diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | 44890-0.txt (renamed from 44890.txt) | 1108 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44890-8.txt | 7711 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44890-8.zip | bin | 156979 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44890-h.zip | bin | 19931092 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44890-h/44890-h.htm | 485 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 44890.zip | bin | 156603 -> 0 bytes |
6 files changed, 390 insertions, 8914 deletions
@@ -1,40 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Printed Book - Its History, Illustration and Adornment, from the Days of - Gutenberg to the Present Time - -Author: Henri Bouchot - -Translator: Edward C. Bigmore - -Release Date: February 13, 2014 [EBook #44890] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44890 *** THE PRINTED BOOK, @@ -149,7 +113,7 @@ CHAPTER III. 1500 TO 1600 98 French epics and the Renaissance--Venice and Aldus Manutius--Italian -illustrators--The Germans; _Theuerdanck_, Schaeufelein--The Book in +illustrators--The Germans; _Theuerdanck_, Schäufelein--The Book in other countries--French books at the beginning of the century, before the accession of Francis I.--Geoffroy Tory and his works--Francis I. and the Book--Robert Estienne--Lyons a centre of bookselling; @@ -157,7 +121,7 @@ Holbein's Dances of Death--School of Basle--Alciati's emblems and the illustrated books of the middle of the century--The school of Fontainebleau and its influence--Solomon Bernard--Cornelis de la Haye and the _Promptuaire_--John Cousin--Copper plate engraving and metal -plates--Woeriot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth century--How +plates--Woériot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth century--How a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--Influence of Plantin on the Book; his school of engravers--General considerations--Progress in England--Coverdale's Bible--English @@ -174,9 +138,9 @@ Germany, Italy, and Holland--Crispin Pass in France--The Elzevirs and their work in Holland--Sebastian Cramoisy and the Imprimerie Royale--Illustration with Callot, Della Bella, and Abraham Bosse--The publishers and the Hotel de Rambouillet--The reign of Louis XIV.; -Antoine Vitre syndic at his accession--His works and mortifications; +Antoine Vitré syndic at his accession--His works and mortifications; the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay--Art and illustrators of the grand -century--Sebastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and Chauveau--Leclerc preparing +century--Sébastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and Chauveau--Leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the Book for the eighteenth century--The Book in England in the seventeenth century. @@ -221,7 +185,7 @@ Diane de Poitiers--Catherine de Medicis--Henry III.--The Eves--The "fanfares"--Louis XIII.--Le Gascon--Florimond Badier--Louis XIV.--Morocco leathers--Cramoisy--The bindings of the time of Louis XIV.--The regency--Pasdeloup--The -Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesne--The nineteenth century--English +Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesné--The nineteenth century--English binders--Roger Payne--Francis Bedford. CHAPTER IX. @@ -332,14 +296,14 @@ exaggerated prices of the most ordinary books, they hoped to turn engraving to account in order to obtain on better terms the technical work needed for their trade. At the epoch of the St. Christopher, in 1423, several works were in vogue in the universities, the schools, and -with the public. Among the first of these was the Latin Syntax of AElius +with the public. Among the first of these was the Latin Syntax of Ælius Donatus on the eight parts of speech, a kind of grammar for the use of young students, as well as the famous _Speculum_, a collection of precepts addressed to the faithful, which were copied and recopied without satisfying the demand. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Part of a _Donatus_ taken from a xylograph, the -original of which is preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale.] +original of which is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale.] To find a means of multiplying these treatises at little cost was a fortune to the inventor. It is to be supposed that many artisans of the @@ -381,7 +345,7 @@ According to Hadrian Junius, Laurent Janszoon Coster (the latter name signifying "the discoverer") published one of the celebrated series of works under the general title of _Speculum_ which was then so popular (the mystic style exercising so great an attraction on the people of the -fifteenth century), the _Speculum Humanae Salvationis_. Written before +fifteenth century), the _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_. Written before the middle of the fifteenth century, made popular by manuscripts, in spite of its fantastic Latinity and of its false quantities, this ascetic and crude poem was easy of access to the xylographists. Junius, @@ -395,7 +359,7 @@ because the same cast of letters could not be adapted to different languages. On the other hand, the vignettes do not change, indicating sufficiently the mobility of the types. In comparison to what may be seen in later works, the illustrations of the _Speculum_ are by no means -bad; they have the appearance, at once naive and picturesque, of the +bad; they have the appearance, at once naïve and picturesque, of the works of Van Eyck, and not at all of the style of the German miniaturists; properly illuminated and gilded, they lent themselves to the illusion of being confounded with the _histoyres_, drawn by the @@ -535,7 +499,7 @@ witnesses painted Gutenberg in a curious light: they made him out to be a savage, a hermit, who concealed from his associates certain arts of which the deed stipulated nothing. One fact proved that the experiments referred to the manufacture of metallic characters. A -goldsmith, named Duenne, maintained that he had received more than a +goldsmith, named Dünne, maintained that he had received more than a hundred florins for printing material "das zu dem trucken gehoret." "Trucken!"--"Typography!" The word was found, and from that day usage has consecrated it. @@ -680,7 +644,7 @@ manuscript note of a vicar of St. Stephen at Mayence records that he finished the binding and illuminating of the first volume on St. Bartholomew's Day, 1456, and the second on the 15th of August. St. Bartholomew's Day is the 13th of June, and not the 24th of August, as -the catalogue of the Bibliotheque Nationale has it. +the catalogue of the Bibliothèque Nationale has it. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Fragment of the Mazarine Bible, printed in two columns. Beginning of the text in the second column; original size.] @@ -696,12 +660,12 @@ done on both vellum and paper. Copies are by no means uncommon, most of the great libraries having one, and many are in private collections. One is shown among the typographical monuments in the King's Library of the British Museum, and there is a finely illuminated copy in the show-room -of the Bibliotheque Nationale. From its very great importance as the +of the Bibliothèque Nationale. From its very great importance as the first book that is known to have been printed, its value has a constant increase. Of the copies recently sold, one at the Perkins sale in 1873 -on vellum sold for L3,400, another on paper at the same sale fetched -L2,900, while one on paper in the Syston Park Library sold in December, -1884, for L3,900. It has been asserted that the copies on paper were the +on vellum sold for £3,400, another on paper at the same sale fetched +£2,900, while one on paper in the Syston Park Library sold in December, +1884, for £3,900. It has been asserted that the copies on paper were the first issued by Gutenberg and his partners, and those on vellum subsequently printed by Fust and Schoeffer, after they had obtained possession of the inventor's stock. @@ -788,7 +752,7 @@ are painted by hand, as in manuscripts. In time he put forth a second edition of the Psalter, always with Fust's name joined to his own. A great number of types were broken at the beginning, but he dreamed of doing yet better. In 1460 he gave the _Constitutiones_ of Pope Clement -V., with a gloss and commentaries by John Andre; here was the first +V., with a gloss and commentaries by John André; here was the first example of a process much employed in manuscripts, but of which the typographical composition was very difficult. Again, in 1462 a new Latin Bible issued from their workshops in two folio volumes. It is the first @@ -849,7 +813,7 @@ we do not find printing there again before 1480, more than twenty years later. Gutenberg was dead before 1468. He was interred in the Church of the -Recollets of Mayence, by the pious care of a friend, who attributed the +Récollets of Mayence, by the pious care of a friend, who attributed the invention of printing to him on his tomb. We may begin to comprehend the influence of this man upon the discovery @@ -896,7 +860,7 @@ in his _Manuel a'Estampes_ (vol. i., p. 236, etc.) doubts Gutenberg's right to the title of inventor. It is stated that in a letter of William Fichet, prior of the Sorbonne, of whom we shall have more to say presently, to Robert Gaguin, which M. A. Claudin found at the beginning -of a work entitled _Gasparim Pergamensis orthographiae liber_, published +of a work entitled _Gasparim Pergamensis orthographiæ liber_, published in 1470, nearly twenty years after the first work at Mayence, Gutenberg is proclaimed the inventor of printing. Without any other, this testimony of a _savant_ who was the first to bring the German printers @@ -1028,7 +992,7 @@ book with Arabic figures; it was Koelhof who first used signatures to indicate to the binder the order of the sheets; it was at Eltvil that Henry Bechtermuncze, as we have already said, printed his _Vocabularium_ in German, with the types of the _Catholicon_; at Basle, Berthold -Rueppel, of Hanau, was the first established in that city which after +Rüppel, of Hanau, was the first established in that city which after Mayence did the most for printing; at Nuremberg, Koburger, who took nearly the first rank among his contemporaries, set as many as twenty-four presses to work, and was named by Badius the prince of @@ -1086,7 +1050,7 @@ learn the art of them, in order to satisfy the said Lord King; and it was undertaken by Nicholas Jenson, who took the said journey to bring intelligence of the said art and of the execution of it in the said kingdom, which first has made known the said art of impression to the -said kingdom of France" (Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal, Hf 467, pp. 410, +said kingdom of France" (Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, Hf 467, pp. 410, 411). Nicholas Jenson on his return met with a cool reception from Louis XI., @@ -1161,14 +1125,14 @@ Fust, and Schoeffer, that no really authentic portrait has transmitted their features to us. Every one will recall the fur cap and loose pantaloons of the mediocre statue at Mayence, but there is really no portrait of Gutenberg. As to Gering, M. Philippe, in his _Histoire de -l'Origine de l'Imprimerie a Paris_, publishes a grotesque figure muffled +l'Origine de l'Imprimerie à Paris_, publishes a grotesque figure muffled in the ruff of the sixteenth century, after a picture preserved at Lucerne, but for which much cannot be said. Lacaille, in his _Histoire de l'Imprimerie_, gives a full-length portrait of Gering, said to be taken from a painting in the College Montagu. The workshop of the three Germans was set up within the walls of the -Sorbonne--_in aedibus Sorbonnicis_--in 1469. There they set to work at +Sorbonne--_in ædibus Sorbonnicis_--in 1469. There they set to work at once, their printing establishment consisting simply of a room, none too light, a table, a press, and formes. Krantz doubtless struck the types chosen by the Sorbonnists, for there were then in use two sorts of @@ -1205,7 +1169,7 @@ perfection. The first Parisian printers had multiplied abbreviations and irregular contractions, and enormous difficulties and inevitable faults ensued. Further, either they had more than one punch, or the leaden matrix was deformed, for the characters frequently differ. At the same -time, we must commend them for having used the _ae_ and _[oe]_, which +time, we must commend them for having used the _æ_ and _[oe]_, which were uniformly written _e_ in the manuscripts, thus giving rise to errors without number. Their punctuation was the comma, semicolon, and full stop. @@ -1217,11 +1181,11 @@ Fichet and Heinlein had become the modest librarians of the Sorbonne, and this new employment gave them greater facilities for surveillance. The printing office did not remain inactive. It issued successively the "Orthography" of Gasparin of Bergamo, the "Letters" of Phalaris, two -books of AEneas Sylvius, the "Conspiracy of Catiline" of Sallust, the +books of Æneas Sylvius, the "Conspiracy of Catiline" of Sallust, the "Epitome of Titus Livius" of Florus, and finally the "Rhetorics" of William Fichet, which, if we may credit a letter addressed to Bessarion, was finished in 1471. Following came the "Letters" of Bessarion, the -_Elegantia Latinae Linguae_ of Valla, the first folio volume from the +_Elegantia Latinæ Linguæ_ of Valla, the first folio volume from the Sorbonne presses; and others, thirteen volumes in 1470-71 and seventeen in 1472. @@ -1247,7 +1211,7 @@ of August, 1510, after a half-century of work. The movement inaugurated by the Sorbonne was promptly followed. German workmen opened their shops nearly everywhere in France; then the French themselves scattered. At Lyons in 1472 a Frenchman was established, the -same at Angers, Caen, Metz, Troyes, Besancon, and Salins. But in the +same at Angers, Caen, Metz, Troyes, Besançon, and Salins. But in the central provinces we find Henry Mayer at Toulouse, John Neumeister at Albi; in the east Metlinger at Dijon; and Michael Wensler, of Basle, at Macon, among others, about 1493. @@ -1284,7 +1248,7 @@ printer at Vienna about 1462, but was driven thence by the publication of a pamphlet against the burgomaster of the city, and was attracted to Rome by Torquemada, who confided to him the impression of his work the _Meditationes_. Hahn was an engraver, as were also most of his -_confreres_ at that time--that is, he cut in relief designs to be +_confrères_ at that time--that is, he cut in relief designs to be intercalated in the text--and Passavant relates that the designs of the _Meditationes_ were from compositions of Fra Angelico, who died in 1455. Be that as it may, the book, the printing of which was finished on St. @@ -1424,8 +1388,8 @@ to be cut in relief in the metal. On some of the plates there is a signature, a Gothic b, the signification of which leaves a free field for conjecture, and perhaps for error. Copies of this book with the complete series of twenty plates are extremely rare; one in the -Hamilton Palace Library sold in May, 1884, for L380; the Royal Library -of Berlin recently agreed to pay L1,200 for a proof set of the plates. +Hamilton Palace Library sold in May, 1884, for £380; the Royal Library +of Berlin recently agreed to pay £1,200 for a proof set of the plates. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Plate from the _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, printed by Aldus Manutius, in 1499.] @@ -1456,7 +1420,7 @@ secluded workshops were of no benefit to the booksellers. These ill-advised artisans went still further. Apparently furious to see printing so widely spread as to render their bad woodcuts difficult to get rid of, they united in a body to interdict Gunther Zainer and -Schuessler from putting engravings into their books. They must +Schüssler from putting engravings into their books. They must nevertheless have come to an ultimate arrangement, for Zainer printed in 1477 a book on chess by Jacopo da Cessole, with vignettes. He was one of the few German printers who employed Roman characters in place of the @@ -1480,7 +1444,7 @@ Koburger was a capable and a fortunate man. He had at first put forth a Bible very indifferently illustrated with the cuts of the Cologne Bible, but he had before him something better than copying others. Michael Wohlgemuth, born at Nuremberg in 1434, was then in the full vigour of -his talent. To his school the young Albert Duerer came to study; and as +his talent. To his school the young Albert Dürer came to study; and as he was able to draw on wood as well as to engrave on copper and paint on panel, Koburger was attracted to him, and engaged him to make a set of illustrations for a book. The projected work was the _Schatzbehalter_, a @@ -1511,7 +1475,7 @@ printed by Koburger in 1493. [Illustration: Fig. 20.--The daughter of Jephthah, plate taken from the _Schatzbehalter_, engraved after Michael Wolgemuth.] -With Duerer, at the latter end of the fifteenth century, the Book was no +With Dürer, at the latter end of the fifteenth century, the Book was no more than a pretext for engravings. Thausing, his biographer, says that the great artist felt the necessity of designing an Apocalypse at Rome at the time that Luther was premeditating his religious revolution in @@ -1520,17 +1484,17 @@ face of the worldly splendours of the pontifical court. The album of fifteen large wood engravings. The Four Horsemen is the best of these plates, and the boldest; but in this gross fancy, in these poor halting old hacks, the fantastic and grand idea which the artist meant -to convey can hardly be seen. It may be said the genius of Duerer was +to convey can hardly be seen. It may be said the genius of Dürer was little adapted to vignettes, however large they were, and did not easily lend itself to the exigencies of a spun-out subject. The title of his "Apocalypse" is of its kind a curious example of German genius, but, in spite of its vigour, it does not please like an Italian headpiece or -like a French or Flemish frontispiece. The other works of Duerer +like a French or Flemish frontispiece. The other works of Dürer published in the fifteenth century, "The Life of the Virgin" and "The Passion," were also sets of prints that received a text in the sixteenth century. -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Title of the "Apocalypse," by Albert Duerer, +[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Title of the "Apocalypse," by Albert Dürer, printed in 1498. First edition, without text.] [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Title of Sebastian Brandt's "Ship of Fools," @@ -1539,7 +1503,7 @@ printed in 1497 at Basle by Bergman de Olpe.] [Illustration: Fig. 23.--The _Bibliomaniac_. Engraving from the "Ship of Fools."] -For the rest of his illustrations Duerer belongs to the sixteenth +For the rest of his illustrations Dürer belongs to the sixteenth century, and we shall have occasion to recur to his works. At present it remains to speak of a curious work printed at Basle by Bergman de Olpe in 1497, which appears to be the first comic conception of fifteenth @@ -1587,7 +1551,7 @@ workshop. At Bruges Colard Mansion illuminated the cuts of his _Metamorphoses_ of Ovid in 1484. Simple engraving appeared to him far remote from manuscripts of which the vogue had not yet passed away. At Zwoll Peter van Os, the publisher, cut up and used the xylographic -plates of the _Biblia Pauperum_, while the master _a la navette_, John +plates of the _Biblia Pauperum_, while the master _à la navette_, John of Cologne, an artist in the best sense of the word, was ornamenting certain popular publications with his designs. At Utrecht Veldener came from Louvain to establish a workshop. He published for the second time a @@ -1595,17 +1559,17 @@ _Fasciculus_ in 1480; he created a style of decoration with flowers and leaves, which shortly after developed into the trade of _Rahmenschneiders_. Antwerp had attracted Gerard de Leeu from Gouda, and he produced the romance of _Belle Vienne_. Schiedam had an inventive -engraver who illustrated an edition of the _Chevalier Delibere_ of +engraver who illustrated an edition of the _Chevalier Delibéré_ of Oliver de la Marche, in folio, with Gothic letters, after 1483, as we read in the colophon:-- - "Cet traittie fut parfait l'an mil + "Cet traittié fut parfait l'an mil Quatre cens quatre vings et trois Ainsi que sur la fin d'avril Que l'yver est en son exil, - Et que l'este fait ses explois. + Et que l'esté fait ses explois. Au bien soit pris en tous endrois - De ceulx a qui il est offert + De ceulx à qui il est offert Par celui qui _Tant a souffert_, La Marche." @@ -1615,10 +1579,10 @@ other countries. For many examples of French books published abroad, we cannot cite one German work printed in France. Spreading from the north to the south, typography had from 1490 its two principal centres at Paris and Lyons. After the success of the three Germans at the Sorbonne, -events took their own course. In 1474 Peter Caesaris and John Stol, two +events took their own course. In 1474 Peter Cæsaris and John Stol, two students who had been instructed by Gering and Krantz, founded the second establishment in Paris, at the sign of the "Soufflet Vert;" and -they printed classical works. Ten years later appeared Antony Verard, +they printed classical works. Ten years later appeared Antony Vérard, Simon Vostre, and Pigouchet, the first of whom gave to French bookselling an impulse that it has not since lost; but before them Pasquier-Bonhomme published his _Grandes Chroniques_ in 1476, three @@ -1637,11 +1601,11 @@ thence he transported architectural subjects for his curious designs in the _Heures_ of Etienne Chevalier, now at Frankfort; a precious fragment of it is preserved in the National Library of Paris. Side by side with this undoubted master, whose works are happily known, lived a more -modest artist: John Perreal, called John of Paris, painter to Charles +modest artist: John Perréal, called John of Paris, painter to Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Anne of Brittany. In joining with these two masters, to serve as a transition between -Foucquet and Perreal, John Bourdichon, designer to the kings of France +Foucquet and Perréal, John Bourdichon, designer to the kings of France from Louis XI. to Francis I., we obtain already a not despicable assemblage of living forces. Without doubt these men were not comparable either with the admirable school of Flanders, or the Germans of @@ -1682,7 +1646,7 @@ in fine editions with figures, borders, ornaments, large separate plates, and all the resources of typography. The trials made at Venice and Naples between 1473 and 1476 warranted the enterprise. Entering into partnership with Pigouchet, the two were able on the 17th of April, -1488, to place on sale the _Heures a l'Usaige de Rome_, octavo, with +1488, to place on sale the _Heures à l'Usaige de Rome_, octavo, with varied ornaments and figures. The operation having succeeded beyond their hopes, thanks to the combination of the subjects of the borders, subjects that could be turned and re-turned in all ways so as to obtain @@ -1707,7 +1671,7 @@ fantastic animals, and saints piously praying. The Middle Ages live again in these bright and charming books, French in their style, imbued with good sense and perfect toleration. -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Border in four separate blocks in the _Heures a +[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Border in four separate blocks in the _Heures à l'Usaige de Rome_, by Pigouchet, for Simon Vostre, in 1488. Small figures from the "Dance of Death."] @@ -1764,30 +1728,30 @@ painters added miniatures and ornaments. It is curious now to find what the cost to one of the great lords of the court of Charles VIII. was of one of these special copies in all the details of its impression, and we find it in a document published by M. Senemaud in a provincial journal -(_Bulletin de la Societe Archeologique de la Charente_, 1859, part 2, p. +(_Bulletin de la Société Archéologique de la Charente_, 1859, part 2, p. 91), which enables us at the same time to penetrate into a printing office of a great French publisher of the fifteenth century. According to this document, Verard did not disdain to put his own hand to the work, even to carrying the book to the house of his patron if he were a -man of consequence. It is an account of Charles de Valois-Angouleme, +man of consequence. It is an account of Charles de Valois-Angoulême, father of Francis I. He was then living at Cognac; and he ordered Verard to print separately for him on vellum the romance of Tristan, the "Book -of Consolation" of Boetius, the _Ordinaire du Chretien_, and _Heures en -Francois_, each with illuminations and binding. In the detail of +of Consolation" of Boetius, the _Ordinaire du Chrétien_, and _Heures en +François_, each with illuminations and binding. In the detail of expenses Verard omits nothing. He reckons the parchment at three sous -four deniers the sheet, the painted and illuminated figures at one ecu +four deniers the sheet, the painted and illuminated figures at one écu the large and five sols the small. We give here the outline of one of -the plates of the Tristan, ordered by the Duc d'Angouleme, reduced by +the plates of the Tristan, ordered by the Duc d'Angoulême, reduced by two-thirds, and from it it may be judged that the profession of the illuminator, even for the time, was by no means brilliant. The binding was in dark-coloured velvet, with two clasps with the arms of the Duke, which cost sixty sous each. The work finished, Verard took the route for Cognac, carrying the precious volumes. He was allowed twenty livres for carriage; and this brings the total to 207 livres 10 sous, equivalent to -L200 to L240 of present money. +£200 to £240 of present money. [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Plate from the Tristan published by Antony -Verard, a copy of which was illuminated for Charles of Angouleme.] +Verard, a copy of which was illuminated for Charles of Angoulême.] Verard had preceded Simon Vostre in the publication of books of hours, but his first volume dated 1487 was not successful for the want of @@ -1800,14 +1764,14 @@ without paging, twenty lines to the full page. This _Grandes Heures_ contained fourteen engravings, large borders in four compartments, smaller subjects and initials rubricated by hand. He also published more than two hundred editions between 1487 and 1513, and among them the -_Mystere de la Passion_, with eighty figures; the _Grandes Chroniques_, -in three folio volumes, printed by John Maurand; the _Bataille Judaique_ -of Flavius Josephus; the _Legende Doree_ of Voragine, all books for +_Mystère de la Passion_, with eighty figures; the _Grandes Chroniques_, +in three folio volumes, printed by John Maurand; the _Bataille Judaïque_ +of Flavius Josephus; the _Legende Dorée_ of Voragine, all books for which he called to his aid rubricators, illuminators, and miniaturists. From the first he had two shops where he put his productions on sale: one on the Pont Notre Dame, the other at the Palace of Justice, "au -premier pilier devant la chapelle ou l'on chante la messe de -messeigneurs les presidents." From 1499, when the Pont Notre Dame was +premier pilier devant la chapelle où l'on chante la messe de +messeigneurs les présidents." From 1499, when the Pont Notre Dame was burned, Verard transported his books to the Carrefour St. Severin. At his death in 1513 he was living in the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, "devant Nostre-Dame de Paris." @@ -1817,8 +1781,8 @@ Paris, fifteenth century.] Besides Verard, Vostre, and Pigouchet, many others will be found who imitated them in the publication of books of hours. The first was John -du Pre, who published a Paris missal in 1481, and who was at once -printer and bookseller. Like Pigouchet, Du Pre printed books of hours on +du Pré, who published a Paris missal in 1481, and who was at once +printer and bookseller. Like Pigouchet, Du Pré printed books of hours on account of provincial publishers, without dreaming of the competition he was creating for himself. The encroachments of the publishers upon one another, the friendly exchanges, the loans of plates and type, form one @@ -1836,12 +1800,12 @@ century. Thielman Kerver in his own works shows himself as the rival of Simon Vostre. The Hardouins, who followed the same profession, do not appear to have attained the success of their predecessors; and, excepting in -the _Heures a l'Usage de Rome_, published in 1503 by Gilles Hardouin on +the _Heures à l'Usage de Rome_, published in 1503 by Gilles Hardouin on the Pont au Change, at the sign of the "Rose," they servilely imitated them. There was also among the disciples of Vostre William Eustache, bookseller to the King, "tenant la boutique dedans la grant salle du -palais du coste de messeigneurs les presidens, ou sur les grans degres -du coste de la conciergerie a l'ymage St. Jean levangeliste." Eustache +palais du costé de messeigneurs les présidens, ou sur les grans degrés +du costé de la conciergerie à l'ymage St. Jean levangeliste." Eustache made use of the work of Pigouchet and Kerver, not to mention the printers of the end of the fifteenth century. @@ -1852,7 +1816,7 @@ Bourges_, and Vincent Commin, bookseller of the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, who thus appealed to his customers:-- "Qui veult en avoir? On en treuve - A tres grand marche et bon pris + A tres grand marché et bon pris A la Rose, dans la rue Neuve De Nostre-Dame de Paris." @@ -1881,7 +1845,7 @@ double titles--"Atala; or, The Child of Mystery;" "Waverley; or, Sixty Years Since"--were common, although now out of fashion. Since then came books of travels--_Voyages au Pays des Milliards_, etc. In the fifteenth century, and even since the fourteenth, a series of titles was in public -favour. There was first the _Debats_, or "Dialogues:" _Debat de la Dame +favour. There was first the _Débats_, or "Dialogues:" _Débat de la Dame et de l'Escuyer_, Paris, 1490, folio; "Dialogue of Dives and Pauper," London, Richard Pynson, 1493; and many other eccentric titles. There came also thousands of _complaintes_, a kind of lay in verse or prose; @@ -1905,7 +1869,7 @@ We can imagine the impression these bitter ironies made on the oppressed and disdained lower classes. The first "Dance of Death" was produced by Guyot Marchant in 1485, in ten leaves and seventeen engravings, in folio, with Gothic characters. Marchant describes himself as "demeurant -en Champ Gaillart a Paris le vingt-huitiesme jour de septembre mil +en Champ Gaillart à Paris le vingt-huitiesme jour de septembre mil quatre cent quatre-vingtz et cinq." The book must have gone off rapidly, for it was republished in the following year, with additions and new engravings. French illustration was already moving forward, as may be @@ -1951,7 +1915,7 @@ allusive marks did not prevail, as we shall have occasion to see, until the sixteenth century. The mark of Pigouchet has already been given; that of Thielman Kerver is conceived in the same principles of taste and art. The sign of his house being the "Unicorn," Kerver took as -supporters to his shield two unicorns _affrontees_. +supporters to his shield two unicorns _affrontées_. In these colophons are found philosophic aphorisms, satirical remarks, marvels of poetry. A certain bookseller paid court to the powerful @@ -1959,10 +1923,10 @@ university, which dispensed glory and riches to the poor tradesmen by buying many books. Andrew Bocard engraved on his mark this flattery as a border:-- - "Honneur au Roy et a la court, - Salut a l'universite - Dont nostre bien procede et sourt. - Dieu gart de Paris la cite!" + "Honneur au Roy et à la court, + Salut à l'université + Dont nostre bien procède et sourt. + Dieu gart de Paris la cité!" The Germans introduced into their colophons some vainglorious notices. Arnold Ther Hoernen, already mentioned, who printed the _Theutonista_ at @@ -1982,7 +1946,7 @@ to say that his work was perfected in 1494. Jamque Lugduni juvenes, senesque, Martias nonas celebres agebant - Magna Reginae quia prepotenti + Magna Reginæ quia prepotenti Festa parabant." [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Frontispiece to Terence, published by Treschel @@ -1998,8 +1962,8 @@ effigies more common, the portraits of one often served for another, and the booksellers used them without very much scruple. As we shall see later, this became in the sixteenth century a means of illustrating a book plainly, but only at the time when the portrait, drawn or painted, -commenced to be more widely used. Previously the _cliches_ of which we -speak went everywhere, from the Italians to the French, from AEsop to +commenced to be more widely used. Previously the _clichés_ of which we +speak went everywhere, from the Italians to the French, from Æsop to Accursius; these uncertain physiognomies began with the manuscript romances of chivalry, from whence they were servilely copied in typography. From the first the Italians mixed the ancient and the @@ -2010,7 +1974,7 @@ likeness of William Caxton. In France the author is often represented writing, and it was so up to the middle of the sixteenth century. In an edition of _Des Cas des -Nobles Hommes_, by Jean Dupre, in 1483, Boccaccio is represented seated, +Nobles Hommes_, by Jean Dupré, in 1483, Boccaccio is represented seated, having before him his French translator, Laurent de Premierfait. This plate is one of the oldest representations of authors in French books. In the _Roman de la Rose_, first edition of Paris and Lyons, in folio, @@ -2114,7 +2078,7 @@ CHAPTER III. French epics and the Renaissance--Venice and Aldus Manutius--Italian illustrators--The Germans: _Theuerdanck_, - Schaeufelein--The Book in other countries--French books at the + Schäufelein--The Book in other countries--French books at the beginning of the century, before the accession of Francis I.--Geoffroy Tory and his works--Francis I. and the Book--Robert Estienne--Lyons a centre of bookselling; Holbein's Dances of @@ -2122,7 +2086,7 @@ CHAPTER III. of the middle of the century--The school of Fontainebleau and its influence--Solomon Bernard--Cornelis de la Haye and the _Promptuaire_--John Cousin--Copper plate engraving and metal - plates--Woeriot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth + plates--Woériot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth century--How a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--Influence of Plantin on the Book; his school of engravers--General considerations--Progress in England--Coverdale's @@ -2133,7 +2097,7 @@ CHAPTER III. Our simple division into chapters will be understood without difficulty as not corresponding exactly with the most momentous epochs in the history of the Book in France and abroad. Doubtless it would be easy for -France alone to find some limits and to furnish scholastic formulae by +France alone to find some limits and to furnish scholastic formulæ by which contemporary publishers might be grouped. But in order to present, as in a synoptical table, an essential and abridged sketch of the Book in all European countries, it appeared to us more convenient to begin @@ -2162,7 +2126,7 @@ creation of a chair in Greek, in which language he was well instructed from his youth. Occupied with the idea of issuing editions of the principal Greek writers, which up to then remained in manuscript, he engaged himself in the formation of a printing office. He first -published the _Herone et Leandro_ of Musaeus in 1494, quarto, in a Greek +published the _Herone et Leandro_ of Musæus in 1494, quarto, in a Greek character apparently designed by him, and perhaps engraved by Francisco da Bologna; then the Greek grammar of Constantine Lascaris, with the date of 1494; and the works of Aristotle in five folio volumes. At the @@ -2230,7 +2194,7 @@ assistance. We find evidence of this in the Bible printed by him in The most meritorious of the artists of Venice at this time was John Andrea, known as Guadagnino. He designed the vignettes for Florus's epitome of Livy, printed at Venice for Melchior Sessa and Peter of -Ravenna (1520, folio); in 1516 he copied the plates of Duerer's +Ravenna (1520, folio); in 1516 he copied the plates of Dürer's _Apocalypse_ for that of Alexander Paganini, of Venice. A Venetian work which signalised the beginning of the sixteenth century was the _Trionfo di Fortuna_ of Sigismond Fanti, of Ferrara, printed by Agostino da @@ -2238,7 +2202,7 @@ Portese in 1527. Venice was the home of Titian, and at the present time the great artist was at the height of his glory. In 1518 two brothers, Nicholas and -Dominic dal Gesu, published a translation of the celebrated "Golden +Dominic dal Gesù, published a translation of the celebrated "Golden Legend" of Voragine. The plates which were added to the work were manifestly inspired by the school of the Venetian master. Unhappily the engravers have not always equalled the genius of the drawings. @@ -2258,7 +2222,7 @@ and the genius it possessed. If we now return from Venice to the north, to Milan, the school of Leonardo da Vinci will make itself apparent in the Book. In order of -date we will mention the _Mysterii Gesta Beatae Veronicae Virginis_, +date we will mention the _Mysterii Gesta Beatæ Veronicæ Virginis_, published by Gotardo de Ponte 1518, small quarto, with figures in the style of Luini, and Vitruvius in Italian by Cesariano. On the testimony of the author, the wood engravings in a book of Fra Luca Pacioli, _De @@ -2268,7 +2232,7 @@ does not believe this, but M. Passavant does. [Illustration: Fig. 44.--Title of the _Theuerdanck_. The flourishes of the letters are printed.] -In Germany, Nuremberg continued, with Albert Duerer and the artists of +In Germany, Nuremberg continued, with Albert Dürer and the artists of his school, to furnish book illustrations at the beginning of the century. The master reprinted his valuable engravings of the "Life of the Virgin" in 1511, and also the "Apocalypse." But after him the art @@ -2276,19 +2240,19 @@ commenced to decline; a hundred years later nothing remained of the honour and glory gained by Germany in the commencement. Among the most interesting of the Nuremberg publications is a chivalric poem by Melchior Pfinzfing, composed for the marriage of Maximilian and Mary of -Burgundy. As M. Delaborde in his _Debuts de I'Imprimerie_ well remarks, +Burgundy. As M. Delaborde in his _Débuts de I'Imprimerie_ well remarks, this is not a book destined for sale by a bookseller; it is a work of art destined by an emperor for his friends, and he saw that it was an unapproachable work. [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Plate taken from the _Theuerdanck_, representing Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. Engraved on wood after -Schaeufelein.] +Schäufelein.] Bold strokes, majestic letters, intertwined ornaments, are here multiplied. Three persons worked upon it for five years; these were, -Peutinger says, Hans Leonard Schaeufelein, the painter, Jost Necker, the -engraver, and Schoensperger, the printer of Augsburg, who quitted his +Peutinger says, Hans Leonard Schäufelein, the painter, Jost Necker, the +engraver, and Schönsperger, the printer of Augsburg, who quitted his native city for Nuremberg. When they were able to take a proof, craftsmen were unwilling to believe it to be a book composed in movable characters; they were sure, on the contrary, that it was a true @@ -2297,8 +2261,8 @@ the error was excusable. This work, which is now called the _Theuerdanck_, from the name of the hero of the romance, is ornamented with a number of wood engravings, numbered by Arabic figures. We reproduce one of the last plates, in which Theuerdanck--Maximilian--is -introduced to the Queen--Mary of Burgundy. The designs of Schaeufelein -recall very nearly the work of Albert Duerer, his master; but, as we said +introduced to the Queen--Mary of Burgundy. The designs of Schäufelein +recall very nearly the work of Albert Dürer, his master; but, as we said of him, these works, heavy and dull, although very clever, do not always suit as vignettes. Again, our criticism does not extend so much to the _Theuerdanck_, whose letters, excessively ornamented and much flattened, @@ -2307,7 +2271,7 @@ slender character, which would be completely overshadowed by the German plate. When we have mentioned the _Passional Christi_ of Lucas Cranach, -published by J. Gruenenberg at Wittemberg in 1521--twenty-six mediocre +published by J. Grünenberg at Wittemberg in 1521--twenty-six mediocre wood engravings--we shall have cited the most important of the interesting and rare volumes published in Germany at the commencement of the sixteenth century. @@ -2339,8 +2303,8 @@ The taste for historical works induced the publishers to produce _La Mer des Histoires_, which had already been published in the fifteenth century; Thielman Kerver put forth the "Compendium" of Robert Gaguin in 1500 on account of Durand Gerlier and John Petit. The French version of -this work was given in 1514 by Galliot du Pre, with vignettes, and -afterwards under the name of _Mirouer Historial_, by Renaud Chaudiere in +this work was given in 1514 by Galliot du Pré, with vignettes, and +afterwards under the name of _Mirouer Historial_, by Renaud Chaudière in 1520, by Nyverd, and others; the same with the _Rozier Historial_, with figures, in 1522 and 1528. Among the most popular works was the _Illustrations de la Gaule et Singularitez de Troye_, by John le Maire @@ -2351,7 +2315,7 @@ prevailed in France at the beginning of the sixteenth century. We give from the curious book of John le Maire an interesting woodcut representing Queen Anne of Brittany as Juno, in which we can without -much difficulty see a remarkable sketch by a Bourdichon or a Perreal. +much difficulty see a remarkable sketch by a Bourdichon or a Perréal. The truly French style of this figure leaves no doubt as to its origin. At the same time, it may possibly have been inspired by the Virgin of a German master, say one of 1466, judging from the accessories, and even @@ -2398,13 +2362,13 @@ were no longer mechanical, commonplace, and tiresome blocks, but, on the contrary, more often works specially designed and engraved by artists of merit. -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Title of the _Entree d'Eleonore d'Autriche a +[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Title of the _Entree d'Eléonore d'Autriche a Paris_, by Guillaume Bochetel. Printed by Geoffroy Tory in May, 1531, quarto.] Geoffroy Tory, born at Bourges in 1480, continued after Vostre and Verard the onward march of illustration of the Book. He was a sort of -encyclopaedist, who knew and foresaw everything, but with a singularly +encyclopædist, who knew and foresaw everything, but with a singularly subtler and finer genius than his predecessors. There is now very little doubt that at first Tory was an engraver and printer. Moreover, he published with Jean Petit one of his first volumes, the geography of @@ -2414,12 +2378,12 @@ engravings (_Valerii Probi Grammatici Opusculum_, 1510), waiting until his good star should place him on the right road. He had for his mark, say the bibliographers, the cross of Lorraine [Symbol: double cross], small enough to be lost in the ornamentation of his plates. Really this -sign is found in Tory's mark--the "Pot Casse"--the broken jar--and also +sign is found in Tory's mark--the "Pot Cassé"--the broken jar--and also sometimes in the letter G, which was his ordinary signature. This opinion, which we will not try to contradict in a popular work like this, appears to us to err, as others used this mark, as may be judged from the essentially different touches of engravings bearing the cross -of Lorraine, and particularly those of Woeriot in the middle of the +of Lorraine, and particularly those of Woériot in the middle of the century. If M. A. Bernard[A] may be credited, Geoffroy Tory cultivated all the @@ -2437,7 +2401,7 @@ tendencies, it is purely a French work, and the specimen given here is a convincing proof. [Footnote A: _Geoffroy Tory, Peintre et Graveur, Premier Imprimeur -Royal, Reformateur de l'Orthographe et de la Typographie_: Paris, 1857, +Royal, Réformateur de l'Orthographe et de la Typographie_: Paris, 1857, 8vo.] [Illustration: Fig. 48.--Full page of the _Heures_ of Simon de Colines, @@ -2452,7 +2416,7 @@ Geoffroy Tory composed a curious book, as poetic as learned, in which he studied at once the form of the letter from the typographic and the emblematic point of view, and also the French orthography of the time. He tells us himself that he was brought to commence this book on the -fete-day of the kings, 1523, when, after a frugal repast, he was, he +fête-day of the kings, 1523, when, after a frugal repast, he was, he says, "dreaming on my bed and revolving my memory, thinking of a thousand little fancies, serious and mirthful, among which I thought of some antique letters that I had made for Monseigneur the treasurer for @@ -2463,9 +2427,9 @@ deue proportion des lettres ... selon le corps et le visage humain_, and he published it himself in small folio, putting upon it the sign of Gilles de Gourmont, in 1529. -At heart Tory had been fascinated by the theories of Duerer on the +At heart Tory had been fascinated by the theories of Dürer on the proportions of the human body; and he says, "The noble German painter -Albert Duerer is greatly to be praised that he has so well brought to +Albert Dürer is greatly to be praised that he has so well brought to light his art of painting in designing geometrical forms, the ramparts of war, and the proportions of the human body." He wished to indicate the true measure of letters to his contemporaries, "the number of points @@ -2484,7 +2448,7 @@ geometrical letters, but he was carried away, after the fashion of the time, by Greek and Roman models, perhaps a little further than he meant, losing himself in the midst of idle dissertations. To these geometrical engravings he added small and charming figures, said to be by Jean -Perreal, as well as emblematical letters of the nature of the Y which is +Perréal, as well as emblematical letters of the nature of the Y which is here given, with explanatory text and commentary. To him this Y had two branches: one of virtue and one of vice; that of virtue shows palms, crowns, a sceptre, and a book; that of vice birches, a gallows, and @@ -2503,7 +2467,7 @@ own hand sixteen years before their publication. Besides, our doubts as to the cross of Lorraine being the exclusive signature of Tory, as has been believed, lead us to think it the collective mark of a workshop, as we meet it on works long after the death of the master. As a proof, -the mark is found on the engravings of _L'Entree du Roi a Paris_ in +the mark is found on the engravings of _L'Entrée du Roi à Paris_ in 1549, which cannot be taken as a posthumous work of Tory, for these engravings had their origin at a certain and special date. But in spite of the absence of the monogram, the admirable block from the Diodorus @@ -2521,7 +2485,7 @@ point of the illustration of the Book before the exaggerations of the school of Fontainebleau. Geoffroy Tory was not the publisher. The Diodorus Siculus, doubtless prepared two or three years before, was not published until 1535, in quarto, with his ordinary mark of the "Pot -Casse." +Cassé." [Illustration: Fig. 52.--Macault reading to Francis I. his translation of Diodorus Siculus. Wood engraving attributed to Tory.] @@ -2533,7 +2497,7 @@ interested him more than vignettes in books and the efforts of printers; but, at the same time, books occupied him. He studied much, and in his travels accumulated many volumes. An account in the French National Archives shows that Claude Chappuis, his librarian, packed entire cases, -which were sent to Dauphine at the time of the wars of Piedmont, the +which were sent to Dauphiné at the time of the wars of Piedmont, the carriage costing twenty livres tournois. Francis had, moreover, following sudden impulses, curious fits of wantonness and mischief. It was perceived a little later that the doctrines of Luther were @@ -2549,7 +2513,7 @@ book, it is clear also that it is their duty to put away the wine with which each of them makes himself drunk." [Illustration: Fig. 53.--Robert Estienne, after the engraving in the -_Chronologie Collee_.] +_Chronologie Collée_.] This piece is only cited to show to what lengths matters had gone, thanks to printing. It is very certain that all the pamphlets, placards, @@ -2559,14 +2523,14 @@ technical question; books merited encouragement, at least as much as castigation, and besides, as time passed, they gradually transformed men and ideas. In spite of apparent severities, was not the King himself a little touched by contact with the new religion, like his sister -Marguerite, or his sister-in-law, Renee of Ferrara? However that may be, +Marguerite, or his sister-in-law, Renée of Ferrara? However that may be, he twice showed himself a resolute partisan of the celebrated Robert Estienne, son-in-law and associate of Simon de Colines, whose works in point of erudition and typography assumed day by day more importance. Robert Estienne had the great honour of being chosen from all his contemporaries by King Francis as the royal printer. This prince had ordered to be engraved for him by Claude Garamond, after the design of -Ange Vergece, the first cutter of matrices of his time, a special Greek +Ange Vergèce, the first cutter of matrices of his time, a special Greek character in three sizes, which was used in 1544 to compose the "Ecclesiastical History" of Eusebius. These are the famous royal types--_typi regii_--as Estienne did not fail to indicate on the @@ -2624,8 +2588,8 @@ printer, was not the first, as a copy of a German edition is known, because in the Lyons edition the cuts are worn and broken. However, the Cabinet d'Estampes of Paris has some of the figures of the Dance with a German text, probably printed by Froben at Basle. Treschel's title was -_Les Simulachres et Historiees Faces de la Mort autant elegamment -pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginees_, and the volume in quarto +_Les Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort autant elegamment +pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginées_, and the volume in quarto was printed by Frelon. The _Icones veteris testamenti_, which preceded the publication of the "Dance of Death," had also been printed at Basle before Lyons. @@ -2650,7 +2614,7 @@ At the commencement of the century Basle had a school of _Formschneiders_ working for export. Besides the numerous products used at Lyons, it had also a trade in wood blocks, which, having been used, were afterwards sold. Among these exchanges of engravings were many -plates of Brandt's "Ship of Fools," sold in 1520 to Galliot du Pre, +plates of Brandt's "Ship of Fools," sold in 1520 to Galliot du Pré, publisher, of Paris, who used them in the _Eloge de la Folie_ of Erasmus. @@ -2725,52 +2689,52 @@ of Marguerite, Duchess of Savoy, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons.] [Illustration: Fig. 59.--Portraits of Francis, dauphin, and of Charles, -Duke of Angouleme, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons. Woodcuts -taken from Roville's _Promptuaire des Medailles_.] +Duke of Angoûleme, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons. Woodcuts +taken from Roville's _Promptuaire des Médailles_.] The workshops of the second city of France, we see, had at this time attained considerable importance; but before the books of which we shall -speak, Roville published two anonymous books, one _L'Entree du Roi Henri -II. a Lyon_, in 1549, ornamented with very graceful woodcuts, the other -the _Promptuaire des Medailles_, comprising a series of charming +speak, Roville published two anonymous books, one _L'Entrée du Roi Henri +II. à Lyon_, in 1549, ornamented with very graceful woodcuts, the other +the _Promptuaire des Médailles_, comprising a series of charming portraits under the pretence of reproductions from the antique. The -designs of the _Entree_ are often attributed to John Cousin, as it is a +designs of the _Entrée_ are often attributed to John Cousin, as it is a rule with certain amateurs to give a known name to a work; but it must be remembered that Lyons then had celebrated artists, Petit-Bernard, alluded to above, and Cornelis de la Haye, of whom we have more to say; and it is not necessary to go to Paris or to Rome to find the author of these illustrations. -[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Captain of foot from the _Entree de Henri II. a +[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Captain of foot from the _Entree de Henri II. à Lyon_ (1549).] Cornelis de la Haye was a painter who executed nearly the same work as Francis Clouet in Paris, portraits on panel, in a clear and harmonious tone, then much the fashion. During a journey of the King, he had, if -Brantome may be credited, portrayed the entire court, keeping the +Brantôme may be credited, portrayed the entire court, keeping the sketches for himself. Ten or fifteen years after, Catherine de Medicis, passing through Lyons, saw these portraits and highly praised them, recognising the old costumes, astonished at the courtiers of the day, whom she had never seen in such dress. This artist is now known, thanks to various works that have been found, among others two portraits of the -sons of Francis I., preserved by Gaignieres, who attributed them +sons of Francis I., preserved by Gaignières, who attributed them resolutely to Cornelis, doubtless on the faith of inscriptions that have disappeared. Both of them were engraved on wood at Lyons and published -in Roville's book the _Promptuaire des Medailles_, mentioned above, +in Roville's book the _Promptuaire des Médailles_, mentioned above, with small differences of detail altogether insignificant. It is not impossible then that Cornelis designed these portraits, and that they -were drawn on wood after the cabinet models spoken of by Brantome. The +were drawn on wood after the cabinet models spoken of by Brantôme. The delicate figures of the _Promptuaire_ are the work of a master; and the differences mentioned are those of the artist, not of the copyist, who would not be permitted to change anything. It is the first time, we believe, that these comparisons have been made; they will perhaps help the learned Lyonnais to pierce the mystery, but in any case our suppositions are more honourable to Cornelis de la Haye than the fancies -of Robert Dumesnil (_Peintre-graveur Francais_, tome vi., p. 343). To +of Robert Dumesnil (_Peintre-graveur Français_, tome vi., p. 343). To judge by the four little medallions here reproduced, the art of engraving on wood was rarely more skilful than in these portraits. It would not be astonishing if a man like Cornelis had designed the figures -of the _Entree de Henri II._ In any case, why should we choose John +of the _Entrée de Henri II._ In any case, why should we choose John Cousin instead of Petit-Bernard? At this time, we know, the kings carried in their suite their ordinary painters; but we do not know that John Cousin followed the court to Lyons in 1549. He did not hold an @@ -2783,7 +2747,7 @@ King for mathematics. This profession of printer for mathematics had its difficulties of engraving, for Le Royer tells us in his preface that he had himself finished the plates commenced by Albin Olivier. In another practical treatise, entitled _Livre de Portraiture_, published in 1593, -John Cousin is styled _peintre geometrien_. It is beyond doubt that this +John Cousin is styled _peintre géometrien_. It is beyond doubt that this master produced for many works figures and ornaments, but what were the books? The manner was then to repeat the engraved borders of titles, the _passe-partout_, in the centre of which the text was printed. Cousin @@ -2795,7 +2759,7 @@ collection of engravings for title-pages for the use of publishers. [Illustration: Fig. 61.--Title of John Cousin's _Livre de Portraiture_, published in 1593 by Le Clerc. (The spot on the title is in the -original, preserved among the prints of the Bibliotheque Nationale.)] +original, preserved among the prints of the Bibliothèque Nationale.)] It is about this time that metal plates may be seen in conjunction with wood engraving in the illustration of the Book, and the best artists @@ -2812,7 +2776,7 @@ happened that the artists of the burin wished to employ their art in illustration, and taste was soon drawn to the new process. In France the first volume of this kind was printed in 1488 by Topie de -Pymont in folio: the _Peregrinations en Terre Sainte_ of Bernard de +Pymont in folio: the _Pérégrinations en Terre Sainte_ of Bernard de Breydenbach, with figures on engraved plates copied from the Mayence edition of 1486. Since this manner was abandoned until about 1550, as much for the reasons given above as for others, we only meet with a @@ -2820,26 +2784,26 @@ stray plate now and again, which remains as a bait, and relates to nothing. Under the reign of Henri II. the smallness of the volumes did not always admit of wood engravings, and the artists in metal found a footing among illustrators; they made attempts, such as that of the -_Histoire de Jason_ of Rene Boivin in 1563, which came out under -Charles IX. in a charming volume of engraved plates by P. Woeriot. +_Histoire de Jason_ of Réné Boivin in 1563, which came out under +Charles IX. in a charming volume of engraved plates by P. Woériot. The "Emblems" of Georgette de Montenay were also in the burlesque style of Alciati, but they had an advantage, as the author assures us:-- - "Alciat fist des emblemes exquis, + "Alciat fist des emblèmes exquis, Lesquels, voyant de plusieurs requis, - Desir me prist de commencer les miens, + Désir me prist de commencer les miens, Lesquels je croy estre premiers chrestiens." This orthodoxy does not make them more intelligible, but the engravings -of Woeriot, unskilful as they are, import an element of interest which +of Woériot, unskilful as they are, import an element of interest which surpasses the rest. It was always at Lyons, the rival and often the master of Paris in typography, that the author printed his work. By the privilege dated 1566, five years before publication, we see that -it is permitted to Peter Woeriot, engraver of the Duke of Lorraine, to +it is permitted to Peter Woériot, engraver of the Duke of Lorraine, to portray, engrave, and cut in copper the said figures called emblems for -the time and term of five years (18th October, 1566). Peter Woeriot +the time and term of five years (18th October, 1566). Peter Woériot sometimes signed his prints with the small Lorraine cross adopted by Geoffroy Tory's workshop, as may be seen in our engraving. @@ -2860,8 +2824,8 @@ unworthiness of its author or of its heroes. From this time the Book has left its golden age to enter into the boastings of courtiers and political abstractions. -[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Engraving by P. Woeriot for Georgette de -Montenay's _Emblemes_.] +[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Engraving by P. Woériot for Georgette de +Montenay's _Emblèmes_.] Among the publications opposed to the Government of the time, the two associates James Tortorel and John Perrissin, of Lyons, had published a @@ -2879,7 +2843,7 @@ portraits of authors diffused by the pencil of Clouet and his school were commonly put at the head of their works. We cannot say whether Clouet himself designed the portraits of Tiraqueau and of Taillemont in 1553; of Du Billon, the author of the _Fort Inexpugnable_, in 1555; -Papon and Ambroise Pare in 1561; Grevin, Ramus, and others; but the +Papon and Ambroise Paré in 1561; Grevin, Ramus, and others; but the precision of these physiognomies recalls the peculiar manner of the French artists of the sixteenth century. The "Poems" of Ronsard in 1586 contains a series of very clever portraits, among them that of Muret, @@ -2894,7 +2858,7 @@ in its own time; and Bacon took from it the idea of his "Advancement of Learning." Speaking of the Duc de Nevers, it will not be without interest to our -readers to mention here a manuscript found by us in the Bibliotheque +readers to mention here a manuscript found by us in the Bibliothèque Nationale, which enables us to give an account of the work then necessary for the publication of an illustrated book. In 1577 the Duke arranged for the impression of an apologetic book, of which no trace @@ -2930,7 +2894,7 @@ through the most important book house of the century: the Plantins of Antwerp. Christopher Plantin, like Jenson, came originally from Tours. After -having learned his art with Mace at Caen, he went to Paris, from which +having learned his art with Macé at Caen, he went to Paris, from which the wars soon drove him. He left for the Low Countries, and there Philip II. nominated him as chief printer--"architypographus." Established at Antwerp in 1555, he surrounded himself, as had the Estiennes and @@ -2941,7 +2905,7 @@ His artistic probity caused him to submit the proofs of his works to strangers, with promise of recompense for faults indicated; the Estiennes employed the same system. Plantin, not to be behind any of his contemporaries in typographical perfection, brought from France the -celebrated type-founder William Lebe, and charged him to furnish a +celebrated type-founder William Lebé, and charged him to furnish a special fount.