ideas and tastes between the two collectors? - -But these amateurs were not alone. Beside them were princes and great -lords, lay and ecclesiastic. From the commencement of the sixteenth -century bookbinding had received an enormous impulse from the tastes and -the predilections for these lofty fancies. And it cannot be ascribed to -the simple skill of the workmen experimenting in that line. In the -century that saw Italian artists occupied in making designs for mounted -plates and painting beautiful ladies, the courtesans of Venice could not -be alarmed at finding them painting models for bindings, with -compartments of varied tone and style. Maioli affected white on a dark -background, that is to say on a background of dark leather. He made -scrolls of foliage in white or clear paste with a very happy effect. - -This was the time when Grolier travelled in Italy, in the suite of the -French, and when he began his collections. He had adopted as his -heraldic emblem the gooseberry bush, which in French came very near to -his name--_groseillier_; and his motto was "Nec herba nec arbor" -("Neither tree nor herb"), explicative of the moderation of his wealth. -He was soon in connection with the Alduses, and through them with the -principal learned men and binders of the time, for it was not in the -offices of the Manutiuses that could be found workmen, like those of the -Chamber of Accounts in France, obliged to swear that they did not know -how to read. The master was not hindered by details of difference of -language, and it followed that his workmen understood Greek and Latin, -for he often gave them instruction in those languages. How far off these -erudite and conscientious workmen appear to-day! - -Following the fashion, Grolier put his name on the upper side of his -books--"Jo. Grolierii et amicorum"--in gold letters, and on the other -side a pious motto, the sense of which was a hope often uttered by the -financiers of the sixteenth century, imprisoned and hung every instant: -"Portio mea, Domine, sit in terra viventium." Generally all the Grolier -books which came from the Alduses have the name on the upper side and -the motto on the other side; the title was placed above the name, and -often disposed in rows. Some large volumes had the cover ornamented with -an architectural design, like the Jamblichus of the Libri collection, -which had on the front the façade of a temple, with the title in rows on -the door. This volume was printed by Aldus in 1516, and probably -decorated by him for the account of the great French amateur. - -Jean Grolier is said to have himself designed some of the subjects of -his ornaments, and their perfection indicates an active and enlightened -supervision. On his return to France, where he had a house near the -Porte de Bucy, he was put in relation with Geoffroy Tory, the artist -best fitted to understand him, and who was at once painter, engraver, -printer, and binder. It was there that, in the leisure of his financial -functions, between two projects of revictualling the forts of Outre -Seine and Yonne, Grolier invented combinations, sought interlacings, and -laid out foliage. Tory himself teaches us these works in combination. He -invented antique letters for Grolier, he tells us in his _Champfleury_. -It was for him, too, that he interwove so finely his compartments for -binding, and that he reproduced the delightful ornaments of his books of -hours in golden scrolls. - -As we have said, Grolier placed his titles on the sides of his books on -account of the arrangement of the works on the shelves of the library -where they were laid. For this reason also the back was neglected, and -no ornament used upon it; thick and heavy with its projecting bands, -without decoration between the bands, this part of the bound volume was -a kind of waste in a splendidly cultivated garden. The profusion of -books brought about a revolution. There was no longer room to place on -their sides the innumerable books that were produced; they were then -placed on their edges, as now, and the back also was decorated. For this -the bands were made to disappear, and replaced by decorative subjects in -compartments like the sides. Then with Grolier the bands reappeared, and -the title was placed between them, as it still is. - -The books of Grolier have been divided, according to their production, -in four or five principal classes, in which they may always be placed. -First were the works ornamented in compartments, gilt, with scrolls in -full gold; then the same with the scrolls _azurés_, that is to say -equally gilt, but having parallel lines like the _azure_ of heraldry. -Following comes the school of Geoffroy Tory, with gilt compartments in -the style of the great French decorator; last the polychromatic -bindings, in which, by the aid of colour or mastic, the alternating -tones are mixed. Grolier also had some mosaic bindings, composed of -little pieces of leather connected by incrustation or paste, pure -Italian bindings; but these were not numerous, especially if compared -with those conceived in the manner of Geoffroy Tory. - -One of these latter works is here reproduced from one of the beautiful -books in the collection of M. Dutuit. This copy has the back flat, and -the interlacings of the decoration are most complicated and clever. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Binding for Grolier in the collection of M. -Dutuit.] - -Grolier got his Levant moroccos through the dealers of Venice, to make -sure of the material he employed. - -Born in 1479, the Treasurer-general of Outre Seine lived until 1565. In -1563 an original manuscript shows him much occupied with finance at over -eighty-four years of age; but his passion for bindings had cooled down, -for few books signed with his name are found the manufacture of which -could descend to the son of Henri II. After great trials, after having -seen Semblançay suffer at Montfaucon, John Lallemand beheaded, and -himself having come nearly to losing life and fortune at one blow, -Grolier passed away quietly in his house, having collected most of the -fine books of the time and many curious medals. Christopher de Thou, his -friend and _confrère_ in the love of books, had saved his reputation -before the Parliament of Paris. After his death his library was -transported to the Hotel de Vic, and from there dispersed in 1675, a -hundred years after. - -Thus from Italian art came French binding, still remaining original. The -kings did not fail to follow the movement, and even to anticipate it, -thanks to the means at their disposal. We have seen Francis I. at work -with the energy of an artisan at least; but Geoffroy Tory was his -principal inspirer, and who knows but that he was the chief operative -for the prince, as for the great financier? - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Binding for Francis I., with the arms of -France and the salamander.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Mark of Guyot Marchant, printer and -bookbinder. He published the _Danse Macabre_ of 1485.] - -We have said that Louis XII. knew nothing of fine bindings. During his -travels in Italy he had received presentation copies of magnificently -covered books, and among others that of _Faustus Andrelinus_, that was -bound in calf in honour of the King. He, who was so little expert in -fine arts, purchased the entire library of the Sire de la Gruthuse, -and substituted his own emblems for those of the high and mighty lord. -Francis I., with innate sentiment for masterpieces and the powerful -protection he had given them, did not allow the experiments of Grolier -to pass unnoticed. The King did not desire to be behind the treasurer, -and the workmen were put to the task. He adopted the salamander, which -emblem he used on his castles and furniture and the liveries of his -people; he lavished it also on the sides of his books. On the side the -"F" is often seen crowned, then the emblem of France and the collar of -St. Michael. In the binding of which a facsimile is here given, Geoffroy -Tory has singularly inspired the gilder, if he did not himself make the -design. For it must not be thought that this work is done at a single -blow by means of an engraved plate or a block. On the contrary, every -line is impressed by the hot tool that the workman applies by hand to -the gold laid on in advance, making it, so to speak, enter into the skin -or morocco. There is the art; blocks serve only for commercial bindings, -quickly impressed and intended for ordinary purchasers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Binding for Henri II., with the "H" and -crescents.] - -Under the reign of Francis I. the binders were the booksellers, as -Verard and Vostre were. The King was ordinarily served by a publisher -named Pierre Roffet, and he frequently figures in accounts that have -been preserved. Roffet not only bound, but it appears that he rebound -books to patterns which the King desired. Philip Lenoir and Guyot -Marchant were also royal workmen. The latter, whose mark is here -reproduced, frequently added to it the saints Crispin and Crispinian, -patrons of the leather-dressers, who prepared the leather for the -binder. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Binding for Henri II. (Mazarine Library)] - -The discoveries of Grolier did not allow the binders much time to be -idle. Thousands of volumes were then destroyed to make the boards for -sides. From this many discoveries are made in our days by pulling to -pieces sixteenth century work, unknown playing cards, and early printed -works. To mention only one example, twenty leaves of the "Perspective" -of Viator were discovered in the National Library of Paris. The board -thus formed was covered indifferently with sheepskin, parchment, calf, -morocco, or goatskin; the books were sewn on raised or sunk bands, -according to the owner's taste; the edges were gilt, sometimes -gauffered, and designs often impressed upon them to match those of the -sides. In large folios wooden boards were still used, more solid, and -protected from rubbing by nails in relief. But the inside of the cover -was as yet only covered with paper. Leather linings were very uncommon. - -The reign of Henri II. increased yet more the importance of bindings; it -was the time when Grolier collected, and clever artists came from all -parts. Geoffroy Tory had given the best models for letters and -interlacings. The Queen, Catherine, derived from her parents the taste -for decoration in gold and colours, and patronised the artists called by -her from the court of Florence; and the favourite, Diane de Poitiers, -Duchess of Valentinois, rivalled her in luxury and expenditure. Henri -II. in the decoration of his castles, as well as his books, introduced -equivocal emblems, of which the signification may be doubtful, but those -of his mistress may be recognised, not those of the legitimate Queen. He -interlaced two reversed "D's" by an "H," in the form shown in the border -on the preceding page. Strictly speaking, we ought to see there two -"C's" back to back; but as we find the "D" on all the bindings -displaying the arms of Diana, there can be no doubt, and Queen Catherine -doubted less than anybody. Other emblems of Diana are to be found in the -arcs and crescents that are plentifully displayed. The library of Diana -was large, owing to the King not hesitating to take valuable books from -the public collections for her. Two centuries after her death it was -dispersed, and the greater part of the books belonging to the national -collections were restored on the deaths of those who then purchased -them. Hence the largest number of the bindings of Henri II. and Diana of -Poitiers will be found in the National Library of Paris. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Italian binding for Catherine de Medicis, with -the initials "C. C."] - -Queen Catherine also had special patterns with a monogram identical with -the double "D" mentioned above, but the branches of the "C" were a -little longer than the branches of the "H;" she also used a "K" on the -sides of her books. The specimen which we reproduce is a purely Italian -work. - -From kings and queens the fashion passed to the great lords, it having -come to the kings and queens from a private individual. The Constable -Anne de Montmorency adorned his bindings with a cross and spread -eagle. Among the amateurs of binding of the sixteenth, seventeenth, -and eighteenth centuries using distinctive marks, we may mention -Philip Desportes, the poet, who used two [phi] enlaced, as did also -Superintendent Fouquet in the seventeenth century. The brothers Dupuy -adopted the double [delta], arranged as a star. Colbert had a curled -snake (_coluber_ for Colbert!), the Gondis two masses of arms, Madame -de Pompadour three towers, etc. Fouquet beside the [phi] used a -squirrel on some of his bindings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Binding with the arms of Mansfeldt, with -_azure_ scroll work, from the Didot collection.] - -In Germany, Count Mansfeldt adopted the ornamental style with arms, of -which a specimen is here given; and Marc Laurin de Watervliet also -decorated and dedicated his books to his friends, using the motto -"Virtus in arduo." Among the lords of the French courts who favoured -polychromatic ornament and bold compositions were the young Valois, -Louis de Sainte Maure, Marquis of Nesle, and Henri de Guise, called -"Le balafré." Charles IX. had his emblems and devices, the double "C" -crowned the legend "Pietate et justitia," but his brother, Henri III., -loved the decoration of books more than he did. The passion of the King -for miniatures which he cut out of books is known; this passion for -golden things he repeated on bindings, for which he chose special -designs. Henri III. was an amateur of dances of death; he visited -cemeteries, attended funerals, and took a death's-head for his emblem. -This emblem was not his invention; long before him Marot had addressed -an epigram to a lady in which he brought love and death into close -conjunction. However that may be, the King chose skeletons and -penitents' tears to ornament his books. He also tolerated diamonds, -although he absolutely prohibited them in the clothing of ladies or -fixed the number _pro rata_ with the rank of the authorised person. -There was in this prince a singular mixture of taste and artistic -acuteness by the side of a mania or hallucination which was reflected on -the most intimate objects of his apparel or of his furniture. Thus if we -find, at the end of the sixteenth century, a death's-head on the sides -or the back of a volume, the binding is of the period of Henri III. - -The binders of his time are known by the mention that is made of them in -the royal accounts; the Eves were the most celebrated among all of them. -Nicholas Eve was charged with the binding of the Statutes of the Order -of St. Esprit, with which the King gratified his friends. Mention of -this work is found in the Clairambault manuscripts, where we read, "To -Nicholas Eve, washer and binder of books and bookseller to the King, -forty-seven and a half escus for washing, gilding, and squaring the -edges of forty-two books of statutes and ordinances of the Order, bound -and covered with orange Levant morocco, enriched on one side with the -arms of the King, fully gilt, and on the other of France and Poland, -with monograms at the four corners, and the rest flames, with orange and -blue ribbons," etc. - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Sixteenth century binding, called _à la -fanfare_. In the Dutuit collection.] - -Louise de Lorraine, wife of Henri III., counted for little in the life -of her husband; nevertheless she had a certain number of books decorated -with their united escutcheons. - -The bindings attributed to Eve were decorated all over the sides and -back with interlacing patterns of geometrical character, the spaces -between the parallel lines and in the middle of the figures left at -first quite blank, but afterwards filled in with palm branches and -wreaths of foliage; to these delicate and elaborate yet brilliant -toolings have been given the name of bindings _à la fanfare_. This -designation requires explanation, and is a good example of the grotesque -style adopted by modern amateurs in their appellations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Le Gascon binding.] - -The fine work of that time prepared for the coming in the seventeenth -century--about 1620--of the works of Le Gascon, or at least for the -artist with whom in our days are connected the works of the reign of -Louis XIII. Under Henri IV. the fleur-de-lys occupied most of the covers -of the royal books, from vellum to Levant morocco; works in this class -had nothing very remarkable. The first years of Louis XIII. revealed a -new process, inspired by the Eves. Le Gascon embroidered delightfully on -the fanfare ornaments; showing the fibres of the leaves, he made a new -kind of ornament, consisting of minute gold dots elaborated into lines -and curves of singular brilliancy and elegance. Of this style, called -_pointillé_, we give a specimen from the collection of M. Dutuit. The -fashion had arrived all at once; lace, banished from clothing by severe -edicts, found a refuge on the covering of books. - -The times were hard then for binders; they were constrained to live in -the university and to employ only its workmen. A binder was never his -own gilder; he employed the _gaufreurs_ of shoe-leather, more expert and -bolder, to gild his leather. Among these artisans was one named -Pigorreau, whom the edict found living in the midst of publishers and -working for them; he was compelled to choose either to remain bootmaker -or become bookseller; he chose the latter, against the syndics of the -trade, against every one, and he made enemies for himself. He revenged -himself by turning the masters into ridicule in a placard. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Le Gascon binding for Cardinal Mazarin.] - -Le Gascon was probably the assumed name of an artist in this style. The -_Guirlande de Julie_, worked by him for Mademoiselle de Rambouillet, -gave him great honour in the special circle of this little literary -court. It was the fashion then for poor authors to put a fine covering -on their works and to offer them to the great for their own profit. -Tallement des Reaux notably signalises the poet Laserre, who displayed -his luxury in irreproachable bindings. And then the farmers of the -revenue, successors of Grolier in financial trusts, formed libraries for -pure fashion, never opening the volumes covered for them in sumptuous -attire. If we may believe Sauval, author of the _Antiquités de Paris_, -they went further, and on covers without books inscribed imaginary -titles and fantastic squibs to mislead their visitors. The bookcase -being carefully closed, it was difficult to discover the imposition. -Sauval writes, "In place of books, they are content with covers of -Levant morocco, on the backs of which, in gold letters, are inscribed -the names of the most celebrated authors. A binder of the university -assured me that not long since he and his _confrères_ had made them for -a single financier to the amount of 10,000 crowns!" - -The works of Le Gascon will be found more among great personages than -with the so-called collectors, which gives value to their grace and -charm. The King's brother Gaston possessed them, then Mazarin, an -example from whose library is here reproduced. On this binding Le Gascon -worked gilt compartments and elaborate arabesques; in the middle of the -sides are the arms of the Cardinal and his pretentious device: "Arma -Julii ornant Franciam!"