[A] Under the orders of Philip II., he printed the celebrated Polyglot Bible, in eight folio volumes, absolutely perfect in its execution; unfortunately the Spanish Government, having advanced @@ -2952,8 +2916,8 @@ but he took courage and overcame his difficulties, until he became, in mark was a hand holding a compass, with the motto "Labore et constantia." -[Footnote A: In the Bibliotheque Nationale is a copy of an octavo _Album -de Caracteres_, in which Lebe has written, "This gloss, made in Paris +[Footnote A: In the Bibliothèque Nationale is a copy of an octavo _Album +de Caractères_, in which Lebé has written, "This gloss, made in Paris (1574) by me, is my fourteenth letter, and the text is made on the pattern of the preceding one for size, but of a better art; and from this was printed the great Bible of Antwerp by Plantin, to whom I sold a @@ -3017,9 +2981,9 @@ cease to be. They knew in the sixteenth century what perfidious accusations or excessive praises were worth. The Book followed the fate of its author. If the writer was burned, so was his book. Witness the _Christianismi Restitutio_ of the Catholic Servetus, printed at Vienne, -in Dauphine, and consigned to the flames with its author at Geneva in +in Dauphiné, and consigned to the flames with its author at Geneva in 1553. A single copy was saved from the fire, and is now preserved in the -Bibliotheque Nationale; it is the identical copy annotated by Colladon, +Bibliothèque Nationale; it is the identical copy annotated by Colladon, the accuser of the unhappy Servetus, and still bears traces of fire on its leaves. @@ -3037,8 +3001,8 @@ type, or "black letter," and the woodcuts were of the coarsest kind. An exception was the beautiful Prayer-book of John Day, 1578, known as Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book, from the fine portrait of the Queen, which we reproduce, on the previous page; but in this the woodcuts were -designed by Albert Duerer and Hans Holbein. Pynson was the first to use -Roman type in England, in the _Oratio in pace nuperrima_, 1518, quarto; +designed by Albert Dürer and Hans Holbein. Pynson was the first to use +Roman type in England, in the _Oratio in pace nuperrimâ_, 1518, quarto; and the first English Bible in Roman type was printed at Edinburgh in 1576. It is thought that until about 1600 printers were their own type-founders, as no record exists of founding as a separate trade until @@ -3142,9 +3106,9 @@ CHAPTER IV. and their work in Holland--Sebastian Cramoisy and the Imprimerie Royale--Illustration with Callot, Della Bella, and Abraham Bosse--The publishers and the Hotel de Rambouillet--The reign of - Louis XIV., Antoine Vitre syndic at his accession--His works and + Louis XIV., Antoine Vitré syndic at his accession--His works and mortifications; the polyglot Bible of Le Jay--Art and illustrators - of the grand century--Sebastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and + of the grand century--Sébastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and Chauveau--Leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the Book for the eighteenth century--The Book in England in the seventeenth century. @@ -3217,7 +3181,7 @@ _Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum_, into which he crowded nearly forty figures. He united also with a certain grace the sacred and the profane, placing among ideal saints the sinning fine ladies of the time, with their large collarettes and jewels falling on naked breasts. The work of -Andrew Valladier, chaplain of the King, entitled _Metanealogie Sacree_, +Andrew Valladier, chaplain of the King, entitled _Métanéalogie Sacrée_, published by Peter Chevallier in 1609, was adorned with a title of this particular kind, in which Gaultier had no rival, and which preserves the precision of Flemish masters in the detail of ornaments of the toilet. @@ -3227,9 +3191,9 @@ publisher, who had established his shop in the Rue St. Jacques at the sign of the "Stork." We shall have occasion to speak of him later in connection with the Royal Printing House, of which he was the first director; he is mentioned now because in 1611 Leonard Gaultier engraved -for him the frontispiece of _L'Aigle Francais_, a collection of sermons +for him the frontispiece of _L'Aigle Français_, a collection of sermons by Thomas Girault. The publisher used the same plate in 1618 for the -sermons of Raymond de Hezeque. +sermons of Raymond de Hézèque. Besides the publications of Sebastian Cramoisy and Chevallier, Leonard Gaultier adorned also those of Nicholas Buon and many other publishers @@ -3253,7 +3217,7 @@ XIII. Leonard Gaultier composed also small vignettes for an edition of Homer, but they are mediocre and unskilful, and it must be said that there were others following the same path. John Picart made a frontispiece with architecture and figures for the _Histoire de la -Maison de Chatillon-sur-Marne_ for account of Sebastian Cramoisy. A cold +Maison de Châtillon-sur-Marne_ for account of Sebastian Cramoisy. A cold and hard artist he was, the rival of Gaultier, and one of the most employed of the vignette engravers of Paris. There was also Jaspar Isaac, a mediocre craftsman, but who could design clever titles, among @@ -3265,13 +3229,13 @@ accommodate itself to reduced spaces, and that he was not working in the field necessary to his inventive powers. We mention his portrait of Louis XIV. at the head of the _Code Louis XIV._; the title of the _Perfection du Chrestien_, in which is included a portrait of Cardinal -Richelieu, A. Vitre, 1647, folio; that of the _Instruction du Dauphin_ +Richelieu, A. Vitré, 1647, folio; that of the _Instruction du Dauphin_ for Cramoisy, 1640; that of the works of St. Bernard for the Royal -Printing House; and, perhaps the best of all, the _Poesies_ of Pope +Printing House; and, perhaps the best of all, the _Poésies_ of Pope Urban VIII., of which we here give a copy. [Illustration: Fig. 71.--Title engraved by Claude Mellan for Urban -VIII.'s _Poesies_, printed at the Royal Printing House, in 1642.] +VIII.'s _Poésies_, printed at the Royal Printing House, in 1642.] Lyons did not remain far behind in the movement, but how changed from its great reputation of the sixteenth century! J. de Fornazeris engraved @@ -3282,14 +3246,14 @@ bookseller Picquet ordered from him the title for the _Annales Minorum_ in 1628. Everywhere taste was modelled on the works of the capital, to name only the principal centres, Rouen, Rheims, Sens, down to Venes, a small town of Tarn, where William de Nautonnier published in 1603 his -curious book _Mecometrie_, whose frontispiece was bordered by views of +curious book _Mécométrie_, whose frontispiece was bordered by views of cities, with an equestrian portrait of King Henry. And if we pass to Germany, we find Mayence with mediocre engravings for titles according to the formula and process used elsewhere, the title of the _Droit Civil_ of Aymar Vailius, that of the works of St. Bonaventura -in 1609 for the bookseller Antoine Hierat, and that of the _Viridarium -Virtutum_, rather cleverly treated by the burin in 1610. What a period +in 1609 for the bookseller Antoine Hiérat, and that of the _Viridarium +Virtutûm_, rather cleverly treated by the burin in 1610. What a period had passed since Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoeffer! There was still one Yves Schoeffer at Mayence, but only the name lived; nothing more remained of the old printers of the other century. It was the same at @@ -3307,7 +3271,7 @@ set of the Dance of Death on copper, published by Miegen, 1621. At Jena and Frankfort-on-the-Main were prosperous printing houses, but engravings and ornamentation were neglected. Frankfort employed the -frontispiece in the _Traite du Commerce_ of Sigismond Scaccia, published +frontispiece in the _Traité du Commerce_ of Sigismond Scaccia, published by Zuner in 1648; it was divided into compartments, in which the Bourse, the Exchange, and the port of the city were represented. @@ -3332,7 +3296,7 @@ scenes that they depicted without at all copying their predecessors. From 1599, the date of the publication of the _Hortus Deliciarum_, one of their best works, up to about 1623, they were in Holland, at Arnheim and at Amsterdam. In 1623 we find one of them, the most celebrated, -Crispin the younger, designing figures for the _Manege Royal_ of +Crispin the younger, designing figures for the _Manège Royal_ of Pluvinel, published by Angelier in Paris, and for another edition, with folding plates, in 1624 for William Lenoir, at the sign of the "White Rose Crowned." This magnificent work, in which the King, Louis XIII., is @@ -3350,10 +3314,10 @@ forgotten poet; and it is due to truth to recognise how much Pass was above his collaborators. The following year, 1625, he engraved the _Dionysiaques_ of Nonus, for Robert Fouet, and the _Roman des Romans_ of Du Verdier, comprising more than ten engravings, in a very free and bold -manner. The _Berger Extravagant_ and the _Academie de l'Espee_ came in +manner. The _Berger Extravagant_ and the _Académie de l'Espée_ came in 1628, among numerous others. -[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Title of Pluvinel's _Manege Royal_, engraved by +[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Title of Pluvinel's _Manège Royal_, engraved by Crispin Pass in 1624.] To speak truly, Crispin Pass did not devote himself entirely to Parisian @@ -3389,14 +3353,14 @@ and employ his entire activity in the discovery of these undiscoverable books, which are concealed as soon as they are met with. One of the most esteemed of their works is the _De Imitatione_ of Thomas -a Kempis, printed by John and Daniel Elzevir about 1653, and known as +à Kempis, printed by John and Daniel Elzevir about 1653, and known as the edition without date. But as the association of John and Daniel is known to have lasted from 1652 to 1654, the date 1653 appears to be very plausible. We reproduce the entire title of this typographical _bijou_, which merited a cleverer engraver. The rarest of all the numerous Elzevirs, possibly by reason of the -popularity of its subject, is the _Pastissier Francois_, Louis and +popularity of its subject, is the _Pastissier François_, Louis and Daniel Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1655, of which M. Morgand had an uncut copy, measuring a hundred and forty-three millimetres, in 1878. The Benzon copy sold in 1875 for three thousand two hundred and fifty-five francs. @@ -3411,7 +3375,7 @@ and a trade requiring all the skill and resources of others, they wisely availed themselves of these, gathering for themselves honour and profit without having done more than seize their opportunity. Employing the characters of Claude Garamond, of James Sanlecques, and the papers of -Angouleme, M. Didot thence claims them as French publishers. +Angoulême, M. Didot thence claims them as French publishers. In France the Elzevirs had no rivals; but a fashion was introduced from the end of the sixteenth century of associating together publishers in @@ -3419,7 +3383,7 @@ the production of important and costly books. There were, among others, the company of the "Grand Navire" in 1610, of the "Source" in 1622, and of the "Soleil" in 1629. In 1631 several publishers united and founded a second company of the "Grand Navire." These were the two Cramoisys, -Sebastian and Gabriel, Denis Bechet, John Branchu, Denis Moreau, Claude +Sebastian and Gabriel, Denis Béchet, John Branchu, Denis Moreau, Claude Sonnius, and Denis Thierry. The associates took a ship as their mark, but without putting their names on the masts, as the original company of the "Grand Navire" had done. They published, at common expense and @@ -3444,7 +3408,7 @@ establishment, founded by the King in 1640, was installed within the Louvre, in a long series of rooms which formed a workshop without rival in the world. Sublet des Noyers was named superintendent, Trichet du Fresne corrector; and under this triple direction the presses commenced -to work. The first book was the _Imitation de Jesus-Christ_, dated 1640, +to work. The first book was the _Imitation de Jésus-Christ_, dated 1640, folio, a fine book enough, but not to be compared to the Elzevir editions. The types used in this book are attributed to Claude Garamond, founder of the sixteenth century, to whom are due the Greek types of @@ -3457,7 +3421,7 @@ so little in earnest that it turned the workshops into a stable, called "the little stable of the King," at the commencement of the eighteenth century. -[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Plate taken from the _Lumiere du Cloistre_. +[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Plate taken from the _Lumière du Cloistre_. Copper plate by Callot.] To return to the artists of the Book under Louis XIII. and Cardinal @@ -3471,7 +3435,7 @@ made them for the _Coustumier de Lorraine_, the _Harpalice_ of Bracciolini, and for a crowd of others of which the enumeration would be tedious. Certain of his works passed into Italy, where they raised a little the debased level of the Book. Then he adorned several works with -etchings, among them the _Lumiere du Cloistre_, published by Francis +etchings, among them the _Lumière du Cloistre_, published by Francis Langlois 1646. It was one of the symbolic and sententious works with which the public taste is never satiated, and a kind of guide for the priest. At the bottom of the little etching here given, representing @@ -3479,8 +3443,8 @@ birds falling from a tree, we read,-- "Ses petits hors du nid le courbeau jette en bas, Lorsque par leur blancheur ils lui sont dissemblables. - Le bon prelat de mesme au cloistre n'admet pas - Ceux qui n'ont rien d'esgal a ses moeurs venerables." + Le bon prélat de mesme au cloistre n'admet pas + Ceux qui n'ont rien d'esgal à ses moeurs vénérables." Callot also made another set of emblems on the life of the Virgin Mary, and published in 1620 a series of prints in quarto for the tragedy of @@ -3505,7 +3469,7 @@ Della Bella was a painter of groups, of ornaments, of subjects somewhat heavy and overdrawn, but which, after numerous transformations, opened a new way to the vignettists of the eighteenth century. -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Title of the _Maniere Universelle_, by +[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Title of the _Manière Universelle_, by Desargues, in 1643, by Abraham Bosse.] With Abraham Bosse the decoration of the Book took a considerable @@ -3515,7 +3479,7 @@ for graceful illustration and harmony between the vignette and the printed page. His prodigious fecundity made him attempt every style; and after the gaieties of the print in which he laughed with his contemporaries, he adopted a grave air to trace more severe subjects on -copper. However, the book entitled _La Maniere Universelle_, by +copper. However, the book entitled _La Manière Universelle_, by Desargues, with numerous geometrical figures and an agreeable frontispiece, bearing the dedication to the Seigneur de Noyers, superintendent of the Royal Printing House, was a critical work, in @@ -3534,19 +3498,19 @@ booksellers of the Palace under Louis XIII.] He has left us in a celebrated print a representation of a bookseller's shop of his time. It is for us an interesting page, in which is shown -simply and rather naively the picturesque side of these stores, with the +simply and rather naïvely the picturesque side of these stores, with the dealer and his wife selling new works to their customers. The shop is compact, and very much like the open-air stalls of to-day; posting-bills above the shelves indicate the "new books;" and if the inscriptions given by Bosse be credited, the Palace dealer offered his books with -singular eclecticism: Boccaccio, Aretin, the _Astree_ of D'Urfe, the +singular eclecticism: Boccaccio, Aretin, the _Astrée_ of D'Urfé, the Bible, and Machiavelli. In the hands of the woman is seen the romance _Marianne_: "Icy les cavaliers les plus adventureux - En lisant les romans s'animent a combattre; + En lisant les romans s'animent à combattre; Et de leur passion les amants langoureux - Flattent les mouvements par des vers de theatre," + Flattent les mouvements par des vers de théâtre," says the text of Bosse. What was commonly done then is still done, shopping and rummaging the stalls, and those of the Palace were @@ -3560,23 +3524,23 @@ still see to-day at the Palace and the University, but of which the number is so multiplied in all these places that in the Palace they count more than other dealers; and as to the neighbourhood of the University, they are obliged, in order to lodge the rest, to extend the -ancient bounds from St. Yves to the river (Sauval, _Antiquites de +ancient bounds from St. Yves to the river (Sauval, _Antiquités de Paris_, viii., 354). In fact, each year saw an increase in the number of publishers in corporation, with syndicate and adjuncts. Under the reign of Louis XIII., the single year 1610 had fifty to take rank, and among them -Antoine Vitre, who was to become the most illustrious of his +Antoine Vitré, who was to become the most illustrious of his contemporaries. But, as there were no more than six printers, it may be inferred that all the rest were booksellers, in the true sense of the word, of those who encumbered afterwards the great _salle_ of which -Sauval speaks. Antoine Vitre was syndic in May, 1643, on the accession +Sauval speaks. Antoine Vitré was syndic in May, 1643, on the accession of Louis XIV. He had four adjuncts. With him the Book marked the solemn style that the commencement of the century had given to it. Royal printer for the Oriental languages from 1621, he undertook a Syriac work, the first that was attempted in Paris. The project of a Polyglot Bible gave him the idea of acquiring for the King the Oriental -manuscripts and matrices of Savary de Breves. The King left to him the +manuscripts and matrices of Savary de Brèves. The King left to him the care of negotiating the business, but did not reimburse him without numerous difficulties, in the midst of which the printer was made to lose the means of conveniently continuing his trade. The advocate Le Jay @@ -3584,12 +3548,12 @@ charging himself with the enormous expenses necessitated by the Polyglot Bible, it was composed in the hope that Cardinal Richelieu would pay the cost. He was willing to do so, but required that his name should figure on the book; and as Le Jay, an independent man, formally opposed it, -Vitre met with ill-will from the Minister, which increased from day to +Vitré met with ill-will from the Minister, which increased from day to day. In 1645 the impression was finished, but Le Jay was ruined, and if we admire the paper, the type, and the extraordinary size of the nine volumes of the Polyglot Bible, we find in it so many faults, errors, and misprints that it has fallen to nearly nothing, hardly being worth its -binding. There were terrible mortifications in the business, and Vitre +binding. There were terrible mortifications in the business, and Vitré had to submit to them more than any one. Nevertheless he did not let his presses stand still, and he published successively Arabic, Turkish, and Persian works. His action against the Savary heirs, as representing the @@ -3597,7 +3561,7 @@ King, in the acquisition mentioned above, continued also after the impression of the Bible, and hindered his progress. He struggled on; and the assembly of clergy, of which he was the printer, sought to help him out of his difficulties. The matter being once terminated, the Cardinal -being dead, and Vitre having been named by Colbert director of the Royal +being dead, and Vitré having been named by Colbert director of the Royal Printing House in place of Cramoisy, he died in his turn, and was later accused of having destroyed the types and matrices of the Polyglot Bible, so that they should not be used after him. This fable, long @@ -3605,7 +3569,7 @@ accredited, has since been ascertained to be false, for the punches and matrices passed to the Royal Library, thence to the Royal Printing House, reorganised in 1691. -Antoine Vitre, in spite of his misfortunes, was a great personage. He +Antoine Vitré, in spite of his misfortunes, was a great personage. He was painted by Champagne and engraved by Morin, as was Richelieu himself. The portrait was reproduced in the book of M. Delaborde, _La Gravure_ (p. 189). Such was the man whom we meet at the beginning of the @@ -3644,18 +3608,18 @@ that the Book was much advanced. It approached a marvellous epoch of a delicate and graceful art; but it did not find its form; it dragged painfully after the Plantinian works, heavily throwing its etchings and burins in the middle of texts, gross and in bad taste. Yet taste in -literature had an onward tendency; Moliere and La Fontaine produced on +literature had an onward tendency; Molière and La Fontaine produced on their contemporaries the effect that in our day the naturalists have produced on the romanticists; but this was not for long. Majesty recovered its rights with Bossuet, Boileau, and the others. -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Tailpiece of Sebastien Leclerc for the +[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Tailpiece of Sébastien Leclerc for the _Promenade de St. Germain_.] -Sebastien Leclerc was one of the rare artists of the end of the +Sébastien Leclerc was one of the rare artists of the end of the seventeenth century who dreamed of the vignette in the midst of this invasion of pompous commonplace. Successor of Callot in manner, induced -by the publishers, he began this style with a romance of La Calprenede, +by the publishers, he began this style with a romance of La Calprenède, and continued with the _Promenade de St. Germain_ of Louis le Laboureur, bailie of Montmorency, of whom Boileau said such curious things. This is one of the rarest books of Leclerc, and we reproduce one of the pages, @@ -3663,7 +3627,7 @@ with a charming tailpiece, which comes very near those of the eighteenth century. There was, moreover, a charm in this ingenious designer; he adorned the works of his contemporaries with graceful vignettes and decorations full of suppleness. It may be believed, besides, that he did -not remain behind his _confreres_ in figure composition or allegorical +not remain behind his _confrères_ in figure composition or allegorical and Divine emblems. His art did not throw off the errors of the existing school; he was content not to copy any one and to make his works truly his own. Such were, for example, the vignettes of the _Histoire de @@ -3674,14 +3638,14 @@ design vignettes for the works of Racine for the publisher, Claude Barbin, another name frequently encountered in Boileau. The title of Vol. ii. merits attention. -The same year of this last publication, 1676, Sebastien Leclerc +The same year of this last publication, 1676, Sébastien Leclerc illustrated the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid for Benserade, the engraving of which cost the King more than 10,000 livres. Thus adorned, the book had not a bad appearance, but a satirist of the time, Hardin very probably, made on it this quatrain:-- - "Mais quant a moi j'en trouve tout fort beau: - Papier, dorure, images, caractere, + "Mais quant à moi j'en trouve tout fort beau: + Papier, dorure, images, caractère, Hormis les vers qu'il fallait laisser faire A La Fontaine." @@ -3703,32 +3667,32 @@ although he had before him the charming designs of Leclerc, he confined himself to a cold and hard manner, keeping, besides, as much as possible to titles, in which his particular talent could find scope. He designed also the Chartreux Missal of 1679, the _Gallia Christiana_ after Marot, -the _Dioptrique Oculaire_ of P. Cherubin, engraved by Edelinck, and a +the _Dioptrique Oculaire_ of P. Chérubin, engraved by Edelinck, and a thousand other works of small repute. -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Small figure of Sebastien Leclerc for +[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Small figure of Sébastien Leclerc for Richesource's pamphlet.] Very different was Francis Chauveau, who, without having the delicacy of -Sebastien Leclerc or his art of arrangement, treated at least with grace +Sébastien Leclerc or his art of arrangement, treated at least with grace little figures and illustrations. Certainly there is an enormous distance between these correct and commonplace engraved plates and the delightful wood engravings of the time of Geoffroy Tory, for example. But, be their worth what it may, they suited very well; and even with -Moliere they did not make such a bad figure. Chauveau was associated +Molière they did not make such a bad figure. Chauveau was associated with many of the works of Leclerc, who caused him often to be less heavy, inasmuch as Leclerc corrected in engraving many of his -compositions. It was so with Moliere, and still more with Racine in the +compositions. It was so with Molière, and still more with Racine in the plate of the _Plaideurs_, in which Chauveau revealed himself a precursor of the eighteenth century. Unhappily he did not always follow this manner. Successively, and with various luck, he illustrated _Alaric_, _Andromaque_, and the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid for Benserade, with -Leclerc; the _Pucelle_ of Chapelain, and the _Tragedies_ of Racine, to +Leclerc; the _Pucelle_ of Chapelain, and the _Tragédies_ of Racine, to which Le Brun did not disdain to put his hand. In short, the connecting link between the beginning of the seventeenth and that of the eighteenth century in the development of illustration is -Sebastien Leclerc. He had known the artists of the first period; he was +Sébastien Leclerc. He had known the artists of the first period; he was to see at his death appear one of the precursors of the vignettists of the following century, Claude Gillot. Thanks to him, overburdened titles and unskilful vignettes underwent a gradual transformation. In the @@ -3838,7 +3802,7 @@ THE BOOK IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. eighteenth century. -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Letter by Cochin for the _Memoires d' +[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Letter by Cochin for the _Mémoires d' Artillerie_ of Suvirey de St. Remy.] Like experience has shown us in our time, but in another manner, the @@ -3849,7 +3813,7 @@ cycle of Middle Age chevaliers had passed away, and that a return to what is called nature was effected in literature and art. At the death of Louis XIV., Olympus and its gods, majestic poses and suns, had become wearisome. By a little half-open door, gaiety escaped from its prison -and fled. For the Book that door was the hand of Sebastien Leclerc. +and fled. For the Book that door was the hand of Sébastien Leclerc. The ancient school was replaced. Constrained during three quarters of a century, French manners began to be joyous under the regency of the Duc @@ -3898,7 +3862,7 @@ In this book all was original: the author, who had had, five years before, the eccentric idea of translating the Iliad without knowing a word of Greek; the text, a kind of imitation of La Fontaine, without salt or savour; the size, quarto, admirably printed by Dupuis, in the -Rue St. Jacques, with plates by Coypel, Masse, and, above all, the +Rue St. Jacques, with plates by Coypel, Massé, and, above all, the charming vignettes of Gillot, the most pleasing and clever of all his collaborators, a sort of Callot fallen into the eighteenth century, and who ought to take the first place by birthright. Gillot has been @@ -3944,7 +3908,7 @@ the seventeenth century. Laurent Cars was the engraver who multiplied the compositions of Boucher, and made them the fashion. He engraved also, after the painter -of shepherds and nymphs, illustrations to Moliere, the most agreeable +of shepherds and nymphs, illustrations to Molière, the most agreeable that there are for style and spirit. In engraving certain works of Lemoyne, Cars did not completely desert the ancient school. He appears at the beginning of the eighteenth century as if divided between two @@ -3959,7 +3923,7 @@ artist remained more himself than he could be with the stiff cutting instrument of the seventeenth century. The sizes of books had not yet all come to octavo or duodecimo. The -works of Moliere published by Prault in 1734 in six volumes quarto, +works of Molière published by Prault in 1734 in six volumes quarto, under the direction of Marc Antoine Joly, give the idea of an important work, not at all of theatrical pieces. To tell the truth, these somewhat exaggerated dimensions allow artists more room for illustration; later, @@ -3986,7 +3950,7 @@ earned during the week; and we shall have occasion to name some of the more miserable among them. The booksellers, on the contrary, had become great personages. In the -preceding chapter we have seen Cramoisy and Vitre, to name only them, +preceding chapter we have seen Cramoisy and Vitré, to name only them, acquire the greatest honours, the latter painted by Philip de Champagne, with many others lords of the court. In the eighteenth century there were Brunet, Ballard, Mariette, Chardon, Didot, and a host of others, @@ -4018,21 +3982,21 @@ type of artist, besides, educated, well brought up, epicurean and spendthrift, friend of great lords, and protected by Madame de Pompadour. When he travelled in Italy with her young brother Abel Poisson, Cochin did everything, was ready at the least request, -inventing curious menus, giving representations of fetes, and yet +inventing curious menus, giving representations of fêtes, and yet finding the time to decorate books and design vignettes profusely. He worked chiefly for Jombert, a sort of learned bookseller, King's printer for the artillery, who dates from July, 1736. Jombert was -visited by painters. He gave little private soirees, which Cochin +visited by painters. He gave little private soirées, which Cochin attended, and where he daily made numerous friends. It was in this house, of so special a character, and, it may be said, so little artistic at first sight, that Cochin invented his best frontispieces, -among them that of the _Calcul Differentiel_, that of the _Astronomie -Physique_, and the plates of the _Methode de Dessin_, after Boucher. He +among them that of the _Calcul Différentiel_, that of the _Astronomie +Physique_, and the plates of the _Méthode de Dessin_, after Boucher. He was one of the first to produce engraved titles, with which the publisher Prault ornamented his dainty volumes, and which were imitated, up to the end of the eighteenth century, by all the illustrators who -followed. In that to the works of Madame Deshoulieres the letter itself +followed. In that to the works of Madame Deshoulières the letter itself is engraved. Since then the open letter has been copied in typography. These vignettes were used many times by publishers, sometimes simply effacing the inscription, sometimes reproducing the original design by @@ -4042,7 +4006,7 @@ then engraved by Aveline. Fessard engraved the second plate, which is here reproduced. [Illustration: Fig. 82.--Title-page engraved by Fessard after Cochin for -the works of Madame Deshoulieres, 1747.] +the works of Madame Deshoulières, 1747.] Nearly all the frontispieces of the Book with vignettes of the eighteenth century preserve this arrangement: an ornamented and draped @@ -4054,9 +4018,9 @@ favourites of the kings, Madame de Pompadour or the princesses, but rarely the virtuous Marie Leczinska, too homely and too much ignored to tempt the artists; the kings or the princes were the gods. -After Jombert, Prault, and Coustellier, Cochin worked for Francois +After Jombert, Prault, and Coustellier, Cochin worked for François Didot, syndic of the printers, for whom he prepared a set of -illustrations to Moliere. Unfortunately Didot died in 1757, and the +illustrations to Molière. Unfortunately Didot died in 1757, and the project fell with him. Of the work of Cochin there only remains the set of _Tartufe_ etchings in octavo. @@ -4072,12 +4036,12 @@ Durand's--for that room in which compositors are working and printed sheets drying was not an invention of Cochin, and served to reproduce a printing office of the eighteenth century. -[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Vignette taken from P. Corneille's _Theatre_, +[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Vignette taken from P. Corneille's _Théâtre_, by Gravelot.] With Cochin soon worked a number of designers and aqua-fortists, too prudent to lose the opportunity. The fashion arrived for books -beribboned, festooned, and flowered. Hubert Francois Gravelot had +beribboned, festooned, and flowered. Hubert François Gravelot had carried to London this style of new works, which he knew how to decorate, in his manner, better than any one, with letters, figures, and tailpieces. He did not engrave much himself, leaving this work to lesser @@ -4086,7 +4050,7 @@ subjects. With Eisen, Cochin, and Moreau, he is the French artist in the sense of the time, free, bold, and ingenious, but perhaps a little out of place in England. He published his plates to the "Decameron" in 1757, one of the most curious of his sets of plates, and a hundred various -vignettes. On his return to France he designed the _Theatre_ of P. +vignettes. On his return to France he designed the _Théâtre_ of P. Corneille, from which the _Galerie de Palais_ is here reproduced, on account of the illustration of bookselling which it gives. In 1764 the large _salon_ of the Palace was still, as in the time of Abraham Bosse, @@ -4109,7 +4073,7 @@ pretty and elaborate inventions of the artists reigned a lackadaisical affectation that was delightfully becoming; the rock-work, which it still had, suited admirably the borders of the first page. The _Lettres d'une Peruvienne_ has a very agreeable title, but little different, on -the whole, from that of Madame Deshoulieres, by Cochin. It is the same +the whole, from that of Madame Deshoulières, by Cochin. It is the same with the _Lettres Turques_, published at Amsterdam in 1750, and generally in all the frontispieces signed by him. As to the other decorations of the Book, there were also a number of ingenious artists, @@ -4129,7 +4093,7 @@ carried by winged cupids. The initial letters are real pictures, of such fineness and precision that the difficulties of their reproduction prevent us from putting them before the reader. -When the _fermiers generaux_, those great amateur financiers of the last +When the _fermiers généraux_, those great amateur financiers of the last century, conceived the idea of an edition of the _Contes_ of La Fontaine at their expense, their eyes naturally fell upon the artists best prepared to illustrate the inimitable fancies of the great poet, Eisen @@ -4141,7 +4105,7 @@ the composition was confided to a printer of the first order, and it was put on sale by Barbou. [Illustration: Fig. 85.--Vignette by Eisen for the Quiproquo in the -Contes of La Fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers generaux.] +Contes of La Fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers généraux.] It is not a book to be recommended from a moral point of view, but the typographical art, joined to that of designers and engravers, never @@ -4185,17 +4149,17 @@ he grouped with an ideal grace; he twined them in the borders of his frontispieces, and put them judiciously in his tailpieces. He excelled in inventing subjects referring to the text which were not commonplace ornaments suitable for anything. The tailpiece on p. 202, taken from the -works of Moliere, brings forcibly to mind the _Medecin malgre Lui_, with +works of Molière, brings forcibly to mind the _Médecin malgre Lui_, with its wood-cutter unmercifully beaten with sticks and muffled in a scientific robe. It is the same with other illustrations, that cannot be displaced from the position assigned to them by the artist without disappointment. -[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Tailpiece from the _Medecin malgre Lui_, by +[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Tailpiece from the _Médecin malgre Lui_, by Moreau le Jeune.] The year 1773, which saw the publication by De Bret of the works of -Moliere, may perhaps be considered as that in which the French Book of +Molière, may perhaps be considered as that in which the French Book of the eighteenth century reached its culminating point. M. de Laborde, first valet de chambre of the King and governor of the Louvre, published with De Lormel, printer to the Academy of Music, his celebrated @@ -4217,8 +4181,8 @@ Moreau le Jeune, for Laborde's _Chansons_, in 1773.] As evidencing the activity of French artists of the Book in the eighteenth century, we cite the number of works illustrated by the respective artists enumerated in the last edition of M. H. Cohen's -valuable _Guide de l'Amateur de Livres a Gravures du XVIII^e -Siecle_:-- +valuable _Guide de l'Amateur de Livres à Gravures du XVIII^e +Siècle_:-- Aliamet, 34. Audran, 16. @@ -4278,14 +4242,14 @@ Siecle_:-- Monnet, 67. Monsiau, 22. Moreau, 138. - Nee, 48. + Née, 48. Pasquier, 18. Patas, 65. Pauquet, 23. Petit, 23. Picart, 62. Ponce, 65. - Prevost, 40. + Prévost, 40. Prud'hon, 14. Queverdo, 54. Rigaud, 18. @@ -4294,11 +4258,11 @@ Siecle_:-- Rousseau, 24. St. Aubin, 70. Scotin, 27. - Seve, 29. + Sève, 29. Simonet, 83. Tardieu, 64. Tilliard, 15. - Triere, 39. + Trière, 39. Doubtless some of these ascriptions are for frontispieces only, but as a list of the principal book illustrators of the time, and as showing the @@ -4325,10 +4289,10 @@ contemporaries, Moreau, pressed by want, "took, quitted, and retook the cuirass and the hair-shirt." He had drawn for everybody: for Louis XVI., for the Republic, for Napoleon I. -The worst of it is that after his designs for Ovid, Moliere, and +The worst of it is that after his designs for Ovid, Molière, and Rousseau, dating from the reign of Louis XVI., he should have done them again in 1804, 1806, and 1808. The difference was great, even probably -for his publishers, Renouard and Dupreel. It does not appear that the +for his publishers, Renouard and Dupréel. It does not appear that the pontiff of the new school, David, knew of his distress; and Moreau succumbed in 1814 to a cancerous scirrhus of the right arm, forgotten and in the greatest misery. @@ -4447,7 +4411,7 @@ lines without charm. One of them resolved to resuscitate the art, and made various attempts about the end of the reign of Louis XIV. and beginning of that of Louis XV. He was named John Papillon, and was born at St. Quentin in 1661. His experiments did not go beyond a book of -prayers, with thirty-six figures in relief after Sebastien Leclerc. His +prayers, with thirty-six figures in relief after Sébastien Leclerc. His son, John Baptist, succeeded him, and continued to engrave without ceasing subjects of ornament, letters, often tailpieces, of a good style upon the whole, and taking an excellent place in an elaborate book. @@ -4541,11 +4505,11 @@ the constituted bodies; the King, the Queen, the princes, each had their own. The royal lottery occupied a special printing house. The young inmates of the blind asylum worked under the direction of M. -Clousier, royal printer. Louis XVI. authorised the celebrated Hauey, +Clousier, royal printer. Louis XVI. authorised the celebrated Haüy, their master, to allow them to print; and in 1786 they composed an essay -on the education of the blind. Pierre Francois Didot was in 1785 printer +on the education of the blind. Pierre François Didot was in 1785 printer to the Prince, afterwards Louis XVIII.; and he published the _Aventures -de Telemaque_, in two quarto volumes, from this special printing office. +de Télémaque_, in two quarto volumes, from this special printing office. The English colonies in North America early established printing there, their first book, the "Book of Psalms," known as the Bay Psalm Book, @@ -4589,18 +4553,18 @@ booksellers, and _savants_ of the first order, were the best fitted to direct an artistic and literary movement. When Napoleon crowned himself emperor of the French, the elders of the family had already brought about a number of perfections and discoveries in their profession by -which their workshops had profited. Francois Ambroise, who died in the +which their workshops had profited. François Ambroise, who died in the year of the Empire, had given an exact proportion to types, a free and elegant turn, but perhaps too regular and precise to be agreeable. He -had also invented a press called the _presse a un coup_, in which the +had also invented a press called the _presse à un coup_, in which the impression was taken by a single pull instead of being produced by a -series of successive strikings. His brother, Pierre Francois, spoken of +series of successive strikings. His brother, Pierre François, spoken of in the preceding chapter, was a type-founder and paper-maker at Essones, and counted among his official titles "printer to the Comte de -Provence," as Francois Ambroise was to the Comte d'Artois. +Provence," as François Ambroise was to the Comte d'Artois. Of these two branches equally faithful to typography, Pierre Didot, son -of Francois Ambroise, became the head on the death of his father. Born +of François Ambroise, became the head on the death of his father. Born in 1760, he had studied his art with passion, and had merited the installation of his workshops in the Louvre, where he published a celebrated collection known as the Louvre editions, the @@ -4637,21 +4601,21 @@ greater number of the French publishers of the middle of the century. When the Czar Alexander went to Paris, he wished to do honour to the greatest French practitioners in the science of printing, in the persons of the brothers Pierre and Firmin Didot. But these were not the only -ones. The sons of Pierre Francois, Henri and Pierre Francois II.--the +ones. The sons of Pierre François, Henri and Pierre François II.--the latter specially applied himself to paper-making, under the name of Didot St. Leger--followed in the footsteps of their father and uncle. -Pierre Francois made at Essones an excellent paper, which he brought to +Pierre François made at Essones an excellent paper, which he brought to the perfection of making it in endless rolls, such as are made to-day for rotary machines. Bernardin de St. Pierre retired to Essones about the end of the last century, and there married the daughter of Pierre -Francois II. It is a curious coincidence that the same village contained +François II. It is a curious coincidence that the same village contained at once the man whose works at the beginning of the century had so extraordinary a success and the great family of printers who had given definitive impetus to typographical work. It was in this tranquil circle that the author of "Paul and Virginia," at the age of sixty, sought repose; that the publication of his book was resolved upon with all the luxury due to its success, with admirable type and with plates by -Prud'hon and others. He added to it the _Chaumiere Indienne_, written in +Prud'hon and others. He added to it the _Chaumière Indienne_, written in 1790, on the eve of the Terror, which is one of the most delicate novels of the time. @@ -4663,7 +4627,7 @@ tendency and good taste. Under Louis XV. the nymphs carried panniers; Polyeucte had peruke and sword. It would be unbecoming not to give Juno or Venus the head-dress adopted in paintings and vignettes. At the time which now occupies us fashion in clothing directed designers also. The -hair of goddesses was _a la Titus_; the waist was under the arms; golden +hair of goddesses was _à la Titus_; the waist was under the arms; golden circles were on the brow. Simple mortals walked naked on the roads, with plumed casques and superb shields. There were heroes putting forth their disproportioned arms, others raising their eyes to heaven in @@ -4722,7 +4686,7 @@ extraordinary series of volumes of English authors, now (1887) numbering popular in their character, are well and tastefully printed. Among the most notable of the printing and publishing houses of Germany, many of them combining the two trades, are J. G. Cotta, dating from 1640; -Breitkopf and Haertel, dating from 1719; Justus Perthes, founded 1796; T. +Breitkopf and Härtel, dating from 1719; Justus Perthes, founded 1796; T. O. Weigel, 1797; F. A. Brockhaus, 1805; B. G. Teubner, 1811; W. Drugulin, 1829; J. J. Weber, 1834, etc. Germany has advanced with England and France in fine typography and illustration in their several @@ -4730,7 +4694,7 @@ kinds. The modern school of book illustration in Germany undoubtedly has its origin in the influence given to it by the designs of the artist Adolph Menzel, amongst which a series of two hundred illustrations to the works of Frederick the Great, engraved on wood by the Vogels, -Unzelman and Mueller, show him to be one of the most powerful and +Unzelman and Müller, show him to be one of the most powerful and accurate draughtsmen of the century. To return to France, a new literature arose that was to react against @@ -4785,18 +4749,18 @@ doggerel. Doubtless the leaders of the school did not go quite so far, and their reputation even suffered from such theories; but, as always happens in such cases, the disciples outstripped their masters. -[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Vignette by Deveria for the _Fiance de la +[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Vignette by Devéria for the _Fiancé de la Tombe_.] The brothers Johannot were the first to join in the fray, under the flag of the poets and others of the romantic school, such as Victor Hugo, De -Vigny, Paul Lacroix, George Sand, and Deveria, most ruthless of +Vigny, Paul Lacroix, George Sand, and Devéria, most ruthless of illustrators. The last-named had designed vignettes on wood, of all others, for Baour-Lormian, that is to say for the foe of the new ideas, at once the interpreter of Ossian and the bourgeois bard, full of fire -and fury against everything in turn. The _Legendes, Ballades, et -Fabliaux_, illustrated by Deveria in 1829, although a sort of compromise -with the lovesick swains of mediaeval times, did not escape the shafts of +and fury against everything in turn. The _Légendes, Ballades, et +Fabliaux_, illustrated by Devéria in 1829, although a sort of compromise +with the lovesick swains of mediæval times, did not escape the shafts of ridicule. In the midst of this movement the Book became democratic; it was printed @@ -4813,7 +4777,7 @@ place of the Doctrinals, Complaints, and Disputes, so common in the titles of those epochs, new fancies spring up and have their day. Eccentric devices recommend romantic trash, in which the assassin's dagger, blood, and the horrors of the tomb have replaced the insipid -fantasies of the fallen regime. Petrus Borel, the werewolf, a sort of +fantasies of the fallen regime. Pétrus Borel, the werewolf, a sort of historic ghoul prowling about the graveyards, enjoyed a monopoly, as it were, of the ghastly titles and contents of this charnel-house literature; it was for his _Champavert_, published in 1833, that Gigoux @@ -4857,8 +4821,8 @@ Properly speaking, it was the first serious attempt at illustration by the recovered method of engraving in relief, but it was not the only one. Curmer, the publisher of the Rue Richelieu, prepared a Bible in 1835 and several other volumes, among which were the "Paul and Virginia" -and the _Chaumiere Indienne_ of Bernardin de St. Pierre. He had also -collected around him a circle of artists that included Wattier, Deveria, +and the _Chaumière Indienne_ of Bernardin de St. Pierre. He had also +collected around him a circle of artists that included Wattier, Devéria, and Meissonier, who was the most perfect and correct of the designers on wood. Meissonier designed very soberly, without effects of light, little scenes admirably cut by an engraver named Lavoignat, a master in the @@ -4868,7 +4832,7 @@ easy to judge of the resources presented by this art. We are compelled to have recourse to England to accomplish our work. Peace to willing publishers!" -[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Vignette by Daumier for the _Cholera a Paris_.] +[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Vignette by Daumier for the _Cholera à Paris_.] Curmer acknowledges the importance of English specialists in this new process for vignettes, and the willing publishers were not wanting; they @@ -4888,9 +4852,9 @@ used in place of copper, as it better resisted repeated impressions. The publisher Furne, while he employed wood engraving, adorned with separate plates on steel his better publications. For him worked Raffet, one of the romanticists enamoured of the Napoleonic epic, which he had -popularised, with Charlet and Bellange, by the pencil, wood, and +popularised, with Charlet and Bellangé, by the pencil, wood, and lithography. Raffet had transferred upon wood, as if in play, the three -hundred and fifty-one vignettes of the _Histoire de Napoleon_, by De +hundred and fifty-one vignettes of the _Histoire de Napoléon_, by De Norvins, which would to-day suffice for the glory and reputation of many artists. In fact, the analytical and inductive spirit of the artist led him to leave nothing to the chances of inspiration and commonplace of @@ -4903,22 +4867,22 @@ Waterloo. A truly lively period was that of 1840, a living and unthinking generation. By the side of those great artists of whom we have spoken, -and who will be more admired some day, there were the fantasists Travies +and who will be more admired some day, there were the fantasists Traviès and Daumier, who adorned the illustrated journals with innumerable sketches, and Grandville and Gavarni, one caricaturing animals in a -celebrated book, _Les Animaux Peints par Eux-memes_, which is more than +celebrated book, _Les Animaux Peints par Eux-mêmes_, which is more than a _chef-d'oeuvre_; the other coolly studying the vices and faults of his time, with the precision of an anatomist, in _Les Anglais Peints par -Eux-memes_ of Labedolliere, in the _Diable a Paris_, without counting a +Eux-mêmes_ of Labedollière, in the _Diable à Paris_, without counting a thousand other works which his penetrating imagination produced. -[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Vignette by Gavarni for _Paris Marie_.] +[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Vignette by Gavarni for _Paris Marié_.] Presently photography came, which was to reverse completely the conditions of illustration of the Book by the numerous means of reproduction to which it gave birth. Then wood engraving entered on a new phase, a complete transformation of its ordinary terms, under the -influence of Gustave Dore. Little by little it had been attempted to +influence of Gustave Doré. Little by little it had been attempted to render in relief that which engraved plates only had hitherto done. Black, half-tints, lowered tones, were tried where formerly a simple line, bold and spirited, signified everything. The house of Hachette, @@ -4930,8 +4894,8 @@ road, followed by America and Germany. To-day wood engravings have reached perfection, finesse, and suppleness; but they are not, properly speaking, engravings on wood. -[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Balzac writing his _Contes Drolatiques_. -Vignette by Gustave Dore.] +[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Balzac writing his _Contes Drôlatiques_. +Vignette by Gustave Doré.] [Illustration: Fig. 99.--Wood block by Bewick, from his "Fables," 1818. The fox and the goat.] @@ -5079,7 +5043,7 @@ Estienne, the most marvellous and the most distinct. It was he who was charged by Francis I. to form the celebrated royal Greek types. He assisted in getting up the _Champfleury_ of Geoffroy Tory. -On his death William Lebe succeeded him, and inherited his punches. Lebe +On his death William Lebé succeeded him, and inherited his punches. Lebé engraved by preference Hebrew characters, of which he made a specialty. His travels to Rome and Venice had given him a singular value in his art; and when he died about the end of the century, he was incontestably @@ -5089,11 +5053,11 @@ Plantin had undertaken the impression, and Francis I. had charged him to make types for the Estiennes. At the commencement of the seventeenth century we find James Sanlecque, -pupil of Lebe, and his son. During this period several women succeeded +pupil of Lebé, and his son. During this period several women succeeded their husbands as type-founders. In the eighteenth century Philip Grandjean, an artist who was royal printer to Louis XIV., was keeper of the foundry afterwards united, in 1725, to the Royal Printing House; -Fournier succeeded the Lebes, then P. S. Fournier the younger, who +Fournier succeeded the Lebés, then P. S. Fournier the younger, who engraved with great success. In our days we have seen above the Didots themselves working their punches; and one of them, Henri, founded microscopical characters for a La Rochefoucauld about the middle of the @@ -5131,9 +5095,9 @@ etc. Before 1789 there were in all twenty different "bodies" of letters that bore fantastic names. The "Parisienne" was the smallest size, and the "Grosse Nonpareille" the largest. In the sixteenth century a character -called "Civilite" was invented. It sought to imitate fine cursive -writing. In the last century this idea was reproduced, and the "Batarde -Coulee," which did not have great success, was made. In English types, +called "Civilité" was invented. It sought to imitate fine cursive +writing. In the last century this idea was reproduced, and the "Bâtarde +Coulée," which did not have great success, was made. In English types, Joseph Moxon in 1669 had eleven sizes; Caslon in 1734 had thirty-eight. [Illustration: Specimen of imposition] @@ -5204,20 +5168,20 @@ centuries; the mechanical means of our days have a little changed the work, but the principle is always the same. [Illustration: Fig. 103.--Mark of Jodocus Badius of Asch, representing -the interior of a printing office about 1535. Engraving _a la croix de +the interior of a printing office about 1535. Engraving _à la croix de Lorraine_.] Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a press cost about a hundred and twenty-seven crowns, with its diverse utensils, as may be seen in an unpublished piece analysed by Dr. Giraudet, of Tours, in a very interesting pamphlet: _Une Association d'Imprimeurs et de Libraires de -Paris Refugies a Tours au XVI^e Siecle_. The workshop of Jamet Metayer, +Paris Réfugiés à Tours au XVI^e Siècle_. The workshop of Jamet Métayer, of Tours, cost a rent of eighty-three crowns--about twenty pounds of current money. Workmen were then paid by the "day;" and it came to be one of the expressions then so much used in manual labour, corresponding to the sum -of the least work of a good workman. M. Ladeveze, printer, thought that +of the least work of a good workman. M. Ladevèze, printer, thought that the "day" represented the work of about twenty thousand Roman or Cicero letters employed by a compositor. @@ -5225,7 +5189,7 @@ With us the "day" of compositors and pressmen is differently calculated. The latter have to take a certain number of sheets. The sheet, composition and press work, cost nearly seven crowns, or -nearly two pounds. Jamet Metayer paid twenty crowns for four sheets in +nearly two pounds. Jamet Métayer paid twenty crowns for four sheets in Italics; he demanded three months for the work. The primitive presses were wooden screw presses, and they so remained @@ -5341,7 +5305,7 @@ BOOKBINDING. "fanfares"--Louis XIII.--Le Gascon--Florimond Badier--Louis XIV.--Morocco leathers--Cramoisy--The bindings of the time of Louis XIV.--The regency--Pasdeloup--The - Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesne--The nineteenth + Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesné--The nineteenth century--English binders--Roger Payne--Francis Bedford. @@ -5444,7 +5408,7 @@ during these campaigns was important; they handled the pence levied with great trouble in the cities of France "for making war." Many abused their trust, and were punished, and among others the Lallemants, whom documents show us to have been in connection with Grolier, and who -suffered, with Semblancay, the most terrible trials of the time. +suffered, with Semblançay, the most terrible trials of the time. Italian art gave then a free course in the decoration of books. Of the interior we have spoken in our first chapters on the wood engravings; @@ -5511,7 +5475,7 @@ books which came from the Alduses have the name on the upper side and the motto on the other side; the title was placed above the name, and often disposed in rows. Some large volumes had the cover ornamented with an architectural design, like the Jamblichus of the Libri collection, -which had on the front the facade of a temple, with the title in rows on +which had on the front the façade of a temple, with the title in rows on the door. This volume was printed by Aldus in 1516, and probably decorated by him for the account of the great French amateur. @@ -5545,7 +5509,7 @@ the title was placed between them, as it still is. The books of Grolier have been divided, according to their production, in four or five principal classes, in which they may always be placed. First were the works ornamented in compartments, gilt, with scrolls in -full gold; then the same with the scrolls _azures_, that is to say +full gold; then the same with the scrolls _azurés_, that is to say equally gilt, but having parallel lines like the _azure_ of heraldry. Following comes the school of Geoffroy Tory, with gilt compartments in the style of the great French decorator; last the polychromatic @@ -5570,11 +5534,11 @@ Born in 1479, the Treasurer-general of Outre Seine lived until 1565. In eighty-four years of age; but his passion for bindings had cooled down, for few books signed with his name are found the manufacture of which could descend to the son of Henri II. After great trials, after having -seen Semblancay suffer at Montfaucon, John Lallemand beheaded, and +seen Semblançay suffer at Montfaucon, John Lallemand beheaded, and himself having come nearly to losing life and fortune at one blow, Grolier passed away quietly in his house, having collected most of the fine books of the time and many curious medals. Christopher de Thou, his -friend and _confrere_ in the love of books, had saved his reputation +friend and _confrère_ in the love of books, had saved his reputation before the Parliament of Paris. After his death his library was transported to the Hotel de Vic, and from there dispersed in 1675, a hundred years after. @@ -5696,7 +5660,7 @@ decorated and dedicated his books to his friends, using the motto "Virtus in arduo." Among the lords of the French courts who favoured polychromatic ornament and bold compositions were the young Valois, Louis de Sainte Maure, Marquis of Nesle, and Henri de Guise, called -"Le balafre." Charles IX. had his emblems and devices, the double "C" +"Le balafré." Charles IX. had his emblems and devices, the double "C" crowned the legend "Pietate et justitia," but his brother, Henri III., loved the decoration of books more than he did. The passion of the King for miniatures which he cut out of books is known; this passion for @@ -5728,7 +5692,7 @@ arms of the King, fully gilt, and on the other of France and Poland, with monograms at the four corners, and the rest flames, with orange and blue ribbons," etc. -[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Sixteenth century binding, called _a la +[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Sixteenth century binding, called _à la fanfare_. In the Dutuit collection.] Louise de Lorraine, wife of Henri III., counted for little in the life @@ -5740,7 +5704,7 @@ back with interlacing patterns of geometrical character, the spaces between the parallel lines and in the middle of the figures left at first quite blank, but afterwards filled in with palm branches and wreaths of foliage; to these delicate and elaborate yet brilliant -toolings have been given the name of bindings _a la fanfare_. This +toolings have been given the name of bindings _à la fanfare_. This designation requires explanation, and is a good example of the grotesque style adopted by modern amateurs in their appellations. @@ -5756,7 +5720,7 @@ new process, inspired by the Eves. Le Gascon embroidered delightfully on the fanfare ornaments; showing the fibres of the leaves, he made a new kind of ornament, consisting of minute gold dots elaborated into lines and curves of singular brilliancy and elegance. Of this style, called -_pointille_, we give a specimen from the collection of M. Dutuit. The +_pointillé_, we give a specimen from the collection of M. Dutuit. The fashion had arrived all at once; lace, banished from clothing by severe edicts, found a refuge on the covering of books. @@ -5781,14 +5745,14 @@ Tallement des Reaux notably signalises the poet Laserre, who displayed his luxury in irreproachable bindings. And then the farmers of the revenue, successors of Grolier in financial trusts, formed libraries for pure fashion, never opening the volumes covered for them in sumptuous -attire. If we may believe Sauval, author of the _Antiquites de Paris_, +attire. If we may believe Sauval, author of the _Antiquités de Paris_, they went further, and on covers without books inscribed imaginary titles and fantastic squibs to mislead their visitors. The bookcase being carefully closed, it was difficult to discover the imposition. Sauval writes, "In place of books, they are content with covers of Levant morocco, on the backs of which, in gold letters, are inscribed the names of the most celebrated authors. A binder of the university -assured me that not long since he and his _confreres_ had made them for +assured me that not long since he and his _confrères_ had made them for a single financier to the amount of 10,000 crowns!" The works of Le Gascon will be found more among great personages than @@ -5835,16 +5799,16 @@ collar of St. Esprit. Among the binders mentioned in the very useful work of M. J. J. Guiffrey on the expenditure of Louis XIV., we find Gilles Dubois, who died before -1670; Levasseur, binder of Huet, Bishop of Avranches; La Tour, Merins or -Merius, who died before 1676; and also Ruette, the reputed inventor of +1670; Levasseur, binder of Huet, Bishop of Avranches; La Tour, Mérins or +Mérius, who died before 1676; and also Ruette, the reputed inventor of marbled paper for fly-leaves of books: to him the bindings of the -Chancellor de Seguier, with their ornament of the golden fleece, and of -Madame de Seguier, are attributed. It was probably these men who +Chancellor de Séguier, with their ornament of the golden fleece, and of +Madame de Séguier, are attributed. It was probably these men who decorated the books of the brothers Dupuy, Fouquet, and Colbert, marvellous works of solidity, if not always of elegance, which have resisted all assaults. Unhappily, in many instances the mechanical _dentelle_ overburdened the work, and gave it a commonplace regularity. -In the Conde, Colbert, and perhaps even Madame de Longueville's +In the Condé, Colbert, and perhaps even Madame de Longueville's collections, there are many specimens of this kind with two or three filleted borders. @@ -5869,7 +5833,7 @@ together with thread and real bands, with joints of parchment, and not paper, and in case of infraction the said books were to be remade at the expense of the offender, who was besides condemned to a penalty of thirty livres for each volume." Their establishment was confined to the -quarter from the Rue St. Andre des Arts to the Place Maubert; they +quarter from the Rue St. André des Arts to the Place Maubert; they regulated the sale of calfskin and of tools; in a word, they were surrounded by precautions by which the production remained always under the supervision of the masters and completely satisfied the client. This @@ -5935,8 +5899,8 @@ which the cord was embedded. The books have no resistance. To these celebrated names of French binders of the eighteenth century we may add Le Monnier, who worked for the Orleans princes; Tessier, his -successor; Laferte, who decorated the small volumes of the Duc de la -Valliere as Chamot covered the large ones; in 1766 Chamot was royal +successor; Laferté, who decorated the small volumes of the Duc de la +Vallière as Chamot covered the large ones; in 1766 Chamot was royal binder. There was also Pierre Engerrand, then Biziaux, an original, who worked for Madame de Pompadour and Beaumarchais. Boyet, or Boyer, worked (1670-80) in the style of Le Gascon, with the same minute tooling, but @@ -5945,13 +5909,13 @@ his covers from about 1710 to 1720. The Revolution effaced many of the fine works which displayed the symbols "of a royalty justly detested," and Mercier wrote certain wicked -little poems against binding. Lesne was the poet of bookbinding, and he +little poems against binding. Lesné was the poet of bookbinding, and he invented the process of plain calf without boards. Certainly from -Grolier to Lesne there were numerous changes, so numerous that, in +Grolier to Lesné there were numerous changes, so numerous that, in spite of the nude calf, it may be said that the art was nearly dead. In our days it has a little recovered. Amateurs have found new names, and -often artists, to patronise: Trautz-Bauzonnet, Cape, Duru, Lortic, -Marius Michel, in France; Bedford, Riviere, Zaehnsdorf, Pratt, in +often artists, to patronise: Trautz-Bauzonnet, Capé, Duru, Lortic, +Marius Michel, in France; Bedford, Rivière, Zaehnsdorf, Pratt, in England; Matthews, Bradstreet, Smith, in the United States; and many others. Unhappily, fortune does not permit every one to furnish his library luxuriously; the true connoisseur searches rather for Groliers, @@ -6039,14 +6003,14 @@ So restricted, the royal library travelled with the other treasures of the Crown; Francis I. transported it from Blois to Fontainebleau, and even parts of it to the Italian wars, as related above. In its new quarters the royal collection, in spite of the successive accessions of -the books of John d'Angouleme, grandfather of the King, and of those of +the books of John d'Angoulême, grandfather of the King, and of those of the dukes of Orleans, counted but 1,781 manuscripts and a hundred and nine printed books on the shelves. The King, ambitious in literature no -less than in arts, nominated an illustrious _savant_, Guillaume Bude, to +less than in arts, nominated an illustrious _savant_, Guillaume Budé, to the office of master of his library; and this qualification was maintained by his successors until the fall of the royal power. -With Bude commenced the system of continuous acquisitions. The treasury +With Budé commenced the system of continuous acquisitions. The treasury was liberally opened to vendors of rarities. At this time the books, placed upon their sides, one upon another, gave no idea of a modern library, with its volumes ranged on end, having their titles between @@ -6123,12 +6087,12 @@ Louvais, of acquiring the land in the neighbourhood of the Rue Vivienne and of elevating a monument for his library, for the thought of putting the Hotel de Nevers to this use had not then occurred to him; but the Duc de Mazarin having alienated his part of the palace in favour of the -Company of the Indies, Abbe Bignon, then royal librarian, perceived the +Company of the Indies, Abbé Bignon, then royal librarian, perceived the part he could play from that fact. Thanks to the administration of Colbert and the liberalities of the King, the collection had been augmented threefold. At the time of the -removal to the Rue Vivienne, Nicolas Clement worked at the classifying +removal to the Rue Vivienne, Nicolas Clément worked at the classifying and cataloguing of 35,000 volumes. He distributed them into methodical classes, and devoted nine years--1675 to 1684--to his work. But this first unravelling was soon insufficient. Less than four years after, he @@ -6137,22 +6101,22 @@ years, having been finished in the course of March, 1714. This time the numbers amounted to 43,000 printed volumes; his twenty-three principal divisions, containing all the letters of the alphabet, are very nearly preserved up to our day. In 1697 the question of publishing this -enormous work was agitated, and on this point Clement had a curious +enormous work was agitated, and on this point Clément had a curious correspondence with a learned Dane named Frederick Bostgaard; he also, -in a celebrated pamphlet, _Idee d'une Nouvelle Maniere de dresser le -Catalogue d'une Bibliotheque_, indicated practical observations; he +in a celebrated pamphlet, _Idée d'une Nouvelle Manière de dresser le +Catalogue d'une Bibliothèque_, indicated practical observations; he resolved this arduous question for important collections by difference of sizes; but his project was not executed, although favoured from the -first by Abbe Bignon. +first by Abbé Bignon. -As the collection was not available for workers, the work of Clement had +As the collection was not available for workers, the work of Clément had only a relative importance. A councillor of the Prince of Waldeck, a German of the name of Nemeitz, who travelled in France in the beginning of the eighteenth century, having seen it in the houses of the Rue Vivienne, says that the library occupied then twenty-six rooms and contained 75,000 volumes in all; it was shown voluntarily to strangers, but not to the public. Nemeitz gives some other curious particulars as -to the libraries of Paris (_Sejour a Paris:_ Leyde, 1727, 8vo). +to the libraries of Paris (_Séjour à Paris:_ Leyde, 1727, 8vo). The bank of Law, that had been lodged for some time in the Hotel de Nevers, alienated by the heirs of Mazarin, soon disappeared with the @@ -6164,7 +6128,7 @@ style, four distinct departments: manuscripts, printed books, titles, and engraved plates. The master of the library pressed the Regent to profit by the occasion, to which he agreed. In the month of September the removal commenced, and from the Rue Vivienne, the royal library, the -first in the world and the most valuable, as Naude says, entered the +first in the world and the most valuable, as Naudé says, entered the former palace of the Cardinal, which it was never to quit again. We approach the epoch when this great scientific establishment was to @@ -6219,11 +6183,11 @@ its exterior clothing. Only the great libraries open to everybody remained eclectic, and provided a little of everything. Besides the royal library, there were in Paris a great number of other collections, which the revolutionary storm upset and often destroyed. That of St. -Germain des Pres was burnt in 1794. That of St. Genevieve, founded in +Germain des Près was burnt in 1794. That of St. Geneviève, founded in 1625, had benefited by celebrated donations, among others those of the cardinals De Berulle and De la Rochefoucauld; the Arsenal, created by the Marquis de Paulmy, was successively enriched by important -acquisitions, among which was the collection of the Duc de la Valliere. +acquisitions, among which was the collection of the Duc de la Vallière. These collections still exist, and are open to the public, as also are the National Library, the Mazarine, the Sorbonne, the Museum, the School of Fine Arts, the City of Paris, the Institute, the Louvre, and the @@ -6232,7 +6196,7 @@ several scientific faculties. The provinces have not been behind in the movement. Many of the great cities contain a considerable number of books easily accessible, among them the libraries of Bordeaux and Rouen, amounting to 150,000 volumes; -Troyes and Besancon, 100,000, etc. Few important centres have less than +Troyes and Besançon, 100,000, etc. Few important centres have less than 20,000. These collections have been generally composed of those of the religious establishments, closed by the Revolution. @@ -6247,7 +6211,7 @@ anticipated and very near when the space will be found insufficient. Some measures will have to be taken. Germany, the cradle of printing, was not favoured in the beginning. It -had, however, in the seventeenth century, in Wolfenbuettel, a little town +had, however, in the seventeenth century, in Wolfenbüttel, a little town in the duchy of Brunswick, a curious collection of books, in a detached building, of which the engraver Merian has preserved for us the physiognomy; it contained nearly 200,000 volumes, an enormous number for @@ -6268,7 +6232,7 @@ a series of authors: theology, philosophy, mathematics, history, medicine, law, and literature. The room, of square shape, was lighted by windows right and left. Between the bays were portraits, views of cities, and maps. On the right, in a shrine, was enclosed the legacy of -Joseph Scaliger. Communication was less liberal than at Wolfenbuettel; +Joseph Scaliger. Communication was less liberal than at Wolfenbüttel; the readers were obliged to take the books from the shelves themselves and read them standing before the desks. @@ -6277,7 +6241,7 @@ and restored in 1597 by Sir Thomas Bodley, ambassador of Queen Elizabeth. The generous overtures of this rich gentleman met with unanimous approbation. He offered to the library of the university the volumes collected by him during his travels on the Continent, whose -value exceeded L10,000. The first stone of a new building was laid in +value exceeded £10,000. The first stone of a new building was laid in 1610, but from 1602 the collection was open to readers in a provisional locality. David Loggan, the engraver, has preserved for us interior views of the Bodleian of the seventeenth century. The rooms are disposed @@ -6288,8 +6252,8 @@ were not displaced; they were consulted in their own place. Each room had two floors, with access to the second by stairs. In London it was Hans Sloane who had the idea of founding a great -collection by offering to the State for L20,000 his collection of -books, which was valued at L50,000. Created in 1753 by an Act of +collection by offering to the State for £20,000 his collection of +books, which was valued at £50,000. Created in 1753 by an Act of Parliament, the British Museum, as it was named, was quickly augmented by many private libraries, among which was the library of printed books and manuscripts collected by the kings of England from Henry VII. to @@ -6313,12 +6277,12 @@ kind are most honoured, Berlin will take the third place with 900,000 printed books and 20,000 manuscripts, preserved in the Imperial Library. The building, constructed between 1775 and 1780, owes its special form to Frederick II., who desired that it should take the form of a chest of -drawers. On the facade an inscription in the Latin tongue, but +drawers. On the façade an inscription in the Latin tongue, but conceived in German spirit, indicates that here is a spiritual refectory--_nutrimentum spiritus_. Following come Munich, with 800,000 printed books; Vienna 400,000; Dresden, 300,000; then the universities: Leipzig, whose library, founded in 1409 and reorganised in 1830, -contains 150,000 books and 2,000 manuscripts; Heidelberg; Goettingen, +contains 150,000 books and 2,000 manuscripts; Heidelberg; Göttingen, etc. In Italy, Florence keeps, in the National Library, 300,000 volumes, @@ -6347,7 +6311,7 @@ every city has its public library, supported by a small tax; and many large libraries are wholly supported by private munificence. The first to be established was founded in 1732 by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia, and still exists as the Library Company; many important -bequests have been made to it, the latest being L200,000 by Dr. Richard +bequests have been made to it, the latest being £200,000 by Dr. Richard Rush. The library now numbers 150,000 volumes. The Congressional Library of Washington, besides its annual income from Government, receives by deposit for copyright a copy of every work published in the United @@ -6358,7 +6322,7 @@ and endowed by the families whose name they bear; the former has 223,284 volumes, the latter 25,000. The city of Chicago recently fell heir to the magnificent sum of over one million sterling for the establishment of a library of reference, and New York was benefited by the late Mr. -Tilden to the extent of L800,000 for a public library. +Tilden to the extent of £800,000 for a public library. When we have named the libraries of St. Petersburg and Moscow for Russia, Stockholm for Sweden, and the Escurial for Spain, we shall have @@ -6497,10 +6461,10 @@ INDEX. Buckinck, Arnold, printer at Rome, printed the first atlas, 55. - Bude, Guillaume, royal librarian, 291. + Budé, Guillaume, royal librarian, 291. - Caesaris, Peter, and John Stol, second Paris printers, 68. + Cæsaris, Peter, and John Stol, second Paris printers, 68. Callot, engraver, 167. @@ -6538,7 +6502,7 @@ INDEX. Charles IX., bindings for, 274. - Charles of Angouleme, books specially printed for him, 78. + Charles of Angoulême, books specially printed for him, 78. Chauveau, Francis, engraver, 179. @@ -6550,7 +6514,7 @@ INDEX. Clement V., _Constitutiones_, 1460, printed by Schoeffer, 26. - Clement, Nicholas, royal librarian, 294. + Clément, Nicholas, royal librarian, 294. Clennell, Luke, wood engraver, 215, 225, 234. @@ -6606,11 +6570,11 @@ INDEX. Desportes, Philip, bindings for, 272. - Deveria, engraver, 227. + Devéria, engraver, 227. Dibdin, T. F., bibliographical works, 223. - Didot, Francois, printer of Paris, 194. + Didot, François, printer of Paris, 194. Didot, Pierre F., printer of Paris, 216, 219. @@ -6622,7 +6586,7 @@ INDEX. Donatus, the Latin syntax of, 4, 30. - Dore, Gustave, influence on illustration, 234. + Doré, Gustave, influence on illustration, 234. Doyle, Richard, book illustrator, 235. @@ -6638,14 +6602,14 @@ INDEX. Duplessis-Bertaux, engraver, 206. - Du Pre, John, printer of Books of Hours, 80. + Du Pré, John, printer of Books of Hours, 80. Dupuy brothers, bindings for, 272, 282; royal librarians, 293. Durand's _Rationale_, 1459, printed by Schoeffer, 26. - Duerer, Albert, pupil of Wohlgemuth, 60; + Dürer, Albert, pupil of Wohlgemuth, 60; "Apocalypse," 62, 104; influence on Geoffroy Tory, 116. @@ -6772,7 +6736,7 @@ INDEX. Guadagnino, artist of Venice, 102. - Guise, Henri de, "Le Balafre," bindings for, 274. + Guise, Henri de, "Le Balafré," bindings for, 274. Gutenberg, John, 12 _et seq_.; at Mayence, 15; @@ -6796,7 +6760,7 @@ INDEX. Heinlein and Fichet introduce printing into Paris, 40. - Henri II., _Entree a Lyon_, 1549, 130; + Henri II., _Entrée à Lyon_, 1549, 130; bindings for, 270; royal library, 292. @@ -6837,7 +6801,7 @@ INDEX. Johannot brothers, engravers, 227. - John of Cologne, master _a la navette_, 67. + John of Cologne, master _à la navette_, 67. Jombert, printer of Paris, 192. @@ -6857,11 +6821,11 @@ INDEX. Laborde, _Chansons_, 202. - Laferte, bookbinder, 287. + Laferté, bookbinder, 287. La Fontaine, the _Contes_, 198. - La Marche, Oliver de, his _Chevalier Delibere_, 67. + La Marche, Oliver de, his _Chevalier Delibéré_, 67. Laserre, luxury in bindings for, 278. @@ -6869,11 +6833,11 @@ INDEX. Lavoignat, wood engraver, 230. - Lebe, William, type-founder, 140, 242. + Lebé, William, type-founder, 140, 242. Le Brun, painter, 175. - Leclerc, Sebastien, engraver, 176. + Leclerc, Sébastien, engraver, 176. Leech, John, book illustrator, 235. @@ -6891,7 +6855,7 @@ INDEX. Lepautre, engraver, 179. - Lesne, poet of bookbinding, 287. + Lesné, poet of bookbinding, 287. Letters of Indulgence, the first printed, 17. @@ -6976,7 +6940,7 @@ INDEX. _Mer des Histoires_, 1488, 70, 107. - Merius, bookbinder, 281. + Mérius, bookbinder, 281. Meslier, Denis, publisher in Paris, 82. @@ -7057,7 +7021,7 @@ INDEX. Payne, Roger, bookbinder, 288. - Perreal, John, artist, 69. + Perréal, John, artist, 69. Pfinzfing, _Theuerdanck_, 104. @@ -7081,7 +7045,7 @@ INDEX. Plantin, Christopher, printer of Antwerp, 140. - Pluvinel, _Manege Royal_, 160. + Pluvinel, _Manège Royal_, 160. Poitiers, Diane de, bindings for, 270. @@ -7107,7 +7071,7 @@ INDEX. Prohibitions on printers, 152, 185. - _Promptuaire des Medailles_, printed by Roville, 130. + _Promptuaire des Médailles_, printed by Roville, 130. Psalter of 1457, the first dated book, 23. @@ -7146,7 +7110,7 @@ INDEX. Ruette, bookbinder, 282. - Rueppel, Berthold, first printer at Basle, 36. + Rüppel, Berthold, first printer at Basle, 36. St. Albans, first printer, 37. @@ -7159,7 +7123,7 @@ INDEX. Sanlecque, James, type-founder, 242. - Schaeufelein, designs for the _Theuerdanck_, 105. + Schäufelein, designs for the _Theuerdanck_, 105. Schiedam, early printing at, 67. @@ -7167,9 +7131,9 @@ INDEX. Schongauer, Martin, influence on French art, 72. - Schoensperger, printer of Augsburg, 105. + Schönsperger, printer of Augsburg, 105. - Seguier, bindings for, 282. + Séguier, bindings for, 282. Siberch, John, first printer at Cambridge, 149. @@ -7185,7 +7149,7 @@ INDEX. Spain, book illustration in, 106. - _Speculum Humanae Salvationis_, 7. + _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_, 7. Spindeler, Nicholas, printer at Barcelona, 36. @@ -7263,7 +7227,7 @@ INDEX. Valencia, first printer, 36. - Valladier, Andrew, _Metaneologie_, 155. + Valladier, Andrew, _Métanéologie_, 155. Valturius, _De Re Militari_, 1472, 49. @@ -7282,7 +7246,7 @@ INDEX. Vinci, Leonardo da, influence on book illustration, 103. - Vitre, Antoine, publisher of Paris, 172. + Vitré, Antoine, publisher of Paris, 172. Voragine, "Golden Legend," Venice, 1518, 103. @@ -7312,11 +7276,11 @@ INDEX. Whittingham, Charles, printer, 223. - Woeriot, Peter, engraver of emblems, 135. + Woériot, Peter, engraver of emblems, 135. Wohlgemuth, Michael, designs for the _Schatzbehalter_, 60. - Wolfenbuettel, public library of, 299. + Wolfenbüttel, public library of, 299. Woodcuts, first book printed with, 48. @@ -7350,362 +7314,4 @@ superscripts are introduced with the caret character, e.g. XVIII^e End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - -***** This file should be named 44890.txt or 44890.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/8/9/44890/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44890 *** diff --git a/44890-8.txt b/44890-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 39c03de..0000000 --- a/44890-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7711 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Printed Book - Its History, Illustration and Adornment, from the Days of - Gutenberg to the Present Time - -Author: Henri Bouchot - -Translator: Edward C. Bigmore - -Release Date: February 13, 2014 [EBook #44890] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - THE PRINTED BOOK, - - Its History, Illustration, and Adornment, - - _FROM THE DAYS OF GUTENBERG TO THE - PRESENT TIME._ - - BY - HENRI BOUCHOT, - OF THE NATIONAL LIBRARY, PARIS. - - _Translated and Enlarged by_ - EDWARD C. BIGMORE. - - WITH ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS OF FACSIMILES - OF EARLY TYPOGRAPHY, PRINTERS' MARKS, COPIES OF BOOK - ILLUSTRATIONS, AND SPECIMENS OF BINDINGS OF ALL AGES. - - NEW YORK: - SCRIBNER AND WELFORD, - 743 and 745, BROADWAY. - 1887. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Considering that this short study can claim to be nothing more than a -rapid and somewhat summary survey of the history of THE BOOK, it eschews -all controversial matter, nor does it pretend to convey much fresh -information to those already possessing a special knowledge of the -subject. It is rather a condensed, but at the same time, it may be -hoped, a useful, compendium of the thousand unknown or now forgotten -essays, involving endless contradictory statements, that have been -issued on this theme. The mere enumeration of such works would simply -suffice to fill a volume. We have accordingly no intention to attempt a -bibliography, satisfying ourselves with the modest avowal of having -found so many documents in all languages, that the very abundance has -been at least as embarrassing to us as the lack of materials may have -been to others. - -The Book appealing in its present form to a special public interested -more in artistic than in purely typographical topics, our attention has -been more particularly given to the illustrators, the designers, -engravers, etchers, and so forth. Such graphic embellishment seemed to -us of more weight than the manufacture of the paper, the type-casting, -the printing properly so called. This technical aspect of the subject -has been very briefly dealt with in a separate chapter, and has also -been enlarged upon in the early section. To the binding also we have -devoted only a single chapter, while fully conscious that a whole volume -would not have sufficed merely to treat the subject superficially. - -At the same time, we would not have the reader conclude from all this -that our book abounds in omissions, or has overlooked any important -features. The broad lines, we trust, have been adhered to, while each -section has been so handled as to give a fair idea of the epoch it deals -with. This is the first attempt to comprise within such narrow limits an -art and an industry with a life of over four centuries, essaying to -describe its beginnings and its history down to our days, without -omitting a glance at the allied arts. - -The engravings selected for illustration have, as far as possible, been -taken from unedited materials, and have been directly reproduced by -mechanical processes, while fifteen new illustrations, having special -relation to the history of the Book in England, have been added to this -edition, which is also considerably enlarged in the text on the same -subject. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -CHAPTER I. - - PAGE - - 14.. TO 1462 1 - -Origin of the Book--Engravers in relief--The St. Christopher of -1423--Origin of the Xylographs--The Xylographs, _Donatus_, and -_Speculum_--The Laurent Coster legend--From block books to movable -characters--John Gaensefleisch, called Gutenberg--The Strasbourg -trial--Gutenberg at Mayence--Fust and Schoeffer--The letters of -indulgence--The Bible--The "Catholicon"--The Mayence Bible--Causes of -the dispersion of the first Mayence printers--General considerations. - -CHAPTER II. - - 1462 TO 1500 33 - -The Book and the printers of the second generation--The German workmen -dispersed through Europe--Caxton and the introduction of printing into -England--Nicholas Jenson and his supposed mission to Mayence--The -first printing in Paris; William Fichet and John Heinlein--The -first French printers; their installation at the Sorbonne and their -publications--The movement in France--The illustration of the Book -commenced in Italy--The Book in Italy; engraving in relief and metal -plates--The Book in Germany: Cologne, Nuremberg, Basle--The Book in -the Low Countries--French schools of ornament of the Book; Books of -Hours; booksellers at the end of the fifteenth century--Literary taste -in titles in France at the end of the fifteenth century--Printers -and booksellers' marks--The appearance of the portrait in the -Book--Progress in England--Caxton and his followers. - -CHAPTER III. - - 1500 TO 1600 98 - -French epics and the Renaissance--Venice and Aldus Manutius--Italian -illustrators--The Germans; _Theuerdanck_, Schäufelein--The Book in -other countries--French books at the beginning of the century, before -the accession of Francis I.--Geoffroy Tory and his works--Francis -I. and the Book--Robert Estienne--Lyons a centre of bookselling; -Holbein's Dances of Death--School of Basle--Alciati's emblems and -the illustrated books of the middle of the century--The school of -Fontainebleau and its influence--Solomon Bernard--Cornelis de la Haye -and the _Promptuaire_--John Cousin--Copper plate engraving and metal -plates--Woériot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth century--How -a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the century--Influence -of Plantin on the Book; his school of engravers--General -considerations--Progress in England--Coverdale's Bible--English -printers and their work--Engraved plates in English books. - -CHAPTER IV. - - 1600 TO 1700 151 - -Tendencies of the regency of Marie de Medicis--Thomas de Leu and -Leonard Gaultier--J. Picart and Claude Mellan--Lyons and J. de -Fornazeris--The Book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in -Germany, Italy, and Holland--Crispin Pass in France--The Elzevirs -and their work in Holland--Sebastian Cramoisy and the Imprimerie -Royale--Illustration with Callot, Della Bella, and Abraham Bosse--The -publishers and the Hotel de Rambouillet--The reign of Louis XIV.; -Antoine Vitré syndic at his accession--His works and mortifications; -the Polyglot Bible of Le Jay--Art and illustrators of the grand -century--Sébastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and Chauveau--Leclerc preparing -the illustration and decoration of the Book for the eighteenth -century--The Book in England in the seventeenth century. - -CHAPTER V. - - THE BOOK IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 184 - -The regency--Publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth -century--Illustrators in France; Gillot--The school of Watteau -and Boucher--Cars--The younger Cochin; his principal works in -vignettes--French art in England; Gravelot--Eisen--Choffard--The -_Baisers_ of Dorat; the _Contes_ of La Fontaine--The publisher -Cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--The -younger Moreau and his illustrations--The Revolution--The school of -David--Duplessis-Bertaux--The Book in Germany; Chodowiecki--In England; -Boydell and French artists--Caslon and Baskerville--English books -with illustrations--Wood engraving in the eighteenth century; the -Papillons--Printing offices in the eighteenth century. - -CHAPTER VI. - - THE BOOK IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 218 - -The Didots and their improvements--The folio Racine--The school of -Didot--Fine publications in England and Germany--Literature and art -of the Restoration--Romanticism--Wood engraving--Bewick's pupils, -Clennell, etc.--The illustrators of romances--The generation of -1840--The Book in our days in Europe and America. - -CHAPTER VII. - - TYPES, IMPRESSION, PAPER, INK 239 - -CHAPTER VIII. - - BOOKBINDING 253 - -The binding of the first printed books--Ancient German -bindings--Binding in the time of Louis XII.--Italian -bindings--Aldus--Maioli--Grolier--Francis I.--Henry II. and -Diane de Poitiers--Catherine de Medicis--Henry III.--The -Eves--The "fanfares"--Louis XIII.--Le Gascon--Florimond -Badier--Louis XIV.--Morocco leathers--Cramoisy--The bindings -of the time of Louis XIV.--The regency--Pasdeloup--The -Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesné--The nineteenth century--English -binders--Roger Payne--Francis Bedford. - -CHAPTER IX. - - LIBRARIES 290 - - INDEX 305 - - - - -THE PRINTED BOOK. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -14.. TO 1462. - - - Origin of the Book--Engravers in relief--The St. Christopher of - 1423--Origin of the Xylographs--The Xylographs, _Donatus_, and - _Speculum_--The Laurent Coster legend--From block books to movable - characters--John Gaensefleisch, called Gutenberg--The Strasbourg - trial--Gutenberg at Mayence--Fust and Schoeffer--The letters of - indulgence--The Bible--The Catholicon--The Mayence Bible--Causes of - the dispersion of the first Mayence printers--General - considerations. - - -Like its forerunner, Painting, the Book has ever been the most faithful -reflection of the times when it was written and illustrated. Natural and -genuine from the first, and simply embellished with crude illustrations, -it assumed in the sixteenth century the grand airs of the Renaissance, -gay or serious according to circumstances, decked in what were then -called _histoires_--that is to say, wonderful engravings--and daintily -printed in Gothic, Roman, or choice Italic characters. But at the close -of the century it had already abandoned _wood_ for line engravings, -heightening its mysticism or its satire at the whim of passing politics -and religious wranglings. Then, under the influence of the painters and -courtiers of the _Grand Monarque_, it becomes completely transformed, -donning the peruke, so to speak, indulging in allegory and -conventionalities, pompous and showy, tricking itself out in columns and -pilasters instead of the old arabesques and scroll work of the -Renaissance, thus continuing amid the coquetries of the regency, the -pastorals and insipidities of the following reigns, until at last it -suddenly assumes with the heroes of the Revolution the austere mien and -airs of classic art. The Book has always been as closely connected with -the manners of our predecessors as art itself. The artist submits more -than he thinks to the tendency of his surroundings; and if he at times -makes his taste appreciated, it is because he has more or less received -his first influence from others. - -In the sixteenth century the fashion of emblematic representation placed -under the portrait of Gaston de Foix a figure of a young plant in full -bloom; and the inscription in Latin was "Nascendo maturus"--"Mature at -birth." The Book deserves the same device; from its first day up to now -it is a marvel of simplicity and harmony. The tentative efforts which -preceded the discovery of printing were but few; it may be said that -from the moment that Gutenberg conceived the idea of separating the -characters, of arranging the words in the forme, of inking them, and of -taking a proof on paper, the Book was perfect. At best we see in -following times some modifications of detail; the art of printing was -mature, mature from its birth. - -But before arriving at the movable type placed side by side, and forming -phrases, which appears to us to-day so simple and so ordinary, many -years passed. It is certain that long before Gutenberg a means was found -of cutting wood and metal in relief and reproducing by application the -image traced. Signs-manual and seals were a kind of printing, inasmuch -as the relief of their engraving is impressed upon a sheet by the hand. -But between this simple statement and the uncritical histories of -certain special writers, attributing the invention of engraving to the -fourteenth century, there is all the distance of legendary history. -Remembering that the numerous guilds of _tailleurs d'images_, or -sculptors in relief, had in the Middle Ages the specialty of carving -ivories and of placing effigies on tombs, it can be admitted without -much difficulty, that these people one day found a means of multiplying -the sketches of a figure often asked for, by modelling its contour in -relief on ivory or wood, and afterwards taking a reproduction on paper -or parchment by means of pressure. When and where was this discovery -produced? We cannot possibly say; but it is certain that playing cards -were produced by this means, and that from the year 1423 popular figures -were cut in wood, as we know from the St. Christopher of that date -belonging to Lord Spencer. - -It is not our task to discuss this question at length, nor to decide if -at first these reliefs were obtained on wood or metal. It is a -recognised fact that the single sheet with a printed figure preceded the -xylographic book in which text and illustration were cut in the same -block. This process did not appear much before the second quarter of -the fifteenth century, and it was employed principally for popular works -which were then the universal taste. The engraving also was nothing more -than a kind of imposition palmed off as a manuscript; the vignettes were -often covered with brilliant colours and gold, and the whole sold as of -the best quality. - -The first attempts at these little figures in relief discovered by the -image-makers and diffused by the makers of playing cards were but -indifferent. The drawing and the cutting were equally unskilful, as may -be seen in the facsimiles given by M. H. Delaborde in his _Histoire de -la Gravure_. An attempt had been made to put some text at the foot of -the St. Christopher of 1423, and the idea of giving more importance to -the text was to the advantage of the booksellers. At the mercy of the -writers who fleeced them, obliged to recoup themselves by the -exaggerated prices of the most ordinary books, they hoped to turn -engraving to account in order to obtain on better terms the technical -work needed for their trade. At the epoch of the St. Christopher, in -1423, several works were in vogue in the universities, the schools, and -with the public. Among the first of these was the Latin Syntax of Ælius -Donatus on the eight parts of speech, a kind of grammar for the use of -young students, as well as the famous _Speculum_, a collection of -precepts addressed to the faithful, which were copied and recopied -without satisfying the demand. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Part of a _Donatus_ taken from a xylograph, the -original of which is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale.] - -To find a means of multiplying these treatises at little cost was a -fortune to the inventor. It is to be supposed that many artisans of the -time attempted it; and without doubt it was the booksellers themselves, -mostly mere dealers, who were tempted to the adventure by the sculptors -and wood-cutters. But none had yet been so bold as to cut in relief a -series of blocks with engravings and text to compose a complete work. -That point was reached very quickly when some legend was engraved at the -foot of a vignette, and it may be thought that the _Donatus_ was the -most ancient of books so obtained among the "Incunabuli," as we now call -them, a word that signifies origin or cradle. - -The first books then were formed of sheets of paper or parchment, -laboriously printed from xylographic blocks, that is to say wooden -blocks on which a _tailleur d'images_ had left in relief the designs and -the letters of the text. He had thus to trace his characters in reverse, -so that they could be reproduced as written; he had to avoid faults, -because a phrase once done, well or ill, lasted. It was doubtless this -difficulty of correction that gave the idea of movable types. If the -cutter seriously erred, it was necessary to cancel altogether the faulty -block. This at least explains the legend of Laurent Coster, of Haarlem, -who, according to Hadrian Junius, his compatriot, discovered by accident -the secret of separate types while playing with his children. And if the -legend of which we speak contains the least truth, it must be found in -the sense above indicated, that is in the correction of faults, rather -than in the innocent game of a merchant of Haarlem. However, we shall -have occasion to return to the subject of these remarks. It should be -well established that engraving in relief on wood alone gave the idea of -making xylographic blocks and of composing books. Movable type, the -capital point of printing, the pivot of the art of the Book, developed -itself little by little, according to needs, when there was occasion to -correct an erroneous inscription; but, in any case, its origin is -unknown. Doubtless to vary the text, means were found to replace entire -phrases by other phrases, preserving the original figures; and thus the -light dawned upon these craftsmen, occupied in the manufacture and sale -of their books. - -According to Hadrian Junius, Laurent Janszoon Coster (the latter name -signifying "the discoverer") published one of the celebrated series of -works under the general title of _Speculum_ which was then so popular -(the mystic style exercising so great an attraction on the people of the -fifteenth century), the _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_. Written before -the middle of the fifteenth century, made popular by manuscripts, in -spite of its fantastic Latinity and of its false quantities, this -ascetic and crude poem was easy of access to the xylographists. Junius, -as we see, attributes to Laurent Coster the first impression of the -_Speculum_, no longer the purely xylographic impression of the _Donatus_ -from an engraved block, but that of the more advanced manner in movable -types. In point of fact, this book had at least four editions, similar -in engravings and body of letters, but of different text. It must then -be admitted that the fount was dispersed, and typography discovered, -because the same cast of letters could not be adapted to different -languages. On the other hand, the vignettes do not change, indicating -sufficiently the mobility of the types. In comparison to what may be -seen in later works, the illustrations of the _Speculum_ are by no means -bad; they have the appearance, at once naïve and picturesque, of the -works of Van Eyck, and not at all of the style of the German -miniaturists; properly illuminated and gilded, they lent themselves to -the illusion of being confounded with the _histoyres_, drawn by the -hand, and this is what the publisher probably sought. - -All the xylographic works of the fifteenth century may be classed in two -categories: the xylographs, rightly so called, or the block books, such -as the _Donatus_, and the books with movable types, like the _Speculum_, -of which we speak. This mystic and simple literature of pious works for -the use of people of modest resources found in printing the means of -more rapid reproduction. Then appeared the _Biblia Pauperum_, one of the -most celebrated and the most often reproduced, and the _Ars Moriendi_, a -kind of dialogue between an angel and a devil at the bedside of a dying -person, which, inspired no doubt by older manuscripts, retained for a -long time in successive editions the first tradition of its designs. On -labels displayed among the figures are found inscribed the dialogue of -the demons and angels seeking to attach to themselves the departing -soul, the temptations of Satan on the subject of faith, and the -responses of the angel on the same subject. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Xylographic figure from the _Ars Moriendi_, -copied in reverse in the _Art au Morier_.] - -We can see what developments this theme could lend to the mysticism of -the fifteenth century. Composed in eleven designs, the _Ars Moriendi_ -ran up to eight different editions. From the middle to the end of the -fifteenth century, the text was in Latin, then in French, under the -title _L'Art au Morier_. In the French edition will be found the blocks -that served for the second impression of the work. About 1480, more than -fifty years after the first essays, the _Ars Moriendi_ enjoyed so much -vogue that it employed all the resources of typography as much as in its -earliest days. The original subjects, copied in a very mediocre manner, -adorned the text, which was composed in Gothic letters, with a new and -more explicit title: _Tractatus brevis ac valde utilis de Arte et -Scientia bene moriendi_ (4to, s.l.n.d.), but the order is inverted, -figure 5 of the xylograph becoming No. 3 of the edition of 1480. - -The _Ars Memorandi_, another xylographic work, of which the subject, -taken from the New Testament, was equally well adapted to the -imagination of the artists, had also a glorious destiny. The work -originally comprised thirty blocks, the fifteen blocks of text facing -the fifteen engravings. The designs represented the attributes of each -of the Evangelists, with allegories and explanatory legends. Thus, in -that which relates to the Apostle Matthew, - - No. 1 represents the birth and genealogy of Jesus Christ, - No. 2 the offerings of the Magi, - No. 3 the baptism of St. John, - No. 4 the Temptation of Christ, - No. 5 the Sermon on the Mount, - No. 6 the parable of the birds. - -The angel that supports the whole is the emblem of St. Matthew the -Evangelist. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Figure of the school of Martin Schongauer, taken -from the _Rationarium Evangelistarum_ of 1505, and copied from the -corresponding plate of the _Ars Memorandi_.] - -This mnemonic treatment of the Gospels began with symbols of which we -have no means of finding the origin, but which without doubt were -employed many centuries earlier. However that may be, their success was -as great as that of the already-quoted works. In 1505 a German publisher -put forth an imitation, under the title of _Rationarium Evangelistarum_; -and this time the copier of the illustrations, retaining the tradition -of the first xylographers, no less reveals an artist of the first order, -at least a pupil of Martin Schongauer. Some of the conceptions of the -_Rationarium_ recall exactly the engravings of the great German master, -among others that of the Infant Jesus (plate 12), which nearly -approaches the style of the Infant Jesus of Schongauer; besides, the -principal figures leave but little doubt on the subject. The same wings -are on the angels and on the eagles, the same coiffures on the human -characters, often the same attitudes. - -From the preceding can be judged the extraordinary favour these -productions enjoyed. From their origin they were diffused through the -whole of Europe, and attracted the attention of excellent artists. -Nevertheless their beginnings were difficult. The movable types used, -cut separately in wood, were not constituted to give an ideal -impression. We can understand the cost that the execution of these -characters must have occasioned, made as they were one by one without -the possibility of ever making them perfectly uniform. Progress was to -substitute for this irregular process types that were similar, -identical, easily produced, and used for a long time without breaking. -Following on the essays of Laurent Coster, continuous researches bore on -this point; but as the invention was said to be his, and it being of -importance to him not to divulge it, so that he should not lose his -profit, much time was lost over it in his workshop without much success. -Here history is somewhat confused. Hadrian Junius positively accuses one -of Laurent Coster's workmen of having stolen the secrets of his master -and taken flight to Mayence, where he afterwards founded a printing -office. According to Junius, the metal type was the discovery of the -Dutchman, and the name of the thief was John. Who was this John? Was it -John Gaensefleisch, called Gutenberg, or possibly John Fust? But it is -not at all apparent that Gutenberg, a gentleman of Mayence, exiled from -his country, was ever in the service of the Dutch inventor. As to Fust, -we believe his only intervention in the association of printers of -Mayence was as a money-lender, from which may be comprehended the -unlikelihood of his having been with Coster, the more so as we find -Gutenberg retired to Strasbourg, where he pursued his researches. There -he was, as it were, out of his sphere, a ruined noble whose great -knowledge was bent entirely on invention. Doubtless, like many others, -he may have had in his hands one of the printed works of Laurent Coster, -and conceived the idea of appropriating the infant process. In 1439 he -was associated with two artisans of the city of Strasbourg, ostensibly -in the fabrication of mirrors, which may be otherwise understood as -printing of _Speculums_, the Latin word signifying the same thing. These -men needed to surround themselves with precautions; printing was as yet -only a practical means of multiplying manuscripts, to impose a little on -the innocent, and fortune awaited him who, without saying anything, made -this invention serve him. The following will prove this, as well as its -tendency. - -A legal document discovered in 1760 by Wencker and Schoepflin in the -Pfennigthurm of Strasbourg, and afterwards translated into French by -M. Leon de Laborde, makes us at length acquainted with the work of -Gutenberg and of his associates Andrew Dritzehen and Andrew Heilmann. -Apparently these three men were, as we have said, _Spiegelmacher_, -that is makers of mirrors. They had jointly entered into a deed by -the terms of which, if one of the partners died in the course of -their researches, his heirs would have no rights beyond an indemnity -corresponding to the amount invested by him. It happened that -Andrew Dritzehen did die, and that one of his brothers aspired to -occupy his place in the partnership. The dead man left debts behind -him; he had squandered his florins by hundreds in his experiments. -Gutenberg having offered to pay the amounts expended, the heirs of -Dritzehen, who wanted more, summoned him before the courts to show -why he should not make place for them in the work of experiments and -making of mirrors. The witnesses in their testimony before the court -told what they knew of the inventions of the partnership. One among -them deposed that after the death of Dritzehen, Gutenberg's servant -went to the workshop and begged Nicholas Dritzehen, brother of the -deceased, to displace and break up four formes placed in a press. -A second testified that the works of Andrew had cost him at the -least three hundred florins, an enormous sum for those days. Other -witnesses painted Gutenberg in a curious light: they made him out -to be a savage, a hermit, who concealed from his associates certain -arts of which the deed stipulated nothing. One fact proved that the -experiments referred to the manufacture of metallic characters. A -goldsmith, named Dünne, maintained that he had received more than a -hundred florins for printing material "das zu dem trucken gehoret." -"Trucken!"--"Typography!" The word was found, and from that day usage -has consecrated it. - -Before 1439, then, John Gaensefleisch, or Gutenberg, was devoted to the -art of reproduction of texts, and had consecrated his life and feeble -resources to it. Three problems presented themselves to him. He wanted -types less fragile than wooden types and less costly than engraving. He -wanted a press by the aid of which he could obtain a clear impression on -parchment or paper. He desired also that the leaves of his books should -not be anopistograph, or printed only on one side. There were many -unknown things to vex his soul, of which he himself alone could have a -presentiment. Until then, and even long after, the xylographs were -printed _au frotton_ or with a brush, rubbing the paper upon the forme -coated with ink, thicker than ordinary ink. He dreamed of something -better. - -In the course of his work John Gutenberg returned to Mayence. The idea -of publishing a Bible, the Book of books, had taken possession of his -heart. The _Spiegelmacher_ of Strasbourg was on the road to loss. The -cutting of his types had ruined him, and on his arrival in his native -town, his stock in trade, transported by him, was of no great weight: -some boxes of type, an inconvenient forme, and perhaps an ordinary -press, a wine-maker's press, with a wooden screw. The idea of using this -unwieldy instrument for the impression of his formes had already -occurred to him; but would not the _frotton_ serve still better? The -force of the blow from the bar would break the miserable type, the -raised parts of which could not resist the repeated strokes. In this -unhappy situation, Gutenberg made the acquaintance of a financier of -Mayence, named Fust, who was in search of a business, and who put a sum -of eleven hundred florins at his disposal to continue his experiments. -Unfortunately this money disappeared, it melted away, and the results -obtained were absolutely ludicrous. - -It is certain that John Fust did not enter on the engagement without -protecting himself. From the first he bound his debtor in a contract for -six per cent. interest, besides a share in the profits. In addition he -stipulated repayment in case of failure. Gutenberg, improvident, as is -the way of inventors, had signed away all that he possessed to procure -funds. It is presumed, besides, that during the continuance of his -investigations, he composed some current books with the resources at his -disposal, that served a little to lighten his debts. But the printing -house of the Zum Jungen at Mayence was far from shining in the world, -because the association of Fust concerned itself only with the -publication of a Bible, and not at all with the _Speculums_ and -_Donatuses_ that were so much in vogue at this time. Besides, the -money-lender made a point of pressing his debtor, and did not allow him -any leisure to labour outside the projected work. About this time a -third actor enters on the scene. Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, a -writer, introduced into the workshop of Gutenberg to design letters, -benefited by the abortive experiments, and taking up the invention at -its deadlock, conducted it to success. John of Tritenheim, called -Trithemius, the learned abbot of Spanheim, is the person who relates -these facts; but as he got his information from Schoeffer himself, too -much credence must not be given to his statements. Besides, Schoeffer -was not at all an ordinary artisan. If we credit a Strasbourg manuscript -written by his hand in 1449, he was a student of the "most glorious -university of Paris." In the workshop of Gutenberg, his industrious and -inventive intellect found a fecund mine, and this caligraphist dreamt -of other things than shaping letters for the use of wood engravers. -Gutenberg, arrested in his career by the wants of life, the worries of -business, and perhaps also the fatigues of his labours, may have let the -new-comer know something of his experiences. One cannot know, but it is -certain that, shortly after, John Fust was so fascinated by Schoeffer, -so attracted by his youth and his application, that he resolved to put -new capital into the business. He did more: to permanently attach him, -he gave him his grand-daughter in marriage, not his daughter, as was -thought until M. Auguste Bernard rectified this mistake. - -We have now come to 1453, the year preceding the first dated monument of -printing in movable types: _the letters of indulgence_. It may be -acknowledged that the sudden affection of Fust for his workman depended -on some interested motive, and not at all on attraction of the heart. -Had this former student of the university of Paris found the means of -rapidly founding metallic types, the search for which had cost Gutenberg -many sleepless nights? Had he completed it by applying to it the matrix -and punch which had then and for centuries served the makers of seals -and the money-coiners? Perhaps, as was most probable, the two associates -had agreed, and putting their experiences together, had conquered -hitherto insurmountable difficulties. - -The year 1454 witnessed the diffusion throughout Christendom of letters -of indulgence, accorded by Pope Nicholas V., who wished to aid in funds -the King of Cyprus against the Turks. These circular letters, scattered -by thousands to every corner of the world, employed numerous copyists. -Arrived at Mayence, the distributers found a workshop ready prepared to -furnish copies in the shortest possible time. They set to work and -brought together all the type they possessed, cast or engraved, to set -up these famous letters. Among the impressions was that of which we give -a reproduction, which belongs to the edition called that of thirty-one -lines. The original was delivered for a consideration to Josse Ott von -Mospach on the 31st of December, 1454. - -It is not without interest, for the history of the Book and of printing, -to note here that these letters of indulgence, the clandestine traffic -in which was largely accelerated by rapidity of production and the small -cost of each copy, formed one of the causes of the religious reform of -Martin Luther. They afforded a means of raising money, and were so -generally resorted to that in the register of the Hotel de Ville of -Paris preserved in the Archives Nationales (H 1778) it may be seen that -the sheriffs requested the Pope to allow them to employ them in the -reconstruction of the bridge at the Hotel de Ville. - -The ice once broken, Fust and Schoeffer found it hard to nourish a -useless mouth. For them Gutenberg was more of a hindrance than a profit, -and they sought brutally to rid themselves of him. Fust had a most easy -pretext, which was to demand purely and simply from his associate the -sums advanced by him, and which had produced so little. Gutenberg had -probably commenced his Bible, but, in face of the claims of Fust, he had -to abandon it altogether, types, formes, and press. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Letters of indulgence, from the so-called -edition of thirty-one lines, printed at Mayence in the course of 1454.] - -In November, 1455, he had retired to a little house outside the city, -where he tried his best, by the aid of foreign help, to establish a -workshop, and to preserve the most perfect secrecy. Relieved of his -company, Fust and Schoeffer were able to take up the impression of the -Bible and to complete it without him. If matters did so happen, and -Schoeffer had not the excuse that he had previously discovered the -casting of type, there is but one word to designate his conduct: -robbery, and moral robbery, the worst of all. But what can be said -to-day of these people? - -One thing is certain: that the Bible of Schoeffer, commenced by -Gutenberg or not, put on sale by Fust and Schoeffer alone about the end -of 1455 or beginning of 1456, proves to be the first completed book. -Retired to his new quarters, Gutenberg was taking courage, so as not -to appear too much behindhand, but the reconstitution of his workshop -cost him enormous time. And, besides, he missed the letter-maker -Schoeffer, his own Gothic letters, engraved on steel with a punch, not -having the same elegance. When his work appeared, it could not sustain -comparison. The Bible of Schoeffer was more compact, the impression was -more perfect, the ink better, the type less irregular. The original -inventor, in his business with Fust, made an unhappy competition for -himself. We give here a fragment of this celebrated book, a kind of -mute witness of the science and mortifications of the first printer. -It is now called the Mazarine Bible, from the fact that the copy in -the Mazarin Library was the first to give evidence concerning it. The -book was put on sale at the end of 1455 or beginning of 1456, for a -manuscript note of a vicar of St. Stephen at Mayence records that -he finished the binding and illuminating of the first volume on St. -Bartholomew's Day, 1456, and the second on the 15th of August. St. -Bartholomew's Day is the 13th of June, and not the 24th of August, as -the catalogue of the Bibliothèque Nationale has it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Fragment of the Mazarine Bible, printed in two -columns. Beginning of the text in the second column; original size.] - -All these remarks show that the printers did not proclaim themselves, -and were making pseudo-manuscripts. They did not make known their names -or address. The rubricators sided with them, for many of the copies are -illuminated with as much care and beauty as if they were the finest -manuscripts. - -There is no record extant of the number of copies printed, but it was -done on both vellum and paper. Copies are by no means uncommon, most of -the great libraries having one, and many are in private collections. One -is shown among the typographical monuments in the King's Library of the -British Museum, and there is a finely illuminated copy in the show-room -of the Bibliothèque Nationale. From its very great importance as the -first book that is known to have been printed, its value has a constant -increase. Of the copies recently sold, one at the Perkins sale in 1873 -on vellum sold for £3,400, another on paper at the same sale fetched -£2,900, while one on paper in the Syston Park Library sold in December, -1884, for £3,900. It has been asserted that the copies on paper were the -first issued by Gutenberg and his partners, and those on vellum -subsequently printed by Fust and Schoeffer, after they had obtained -possession of the inventor's stock. - -But so many copies absolutely similar in aspect, and of so regular a -style, put in the market from day to day by Fust and Schoeffer, gave -rise to protests from the caligraphists. Criticism always attends upon -success, but having obtained the result, the two associates did not -hesitate to proclaim themselves the printers of the Bible. On the -publication of the Psalter, which followed the Bible at a year's -interval, they gave their names and added a date, 1457, the first -instance of a date being recorded in a book. This second work was of so -skilful a typography, that it might have been shown as the work of an -expert penman; the faults remarked in the letters of indulgence are no -longer seen; type had attained perfection; in two years printing had -reached its culminating point. - -In spite of his disappointments, Gutenberg did not rest idle. If he had -seen his two enemies rob him of his claim of priority in the invention, -he had to show that, reduced to his own exertions and to the restricted -means furnished him by charitable people, he also could print well. Two -years after the Bible a dated book, composed in Gothic letters, appeared -at Mayence; this was the _Catholicon_ of John Balbus, of Genoa. It had -not yet occurred to these first printers to exercise their art otherwise -than on religious works. It is admitted by general opinion that the -_Catholicon_ issued from the press of Gutenberg; on the other hand, M. -Bernard believes that it ought to be attributed to a printer of Eltvil, -who published in 1467 a vocabulary called the _Vocabularium ex quo_ with -the same types. The former theory may be sustained by the words of the -colophon of the book, which is a sort of hymn to God and a recognition -of the city of Mayence without any mention of the name of the printer. -Now in the situation in which Gutenberg found himself, in the face of -his rivals, had he not some claim to regard the great discovery as his -own? But if M. Bernard is mistaken, and if our supposition has no -foundation, what a beautiful act of humility, what a noble idea of his -character, Gutenberg gives us in writing, "With the aid of the Most -High, Who releases the tongues of infants and often reveals to babes -that which is sealed to learned men, this admirable book the -_Catholicon_ was finished in the year of the incarnation of our Saviour -MCCCCLX. in the mother-country of Mayence, famous city of Germany, which -God, in His clemency, has deigned to render the most illustrious and the -first of cities; and this book was perfected without the usual help of -pen or style, but by the admirable linking of formes and types"! - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Colophon of the _Catholicon_, supposed to have -been printed by Gutenberg in 1460.] - -The history of these men, it is easy to understand, has to be regarded -with caution, people of so little consequence then that the authentic -documents relating to them have for ever disappeared. If we except that -of the Pfennigthurm of Strasbourg, of which we have before spoken, and -the deed of claim for money from Fust to Gutenberg dated 1455, we are -forced to quote from authors living long afterwards, who submitted, -without knowing better, to the miserable errors of oral tradition. It is -nearly always the same with men who have occupied a large place in the -history of art; posterity only knows of their genius at the time when no -one knows anything of them. For Gutenberg the situation was still more -terrible; a rival, Peter Schoeffer, survived him, and he did not for his -own reputation care to preserve his rival's memory; and if, as is -believed, Gutenberg left pupils and heirs, Henry Bechtermuncze, Ulrich -Zell, and Weigand Spyes, his misfortune is crowned by Bechtermuncze -being now reputed to be the printer of the _Catholicon_, of which we -have just given the history. Even Albert Pfister, one of his workmen, -dismissed at the end of his work, having obtained from his master some -rejected types, was presumed later to have invented printing. We find -this artisan established at Bamberg about 1460, composing Bibles in -movable types, the first known being that published in 1461. But Albert -Pfister showed that he was not at all an inventor by the mediocrity of -his work, and more by the old types that he used. If he had known the -secret of engraving the punches, he would have cast new letters and have -given a better aspect to his work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Colophon of the Bible printed in 1462 by Fust -and Schoeffer, which is the first dated Bible. There are two different -editions with this signature. The above is from the second edition.] - -In these statements all is supposition and contradiction. That which is -certain--and the dates are there to prove it--is the enormous progress -in the productions of Peter Schoeffer. In 1459 he published his third -book, Durand's _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_, in folio. As in the -Psalter, Schoeffer employed initial letters printed in red, which the -rival workshop could not do in the _Catholicon_, the rubrics of which -are painted by hand, as in manuscripts. In time he put forth a second -edition of the Psalter, always with Fust's name joined to his own. A -great number of types were broken at the beginning, but he dreamed of -doing yet better. In 1460 he gave the _Constitutiones_ of Pope Clement -V., with a gloss and commentaries by John André; here was the first -example of a process much employed in manuscripts, but of which the -typographical composition was very difficult. Again, in 1462 a new Latin -Bible issued from their workshops in two folio volumes. It is the first -dated edition. The first volume has two hundred and forty-two folios in -double columns, the second two hundred and thirty-nine. It commences -with an epistle of St. Jerome, and on the last leaf of the second volume -is the colophon on the preceding page. - -This book, one of the first worthy of the name, and which is called by -preference the Mayence Bible, appeared in one of the most troubled -epochs that the episcopal city had had to go through. Subject to its -archbishops, who were at the head of all the lay lords and fighting men, -the city found itself in 1462 the prey of two prelates of equal title -who refused to give way to one another: Thierry of Isembourg and Adolph -of Nassau-Wiesbaden. Adolph surprised Mayence on the 27th October, 1462, -pursuing his adversary, who scaled the walls with a rope to escape -quicker, and the city was sacked and pillaged from its foundations. In -the middle of this turmoil, what became of the obscure persons who were -then the printers of the Bible? Doubtless their insignificance saved -them from disaster, but as it was long before peace was re-established, -and the entire edition of their last volume could not be kept back, we -incline to believe that they were for a time going about the country as -itinerant booksellers. Paris was to them a well-indicated point of -travel--Paris, toward which all German commerce tended. The university -where Peter Schoeffer was instructed in letters, and that truly passed -for the first in Europe, appeared to them a market of the first order. -If we may believe Walchius (_Decas fabularum generis humani_: -Strasbourg, 1609, 4to, p. 181), John Fust himself went to that city, -where he put books on sale from sixty crowns a copy, then fifty, then -forty, according to the prevailing system in matters of discount. Fust -was above all things a merchant; he led it to be believed that he had -the marvellous establishment of a copyist beyond the Rhine, and he had -disposed of many copies, when the corporate scribes of the university, -becoming aware of the imposition, cried out furiously and declared it a -diabolical invention. We may now take this tale of Walchius as a fable, -as the registers of Parliament, on being consulted, rest silent on the -proceedings instituted against the "magician" of Mayence. Only we must -not lose sight of the fact that the booksellers had their masters, their -syndicate, if we may use the modern word, charged to prohibit fraudulent -publications. They were too much interested in the suppression of -printed books to judge the matter coldly. The Parliament had nothing to -see to in this. - -The revolution of Mayence had otherwise great results, which were not -affected by these minor reverses. The printing workshops, or at least -the successors of Gutenberg, began to be dispersed, and Fust and -Schoeffer having established a school of printers in the city, their -trade was no longer secret. Deprived of their liberties by the new -Archbishop, many of them expatriated themselves. We shall take occasion -later to name some of these exiles, through whom the art of printing -spread itself almost simultaneously throughout the world: to Cologne and -Strasbourg, to Italy and Spain, without reckoning Holland, France, -Switzerland, and the country around Mayence. We have before named the -episcopal city of Bamberg; it had the singular fortune to be the second -city to possess a printing office, but it disappeared as quickly as it -was established, with Albert Pfister, without leaving the least trace; -we do not find printing there again before 1480, more than twenty years -later. - -Gutenberg was dead before 1468. He was interred in the Church of the -Récollets of Mayence, by the pious care of a friend, who attributed the -invention of printing to him on his tomb. - -We may begin to comprehend the influence of this man upon the discovery -of which all the world was then talking, but the troubles of the -archiepiscopal city hampered the respective merit of the inventors. -Peter Schoeffer and John Fust were not much affected by the political -crisis. After two years' suspension, they reappeared with a Cicero, _De -Officiis_, 1465, quarto, always at work and always surpassing -themselves. This time they freely gave up religious publications, and, -still more extraordinary, they employed Greek types. - -Such is, detached from the incredible contradictions of writers on art, -and sketched solely on its main lines, the origin of printing as it is -established at this day. First came the image engraved in relief, which -we have not gone to China to find, with some of our predecessors. Upon -this image were often cut, by the same economical process, legends of -explanation that presented the idea of imitation of manuscript; and the -xylographs appeared with or without illustrations. Then from the -correction of errors in these books followed the discovery of movable -characters. This wooden type, possible when it was used with a _frotton_ -for printing, would quickly break under the press, the idea of which was -gained from the common press of the wine-makers. Then a kind of metallic -type had to be found which would run in a mould struck by a punch. This -punch was not invented for the purpose; it served previously for the -makers of coins and seals. The fabrication of type from the matrix was a -simple adoption. The lead thrown into the matrix gave the desired type. -Thus were made the first books, of which we have briefly related the -composition. - -As to the proportion of glory due to each one of the first printers, it -is necessary equally, to guard against error on one side or the other. -We have sought to separate from the heap of publications probable -opinions or those based on certain documents. That the origin of the -_Donatus_, the block books, was Dutch would be puerile to deny, because, -on one side, the engravings on blocks are surely of the school of Van -Eyck, and, on the other hand, Ulrich Zell, who inspired the "Cologne -Chronicle" of 1499, assigned positively to Holland the cradle of the -_Donatus_. At any rate, it was a pupil of Gutenberg, a question we have -discussed. After that we will trouble ourselves but little about Laurent -Coster. The name makes no difference in a matter of this kind. - -As to Gutenberg, we have not been able to go as far as M. E. Dutuit, who -in his _Manuel a'Estampes_ (vol. i., p. 236, etc.) doubts Gutenberg's -right to the title of inventor. It is stated that in a letter of William -Fichet, prior of the Sorbonne, of whom we shall have more to say -presently, to Robert Gaguin, which M. A. Claudin found at the beginning -of a work entitled _Gasparim Pergamensis orthographiæ liber_, published -in 1470, nearly twenty years after the first work at Mayence, Gutenberg -is proclaimed the inventor of printing. Without any other, this -testimony of a _savant_ who was the first to bring the German printers -to Paris appears to us well nigh irrefutable. - -As to John Fust and his grandson by marriage, Peter Schoeffer, they are -so well defended by their works, that there is no more to say here; -doubtless grave presumptions arise as to the delicacy of their conduct -with Gutenberg, but we are not so bold as to censure them beyond -measure. We know nothing precise either of the time or of the men. - -Let us now imagine humble workmen, the most simple of _gens de -mestiers_, to employ the French expression then in use, shut up in a -kind of dark workshop, like a country forge, formed in little groups of -two or three persons, one designing and the other cutting the wood, -having near them a table, on which is held the engraved block after its -reliefs have been rubbed with sombre ink, who afterwards, by means of -the _frotton_, apply the damped paper to the raised parts of the block; -we shall have without much stretch of thought all the economy of the -xylographic impression. If we add to this primitive workshop the matrix -in which the types are cast, the box in which they are distributed, the -forme on which they are arranged to compose the pages, and a small -hand-press, with blacker ink and paper damped to permit the greasy ink -to take better, we have a picture of the work-room of Gutenberg, Fust, -and Schoeffer, and of the first printers with movable types. - -Thus typography was born of painting, passing in its infancy through -wood-cutting, revolutionising ideas and somewhat the world. But the -mighty power of the new art was not confined to itself; it extended the -circle of engraving, which till then had suffered from the enormous -difficulties of reproduction. As if the time were ripe for all these -things, nearly at the moment when the first printers were distinguishing -themselves by serious works, a Florentine goldsmith accidentally -discovered the cutting of cast metal.[A] What would have become of this -new process if the presses of Gutenberg had not brought their powerful -assistance to the printing of engravings? It will be found then that -printing rendered a hundredfold to engraving for that which it received -from it and bore it along with its own rapid advance. - -Then reappeared, following the new processes, the figures somewhat -abandoned by the Mayence workmen during the period of transformation. -Our object is to speak at length of the Book ornamented and illustrated -according to the means of relief-cutting or casting; to demonstrate the -influence of painting, of sculpture, of art, on the production of the -Book; and thus to help the reader at the same time to understand the -almost sudden and irresistible development of typography, and to mention -its foremost representatives. - -[Footnote A: The opinion that Finiguerra was the unconscious inventor of -casting engravings is now abandoned.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -1462 TO 1500. - - The Book and the printers of the second generation--The German - workmen dispersed through Europe--Caxton and the introduction of - printing into England--Nicholas Jenson and his supposed mission to - Mayence--The first printing in Paris; William Fichet and John - Heinlein--The first French printers; their installation at the - Sorbonne and their publications--The movement in France--The - illustration of the Book commenced in Italy--The Book in Italy; - engraving in relief and metal plates--The Book in Germany: Cologne, - Nuremberg, Basle--The Book in the Low Countries--French schools of - ornament of the Book; Books of Hours; booksellers at the end of the - fifteenth century--Literary taste in titles in France at the end of - the fifteenth century--Printers and booksellers' marks--The - appearance of the portrait in the Book--Progress in England--Caxton - and his followers. - - -Considering the influence of printing on the book trade of the fifteenth -century, as referred to in the preceding pages, the dealers in -manuscripts were not disposed to give way at the first blow. An entire -class of workmen would find themselves from day to day without -employment if the new art succeeded; these were the copyists, miserable -scribes, who for meagre remuneration frequented the shops of the -merchants, where they transcribed manuscripts by the year. Before -printing the publication of books was so effected, and the booksellers -were rather intermediaries between the copyist and the buyer, than -direct dealers having shops and fittings complete. It is evident that -they would not provide themselves with these costly books long in -advance without being sure of disposing of them. - -Small as was the remuneration of the writers, it was much to them; and -they were naturally the first to protest against the new invention. At -the same time, their opposition and that of the booksellers was soon -overcome, swamped, and choked by the growing crowd of printers. Then, as -always happens in similar cases, in place of fighting against the -current, most of the former workers in manuscript followed it. The -writers designed letters for engraving in wood, the booksellers sold the -printed works, and some of the illuminators engraved in relief or cast -their _histoyres_. For a long time these last continued to decorate -books with the ornamental drawings with which they had adorned the -manuscripts, and so contributed to form the fine school of illustrators -who carried their art to so high a point from the end of the fifteenth -century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Imprint of Arnold Ther Hoernen, printer, of -Mayence.] - -As previously related, the revolution of Mayence caused the flight of a -crowd of artisans who found their liberty suddenly compromised by the -conqueror. The want of money at this time always brought a diminution of -patronage, and working printers have been at all times tenacious of -their privileges. It so happened that their guild, in place of remaining -established at Mayence many years longer, was, as it were, turned out, -scattered to the four cardinal points by the dispersion of its members, -and scattered many years before the natural time. In point of fact, in -the common order of things, a workman here and there quits the principal -workshop to try the world. He makes his way timidly, unconscious apostle -of a marvellous art. If he succeeds, he gathers some pupils round him; -if he fails, no trace of him remains; in any case invention propagates -itself more gradually. With printing it was a thunderclap. Hardly had it -made its appearance when the exodus commenced. The greater part of the -Mayence men went to Italy: to Subiaco and to Rome, Arnold Pannartz, -Conrad Sweynheim, Ulrich Hahn; to Venice, John of Spire, Vendelin of -Spire, Christopher Valdarfer, Bernard Pictor (of Augsburg), Erhardt -Ratdolt, Peter Loslein; to Ferrara, Andrew Belfort; to Foligno, John -Neumeister; Henry Alding tried Sicily; Andrew Vyel, of Worms, printed -at Palermo. Lambert Palmart was at Valencia, in Spain, in 1477; -Nicholas Spindeler at Barcelona; Peter Hagenbach at Toledo; not far from -Mayence--that is, at Cologne--Ulrich Zell, a pupil of Gutenberg, who -dated his first work 1466. It was Arnold Ther Hoernen who numbered a -book with Arabic figures; it was Koelhof who first used signatures to -indicate to the binder the order of the sheets; it was at Eltvil that -Henry Bechtermuncze, as we have already said, printed his _Vocabularium_ -in German, with the types of the _Catholicon_; at Basle, Berthold -Rüppel, of Hanau, was the first established in that city which after -Mayence did the most for printing; at Nuremberg, Koburger, who took -nearly the first rank among his contemporaries, set as many as -twenty-four presses to work, and was named by Badius the prince of -printers. And how matters went on! For instance, the very year that -followed the death of Gutenberg, monks, the Brothers of the Common Life -of Marienthal, in the Rheingau, themselves published a copy of the -indulgences accorded by Adolph of Nassau, Archbishop of Mayence. Before -1480, presses were everywhere in Germany: at Prague, Augsburg, Ulm, -Lubeck, Essling, etc. - -It is to be remarked that the Mayence men did not turn towards Holland. -Is it that they found there the descendants of Laurent Coster firmly -established in their workshops? Must the coexistence, the simultaneous -advance, of the invention in Germany and in the Low Countries be -admitted? It is a secret for us and for many others, but we know for -certain that Flemish printers were established at Utrecht in 1473, at -Delft, Bruges, Gouda, Zwoll, Antwerp, and Brussels. At Louvain there -was besides John of Westphalia, who published in 1474 a work of Peter -Crescens, and several other works. - -Colard Mansion was printing at Bruges about 1473; and was employed by -William Caxton, who had been for some years trading as a merchant in the -Low Countries, to print the "Recuyell of the Histories of Troy," by -Raoul Le Fevre, which Caxton had translated into English at the command -of Queen Margaret. This was issued in 1474, and was the first book -printed in the English language. In 1475 or 1476 Caxton returned to -England with a fount of types, which he had employed Mansion to cut and -cast for him, and established himself as a printer in the precincts of -Westminster Abbey. In 1477 he produced the first book printed in -England, "The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers," followed by a -large number of important works, many of them written or translated by -Caxton himself. Thus was typography firmly established in England; and -Caxton's immediate successors, Wynken de Worde, Richard Pynson, William -Machlinia, have had a glorious roll of followers, which has never been -broken to this day. From Westminster the art spread in England to -Oxford, where Theodoricus Rood, from Cologne, printed an _Exposicio -Sancti Jeronimi_ in 1478; and to St. Albans in 1480 by a printer who has -never been identified, and who produced the famous "Chronicle" and "Boke -of St. Albans." - -The invasion, we see, had been most rapid. In less than fifteen years, -every important city had followed the movement, and was ready to -establish printing offices. If we may credit a certain controverted -document, Charles VII. had on the 3rd of October, 1458, sent to Mayence -one of the best medal engravers of the Mint of Tours to study the -process of which marvels were spoken: "The 3rd of October, 1458, the -King having learned that Messire Guthenberg, living at Mayence, in the -country of Germany, a dexterous man in carving and making letters with a -punch, had brought to light the invention of printing by punches and -types, desirous of inquiring into such a treasure, the King has -commanded the generals of his mints to nominate persons well instructed -in the said cutting and to send them secretly to the said place to -inform themselves of the said mode and invention, to understand and -learn the art of them, in order to satisfy the said Lord King; and it -was undertaken by Nicholas Jenson, who took the said journey to bring -intelligence of the said art and of the execution of it in the said -kingdom, which first has made known the said art of impression to the -said kingdom of France" (Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, Hf 467, pp. 410, -411). - -Nicholas Jenson on his return met with a cool reception from Louis XI., -who did not continue the works of his father. It may be supposed that -this coolness was the cause of his expatriating himself and retiring to -a place where his industry could be better exercised. Ten years after -the above mission we find him established at Venice, his art of engraver -of letters joined to that of printer. His Eusebius, translated by -Trapezuntius, and his Justinian, were composed in 1470 with such -marvellous and clear types that from that day the best typographers have -imitated his founts. In spite of its success, he did not confine himself -to these letters, but he made use also of Gothic, in which he printed -by preference pious books. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Imprint of Nicholas Jenson to a Justinian, -printed in 1470 at Venice. This type has prevailed up to now.] - -In spite of the attempts of Jenson in the name of the King of -France--that is, if these attempts ever took place in the manner -indicated above--the invention was not known to have commended itself to -the powerful university of Paris. In general, and especially for the -introduction of innovations in that learned body, it was necessary to -fight, to strike without much chance of success, save in case of having -acquaintance in the place. We have seen John Fust, obliged suddenly to -retake the road to Germany, in a fair way to find himself taxed with -sorcery, not an inconsiderable matter. For others the sale of -unauthorised books had had most unhappy consequences unless the -Parliament intervened. So ten years had passed since the journey of -Jenson, and ten or twelve since the first manifestations of typography -at Mayence, without the diabolical discovery finding admittance to the -Sorbonne. A still more extraordinary thing, a Cologne printer issued -about 1472 a small folio in Gothic type, thirty-one long lines to a -page, which was a work written in French. The _Histoires de Troyes_ of -Raoul Le Fevre, chaplain of the dukes of Burgundy, first found a -publisher in Germany, and soon after another in England, before a single -press was definitely installed at Paris. - -As we have said of Peter Schoeffer, numerous German students were in the -university, where they pursued their studies, and frequently remained -later as masters. It has been found that in 1458 a former student of -Leipzig named John Heinlein, a native of Stein, in the diocese of Spire, -entered as regent of the college of Burgundy, from whence he passed to -the Sorbonne in 1462, the year of the troubles in Mayence. After the -manner of latinising names so common at that time, he called himself -Lapidanus, from the name of his native place, which means Stone in -German. Heinlein met in Paris a Savoyard, William Fichet, born in 1433 -at Petit Bornand, who became an associate of the Sorbonne about 1461, -and finally rector in 1468. These two men were great friends, and their -particular instincts attracted them to men of elevated studies. They -divined at once the enormous help printing would bring to their work. -Besides, it grieved them to see through the whole of France, especially -in Touraine, German colporteurs carrying on their trade under cover of -other commerce, a practice from which the most grave inconveniences -might result. It occurred to them that to prevent fraud they would -themselves create a printing establishment; but if they deliberated on -it, it must have been in secret, for the registers of the Sorbonne are -silent on their enterprise. If Fichet conceived the idea, it may be -believed that, from his German origin, Heinlein put it into execution. -M. Philippe thinks that he was formerly at Basle. In all probability it -was from that city he tried to obtain his workmen. In 1468 six years had -elapsed since the craftsmen were dispersed and fled from Mayence. At all -events, it was from Basle that Ulrich Gering, Michael Freyburger, and -Martin Krantz, printers recommended to the two Sorbonnists, departed, -and in due course arrived in Paris. Of these three men, who were the -first to establish a printing office on the French side of the Rhine, -Ulrich Gering was a student as well as a printer, so was Freyburger, -originally of Colmar. Krantz was a letter-founder, and the only real -workman of the three companions. - -We have often regretted with regard to these men, as also to Gutenberg, -Fust, and Schoeffer, that no really authentic portrait has transmitted -their features to us. Every one will recall the fur cap and loose -pantaloons of the mediocre statue at Mayence, but there is really no -portrait of Gutenberg. As to Gering, M. Philippe, in his _Histoire de -l'Origine de l'Imprimerie à Paris_, publishes a grotesque figure muffled -in the ruff of the sixteenth century, after a picture preserved at -Lucerne, but for which much cannot be said. Lacaille, in his _Histoire -de l'Imprimerie_, gives a full-length portrait of Gering, said to be -taken from a painting in the College Montagu. - -The workshop of the three Germans was set up within the walls of the -Sorbonne--_in ædibus Sorbonnicis_--in 1469. There they set to work at -once, their printing establishment consisting simply of a room, none too -light, a table, a press, and formes. Krantz doubtless struck the types -chosen by the Sorbonnists, for there were then in use two sorts of -letters: German Gothic and Roman. They kept to the Roman, as being more -round and clear; and as soon as they obtained matrices and cast their -type, they entered on their task with ardour. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--"Letters" of Gasparin of Bergamo. First page of -the first book printed at Paris, in 1470.] - -The tendencies of Fichet and Heinlein were not towards transcendent -theology, but rather towards the literature of the ancients and -contemporary rhetorical works. Besides, it may be said, considering that -men are far from perfect, Fichet counted on making the authorised -presses serve his own purpose. We find him publishing a treatise on -rhetoric in quarto in 1471; meantime he supervised the work confided to -his artists. They commenced with a large volume of "Letters" of Gasparin -of Bergamo, which was set up in quarto with the Roman type, the form of -which had been accepted. At the end of the work, the impression of -which cost much time--possibly a year--the three printers placed a -quatrain in Latin distichs, which is at once a statement of identity and -a promise for the future. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Colophon in distichs in the "Letters" of -Gasparin of Bergamo, first book printed at Paris, at the office of the -Sorbonne.] - -If we try to apportion to each of the three printers his share in the -making of the book, it may be supposed that the intellectual part of the -composition and the correction fell to Freyburger and Gering, while the -heavier work of founding, placing in formes, and press work fell to -Krantz. This essay, satisfactory as it appeared, was far from -perfection. The first Parisian printers had multiplied abbreviations and -irregular contractions, and enormous difficulties and inevitable faults -ensued. Further, either they had more than one punch, or the leaden -matrix was deformed, for the characters frequently differ. At the same -time, we must commend them for having used the _æ_ and _[oe]_, which -were uniformly written _e_ in the manuscripts, thus giving rise to -errors without number. Their punctuation was the comma, semicolon, and -full stop. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--_Rhetorique_ of Fichet, printed at Paris in -1471. The marginal ornaments are drawn by hand.] - -Fichet and Heinlein had become the modest librarians of the Sorbonne, -and this new employment gave them greater facilities for surveillance. -The printing office did not remain inactive. It issued successively the -"Orthography" of Gasparin of Bergamo, the "Letters" of Phalaris, two -books of Æneas Sylvius, the "Conspiracy of Catiline" of Sallust, the -"Epitome of Titus Livius" of Florus, and finally the "Rhetorics" of -William Fichet, which, if we may credit a letter addressed to Bessarion, -was finished in 1471. Following came the "Letters" of Bessarion, the -_Elegantia Latinæ Linguæ_ of Valla, the first folio volume from the -Sorbonne presses; and others, thirteen volumes in 1470-71 and seventeen -in 1472. - -At the end of 1472 the workshop was somewhat broken up, Fichet having -left for Rome and Heinlein preaching in Germany. The three printers had -shown by their works that they were in earnest; besides, they had from -the first gratuitously distributed copies among the nobles, who, being -accustomed to pay highly for manuscripts, did not fail to note the -difference. The associates then resolved to quit the Sorbonne and create -an establishment for themselves; their patrons being no longer there to -sustain them in case of failure, and in giving up their presses and -types it may be judged that they were not without anxiety on that point. - -Their oldest dated book, the _Manipulus Curatorum_ of Montrochet, was -also the first that they printed in their new quarters, at the sign of -the "Golden Sun" in the Rue St. Jacques. They remained united up to the -year 1477, when Gering alone printed at the "Golden Sun," but he -obtained associates, George Mainyal in 1480 and Berthold Rembold in -1494, who lived with him in the Rue de la Sorbonne, where he established -himself on leaving the Rue St. Jacques. Ulrich Gering died on the 23rd -of August, 1510, after a half-century of work. - -The movement inaugurated by the Sorbonne was promptly followed. German -workmen opened their shops nearly everywhere in France; then the French -themselves scattered. At Lyons in 1472 a Frenchman was established, the -same at Angers, Caen, Metz, Troyes, Besançon, and Salins. But in the -central provinces we find Henry Mayer at Toulouse, John Neumeister at -Albi; in the east Metlinger at Dijon; and Michael Wensler, of Basle, at -Macon, among others, about 1493. - -We have now arrived at an epoch of greater efforts. The Lyons printers -used ornamental letters, from which were developed engravings in the -Book. Since the block books illustration had been neglected, as the -means were wanting to distribute the plates here and there in the forme; -Schoeffer still employed initial letters in wood very like vignettes. -John Fust was now dead, but Peter Schoeffer continued to print without -intermission. - -If we search for the precise epoch in which illustration appeared in the -history of the Book, we shall perhaps have to go back to the time of -Albert Pfister, printer of Bamberg, who issued in 1461 an edition of the -"Fables of Ulrich Bohner" with a hundred and one figures on wood. This -may be said to be the unconscious combination of xylography with -typography, a kind of transformation of old elements to new things -without other importance; art had no place in this adaptation. - -Up to this time Germany had not, in its school of painters or -miniaturists, men capable of giving a personal impulse to ornament. In -the German editions of the block books the influence of Van Eyck had -made itself felt very sensibly, and the Flemish had preserved their -supremacy on this point; on the other hand, the German printers who went -to seek their fortune in Italy fell into the middle of a circle -admirably prepared to receive them and to communicate their ideas to -them. It is believed that the first book printed in Italy with woodcuts -in the text and with an ascertained date is the work of a German -established at Rome, Ulrich Hahn, in 1467. An account in the _Annuaire -du Bibliophile_, which, being without citation of authority, we quote -for what it is worth, relates that Ulrich Hahn was established as a -printer at Vienna about 1462, but was driven thence by the publication -of a pamphlet against the burgomaster of the city, and was attracted to -Rome by Torquemada, who confided to him the impression of his work the -_Meditationes_. Hahn was an engraver, as were also most of his -_confrères_ at that time--that is, he cut in relief designs to be -intercalated in the text--and Passavant relates that the designs of the -_Meditationes_ were from compositions of Fra Angelico, who died in 1455. -Be that as it may, the book, the printing of which was finished on St. -Sylvester's Day, 1467, is the first known with engravings, and only -three copies of it exist: one at Vienna, one at Nuremberg, and one in -Lord Spencer's library; it is composed in Gothic type in folio. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Wood engraving of Matteo Pasti for Valturius' -_De Re Militari_: Verona, 1472.] - -Illustration found a true artist at Verona, Matteo Pasti, who furnished -designs for a volume on military art by Valturius, printed in Roman -characters in folio, at the expense of John of Verona, and dedicated to -Sigismond Pandolfi. Pasti's eighty-two figures are simple outlines, and -we here reproduce one of the principal--an archer shooting at a butt. -Published in 1472, the volume of Valturius followed soon after the -_Meditationes_, but the engravings enable us to see how the Italian -process, consisting mostly of lines without shadows, differed from the -Dutch and German. One thing to be remarked here is the purity of the -design, in spite of the roughness of the engraving; we see in these -figures Italian art at its height, despite the somewhat coarse -translation of the wood-cutter. - -At Venice the German inventors had reaped their harvest. At the end of -the fifteenth century, fifty years after the invention of typography, -the printing offices and booksellers' shops were counted by hundreds. It -was in this city that for the first time a title with frontispiece -carrying indication of the contents, the place, the date, and the name -of the printer, was given to the Book. We give here this ornamental -title, placed before a _Calendario_ of John de Monteregio, printed by -Pictor, Loslein, and Ratdolt in 1476, folio. - -The German Erhardt Ratdolt was probably the promoter of these -innovations. He soon afterwards published the first geometrical book -with figures, the "Elements of Euclid," 1482, folio; in the same year he -produced the _Poeticon Astronomicum_ of Hyginus, previously printed at -Ferrara, with illustrations on wood of excellent design, but laboriously -and unskilfully engraved. Yet the art of the Book could not remain -mediocre in this city, where the artists were creating marvels. John of -Spire and afterwards Nicholas Jenson, the emigrant from France, of whom -we have spoken above, had created, after Italian manuscripts, that Roman -letter, the primitive type of which has come down to our time very -little retouched. At the death of Jenson in 1481, his materials passed -into the hands of Andrew d'Asola, called Andrea Torresani, who did not -allow the good traditions of his master to die, and who produced among -others a book bearing signatures, catchwords, and paging ("Letters of -St. Jerome," 1488). Torresani was the father-in-law of Aldus Manutius, -who was to be for ever illustrious in the art of printing at Venice, and -raised his art to the highest perfection. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Title-page of the _Calendario_, first -ornamental title known. Printed in 1476 at Venice.] - -But if decoration by means of relief blocks found a favourable reception -in Italy and, above all, a group of artists capable of carrying it to -success, there were at the same time other experiments conceived in a -different way. The discovery of Maso Finiguerra gave to the art a new -process of reproduction, and printing presses had now to render possible -and practicable the working of engraved plates. In order to make that -which follows comprehensible, we enter into a few technical details, the -whole subject having been so admirably and fully treated by MM. -Delaborde and Duplessis. - -In the engraved wood block, as in the printing type, it is a projection -in the wood or metal which, being inked and passed under a press, leaves -on paper its lines in black. Naturally then the intercalation of an -engraving of this kind in typographical composition is made without -difficulty, and the impression of both is taken at once. On the other -hand, a line engraving is obtained from incised lines on a plate of -copper; that is, an instrument called a burin traces the lines, which -are filled with greasy ink. These incised lines only are inked. The -surface of the plate is cleaned off to avoid smudging. The sheet of -paper destined for the impression has then to be made very pliable, so -that at the striking of the press it runs, so to speak, to find the ink -in the lines and hold it. It is therefore impossible to take a text from -relief characters at the same time as an engraved plate. - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Engraving on metal by Baccio Baldini for _El -Monte Santo di Dio_, in 1477.] - -However, this kind of reproduction, which, contrary to that from -wood, allowed of half-tints or toning down, attracted in good time -the workers at the Book. It appeared to them possible to reconcile -the two printings by the successive passage of the same sheet of -paper through the press, to receive at first the impression from the -type and afterwards to find the ink deposited in the incisions in the -copper. The first manifestation of this new method of illustration was -made at Florence, the home of line engraving, by Nicholas di Lorenzo -in 1477, for the work of Antonio Bettini, of Siena, called _El Monte -Santo di Dio_. Here the artists were never known. Common opinion has -it that Baccio Baldini borrowed from Sandro Botticelli the subjects of -his plates. Italian engraving always seeks its source in Pollajuolo, -Botticelli, and Baldini. It is not the simple work of a niellist, -but it had not yet reached perfection either in the work or in the -impression; the illustrations of the _Monte Santo_ are proof of this, -as are also those of the _Dante_, by Baldini, in 1481, for the same -Nicholas di Lorenzo. From this we reproduce the Misers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Metal engraving by Baccio Baldini from the -Dante of 1481.] - -At this epoch engravings from the burin were taken with a pale ink, the -composition of which is very different from the fine black ink of -Schoeffer as well as of the old Italian printers. And besides in most -cases the proofs were obtained with the _frotton_, like the ancient -block books, an eminently defective process. The press was not yet well -adapted to the delicate work of line engraving, and the workmen, who did -not apply the plates until after the text was printed, preferred not to -risk the loss of their sheets by the use of inappropriate presses. -These, with the insignificant attempts made by the Germans in 1479,[A] -are the beginnings of the process of line engraving in the ornamentation -of the Book. In fact, the process failed to take its due position for -want of a more convenient mode of working. Relief engraving had got -ahead; with it the sheets used for the impression did not require -working more than once to register the figures with the text; in a word, -the labour was not so great. A century had to pass before line engraving -completely dethroned the vignette on wood, a century in which the latter -attained its height, and showed what able artisans could make of a -process apparently the least flexible. - -[Footnote A: _Breviarium ecclesie Herbipolensis_: Et. Dold., 1479, -folio, copper plate engravings.] - - -Not to leave Italy, which had the honour of making the book with -engraved illustrations known to the world, we pass by some years, -during which Arnold Bucking gave at Rome a _Cosmographia_ of Ptolemy, -1478, with incised plates, which is the first printed atlas that was -produced, whilst as regards ordinary publications there appeared in all -parts classical and Italian works, such as Cicero, Virgil, Tacitus, -Pliny, Eusebius, among the ancients, and Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, -etc., among moderns. Among the editions of Dante, we may cite that of -Peter of Cremona, dated 18th November, 1491, with one engraving to -each canto, of which the earlier are after Botticelli, and perhaps -drawn by him directly on the wood. Passavant believes these figures -to be cut in relief in the metal. On some of the plates there is a -signature, a Gothic b, the signification of which leaves a free -field for conjecture, and perhaps for error. Copies of this book with -the complete series of twenty plates are extremely rare; one in the -Hamilton Palace Library sold in May, 1884, for £380; the Royal Library -of Berlin recently agreed to pay £1,200 for a proof set of the plates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Plate from the _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, -printed by Aldus Manutius, in 1499.] - -As we shall see later apropos of German vignettes of the same period, -the characteristic of Italian engraving was sobriety, the complete -absence of useless work and the great simplicity of the human figure. -This special manner will be found in the famous edition of the -_Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_ of Francis Colonna, printed in 1499 by -Aldus, copied sixty years later by a French printer, and lately -reproduced in reduced size. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Plate from Bonino de Bonini's Dante, at -Brescia, in 1487.] - -The Italian illustrators, whether they were working in wood, or, as some -writers have it, in metal, adroitly brought their figures forward by -contrasting some rudimentary work in the persons with the more -accentuated and often stippled ground, which formed a dark background. -This was also the ordinary process in their ornaments, among the most -interesting of which are the borders of the plates to an edition of -Dante by Bonino de Bonini, Brescia, 1487, of which a specimen is here -reproduced. - -If we return from Italy, which then took the lead, to Germany, a school -of _Formschneiders_ is found about the year 1470 at Augsburg, whose -secluded workshops were of no benefit to the booksellers. These -ill-advised artisans went still further. Apparently furious to see -printing so widely spread as to render their bad woodcuts difficult to -get rid of, they united in a body to interdict Gunther Zainer and -Schüssler from putting engravings into their books. They must -nevertheless have come to an ultimate arrangement, for Zainer printed in -1477 a book on chess by Jacopo da Cessole, with vignettes. He was one of -the few German printers who employed Roman characters in place of the -Gothic of Peter Schoeffer. At Cologne in 1474 Arnold Ther Hoernen -published a work entitled _Fasciculus Temporum_, with small -illustrations engraved on wood. A Bible without date contains most -interesting illustrations. As to the celebrated _Todtentantz_, or "Dance -of Death," published about 1485, it contains forty-one relief plates of -the most ordinary kind, the same as in the "Chronicle of Cologne" of -1499, of which the figures, though less German, less distorted, are -worth little compared with those of the Nuremberg books, more German, -but more artistic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--The creation of woman, plate from the -_Schatzbehalter_, engraved after Michael Wolgemuth.] - -At Nuremberg, Antony Koburger, called by Badius the prince of -booksellers, directed an immense establishment, employing more than a -hundred workmen, without counting smaller houses at Basle and Lyons. -Koburger was a capable and a fortunate man. He had at first put forth a -Bible very indifferently illustrated with the cuts of the Cologne Bible, -but he had before him something better than copying others. Michael -Wohlgemuth, born at Nuremberg in 1434, was then in the full vigour of -his talent. To his school the young Albert Dürer came to study; and as -he was able to draw on wood as well as to engrave on copper and paint on -panel, Koburger was attracted to him, and engaged him to make a set of -illustrations for a book. The projected work was the _Schatzbehalter_, a -sort of ascetic compilation, without interest, without arrangement. -Michael Wohlgemuth set to work; and, thanks to the ability of his -engravers, of whom William Pleydenwurff was probably one, Koburger was -able to put the book on sale in the course of 1491 in three hundred and -fifty-two folios of two columns. Without being perfection, the designs -of Wohlgemuth, very German, very striking, present the vigour and merit -of the future school of Nuremberg. The figure is no longer a simple -line, in the manner of the block books, but a combination of interlaced -cuttings, intended to imitate colour. Those representing the creation of -Eve and the daughter of Jephthah are here reproduced. In the search for -harmony between the text and engravings of this curious work, we shall -find grace and gaiety laid aside, on the other hand a freedom and -boldness that interest and permit us to appreciate at their value the -Nuremberg artists and Koburger, the printer. In fact, the German artists -are more individual, each one taken by himself, than the Italian -illustrators could be, condemned as they were to the hierarchical -commonplace and to a certain form of idealism into which the art of -Italy entered little by little. The German painters, naturalists and -believers, presented their heroes in the image of that robust nature -that was before their eyes. It was in this rude and unpolished spirit -that Michael Wohlgemuth decorated the _Schatzbehalter_; he also composed -the designs for the "Nuremberg Chronicle" of Dr. Hartman Schedel, -printed by Koburger in 1493. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--The daughter of Jephthah, plate taken from the -_Schatzbehalter_, engraved after Michael Wolgemuth.] - -With Dürer, at the latter end of the fifteenth century, the Book was no -more than a pretext for engravings. Thausing, his biographer, says that -the great artist felt the necessity of designing an Apocalypse at Rome -at the time that Luther was premeditating his religious revolution in -face of the worldly splendours of the pontifical court. The -"Apocalypse," published in 1511 in Latin, with Gothic characters, was an -album of fifteen large wood engravings. The Four Horsemen is the best of -these plates, and the boldest; but in this gross fancy, in these poor -halting old hacks, the fantastic and grand idea which the artist meant -to convey can hardly be seen. It may be said the genius of Dürer was -little adapted to vignettes, however large they were, and did not easily -lend itself to the exigencies of a spun-out subject. The title of his -"Apocalypse" is of its kind a curious example of German genius, but, in -spite of its vigour, it does not please like an Italian headpiece or -like a French or Flemish frontispiece. The other works of Dürer -published in the fifteenth century, "The Life of the Virgin" and "The -Passion," were also sets of prints that received a text in the sixteenth -century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--Title of the "Apocalypse," by Albert Dürer, -printed in 1498. First edition, without text.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Title of Sebastian Brandt's "Ship of Fools," -printed in 1497 at Basle by Bergman de Olpe.