--"The arms of Jules the ornament of France!" In -spite of the profusion of subjects, nothing could better please the eye -or indicate a man of taste. - -But if Le Gascon be a legendary personage, he had an imitator or rival, -very near to him, named Florimond Badier, whose works had at least the -advantage of being signed. At the bottom of the inside cover of an -inlaid morocco binding in the National Library at Paris is the -inscription "Florimond Badier fec., inv." The analogy between this work -and those known as Le Gascon's is palpable; inside and outside, the -cover is stippled with small tools (_au petit fer_) in the same manner. -Florimond Badier was not appointed bookseller until 1645, and so could -not have composed earlier bindings attributed to Le Gascon, but this -resemblance of style evidences the existence of a Parisian school, the -adepts of which copied one another, as they do nowadays. - -The work was soon simplified; pallets and wheel-shaped tools were -invented to produce that which was improperly called _dentelle_; this -mechanical work was done by a wheel-shaped tool, previously heated, on -gold in sized leaves, on which it impressed its projections. - -With Louis XIV. the passion for gilding increased. Charming festoons -were designed, but they were soon abused, and inundated the libraries. -On the sides were seen rising suns, arms, and golden garlands. Cramoisy -directed the royal bindings, the King having devoted large sums to the -purchase of Levant leathers. In 1666 the Director of Works ordered red -moroccos; in 1667 he received twenty-two dozen skins, amounting, with -the expenses of transport, to 1,020 livres tournois. Successive supplies -were made, and were used for the royal library, sixty-nine dozen in -1667, forty-six dozen in 1668, and three hundred and thirty-three dozen -in 1670, costing the King more than 12,000 livres. On these admirably -dressed skins, which, in spite of incessant use, still remain now as in -their first days, the King caused to be applied, according to the size, -tools of borders, having in the middle the arms of France, with the -collar of St. Esprit. - -Among the binders mentioned in the very useful work of M. J. J. Guiffrey -on the expenditure of Louis XIV., we find Gilles Dubois, who died before -1670; Levasseur, binder of Huet, Bishop of Avranches; La Tour, Mérins or -Mérius, who died before 1676; and also Ruette, the reputed inventor of -marbled paper for fly-leaves of books: to him the bindings of the -Chancellor de Séguier, with their ornament of the golden fleece, and of -Madame de Séguier, are attributed. It was probably these men who -decorated the books of the brothers Dupuy, Fouquet, and Colbert, -marvellous works of solidity, if not always of elegance, which have -resisted all assaults. Unhappily, in many instances the mechanical -_dentelle_ overburdened the work, and gave it a commonplace regularity. -In the Condé, Colbert, and perhaps even Madame de Longueville's -collections, there are many specimens of this kind with two or three -filleted borders. - -We have come to an epoch when the difficulties resulting from confusion -between the booksellers' and binders' trades began to be understood. The -revocation of the Edict of Nantes had implicitly prepared a crowd of -measures and rules in all branches of national industry. It was a good -occasion to prevent the artisans of binding unduly parading themselves -as booksellers and selling merchandise of which they understood nothing; -Louis XIV. interfered, and separated the two communities. The binders -then became the _relieurs-doreurs_ of books; they had their own -organisation, but remained subject to the university; the heads of the -fraternity were called the "guards." The principal arrangements of the -regulation of 1749 were: the members of the corporation had the sole -right to bind books, from the elegant volume to registers of blank -paper. Five years of apprenticeship and three of companionship were -necessary to obtain the brevet of freedom and to hold a shop. Moreover, -it was indispensable to read and write. One regulation ordained that -the workman should be "able to bind and ornament ordinary books or -others, to render them perfect and entire, to sew the sheets at most two -together with thread and real bands, with joints of parchment, and not -paper, and in case of infraction the said books were to be remade at the -expense of the offender, who was besides condemned to a penalty of -thirty livres for each volume." Their establishment was confined to the -quarter from the Rue St. André des Arts to the Place Maubert; they -regulated the sale of calfskin and of tools; in a word, they were -surrounded by precautions by which the production remained always under -the supervision of the masters and completely satisfied the client. This -calculating policy was, in fact, a close imitation of the royal -ordinance of 1686. - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Mosaic binding of the eighteenth century for -the _Spaccio de la Bestia Trionfante_.] - -The mosaic bindings used from the end of the reign of Louis XIV. were an -application of pared leathers of colours different from the background, -pasted on to the side. The binders of the regency composed a great -number, attributed now to Pasdeloup, as all the crayons of the sixteenth -century are called Clouets, and all the panels on wood Holbeins. It is -not that there was great originality in these works, or a particular -art; more often the workman did no more than transcribe Le Gascon or Eve -or the older binders, and accommodated the processes of these artists to -the fashion of his time. In this style we may cite the _Spaccio de la -Bestia Trionfante_, printed at Paris 1584, for which the binder designed -a cover of doubtful taste and, above all, an undeniable want of -proportion. The tendency was then to flowers occupying three-fourths -of the page, to compartments too large, to open pomegranates, like the -_Spaccio_ here reproduced. If Pasdeloup had discovered these mediocre -combinations, he could not be proclaimed the regenerator of a fallen -art. The bastard style of these works may be compared to their mosaics, -constructed of pieces; it is a little of everything, and together it is -nothing. However, in the midst of the quantity of mediocre things, some -pleasing decoration is from time to time met with; the design of a -volume with the arms of the Regent and his wife, Mademoiselle de Blois, -wants neither elegance nor taste; without being perfection, it has -better proportion and balance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Mosaic binding of the eighteenth century, with -the arms of the Regent. M. Morgand's collection.] - -We should, however, hesitate to give names to all these works. Besides -Pasdeloup, there were the Deromes, abandoning a little the mosaics, -devising flowers and _dentelles_ in combination, and no longer the -simple products of the fillet. They formed a dynasty; and if the -Pasdeloups were at least twelve, there were fourteen Deromes all -booksellers and binders from the reign of Louis XIV. The most celebrated -was James Anthony, who died in 1761. - -Peter Paul Dubuisson was not only a binder; he was a designer. He -invented heraldic ornaments, and composed models of gilding tools, in -which his contemporaries emulated him. He was intimate with the delicate -vignettist Eisen, and the counsels of an artist of this value could not -but be useful to him. It is an extraordinary thing that in this world of -celebrated printers, amateur financiers, and notable painters and -engravers, not a single man can be met to give a real impulse to the -art of which we speak, and to prevent the dull continuance of -experiments on the whole so poor. Doubtless the _dentelles_ of Derome -had a certain air of gaiety, to which the books of the eighteenth -century accommodated themselves perfectly; the tools of Dubuisson -produce most pleasing designs; but the old, the great binders, had -altogether disappeared. - -Besides, Derome massacred without pity the rarest works. He loved edges -very regularly cut, and he did not fail to hew down margins opposed to -his taste. He sawed books as well; that is to say, in place of sewing -the sheets on to projecting bands, he made a groove in the back, in -which the cord was embedded. The books have no resistance. - -To these celebrated names of French binders of the eighteenth century we -may add Le Monnier, who worked for the Orleans princes; Tessier, his -successor; Laferté, who decorated the small volumes of the Duc de la -Vallière as Chamot covered the large ones; in 1766 Chamot was royal -binder. There was also Pierre Engerrand, then Biziaux, an original, who -worked for Madame de Pompadour and Beaumarchais. Boyet, or Boyer, worked -(1670-80) in the style of Le Gascon, with the same minute tooling, but -simpler in character. Duseuil put very elaborate and delicate tooling on -his covers from about 1710 to 1720. - -The Revolution effaced many of the fine works which displayed the -symbols "of a royalty justly detested," and Mercier wrote certain wicked -little poems against binding. Lesné was the poet of bookbinding, and he -invented the process of plain calf without boards. Certainly from -Grolier to Lesné there were numerous changes, so numerous that, in -spite of the nude calf, it may be said that the art was nearly dead. In -our days it has a little recovered. Amateurs have found new names, and -often artists, to patronise: Trautz-Bauzonnet, Capé, Duru, Lortic, -Marius Michel, in France; Bedford, Rivière, Zaehnsdorf, Pratt, in -England; Matthews, Bradstreet, Smith, in the United States; and many -others. Unhappily, fortune does not permit every one to furnish his -library luxuriously; the true connoisseur searches rather for Groliers, -Eves, and Le Gascons, than concerns himself about modern workmanship. -Whatever may be its value, it is only fit to clothe the works of the -time. A book published by Lemerre and bound by Petit is in true -character, but a fifteenth or sixteenth century book passed under the -hands of Trautz-Bauzonnet himself will be very much like an ancient -enamel in a modern frame newly gilt. - -Bookbinding in England has, with very few exceptions, never attained the -artistic excellence reached in France. From the earliest times to the -present day servile imitations of foreign work only are seen. The one -purely original English binder is Roger Payne, who from about 1770 -worked for thirty or forty years in London, performing with his own -hands every stage of the work, even to cutting his own tools. The result -was good, solid work, with perfectly original and often very beautiful -decoration, appropriate to the character of the work itself. His -favourite style was drooping lines of leaf ornaments in the borders and -geometrical patterns in small tools. After him came Charles Lewis, who -was an artist in the true sense of the word, and, coming down to our own -time, Francis Bedford, who, never pretending to originality, copied the -best designs of the old French and Italian binders. His full calf books, -with handsomely tooled backs, are models of solidity and taste; and his -decorations on the sides of morocco-bound books are always in good -taste, and often of great elegance. The binders of the present day, -perhaps for lack of patronage, seem to have abandoned originality; and -although much excellent work is done, it is no more than a copy of the -Eves, Le Gascon, Derome, and the older artists. - -Parallel with the luxurious bindings with which we have been exclusively -occupied, there has always been the commercial work, prepared in -advance. Liturgical works, above all, are sold in this form. Books in -the Grolier style or other grand personages were worked from a pattern -engraved in relief, leaving nothing to the caprice of the artist, by -being applied to the side by a press. This process is termed blocking. -Germany made use of this process principally; also Vostre, Verard, and -Tory employed the same means. Even the interlacings and the capricious -arabesques of Grolier were imitated by means of a fixed plate, parts of -which were finished by hand to make it appear a complete work of -imagination and handicraft. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -LIBRARIES. - - -Art, science, and literature took refuge in convents before the -invention of Printing, and libraries did not count many books. According -to daily wants, the monastery scribes copied the treatises lent by -neighbouring houses, and the collection was thus painfully made during -many centuries. Two or three hundred works constituted ordinary -collections; the powerful abbeys found in their staff the means of -enriching their libraries, as we have said, but they were the privileged -ones. - -Excepting kings and some princes, few people possessed a library. The -great expense of transcription, the want of facility for procuring -originals, and the enormous price of manuscripts left no hope to -bibliophiles of moderate fortune. Typography, on the contrary, having -multiplied books and put at relatively modest prices reproductions -formerly inaccessible, private collections commenced. We have had -occasion to speak before of Grolier and Maioli; they were the most -illustrious, but not the only ones. - -At first a public library was an unknown thing. The richest and the most -easily got together, that of the King of France, was private. Since -John the Good in France the acquisitions were numerous, and Gutenberg's -invention contributed to augment the stock of volumes everywhere. -Charles VIII. and Louis XII. found or took in their expeditions in -Italy, and were able to add to the original nucleus, many rare editions, -especially from the Sforzas at Pavia, who had marvels without number. -Brought together at Blois, under the care of John de Labarre, the royal -library did not yet occupy a very large space, in spite of its increase. -Under Charles V. the number of books was about a thousand; about 1500 or -1510 they were nearly doubled, and the printed books did not number more -than two hundred. - -So restricted, the royal library travelled with the other treasures of -the Crown; Francis I. transported it from Blois to Fontainebleau, and -even parts of it to the Italian wars, as related above. In its new -quarters the royal collection, in spite of the successive accessions of -the books of John d'Angoulême, grandfather of the King, and of those of -the dukes of Orleans, counted but 1,781 manuscripts and a hundred and -nine printed books on the shelves. The King, ambitious in literature no -less than in arts, nominated an illustrious _savant_, Guillaume Budé, to -the office of master of his library; and this qualification was -maintained by his successors until the fall of the royal power. - -With Budé commenced the system of continuous acquisitions. The treasury -was liberally opened to vendors of rarities. At this time the books, -placed upon their sides, one upon another, gave no idea of a modern -library, with its volumes ranged on end, having their titles between -the bands of the back. In speaking of Grolier, we remarked that the -sides of a binding alone had importance on account of their place on the -shelves; it was the same with Francis I. - -Under Henri II. the Fontainebleau collection was somewhat pillaged for -Diana of Poitiers, but, as a corrective for this dilapidation, the King -adopted a measure, since preserved, which substituted for acquisitions a -regular and uninterrupted supply; this was the contribution by -publishers to the library of one bound copy on vellum of all the works -printed under privilege. The ordinance was made in 1556; the successors -of Henri II. had only this means of increasing the number of their -volumes, with the exception that Charles IX. expended a large sum in the -purchase of Grolier's collection of medals. - -Such was the working of the royal library for about a half-century, but -the idea of making it public had not come. Diffused as was then the -passion for books, it had not yet been democratised to the point of -being understood by the people. Amateurs and lovers of reading formed -special collections in their houses, at times rivalling that of the -King. Then the fashion was no more to lay the books on their sides, but -they were now ranged to allow room for new acquisitions. Henri IV., who -had not his great-uncle's predilection for Fontainebleau, commanded the -removal to Paris of the books buried in the castle. He added to them -those of Catherine de Medicis coming from Marshal Strozzi; and as the -college of Clermont had become vacant by the dispersion of the Jesuits, -he lodged the library in 1599 in one of the rooms of that -establishment, under the care of James Augustus de Thou, master of the -library. - -We now see the royal collection brought to Paris, which it has never -quitted; but before its definitive installation, before it was made -public, it passed through a century, during which additions were made, -purchases increased, and the number of manuscripts and printed books -augmented in enormous proportions. Henri IV. desired to place it near -the court, to avoid pillage and to have the chief librarian near to him. -The return of the Jesuits in 1604 upset the first establishment a -little; the college of Clermont was evacuated; the books were -transported to the Cordeliers and distributed in rooms on the ground and -first floors, whence the names of upper and lower libraries. There was a -mass of volumes very little used, for the public did not enjoy them, and -the King held them as his own; but the time was near when the collection -was to take a very serious step under the influence of the brothers -Dupuy in 1645, and afterwards of Jerome Bignon. Always shut up in the -incommodious chambers of the Cordeliers, the library contained 5,259 -volumes, manuscript and printed, perhaps less than some private -libraries; after