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--The _Bibliomaniac_. Engraving from the "Ship of -Fools."] - -For the rest of his illustrations Dürer belongs to the sixteenth -century, and we shall have occasion to recur to his works. At present it -remains to speak of a curious work printed at Basle by Bergman de Olpe -in 1497, which appears to be the first comic conception of fifteenth -century artists: the _Navis Stultifera_, or "Ship of Fools," of -Sebastian Brandt. This work of the school of Basle lacks neither -originality nor vigour. At the time when it was published its success -was immense, from the strange tricks of its clowns, with fools' caps, -with which every page was adorned. Alas! the best things fall under the -satire of these jesters, even the Book and the lover of books, if we may -judge by the sarcasms against useless publications volleyed by the -personage here reproduced. "I have the first place among fools.... I -possess heaps of volumes that I rarely open. If I read them, I forget -them, and I am no wiser." Brunet sees in these humorous caricatures more -art than is really to be found in them. Their value is owing more to -their spirit and humour than to any other artistic merit. Even the -engraving is singularly fitted to the subject, with its peculiar -cutting, somewhat executed in hairlines. The designer was certainly not -a Holbein, but he is no longer the primitive artisan of the first German -plates, and his freedom is not displeasing. - -We have before spoken, apropos of engraving by the burin in Italy, of -the small share of Germany in the essay at illustration by that means, -and we do not see a real and serious attempt in the two little coats of -arms in copper plate in the _Missale Herbipolense_, printed in 1479. - -The Flemish had not taken any great flights in the midst of this almost -European movement. The school of Burgundy, whose influence was felt in -all the surrounding countries, had lost its authority in consequence of -the progress realized at Mayence. Without doubt the great Flemish -artists were there, but they were honoured painters, and their -inclination did not descend to seeking the booksellers beyond making -them offers of service. Besides, the first of these, officially -established in Flanders, were two Germans, John of Westphalia and John -Veldener, of Cologne, who established themselves in the university of -Louvain in 1473, three years after the first Paris printers. John of -Westphalia, who took his own portrait for his mark, edited the -_Fasciculus Temporum_, a book which had enormous success in the -fifteenth century. - -At Haarlem, in spite of the block books attributed to Laurent Coster, -illustration was backward. About 1485, a Dutch translation of the -_Malheurs de Troye_ of Le Fevre was put on sale. This French book was -published at Cologne before France possessed the smallest typographical -workshop. At Bruges Colard Mansion illuminated the cuts of his -_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid in 1484. Simple engraving appeared to him far -remote from manuscripts of which the vogue had not yet passed away. At -Zwoll Peter van Os, the publisher, cut up and used the xylographic -plates of the _Biblia Pauperum_, while the master _à la navette_, John -of Cologne, an artist in the best sense of the word, was ornamenting -certain popular publications with his designs. At Utrecht Veldener came -from Louvain to establish a workshop. He published for the second time a -_Fasciculus_ in 1480; he created a style of decoration with flowers and -leaves, which shortly after developed into the trade of -_Rahmenschneiders_. Antwerp had attracted Gerard de Leeu from Gouda, and -he produced the romance of _Belle Vienne_. Schiedam had an inventive -engraver who illustrated an edition of the _Chevalier Delibéré_ of -Oliver de la Marche, in folio, with Gothic letters, after 1483, as we -read in the colophon:-- - - "Cet traittié fut parfait l'an mil - Quatre cens quatre vings et trois - Ainsi que sur la fin d'avril - Que l'yver est en son exil, - Et que l'esté fait ses explois. - Au bien soit pris en tous endrois - De ceulx à qui il est offert - Par celui qui _Tant a souffert_, - - La Marche." - -The French language, bright and harmonious, thus found hospitality in -other countries. For many examples of French books published abroad, we -cannot cite one German work printed in France. Spreading from the north -to the south, typography had from 1490 its two principal centres at -Paris and Lyons. After the success of the three Germans at the Sorbonne, -events took their own course. In 1474 Peter Cæsaris and John Stol, two -students who had been instructed by Gering and Krantz, founded the -second establishment in Paris, at the sign of the "Soufflet Vert;" and -they printed classical works. Ten years later appeared Antony Vérard, -Simon Vostre, and Pigouchet, the first of whom gave to French -bookselling an impulse that it has not since lost; but before them -Pasquier-Bonhomme published his _Grandes Chroniques_ in 1476, three -volumes folio, the oldest in date of books printed at Paris in French. - -The French school of illustration was at its most flourishing point at -the end of the fifteenth century, but solely in miniature and -ornamentation by the pencil. The charming figures of the manuscripts had -at this time a Flemish and naturalistic tendency. The most celebrated -of the great artists in manuscripts, John Foucquet, could not deny the -source of his talent nor the influence of the Van Eyck school, yet the -touch remained distinctly personal. He had travelled, and was not -confined to the art circles of a single city, as were so many of the -earliest painters of Flanders. He had gone through Italy, and from -thence he transported architectural subjects for his curious designs in -the _Heures_ of Etienne Chevalier, now at Frankfort; a precious fragment -of it is preserved in the National Library of Paris. Side by side with -this undoubted master, whose works are happily known, lived a more -modest artist: John Perréal, called John of Paris, painter to Charles -VIII., Louis XII., and Anne of Brittany. - -In joining with these two masters, to serve as a transition between -Foucquet and Perréal, John Bourdichon, designer to the kings of France -from Louis XI. to Francis I., we obtain already a not despicable -assemblage of living forces. Without doubt these men were not comparable -either with the admirable school of Flanders, or the Germans of -Nuremberg, or the masters of Italy; but, moderate as we may deem their -merit, they did their tasks day by day, painting miniatures, colouring -coats of arms, rendering to the kings, their masters, all the little -duties of devoted servants without conceit, and preparing, according to -their means, the great artistic movement in France of the seventeenth -century. That these men, leaving the brush for the pencil, devoted -themselves to design figures on wood, is undeniable. It is said that one -of them followed Charles VIII. to the Italian wars, and probably -sketched the battles of the campaign as they took place. Now in the -books published at this epoch in France we meet with vignettes which so -very nearly approach miniatures, that we can easily recognise in them -French taste and finish. Such are, for example, the illustrations of the -_Mer des Histoires_, printed by Le Rouge in 1488, where suppleness of -design is blended in some parts with extraordinary dexterity in -engraving. Nevertheless, others leave something to be desired; they maim -the best subjects by their unskilful line and their awkwardness of -handling. Were not these engravers on wood printers themselves: the -Commins, Guyot Marchants, Pierre Lecarrons, Jean Trepperels, and others? -We are tempted to see in certain shapeless work the hasty and light -labour of an artisan hurried in its execution. As mentioned above, the -part taken by the booksellers in the making of the plates does not make -our supposition in itself appear inadmissible. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Mark of Philip Pigouchet, French printer and -wood engraver of the fifteenth century.] - -Printing had been established about twenty years in Paris when Philip -Pigouchet, printer and engraver on wood, began to exercise his trade for -himself or on account of other publishers. Formerly bookseller in the -University, he transported his presses to the Rue de la Harpe, and took -for his mark the curious figure here reproduced. At this moment a -veritable merchant, Simon Vostre, conceived the idea of putting forth -Books of Hours, until then disdained in France, and of publishing them -in fine editions with figures, borders, ornaments, large separate -plates, and all the resources of typography. The trials made at Venice -and Naples between 1473 and 1476 warranted the enterprise. Entering -into partnership with Pigouchet, the two were able on the 17th of April, -1488, to place on sale the _Heures à l'Usaige de Rome_, octavo, with -varied ornaments and figures. The operation having succeeded beyond -their hopes, thanks to the combination of the subjects of the borders, -subjects that could be turned and re-turned in all ways so as to obtain -the greatest variety, Simon Vostre reapplied himself to the work, and -ordered new cuts to augment the number of his decorations. Passavant's -idea is commonly received that the engraving was in relief on metal; the -line in it is very fine, the background stippled, and the borders -without scratches. Wood could not have resisted the force of the press; -the reliefs would have been crushed, the borders rubbed and broken. In -all the successive editions hard work and wear are not remarked, and we -are forced to admit the use of a harder material than the pear or -box-wood of ordinary blocks. - -According to his wants, Simon Vostre designed new series of ornaments. -Among them were histories of the saints, Biblical figures, even -caricatures against Churchmen, after the manner of the old sculptors, -who thought that sin was rendered more horrible in the garb of a monk. -Then there were the Dance of Death and sibyls, allying sacred with -profane, even the trades, all forming a medley of little figures in the -margins, in the borders, nestled among acanthus leaves, distorted men, -fantastic animals, and saints piously praying. The Middle Ages live -again in these bright and charming books, French in their style, imbued -with good sense and perfect toleration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Border in four separate blocks in the _Heures à -l'Usaige de Rome_, by Pigouchet, for Simon Vostre, in 1488. Small -figures from the "Dance of Death."] - -The Book rose under Simon Vostre and Philip Pigouchet to the culminating -point of ornamentation. Here design and engraving improve and sustain -each other. It is not only the stippled backgrounds of the borders that -please the eye. And who was this unknown designer, this painter of bold -conceptions, whose work is complete in little nothings? However, the -large full-page figures have not always an originality of their own, nor -the French touch of the borders. Thus that of the Passion here -reproduced is inspired line for line by the German, Martin Schongauer. -Are we to suppose, that duplicates of blocks passed between France and -Germany, or was a copy made by a French designer? It is difficult to -say. Still the coincidence is not common to all the missals of the great -Parisian bookseller. The Death of the Virgin here reproduced is an -evident proof of it. It forms part of the 1488 book, and is a truly -French work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Plate copied from Schongauer's Carrying of the -Cross, taken from the _Heures_ of Simon Vostre.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--The Death of the Virgin, plate taken from the -_Heures_ of Simon Vostre, printed in 1488. The border is separate.] - -It may be said that from the artistic association of Philip Pigouchet -and Simon Vostre was born the art of illustration of the Book in France; -they worked together for eighteen years, in steady collaboration, and, -as far as we know, without a cloud. At Vostre's commencement in 1488 he -lived in the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, at the sign of "St. Jean -l'Evangeliste;" and in 1520 he was still there, having published more -than three hundred editions of the Missal, according to the use of the -several cities. - -Contemporary with Simon Vostre, another publisher was giving a singular -impulse to the Book by his extreme energy, true taste, and the aid of -first-class artists. Antony Verard, the most illustrious of the old -French booksellers, was a writer, printer, illuminator, and dealer. Born -in the second half of the fifteenth century, he established himself in -Paris on the Pont Notre Dame, both sides of which were then covered with -shops, and about 1485 commenced his fine editions with a "Decameron" in -French by Laurent de Premierfait. M. Renouvier remarks in his notice of -Verard that his first books were not good, the plates were often -unskilful, and were probably borrowed or bought from others; this may be -very well understood in a beginner whose modest resources did not permit -bold enterprises; the figures were in most cases groundworks for -miniatures, outlines and sketches rather than vignettes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Border of the _Grandes Heures_ of Antony -Verard: Paris, 1498 (?).] - -Antony Verard was accustomed to take a certain number of fine copies on -vellum or paper of each book published by him, in which authorised -painters added miniatures and ornaments. It is curious now to find what -the cost to one of the great lords of the court of Charles VIII. was of -one of these special copies in all the details of its impression, and we -find it in a document published by M. Senemaud in a provincial journal -(_Bulletin de la Société Archéologique de la Charente_, 1859, part 2, p. -91), which enables us at the same time to penetrate into a printing -office of a great French publisher of the fifteenth century. According -to this document, Verard did not disdain to put his own hand to the -work, even to carrying the book to the house of his patron if he were a -man of consequence. It is an account of Charles de Valois-Angoulême, -father of Francis I. He was then living at Cognac; and he ordered Verard -to print separately for him on vellum the romance of Tristan, the "Book -of Consolation" of Boetius, the _Ordinaire du Chrétien_, and _Heures en -François_, each with illuminations and binding. In the detail of -expenses Verard omits nothing. He reckons the parchment at three sous -four deniers the sheet, the painted and illuminated figures at one écu -the large and five sols the small. We give here the outline of one of -the plates of the Tristan, ordered by the Duc d'Angoulême, reduced by -two-thirds, and from it it may be judged that the profession of the -illuminator, even for the time, was by no means brilliant. The binding -was in dark-coloured velvet, with two clasps with the arms of the Duke, -which cost sixty sous each. The work finished, Verard took the route for -Cognac, carrying the precious volumes. He was allowed twenty livres for -carriage; and this brings the total to 207 livres 10 sous, equivalent to -£200 to £240 of present money. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--Plate from the Tristan published by Antony -Verard, a copy of which was illuminated for Charles of Angoulême.] - -Verard had preceded Simon Vostre in the publication of books of hours, -but his first volume dated 1487 was not successful for the want of -borders and frontispieces. At the most he had introduced figures -intended for illumination, which, as well as the vignettes, were cut in -wood. In 1488, the same year that Simon Vostre commenced his -publications, Verard put forth, by "command of the King our lord," the -book called the _Grandes Heures_, which is in quarto, Gothic letter, -without paging, twenty lines to the full page. This _Grandes Heures_ -contained fourteen engravings, large borders in four compartments, -smaller subjects and initials rubricated by hand. He also published more -than two hundred editions between 1487 and 1513, and among them the -_Mystère de la Passion_, with eighty figures; the _Grandes Chroniques_, -in three folio volumes, printed by John Maurand; the _Bataille Judaïque_ -of Flavius Josephus; the _Legende Dorée_ of Voragine, all books for -which he called to his aid rubricators, illuminators, and miniaturists. -From the first he had two shops where he put his productions on sale: -one on the Pont Notre Dame, the other at the Palace of Justice, "au -premier pilier devant la chapelle où l'on chante la messe de -messeigneurs les présidents." From 1499, when the Pont Notre Dame was -burned, Verard transported his books to the Carrefour St. Severin. At -his death in 1513 he was living in the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, "devant -Nostre-Dame de Paris." - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--Page of the _Grandes Heures_ of Antony Verard: -Paris, fifteenth century.] - -Besides Verard, Vostre, and Pigouchet, many others will be found who -imitated them in the publication of books of hours. The first was John -du Pré, who published a Paris missal in 1481, and who was at once -printer and bookseller. Like Pigouchet, Du Pré printed books of hours on -account of provincial publishers, without dreaming of the competition he -was creating for himself. The encroachments of the publishers upon one -another, the friendly exchanges, the loans of plates and type, form one -of the most curious parts of the study of the Book. Thielman Kerver, a -German, also began to put forth books of hours in 1497 in Paris, -ornamenting them with borders and figures on wood, and modelling his -work completely upon that of Simon Vostre. But after having imitated -him, he was associated with him in the publication and sale of the Paris -Missal; the competition of these men was evidently an honest one, or the -sale of pious works was sufficient to maintain all engaged in it. -Established on the Pont St. Michel, at the sign of the "Unicorn," he -sold his stock to Gilles Remacle about the beginning of the sixteenth -century. - -Thielman Kerver in his own works shows himself as the rival of Simon -Vostre. The Hardouins, who followed the same profession, do not appear -to have attained the success of their predecessors; and, excepting in -the _Heures à l'Usage de Rome_, published in 1503 by Gilles Hardouin on -the Pont au Change, at the sign of the "Rose," they servilely imitated -them. There was also among the disciples of Vostre William Eustache, -bookseller to the King, "tenant la boutique dedans la grant salle du -palais du costé de messeigneurs les présidens, ou sur les grans degrés -du costé de la conciergerie à l'ymage St. Jean levangeliste." Eustache -made use of the work of Pigouchet and Kerver, not to mention the -printers of the end of the fifteenth century. - -We have named the principal, the fortunate ones; but what becomes of the -crowd of other publishers whose hopes vanished before the success of -Vostre and Verard? There were Denis Meslier, with his quarto _Heures de -Bourges_, and Vincent Commin, bookseller of the Rue Neuve Notre Dame, -who thus appealed to his customers:-- - - "Qui veult en avoir? On en treuve - A tres grand marché et bon pris - A la Rose, dans la rue Neuve - De Nostre-Dame de Paris." - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Plate from a book of hours of Simon Vostre, -representing the massacre of the Innocents.] - -There were also Robin Chaillot, Laurent Philippe, and a hundred others -whose names have died with them or are only preserved on the torn pages -of their works. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--Dance of Death, said to be by Verard. The Pope -and the Emperor.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Dance of Death of Guyot Marchant in 1486. The -Pope and the Emperor.] - -But if books of this kind found vogue and a large sale at this epoch, -the dealers did not keep to pious publications only. By a singular -mixture of the sacred and the profane, the bookmen put on sale on their -stalls the "Decameron" of Boccaccio as well as the "Hours of the -Immaculate Virgin," and the purchasers thought fit to make the -acquaintance of the one as well as the other. Besides, the end of the -fifteenth century had its literary preferences, its alluring titles, its -attractive frontispieces. At the commencement of the present century -double titles--"Atala; or, The Child of Mystery;" "Waverley; or, Sixty -Years Since"--were common, although now out of fashion. Since then came -books of travels--_Voyages au Pays des Milliards_, etc. In the fifteenth -century, and even since the fourteenth, a series of titles was in public -favour. There was first the _Débats_, or "Dialogues:" _Débat de la Dame -et de l'Escuyer_, Paris, 1490, folio; "Dialogue of Dives and Pauper," -London, Richard Pynson, 1493; and many other eccentric titles. There -came also thousands of _complaintes_, a kind of lay in verse or prose; -_blasons_, light pieces describing this or that thing; _doctrinals_, -that had nothing to do with doctrine. And among the most approved -subjects, between the piety of some and the gaiety of others, the Dances -of Death established themselves firmly, showing, according to the -hierarchy of classes then prevalent, Death taking the great ones of the -earth, torturing equally pope, emperor, constable, or minstrel, -grimacing before youth, majesty, and love. Long before printing -appeared, the Dances of Death took the lead; they were some consolation -for the wretched against their powerful masters, the revenge of the -rabble against the king; they may be seen painted, sculptured, -illuminated, when engraving was not there to multiply their use; they -may be seen largely displayed on walls, sombre, frightful, at Dresden, -Leipzig, Erfurt, Berne, Lucerne, Rouen, Amiens, and Chaise-Dieu. It was -the great human equality, attempted first by the French, then by the -inimitable Holbein. - -We can imagine the impression these bitter ironies made on the oppressed -and disdained lower classes. The first "Dance of Death" was produced by -Guyot Marchant in 1485, in ten leaves and seventeen engravings, in -folio, with Gothic characters. Marchant describes himself as "demeurant -en Champ Gaillart à Paris le vingt-huitiesme jour de septembre mil -quatre cent quatre-vingtz et cinq." The book must have gone off rapidly, -for it was republished in the following year, with additions and new -engravings. French illustration was already moving forward, as may be -judged by the reproductions here given from the folio edition of 1486. -Pope and emperor, glory and power, are led and plagued by Death, hideous -Death, with open body and frightful grin. - -We could wish that the tendencies and processes of what may be called -the second generation of printers were well understood. In a few years -they surmounted the difficulties of their art, and made the Book a model -of elegance and simplicity. The smallest details were cared for, and -things apparently the most insignificant were studied and rendered -practical. Speaking of titles, an enormous progress was here made in the -publications of the end of the century. In Italy the subjects of -decoration ordinarily formed a framework for the front page, wherein -were included useful indications. The most ancient specimen of this kind -has already been referred to. A model of this species is the "St. -Jerome," published at Ferrara by Lorenzo Rossi, of Valenza, in 1497, -folio; the title, much adorned, is in Gothic letters; the engraved -initial is very adroitly left in outline, so as not to burden or break -the text. - -In Germany there was already the appearance of bad taste and -prodigality, the letters crossing each other, the Gothic type covered -with bizarre appendices, the titles intricate; later they became -illegible even for the Germans. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Typographical mark of Thielman Kerver.] - -In France the first page gave the most circumstantial indications of the -contents of the work, the name and abode of the printer and bookseller. -Often these titles were ornamented with movable frameworks, printed in -Gothic, sometimes in two colours, which necessitated two printings, one -for the black and one for the red ink. The mark of the printer or -publisher generally appeared, and it was nearly always a charming work. -These French marks were all more or less treated heraldically; that is -to say, the initials occupy a shield, sustained by supporters and cut -with extreme care. The first was that of Fust and Schoeffer at Mayence, -of admirable simplicity and grace. In France this early specimen of the -trade mark took with Simon Vostre and Verard the shape of delicate -illustrations, finely designed and carefully engraved; but the custom of -allusive marks did not prevail, as we shall have occasion to see, until -the sixteenth century. The mark of Pigouchet has already been given; -that of Thielman Kerver is conceived in the same principles of taste and -art. The sign of his house being the "Unicorn," Kerver took as -supporters to his shield two unicorns _affrontées_. - -In these colophons are found philosophic aphorisms, satirical remarks, -marvels of poetry. A certain bookseller paid court to the powerful -university, which dispensed glory and riches to the poor tradesmen by -buying many books. Andrew Bocard engraved on his mark this flattery as a -border:-- - - "Honneur au Roy et à la court, - Salut à l'université - Dont nostre bien procède et sourt. - Dieu gart de Paris la cité!" - -The Germans introduced into their colophons some vainglorious notices. -Arnold Ther Hoernen, already mentioned, who printed the _Theutonista_ at -Cologne in 1477, boasted in it of having corrected it all with his own -hands. Jean Treschel, established at Lyons in 1493, proclaims himself a -German, because the Germans were the inventors of an art that he himself -possessed to an eminent degree. He prided himself on being what we may -call a skilled typographer; "virum hujus artis solertissimum," he writes -without false modesty. At times, in the colophons of his books, he -attempted Latin verse, the Sapphic verse of Horace, of a playful turn, -to say that his work was perfected in 1494. - - "Arte et expensis vigilique cura - Treschel explevit opus hoc Joannes, - Mille quingentos ubi Christus annos - Sex minus egit. - - Jamque Lugduni juvenes, senesque, - Martias nonas celebres agebant - Magna Reginæ quia prepotenti - Festa parabant." - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Frontispiece to Terence, published by Treschel -at Lyons in 1493. The author writing his book.] - -The portrait is another element of illustration, the figure of the -author prefixed to his work. It had already been a custom in the -manuscripts to paint on the first leaf of the work the likeness of him -who composed it, frequently in the act of presenting his book to some -noble patron; and in this way is often preserved the only known portrait -of either patron or author. Printing and engraving rendered these -effigies more common, the portraits of one often served for another, and -the booksellers used them without very much scruple. As we shall see -later, this became in the sixteenth century a means of illustrating a -book plainly, but only at the time when the portrait, drawn or painted, -commenced to be more widely used. Previously the _clichés_ of which we -speak went everywhere, from the Italians to the French, from Æsop to -Accursius; these uncertain physiognomies began with the manuscript -romances of chivalry, from whence they were servilely copied in -typography. From the first the Italians mixed the ancient and the -modern. Thus in a _Breviarium_, printed in 1478, there is an engraved -portrait of Paul Florentin. On the same principle, the portrait of -Burchiello, an early Italian poet, was later reproduced in England as a -likeness of William Caxton. - -In France the author is often represented writing, and it was so up to -the middle of the sixteenth century. In an edition of _Des Cas des -Nobles Hommes_, by Jean Dupré, in 1483, Boccaccio is represented seated, -having before him his French translator, Laurent de Premierfait. This -plate is one of the oldest representations of authors in French books. -In the _Roman de la Rose_, first edition of Paris and Lyons, in folio, -probably published by William Leroy about 1485, William de Lorris, the -author, is shown in his bed:-- - - "Une nuyt comme je songeoye, - Et de fait dormir me convient, - En dormant un songe m'advint...." - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Woodcut from Caxton's "Game and Playe of the -Chesse."] - -There is also a portrait of Alain Chartier in his _Faits_, printed in -1489. In the Terence of Treschel, of Lyons, in 1493, we see a grammarian -of the fifteenth century in a furnished room of the time occupied in -writing at a desk; this is Guy Jouvenal, of Mans, the author of the -commentary. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.--The Knight, a woodcut from Caxton's "Game and -Playe of the Chesse."] - -While this good work was progressing so nobly in France, Italy, and -Germany, the typographers of England were by no means idle, although the -illustration of the Book in the fifteenth century was not there so -forward. William Caxton had produced over sixty works, the colophons of -many of them revealing much of the personal life and character of the -first English printer. Some of them were ornamented with woodcuts; we -reproduce two from the "Game and Playe of the Chesse," printed in folio, -about 1476. The first represents a king and another person playing at -chess; the smaller cut is a representation of the knight, who is thus -described in Caxton's own words: "The knyght ought to be maad al armed -upon an hors in suche wise that he have an helme on his heed and a spere -in his right hond, and coverid with his shelde, a swerde and a mace on -his left syde, clad with an halberke and plates tofore his breste, legge -harnoys on his legges, spores on his heelis, on hys handes hys -gauntelettes, hys hors wel broken and taught, and apte to bataylle, and -coveryd with hys armes." The other Caxton block which we reproduce is a -representation of music from the "Mirrour of the World," a thin folio -volume of one hundred leaves printed in 1481, with thirty-eight -woodcuts. These specimens will serve to show the rudimentary character -of English wood engraving in the fifteenth century. No authentic -portrait of Caxton is known, and the one that is generally accepted is -really a portrait of an Italian poet, Burchiello, taken from an octavo -edition of his work on Tuscan poetry, printed 1554; this was copied by -Faithorne for Sir Hans Sloane as the portrait of Caxton, and was -reproduced by Ames in his "Typographical Antiquities," 1749. Lewis -prefixed the portrait here given to his "Life of Mayster Willyam -Caxton," 1737, which is a copy of Faithorne's drawing with some -alterations. John Lettou and William Machlinia issued various statutes -and other legal works. - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Music, a woodcut from Caxton's "Mirrour of the -World."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--William Caxton, from Rev. J. Lewis' "Life."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mark of Wynken de Worde.] - -Wynken de Worde continued printing up to 1534, and issued over four -hundred works. He used no less than nine different marks, all of them -bearing Caxton's initials, evidencing the regard of the pupil for his -master; the mark which we reproduce is one of rare occurrence. Richard -Pynson began in 1493, and continued well into the sixteenth century, and -was one of the first of the "privileged" printers, authorised to issue -the legal and parliamentary publications. One of the marks used by him -is here reproduced. Julian Notary began in 1498. The only style of -illustration used by any of these early printers was the woodcut, and of -this there was very little beyond the title-page and printer's mark. The -artistic form of the Book originated on the Continent, but England was -not slow to adopt it and fashion it to her own ends. - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Mark of Richard Pynson.] - -Thus was printing spread abroad, carrying with it to the countries where -it was established the rules of an unchangeable principle; but, -according to its surroundings, it was so transformed in a few years that -its origin was no longer recognised. It was light in Italy, heavy in -Germany, gay in France. Painting, of which it was accidentally the -issue, returned to it under the form of illustration a short time after -its first and fruitful essays. The Gothic character, generally used in -Germany, continued in France with the Vostres, the Verards, and others -up to the middle of the sixteenth century, although the first artisans -before this used Roman type; it was also the prevailing type used in -English books. In Italy it was Jenson, a Frenchman, who gave to the -matrix the alphabet preserved to the present time; and it was the -Venetians and Florentines who learned before all others the art of -judicious ornamentation of the Book. The French came very near -perfection, thanks to their printers and booksellers, at the end of the -century; and the Germans found illustrious artists to scatter their -compositions in their large, heavy works. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -1500 TO 1600. - - French epics and the Renaissance--Venice and Aldus - Manutius--Italian illustrators--The Germans: _Theuerdanck_, - Schäufelein--The Book in other countries--French books at the - beginning of the century, before the accession of Francis - I.--Geoffroy Tory and his works--Francis I. and the Book--Robert - Estienne--Lyons a centre of bookselling; Holbein's Dances of - Death--School of Basle--Alciati's emblems and the illustrated books - of the middle of the century--The school of Fontainebleau and its - influence--Solomon Bernard--Cornelis de la Haye and the - _Promptuaire_--John Cousin--Copper plate engraving and metal - plates--Woériot--The portrait in the Book of the sixteenth - century--How a book was illustrated on wood at the end of the - century--Influence of Plantin on the Book; his school of - engravers--General considerations--Progress in England--Coverdale's - Bible--English printers and their work--Engraved plates in English - books - - -Our simple division into chapters will be understood without difficulty -as not corresponding exactly with the most momentous epochs in the -history of the Book in France and abroad. Doubtless it would be easy for -France alone to find some limits and to furnish scholastic formulæ by -which contemporary publishers might be grouped. But in order to present, -as in a synoptical table, an essential and abridged sketch of the Book -in all European countries, it appeared to us more convenient to begin -with the confused and tangled notions by centuries and to unfold in our -review the characteristic facts of each country conjointly. Moreover, -after the sixteenth century neither Italy nor Germany could compare with -France, which, less fortunate, perhaps, at the beginning than her -neighbours, surpassed them in all the pride of her genius. - -The commencement of the sixteenth century found the French army in -Italy, under the command of Louis XII. Marching from glory to glory, the -French successively saw Pisa, Capua, and Naples, and that which has -since been called the Renaissance displayed itself little by little to -the conquerors. At Venice was living Aldus Pius Manutius, then the -greatest printer of the entire world. Aldus was proprietor of the -celebrated printing office of Nicholas Jenson, through his -father-in-law, Andrea Torresani, of Asola, who acquired it on the death -of the French printer; and he had in a few years reached a position in -which he was without a rival. We have seen that he composed, at the end -of the fifteenth century, the admirable volume _Hypnerotomachia_, the -renown of which became universal. Aldus was fifty-two years of age, -having been born in 1447; and his learning was increased by daily -intercourse with learned Italians, among them the celebrated Pico de la -Mirandola. His establishment at Venice in 1488 had for its object the -creation of a chair in Greek, in which language he was well instructed -from his youth. Occupied with the idea of issuing editions of the -principal Greek writers, which up to then remained in manuscript, he -engaged himself in the formation of a printing office. He first -published the _Herone et Leandro_ of Musæus in 1494, quarto, in a Greek -character apparently designed by him, and perhaps engraved by Francisco -da Bologna; then the Greek grammar of Constantine Lascaris, with the -date of 1494; and the works of Aristotle in five folio volumes. At the -time of the Italian wars Aldus was making a revolution in typography, by -producing more practical sizes and finer characters, which would permit -a volume of the smallest height to contain the matter of a folio printed -with large type. Legend says that the new letters were copied exactly -from the handwriting of Petrarch, inclining like all cursive writing; -the name of _Italic_ was given to this character, which was also called -_Aldine_, from its inventor. It was engraved by Francisco da Bologna. -Aldus published in octavo size, with this kind of letter, an edition of -Virgil in 1501, then a Horace, a Juvenal, a Martial, and a Petrarch in -the same year. The following year, 1502, he gave an edition of the -_Terze Rime_ of Dante, and for the first time took as his typographical -mark an anchor encircled by a dolphin.[A] - -[Footnote A: Tory in his _Champfleury_ explains thus the mark of Aldus -and his device, which was in Greek the "Make haste slowly" of Boileau: -"The anchor signifies tardiness, and the dolphin haste, which is to say -that in his business he was moderate."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.--The anchor and dolphin, mark of Aldus Manutius, -after the original in the _Terze Rime_ of 1502, where it appears for the -first time.] - -His marriage with the daughter of Andrea Torresani, of Asola, brought -together into his possession two printing houses. The burden became too -heavy for Manutius to think henceforth of publishing by himself. -Besides, the wars did not allow him any repose, of which he bitterly -complained in his prefaces. He attracted learned Greek scholars, who -supervised, each one in his specialty, the works in progress, and -founded a society, an Aldine academy, in which the greatest names of the -epoch were united. Aldus conveys the perfect idea of a great printer of -those times, doing honour to celebrated men, in spite of business -preoccupations and of the annoyance caused by the war. It is said that -Erasmus, passing through Venice, called on him, and not making himself -known, was badly received by the powerful printer. All at once, at the -name of the distinguished visitor, Aldus, overwhelmed for an instant, -rose in great haste and showed him how highly he appreciated men of -letters. - -The war finished by ruining this state of affairs. In 1505 Aldus quitted -Venice to travel, and on his return found it poorer than when he went -away. Andrea d'Asola, his father-in-law, came to his aid; but the great -printer had received his death-blow; and in spite of the activity which -he brought to the new establishment, he further declined until 1515, -when he expired, leaving an inextricable confusion to his son Paul. - -He had early abandoned illustration for the scientific and useful -in his publications; besides, the size of book chosen by him did -not admit of plates; but other publishers employed artists in the -ornamentation of the Book. Lucantonio Giunta, the most celebrated among -them, was printer and engraver, a striking example of the affinity -of the two trades from their origin. In 1508 Lucantonio Zonta, as he -then spelt his name, published a Roman breviary in large quarto, with -twelve engravings in the Lombardo-Venetian manner, signed "L. A.," in -very good style. The same artist-publisher cut a portrait of Virgil for -an edition of that poet about 1515. Furthermore, Giunta did not alone -illustrate the book from his own office. Other designers lent him their -assistance. We find evidence of this in the Bible printed by him in -1519 in small octavo. - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Mark of Lucantonio Giunta, of Venice.] - -The most meritorious of the artists of Venice at this time was John -Andrea, known as Guadagnino. He designed the vignettes for Florus's -epitome of Livy, printed at Venice for Melchior Sessa and Peter of -Ravenna (1520, folio); in 1516 he copied the plates of Dürer's -_Apocalypse_ for that of Alexander Paganini, of Venice. A Venetian work -which signalised the beginning of the sixteenth century was the _Trionfo -di Fortuna_ of Sigismond Fanti, of Ferrara, printed by Agostino da -Portese in 1527. - -Venice was the home of Titian, and at the present time the great artist -was at the height of his glory. In 1518 two brothers, Nicholas and -Dominic dal Gesù, published a translation of the celebrated "Golden -Legend" of Voragine. The plates which were added to the work were -manifestly inspired by the school of the Venetian master. Unhappily the -engravers have not always equalled the genius of the drawings. - -To resume, the city of Venice was, at the beginning of the sixteenth -century, one of the most prolific in publishers and artists of talent. -Since the first establishments of the Germans, typography had -successively employed in Venice Nicholas Jenson, a Frenchman, inventor -of the Roman character; Erhard Ratdolt, the first to employ illustration -there; and Aldus Manutius, scholar and printer, whose progress in -printing elevated that art to the highest rank among human discoveries; -there were also remarkable engravers and draughtsmen, among others -Guadagnino and Giunta, besides the anonymous masters of the school of -Titian. The part of Venice in the movement, then, was great, but it may -be explained by the riches of its citizens, the extent of its commerce, -and the genius it possessed. - -If we now return from Venice to the north, to Milan, the school of -Leonardo da Vinci will make itself apparent in the Book. In order of -date we will mention the _Mysterii Gesta Beatæ Veronicæ Virginis_, -published by Gotardo de Ponte 1518, small quarto, with figures in the -style of Luini, and Vitruvius in Italian by Cesariano. On the testimony -of the author, the wood engravings in a book of Fra Luca Pacioli, _De -Divina Proportione_, are attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. M. Delaborde -does not believe this, but M. Passavant does. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Title of the _Theuerdanck_. The flourishes of -the letters are printed.] - -In Germany, Nuremberg continued, with Albert Dürer and the artists of -his school, to furnish book illustrations at the beginning of the -century. The master reprinted his valuable engravings of the "Life of -the Virgin" in 1511, and also the "Apocalypse." But after him the art -commenced to decline; a hundred years later nothing remained of the -honour and glory gained by Germany in the commencement. Among the most -interesting of the Nuremberg publications is a chivalric poem by -Melchior Pfinzfing, composed for the marriage of Maximilian and Mary of -Burgundy. As M. Delaborde in his _Débuts de I'Imprimerie_ well remarks, -this is not a book destined for sale by a bookseller; it is a work of -art destined by an emperor for his friends, and he saw that it was an -unapproachable work. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Plate taken from the _Theuerdanck_, -representing Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. Engraved on wood after -Schäufelein.] - -Bold strokes, majestic letters, intertwined ornaments, are here -multiplied. Three persons worked upon it for five years; these were, -Peutinger says, Hans Leonard Schäufelein, the painter, Jost Necker, the -engraver, and Schönsperger, the printer of Augsburg, who quitted his -native city for Nuremberg. When they were able to take a proof, -craftsmen were unwilling to believe it to be a book composed in movable -characters; they were sure, on the contrary, that it was a true -xylograph, cut in wood; and, in fact, from the title here reproduced, -the error was excusable. This work, which is now called the -_Theuerdanck_, from the name of the hero of the romance, is ornamented -with a number of wood engravings, numbered by Arabic figures. We -reproduce one of the last plates, in which Theuerdanck--Maximilian--is -introduced to the Queen--Mary of Burgundy. The designs of Schäufelein -recall very nearly the work of Albert Dürer, his master; but, as we said -of him, these works, heavy and dull, although very clever, do not always -suit as vignettes. Again, our criticism does not extend so much to the -_Theuerdanck_, whose letters, excessively ornamented and much flattened, -furnish a framework more suitable for the engravings than would a more -slender character, which would be completely overshadowed by the German -plate. - -When we have mentioned the _Passional Christi_ of Lucas Cranach, -published by J. Grünenberg at Wittemberg in 1521--twenty-six mediocre -wood engravings--we shall have cited the most important of the -interesting and rare volumes published in Germany at the commencement of -the sixteenth century. - -The Netherlands, Spain, and England were working, but without great -success. In the Low Countries Plantin and his gigantic enterprises may -be recalled. In Spain the taste had not yet developed itself; and -although the drawing of illustrations may be careful enough, the -wood-cutting is pitiable. We will mention the Seneca of Toledo in 1510, -and the "Chronicle of Aragon" in 1523. Of England we will speak later. - -In France, on the contrary, we find an enormous commerce in books at the -commencement of the sixteenth century. All the publishers mentioned in -the preceding chapter were still living, and they were feeling the -effects of the French conquests in Italy. The dithyrambic literature -then inaugurated, and which had its origin under Louis XII., exercised a -bad influence equally upon the printers and decorators of the Book. -Doubtless the composition of the text and engravings was done hastily, -for the great people did not like to wait for this kind of history. _Le -Vergier d'Honneur_, written by Octavian de St. Gelais and Andry de la -Vigne, was thus published about the end of the fifteenth century and -ornamented with hasty vignettes, probably at the expense of Antoine -Verard. Upon the accession to the throne of Louis XII., Claude de -Seyssel, his master of council, composed _Les Louenges du Roy Louis -XII._, and soon after translated it from Latin into French for the same -Verard, who printed it in 1508. - -The taste for historical works induced the publishers to produce _La Mer -des Histoires_, which had already been published in the fifteenth -century; Thielman Kerver put forth the "Compendium" of Robert Gaguin in -1500 on account of Durand Gerlier and John Petit. The French version of -this work was given in 1514 by Galliot du Pré, with vignettes, and -afterwards under the name of _Mirouer Historial_, by Renaud Chaudière in -1520, by Nyverd, and others; the same with the _Rozier Historial_, with -figures, in 1522 and 1528. Among the most popular works was the -_Illustrations de la Gaule et Singularitez de Troye_, by John le Maire -de Belges, printed in Paris and ornamented. In 1512 it was published by -Geoffroy de Marnef, in 1515 by John and Gilbert de Marnef, by Regnault, -by Philip le Noir, and others, always in the Gothic characters which -prevailed in France at the beginning of the sixteenth century. - -We give from the curious book of John le Maire an interesting woodcut -representing Queen Anne of Brittany as Juno, in which we can without -much difficulty see a remarkable sketch by a Bourdichon or a Perréal. -The truly French style of this figure leaves no doubt as to its origin. -At the same time, it may possibly have been inspired by the Virgin of a -German master, say one of 1466, judging from the accessories, and even -from the pose. This engraving will be found in the edition of 1512 of -Gilbert de Marnef, in Gothic letter, quarto. On the reverse are the arms -and device of John le Maire de Belges. - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Vignette taken from the _Illustrations de la -Gaule et Singularitez de Troye_. Queen Anne of Brittany as Juno.] - -The time that elapsed from the death of Louis XI. until the accession of -Francis I.--that is to say, from 1483 to 1515--was, to employ an old -expression, the golden age of French printing and illustration. Under -Charles VIII. and Louis XII. the designers on wood were not yet affected -by the neighbouring schools; neither the accentuated Italian influence -nor the German processes had reached them; they did in their own way -that which came to them, and they did it in their own fashion and habit, -without foreign influence. Further, the kings did not ignore them, and -Louis XII. preserved to the printers of the university all their rights -and privileges in a magniloquent ordinance, in which the art of -typography was extolled in the highest terms. It restores to them all -the advantages that they had lost. It recites, "In consideration of the -great benefit that has come to our kingdom by means of the art and -science of printing, the invention of which seems more Divine than -human, which, thanks to God, has been invented and found in our time by -the help and industry of booksellers, by which our holy Catholic faith -has been greatly augmented and strengthened, justice better understood -and administered, and Divine service more honourably and diligently -made, said, and celebrated, ... by means of which our kingdom precedes -all others," etc., etc. (Blois, 9th April, 1513). Certainly Louis made -the best of himself and his kingdom in this preamble, but it must be -recognised that France already held a predominant rank in the new -industry, and that beyond the Italians she had no fear of serious -rivalry. The school of ornamentists made constant progress. Before the -books of hours, the booksellers contented themselves with miserable -blocks, placed side by side, forming a framework of good and bad -together; but after Simon Vostre, Verard, and the others they were -singularly refined. The borders, at least in the books of hours, had -become the principal part of the book; they had in them flowers, -architectural, complicated, and simple subjects, all of perfect taste -and extreme elegance; and, as we have observed in the representation of -Anne of Brittany in the _Illustrations de la Gaule_, the figure subjects -were no longer mechanical, commonplace, and tiresome blocks, but, on the -contrary, more often works specially designed and engraved by artists of -merit. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Title of the _Entree d'Eléonore d'Autriche a -Paris_, by Guillaume Bochetel. Printed by Geoffroy Tory in May, 1531, -quarto.] - -Geoffroy Tory, born at Bourges in 1480, continued after Vostre and -Verard the onward march of illustration of the Book. He was a sort of -encyclopædist, who knew and foresaw everything, but with a singularly -subtler and finer genius than his predecessors. There is now very little -doubt that at first Tory was an engraver and printer. Moreover, he -published with Jean Petit one of his first volumes, the geography of -Pomponius Mela, printed by Gilles de Gourmont in 1507. Tory was then an -erudite and diffusive commentator. Later he published a book with poor -engravings (_Valerii Probi Grammatici Opusculum_, 1510), waiting until -his good star should place him on the right road. He had for his mark, -say the bibliographers, the cross of Lorraine [Symbol: double cross], -small enough to be lost in the ornamentation of his plates. Really this -sign is found in Tory's mark--the "Pot Cassé"--the broken jar--and also -sometimes in the letter G, which was his ordinary signature. This -opinion, which we will not try to contradict in a popular work like -this, appears to us to err, as others used this mark, as may be judged -from the essentially different touches of engravings bearing the cross -of Lorraine, and particularly those of Woériot in the middle of the -century. - -If M. A. Bernard[A] may be credited, Geoffroy Tory cultivated all the -sciences with equal success. For our purpose, suffice it to recognise -his right to one of the first places in the art of decoration of books -of hours. Doubtless his travels in Italy had contributed to modify his -taste and to detach him a little from the sober and simple manner that -then characterised French engraving; but he nevertheless preserved the -indelible traces of the origin of his art, in the same way as some -people cannot correct their provincial accent. The _Heures de la -Vierge_, which he designed, and which he had engraved about 1520, on -account of Simon de Colines, is marvellously surrounded by ornaments, -until then unknown in France; at the same time, and in spite of other -tendencies, it is purely a French work, and the specimen given here is a -convincing proof. - -[Footnote A: _Geoffroy Tory, Peintre et Graveur, Premier Imprimeur -Royal, Réformateur de l'Orthographe et de la Typographie_: Paris, 1857, -8vo.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Full page of the _Heures_ of Simon de Colines, -by Tory.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.--_Heures_ of Geoffroy Tory. The Circumcision.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.--_Heures_ of Simon de Colines, with the mark of -the Cross of Lorraine.] - -Geoffroy Tory composed a curious book, as poetic as learned, in which he -studied at once the form of the letter from the typographic and the -emblematic point of view, and also the French orthography of the time. -He tells us himself that he was brought to commence this book on the -fête-day of the kings, 1523, when, after a frugal repast, he was, he -says, "dreaming on my bed and revolving my memory, thinking of a -thousand little fancies, serious and mirthful, among which I thought of -some antique letters that I had made for Monseigneur the treasurer for -war, Master Jehan Grolier, councillor and secretary of our lord the -King, amateur of fine letters and of all learned personages." Tory -called his book _Champfleury, auquel est contenu l'art et science de la -deue proportion des lettres ... selon le corps et le visage humain_, and -he published it himself in small folio, putting upon it the sign of -Gilles de Gourmont, in 1529. - -At heart Tory had been fascinated by the theories of Dürer on the -proportions of the human body; and he says, "The noble German painter -Albert Dürer is greatly to be praised that he has so well brought to -light his art of painting in designing geometrical forms, the ramparts -of war, and the proportions of the human body." He wished to indicate -the true measure of letters to his contemporaries, "the number of points -and turns of the compass that each one requires." The most amusing part -of this curious treatise is his short academical preface, where, under a -playful form, the great publisher studies the orthography of his time, -and exclaims against the forgers of new words, the Latinisers of the -language, "the skimmers of Latin, jesters and gibberers, ... who mock -not only their shadows, but themselves." The entire passage was copied -by Rabelais, nearly literally, and it indicates that its author was -possessed of good sense, which, unhappily, all his contemporaries were -not. - -For the technical part, he added to his theories a number of designs of -geometrical letters, but he was carried away, after the fashion of the -time, by Greek and Roman models, perhaps a little further than he meant, -losing himself in the midst of idle dissertations. To these geometrical -engravings he added small and charming figures, said to be by Jean -Perréal, as well as emblematical letters of the nature of the Y which is -here given, with explanatory text and commentary. To him this Y had two -branches: one of virtue and one of vice; that of virtue shows palms, -crowns, a sceptre, and a book; that of vice birches, a gallows, and -fire. - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Emblematical letter Y, taken from the -_Champfleury_ of Geoffroy Tory.] - -With the importance that cannot be denied to his works, Geoffroy Tory -founded a school; and it was from his workshop that the plates came for -the book of Paulus Jovius on the dukes of Milan, published by Robert -Estienne in 1549, quarto. The portraits of the dukes in this work have -been attributed to Tory himself, but he died in 1533, and there is not -the least indication that he engraved these sixteen portraits with his -own hand sixteen years before their publication. Besides, our doubts as -to the cross of Lorraine being the exclusive signature of Tory, as has -been believed, lead us to think it the collective mark of a workshop, -as we meet it on works long after the death of the master. As a proof, -the mark is found on the engravings of _L'Entrée du Roi à Paris_ in -1549, which cannot be taken as a posthumous work of Tory, for these -engravings had their origin at a certain and special date. But in spite -of the absence of the monogram, the admirable block from the Diodorus -Siculus of Antoine Macault might, from its design and engraving, be -considered as by Tory himself. Holbein, who, about the same time, -designed a somewhat similar scene, the King of France seated on a -throne receiving poison from the hands of Death, never did anything -better. Within the scanty proportions of the design, all the figures -are portraits. Duprat, Montmorency and the three sons of the King may -be recognised; Macault, on the left, is reading his translation to a -circle of nobles and men of letters. This admirable page is one of the -truest and most skilful of the monuments of French engraving; it is -equal to the best inventions of Holbein, and it marks the culminating -point of the illustration of the Book before the exaggerations of the -school of Fontainebleau. Geoffroy Tory was not the publisher. The -Diodorus Siculus, doubtless prepared two or three years before, was not -published until 1535, in quarto, with his ordinary mark of the "Pot -Cassé." - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Macault reading to Francis I. his translation -of Diodorus Siculus. Wood engraving attributed to Tory.] - -We have now arrived through him at the reign of Francis I., who was -called the father of letters, and who for various reasons favoured the -arts. Doubtless grand paintings and the decoration of the royal palaces -interested him more than vignettes in books and the efforts of printers; -but, at the same time, books occupied him. He studied much, and in his -travels accumulated many volumes. An account in the French National -Archives shows that Claude Chappuis, his librarian, packed entire cases, -which were sent to Dauphiné at the time of the wars of Piedmont, the -carriage costing twenty livres tournois. Francis had, moreover, -following sudden impulses, curious fits of wantonness and mischief. It -was perceived a little later that the doctrines of Luther were -propagated by the Book; and the Sorbonne was up in arms, on the pretence -of imposing its own expurgated text of the Bible on the publishers and -tolerating no other. Theodore Beza, enemy of the Sorbonnists, said with -regard to this (we translate the antique French literally), "Our great -doctors with cherubic visage have forbidden men to see the Holy Bible in -vulgar language, of which every one has knowledge, because, they say, -the desire of knowing everything engenders nothing but error, fear, and -care. _Arguo sic_, if they so, for its abuse, wish to take away this -book, it is clear also that it is their duty to put away the wine with -which each of them makes himself drunk." - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Robert Estienne, after the engraving in the -_Chronologie Collée_.] - -This piece is only cited to show to what lengths matters had gone, -thanks to printing. It is very certain that all the pamphlets, placards, -and other horrors published to raise religious warfare, did not aid in -the progress of the Book. The King was not always disinterested on the -technical question; books merited encouragement, at least as much as -castigation, and besides, as time passed, they gradually transformed men -and ideas. In spite of apparent severities, was not the King himself a -little touched by contact with the new religion, like his sister -Marguerite, or his sister-in-law, Renée of Ferrara? However that may be, -he twice showed himself a resolute partisan of the celebrated Robert -Estienne, son-in-law and associate of Simon de Colines, whose works in -point of erudition and typography assumed day by day more importance. -Robert Estienne had the great honour of being chosen from all his -contemporaries by King Francis as the royal printer. This prince had -ordered to be engraved for him by Claude Garamond, after the design of -Ange Vergèce, the first cutter of matrices of his time, a special Greek -character in three sizes, which was used in 1544 to compose the -"Ecclesiastical History" of Eusebius. These are the famous royal -types--_typi regii_--as Estienne did not fail to indicate on the -title-pages of his works. It has been said since that Francis I. founded -the Royal Printing House, but the truth is that Estienne kept these -characters in his own office for use in the royal editions; they may now -be seen in the Imprimerie Nationale at Paris. - -Robert Estienne married the daughter of Josse Badius, of Asch--Badius -Ascencianus, one of the first Parisian typographers of the time. We -reproduce the mark of Badius, representing the interior of a printing -house, and shall return in a special chapter to the functions of these -workshops. Meantime it appears proper to present to the reader a -printing office of the time of Robert Estienne and Geoffroy Tory. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Printing office of Josse Badius at the -commencement of the sixteenth century.] - -Robert Estienne does not appear to have concerned himself much about the -decoration of the Book. The purity of the text and the characters were -essentials with him, erudition, and not art. He published many works in -Latin and Greek, among them the _Thesaurus_, a great Latin dictionary -published in 1532, also a Bible, with notes by Vatable, revised by Leon -de Juda. From that came trouble. Leon de Juda was a partisan of Zwingli; -the Sorbonne accused the Bible of leaning towards the Huguenots; -Francis I. took the part of Estienne, but when that prince died Estienne -fled to Geneva, where he was accused of having imported the royal types. -The truth was that he simply imported the matrices. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Portrait of Nicholas Bourbon. Wood engraving of -the commencement of the sixteenth century.] - -At this time everything served for the decoration of the Book: -portraits, blazons, topographical plates, costumes, and emblems. Small -portraits engraved on wood usually ornamented the works of the poets, -like that of Nicholas Bourbon, for example, marvel of truth and skill. -The blocks of frontispieces in the folios were multiplied; large initial -letters, ingeniously engraved and stippled, like that at the -commencement of this chapter, were used. Jacques Kerver reproduced in -1545 for himself, and with plates made for him, the famous _Songe de -Poliphile_, published by Aldus in 1499. The widow of the publisher Denis -Janot, Jeanne de Marnef, published one of the most delightful books of -the time, _L'Amour de Cupidon et de Psyche_ of Apuleius, with delicious -figures in wood after Italian engravings. Many more could be named in -the extraordinary profusion of charming books. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.--King and Death. Vignette from the "Dance of -Death" by Holbein.] - -Without entering into detail, something must be said of Lyons, then a -most extensive and prosperous centre of bookselling. Lyons had the -signal honour of publishing first in France the celebrated cuts of the -"Dance of Death" of Holbein, the Basle painter. Doubtless Treschel, the -printer, was not the first, as a copy of a German edition is known, -because in the Lyons edition the cuts are worn and broken. However, the -Cabinet d'Estampes of Paris has some of the figures of the Dance with a -German text, probably printed by Froben at Basle. Treschel's title was -_Les Simulachres et Historiées Faces de la Mort autant elegamment -pourtraictes que artificiellement imaginées_, and the volume in quarto -was printed by Frelon. The _Icones veteris testamenti_, which preceded -the publication of the "Dance of Death," had also been printed at Basle -before Lyons. - -With Holbein, as with Geoffroy Tory, we arrive at the zenith of -illustration and marvellous skill of the engraver. If we were to -institute comparisons, it was Hans Lutzelburger who cut the blocks after -the designs of the Basle master, but, contrary to what generally -happens, the translator reaches almost to the height of his model; the -line is perfection itself, it is precise and intelligent, simple, and, -above all, explicit. If the work of Lutzelburger be admitted, it must -also be admitted that Holbein designed his cuts before 1526, date of the -death of the Basle engraver; but it was precisely before 1526 that -Holbein lived in Basle, and it was after he had travelled. We will add -nothing to the universal praise of the book of Treschel, of Lyons; -everything has been written of Holbein, and repetitions are unnecessary. -We would ask the reader to compare the Francis I. of Tory and the King -in Holbein's "Dance of Death;" there is a certain family resemblance -between the two cuts, which is a singular honour for Tory. - -At the commencement of the century Basle had a school of -_Formschneiders_ working for export. Besides the numerous products used -at Lyons, it had also a trade in wood blocks, which, having been used, -were afterwards sold. Among these exchanges of engravings were many -plates of Brandt's "Ship of Fools," sold in 1520 to Galliot du Pré, -publisher, of Paris, who used them in the _Eloge de la Folie_ of -Erasmus. - -The reign of Francis I. saw a great advance in the national art of -illustration. The arrival at the court of Italian artists of the -decadence, such as Rosso and Primaticcio, produced a revolution in -taste. The exaggerated slightness of the figures brought by these -artists from beyond the Alps was considered as of supreme distinction; -in their twisted draperies and mannered poses was seen a precious beauty -that tempted the ready intelligence of the court of France. The simple -and ingenuous figures of the old French artists were ranked among the -refuse of another age, and their compositions were regarded with -contempt, and deemed antique. - -The rage for emblems and for allegories and mythological figures -generally was well suited to these eccentric and bizarre inventions. -From another side, an entire class of artists or artisans, book -illustrators first, then enamellers and jewellers, made use of these -Italian models, with which the King encumbered his galleries, and which, -at great expense, covered the walls of Fontainebleau. One can understand -what these skilful men made of such a movement and of so thoughtless an -infatuation. The publishers saw the demand, and composed works of which -the sale was assured by the subjects that they furnished to other -designers. This explains the quantity of Alciati's "Emblems" and Ovid's -"Metamorphoses" published at Lyons and Paris, and copied and recopied a -hundred times by the art industries of the time. Without it the enormous -success of mediocre productions, as the "Emblems," for example, in which -the meaning of the enigma or rebus cannot always be seized, is ill -understood. It was Alciati who made this literature the fashion. He was -a sort of Epicurean and miserly jurisconsult, who had as many lords and -masters on earth, as the kings and princes who liked to bid against each -other to engage him. He had quitted Italy, seduced by the offers of -Francis I., but when Sforza paid him a larger sum, he returned, giving -as reason for his vacillation that the sun had to travel the earth and -warm it by its rays; this was an emblematic answer, for his emblems had -all the coarse, sceptical humour which not a few had then already -discovered. At most these philosophical aphorisms, if we take them -seriously, have their droll side in that their author often practised -the reverse of his teaching. A miser, he abuses the avaricious; flying -his country for the love of gain, he blames those to whom "a better -condition is offered by strangers." Yet he is sometimes logical and -consistent, as when he assures us that "poverty hinders the success of -intelligence," and when, finally, lover of good cheer, he died of -indigestion in 1550. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Page of the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid, by Petit -Bernard. Edition of 1564.] - -His book of "Emblems" had a vogue that lasted until the seventeenth -century, and repetitions were infinitely multiplied: at Paris by Wechel -in 1534; at Lyons by Hans de Tornes, of Suabia, one of the greatest -Lyons publishers; by Roville, also one of the first Lyons publishers, -and by Bonhomme; at Venice by the Alduses; in fact, everywhere, -translated into French, Spanish, and Italian. - -Bernard Salomon, called _le Petit Bernard_, born at Lyons, was one of -the designers of the school of Fontainebleau--that is to say, of the -Franco-Italian school of which we have spoken above--who furnished many -of the engravings for books printed at Lyons. He illustrated the edition -of Alciati's "Emblems" published by Bonhomme in 1560; and designed -skilful little plates, which, with the text, were surrounded by a border -from the workshop of Geoffroy Tory, for Ovid's "Metamorphoses," -published by Hans de Tornes in 1564. Bernard had all the defects and all -the qualities of those of his time, from John Cousin to the least of -them; he was a Primaticcio on a small scale, but agreeably so. His -designs for the New Testament were also very careful, but in them more -than elsewhere the manner and the affectation of the school of -Fontainebleau are apparent. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Portraits of Madeleine, Queen of Scotland, and -of Marguerite, Duchess of Savoy, after the originals of Cornelis of -Lyons.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Portraits of Francis, dauphin, and of Charles, -Duke of Angoûleme, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons. Woodcuts -taken from Roville's _Promptuaire des Médailles_.] - -The workshops of the second city of France, we see, had at this time -attained considerable importance; but before the books of which we shall -speak, Roville published two anonymous books, one _L'Entrée du Roi Henri -II. à Lyon_, in 1549, ornamented with very graceful woodcuts, the other -the _Promptuaire des Médailles_, comprising a series of charming -portraits under the pretence of reproductions from the antique. The -designs of the _Entrée_ are often attributed to John Cousin, as it is a -rule with certain amateurs to give a known name to a work; but it must -be remembered that Lyons then had celebrated artists, Petit-Bernard, -alluded to above, and Cornelis de la Haye, of whom we have more to say; -and it is not necessary to go to Paris or to Rome to find the author of -these illustrations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Captain of foot from the _Entree de Henri II. à -Lyon_ (1549).] - -Cornelis de la Haye was a painter who executed nearly the same work as -Francis Clouet in Paris, portraits on panel, in a clear and harmonious -tone, then much the fashion. During a journey of the King, he had, if -Brantôme may be credited, portrayed the entire court, keeping the -sketches for himself. Ten or fifteen years after, Catherine de Medicis, -passing through Lyons, saw these portraits and highly praised them, -recognising the old costumes, astonished at the courtiers of the day, -whom she had never seen in such dress. This artist is now known, thanks -to various works that have been found, among others two portraits of the -sons of Francis I., preserved by Gaignières, who attributed them -resolutely to Cornelis, doubtless on the faith of inscriptions that have -disappeared. Both of them were engraved on wood at Lyons and published -in Roville's book the _Promptuaire des Médailles_, mentioned above, -with small differences of detail altogether insignificant. It is not -impossible then that Cornelis designed these portraits, and that they -were drawn on wood after the cabinet models spoken of by Brantôme. The -delicate figures of the _Promptuaire_ are the work of a master; and the -differences mentioned are those of the artist, not of the copyist, who -would not be permitted to change anything. It is the first time, we -believe, that these comparisons have been made; they will perhaps help -the learned Lyonnais to pierce the mystery, but in any case our -suppositions are more honourable to Cornelis de la Haye than the fancies -of Robert Dumesnil (_Peintre-graveur Français_, tome vi., p. 343). To -judge by the four little medallions here reproduced, the art of -engraving on wood was rarely more skilful than in these portraits. It -would not be astonishing if a man like Cornelis had designed the figures -of the _Entrée de Henri II._ In any case, why should we choose John -Cousin instead of Petit-Bernard? At this time, we know, the kings -carried in their suite their ordinary painters; but we do not know that -John Cousin followed the court to Lyons in 1549. He did not hold an -official position, like Clouet. - -This artist produced well-authenticated works; one of them is signed, -and leaves no doubt: the _Livre de Perspective de Jehan Cousin Senonois, -Maistre Painctre_, published in 1560 by Jean le Royer, printer to the -King for mathematics. This profession of printer for mathematics had its -difficulties of engraving, for Le Royer tells us in his preface that he -had himself finished the plates commenced by Albin Olivier. In another -practical treatise, entitled _Livre de Portraiture_, published in 1593, -John Cousin is styled _peintre géometrien_. It is beyond doubt that this -master produced for many works figures and ornaments, but what were the -books? The manner was then to repeat the engraved borders of titles, the -_passe-partout_, in the centre of which the text was printed. Cousin -designed many of these title-pages on wood; that of the _Livre de -Portraiture_ affords a curious element of comparison; but he was not by -any means the inventor. In 1555 was sold at Antwerp a book printed from -engraved plates after John Vriedman, by Gerard Juif, which is simply a -collection of engravings for title-pages for the use of publishers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.--Title of John Cousin's _Livre de Portraiture_, -published in 1593 by Le Clerc. (The spot on the title is in the -original, preserved among the prints of the Bibliothèque Nationale.)] - -It is about this time that metal plates may be seen in conjunction with -wood engraving in the illustration of the Book, and the best artists -attached their names to important publications of this kind. We have -explained in a former chapter in what this process is least convenient -in the impression of a book. In fact, two successive printings, that of -the plates and that of the text, were additional trouble and a frequent -cause of errors; but wood-cutting was somewhat abandoned in the middle -of the sixteenth century, especially for separate plates, and engraved -plates took a considerable importance under different artistic -influences. The first was the facility of engraving a metal plate -compared to the difficulty of cutting a wood block. It thus naturally -happened that the artists of the burin wished to employ their art in -illustration, and taste was soon drawn to the new process. - -In France the first volume of this kind was printed in 1488 by Topie de -Pymont in folio: the _Pérégrinations en Terre Sainte_ of Bernard de -Breydenbach, with figures on engraved plates copied from the Mayence -edition of 1486. Since this manner was abandoned until about 1550, as -much for the reasons given above as for others, we only meet with a -stray plate now and again, which remains as a bait, and relates to -nothing. Under the reign of Henri II. the smallness of the volumes did -not always admit of wood engravings, and the artists in metal found a -footing among illustrators; they made attempts, such as that of the -_Histoire de Jason_ of Réné Boivin in 1563, which came out under -Charles IX. in a charming volume of engraved plates by P. Woériot. - -The "Emblems" of Georgette de Montenay were also in the burlesque style -of Alciati, but they had an advantage, as the author assures us:-- - - "Alciat fist des emblèmes exquis, - Lesquels, voyant de plusieurs requis, - Désir me prist de commencer les miens, - Lesquels je croy estre premiers chrestiens." - -This orthodoxy does not make them more intelligible, but the engravings -of Woériot, unskilful as they are, import an element of interest which -surpasses the rest. It was always at Lyons, the rival and often the -master of Paris in typography, that the author printed his work. - -By the privilege dated 1566, five years before publication, we see that -it is permitted to Peter Woériot, engraver of the Duke of Lorraine, to -portray, engrave, and cut in copper the said figures called emblems for -the time and term of five years (18th October, 1566). Peter Woériot -sometimes signed his prints with the small Lorraine cross adopted by -Geoffroy Tory's workshop, as may be seen in our engraving. - -Copper plate engraving had by this time established itself, and the -works that were so illustrated spread themselves. Du Cerceau published -his admirable collection of _Plus Beaux Bastiments de France_ in folio -1576-79, which had numerous plans and views of the royal and princely -castles. Thevet put forth his _Cosmographie Universelle_ and his _Hommes -Illustres_, the latter adorned with skilfully engraved portraits. In -Paris the publishers Mamert Patisson, who married the widow of Robert -Estienne and took his mark, Adrien le Roy, and Robert Ballard, published -the celebrated _Ballet Comique de la Royne Faict aux Nopces de Monsieur -le Duc de Joyeuse_, composed by Balthasar de Beaujoyeux, valet de -chambre to Henri III.; and in this book, in which were put hasty -etchings, the King displayed all his immodesty and depravity. The Book -has often had the unconscious mission of transmitting to posterity the -unworthiness of its author or of its heroes. From this time the Book has -left its golden age to enter into the boastings of courtiers and -political abstractions. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Engraving by P. Woériot for Georgette de -Montenay's _Emblèmes_.] - -Among the publications opposed to the Government of the time, the two -associates James Tortorel and John Perrissin, of Lyons, had published a -celebrated collection of plates on the religious wars that stained the -reign of Charles IX. with blood. At first engraved on metal, these -plates were worn out, and were gradually replaced by others engraved on -wood, on which several artists worked, among them James le Challeux and -also John de Gourmont, one of the most celebrated wood-cutters of the -sixteenth century. This was a work composed of single leaves in folio -size, which had an extraordinary sale among the religious people of the -time. - -At the same time, illustration on wood did not stand still. The -portraits of authors diffused by the pencil of Clouet and his school -were commonly put at the head of their works. We cannot say whether -Clouet himself designed the portraits of Tiraqueau and of Taillemont in -1553; of Du Billon, the author of the _Fort Inexpugnable_, in 1555; -Papon and Ambroise Paré in 1561; Grevin, Ramus, and others; but the -precision of these physiognomies recalls the peculiar manner of the -French artists of the sixteenth century. The "Poems" of Ronsard in 1586 -contains a series of very clever portraits, among them that of Muret, -his commentator, one of the most perfect of its kind. Christopher de -Savigny, author of the _Tableaux Accomplis de Tous les Arts Liberaux_, -published by John and Francis de Gourmont in 1587, is represented at -full length in the frontispiece of his work, offering the book to the -Duc de Nevers, to whom it is dedicated. This plate in folio, probably -engraved by John de Gourmont, is the best finished that we have seen. -The work of Savigny, forgotten as it may be now, had a great reputation -in its own time; and Bacon took from it the idea of his "Advancement of -Learning." - -Speaking of the Duc de Nevers, it will not be without interest to our -readers to mention here a manuscript found by us in the Bibliothèque -Nationale, which enables us to give an account of the work then -necessary for the publication of an illustrated book. In 1577 the Duke -arranged for the impression of an apologetic book, of which no trace -remains; and his _intendant_ writes a long letter to him on the subject -of composition and bindings. It was necessary that the work should be -produced quickly, bound and gilt, for presents. The _intendant_ thinks -calf will be the most expeditious covering. "It would be much the best -to use black or red calf, ... well gilt above, and not vellum, which is -a thin parchment that quickly shrinks." The statements of this man of -business show that five proofs of each sheet were taken for -typographical correction, and that twelve full days were wanted for the -binding. The most interesting part of this memoir is that which treats -of the engraving on wood of the portrait. The plate was designed by an -artist who had afterwards gone away; it was not satisfactory, but the -ornaments would pass. The _intendant_ proposes to "fix a little piece of -wood in the block that could be drawn upon." Here we see correction by -elimination. The pear-wood on which the original figure was engraved was -to be cut out, and a square of boxwood substituted, "forasmuch as in -this task the pear-wood, which is the successful, well-cut block, is the -wood that is harder." - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Portrait of Christopher Plantin, printer of -Antwerp. Engraved by Wierix.] - -The portrait of the Duchesse de Nevers was better, yet the pear-wood had -given way under the work. "That of Madame is more passable. -Nevertheless, there is still something to say to one eye. The wood -cannot carry the subtlety of the line." Here, in a few clear and -explicit lines by a man of the time, we see the economy of a publication -of the sixteenth century, at a time when wood engraving was declining, -to give place to engraving on metal, which was soon to reign supreme, -through the most important book house of the century: the Plantins of -Antwerp. - -Christopher Plantin, like Jenson, came originally from Tours. After -having learned his art with Macé at Caen, he went to Paris, from which -the wars soon drove him. He left for the Low Countries, and there Philip -II. nominated him as chief printer--"architypographus." Established at -Antwerp in 1555, he surrounded himself, as had the Estiennes and -Alduses, with most of the learned and literary men of his time, among -them Justus Lipsius, to whom Balzac attributed the Latin prefaces signed -by Plantin. It is certain that he was neither an Estienne nor an Aldus. -His artistic probity caused him to submit the proofs of his works to -strangers, with promise of recompense for faults indicated; the -Estiennes employed the same system. Plantin, not to be behind any of his -contemporaries in typographical perfection, brought from France the -celebrated type-founder William Lebé, and charged him to furnish a -special fount.[A] Under the orders of Philip II., he printed the -celebrated Polyglot Bible, in eight folio volumes, absolutely perfect in -its execution; unfortunately the Spanish Government, having advanced -funds in the course of publication, prosecuted him with the utmost -rigour to obtain repayment. This very nearly shut up his printing house, -but he took courage and overcame his difficulties, until he became, in -1589, the year of his death, the principal publisher of Flanders. His -mark was a hand holding a compass, with the motto "Labore et -constantia." - -[Footnote A: In the Bibliothèque Nationale is a copy of an octavo _Album -de Caractères_, in which Lebé has written, "This gloss, made in Paris -(1574) by me, is my fourteenth letter, and the text is made on the -pattern of the preceding one for size, but of a better art; and from -this was printed the great Bible of Antwerp by Plantin, to whom I sold a -fount" (folio 6). On folio 20 he wrote, "I do not know whence came this -small Hebrew that I received from Plantin to make a smaller one for him. -He sent me this half-sheet, and I have not seen at Venice another -part."] - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.--Plantin's mark.] - -Plantin died at the age of seventy-four, leaving a prosperous business -to be divided between his three daughters. His first house at Antwerp -employed seventeen presses even at the time when he was in trouble, and -he had branches at Paris and Leyden, of less consequence. His second -daughter married Moretus, and to him descended the Antwerp workshop; he -and his descendants continued the printing house until recently; the -house of the great printer and publisher is now a typographical museum. -The Plantin printing office--"Officina Plantiniana"--was as well managed -by its descendants as by himself. The fashion of engraving in metal -spread itself before the death of the head of the house, and his -successors continued it. The principal engravers with the burin of the -Low Countries were employed by them: Wierix, Galle, Pass, Mallery, Van -Sichern; it was a real school of illustration, that created by degrees a -precious and sustained style, not without influence on the artists of -that epoch. It was from this particular manner that came Thomas de Leu -and Leonard Gaultier in France; and from Antwerp came those small -religious figures that have lasted to our time in their incomprehensible -mysticism. - -The title-pages of the Plantin printing office inaugurated the -_passe-partout_ engraved by the burin, overloaded and complicated, of -which the seventeenth century took advantage. To tell the truth, these -elaborate displays, blackened by ink, do not accord well with the -titles; and there is a long distance between this decadence and the -books ornamented with wood blocks by the Italians and French of the -commencement of the century. Exception must be made in favour of Rubens, -who designed many of these titles. The heavy and squat architecture of -the time was least of all appropriate to these decorations, which wanted -grace. It passed from Plantin into France through the engravers; it went -to Rome with Martin de Vos and John Sadeler; it imposed itself -everywhere; and from that day to this it has not ceased. At the time of -which we write it had taken its flight in France, and spread itself in -Europe with extraordinary success. Engraving in relief, holding its -own until then, gave way little by little before this invasion. When -Henri IV. mounted the throne wood engraving had finished its upward -movement, it still remained in the _canards_, or popular pieces sold at -low prices, but it is easy to see what these hasty vignettes are worth. - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Frontispiece of a book from Plantin's printing -office. Metal engraving.] - -We have now seen the history of the Book and its decoration in the -sixteenth century in France: at first French epics in Italy, books of -hours, romances of chivalry; then about 1550, with the reign of Henri -II., the religious pamphlets commenced, bookselling spread itself; the -strife between illustrations on metal plates and those in relief assumed -shape, it continued under Henri III., and terminated abruptly by the -victory of the first at the extreme end of the century. With political -passions, printing had become a weapon of warfare, which it will never -cease to be. They knew in the sixteenth century what perfidious -accusations or excessive praises were worth. The Book followed the fate -of its author. If the writer was burned, so was his book. Witness the -_Christianismi Restitutio_ of the Catholic Servetus, printed at Vienne, -in Dauphiné, and consigned to the flames with its author at Geneva in -1553. A single copy was saved from the fire, and is now preserved in the -Bibliothèque Nationale; it is the identical copy annotated by Colladon, -the accuser of the unhappy Servetus, and still bears traces of fire on -its leaves. - -Typography and the illustration of the Book in England in the sixteenth -century did not make the same progress as in France and Italy. Much good -work was done, but it was mostly with foreign material. Type was -obtained from French and Dutch founders, and most of the woodcuts had -the same origin. In the early part of the century most of the -publications were translations of popular foreign books, such as -Voragine's "Golden Legend," Caxton's translations of Cicero, Boetius, -etc. Too many restrictions and privileges obtained to encourage or allow -of the establishment of an English school, which was to come later with -the spread of wealth and education. Books were mostly printed in Gothic -type, or "black letter," and the woodcuts were of the coarsest kind. An -exception was the beautiful Prayer-book of John Day, 1578, known as -Queen Elizabeth's Prayer-book, from the fine portrait of the Queen, -which we reproduce, on the previous page; but in this the woodcuts were -designed by Albert Dürer and Hans Holbein. Pynson was the first to use -Roman type in England, in the _Oratio in pace nuperrimâ_, 1518, quarto; -and the first English Bible in Roman type was printed at Edinburgh in -1576. It is thought that until about 1600 printers were their own -type-founders, as no record exists of founding as a separate trade until -that time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Portrait of Queen Elizabeth from the "Book of -Christian Praiers," printed by John Day, 1578.] - -The greatest achievement of the sixteenth century in England was the -printing of the first English Bible, in Coverdale's translation, in -1535, folio, but even this was printed abroad, the latest investigation -giving it to Van Meteren at Antwerp. The woodcuts in it are by Hans -Sebald Beham; we reproduce one representing Cain killing Abel. Tyndall -had previously printed abroad an English New Testament. Another -importation was Brandt's "Shyp of Folys," printed by Pynson, 1509, and -John Cawood, 1570, the woodcuts in both being copied from the originals -before referred to. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Woodcut from Coverdale's Bible, 1535. Cain -killing Abel.] - -Folio was the size usually adopted, and in this size the series of -chronicles appeared: Arnold, printed abroad in 1502; Fabian, in 1516; -Froissart, by Pynson, in two volumes, 1523-5; Harding, by Grafton, 1543; -Hall, by the same, 1548; Holinshed, in two volumes, 1577. In the same -size Chaucer was first given to the world entire by T. Godfrey in 1532, -and many times reprinted, and Sir Thomas More in 1557. Polemical and -religious treatises were mostly printed in quarto, as were the poets: -Spenser's _Faerie Queene_, in 1590; Langland's _Pierce Plowman_, in -1550; and Sidney's _Arcadia_, in 1590. Plays were also printed in -quarto, in which shape at the end of the century some of Shakespeare's -single plays were issued. - -From the great perfection to which the liturgies, or books of hours, had -been brought by Vostre, Verard, and others in France, it is not perhaps -extraordinary that the service books for English use should have been -mostly printed abroad. Those for Salisbury and York were produced at -Paris, Rouen, and Antwerp. A Salisbury Primer in English was printed by -John Kyngston and Henry Sutton in 1557, and Wynken de Worde printed a -York Manual in 1509. The first English Common Prayer Book, known as -Edward VI.'s, was printed by Grafton in 1549, who also printed in 1545 -Henry VIII.'s Primer in Latin and English. Edward's book is curious as -having on the last page a royal order as to the price at which it was to -be sold: "No maner of persone shall sell the present Booke vnbounde -aboue the price of two shillynges and two pence. And bound in Forell for -ii_s._ x_d._, and not aboue. And the same bound in Shepes Lether for -iii_s._ iii_d._, and not aboue. And the same bounde in paste or in -boordes, in Calues Lether, not aboue the price of iiii_s._ the pece." -Cranmer's Catechism was printed by Nicholas Hill in 1548, with -twenty-nine woodcuts by Hans Holbein, one of which we reproduce, -representing Christ casting out devils. - -Translations from the classics were popular, and in the second half of -the century arose that passion for voyage and travel which has so -largely contributed to the wealth and extension of England. This was -begun by Eden's translation of Peter Martyr's "Decades of the New World; -or, West India," London, 1555, quarto, followed by Hakluyt's "Principall -Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries," 1589, folio. Many accounts of -single voyages and discoveries were issued, and the taste thus created -culminated in the establishment of the East India Company in the last -year of the century. - -The first specimen of copper plate engraving for books in England is a -frontispiece to Galen's _De Temperamentis_, printed at Cambridge 1521, -and the number of books containing copper plates engraved before 1600 is -extremely limited, the most notable being portraits of Queen Elizabeth, -Lord Leicester, and Lord Burleigh in Archbishop Parker's Bible of 1568; -Saxton's Atlas, 1579, the first atlas in England; Harrington's -translation of Ariosto, 1591, with forty-seven engraved plates. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--Woodcut by Hans Holbein from Cranmer's -Catechism, 1548.] - -The first printer at Cambridge was John Siberch, 1521. Peter of Treves -established himself at Southwark in 1514. Among his productions is a -Higden's _Polychronicon_, 1527, folio. John Oswen printed at Ipswich -1538, and among the English towns in which printers established -themselves in the century were York, Canterbury, Tavistock, Norwich, and -Worcester. - -The establishment of the Reformed Church, and the diffusion of education -among the people which followed, created an original English school of -literature in the sixteenth century, and this gave employment and great -impetus to typography in England, so that by the time we reach the end -of the century we find a great improvement in the art of the Book, to be -carried to still greater perfection in the next. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -1600 TO 1700. - - Tendencies of the regency of Marie de Medicis--Thomas de Leu and - Leonard Gaultier--J. Picart and Claude Mellan--Lyons and J. de - Fornazeris--The Book at the beginning of the seventeenth century in - Germany, Italy, and Holland--Crispin Pass in France--The Elzevirs - and their work in Holland--Sebastian Cramoisy and the Imprimerie - Royale--Illustration with Callot, Della Bella, and Abraham - Bosse--The publishers and the Hotel de Rambouillet--The reign of - Louis XIV., Antoine Vitré syndic at his accession--His works and - mortifications; the polyglot Bible of Le Jay--Art and illustrators - of the grand century--Sébastien Leclerc, Lepautre, and - Chauveau--Leclerc preparing the illustration and decoration of the - Book for the eighteenth century--The Book in England in the - seventeenth century. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.--Letter engraved by A. Bosse.] - -Now we have arrived at a critical epoch, in which the science of the old -printers transformed itself gradually into commerce, in which taste lost -itself under the influence of religious architecture. The title of the -Book represents the portico of a cathedral, with columns, mitred saints, -and crosses, of little decorative aspect. Figures on copper plates -replaced the foliage and arabesques of the older booksellers. Through -the Plantins and their imitators, the architectural passion was far -spread. It inundated France, ran through Germany and Italy, and reigned -pre-eminent in Holland. Literary taste also underwent change; manners -were no longer those of the sixteenth century: bold, free, and gay; from -the religious wars a certain hypocrisy arose; bombast replaced the -natural; the gods were preparing, as a contemporary said, to receive -Louis and his spirit. - -It is not that artists were wanting at the opening of the seventeenth -century who could, in giving scope to their talent, show themselves -worthy successors of those who went before them. Unhappily the -booksellers no longer had a loose rein; they had the rope, for they were -hung or burned at the least infraction of political or religious -propriety. Yet the reign of Henri IV. was relatively an easier period -for the artisans of the Book, in which they were less confined to the -strict terms of excessive regulations; but after this prince severity -increased, and during the year 1626 a new law was promulgated punishing -with death the printers or distributers of prohibited books. Doubtless -the books that were thus secretly sold, and prohibited in defence of -good manners, were neither _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of typography nor art. The -author threw off the indecencies by which he hoped to make profit and -fame, regardless of type or illustration. But during the regency of -Marie de Medicis, it was not only the authors of a bad standard that -were in danger of being hung; the printer or seller of the pamphlet or -book of a reputed heterodox author was also hung, and it became -difficult to steer safely among the prohibitions. Enormous numbers of -works were made with frontispieces decorated with colonnades and mitred -saints, and bearing high-sounding titles of sound orthodoxy. A somewhat -gross mysticism, from the office of Plantin, formed the most solid stock -of every respectable dealer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Title of the _Metanealogie_, engraved by -Leonard Gaultier.] - -Under Henri IV. and the minority of Louis XIII., two French illustrators -received from the school of Antwerp their inspiration for the ornament -of the Book. Thomas de Leu, probably from Flanders, was allied with the -old Parisian painter and engraver of celebrated portraits, Antoine -Caron, in furnishing the engraved plates for the _Images de Plate -Peinture des Deux Philostrates, Sophistes Grecs_, Paris, Claude -Cramoisy, 1609, folio; and Leonard Gaultier, his contemporary, -collaborated with Jaspar Isaac and other artists in the Book. Leonard -Gaultier contributed most to spread in France the Plantinian style, and -his somewhat cold but characteristic talent suited this art more than -that of any one else then could. He was an engraver of portraits, now -rare and valuable, in the style of Wierix or Thomas de Leu; but, at the -demand of publishers and booksellers, he composed other plates, at first -historical figures representing the royal family and the nobles for the -publisher Leclerc, in a simple and true manner; he also designed pious -figures, recording a miracle or representing the ceremonies of a jubilee -and other devotional things. But he made his great success in the -composition of frontispieces to theological and pious works, printed for -nearly all the booksellers. Leonard Gaultier had a fashion of his own -with pilasters and Grecian columns, under which he boldly placed entire -councils of cardinals and bishops; witness the heading of the -_Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum_, into which he crowded nearly forty -figures. He united also with a certain grace the sacred and the profane, -placing among ideal saints the sinning fine ladies of the time, with -their large collarettes and jewels falling on naked breasts. The work of -Andrew Valladier, chaplain of the King, entitled _Métanéalogie Sacrée_, -published by Peter Chevallier in 1609, was adorned with a title of this -particular kind, in which Gaultier had no rival, and which preserves the -precision of Flemish masters in the detail of ornaments of the toilet. - -He was one of the first to work for Sebastian Cramoisy, printer and -publisher, who had established his shop in the Rue St. Jacques at the -sign of the "Stork." We shall have occasion to speak of him later in -connection with the Royal Printing House, of which he was the first -director; he is mentioned now because in 1611 Leonard Gaultier engraved -for him the frontispiece of _L'Aigle Français_, a collection of sermons -by Thomas Girault. The publisher used the same plate in 1618 for the -sermons of Raymond de Hézèque. - -Besides the publications of Sebastian Cramoisy and Chevallier, Leonard -Gaultier adorned also those of Nicholas Buon and many other publishers -of the time in Paris and Lyons. With such a profusion of works emanating -from a single artist, without reckoning those which were produced in -great quantity by men of less note, wood engraving was dead. At most it -dared to put a wood block of a printer's mark on a title; more -ordinarily this mark was not alone sufficient, and showed the disdain in -which taste then held wood-cutting. Thus goes fashion, heedless of the -most elementary rules of art. To put type within an engraved title, or -to ornament a printed text with engravings, is a heresy of principle -that was established in the eighteenth century, by the strength of its -cleverness and talent. But at the beginning of the seventeenth, in spite -of Leonard Gaultier or Thomas de Leu, these overloaded titles, -overpowering the opening of the Book, offend the eye by their excessive -blackness, and incontestably make us regret the admirable frontispiece -on wood of the preceding century. - -This is all the ornament, properly so called, of the reign of Louis -XIII. Leonard Gaultier composed also small vignettes for an edition of -Homer, but they are mediocre and unskilful, and it must be said that -there were others following the same path. John Picart made a -frontispiece with architecture and figures for the _Histoire de la -Maison de Châtillon-sur-Marne_ for account of Sebastian Cramoisy. A cold -and hard artist he was, the rival of Gaultier, and one of the most -employed of the vignette engravers of Paris. There was also Jaspar -Isaac, a mediocre craftsman, but who could design clever titles, among -them that of the continuation of the _Annales_ of Baronius for the -publisher Denis de la Noue. Then Claude Mellan, whose great and clever -talent did not disdain second-rate works, in which he gave free play to -his burin. It must be said, however, that his bold touch did not well -accommodate itself to reduced spaces, and that he was not working in the -field necessary to his inventive powers. We mention his portrait of -Louis XIV. at the head of the _Code Louis XIV._; the title of the -_Perfection du Chrestien_, in which is included a portrait of Cardinal -Richelieu, A. Vitré, 1647, folio; that of the _Instruction du Dauphin_ -for Cramoisy, 1640; that of the works of St. Bernard for the Royal -Printing House; and, perhaps the best of all, the _Poésies_ of Pope -Urban VIII., of which we here give a copy. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Title engraved by Claude Mellan for Urban -VIII.'s _Poésies_, printed at the Royal Printing House, in 1642.] - -Lyons did not remain far behind in the movement, but how changed from -its great reputation of the sixteenth century! J. de Fornazeris engraved -the frontispieces to Justus Lipsius, published by Horace Cardon in 1613. -Peter Favre and Audran imitated them. C. Audran designed for Claude -Landry the _Theologia Naturalis_ of Theophilus Reynaud, and the -bookseller Picquet ordered from him the title for the _Annales Minorum_ -in 1628. Everywhere taste was modelled on the works of the capital, to -name only the principal centres, Rouen, Rheims, Sens, down to Venes, a -small town of Tarn, where William de Nautonnier published in 1603 his -curious book _Mécométrie_, whose frontispiece was bordered by views of -cities, with an equestrian portrait of King Henry. - -And if we pass to Germany, we find Mayence with mediocre engravings for -titles according to the formula and process used elsewhere, the title of -the _Droit Civil_ of Aymar Vailius, that of the works of St. Bonaventura -in 1609 for the bookseller Antoine Hiérat, and that of the _Viridarium -Virtutûm_, rather cleverly treated by the burin in 1610. What a period -had passed since Gutenberg, Fust, and Schoeffer! There was still one -Yves Schoeffer at Mayence, but only the name lived; nothing more -remained of the old printers of the other century. It was the same at -Bamberg, Cologne, Nuremberg, and Basle, in all the cities that made the -honour of typography and the Book in former times. Cologne was neither -better nor worse favoured than others. The booksellers Boetzer, Kinck, -and De Binghy had passable engravings for their titles; and the -Commentaries of Salmeron may be mentioned, with portraits from the -German originals of the fifteenth century. At Nuremberg there was a -curious specimen treating of natural history by Basil Besler, in which -the artist gives the interior of a zoological cabinet of the time; but -the blocks and the typography of the city of Koburger are wanting. Basle -held its own later in relief engraving. Meantime there was a mediocre -set of the Dance of Death on copper, published by Miegen, 1621. - -At Jena and Frankfort-on-the-Main were prosperous printing houses, but -engravings and ornamentation were neglected. Frankfort employed the -frontispiece in the _Traité du Commerce_ of Sigismond Scaccia, published -by Zuner in 1648; it was divided into compartments, in which the Bourse, -the Exchange, and the port of the city were represented. - -It is scarcely necessary to mention the Italian cities which followed -the movement. Venice from the middle of the sixteenth century had used -engraved frontispieces, among which was that of Domenic Zenoi for the -_Portraits des Hommes Illustres_ of Nicholas Valegio. In the same city -James Piccini worked for account of Sgava in 1648, but he was equally at -the service of Roman publishers, for whom he designed a number of -titles. Along with him Frederic Greuter adorned the publications of -Alexander Zanetti, not without talent, but without individuality. -Bologna, Brescia, Florence, and Naples, had no original sentiment; they -followed indifferently the manner of the day. - -In Holland, artists were rather numerous. The family of the Passes -designed vignettes for books, and engraved frontispieces, admirably -studied and composed. The clear and truly personal style of their works -places their illustrations in the first rank among those of their time. -They had, at the same time, the genius that created and the intelligent -burin that faithfully translated an idea. They imagined with art the -scenes that they depicted without at all copying their predecessors. -From 1599, the date of the publication of the _Hortus Deliciarum_, one -of their best works, up to about 1623, they were in Holland, at Arnheim -and at Amsterdam. In 1623 we find one of them, the most celebrated, -Crispin the younger, designing figures for the _Manège Royal_ of -Pluvinel, published by Angelier in Paris, and for another edition, with -folding plates, in 1624 for William Lenoir, at the sign of the "White -Rose Crowned." This magnificent work, in which the King, Louis XIII., is -represented receiving lessons from the rider Pluvinel, had a third and -more complete reimpression in 1625 with another publisher, Michael -Nivelle. Here we see the Dutch accredited in France, in Paris, in the -city then the most ready to understand and pay for the works of eminent -artists. In 1624 Gombauld published an _Endymion_--Boileau later -associated Gombauld with other poets to declare him a maker of pitiable -sonnets--Nicholas Buon, the bookseller named above, undertook the -publication, and employed Pass, Leonard Gaultier, and J. Picart to -furnish plates in octavo size. Heavy and black as were these vignettes, -they do not the less make a good appearance in the edition of the -forgotten poet; and it is due to truth to recognise how much Pass was -above his collaborators. The following year, 1625, he engraved the -_Dionysiaques_ of Nonus, for Robert Fouet, and the _Roman des Romans_ of -Du Verdier, comprising more than ten engravings, in a very free and bold -manner. The _Berger Extravagant_ and the _Académie de l'Espée_ came in -1628, among numerous others. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.--Title of Pluvinel's _Manège Royal_, engraved by -Crispin Pass in 1624.] - -To speak truly, Crispin Pass did not devote himself entirely to Parisian -publishers; he always preserved interests in Flanders so as to return -there from time to time; but he did not find in his own country the -ready and assured sales of Paris. Still the city of Leyden had then one -of the most renowned workshops of typography; the Elzevirs had commenced -to make a good place for themselves among the printers of Europe by the -extreme correctness of their editions, the distinctness of their work, -and their marvellous art in the taste and economy of the Book. In -reality, the sizes and characters of their books were very small, but if -the smallness of the page did not allow room for vignette or ornament, -they bore a certain practical elegance that was not without charm. The -origin of the printing house was due to Louis Elzevir, who published in -1592 an edition of Eutropius at Leyden. He left sons, who associated -themselves together, and founded a house which was unrivalled. - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Title of the _Imitation_ of the Elzevirs.] - -Bonaventure Elzevir, grandson of Louis, was the most illustrious of this -family, so remarkably devoted to its art. He took Abraham as partner, -and together they put forth those little Latin classics in duodecimo of -which the value is now so great. Among others, Pliny issued from their -presses in the year 1635, in three volumes, Virgil in 1636, and Cicero -in 1642. To-day amateurs, above all those afflicted with bibliomania, -hunt for unbound Elzevirs, because they have full margins. From about -1633 to 1639 these volumes were composed of paper of rather small size, -making a page of a hundred and thirty to a hundred and thirty-three -millimetres; from 1639 onwards the paper was larger, and the page from -about a hundred and thirty-five to a hundred and thirty-seven. One must -be a book-lover to understand the interest attaching to these figures, -and employ his entire activity in the discovery of these undiscoverable -books, which are concealed as soon as they are met with. - -One of the most esteemed of their works is the _De Imitatione_ of Thomas -à Kempis, printed by John and Daniel Elzevir about 1653, and known as -the edition without date. But as the association of John and Daniel is -known to have lasted from 1652 to 1654, the date 1653 appears to be very -plausible. We reproduce the entire title of this typographical _bijou_, -which merited a cleverer engraver. - -The rarest of all the numerous Elzevirs, possibly by reason of the -popularity of its subject, is the _Pastissier François_, Louis and -Daniel Elzevir, Amsterdam, 1655, of which M. Morgand had an uncut copy, -measuring a hundred and forty-three millimetres, in 1878. The Benzon -copy sold in 1875 for three thousand two hundred and fifty-five francs. - -It is to be remarked that the Elzevirs frequently avoided dating or even -signing their books, for reasons easy to comprehend. Publishing numerous -works, they were afraid of compromising themselves in the eyes of the -powerful, and they let them go forth without any trade mark. These -artists in typography were, besides, the most prudent and subtle of men. -Working at a time when bookselling had become an acknowledged commerce, -and a trade requiring all the skill and resources of others, they wisely -availed themselves of these, gathering for themselves honour and profit -without having done more than seize their opportunity. Employing the -characters of Claude Garamond, of James Sanlecques, and the papers of -Angoulême, M. Didot thence claims them as French publishers. - -In France the Elzevirs had no rivals; but a fashion was introduced from -the end of the sixteenth century of associating together publishers in -the production of important and costly books. There were, among others, -the company of the "Grand Navire" in 1610, of the "Source" in 1622, and -of the "Soleil" in 1629. In 1631 several publishers united and founded a -second company of the "Grand Navire." These were the two Cramoisys, -Sebastian and Gabriel, Denis Béchet, John Branchu, Denis Moreau, Claude -Sonnius, and Denis Thierry. The associates took a ship as their mark, -but without putting their names on the masts, as the original company of -the "Grand Navire" had done. They published, at common expense and -divided profits, great works, of which each one of them had the right of -sale, but of course reserving to themselves the right to publish such -others as they pleased. Sebastian Cramoisy passes as the chief, the -moral director of another company, formed to publish the Fathers of the -Church, with the royal types, a company affiliated to the "Grand Navire" -and signed in 1638 by Denis Moreau, Gille Morel, Stephen Richer, Claude -Sonnius, and Gabriel Cramoisy. But as regards their personal works, if -they had neither the perfection nor the aspect of those of Froben, -Aldus, the Estiennes, or even of Plantin, they at least surpassed the -French books of the time. Formerly syndic of the Corporation in 1602, -twenty-nine years before the constitution of the "Grand Navire," -Cramoisy was besides sheriff of Paris, and he exercised his trade in a -shop in the Rue St. Jacques which had been that of Father Nivelle, the -_doyen_ of booksellers, who died in 1603 at the age of eighty years. - -The position of Cramoisy made it natural for Cardinal de Richelieu to -fix his eyes on him for the direction of the Royal Printing House. This -establishment, founded by the King in 1640, was installed within the -Louvre, in a long series of rooms which formed a workshop without rival -in the world. Sublet des Noyers was named superintendent, Trichet du -Fresne corrector; and under this triple direction the presses commenced -to work. The first book was the _Imitation de Jésus-Christ_, dated 1640, -folio, a fine book enough, but not to be compared to the Elzevir -editions. The types used in this book are attributed to Claude Garamond, -founder of the sixteenth century, to whom are due the Greek types of -Francis I. With the Royal Printing House, as often happens with State -enterprises, the cost was great, and the return nothing. Only a few -years after its foundation it had swallowed up nearly 400,000 livres, a -very heavy sum for a badly balanced treasury; it had produced sixty or -seventy volumes of moderate value; and after Cramoisy the management was -so little in earnest that it turned the workshops into a stable, called -"the little stable of the King," at the commencement of the eighteenth -century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Plate taken from the _Lumière du Cloistre_. -Copper plate by Callot.] - -To return to the artists of the Book under Louis XIII. and Cardinal -Richelieu, we must go back a little, before the foundation of the Royal -Printing House, and we shall find the French school of illustration at a -time when Callot was giving it a vigorous lift and trying to do away -with its affected and hard style. It must be acknowledged that Callot -was not a vignettist, a special designer; his art aimed higher, and -ordinarily succeeded better; yet he did not disdain frontispieces, and -made them for the _Coustumier de Lorraine_, the _Harpalice_ of -Bracciolini, and for a crowd of others of which the enumeration would be -tedious. Certain of his works passed into Italy, where they raised a -little the debased level of the Book. Then he adorned several works with -etchings, among them the _Lumière du Cloistre_, published by Francis -Langlois 1646. It was one of the symbolic and sententious works with -which the public taste is never satiated, and a kind of guide for the -priest. At the bottom of the little etching here given, representing -birds falling from a tree, we read,-- - - "Ses petits hors du nid le courbeau jette en bas, - Lorsque par leur blancheur ils lui sont dissemblables. - Le bon prélat de mesme au cloistre n'admet pas - Ceux qui n'ont rien d'esgal à ses moeurs vénérables." - -Callot also made another set of emblems on the life of the Virgin Mary, -and published in 1620 a series of prints in quarto for the tragedy of -_Soliman_ of Bonarelli, for the account of Cecconnelli. France imposed -herself on fallen Italy, she got her works dispersed there, and if an -engraver arose there, he did not disdain to consecrate himself to -France. Witness Della Bella, who went from Italy to France, where he was -taken under the protection of Cardinal Richelieu. It was about the time -of the establishment of the Royal Printing House, and it was expected -that employment would be found at once for him. - -Callot was the model chosen by the young Italian artist, and this choice -might have been less happy. Della Bella took from his master the -philosophic vein, the drollery of design, which he exercised at first in -humorous frontispieces, among others that of Scarron's works, where nine -fish-women, taking the place of the Muses, dance around the poet. But he -passed from gay and pleasant to severe, and made large pages of -architecture for serious titles. In 1649 he designed the plates for the -large and undigested volume of Valdor on Louis XIII., published by -Antoine Estienne at the Royal Printing House. His success was not there; -Della Bella was a painter of groups, of ornaments, of subjects somewhat -heavy and overdrawn, but which, after numerous transformations, opened a -new way to the vignettists of the eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--Title of the _Manière Universelle_, by -Desargues, in 1643, by Abraham Bosse.] - -With Abraham Bosse the decoration of the Book took a considerable -extension. Numerous and charming ornamented letters, heads of pages, and -tailpieces appear. There are few artists that have done so much as he -for graceful illustration and harmony between the vignette and the -printed page. His prodigious fecundity made him attempt every style; and -after the gaieties of the print in which he laughed with his -contemporaries, he adopted a grave air to trace more severe subjects on -copper. However, the book entitled _La Manière Universelle_, by -Desargues, with numerous geometrical figures and an agreeable -frontispiece, bearing the dedication to the Seigneur de Noyers, -superintendent of the Royal Printing House, was a critical work, in -which Bosse, under a serious standard, did not spare an enemy. We do not -bear ill-will to the artist, however, for the following year he -published fourteen plates for the Suetonius printed at the Louvre. - -He successively designed plates for the _Histoire de St. Louis_, -numerous vignettes for pious books, figures for the _Pucelle_ of -Chapelain and for the _Larcins de la Fortune_. He was always himself, -refined and ingenious, whether in the most barren or the most -complicated subjects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Print by Abraham Bosse representing the -booksellers of the Palace under Louis XIII.] - -He has left us in a celebrated print a representation of a bookseller's -shop of his time. It is for us an interesting page, in which is shown -simply and rather naïvely the picturesque side of these stores, with the -dealer and his wife selling new works to their customers. The shop is -compact, and very much like the open-air stalls of to-day; posting-bills -above the shelves indicate the "new books;" and if the inscriptions -given by Bosse be credited, the Palace dealer offered his books with -singular eclecticism: Boccaccio, Aretin, the _Astrée_ of D'Urfé, the -Bible, and Machiavelli. In the hands of the woman is seen the romance -_Marianne_: - - "Icy les cavaliers les plus adventureux - En lisant les romans s'animent à combattre; - Et de leur passion les amants langoureux - Flattent les mouvements par des vers de théâtre," - -says the text of Bosse. What was commonly done then is still done, -shopping and rummaging the stalls, and those of the Palace were -attractive. - -If we credit Sauval, the great number of booksellers, in the middle of -the century, was due to the wits of the Hotel de Rambouillet. The -passion for novelty, for recent works, had produced that quantity of -publishers, he says, that we have seen on the Pont Neuf, and that we -still see to-day at the Palace and the University, but of which the -number is so multiplied in all these places that in the Palace they -count more than other dealers; and as to the neighbourhood of the -University, they are obliged, in order to lodge the rest, to extend the -ancient bounds from St. Yves to the river (Sauval, _Antiquités de -Paris_, viii., 354). - -In fact, each year saw an increase in the number of publishers in -corporation, with syndicate and adjuncts. Under the reign of Louis -XIII., the single year 1610 had fifty to take rank, and among them -Antoine Vitré, who was to become the most illustrious of his -contemporaries. But, as there were no more than six printers, it may be -inferred that all the rest were booksellers, in the true sense of the -word, of those who encumbered afterwards the great _salle_ of which -Sauval speaks. Antoine Vitré was syndic in May, 1643, on the accession -of Louis XIV. He had four adjuncts. With him the Book marked the solemn -style that the commencement of the century had given to it. Royal -printer for the Oriental languages from 1621, he undertook a Syriac -work, the first that was attempted in Paris. The project of a Polyglot -Bible gave him the idea of acquiring for the King the Oriental -manuscripts and matrices of Savary de Brèves. The King left to him the -care of negotiating the business, but did not reimburse him without -numerous difficulties, in the midst of which the printer was made to -lose the means of conveniently continuing his trade. The advocate Le Jay -charging himself with the enormous expenses necessitated by the Polyglot -Bible, it was composed in the hope that Cardinal Richelieu would pay the -cost. He was willing to do so, but required that his name should figure -on the book; and as Le Jay, an independent man, formally opposed it, -Vitré met with ill-will from the Minister, which increased from day to -day. In 1645 the impression was finished, but Le Jay was ruined, and if -we admire the paper, the type, and the extraordinary size of the nine -volumes of the Polyglot Bible, we find in it so many faults, errors, and -misprints that it has fallen to nearly nothing, hardly being worth its -binding. There were terrible mortifications in the business, and Vitré -had to submit to them more than any one. Nevertheless he did not let his -presses stand still, and he published successively Arabic, Turkish, and -Persian works. His action against the Savary heirs, as representing the -King, in the acquisition mentioned above, continued also after the -impression of the Bible, and hindered his progress. He struggled on; and -the assembly of clergy, of which he was the printer, sought to help him -out of his difficulties. The matter being once terminated, the Cardinal -being dead, and Vitré having been named by Colbert director of the Royal -Printing House in place of Cramoisy, he died in his turn, and was later -accused of having destroyed the types and matrices of the Polyglot -Bible, so that they should not be used after him. This fable, long -accredited, has since been ascertained to be false, for the punches and -matrices passed to the Royal Library, thence to the Royal Printing -House, reorganised in 1691. - -Antoine Vitré, in spite of his misfortunes, was a great personage. He -was painted by Champagne and engraved by Morin, as was Richelieu -himself. The portrait was reproduced in the book of M. Delaborde, _La -Gravure_ (p. 189). Such was the man whom we meet at the beginning of the -reign of Louis XIV. as syndic of booksellers; and it was by no means a -sinecure, a canonry giving honour and profit, quite the other way. With -the Draconian rules on the subject, the syndic assumed a heavy burden -towards the King, as well as towards his kinsmen. Religious quarrels -envenomed questions, and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes was to -have for its immediate corollary new and more severe royal ordinances. - -The reign of Louis XIV. saw the zenith of engraving with the burin, but -not that of printing or illustration. Doubtless it would be puerile to -pretend that typography had not made any material progress; it had done -so in engraving and in composition; work was done more quickly, because -the presses had been made more perfect. But the wise harmony of the old -printers, their sure taste, even in their old irregular blocks, was no -longer there to form a graceful and charming whole, which is to modern -precision as a picture by Van Eyck is to a chromo-lithograph. Under -Louis XIV., titles became regular, following, as we have said above, and -modelling themselves on, the affected and peruked people who read them. -All art entered on this path of sublimity and grandeur. The painter Le -Brun is the highest exponent of this false Olympus, where an heroic pose -became necessary for the most humble movements. Made popular by -engraving by Pesne, Audran, Poilly, Edelinck, and a hundred others, this -tendency overran everything: art and industry, painting and tapestry, -illustration and typography itself. All was grand, in reverse of other -times, when all was small and mean. The embellishments of the Book were -full of gods in perukes and goddesses in armour, Louis XIV. as Apollo, -as the sun illuminating the world. "Nec pluribus impar" was not the -device of one man; it was the mighty and glorious cry of a whole people, -from great to small, from the sublime painter to the modest printer. - -Ordinarily these exaggerations are not useful to the arts. Here they -were. But, for the matter that specially occupies us, it does not appear -that the Book was much advanced. It approached a marvellous epoch of a -delicate and graceful art; but it did not find its form; it dragged -painfully after the Plantinian works, heavily throwing its etchings and -burins in the middle of texts, gross and in bad taste. Yet taste in -literature had an onward tendency; Molière and La Fontaine produced on -their contemporaries the effect that in our day the naturalists have -produced on the romanticists; but this was not for long. Majesty -recovered its rights with Bossuet, Boileau, and the others. - -[Illustration: Fig. 77.