the Dupuys it had at least 10,329 printed books. - -Mazarin was the first to comprehend the natural use of collections of -books: publicity. His private library, placed before 1651 in his -magnificent house in the Rue Richelieu, where later was definitively -lodged the royal library, was opened to readers every Tuesday, from -eight to eleven and two to five. Dispersed in 1651, at the fall of the -Cardinal, it was later reconstituted, and in less than ten years -afterwards the former minister was able to open it in its new quarters, -the College of the Four Nations, where it is still. - -While the Mazarin library was administering liberally to the wants of -the public, that of the King remained closely shut up in the rooms of -the Cordeliers. Colbert, influenced by this state of things, offered two -houses in the Rue Vivienne to the King, where the books could find a -more convenient lodging, and allow room for increase. The removal was -made in 1666. The royal collection for fifty-five years was lodged only -a few steps from its final resting-place, the Hotel de Nevers. So was -called at the end of the seventeenth century the splendid mansion of -Mazarin, situated near the Porte de Richelieu, in the street of the same -name, whence his books had been previously torn and sold to all the -dealers. Divided into two parts at the death of the Cardinal in 1661, -the palace fell, one part to the Duc de Mazarin, the other to the Duc de -Nevers, his nephews. At first the King dreamed, under the advice of -Louvais, of acquiring the land in the neighbourhood of the Rue Vivienne -and of elevating a monument for his library, for the thought of putting -the Hotel de Nevers to this use had not then occurred to him; but the -Duc de Mazarin having alienated his part of the palace in favour of the -Company of the Indies, Abbé Bignon, then royal librarian, perceived the -part he could play from that fact. - -Thanks to the administration of Colbert and the liberalities of the -King, the collection had been augmented threefold. At the time of the -removal to the Rue Vivienne, Nicolas Clément worked at the classifying -and cataloguing of 35,000 volumes. He distributed them into methodical -classes, and devoted nine years--1675 to 1684--to his work. But this -first unravelling was soon insufficient. Less than four years after, he -commenced a new inventory in twenty-one volumes, which occupied thirty -years, having been finished in the course of March, 1714. This time the -numbers amounted to 43,000 printed volumes; his twenty-three principal -divisions, containing all the letters of the alphabet, are very nearly -preserved up to our day. In 1697 the question of publishing this -enormous work was agitated, and on this point Clément had a curious -correspondence with a learned Dane named Frederick Bostgaard; he also, -in a celebrated pamphlet, _Idée d'une Nouvelle Manière de dresser le -Catalogue d'une Bibliothèque_, indicated practical observations; he -resolved this arduous question for important collections by difference -of sizes; but his project was not executed, although favoured from the -first by Abbé Bignon. - -As the collection was not available for workers, the work of Clément had -only a relative importance. A councillor of the Prince of Waldeck, a -German of the name of Nemeitz, who travelled in France in the beginning -of the eighteenth century, having seen it in the houses of the Rue -Vivienne, says that the library occupied then twenty-six rooms and -contained 75,000 volumes in all; it was shown voluntarily to strangers, -but not to the public. Nemeitz gives some other curious particulars as -to the libraries of Paris (_Séjour à Paris:_ Leyde, 1727, 8vo). - -The bank of Law, that had been lodged for some time in the Hotel de -Nevers, alienated by the heirs of Mazarin, soon disappeared with the -ruin of his system. As we have said above, Bignon appreciated the -importance of the neglected palace for commodiously lodging the royal -collections. This was in 1721. The collection was about to be subdivided -into four sections, or, as they were then called in the administrative -style, four distinct departments: manuscripts, printed books, titles, -and engraved plates. The master of the library pressed the Regent to -profit by the occasion, to which he agreed. In the month of September -the removal commenced, and from the Rue Vivienne, the royal library, the -first in the world and the most valuable, as Naudé says, entered the -former palace of the Cardinal, which it was never to quit again. - -We approach the epoch when this great scientific establishment was to -quit its private character and to open its doors to the learned of all -countries. In 1735 it was decided to print the catalogue of some -divisions only: theology, canonical law, public law, and _belles -lettres_. This resolution coincided precisely with the opening of the -doors which took place in 1737, in which year appeared the first volume -of the catalogue comprising the sacred Scriptures. At the end of the -eighteenth century the royal library was finally established; the -printed books then comprised about 200,000 volumes, and access was had -by a staircase leading to six grand saloons, which were surrounded by -galleries. From this moment the rooms became too small. At the -Revolution the number of books had increased to 300,000, and projects of -enlargement commenced, to be continued to our time; but, in spite of -these proposals, the surface occupied by the library has remained the -same since the time of Louis XV. Enlargements and alterations have been -made year after year on the same ground without much new construction. -But how the treasures have been augmented to this time! If the printed -books at the Revolution represented a little more than 300,000 volumes, -to-day they exceed two millions; the prints number two and a half -millions; the medals, 100,000; the manuscripts, something over 90,000. - -If we have thus brought the summary history of the National Library of -Paris to our days, it was to avoid mixing it with other matters. We have -entered into such detail regarding it as is fitting for the most -important library in the world. We now return to the seventeenth -century. - -At the time when Henri IV. carried from Fontainebleau to Paris the -nucleus of volumes that was to have so brilliant a destiny, the passion -for books had singularly spread itself in France. We have already spoken -of Mazarin; after him Cardinal Richelieu designed to open his private -collection to the public, and in his will he manifested his clearly held -intention. He went further in his last wishes: he prescribed the daily -sweeping and dusting of the precious collection, and its augmentation by -a thousand livres tournois each year. The great personages of the time -were not behind; and Sauval says that in the seventeenth century there -were 1,000 or 1,200 private libraries in Paris, numbering 1,700,000 -volumes. - -In the provinces there were few public libraries. The communities and -learned Societies, the Jesuits and other religious houses, and the -universities had collections At Orleans a library was opened for -Germans, and the students of that country were able to work at their -ease under the supervision of two librarians. - -At the end of the eighteenth century the number of libraries had -increased in large proportions; the amateurs had made their influence -felt. The Book was not sought only for what it contained, but also for -its exterior clothing. Only the great libraries open to everybody -remained eclectic, and provided a little of everything. Besides the -royal library, there were in Paris a great number of other collections, -which the revolutionary storm upset and often destroyed. That of St. -Germain des Près was burnt in 1794. That of St. Geneviève, founded in -1625, had benefited by celebrated donations, among others those of the -cardinals De Berulle and De la Rochefoucauld; the Arsenal, created by -the Marquis de Paulmy, was successively enriched by important -acquisitions, among which was the collection of the Duc de la Vallière. -These collections still exist, and are open to the public, as also are -the National Library, the Mazarine, the Sorbonne, the Museum, the School -of Fine Arts, the City of Paris, the Institute, the Louvre, and the -several scientific faculties. - -The provinces have not been behind in the movement. Many of the great -cities contain a considerable number of books easily accessible, among -them the libraries of Bordeaux and Rouen, amounting to 150,000 volumes; -Troyes and Besançon, 100,000, etc. Few important centres have less than -20,000. These collections have been generally composed of those of the -religious establishments, closed by the Revolution. - -In our time public libraries are augmented by the legal deposit, gifts -of the State, legacies of private persons, and purchases. The legal -deposit in France relates almost exclusively to the National Library, -and proceeds from the measures taken by Henri II. in 1556. Each French -printer has now to deposit a certain number of copies of the works that -he issues, and these volumes go to swell the number of books in the Rue -de Richelieu. At the rate of 30,000 a year, the time is easily -anticipated and very near when the space will be found insufficient. -Some measures will have to be taken. - -Germany, the cradle of printing, was not favoured in the beginning. It -had, however, in the seventeenth century, in Wolfenbüttel, a little town -in the duchy of Brunswick, a curious collection of books, in a detached -building, of which the engraver Merian has preserved for us the -physiognomy; it contained nearly 200,000 volumes, an enormous number for -the time. The rather low rooms were shelved all round; in the middle -were cases of the height of a man, also filled with books; the readers -helped themselves, and were seated for working. The exterior of the -building, without being sumptuous, was isolated and detached. In our -time this collection includes the Bible, glass, and inkstand of Luther -and his portrait by Lucas Cranach. - -Another curious library, dating from the beginning of the seventeenth -century, is that of the city of Leyden. An engraving by Woudan shows its -state in 1610, with its classifications and divisions. The books were -ranged in cases provided with breast-high desks. The books were placed -with the edges in front, and not as now, and were so attached that they -could only be consulted in their place. Each body of shelving contained -a series of authors: theology, philosophy, mathematics, history, -medicine, law, and literature. The room, of square shape, was lighted by -windows right and left. Between the bays were portraits, views of -cities, and maps. On the right, in a shrine, was enclosed the legacy of -Joseph Scaliger. Communication was less liberal than at Wolfenbüttel; -the readers were obliged to take the books from the shelves themselves -and read them standing before the desks. - -In England, the celebrated Oxford Library should be mentioned, augmented -and restored in 1597 by Sir Thomas Bodley, ambassador of Queen -Elizabeth. The generous overtures of this rich gentleman met with -unanimous approbation. He offered to the library of the university the -volumes collected by him during his travels on the Continent, whose -value exceeded £10,000. The first stone of a new building was laid in -1610, but from 1602 the collection was open to readers in a provisional -locality. David Loggan, the engraver, has preserved for us interior -views of the Bodleian of the seventeenth century. The rooms are disposed -in the form of the letter H, with pavilions to east and west, united by -a gallery. The books were and are still in the body of the library, -placed against the walls, with tables and immovable seats. The volumes -were not displaced; they were consulted in their own place. Each room -had two floors, with access to the second by stairs. - -In London it was Hans Sloane who had the idea of founding a great -collection by offering to the State for £20,000 his collection of -books, which was valued at £50,000. Created in 1753 by an Act of -Parliament, the British Museum, as it was named, was quickly augmented -by many private libraries, among which was the library of printed books -and manuscripts collected by the kings of England from Henry VII. to -William III., which was added in the reign of George II. The very -extensive and valuable library of George III., 250,000 volumes, was -added by George IV. The Harleian collection added 7,500 volumes, and -Robert Cotton his manuscripts. To-day the printed books amount to -1,300,000, and are only surpassed by the National Library of France as -well in number of books as in number of readers. This immense collection -increases at a great rate, one source being the compulsory deposit of a -copy of every new book in order to secure copyright. Donations and -legacies are constantly being made, and an annual sum for purchases is -voted by Parliament. Besides the copy deposited by publishers in the -British Museum, the law of copyright compels the deposit of four other -copies, which go to augment the collections of the Bodleian Library of -Oxford, the University Library of Cambridge, and the libraries of -Edinburgh and Dublin. - -If we search among the cities of Europe where establishments of this -kind are most honoured, Berlin will take the third place with 900,000 -printed books and 20,000 manuscripts, preserved in the Imperial Library. -The building, constructed between 1775 and 1780, owes its special form -to Frederick II., who desired that it should take the form of a chest of -drawers. On the façade an inscription in the Latin tongue, but -conceived in German spirit, indicates that here is a spiritual -refectory--_nutrimentum spiritus_. Following come Munich, with 800,000 -printed books; Vienna 400,000; Dresden, 300,000; then the universities: -Leipzig, whose library, founded in 1409 and reorganised in 1830, -contains 150,000 books and 2,000 manuscripts; Heidelberg; Göttingen, -etc. - -In Italy, Florence keeps, in the National Library, 300,000 volumes, -proceeding from various amateurs, and formed since 1860. The collection -of the goldsmith Magliabecchi, that was open to readers since 1747, has -been transported there. Besides this library, Florence possesses the -celebrated Laurentian, created by Cosmo de Medicis in the middle of the -fifteenth century, where are united more than 8,000 manuscripts of an -incalculable value. Milan has at the Brera a collection of 200,000 -printed books and 50,000 medals, and at the Ambrosian, due to Cardinal -Frederick Borromeo, 160,000 printed books and 8,000 manuscripts. - -Rome possesses a dozen collections and celebrated deposits. The Vatican, -not numerous, is most choice; the importance of its manuscripts is known -to the entire world, but only a part of the 50,000 printed books are -catalogued. The Library of Victor Emmanuel, formerly of the Jesuits, -amounts to about 66,000 volumes. At Venice the splendid monument called -the Antiqua Libraria di St. Marco has changed its destination; -constructed in the sixteenth century and commenced by Sansovino for a -library, it is now a royal palace. This city has lost that which had -made its glory, and its collections are very modest in our days. - -The magnificent educational establishments in the form of public -libraries provided in the United States deserve special mention. Nearly -every city has its public library, supported by a small tax; and many -large libraries are wholly supported by private munificence. The first -to be established was founded in 1732 by Benjamin Franklin in -Philadelphia, and still exists as the Library Company; many important -bequests have been made to it, the latest being £200,000 by Dr. Richard -Rush. The library now numbers 150,000 volumes. The Congressional Library -of Washington, besides its annual income from Government, receives by -deposit for copyright a copy of every work published in the United -States; it now has 565,000 volumes. - -The Astor Library and the Lenox Library of New York were both founded -and endowed by the families whose name they bear; the former has 223,284 -volumes, the latter 25,000. The city of Chicago recently fell heir to -the magnificent sum of over one million sterling for the establishment -of a library of reference, and New York was benefited by the late Mr. -Tilden to the extent of £800,000 for a public library. - -When we have named the libraries of St. Petersburg and Moscow for -Russia, Stockholm for Sweden, and the Escurial for Spain, we shall have -mentioned very hastily the most important establishments in the world. -For more than four centuries the love of books has preserved and -fortified itself, and increases each day. If we were to endeavour to -approximately imagine the number of printed books diffused, we should -be frightened at it. It is by miles that to-day are counted the shelves -of the National Library or of the British Museum; and each year the -production is accelerated, as is also the number of readers. - - -THE END. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Albi, first printer at, 47. - - Alciati, books of emblems, 126. - - Alding, Henry, printer in Sicily, 35. - - Aldus Manutius, son-in-law of Torresani, 51; - printer in Venice, 99, 103, 128; - books for Grolier, 260. - - America, North, printing in, 216. - - Antwerp, early printing at, 67; - Plantin, 140. - - _Ars Memorandi_, block book, 10. - - _Ars Moriendi_, block book, 8. - - Asola, Andrew d', successor of Jenson, 50. - - Audran, C., engraver, 158. - - Augsburg, _Formschneiders_ at, 58. - - - Badier, Florimond, bookbinder, 280. - - Badius, Jodocus, printer in Paris, 122, 246. - - Baldini, designs for early Italian books, 54. - - Ballard, printer for music, 186. - - Bamberg, early printing at, 25, 29. - - Barcelona, first printer, 36. - - Bartolozzi, engraver, 209. - - Baskerville, printer of Birmingham, 208. - - Basle, first printer, 36; - school of engraving, 125. - - Beaujoyeux, Balthasar de, _Ballet Comique_, 136. - - Bechtermuncze, Henry, pupil of Gutenberg, 25, 36. - - Bedford, Francis, bookbinder, 288. - - Belfort, Andrew, printer at Ferrara, 35. - - Berlin, Imperial Library of, 301. - - Bernard, _le petit_, designer, 128. - - Bewick, Thomas, engraver, 209, 213, 225, 234. - - Bible, Gutenberg's, 15, 20; - of 1462, the Mayence, 27; - first English, 146; - Authorised Version, 182; - the Polyglot, Plantin's, 141; - Richelieu's, 173. - - _Biblia Pauperum_, block book, 8. - - Bignon, Jerome, royal librarian, 293. - - Binding, early, 253. - - Biziaux, bookbinder, 287. - - Blind Asylum, printers in 1786, 216. - - Bocard, Andrew, printer in Paris, 88. - - Bodleian Library, 300. - - Bohn, H. G., publisher, 223. - - Bologna, Francisco da, engraver of type, 100. - - Bonhomme, printer in Lyons, 128. - - Book, the, earliest forms of, 1, 6. - - Books of Hours, 70, 112; - for English use, 147. - - Booksellers of Paris, 170, 186, 190, 196. - - Bosse, Abraham, engraver, 170. - - Botticelli, plates to Dante, 55. - - Boucher, designer, 188. - - Bourdichon, John, artist, 69. - - Boydell, Alderman, publisher, 210. - - Boyet, bookbinder, 287. - - Brandt's "Ship of Fools," 65. - - British Museum, library, 301. - - Brothers of Common Life, printers, 1468, 36. - - Browne, H. K., book illustrator, 235. - - Bruges, early printing at, 37, 67. - - Buckinck, Arnold, printer at - Rome, printed the first atlas, 55. - - Budé, Guillaume, royal librarian, 291. - - - Cæsaris, Peter, and John Stol, second Paris printers, 68. - - Callot, engraver, 167. - - Cambridge, first printing at, 149. - - Cars, Laurent, engraver, 189. - - Cases for type, 243. - - Caslon, William, type-founder, 208. - - Catherine de Medicis, bindings for, 270. - - "Catholicon," the, of 1460, printed by Gutenberg, 23. - - Caxton, William, first English printer, 37, 92, 240. - - Cazin, publisher, 200. - - Cerceau, _Bastiments de France_, 1576, 135. - - Chaillot, Robin, publisher in Paris, 82. - - Challeux, James le, wood engraver, 137. - - Chamot, bookbinder, 287. - - _Champfleury_, Geoffroy Tory's, 116, 261. - - Characters, variety of, 243. - - Charles VII. sends Jenson to Mayence, 38. - - Charles VIII., royal library, 291. - - Charles IX., bindings for, 274. - - Charles of Angoulême, books specially printed for him, 78. - - Chauveau, Francis, engraver, 179. - - Chess, Caxton's book on, 92. - - Chodowiecki, engraver, 208. - - Choffard, engraver, 198, 211. - - Clement V., _Constitutiones_, 1460, printed by Schoeffer, 26. - - Clément, Nicholas, royal librarian, 294. - - Clennell, Luke, wood engraver, 215, 225, 234. - - Cochin the younger, engraver, 191. - - Colbert, bindings for, 272, 282. - - Collines, Simon de, type-founder, 241. - - Cologne, first printer, 36. - - "Cologne Chronicle," 58. - - Colonna, Francis, Poliphilus of, 1499, 56; - in French, 1545, 123. - - Colophons, use of, by early printers, 88. - - Commin, Vincent, bookseller in Paris, 82. - - Companies of printers in France, 165. - - Copper plate engraving, 135; - in England, 149. - - Coster, Laurent, alleged inventor of printing, 6, 30. - - Cousin, John, designs for books, 132. - - Cramoisy, Sebastian, printer of Paris, 155, 165; - director of bindings for Louis XIV., 281. - - Cranach, Lucas, his _Passional Christi_, 106. - - Cranmer's Catechism, 1548, 148. - - Cruikshank, George, book illustrator, 235. - - Curmer, publisher of Paris, 230. - - - Dances of death, 58, 72, 85, 124. - - Dante, 1481, with engraved plates, 54; - 1491, with Botticelli plates, 55; - 1487, printed by Bonnini, 58. - - Day, John, printer, 146. - - Della Bella, engraver, 168. - - Deromes, bookbinders, 286. - - Desportes, Philip, bindings for, 272. - - Devéria, engraver, 227. - - Dibdin, T. F., bibliographical works, 223. - - Didot, François, printer of Paris, 194. - - Didot, Pierre F., printer of Paris, 216, 219. - - Didot family, 218, 242. - - Dijon, first printer at, 47. - - Diodorus Siculus, Geoffroy Tory's edition, 118. - - Donatus, the Latin syntax of, 4, 30. - - Doré, Gustave, influence on illustration, 234. - - Doyle, Richard, book illustrator, 235. - - Dritzehen, Andrew, associate of Gutenberg, 13. - - Dubois, Gilles, bookbinder, 281. - - Dubuisson, Peter Paul, bookbinder, 286. - - Duchesne on wood engraving, 225. - - Duplat, relief engraving on stone, 213. - - Duplessis-Bertaux, engraver, 206. - - Du Pré, John, printer of Books of Hours, 80. - - Dupuy brothers, bindings for, 272, 282; - royal librarians, 293. - - Durand's _Rationale_, 1459, printed by Schoeffer, 26. - - Dürer, Albert, pupil of Wohlgemuth, 60; - "Apocalypse," 62, 104; - influence on Geoffroy Tory, 116. - - Duseuil, bookbinder, 287. - - - Eisen, engraver, 196. - - Eltvil, first printer, 36. - - Elzevirs, printers at Leyden, 162. - - Emblems, books of, 126, 135. - - England, bookbinding in, 288; - public libraries, 300. - - English books, in the fifteenth century, 92; - in the sixteenth century, 144; - seventeenth century, 181; - eighteenth century, 208; - nineteenth century, 222, 234; - school of engraving eighteenth century, 209. - - Engraved plates, first book with, 52; - in France, 134, 190. - - Engravers, employed by Plantin, 142; - in relief, the first, 3. - - Engraving, introduction of metal plates for, 32; - the process, 52; - in the Books of Hours, 71. - - Erasmus, visit to Aldus, 101. - - Estienne, Robert, printer in Paris, 121, 242. - - Etching, process of, 189. - - Eustache, William, printer of Books of Hours, 82. - - Eve, Nicholas, bookbinder, 274. - - - Ferrara, first printer, 35. - - Fichet, William, ascribes invention of printing to Gutenberg, 31. - - Flemish, illustration, 66; - printers, early, 36, 106. - - Florence, National Library of, 302. - - Foligno, first printer, 35. - - Fontainebleau school of engraving, 128. - - Fornazeris, J. de, engraver, 158. - - Foucquet, John, artist, 69. - - Fount of type, 243. - - Fouquet, Superintendent, bindings for, 272, 282. - - Fournier, type-engraver, 242. - - France, early printing in, 47. - - Francis I., father of letters, 120; - bindings for, 266; - royal library, 291. - - Frankfort, books of the seventeenth century, 159. - - Franklin, Benjamin, printer at Philadelphia, 217; - founded first American public library, 303. - - French book illustration, 68, 76, 106, 166, 203; - provinces, public libraries of, 298. - - Fresne, Trichet du, corrector of Royal Printing House, 166. - - Furne, publisher of Paris, 232. - - Fust, John, 12 _et seq_.; - in partnership with Gutenberg, 15. - - - Garamond, Claude, type-founder, 121, 166, 241. - - Gaultier, Leonard, engraver, 142, 154. - - Gavarni, designer, 233. - - Ged, William, inventor of stereotype, 220. - - Gering, Freyburger, and Crantz, first printers in Paris, 41. - - German books, in the seventeenth century, 158; - eighteenth century, 208; - nineteenth century, 224. - - German public libraries, 299. - - Gigoux, John, vignettist, 228. - - Gillot, Claude, engraver, 180, 186. - - Giunta, Lucantonio, printer at Venice, 102. - - Gondi, bindings for, 272. - - Gourmont, John de, wood engraver, 137. - - Grandjean, Philip, royal printer, 242. - - Grandville, designer, 233. - - Gravelot, Hubert Francis, engraver, 196, 213. - - Grolier, John, bindings for, 256. - - Guadagnino, artist of Venice, 102. - - Guise, Henri de, "Le Balafré," bindings for, 274. - - Gutenberg, John, 12 _et seq_.; - at Mayence, 15; - death of, 29. - - - Haarlem, book illustration at, 67. - - Hachette, publisher of Paris, 234. - - Hagenbach, Peter, printer at Toledo, 36. - - Hahn, Ulrich, printer at Rome, 35; - printed first illustrated book in Italy, 48. - - Hardouins, printers of Books of Hours, 82. - - Haye, Cornelis de la, painter, 130. - - Heilmann, Andrew, associate of Gutenberg, 13. - - Heinlein and Fichet introduce printing into Paris, 40. - - Henri II., _Entrée à Lyon_, 1549, 130; - bindings for, 270; - royal library, 292. - - Henri III., bindings for, 274. - - Henri IV., royal library, 292. - - Hoe printing machines, 249. - - Holbein, "Dance of Death," 86, 124; - Cranmer's Catechism, 148. - - Holland, artists in the seventeenth century, 160. - - - Illustrations, first, in books, 47; - in the sixteenth century, 123. - - Imposition, process of, 245. - - Ink, composition of, 252. - - Ipswich, first printer, 149. - - Isaac, Jasper, engraver, 156. - - Italian, books in the seventeenth century, 159; - influence on French illustration, 125; - on bindings, 256. - - Italic type introduced, 100. - - Italy, public libraries of, 302. - - - Jenson, Nicholas, sent to Mayence to learn type-founding, 38; - printer at Venice, 38, 103. - - Johannot brothers, engravers, 227. - - John of Cologne, master _à la navette_, 67. - - Jombert, printer of Paris, 192. - - Junius, Hadrian, narrator of the Coster legend, 6, 12. - - - Kerver, Thielman, printer of Books of Hours, 80, 88. - - Knight, Charles, publisher, 223. - - Koburger, first printer at Nuremberg, 36, 60. - - Koelhof, first printer to use signatures, 36. - - - Labarre, John de, royal librarian, 291. - - Laborde, _Chansons_, 202. - - Laferté, bookbinder, 287. - - La Fontaine, the _Contes_, 198. - - La Marche, Oliver de, his _Chevalier Delibéré_, 67. - - Laserre, luxury in bindings for, 278. - - La Tour, bookbinder, 281. - - Lavoignat, wood engraver, 230. - - Lebé, William, type-founder, 140, 242. - - Le Brun, painter, 175. - - Leclerc, Sébastien, engraver, 176. - - Leech, John, book illustrator, 235. - - Leeu, Gerard de, printer at Antwerp, 67. - - Le Gascon bindings, 276. - - Le Jay and the Polyglot Bible, 173. - - Le Maire, John, _Illustrations de la Gaule_, 107. - - Le Monnier, bookbinder, 287. - - Lenoir, Philip, bindings for Francis I., 268. - - Lepautre, engraver, 179. - - Lesné, poet of bookbinding, 287. - - Letters of Indulgence, the first printed, 17. - - Lettou, John, early English printer, 95. - - Leu, Thomas de, engraver, 142, 154. - - Levasseur, bookbinder, 281. - - Lewis, Charles, bookbinder, 288. - - Leyden, the Elzevirs at, 162; - public library of, 299. - - Libraries, 290. - - Library, National, of Paris, 291. - - Lipsius, Justus, employed by Plantin, 140. - - Logography, invention of, 216. - - Lorenzo, Nicholas di, printer of _El Monte Santo di Dio_, first book - with engraved plates, 