--Tailpiece of Sébastien Leclerc for the -_Promenade de St. Germain_.] - -Sébastien Leclerc was one of the rare artists of the end of the -seventeenth century who dreamed of the vignette in the midst of this -invasion of pompous commonplace. Successor of Callot in manner, induced -by the publishers, he began this style with a romance of La Calprenède, -and continued with the _Promenade de St. Germain_ of Louis le Laboureur, -bailie of Montmorency, of whom Boileau said such curious things. This is -one of the rarest books of Leclerc, and we reproduce one of the pages, -with a charming tailpiece, which comes very near those of the eighteenth -century. There was, moreover, a charm in this ingenious designer; he -adorned the works of his contemporaries with graceful vignettes and -decorations full of suppleness. It may be believed, besides, that he did -not remain behind his _confrères_ in figure composition or allegorical -and Divine emblems. His art did not throw off the errors of the existing -school; he was content not to copy any one and to make his works truly -his own. Such were, for example, the vignettes of the _Histoire de -Turenne_, where the heads of the chapters, the ornamented letters, and -the tailpieces, harmoniously agree, and make the book, a little heavy in -impression, a most agreeable work. Leclerc then found himself ready to -design vignettes for the works of Racine for the publisher, Claude -Barbin, another name frequently encountered in Boileau. The title of -Vol. ii. merits attention. - -The same year of this last publication, 1676, Sébastien Leclerc -illustrated the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid for Benserade, the engraving of -which cost the King more than 10,000 livres. Thus adorned, the book had -not a bad appearance, but a satirist of the time, Hardin very probably, -made on it this quatrain:-- - - "Mais quant à moi j'en trouve tout fort beau: - Papier, dorure, images, caractère, - Hormis les vers qu'il fallait laisser faire - A La Fontaine." - -It may be imagined what an engraver could produce working from 1650 and -dying in 1715, that is, a life of work the longest that could be hoped -for. Leclerc was the absolute contemporary of the King. He died, like -him, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, leaving work widely -scattered among books, funeral orations, and placards. After the example -of Callot and Bosse, he did not disdain satire. One of his prettiest -vignettes served to illustrate some pamphlet of Richesource against the -journalists of his time; it represents a dandy of about 1679 offering -his gazette. - -By the side of this unrivalled antagonist it is permitted to place -Lepautre, twenty years older than Leclerc, but whose studies had been -principally on architecture. In the moments that he left his special -work he devoted himself to frontispieces and vignettes; nevertheless, -although he had before him the charming designs of Leclerc, he confined -himself to a cold and hard manner, keeping, besides, as much as possible -to titles, in which his particular talent could find scope. He designed -also the Chartreux Missal of 1679, the _Gallia Christiana_ after Marot, -the _Dioptrique Oculaire_ of P. Chérubin, engraved by Edelinck, and a -thousand other works of small repute. - -[Illustration: Fig. 78.--Small figure of Sébastien Leclerc for -Richesource's pamphlet.] - -Very different was Francis Chauveau, who, without having the delicacy of -Sébastien Leclerc or his art of arrangement, treated at least with grace -little figures and illustrations. Certainly there is an enormous -distance between these correct and commonplace engraved plates and the -delightful wood engravings of the time of Geoffroy Tory, for example. -But, be their worth what it may, they suited very well; and even with -Molière they did not make such a bad figure. Chauveau was associated -with many of the works of Leclerc, who caused him often to be less -heavy, inasmuch as Leclerc corrected in engraving many of his -compositions. It was so with Molière, and still more with Racine in the -plate of the _Plaideurs_, in which Chauveau revealed himself a precursor -of the eighteenth century. Unhappily he did not always follow this -manner. Successively, and with various luck, he illustrated _Alaric_, -_Andromaque_, and the "Metamorphoses" of Ovid for Benserade, with -Leclerc; the _Pucelle_ of Chapelain, and the _Tragédies_ of Racine, to -which Le Brun did not disdain to put his hand. - -In short, the connecting link between the beginning of the seventeenth -and that of the eighteenth century in the development of illustration is -Sébastien Leclerc. He had known the artists of the first period; he was -to see at his death appear one of the precursors of the vignettists of -the following century, Claude Gillot. Thanks to him, overburdened titles -and unskilful vignettes underwent a gradual transformation. In the -delicacy and tenuity of his designs may be seen the dominant note of the -eighteenth century, coquetry, and Choffard is divined. He was nearly the -only one who did not fall into the exaggerations of the engravers of the -time; he kept beside them without touching them, and preciously -preserved his own well-accentuated personality. By the smallness and -slenderness of his figures, Leclerc recalls somewhat the school of -Fontainebleau; but he is above all the reflection of Callot, a Lorrainer -like himself. - -In Holland, a Frenchman, Bernard Picart, son of Stephen and pupil of -Leclerc, was making a great name as an illustrator. He established -himself as a print-seller at Amsterdam at the sign of "L'Etoile," and -successively designed vignettes for many works, among others the -Boileau of 1718. His vignettes and tailpieces, without possessing either -the spirit of Leclerc or the grace of the eighteenth century, express an -ingenious and inventive art that had broken with the strained traditions -of preceding epochs. - -From these two artists the decoration of the Book rapidly advanced. The -form is found, and charming designers are not wanting to apply it. - -The troubled state of England during the greater part of the seventeenth -century no doubt accounts for the fact that the art of the Book made but -very little progress. Theological controversies, the persecutions by the -Puritans, and, above all, the great civil war and its antecedents and -results, gave rise to a flood of publications of an ephemeral kind, -which from their nature were hurriedly produced; and there was little -room for pure literature and art. In the early part of the century, -under the influence which Elizabeth left, and which James fostered, some -important works were issued, with finely engraved illustrations; but -wood engraving declined further and further, until it was artistically -dead, to be revived in the next century. The works of the numerous poets -and dramatists were printed in quarto, and collected editions of them in -folio. Thus were issued the works of Shakespeare, first collected by -Jaggard and Blount, 1623, folio, with an engraved portrait by Droeshout, -the faithfulness of which was vouched in an opposite page of verse -signed by Ben Jonson. "Don Quixote" first appeared in an English dress -in 1612-20, published by E. Blount in quarto; and Jaggard, Blount's -partner in the Shakespeare, published Boccaccio's "Decameron," in two -volumes folio, 1620. Among other notable works of the early part of the -century were Drayton's "Polyolbion," 1613; Chapman's Homer, 1611-15, -folio, three volumes; Lord Bacon, whose essays and other single -publications appeared in the seventeenth, to be collected as his "Works" -in the next century; and William Prynne, whose _Histrio Mastrix_, 1633, -so offended Charles I. by its references to the Queen and the court -ladies, that the author had to undergo a severe and degrading -punishment. Many of these works were illustrated with meritorious -engravings on steel and copper by W. Hollar, P. Lombart, W. Marshall, -Hole, W. Pass, W. Faithorne, and R. Vaughan. So that here were all the -materials for the foundation of an English school, to be cruelly broken -up shortly afterwards by the distractions of civil warfare. - -In 1611 Robert Barker first printed the Authorised Version of the Holy -Bible, which has been more often reprinted than any other book, and -which exists to this day as the great standard of the English language. - -The taste for books of travel which arose in the last century was -largely increased by the voyages and discoveries of the English in North -America and the subsequent Puritan exodus there. These early accounts of -Virginia and New England, many of which are tracts of a few leaves only, -now command fabulous prices. The great collection of voyages under the -name of "Purchas: his Pilgrimes," was printed in five folio volumes, -1625-6, while De Bry, Hulsius, and Linschoten were enriching the world -with their collections of travels, printed in Germany and Holland. All -of these works were adorned with finely engraved plates, those to -"Purchas" being engraved by Elstrack, and, besides, it had a famous map -of the world, engraved by Hondius. - -The controversial spirit engendered by the religious quarrels of the -century and by the great civil war gave incessant work to the printers; -and the many tracts and pamphlets thus produced were frequently -illustrated by rude and coarse woodcuts, of no value from an artistic -point of view, but curious from the indications they afford of the -costumes and manners of the time. - -The first edition of Walton's "Angler" was printed by R. Marriott in -1653, 16mo, with plates in the text, engraved on steel by Lombart. -Butler's "Hudibras" appeared in 1663-78, and Milton's "Paradise Lost" in -1667, quarto. Fuller's "Worthies of England" was printed 1662, folio. We -have roughly mentioned the principal English books of the century, and -next approach the revival of literature and art in the eighteenth -century. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE BOOK IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. - - The regency--Publishers at the beginning of the eighteenth - century--Illustrators in France; Gillot--The school of Watteau and - Boucher--Cars--The younger Cochin; his principal works in - vignettes--French art in England; Gravelot--Eisen--Choffard--The - _Baisers_ of Dorat; the _Contes_ of La Fontaine--the publisher - Cazin and the special literature of the eighteenth century--The - younger Moreau and his illustrations--The Revolution--The school of - David--Duplessis-Bertaux--The Book in Germany; Chodowiecki--In - England; Boydell and French artists--Caslon and - Baskerville--English books with illustrations--Wood engraving in - the eighteenth century; the Papillons--Printing offices in the - eighteenth century. - - -[Illustration: Fig. 79.--Letter by Cochin for the _Mémoires d' -Artillerie_ of Suvirey de St. Remy.] - -Like experience has shown us in our time, but in another manner, the -beginning of the eighteenth century produced, in the manners and tastes -of the French, an unconscious but tenacious reaction. It seemed as if -the conceptions of romanticism had lasted long enough, and that the -cycle of Middle Age chevaliers had passed away, and that a return to -what is called nature was effected in literature and art. At the death -of Louis XIV., Olympus and its gods, majestic poses and suns, had become -wearisome. By a little half-open door, gaiety escaped from its prison -and fled. For the Book that door was the hand of Sébastien Leclerc. - -The ancient school was replaced. Constrained during three quarters of a -century, French manners began to be joyous under the regency of the Duc -d'Orleans. If the representatives of another age still lived, if Rigaud -always painted his portraits in peruke, there were new-comers, enlivened -by the new fashions, less solemn and more bewitching. Le Brun was then -far in the past, and as amusing to the ladies of the regency as are now -to us the fashions of the Second Empire. - -The Book, after its manner, followed the movement, and gradually found -the elements of its decoration in the tendencies of the day. Small sizes -were multiplied, types showed elegance, and vignettes became more and -more agreeable and intellectual. Amateurs had their _ex-libris_ -engraved. The smallest pamphlets were covered with ornamental letters, -vignettes, and tailpieces, already very clever. Costume also, in its -shorter and lighter form, gave to designers a means of agreeably -composing a page of illustration and disseminating fancy in the figures. -These revolutions worked themselves simply from day to day, as taste -became more pronounced and exacting. - -The commerce of the Book was still extending from the end of the -preceding century; and if the number of printers was limited and -arrested by certain somewhat hard laws, production in Paris was -enormous. Among regulations that weighed most heavily on publishers -figured the obligation put upon them by the ordinance of 1713 to -deposit eight copies of illustrated books. In 1725 the King issued other -regulations to affirm the rights of the university against the -corporation, forcing the masters to assist in a body at the processions -of the Sorbonne and to offer on the Day of the Purification a candle to -the rector. In spite of this ordinance, more religious than useful to -commerce, the fashion of vignettes increased. The principal shops were -searched, as they are still, for novelties; the Rue St. Jacques and the -Quai des Augustins, where they were grouped, were resorted to. The most -important booksellers in 1727 were Coignard, the Barbous--who essayed -afterwards, with Lengley Dufresnoy, to copy the Elzevirs,--Cavalier, -Robustel, Fournier, Ballard, and D'Houry. Of the two last, D'Houry -printed the calendars, and Ballard had the privilege for music. Another, -Leonord, published the books of the Dauphin. At these and other -publishers', recent works were examined, those who did not buy gave -their advice and took ideas, and so fashion slowly formed itself. It was -thus that Houdart de la Motte published with G. Dupuis in 1719 a -collection of fables, with illustrations of Claude Gillot, which was the -talk at the booksellers'. - -In this book all was original: the author, who had had, five years -before, the eccentric idea of translating the Iliad without knowing a -word of Greek; the text, a kind of imitation of La Fontaine, without -salt or savour; the size, quarto, admirably printed by Dupuis, in the -Rue St. Jacques, with plates by Coypel, Massé, and, above all, the -charming vignettes of Gillot, the most pleasing and clever of all his -collaborators, a sort of Callot fallen into the eighteenth century, and -who ought to take the first place by birthright. Gillot has been -called, not without reason, "the last pagan of the Renaissance;" and -this pagan had the honour to give us Watteau. - -[Illustration: Fig. 80.--Vignette by Gillot for the _Chien et le Chat_, -fable by Houdart de la Motte, in 1719.] - -The Count de Caylus tells the story. Gillot had quitted the pencil for -the etching needle on seeing the work of his pupil. He had no reason to -complain; his pictures were of no value, and his prints gave other -artists the idea of imitating them. The whole French school of the -eighteenth century may have had its origin in this forgotten book, -illustrated by the master of Watteau. In fact, in the manner of the -little etching here given we may easily perceive the coquetry and -affectation that were later the dominant tone of vignettes. For, it may -well be said, the graceful, feminine, and arch manner of which we speak -was, above all, conventional and false. In opposition to the designers -and engravers of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century, -who reproduced naturally scenes of daily life in ideal conceptions, it -came, through the moral education of the artists, that they put forth -the ideal in the most ordinary things of life. Shepherds were no longer -the gross, rustic peasants that we find in primitive Flemish paintings -or in the "Hours" of Simon Vostre; they were coxcombs, pomaded and -adorned with ribbons, playing the bagpipes, and making love to the -shepherdesses of the court. - -At first it was Watteau who influenced all the engravers in the pretty -and the smart; Boucher did the rest; and fatally the Book followed, and -followed impetuously, surpassing, if possible, the painted works. If the -severe poses, the grave touch, of the preceding century are no longer -found, they often go a little far in the contrary sense. It may be well -said here that the arts are ordinarily the result of the manners of an -epoch. The system of Law was not without influence on the entire -eighteenth century, by the terrible manner in which he upset fortunes, -awoke appetites, gave rein to aspirations hitherto held in check. Claude -Gillot, the designer, was one of the first victims of the Scotch banker; -he lost his fortune on the Exchange; but who may say what his artistic -ambition dreamed of in the midst of all these disorders? One thing is -certain: that Watteau, his pupil, broke off very short with the style of -the seventeenth century. - -Laurent Cars was the engraver who multiplied the compositions of -Boucher, and made them the fashion. He engraved also, after the painter -of shepherds and nymphs, illustrations to Molière, the most agreeable -that there are for style and spirit. In engraving certain works of -Lemoyne, Cars did not completely desert the ancient school. He appears -at the beginning of the eighteenth century as if divided between two -manners each equally possible to him. - -The work of these engravers was almost exclusively in etching, biting -with acid a copper plate covered with varnish, on which the drawing was -made by means of a point. This process, always previously used for -sketches, served also for finishing vignettes, which up to then had been -finished by the burin. The suppleness of the work was greater, and the -artist remained more himself than he could be with the stiff cutting -instrument of the seventeenth century. - -The sizes of books had not yet all come to octavo or duodecimo. The -works of Molière published by Prault in 1734 in six volumes quarto, -under the direction of Marc Antoine Joly, give the idea of an important -work, not at all of theatrical pieces. To tell the truth, these somewhat -exaggerated dimensions allow artists more room for illustration; later, -when smaller forms predominated, text and engravings were so compressed -that they were not always clear and readable to every eye; but the -quarto was not graceful, it was not in harmony with the finikin, the -pastoral pieces, then presented, and it had to disappear as a current -size in illustrated publications. - -The class of artisans employed on the Book is not identical in the -eighteenth century with that of printers and publishers. In the -beginning, as we have seen, the cutters of wood blocks and the printers -were often the same people, preparing their characters or their blocks, -and afterwards putting them under the press. Large printing offices had -very quickly changed that. Each particular work had its special workman. -Typography had its type-founders, compositors, forwarders, inkers, and -pressmen. In the eighteenth century this was complicated by designers, -engravers, plate-printers, and these different professions occupied -themselves on the Book in manipulating the sheets in their turn. In the -midst of this crowd, the designers and engravers, esteemed as was their -collaboration, were not the most honoured. Their homes often reflected -the effect of their life as clever artists, quick to spend the money -earned during the week; and we shall have occasion to name some of the -more miserable among them. - -The booksellers, on the contrary, had become great personages. In the -preceding chapter we have seen Cramoisy and Vitré, to name only them, -acquire the greatest honours, the latter painted by Philip de Champagne, -with many others lords of the court. In the eighteenth century there -were Brunet, Ballard, Mariette, Chardon, Didot, and a host of others, -during the time of Watteau, Boucher, and Cars, of which we shall shortly -speak; and these several publishers had houses of their own, and -furnished shops and printing offices with the best apparatus. Saved from -falling into negligences by royal regulations on printing, they composed -with admirable characters, on paper of the first order, imperishable -works; and, usual consequence of their high situation, they paid the -artists badly charged with their work. It would be long and tedious to -enter into this matter in detail. They made progress by slow degrees, -and in good time they marvellously united copper plate engraving to -printed text, so marvellously, that in comparing their works to the wood -blocks of the sixteenth century, it may be asked which of the two styles -is superior in elegance and good taste. - -[Illustration: Fig. 81.--Vignette for _Daphnis et Chloe_ by Cochin, for -Coustelier's edition.] - -One of the ancestors of this group of vignettists was the younger -Cochin, who had engraved the plate of the monks in the fables of -Houdart, illustrated by Gillot. Cochin, in spite of his passion for -allegory and his very marked taste for affectation, gave, it may be -said, with the designer-engraver St. Aubin, an enormous impulse to the -art of adorning books. From the beginning of his career he worked for -the publishers, composing frontispieces, ornamented letters, and -tailpieces, or transferring to copper the drawings of others. Singular -type of artist, besides, educated, well brought up, epicurean and -spendthrift, friend of great lords, and protected by Madame de -Pompadour. When he travelled in Italy with her young brother Abel -Poisson, Cochin did everything, was ready at the least request, -inventing curious menus, giving representations of fêtes, and yet -finding the time to decorate books and design vignettes profusely. - -He worked chiefly for Jombert, a sort of learned bookseller, King's -printer for the artillery, who dates from July, 1736. Jombert was -visited by painters. He gave little private soirées, which Cochin -attended, and where he daily made numerous friends. It was in this -house, of so special a character, and, it may be said, so little -artistic at first sight, that Cochin invented his best frontispieces, -among them that of the _Calcul Différentiel_, that of the _Astronomie -Physique_, and the plates of the _Méthode de Dessin_, after Boucher. He -was one of the first to produce engraved titles, with which the -publisher Prault ornamented his dainty volumes, and which were imitated, -up to the end of the eighteenth century, by all the illustrators who -followed. In that to the works of Madame Deshoulières the letter itself -is engraved. Since then the open letter has been copied in typography. -These vignettes were used many times by publishers, sometimes simply -effacing the inscription, sometimes reproducing the original design by -a different artist. The boy with the swan had decorated in 1744 a -"Jerusalem Delivered" in Italian, by the same publisher, Prault; it was -then engraved by Aveline. Fessard engraved the second plate, which is -here reproduced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 82.--Title-page engraved by Fessard after Cochin for -the works of Madame Deshoulières, 1747.] - -Nearly all the frontispieces of the Book with vignettes of the -eighteenth century preserve this arrangement: an ornamented and draped -border, with garlands of roses, symbols, and cupids, in the middle the -title, in red and black, composed in open letter, often a scroll with -the address of the publisher, but rarely a mark. It was the time of -little winged cupids, goddesses, and gods. The goddesses were the -favourites of the kings, Madame de Pompadour or the princesses, but -rarely the virtuous Marie Leczinska, too homely and too much ignored to -tempt the artists; the kings or the princes were the gods. - -After Jombert, Prault, and Coustellier, Cochin worked for François -Didot, syndic of the printers, for whom he prepared a set of -illustrations to Molière. Unfortunately Didot died in 1757, and the -project fell with him. Of the work of Cochin there only remains the set -of _Tartufe_ etchings in octavo. - -In the vortex into which he was plunged, he successively illustrated the -works of Rousseau, published at Brussels, quarto; those of Boileau, -published by David and Durand, octavo; and Henault's "History of -France," in the same size, with numerous vignettes. One of these should -be noted in a book treating of printing; it is that in which Cochin -pretends to show to his contemporaries the interior of a workshop in -1470. Without doubt the sketch of this print was taken in one of the -houses frequented by him--at Jombert's, Didot's, or David and -Durand's--for that room in which compositors are working and printed -sheets drying was not an invention of Cochin, and served to reproduce a -printing office of the eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 83.--Vignette taken from P. Corneille's _Théâtre_, -by Gravelot.] - -With Cochin soon worked a number of designers and aqua-fortists, too -prudent to lose the opportunity. The fashion arrived for books -beribboned, festooned, and flowered. Hubert François Gravelot had -carried to London this style of new works, which he knew how to -decorate, in his manner, better than any one, with letters, figures, and -tailpieces. He did not engrave much himself, leaving this work to lesser -artists, and contenting himself with subtle invention and graceful -subjects. With Eisen, Cochin, and Moreau, he is the French artist in the -sense of the time, free, bold, and ingenious, but perhaps a little out -of place in England. He published his plates to the "Decameron" in 1757, -one of the most curious of his sets of plates, and a hundred various -vignettes. On his return to France he designed the _Théâtre_ of P. -Corneille, from which the _Galerie de Palais_ is here reproduced, on -account of the illustration of bookselling which it gives. In 1764 the -large _salon_ of the Palace was still, as in the time of Abraham Bosse, -a place where shops were fitted up and the new books discussed. Side by -side with the dressmakers and merchants of every category, the -bookseller offers to his customer the recent products of Parisian -presses. Certain works were sold under cover and not shown; there is -here something to pique the curiosity of unoccupied young men who -strolled about and prolonged their stay in the galleries. - -[Illustration: Fig. 84.--Border designed by Choffard in 1758.] - -Eisen has a simplicity, a good taste, and a special and singularly -perfect economy of artistic effect combined with typography. It appears -hard that the designer had no consultative voice in the choice of -impression and disposition of the Book. The union of the two forces, -the vignette and the composition, is so close that it may be believed -one was made for the other, neither venturing to assert itself. In the -pretty and elaborate inventions of the artists reigned a lackadaisical -affectation that was delightfully becoming; the rock-work, which it -still had, suited admirably the borders of the first page. The _Lettres -d'une Peruvienne_ has a very agreeable title, but little different, on -the whole, from that of Madame Deshoulières, by Cochin. It is the same -with the _Lettres Turques_, published at Amsterdam in 1750, and -generally in all the frontispieces signed by him. As to the other -decorations of the Book, there were also a number of ingenious artists, -confusing cupids and flowers, imposing blazons, delighting in playing -with accumulated difficulties. Under this assuredly involuntary but real -direction, publications attained proportions of luxury and coquetry -until then unknown. The volume of _Baisers_ of Dorat would not have -lived but for Eisen and the delightful fancies with which he adorned it. - -At the same time, we find Choffard, another designer and etcher of much -repute, and sought after by the booksellers. Under his pencil the -vignette became a _chef-d'oeuvre_, the tailpiece was a delightful -compound of judicious and sportive ornament, the taste for which grew -more and more. From delicate foliage are suspended roses, shepherds' -pipes, lyres, and zithers. With the zephyrs scrolls or ribbons float, -carried by winged cupids. The initial letters are real pictures, of such -fineness and precision that the difficulties of their reproduction -prevent us from putting them before the reader. - -When the _fermiers généraux_, those great amateur financiers of the last -century, conceived the idea of an edition of the _Contes_ of La Fontaine -at their expense, their eyes naturally fell upon the artists best -prepared to illustrate the inimitable fancies of the great poet, Eisen -and Choffard. The first had for his task the composition of the plates, -Choffard the general decoration. Ficquet was added for the portrait of -the _bonhomme_ La Fontaine--Ficquet, whose specialty in this _genre_ was -dazzling in its delicacy and spirit; Diderot wrote a short introduction; -the composition was confided to a printer of the first order, and it was -put on sale by Barbou. - -[Illustration: Fig. 85.--Vignette by Eisen for the Quiproquo in the -Contes of La Fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers généraux.] - -It is not a book to be recommended from a moral point of view, but the -typographical art, joined to that of designers and engravers, never -obtained a more complete success: the size in octavo, the impression -clear, united with the dimensions of the plates in a harmonious -elegance, well calculated to please the three rich personages and the -joyous amateurs to whom the _Contes_ address themselves. True, Eisen has -dressed the greater part of the characters in the costume of his time, -which is a little hurtful to one's feelings to-day; it may be imagined, -however, that it was La Fontaine who was mistaken, so that these -delicate, risky tales appear to be created for the seigneurs of the time -of Louis XV. - -All the special literature sought for then by rich people had not the -value of the _Contes_. There was at Rheims a person, who has to-day -become the _mode_, as he was in the time of Louis XVI., who sold under -cover a quantity of licentious books of the better kind, adorned with -figures by Eisen, Marillier, or Cochin; this was Cazin, an artist in his -way, but whose good name suffered under a scandalous trial. An order of -the Council of State in 1764 enjoined him to cease his trade in the -Place Royale at Rheims, where he sold his particular merchandise. It -appears that the sentence was not without appeal, for we find Cazin at -Paris about 1785. He was one of those who were ruined by the Revolution, -after he had popularised the editions known as _Petits Formats_, printed -by Valade, of Paris. - -[Illustration: Fig. 86.--Card of the publisher Prault, uncle by marriage -of Moreau le Jeune.] - -We have come to the most beautiful illustrated books of the eighteenth -century, and to the illustrious artists of whom we shall speak in good -time should be added the younger Moreau and St. Aubin, the former nephew -by marriage of the publisher Prault, and therefrom a decorator of the -Book, the other thrown by Gravelot into full work, and rapidly becoming -the most subtle and adroit of the etchers of the time. Moreau did not -wait long after his marriage before setting to work. He began with -ornaments destined for the _Histoire de France_ of President Henault; -then he composed, in his own personal manner, titles and tailpieces for -his uncle. In the Book he is the propagator of garlands of roses, which -he grouped with an ideal grace; he twined them in the borders of his -frontispieces, and put them judiciously in his tailpieces. He excelled -in inventing subjects referring to the text which were not commonplace -ornaments suitable for anything. The tailpiece on p. 202, taken from the -works of Molière, brings forcibly to mind the _Médecin malgre Lui_, with -its wood-cutter unmercifully beaten with sticks and muffled in a -scientific robe. It is the same with other illustrations, that cannot -be displaced from the position assigned to them by the artist without -disappointment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 87.--Tailpiece from the _Médecin malgre Lui_, by -Moreau le Jeune.] - -The year 1773, which saw the publication by De Bret of the works of -Molière, may perhaps be considered as that in which the French Book of -the eighteenth century reached its culminating point. M. de Laborde, -first valet de chambre of the King and governor of the Louvre, published -with De Lormel, printer to the Academy of Music, his celebrated -collection of _Chansons_, dedicated to the young Dauphiness Marie -Antoinette, and partly illustrated by the younger Moreau. The work is -exquisite, of powerful yet simple grace. The sentimental note of the -century was struck in it, the insipid love of shepherdesses there -tenderly sighed, and the designer has delightfully rendered this arch -side of the pastoral song. - -Our task does not permit us to linger over the works of this prodigious -and charming artist, but we must mention his inimitable plates to J. J. -Rousseau, the finest and most agreeable of his compositions and -vignettes, also his _chef-d'oeuvre_, the _Histoire du Costume_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 88.--Vignette of the "Pardon Obtenu," designed by -Moreau le Jeune, for Laborde's _Chansons_, in 1773.] - -As evidencing the activity of French artists of the Book in the -eighteenth century, we cite the number of works illustrated by the -respective artists enumerated in the last edition of M. H. Cohen's -valuable _Guide de l'Amateur de Livres à Gravures du XVIII^e -Siècle_:-- - - Aliamet, 34. - Audran, 16. - Aveline, 33. - Baquoy, 87. - Basan, 9. - Binet, 48. - Borel, 29. - Boucher, 47. - Bovinet, 34. - Cars, 13. - Chedel, 21. - Chenu, 18. - Choffard, 50. - Cochin, 143. - Coypel, 24. - Dambrun, 77. - Delaunay, N., 95. - Delignon, 50. - Delvaux, 66. - Duclos, 49. - Duflos, 56. - Dunker, 15. - Duplessis-Bertaux, 22. - Eisen, 135. - Elluin, 14. - Fessard, E., 69. - Ficquet, 14. - Flipart, 24. - Fokke, 14. - Folkema, 17. - Fragonard, 10. - Freudeberg, 7. - Gaucher, 55. - Ghendt, 78. - Godefroy, 29. - Gravelot, 86. - Grignion, 13. - Gutenberg, 20. - Halbou, 58. - Helman, 22. - Ingouf, 18. - Langlois, 18. - Le Barbier, 54. - Le Bas, 39. - Lebran, 21. - Leclerc, 11. - Legrand, 45. - Lemire, 77. - Lempereur, 68. - Leveau, 31. - Longueil, 97. - Marillier, 116. - Martinet, 27. - Masquelier, 42. - Massard, 40. - Monnet, 67. - Monsiau, 22. - Moreau, 138. - Née, 48. - Pasquier, 18. - Patas, 65. - Pauquet, 23. - Petit, 23. - Picart, 62. - Ponce, 65. - Prévost, 40. - Prud'hon, 14. - Queverdo, 54. - Rigaud, 18. - Roger, 17. - Romanet, 26. - Rousseau, 24. - St. Aubin, 70. - Scotin, 27. - Sève, 29. - Simonet, 83. - Tardieu, 64. - Tilliard, 15. - Trière, 39. - -Doubtless some of these ascriptions are for frontispieces only, but as a -list of the principal book illustrators of the time, and as showing the -measure of their popularity, this table is of much interest. - -With the Revolution the decline of the Book arrives, as that of all the -arts. Moreau, friend of David, had become affected by the new ideas and -the burlesque renaissance of Greek and Roman art. He made his apology on -the altar of the gods, and engraved portraits on wood to punish himself -for having painted the elegancies of fallen tyrants. At this game, -nerve, as well as suppleness, was lost; and if he had had only the -artistic knack of the Revolution, his daughter, married to Charles -Vernet, could not have written of him, "That which can be most admired -is, at the same time, the fecundity and flexibility of Moreau's talent, -that marvellous facility of conceiving a picturesque scene and disposing -it in an interesting and truthful manner in the least extended space." -This was true before, but after? - -In spite of his passion for the ideas and men of the Revolution, Moreau -found himself at the end of his resources. Renouard, the publisher, -received him as he had received St. Aubin, to whom he advanced sum -after sum to prevent him dying of hunger. Like most of his -contemporaries, Moreau, pressed by want, "took, quitted, and retook the -cuirass and the hair-shirt." He had drawn for everybody: for Louis XVI., -for the Republic, for Napoleon I. - -The worst of it is that after his designs for Ovid, Molière, and -Rousseau, dating from the reign of Louis XVI., he should have done them -again in 1804, 1806, and 1808. The difference was great, even probably -for his publishers, Renouard and Dupréel. It does not appear that the -pontiff of the new school, David, knew of his distress; and Moreau -succumbed in 1814 to a cancerous scirrhus of the right arm, forgotten -and in the greatest misery. - -We have passed a little quickly to the end of the century because it is -of no importance to name each of the publishers and artists, but only to -sketch briefly their tastes or their manner. We have not dwelt long on -the engravers so called, because of their number; but their dexterity -remains proverbial; they handled etching with extreme suppleness, and -often interpreted the drawings of illustrators in remitting them to the -needle. Many of these, not to say all, made use themselves of the -etching needle, St. Aubin for example, who knew how to give to the work -of others his personal mark and distinction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 89.--Title designed by Moreau le Jeune in 1769 for -the publisher Prault.] - -The Revolution passed over some among those that it ruined, and, as -stated above, they followed the movement, and lost themselves in the -school of David. It was Duplessis-Bertaux who, after having furnished to -Cazin, the publisher, vignettes for his _Recueil des Meilleurs Contes -en Vers_, 1778, and many other books, after having worked for Didot, -devoted himself to patriotic engraving and to the reproduction of scenes -of the Revolution. When he published his _Tableaux Historiques_, in -three volumes folio, adorned with nearly two hundred large plates, it -was under the Consulate, that is to say far from the time when the work -was begun. Renouvier assures us, with his exclusive disdain for the -eighteenth century, that Duplessis-Bertaux was a mystifier, and that his -scenes of the Revolution were a hoax, "in the kind of spirit in vogue -under the Directory." The truth is that the artist, in place of being a -cheerful Callot, as might be thought from his manner of engraving, so -like that of the Lorraine artist, was imbued with the emphatic and -exaggerated impressions of the first Republic, its _sans-culottes_ in -the poses of the Sabines and its _tricoteuses_ apeing Penelope. - -The immense artistic advance made in France in the eighteenth century in -the manufacture and illustration of the Book made itself felt throughout -Europe. In Germany, Chodowiecki, born at Dantzic of a family of -apothecaries, developed his talent from ornamenting the boxes of his -father, and from 1758 to 1794 he designed numerous plates for books and -almanacs, a little heavy in engraving, but singularly clever in -composition. There were a few others also designing, and Kilian, -Folkema, and Ridinger produced some fine engravings, but the Book did -not make so much progress in Germany as in France and England. - -In England a vast improvement was manifested. Fine types were cast by -Baskerville and Caslon; printing machines were perfected. The -illustration of books by engraved plates was in the first half of the -century almost entirely done by foreigners, but an English school was -arising, which attained perfection in the latter half of the eighteenth -and first half of the nineteenth century. Wood engraving also, which, -with the exception of blocks for head and tailpieces, had become almost -a lost art, was revived by Bewick, to become later one of the chief -adornments of the Book. - -Before 1716 English printers obtained their best founts of type from -Holland, but the establishment of the Caslon foundry rendered them -independent. William Caslon, the first great English type-founder, was -born 1692, and died 1766. The foundry still exists, pre-eminent in the -beauty of its characters. Baskerville established a foundry about 1750, -and printed at Birmingham with his own types a number of extremely -beautiful books. The impetus given to fine printing by these two men -rapidly spread itself, and laid the foundation of the perfection which -English book-making reached. - -As mentioned above, Gravelot illustrated many English books in the early -part of the century. He designed a set of plates to Shakespeare in 12mo, -1740, and another in quarto, 1744, besides numerous frontispieces and -other plates in all kinds of books. Among other foreigners who engraved -for English publishers were Grignion, Kip, Van der Gucht, Houbraken, and -Bartolozzi. Bartolozzi, who was very prolific in the production of -engraved plates, may perhaps be called the founder of that great English -school of engraving which arose with the establishment of the Royal -Academy in 1769 and the encouragement given by Alderman Boydell. -Houbraken and Vertue engraved a set of fine portraits in folio for -Rapin's "History of England," 1736; William Hogarth designed plates for -Butler's "Hudibras," 1744; and among other curiosities of English -engraving before 1750 were Sturt's edition of the Common Prayer, -entirely engraved on copper plates, 1717, and an edition of Horace -entirely engraved by Pine, 1733. That the taste for illustrated books -soon grew to be great is evidenced by the publication of such expensive -works as Boydell's edition of Shakespeare, in nine volumes folio, -commenced in 1791, and adorned with a hundred plates from pictures -specially commissioned by the spirited publisher; Claude's _Liber -Veritatis_, with three hundred engravings by Richard Earlom 1777, Sir -Robert Strange's engravings of fifty historical prints about 1750, -collections of views in Great Britain by Kip, Buck, and Boydell; -Holbein's "Collection of Portraits" 1792, a hundred and fifty plates to -Shakespeare engraved by S. and E. Harding 1793, all of which cost great -sums to produce, and greatly contributed to the elevation of public -taste. Among the artists of the latter half of the century who -contributed to the decoration of the Book are Thomas Stothard, whose -very beautiful designs, extending into the next century, excelled those -of all his contemporaries in their grace and spirit; Robert Smirke, best -known by his plates for Shakespeare, "Don Quixote," and "Gil Blas;" -Burney; and Richard Westall. It may be said generally that the English -books of the eighteenth century were of a more solid character than the -French, although English art, especially in the decoration of the Book, -owes much to French initiation. It is curious to read now the opinion of -a contemporary French engraver on English art. Choffard, in the preface -to Basan's _Dictionnaire_ 1767, wrote, "They" (the English), "having -been supported by some foreign talent, are trying to create talent among -themselves; but they have not seized the flame of genius that vivifies -all art in France." - -[Illustration: Fig. 90.--Tailpiece engraved on wood by John Baptist -Papillon (before 1766).] - -However, what had become of engraving by cutting in reverse, the figure -in relief, from which printing could be done? It had, we may think, -nearly disappeared in the midst of the continued invasion of the burin -and etching. It only appeared from time to time in head and tailpieces, -remaining purely typographical and lost in other decorations. There were -always wood engravers, not very clever, capable only of working simple -lines without charm. One of them resolved to resuscitate the art, and -made various attempts about the end of the reign of Louis XIV. and -beginning of that of Louis XV. He was named John Papillon, and was born -at St. Quentin in 1661. His experiments did not go beyond a book of -prayers, with thirty-six figures in relief after Sébastien Leclerc. His -son, John Baptist, succeeded him, and continued to engrave without -ceasing subjects of ornament, letters, often tailpieces, of a good style -upon the whole, and taking an excellent place in an elaborate book. -Unfortunately, grace had fled; the processes that the practitioners -exhibited one after the other were lost; and the Papillons -reconstituted, we may say, a vanished art. John Baptist also published -in 1766 a theoretical treatise on wood engraving, abounding in -historical errors, but in which something to learn may be found if taken -with discernment. He says in his preface, "Now that excellent work is -done on copper, wood engraving is neglected, and the use lost of -designing and cutting the shadows of the pencil on the wood block; most -of those who work in it have neither design nor taste, and only follow -their own ideas; it is not astonishing that only very mediocre pieces -come from their hands, to say nothing stronger; the profound ignorance -of nearly all who meddle with it contrives more and more to destroy the -beauties of this art in which many people find neither pleasure nor -grace. To obviate all this, if it be possible to me, I have undertaken -to give my precepts and observations to those who wish to apply -themselves to my engraving." - -It was probably the essays of Papillon that provoked curious experiments -on the part of other wood engravers. Duplat, at the beginning of this -century, proposed to prepare a relief on stone, and as this would be -broken under pressure, he invented a mould; that is to say, he took a -leaden matrix from the stone cutting, and ran a resistant metal into -this mould, thus obtaining a relief similar to the stone. Renouard, the -publisher, made the trials; and the younger Moreau made the designs. -Moreau become an essayer of processes in 1811! One of the plates of La -Fontaine's _Fables_, published by Renouard in 1812, in two volumes, -12mo, is here reproduced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 91.--Experiment in engraving in relief by Moreau le -Jeune for Renouard's edition of La Fontaine's _Fables_.] - -It appears, however, that the publisher was thwarted by bad printing. -The printers of Didot or Mame, much as they consecrated all their care -to it, did not yet know perfect workmanship; they put the most intense -blacks into fine sheets. The great publishers trusted that better days -would leave to more clever men the task of perfecting the invention. - -[Illustration: Fig. 92.--Portrait of Thomas Bewick.] - -Wood engraving owes its revival and almost perfection in England to -Thomas Bewick, who published his first work in 1770, his "General -History of Quadrupeds" 1790, and his "Birds" 1797. In these works he not -only depicted his subjects with the most scrupulous fidelity, but in the -tailpieces of the several chapters he drew the most quaint, humorous, -and faithful representations of country life. He, with his brother, John -Bewick, and their pupils, among whom was Luke Clennell, had an influence -upon English art and the decoration of the Book in England which exists -to our day. Not alone with us, for he may be said to have repaid the -debt which we owed to France for her illustrated books of the eighteenth -century by stimulating the art of wood engraving, which was practised by -Tony Johannot and the other illustrators of the nineteenth century. - -To return to the eighteenth century, with which this chapter is -specially occupied, we have said that the Royal Printing House, after -various fortunes, still existed; and in 1788 it worked, for better or -for worse, at the Louvre. According to the budget of that year, it cost -the King 90,000 livres, of which the director had 1,400. - -There were, on the other hand, a certain number of official printing -offices, that of war, for example, which was devoted entirely to the -work of the Ministry. It was situated at Versailles, and was created in -1768. It is told of Louis XV. that, being one day in this workshop, he -found a pair of spectacles, left as if in inadvertence on a printed -sheet. As his sight was weakening, he took the spectacles and looked -through them. The sheet was a hyperbolical eulogium composed, as if at -random, by the director Bertier, in honour of the King. Louis XV., -having read the dithyramb, replaced the spectacles, and quietly said, -"They are too strong; they make objects too large." - -Who would believe that at the end of the century of Voltaire and -Rousseau a craftsman would be found desirous of leading back the -typographical art to its cradle, and of making xylographs again, under -the name of polytypes? A German was the original who conceived the plan. -He obtained an order of council for the establishment of his presses in -1785, but the same council suppressed them 1st November, 1787. His -process was to substitute for movable characters a plate of fixed -letters, and probably engraved. - -Another eccentricity of typography at the end of the century was the -introduction of "logography" by John Walter, the proprietor and printer -of the _Times_ newspaper, which consisted in casting whole the words in -most common use, in place of separate letters. The system had soon to be -abandoned, but the early numbers of the _Times_, which was started -January 1st, 1785, were printed on it. - -In the eighteenth century there was a printing establishment for each of -the constituted bodies; the King, the Queen, the princes, each had their -own. The royal lottery occupied a special printing house. - -The young inmates of the blind asylum worked under the direction of M. -Clousier, royal printer. Louis XVI. authorised the celebrated Haüy, -their master, to allow them to print; and in 1786 they composed an essay -on the education of the blind. Pierre François Didot was in 1785 printer -to the Prince, afterwards Louis XVIII.; and he published the _Aventures -de Télémaque_, in two quarto volumes, from this special printing office. - -The English colonies in North America early established printing there, -their first book, the "Book of Psalms," known as the Bay Psalm Book, -being dated 1640. By the middle of the eighteenth century literature -held a strong position in the colonies, the greater part of it being, as -might be expected, English; but the revolution and subsequent -establishment of the United States created a national American -literature, which has flourished to this day. Among the printers of -North America in the eighteenth century, the most famous was the -celebrated philosopher Dr. Benjamin Franklin, who served his -apprenticeship to the printing press in London. He returned to America -in 1726, and worked as a printer with his brother at Philadelphia. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE BOOK IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. - - The Didots and their improvements--The folio Racine--The school of - Didot--Fine publications in England and Germany--Literature and art - of the Restoration--Romanticism--Wood engraving--Bewick's pupils, - Clennell, etc.