52. - - Loslein, Peter, printer at Venice, 35. - - Louis XII., ordinance on printing, 108; - bindings for, 256, 264; - royal library, 291. - - Louis XIV., bindings for, 281; - regulations for bookbinders, 282. - - Louvain, printer in 1474, 37. - - Lutzelburger, Hans, engraver of "Dance of Death," 125. - - Lyons, first printing at, 47; - in the sixteenth century, 124; - seventeenth century, 158. - - - Machlinia, William, early English printer, 37, 95. - - Macon, first printer at, 47. - - _Magasin Pittoresque_, 226. - - Mainyal, George, associate of Gering, 47. - - Maioli, Thomas, bindings for, 259. - - Mansfeldt, Count, bindings for, 272. - - Mansion, Colard, printer at Bruges, 1473, 37. - - Manuscripts, influence of printing upon, 34. - - Manutius. See Aldus. - - Marchant, Guyot, his "Dance of Death," 86; - bindings for Francis I., 268. - - Marinoni printing press, 249. - - Marnef, Geoffroy and Gilbert, French printers, 107. - - Mayence, revolution at, in 1462, 27; - printing in the seventeenth century, 158. - - Mayer, Henry, printer at Toulouse, 47. - - Mazarin, Cardinal, bindings for, 280; - his library, 293. - - Meissonier, designer on wood, 230. - - Mellan, Claude, engraver, 156. - - Menzel, Adolph, book illustrator, 224. - - _Mer des Histoires_, 1488, 70, 107. - - Mérius, bookbinder, 281. - - Meslier, Denis, publisher in Paris, 82. - - Metal plates used for illustration, 134. - - Metlinger, printer at Dijon, 47. - - Milan, printing in the sixteenth - century, 103; - public libraries of, 302. - - Montenay, Georgette de, his emblems, 135. - - Monteregio, _Calendario_, first book with title-page, 50. - - Montmorency, Anne de, bindings for, 272. - - Moreau the younger, engraver, 200. - - Moretus, printer of Antwerp, 141. - - Mosaic bindings, 284. - - Motte, Houdart de la, his "Fables," 186. - - - Necker, Jost, engraver of the _Theuerdanck_, 105. - - Neumeister, John, printer at Albi, 47. - - Neumeister, John, printer at Foligno, 35. - - Nevers, Duc de, book published in 1577, 138. - - Notary, Julian, early English printer, 96. - - Noyers, Sublet de, superintendent of Royal Printing House, 166. - - Nuremberg, first printer, 36; - books of the sixteenth century, 104; - Chronicle, 1493, 62; - books of the seventeenth century, 159. - - - Orleans, public library at, 298. - - Os, Peter van, his _Biblia Pauperum_, 67. - - Oswen, John, first printer at Ipswich, 149. - - Oxford, first printer, 37; - Bodleian Library, 300. - - - Palermo, first printer, 35. - - Palmart, Lambert, printer at Valencia, 1477, 36. - - Pannartz, Arnold, printer at Rome, 35. - - Paper, manufacture of, 249. - - Papillons, wood engravers, 212. - - Paris, Fust's visit to, 27; - first book printed at, 42; - public libraries of, 298. - - Pasdeloup, bookbinder, 284. - - Pasquier-Bonhomme, printer in Paris, 68. - - Pass family, engravers, 160. - - Pasti, Matteo, designs for Valturius, 49. - - Paulin, publisher of Paris, 228. - - Payne, Roger, bookbinder, 288. - - Perréal, John, artist, 69. - - Pfinzfing, _Theuerdanck_, 104. - - Pfister, Albert, printer of Bamberg, 25. - - Philippe, Laurent, publisher in Paris, 82. - - Photography, use in illustration, 233. - - Picart, Bernard, engraver, 180. - - Picart, John, engraver, 156. - - Piccini, engraver, 159. - - Pickering, William, publisher, 223. - - Pictor, Bernard, printer of Venice, 35. - - Pigouchet, Philip, printer of Paris, 68, 70. - - Plantin, Christopher, printer of Antwerp, 140. - - Pluvinel, _Manège Royal_, 160. - - Poitiers, Diane de, bindings for, 270. - - Poliphilus, printed by Aldus, 1499, 56; - by Kerver, 1545, 123. - - Polytypes, invention of, 216. - - Pompadour, Madame de, bindings for, 272. - - Portraits as illustrations, 89, 123, 137. - - Prault, publisher of Paris, 192. - - Prayer-book, Queen Elizabeth's, 146; - Edward VI's., 148. - - Presses, printing, 248. - - Press work, process of, 246. - - Printers' marks, 87. - - Prohibitions on printers, 152, 185. - - _Promptuaire des Médailles_, printed by Roville, 130. - - Psalter of 1457, the first dated book, 23. - - Ptolemy, 1478, first printed atlas, 55. - - Pynson, Richard, early English printer, 37, 95, 146. - - - Racine, works, the Louvre edition, 219. - - Raffet, wood engraver, 232. - - Ratdolt, Erhardt, printer at Venice, 35; - printed first title-page, 50, 103. - - Rembold, Berthold, associate of Gering, 47. - - Richelieu, Cardinal, his library, 297. - - Roffet, Peter, bindings for Francis I., 267. - - Rogers, Samuel, his poetical works, 222. - - Roman character, 38, 240. - - Rome, first printers, 35; - public libraries of, 302. - - Rood, Theod., first printer at Oxford, 37. - - Roville, printer of Lyons, 128, 130. - - Royal Printing House in Paris, 166, 215. - - Royer, John le, printer for mathematics, 1560, 132. - - Ruette, bookbinder, 282. - - Rüppel, Berthold, first printer at Basle, 36. - - - St. Albans, first printer, 37. - - St. Aubin, designer and engraver, 192, 200. - - St. Pierre, Bernardin de, and the Didots, 221. - - Salomon, Bernard, designer, 128. - - Sanlecque, James, type-founder, 242. - - Schäufelein, designs for the _Theuerdanck_, 105. - - Schiedam, early printing at, 67. - - Schoeffer, Peter, associate of Gutenberg and Fust, 16. - - Schongauer, Martin, influence on French art, 72. - - Schönsperger, printer of Augsburg, 105. - - Séguier, bindings for, 282. - - Siberch, John, first printer at Cambridge, 149. - - Sicily, first printer, 35. - - Sizes of books, 147, 189. - - Sloane, Sir Hans, founder of the British Museum, 300. - - Smirke, Robert, book illustrator, 210. - - Southwark, first printer at, 149. - - Spain, book illustration in, 106. - - _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_, 7. - - Spindeler, Nicholas, printer at Barcelona, 36. - - Spire, John and Vendelin of, printers at Venice, 35. - - Spyes, Weigand, pupil of Gutenberg, 25. - - Stanhope press, 248. - - Steel plates for illustrations, 232. - - Stereotype, invention of, 220. - - Stothard, Thomas, book illustrator, 210, 222, 234. - - Strasbourg, Gutenberg's retreat to, 13. - - Sweynheim, Conrad, printer at Rome, 35. - - - _Tailleurs d'images_ of the Middle Ages, 3. - - Tauchnitz, Baron, publisher of Leipzig, 224. - - Tessier, bookbinder, 287. - - Ther-Hoenen, Arnold, first printer using Arabic numerals for pages, - 36, 58, 88. - - _Theuerdanck_, printed at Nuremberg, 104. - - Thevet, books with plates, 135. - - Thompson brothers, wood engravers, 225. - - Thou, James Augustus de, royal librarian, 293. - - Titian, influence on book illustration, 103. - - Title-page, the first, 50, 86; - illustrated, 133, 142. - - Toledo, first printer, 36. - - Tornes, Hans de, printer in Lyons, 128. - - Torresani, Andrea, succeeded Jenson, 50. - - Tortorel and Perrissin, plates on the religious wars, 137. - - Tory, Geoffroy, printer and engraver, 110, 241, 261. - - Toulouse, first printer, 47. - - Travel, books of, 148, 182. - - Treschel, John, printer at Lyons, 88, 124. - - Treves, Peter of, first printer at Southwark, 149. - - Trithemius, account of Peter Schoeffer, 16. - - Turner, J. M. W., designs for Rogers' works, 222. - - Type-founding, 239, 243. - - - United States, printing in, 216; - public libraries in, 302. - - Utrecht, early printers at, 36, 67. - - - Valdarfer, Christopher, printer at Venice, 35. - - Valencia, first printer, 36. - - Valladier, Andrew, _Métanéologie_, 155. - - Valturius, _De Re Militari_, 1472, 49. - - Veldener, John, printer at Louvain, 67. - - Venice, first printers, 35; - first title-page printed at, 50; - sixteenth century work, 102; - seventeenth century, 159; - libraries of, 302. - - Verard, Antony, printer in Paris, 68, 76; - his Books of Hours, 78. - - Versailles, printing office of the Minister for War, 215. - - Vinci, Leonardo da, influence on book illustration, 103. - - Vitré, Antoine, publisher of Paris, 172. - - Voragine, "Golden Legend," Venice, 1518, 103. - - Vostre, Simon, printer in Paris, 68; - his Books of Hours, 70. - - Vyel, Andrew, printer at Palermo, 35. - - - Walchius, story of Fust's visit to Paris, 28. - - Walter, John, printer of the _Times_, 216, 249. - - Water marks in paper, 251. - - Watervliet, Marc Laurin de, bindings for, 272. - - Watteau, engraver, 187. - - Wechel, printer in Paris, 128. - - Wensler, Michael, printer at Macon, 47. - - Westminster, Caxton first printer at, 37. - - Westphalia, John of, printer at Louvain, 1474, 37, 67. - - Whittingham, Charles, printer, 223. - - Woériot, Peter, engraver of emblems, 135. - - Wohlgemuth, Michael, designs for the _Schatzbehalter_, 60. - - Wolfenbüttel, public library of, 299. - - Woodcuts, first book printed with, 48. - - Wood engraving, revival of, 209, 213, 230. - - Wynken de Worde, early English printer, 37, 95. - - - Xylographs of the fifteenth century, 8. - - - Zainer, Gunther, printer at Augsburg, 58. - - Zell, Ulrich, pupil of Gutenberg, 25, 30, 36. - - Zwoll, book illustration at, 67. - - - - -Transcriber's Note - -In this text version, symbols and Greek letters in the text are replaced -by their name, enclosed in square brackets, e.g. [phi], [double cross]. -In addition, oe ligatures are replaced with the letters oe, and -superscripts are introduced with the caret character, e.g. XVIII^e - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - -***** This file should be named 44890-8.txt or 44890-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/8/9/44890/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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