--The illustrators of romances--The generation of - 1840--The Book in our days in Europe and America. - - -Political imitators had not been found for the French Revolution in all -the neighbouring countries of Europe, but its Greco-Roman art -established itself, and by degrees was introduced into the studios of -painters and the printing offices. Prud'hon, Gerard, Girodet, and later -Desenne, without counting the younger Moreau and his contemporaries of -the older regime, rallied to the new study, forming a school of -illustrators and vignettists with which the publishers could resolutely -advance. England followed suit with Flaxman, West, Fuseli, Barry, and a -crowd of others. Among the publishers the powerful family of the Didots -took first rank, and its members, at once type-founders, printers, -booksellers, and _savants_ of the first order, were the best fitted to -direct an artistic and literary movement. When Napoleon crowned himself -emperor of the French, the elders of the family had already brought -about a number of perfections and discoveries in their profession by -which their workshops had profited. François Ambroise, who died in the -year of the Empire, had given an exact proportion to types, a free and -elegant turn, but perhaps too regular and precise to be agreeable. He -had also invented a press called the _presse à un coup_, in which the -impression was taken by a single pull instead of being produced by a -series of successive strikings. His brother, Pierre François, spoken of -in the preceding chapter, was a type-founder and paper-maker at Essones, -and counted among his official titles "printer to the Comte de -Provence," as François Ambroise was to the Comte d'Artois. - -Of these two branches equally faithful to typography, Pierre Didot, son -of François Ambroise, became the head on the death of his father. Born -in 1760, he had studied his art with passion, and had merited the -installation of his workshops in the Louvre, where he published a -celebrated collection known as the Louvre editions, the -_chef-d'oeuvre_ of which was the works of Racine. The splendid -execution of this book, in three large folio volumes, was a true -typographical revolution. Never in any country had scrupulous perfection -of detail been joined to so masterly a knowledge of disposition and form -of characters. The great artists of the Davidian school had the honour -of seeing their drawings reproduced as illustrations, and those named -above designed the fifty-seven plates with which the edition was -adorned. Pierre Didot displayed a great affectation in only printing two -hundred and fifty copies of his irreproachable and marvellous work, of -which a hundred had proofs of the plates before letters. Published by -subscription, the ordinary edition was issued at 1,200 francs, and with -proofs 1,800 francs. - -To these superb works Firmin Didot, his brother, added ingenious -discoveries. Struck with certain difficulties of printing as well as of -correction, he imagined the welding together of the types of a forme, -when once obtained without faults, so as to avoid the trouble of new -composition. This process, useless for books of small number, had a -capital importance in the case of reimpressions of popular and -successful works. He named this method stereotype, and from 1799 he -published a Racine in 18mo by this method; but the originality of the -method, which he was the first to call stereotype, ended with its name, -for the process had already been discovered by William Ged, a goldsmith -of Edinburgh, in 1725, the first book produced in this manner being an -edition of Sallust, printed in 1744, 8vo, "non typis mobilibus ut vulgo -fieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excudebat." - -This admirably directed house, we may indeed say this school of -typography, formed with Renouard, Claye, Rignoux, and others, the -greater number of the French publishers of the middle of the century. -When the Czar Alexander went to Paris, he wished to do honour to the -greatest French practitioners in the science of printing, in the persons -of the brothers Pierre and Firmin Didot. But these were not the only -ones. The sons of Pierre François, Henri and Pierre François II.--the -latter specially applied himself to paper-making, under the name of -Didot St. Leger--followed in the footsteps of their father and uncle. -Pierre François made at Essones an excellent paper, which he brought to -the perfection of making it in endless rolls, such as are made to-day -for rotary machines. Bernardin de St. Pierre retired to Essones about -the end of the last century, and there married the daughter of Pierre -François II. It is a curious coincidence that the same village contained -at once the man whose works at the beginning of the century had so -extraordinary a success and the great family of printers who had given -definitive impetus to typographical work. It was in this tranquil circle -that the author of "Paul and Virginia," at the age of sixty, sought -repose; that the publication of his book was resolved upon with all the -luxury due to its success, with admirable type and with plates by -Prud'hon and others. He added to it the _Chaumière Indienne_, written in -1790, on the eve of the Terror, which is one of the most delicate novels -of the time. - -The homely and sweet literature of Bernardin de St. Pierre, the heroic -inventions of Girodet, Gerard, and Chaudet in the Greek or Roman style, -the clever but severe typography of the Didots--such is the composition -of the Book at the beginning of the century, and also its avowed -tendency and good taste. Under Louis XV. the nymphs carried panniers; -Polyeucte had peruke and sword. It would be unbecoming not to give Juno -or Venus the head-dress adopted in paintings and vignettes. At the time -which now occupies us fashion in clothing directed designers also. The -hair of goddesses was _à la Titus_; the waist was under the arms; golden -circles were on the brow. Simple mortals walked naked on the roads, -with plumed casques and superb shields. There were heroes putting forth -their disproportioned arms, others raising their eyes to heaven in -impossible attitudes. Such were all the vignettes, from Girodet to the -humblest, the last, the most forgotten. - -It happens, by an oddity of which the cause is vainly sought, that this -classic and revolutionary school of David identifies itself so well with -the Napoleonic epoch, then with the people of the Restoration, that it -seems expressly made for them. At the same time, under Louis XVIII. and -Charles X. the Romans and Greeks had not the bold carriage of their -early days; they became more citizenised, and assumed the air of the -national guards of the kingdom of which later an excessive use was made. - -England also had a splendid series of publishers and printers. From -Boydell, Harding, the Murrays, Fisher; from Bulmer, Bensley, Strahan, -the Whittinghams, and Hansard, to our day, there has been an unbroken -and constantly increasing line of clever, practical men, adorning the -professions to which they devoted their energies, often realising that -fortune which properly directed energies command. In the first half of -the century a vast number of splendidly printed books were issued, -ornamented in the most lavish manner with beautiful illustrations, -engraved on steel or copper plates, and with delicate woodcuts. Book -illustration in England may be said now to have reached perfection. When -the banker-poet Samuel Rogers wished to bring out an illustrated edition -of his works, he employed the two most capable artists of the time, -Thomas Stothard and J. M. W. Turner; and they produced an admirable -series of designs, which were exquisitely engraved by Finden, Goodall, -and Pye. The work was printed by T. Davidson, in two volumes, octavo: -the "Italy" in 1830 and the "Poems" in 1834; these two volumes, from the -perfect harmony of the typography and illustration and their combined -beauty, may be referred to as the perfection of book-making. A very -charming series of volumes is found in the "Annuals," "Keepsakes," -"Amulets," and similar annual publications, illustrated with beautiful -steel plates by the best engravers. The splendidly printed and -illustrated bibliographical works of Dr. T. F. Dibdin may also be -mentioned. They extend to several volumes, and were printed by Bulmer -and his successors Nicoll and T. Bensley, illustrated by engraved plates -and woodcuts by F. C. Lewis and others. H. G. Bohn, besides the fine -series known as "Bohn's Libraries," numbering over six hundred volumes, -in every branch of literature, art, and science, published many finely -illustrated books, and as a bookseller had the largest stock of his day. -Charles Knight did marvels in popularising literature in his day. -William Pickering published a long series of very beautiful books, and -in conjunction with Charles Whittingham, printer, of the far-famed -Chiswick Press, revived the Aldine or old-faced types; one of the most -beautiful of his publications was Sir Harris Nicolas's edition of -Walton's "Angler," in two volumes, imperial octavo, with a very fine set -of steel plates, designed by Stothard and engraved by Augustus Fox and -W. J. Cooke, besides engraved vignettes and representations of fish -drawn by Inskipp. - -In Germany perhaps the most remarkable achievement of the century is the -extraordinary series of volumes of English authors, now (1887) numbering -2,500, issued by Baron Tauchnitz, of Leipzig, which, although eminently -popular in their character, are well and tastefully printed. Among the -most notable of the printing and publishing houses of Germany, many of -them combining the two trades, are J. G. Cotta, dating from 1640; -Breitkopf and Härtel, dating from 1719; Justus Perthes, founded 1796; T. -O. Weigel, 1797; F. A. Brockhaus, 1805; B. G. Teubner, 1811; W. -Drugulin, 1829; J. J. Weber, 1834, etc. Germany has advanced with -England and France in fine typography and illustration in their several -kinds. The modern school of book illustration in Germany undoubtedly has -its origin in the influence given to it by the designs of the artist -Adolph Menzel, amongst which a series of two hundred illustrations to -the works of Frederick the Great, engraved on wood by the Vogels, -Unzelman and Müller, show him to be one of the most powerful and -accurate draughtsmen of the century. - -To return to France, a new literature arose that was to react against -the Greek full of Gallicisms; but the movement, in reversing the ancient -state of things, in wishing to replace antiquity by the Middle Ages, old -Romans by old French, completely changed the physiognomy of the Book. -The engraved vignette and the copper plate of the seventeenth and -eighteenth centuries were to lose their supremacy and to give way to -etching and wood engraving, also a revival of the Middle Ages. - -[Illustration: Fig. 93.--Wood engraving by Clennell after West, for the -diploma of the Highland Society.] - -It is not sufficiently known that wood engraving, after the unfortunate -attempts of Papillon in France, was restored in England by Thomas -Bewick, who founded a school, of which, at the commencement of our -century, Clennell and the brothers Thompson were members. One of the -Thompsons went to France about the middle of the Restoration, doubtless -with the hope of profiting by his art, and he offered to the Print -Department of the National Library the diploma of the Highland Society, -a large folio wood block, very adroit and very curiously cut, after the -drawing of the celebrated Benjamin West, and copied from Clennell's -original block of the same subject. M. Duchesne, then Keeper of the -Prints, speaks of this last process as of an apparition: "This print -makes apparent the long-neglected and often reappearing art of wood -engraving, which, though it could never equal copper engraving, -nevertheless merits the attention of amateurs when a capable hand is -exercised upon it." It was, we see, a curiosity then, this relief -cutting, of which the resurrection was to give an enormous impulse to -the Book from the facilities of printing and the economies realised by -the possibility of intercalation in periodicals. In fact, metal printing -necessitated so much trouble, more for engraving than for the -impression. With wood blocks surrounded by type the ordinary press -sufficed. The _Magasin Pittoresque_, which was commenced in 1833, and -the success of which from the first was very great, was born of these -new combinations. Before it the _Messager Boiteux_ of Strasbourg and -other popular almanacs progressed very well with their illustrations on -wood. A kind of firm of engravers, at the head of which were Best and -Andrew, undertook the illustrations of the _Magasin Pittoresque_. In a -few years progress was immense, other publications came into existence, -and a definitive return was made to the vignette in relief. The French -illustrated paper preceded our _Illustrated London News_ by nine years. - -Lavish use was now made of wood engraving, which had thus been suddenly -revived in the very midst of the new romantic effervescence, amid a war -of books, which, in order to please, had above all to captivate the eye, -reacting at once against the spirit and the art of the Restoration. -Never before had artists to such an extent taken active part in a purely -literary warfare. All the fantastic tendencies of young France were -embodied in the lame and halting lines of the time and similar wretched -doggerel. Doubtless the leaders of the school did not go quite so far, -and their reputation even suffered from such theories; but, as always -happens in such cases, the disciples outstripped their masters. - -[Illustration: Fig. 94.--Vignette by Devéria for the _Fiancé de la -Tombe_.] - -The brothers Johannot were the first to join in the fray, under the flag -of the poets and others of the romantic school, such as Victor Hugo, De -Vigny, Paul Lacroix, George Sand, and Devéria, most ruthless of -illustrators. The last-named had designed vignettes on wood, of all -others, for Baour-Lormian, that is to say for the foe of the new ideas, -at once the interpreter of Ossian and the bourgeois bard, full of fire -and fury against everything in turn. The _Légendes, Ballades, et -Fabliaux_, illustrated by Devéria in 1829, although a sort of compromise -with the lovesick swains of mediæval times, did not escape the shafts of -ridicule. - -In the midst of this movement the Book became democratic; it was printed -on sugar-paper for reading-rooms and scullery maids. The generation of -romancists diffused its paper-covered works, printing a thousand copies -and selling five hundred with great difficulty. Poets publishing five -hundred were happy with a sale of two hundred and fifty. Unheard-of -titles were then needed to catch the eye, ridiculous and ghastly -frontispieces to tickle the fancy of the riffraff. Paul Lacroix called -himself the "Bibliophile Jacob," and invented surprising headpieces and -foolish designs. And then, as in the fifteenth century, as in the old -times, certain signs become popular with the reading public. In the -place of the Doctrinals, Complaints, and Disputes, so common in the -titles of those epochs, new fancies spring up and have their day. -Eccentric devices recommend romantic trash, in which the assassin's -dagger, blood, and the horrors of the tomb have replaced the insipid -fantasies of the fallen regime. Pétrus Borel, the werewolf, a sort of -historic ghoul prowling about the graveyards, enjoyed a monopoly, as it -were, of the ghastly titles and contents of this charnel-house -literature; it was for his _Champavert_, published in 1833, that Gigoux -composed a kind of Bluebeard surrounded by female skeletons, that opened -the eyes of publishers to his value as a vignettist. - -Although he threw himself soul and body into the romantic movement, the -young artist did not alone design subjects called "abracadabrants," -following the neologism of the time, any more than the booksellers only -published romances. An attempt was made, by publishing them in parts, to -still further popularise the old writers at all harmonising with the -current taste. The publisher Paulin thus issued the _Gil Blas_ of Le -Sage, with illustrations in the text by the younger Gigoux, of which the -best was hoped. The history of this celebrated enterprise has been -written by the artist himself in the curious _Causeries_ published -recently by him, fifty years after his work on Gil Blas; and this -interesting view of an epoch already far distant gives us in a few words -the ordinary economy of these popular impressions in parts. - -[Illustration: Fig. 95.--Vignette by John Gigoux for _Gil Blas_.] - -It appears that Paulin, publisher in the Rue de Seine, not being very -well off, had associated himself with a man of business named Dubochet, -who had before made an enormous fortune with gas. The two represented -fifteen thousand to twenty thousand francs, and they ordered a hundred -drawings on wood from the young artist. He set to work with precaution, -for Dubochet was hard to please, without knowing much about the -business, and fined the engravers for the least faults. Gigoux set -himself to give his compositions in simple line, without complicated -shadows, so as to allow the wood-cutters to preserve a free outline. It -was nearly the same thing as the process of the old artists of the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of Vostre and Holbein: true engraving -in relief. The success of the first sheets was extraordinary; new -vignettes were ordered from Gigoux; in place of a hundred they wanted -three hundred, then four hundred; then at the end of the work they -counted six hundred at least. Money filled the chests of the firm, but -when the artist claimed a small share of the benefits, they laughed in -his face. - -Properly speaking, it was the first serious attempt at illustration by -the recovered method of engraving in relief, but it was not the only -one. Curmer, the publisher of the Rue Richelieu, prepared a Bible in -1835 and several other volumes, among which were the "Paul and Virginia" -and the _Chaumière Indienne_ of Bernardin de St. Pierre. He had also -collected around him a circle of artists that included Wattier, Devéria, -and Meissonier, who was the most perfect and correct of the designers on -wood. Meissonier designed very soberly, without effects of light, little -scenes admirably cut by an engraver named Lavoignat, a master in the -largest sense of the word. Curmer wrote in 1835 in the preface to one of -his books, "We hope we have raised a monument to wood engraving. It is -easy to judge of the resources presented by this art. We are compelled -to have recourse to England to accomplish our work. Peace to willing -publishers!" - -[Illustration: Fig. 96.--Vignette by Daumier for the _Cholera à Paris_.] - -Curmer acknowledges the importance of English specialists in this new -process for vignettes, and the willing publishers were not wanting; they -came from all parts. He himself did not stop on the way; he continued -his work on a large scale; and Charles Blanc was able to say of him -later, as well as of Furne, "He desired to illustrate books for -everybody, as the great booksellers of the last century had illustrated -their rare editions for a small number of privileged persons." But he -did not always confine himself to wood engraving; he also employed -etching and lithography. These, requiring separate printing, did not -make intercalation with the text any easier than engraving with the -burin; but they served to illustrate periodicals, the _Charivari_ and -_L'Artiste_, as well as some books, where they replaced the engraved -plates of the preceding century. At the same time, the latter process -was not altogether neglected; about 1840 it was revived, and steel was -used in place of copper, as it better resisted repeated impressions. The -publisher Furne, while he employed wood engraving, adorned with separate -plates on steel his better publications. For him worked Raffet, one of -the romanticists enamoured of the Napoleonic epic, which he had -popularised, with Charlet and Bellangé, by the pencil, wood, and -lithography. Raffet had transferred upon wood, as if in play, the three -hundred and fifty-one vignettes of the _Histoire de Napoléon_, by De -Norvins, which would to-day suffice for the glory and reputation of many -artists. In fact, the analytical and inductive spirit of the artist led -him to leave nothing to the chances of inspiration and commonplace of -illustration. He laboriously reconstituted, fragment by fragment, the -physiognomy of the "old army;" and imbued with the perfect science of -detail, he allowed his pencil full play in bold and luminous inventions, -where may be seen again, with their peculiar appearance, the heroes of -other days, the soldiers of the Rhine and Italy, of Austerlitz and -Waterloo. - -A truly lively period was that of 1840, a living and unthinking -generation. By the side of those great artists of whom we have spoken, -and who will be more admired some day, there were the fantasists Traviès -and Daumier, who adorned the illustrated journals with innumerable -sketches, and Grandville and Gavarni, one caricaturing animals in a -celebrated book, _Les Animaux Peints par Eux-mêmes_, which is more than -a _chef-d'oeuvre_; the other coolly studying the vices and faults of -his time, with the precision of an anatomist, in _Les Anglais Peints par -Eux-mêmes_ of Labedollière, in the _Diable à Paris_, without counting a -thousand other works which his penetrating imagination produced. - -[Illustration: Fig. 97.--Vignette by Gavarni for _Paris Marié_.] - -Presently photography came, which was to reverse completely the -conditions of illustration of the Book by the numerous means of -reproduction to which it gave birth. Then wood engraving entered on a -new phase, a complete transformation of its ordinary terms, under the -influence of Gustave Doré. Little by little it had been attempted to -render in relief that which engraved plates only had hitherto done. -Black, half-tints, lowered tones, were tried where formerly a simple -line, bold and spirited, signified everything. The house of Hachette, -founded by one of the normal teachers of the liberal movement, at the -beginning of the century, was, together with Lahure, the promoter of -relief so inclusive and practical. The numerous periodicals of these -publishers spread the taste afar. England, for its part, entered on the -road, followed by America and Germany. To-day wood engravings have -reached perfection, finesse, and suppleness; but they are not, properly -speaking, engravings on wood. - -[Illustration: Fig. 98.--Balzac writing his _Contes Drôlatiques_. -Vignette by Gustave Doré.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 99.--Wood block by Bewick, from his "Fables," 1818. -The fox and the goat.] - -We have seen that French publishers were largely indebted to English -wood engravers for their blocks. The school that was established by -Bewick and his pupils made enormous progress. From the "Fables," -published in 1818, we reproduce an illustration as also a specimen from -the second volume of the "British Birds." Luke Clennell was one of the -most distinguished of Bewick's pupils; and he made some excellent -blocks, among them the illustrations to an edition of Rogers's "Poems" -(1812), engraved from pen-and-ink drawings by Thomas Stothard. It was -Stothard's opinion that wood engraving best reproduced pen-and-ink -drawings. Other pupils of Bewick were J. Jackson, John Thompson, who -engraved Harvey's beautiful illustrations to Milton and Henderson's -"History of Wines," S. Williams, Orrin Smith, Robert Branston, and C. -Nesbit. The most prolific and perhaps the most popular book-illustrator -of the century in England, was George Cruikshank, who engraved most of -his own designs on wood, steel, or with the etching needle; the -catalogue of his works by Mr. G. W. Reid, formerly keeper of the Prints -in the British Museum, occupies three quarto volumes. The designs of -"Phiz," as H. K. Browne called himself, largely contributed to the -popularity of the works of Charles Dickens; and the mere mention of -Richard Doyle and John Leech will recall the palmy days of _Punch_, -although both of these artists did excellent work in book illustration. -From the days of the Bewicks to the present wood engraving has formed -the most widely used means of illustration in England and the United -States. Its adaptability to the printing machine renders it admirably -suited to the production of books in large numbers and at low expense. -Without it we could not have our _Graphics_ and _Illustrated News_, nor -the floods of cheap but splendidly illustrated magazines which are -appearing on both sides of the Atlantic. True, many of these blocks are -due to the "processes" which photography has made available, but they -are nevertheless the outcome of wood engraving. We cannot leave this -subject without mentioning the admirable "Treatise on Wood Engraving," -by W. A. Chatto, with numerous illustrations, published originally by H. -G. Bohn in 1839 and since reprinted. - -[Illustration: Fig. 100.--Wood block from Bewick's "British Birds." The -common duck.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 101.--Wood engraving by Clennell, after Stothard, -for Rogers's Poems, 1812.] - -In our days the great Paris publishers have returned to the books of the -eighteenth century, ornamented with vignettes on copper; many of them -purely and simply imitate by photographic processes the pretty editions -of Eisen and Moreau, but they do not merit the name which they bear. As -to those whose specialty is handsome books with figures by contemporary -artists, those who always are in the front, as the Mames, Quantins, -Hachettes, Plons, Jouausts, of France; the Longmans, Murrays, -Macmillans, Kegan Pauls, Cassells, and Chattos of England; the Harpers, -Scribners, Lippincotts, and Houghtons of the United States, they are to -us what the ancients of whom we have spoken were to their -contemporaries. Now the processes of illustration are without number: -wood, metal, heliogravure, phototype, and others. And if the mechanical -means, if the heliogravures, have at present the importance claimed, -they by no means add to the intrinsic value of wood engravings, but to -the rapidity and economy of their manufacture. The Book, the true Book, -has nothing to do with all these inventions, and may well confine itself -to the burin or the relief block. - -But as regards the Book, properly so called, it never was the object of -more excessive care or of more unfortunate precipitation. It may be -remarked that works least destined to live in the libraries, those -thousands of lame pamphlets on questions of small provincial erudition -or the cap-and-sword romances, are ordinarily the best and most -carefully printed, in opposition to other more important works composed -in heads of nails and on worn-out paper. There are in reading-rooms a -good number of pamphlets that will not be found in fifty years, and will -be worth their weight in banknotes, even if dirty and tattered, on -account of their intrinsic value. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -TYPES, IMPRESSION, PAPER, INK. - - -After this summary, and necessarily very compressed, sketch of the -general history of the Book, it will not be without importance to place -some technical information before the reader, to explain as clearly as -possible the function of the presses, the practical side of typography, -from the engraving of the character and the founding of types up to the -binding, taking by the way composition, impression, and collation. Many -of these operations have been already sketched in the preceding part of -our work; we have spoken of engraving of the punch, of impression, of -the thousand details that constitute the typographic art, and the -knowledge of which is so little diffused. We return to it now, with more -method, on the different subjects, and shall try to point out the -principal features. - -We have seen in our first chapter what patient researches the discovery -necessitated for the Mayence printers in the founding of the character -in matrix. True, the punch and the matrix had existed from time -immemorial for coins and seals. To engrave in relief a punch of -material hard enough to strike a resisting metal, and to run into the -space obtained by this blow a melted alloy, which took at its extremity -the same form as the punch had given, is, in a few words, the whole -economy of the process. For the engraving of the punches a sort of burin -of tempered steel was used, which scooped out the part intended to -remain white in the letter. - -From the beginning the printers themselves engraved their own -characters. The most ancient, whose constant preoccupation was the -imitation of manuscript, copied the Gothic letter of ordinary writing. -Soon afterwards, Jenson, the French refugee at Venice, designed a round -letter, like that of Sweynheim and Pannartz, the Roman publishers, in -1467; and his type, absolutely perfect, is used to this day. - -In France the introducers of the invention in Paris also imitated the -Roman, but multiplied abbreviations until they became tedious. We can -imagine what the engraving of a character could be where so few letters -stood alone, where lines abridged the nasals; the words _pro_, _pre_, -figured as in manuscripts; the sign 9 signified _cum_ or _con_ in Latin -or French words, without reckoning a thousand other rigorous usages. -This truly perplexing profusion of signs as well as the want of -precision and clearness in the letter enables us now to recognise the -first Parisian _incunabula_.[A] - -[Footnote A: See above, figs. 10, 11, 12.] - -The first English printers used Gothic or black letter. Caxton brought -his first fount from Cologne, but that which he made afterwards for -himself was of the same character. Wynkyn de Worde, Pynson, and their -successors used the same style; and for official publications and Bibles -the black letter was used up to the seventeenth century. - -[Illustration: Fig. 102.--Type-founder in the middle of the sixteenth -century. Engraving by Jost Amman.] - -But the art of the founder-engraver was destined to specialise itself. -There were artisans in this branch, and among them in France, in the -fifteenth century, Simon de Collines, who engraved good Roman characters -about 1480. Later was Claude Garamond, of Paris, who died about 1561, a -pupil of Geoffroy Tory, the most celebrated of all of them; Tory -definitely proscribed the Gothic character, of which Vostre and Verard -had made constant use. Garamond worked in this way, producing with -microscopical precision new letters, among others those of Robert -Estienne, the most marvellous and the most distinct. It was he who was -charged by Francis I. to form the celebrated royal Greek types. He -assisted in getting up the _Champfleury_ of Geoffroy Tory. - -On his death William Lebé succeeded him, and inherited his punches. Lebé -engraved by preference Hebrew characters, of which he made a specialty. -His travels to Rome and Venice had given him a singular value in his -art; and when he died about the end of the century, he was incontestably -the first cutter of Oriental characters in the whole world. Philip II. -of Spain had begged him to engrave the letters of the Bible of which -Plantin had undertaken the impression, and Francis I. had charged him to -make types for the Estiennes. - -At the commencement of the seventeenth century we find James Sanlecque, -pupil of Lebé, and his son. During this period several women succeeded -their husbands as type-founders. In the eighteenth century Philip -Grandjean, an artist who was royal printer to Louis XIV., was keeper of -the foundry afterwards united, in 1725, to the Royal Printing House; -Fournier succeeded the Lebés, then P. S. Fournier the younger, who -engraved with great success. In our days we have seen above the Didots -themselves working their punches; and one of them, Henri, founded -microscopical characters for a La Rochefoucauld about the middle of the -nineteenth century. - -We have referred to English type-founders of the eighteenth century in -Chapter V. - -The type, or character used in printing, is a composition of lead and -pure antimony, which, melted, form a resisting and at the same time -supple mixture. Lead alone would be crushed, and the first printers -often suffered in making their experiments. The proportion of the -mixture is four of lead to one of antimony. - -The matrix is combined in such manner that the _eye_--that is to say, -the part of the character intended to produce the impression--and also -the shank intended to hold the letter are cast together. - -The letters, once founded according to their different forms, are -afterwards disposed in boxes with compartments, or "cases." These cases -serve to classify the character by letters, italics, capitals, lower -case, punctuations, accents, etc. - -As we have said, the relation of letters among themselves in the -composition of a language is called the "fount." For example, it is -certain that the Italian employs the letter _a_ more than _b_, the -letter _a_ appearing in nearly every word; a compositor to compose in -this language should therefore have more of _a_ than of _b_. The -relation between these two letters and all the others is the "fount." In -French the proportion of a fount is about 5,000 _a_ for 800 _b_, 3,000 -_c_, 3,000 _d_, 11,000 _e_, etc. The fount varies with the languages. In -English the proportion is 8,500 _a_ to 1,600 _b_, 3,000 _c_, 4,400 _d_, -etc. - -Before 1789 there were in all twenty different "bodies" of letters that -bore fantastic names. The "Parisienne" was the smallest size, and the -"Grosse Nonpareille" the largest. In the sixteenth century a character -called "Civilité" was invented. It sought to imitate fine cursive -writing. In the last century this idea was reproduced, and the "Bâtarde -Coulée," which did not have great success, was made. In English types, -Joseph Moxon in 1669 had eleven sizes; Caslon in 1734 had thirty-eight. - -[Illustration: Specimen of imposition] - -When a printer wishes to compose a work, he first decides in which body -he will print it. His choice made, he places in the compositors' -"cases"--that is, in the boxes placed before each one of his -workmen--the chosen character, with its italics, capitals, signs, etc. -Then he gives them the "copy," that is to say the manuscript of the -author to be reproduced. The compositors take a "galley" according to -the size of the book; and, letter by letter, by running their fingers -through the different cases, they place side by side the words -laboriously composed, and necessarily presenting their reverse, so that -they will show their proper face when printed. - -The composition terminated, the process of "imposition" takes place. -This is the disposition by pages in an iron chase, in such manner that -the sheet of paper shall be printed on both sides, the pages exactly -following one another. - -It will be seen by the specimen on the preceding page that if the two -sheets be brought together, page 2 of II. will fall exactly opposite -page 1 of I, page 7 opposite page 8, and so on. Nothing is easier than -this combination for folio, quarto, or octavo sizes, but as the smaller -sizes are multiplied even to 128mo, tables are necessary to prevent -error. - -The imposition is completed by building up the composition in a chase by -means of pieces of metal called "furniture," which regulate the margins. -When the whole is in proper place, it is squeezed up and adjusted by -means of sunk reglets. The chase may now be placed under the press -without fear of the characters falling out or getting mixed. - -A pressman takes a "proof" after having rubbed the relief of the -characters with ink, and on this proof are corrected the author's or -compositor's faults by indications in the margin by understood signs. By -this amended proof the compositor amends his faults one by one: leaves -out superfluous characters, puts turned characters straight, spaces or -draws closer the lines, etc. - -The corrections finished, the time has come to print. In the time of -Geoffroy Tory this operation was made as we shall explain; it was the -same before and the same after. Two pressmen have tempered with water -the tympan, or more elastic part of the carriage, against which will be -directed in good time the blow from the type; they have also damped the -paper intended for the impression, so that it may retain the greasy ink -with which the characters are charged; then the formes are washed before -putting them under the press. - -In the figure which we reproduce, which dates from about 1530, we see -the workshop of Jodocus Badius, of Asch, father-in-law of two celebrated -printers, Vascosan and Robert Estienne. The press rolls--that is to say, -the formes--have been placed in the "carriage," or movable chase, which, -coming forward, receives the sheet of paper and the ink, and returns -under the press to receive the blow of the "bar." In the room, lighted -by two windows, the compositors work. In front one works at the bar, -while his comrade distributes the ink on the "balls." These balls are -leather pads, on which the greasy ink, made of lampblack and oil, is -spread, to more easily rub the forme after each blow. Ordinarily the -inker had two functions: he prepared the ink, distributed it, and kept -his eye on the printed sheets to correct faults, blots, and difference -of tint. Here the workman is simply occupied by the balls. Printed -sheets and prepared paper are on a table by the side of the press. This -press is composed of the rolling chase, the tympan, and the "frisket," a -smaller tympan, which work against one another. The tympan, we have said -above, receives directly the blow. And it was so for nearly four -centuries; the mechanical means of our days have a little changed the -work, but the principle is always the same. - -[Illustration: Fig. 103.--Mark of Jodocus Badius of Asch, representing -the interior of a printing office about 1535. Engraving _à la croix de -Lorraine_.] - -Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a press cost about a hundred -and twenty-seven crowns, with its diverse utensils, as may be seen in an -unpublished piece analysed by Dr. Giraudet, of Tours, in a very -interesting pamphlet: _Une Association d'Imprimeurs et de Libraires de -Paris Réfugiés à Tours au XVI^e Siècle_. The workshop of Jamet Métayer, -of Tours, cost a rent of eighty-three crowns--about twenty pounds of -current money. - -Workmen were then paid by the "day;" and it came to be one of the -expressions then so much used in manual labour, corresponding to the sum -of the least work of a good workman. M. Ladevèze, printer, thought that -the "day" represented the work of about twenty thousand Roman or Cicero -letters employed by a compositor. - -With us the "day" of compositors and pressmen is differently calculated. -The latter have to take a certain number of sheets. - -The sheet, composition and press work, cost nearly seven crowns, or -nearly two pounds. Jamet Métayer paid twenty crowns for four sheets in -Italics; he demanded three months for the work. - -The primitive presses were wooden screw presses, and they so remained -until the beginning of this century, when Lord Stanhope, a celebrated -electrician, author, and politician, perfected them and gave his name to -a new machine. His improvement consisted in that the bar was no longer -fixed to the vice, but to a cylinder outside. A counter-weight brought -back the platen at each blow. Pierre Didot had previously made metal -platens. In 1820 the use of the Stanhope press commenced in France. - -England had, besides, taken a preponderating place in typographical -invention. The printer of the _Times_, John Walter, at the beginning of -the nineteenth century, seeking to publish his journal quicker, -associated himself with craftsmen who constructed mechanical presses for -him. The Didots lost no time, and themselves made improvements. - -In 1848, the presses of the _Constitutionnel_, thanks to the application -of steam, produced twenty thousand papers an hour. In our time there are -machines that print only on one side, as well as double machines, -printing both sides at once. The rotary machines, with endless paper, -take thirty-five thousand impressions an hour. In the newspaper machines -of Marinoni, the great inventor, the paper is unrolled, printed, cut, -and folded without leaving the machine, and falls into a place from -which it is taken ready for the subscriber. The latest perfection of the -printing press is the Walter press and the rotary machine of R. Hoe and -Co., of New York, extensively used throughout the world. The elaborate -book has little to do with these marvellous processes, although in its -turn it largely benefits by the improvement of the printing machine. - -It is apart from our purpose to speak at length on the manufacture of -paper. It is certain that it was well made before the invention of -printing, for most of the accounts of the fifteenth century are written -on linen paper, very resisting and well sized. Later on rags were used -in this manufacture; and here, in a few words, is how paper was made in -the mould, or "hand-made" before the invention of machinery for the -purpose:-- - -[Illustration: Fig. 104.--Paper-making. Workman engaged on the tub with -the frame of wires. Engraving by Jost Amman.] - -The rags, having been thoroughly cleansed, were put into vats, where -they were worked up under a beating press until they were reduced to -pulp. This pulp was thrown into hot water and stirred until the mixture -was uniformly made. Then a mould of fine wire cloth, fixed upon a wooden -frame, and having a "deckle" to determine the size of the sheet, was -taken; in the middle of this frame was disposed, also in brass wire, a -factory mark, intended to appear in white in the sheet of paper, and -called the "water mark." This mould was dipped into the vat of pulp and -drawn out again. After gently shaking it to and fro in a horizontal -position, the fibres of the pulp became so connected as to form one -uniform fabric; and the water escaped through the wires. The deckle was -then removed from the mould, and the sheet of paper turned off upon a -felt, in a pile with many others, a felt intervening between each sheet, -and the whole subjected to great pressure, in order to absorb the -superfluous water. After being dried and pressed without the felts, the -sheets were dipped into a tub of size and again pressed to remove -surplus size. This primitive method of paper-making is represented in -fig. 104, and the same principle is still in use for the production of -hand-made paper. Machinery has effected many improvements and economies -in the production of woven paper. - -China and Japan have their special paper manufacture. In Japan the -material employed is the bark of the _morus papifera sativa_. - -[Illustration: Balance used by Jenson, at Venice.] - -According to their fineness, size, and weight, papers have received -different names, proceeding from the water mark. - -Faust at Mayence used paper marked with a bull's head. Jenson at Venice -used a balance of which the form varied. This latter came from a mill -which furnished Vicenza, Perugia, and Rome. Jenson used, besides a -crown, a cardinal's hat. - -The bull's head underwent transformations, it had stars and roses, and -was special to Germany, and it may sometimes be found in Italy. - -The wires and bridges served to determine the size of a book. Looking at -a folio leaf against the light, the wires will be seen to be -horizontal, and the bridges vertical. In quarto they will be reversed, -the paper having been folded in four instead of in two. The bridges -become horizontal. They return to the vertical in octavo, and so on. - -As for ink, it was from the beginning a composition of lampblack and oil -of different quality and nature, mixed with resin to obtain a greater -and quicker dryness. Ink for engravings was more carefully made. For -coloured inks various powders are mixed with the oil and resin, and a -title in red and black has to go through the press twice: once for the -red and once for the black. - -From the above it can be understood that illustrations in relief can -easily be introduced into the composition, whether in combination with -text or in separate pages. Another question presents itself: Did the old -printers employ casting, or did they print directly from the wood block -itself? In other words, the block having been cut, did they make with it -a mould into which melted metal could be poured to obtain a more -resistant relief? The fact is difficult to elucidate. It appears to-day -that Simon Vostre, Verard, and others printed relief engravings on -metal, but were they cut directly or obtained by casting, as they are -now? It cannot be determined yet. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -BOOKBINDING. - - The binding of the first printed books--Ancient German - bindings--Binding in the time of Louis XII.--Italian - bindings--Aldus--Maioli--Grolier--Francis I.--Henri II. and Diane - de Poitiers--Catherine de Medicis--Henri III.--The Eves--The - "fanfares"--Louis XIII.--Le Gascon--Florimond Badier--Louis - XIV.--Morocco leathers--Cramoisy--The bindings of the time of Louis - XIV.--The regency--Pasdeloup--The - Deromes--Dubuisson--Thouvenin--Lesné--The nineteenth - century--English binders--Roger Payne--Francis Bedford. - - -Leading the reader now towards the final perfection of the Book: -printing, which had stirred up and reversed so many things, created, so -to speak, the art of binding. Previously the binder was simply a workman -sewing together the leaves of a manuscript, with no science or device -but to clasp the whole together solidly with cord and string. As luxury -increased the old binder was no longer thought of. On the wooden boards -which closed the Book, jewellers encrusted their wares, lavishing ivory -and precious stones to the taste of the amateur or the bookseller. -Generally these works covered books of precious miniatures, the -_Horoe_, or manuscripts that were deemed worthy of such magnificent -clothing, rarely copies without importance. Printing at once disordered -the tribe of copyists as well as the binders did jewellers. The demand -increasing, rich bindings were soon abandoned, and each bookseller -applied himself to the work, or at least covered in his own house books -intended for sale. The fashion was not then to expose for sale, as now, -unbound books. Purchasers wanted an article easy to handle, and which -they were not obliged to return for ulterior embellishment. - -So to the public were presented the works laboriously composed by -Gutenberg, Schoeffer, and Fust, somewhat after the manner of -manuscripts, which they pretended to imitate, with their solid wooden -boards covered with pig or calfskin. At the four corners, copper nails, -with large heads, prevented rubbing against the shelves of the bookcase, -for at that time books were ranged on their sides, and not as they are -to-day. We must return to the bibliomaniac of the "Ship of Fools" to get -an idea of these depositories; before him may be seen ranged on a desk -large folios, with nails on their sides, in the shelves, so defying the -dust, in place of being placed upright on their edges, which rendered -them liable to spots and stains. (See fig. 23.) - -Unhappily the wooden sides had in themselves a germ of destruction, the -worm, capable first of reducing the sides to powder and then ravaging -the body of the work, the ligatures and cords. Certain preparations -destroy the insect, but the precaution often has no effect, and it is -thus that the disappearance of volumes formerly so abundant, but almost -impossible to find now, may be explained. - -[Illustration: Fig. 105.--Bookbinder's shop in the sixteenth century. -Engraving by Jost Amman.] - -From the beginning the operations of the binder were what they still -are, except for improvements. They consist in the collation of the -sheets of a book, folding them, beating them to bring them together and -give them cohesion, and sewing them, first together, then on the cords -or strings, which form the five or six bands seen on the backs. -Primitively these cords were united to the wooden boards, and over both -was placed a resistant skin, on which from relief or metal engravings -were struck the most pleasing decorative subjects. Pigskin, white and -fine, lent itself, especially among the Germans, to these fine -editions; and although they were issued in great number, the wooden -boards have not permitted them all to exist in our time. - -The most ancient that we are able to cite are German works of the time -of Louis XI.; they are very strong and coarse. The cords in them form an -enormous and massive projection. The inside of the board was often -without lining of paper or stuff. In the case of fine editions a sombre -velvet was sometimes used, such as Verard used to bind the books of the -father of Francis I., as we have before said. - -Art did not enter into these works of preservation until about the end -of the fifteenth century, with arms and emblems. At the beginning of the -sixteenth century, some bindings were ornamented for Louis XII. and the -Queen, Anne de Bretagne; but not more than five or six specimens remain. -They are of coarse aspect. The workman who tooled the binding here -reproduced from the curious example of M. Dutuit, of Rouen, has thrown -his subjects one upon another. Arms, porcupines, ermines, are treated so -as to be confusing, and form a medley that is not pleasing. In recalling -the delightful borders of Vostre and Pigouchet, contemporaries of this -mediocre work, it is astonishing to see the degree of inferiority -reached by a profession that should be inspired by graceful subjects of -decoration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 106.--Binding for Louis XII. Collection of M. -Dutuit, of Rouen.] - -It happened that France again found in Italy masters capable of -revealing secrets of composition and arrangement to enable her to strike -out a new road. The Italian wars would not have had these artistic -results if it had not been for the enormous sums that they swallowed up. -The curious part of the enterprise was that a war treasurer, a -financier, employed by the French kings in these expeditions, through -his relations of taste and friendship with the Alduses of Venice, -brought to France the love of sumptuous bindings, of editions superbly -clothed. He was named Jean Grolier, that bibliophile of the sixteenth -century, who was, above all others, even King Francis, the first to -appreciate the art of binding. It is not too much to say art, for if -better had not been done before, it may safely be said that nothing -better has been done since; and the books of Grolier remain as the most -perfect and most admirable types of this kind of decoration. - -Born of an Italian family established at Lyons, where most of his -relatives did a great business, Jean Grolier had the good fortune to -succeed his father, Stephen Grolier, treasurer of the Duke of Milan. He -became in his turn Minister of Finances, and was called to accompany the -kings in their expeditions in Italy. The situation of the treasurers -during these campaigns was important; they handled the pence levied with -great trouble in the cities of France "for making war." Many abused -their trust, and were punished, and among others the Lallemants, whom -documents show us to have been in connection with Grolier, and who -suffered, with Semblançay, the most terrible trials of the time. - -Italian art gave then a free course in the decoration of books. Of the -interior we have spoken in our first chapters on the wood engravings; -for the exterior, the cover of the volume, foliage, golden flowers -worked with a hot iron, and polychromatic compartments obtained by -coloured pastes were multiplied. Thus was produced on the outside that -which it was not sought to obtain on the inside, the variation of tints -so select among the Italians, and so forsaken since the invention of -printing. In the midst of these literary men was a lover of books and -fine connoisseur who, not content with choosing the best editions, such -as those of Ferrara, Venice, and Basle, bound them superbly, with -compartments of admirable tone, and had his name and device inscribed on -the sides in the fashion of the time. He was named Thomas Maioli, and -following the custom of the amateurs of the time, he offered the -enjoyment of his library to his friends. "Tho. Maioli et amicorum," he -inscribed, as did later Grolier, as also did others, but he somewhat -modified the enthusiasm of his friendship by a sceptical device, -"Ingratis servire nephas," which might very well be the cry of the owner -of books betrayed by his borrowers. - -Maioli did not alone use these devices; he had also a macaronic phrase -of which the sense is not very clear: "Inimici mei mea michi, non me -michi." He also sometimes used his monogram, which was composed of all -the letters of his name. - -The relations of Grolier with this unknown and mysterious bibliophile, -whose name is not always found outside his volumes, are not doubtful. -Brunet possessed a volume that had belonged to Maioli and had passed -through the hands of Grolier. What better proof could be wished of the -communion of ideas and tastes between the two collectors? - -But these amateurs were not alone. Beside them were princes and great -lords, lay and ecclesiastic. From the commencement of the sixteenth -century bookbinding had received an enormous impulse from the tastes and -the predilections for these lofty fancies. And it cannot be ascribed to -the simple skill of the workmen experimenting in that line. In the -century that saw Italian artists occupied in making designs for mounted -plates and painting beautiful ladies, the courtesans of Venice could not -be alarmed at finding them painting models for bindings, with -compartments of varied tone and style. Maioli affected white on a dark -background, that is to say on a background of dark leather. He made -scrolls of foliage in white or clear paste with a very happy effect. - -This was the time when Grolier travelled in Italy, in the suite of the -French, and when he began his collections. He had adopted as his -heraldic emblem the gooseberry bush, which in French came very near to -his name--_groseillier_; and his motto was "Nec herba nec arbor" -("Neither tree nor herb"), explicative of the moderation of his wealth. -He was soon in connection with the Alduses, and through them with the -principal learned men and binders of the time, for it was not in the -offices of the Manutiuses that could be found workmen, like those of the -Chamber of Accounts in France, obliged to swear that they did not know -how to read. The master was not hindered by details of difference of -language, and it followed that his workmen understood Greek and Latin, -for he often gave them instruction in those languages. How far off these -erudite and conscientious workmen appear to-day! - -Following the fashion, Grolier put his name on the upper side of his -books--"Jo. Grolierii et amicorum"--in gold letters, and on the other -side a pious motto, the sense of which was a hope often uttered by the -financiers of the sixteenth century, imprisoned and hung every instant: -"Portio mea, Domine, sit in terra viventium." Generally all the Grolier -books which came from the Alduses have the name on the upper side and -the motto on the other side; the title was placed above the name, and -often disposed in rows. Some large volumes had the cover ornamented with -an architectural design, like the Jamblichus of the Libri collection, -which had on the front the façade of a temple, with the title in rows on -the door. This volume was printed by Aldus in 1516, and probably -decorated by him for the account of the great French amateur. - -Jean Grolier is said to have himself designed some of the subjects of -his ornaments, and their perfection indicates an active and enlightened -supervision. On his return to France, where he had a house near the -Porte de Bucy, he was put in relation with Geoffroy Tory, the artist -best fitted to understand him, and who was at once painter, engraver, -printer, and binder. It was there that, in the leisure of his financial -functions, between two projects of revictualling the forts of Outre -Seine and Yonne, Grolier invented combinations, sought interlacings, and -laid out foliage. Tory himself teaches us these works in combination. He -invented antique letters for Grolier, he tells us in his _Champfleury_. -It was for him, too, that he interwove so finely his compartments for -binding, and that he reproduced the delightful ornaments of his books of -hours in golden scrolls. - -As we have said, Grolier placed his titles on the sides of his books on -account of the arrangement of the works on the shelves of the library -where they were laid. For this reason also the back was neglected, and -no ornament used upon it; thick and heavy with its projecting bands, -without decoration between the bands, this part of the bound volume was -a kind of waste in a splendidly cultivated garden. The profusion of -books brought about a revolution. There was no longer room to place on -their sides the innumerable books that were produced; they were then -placed on their edges, as now, and the back also was decorated. For this -the bands were made to disappear, and replaced by decorative subjects in -compartments like the sides. Then with Grolier the bands reappeared, and -the title was placed between them, as it still is. - -The books of Grolier have been divided, according to their production, -in four or five principal classes, in which they may always be placed. -First were the works ornamented in compartments, gilt, with scrolls in -full gold; then the same with the scrolls _azurés_, that is to say -equally gilt, but having parallel lines like the _azure_ of heraldry. -Following comes the school of Geoffroy Tory, with gilt compartments in -the style of the great French decorator; last the polychromatic -bindings, in which, by the aid of colour or mastic, the alternating -tones are mixed. Grolier also had some mosaic bindings, composed of -little pieces of leather connected by incrustation or paste, pure -Italian bindings; but these were not numerous, especially if compared -with those conceived in the manner of Geoffroy Tory. - -One of these latter works is here reproduced from one of the beautiful -books in the collection of M. Dutuit. This copy has the back flat, and -the interlacings of the decoration are most complicated and clever. - -[Illustration: Fig. 107.--Binding for Grolier in the collection of M. -Dutuit.] - -Grolier got his Levant moroccos through the dealers of Venice, to make -sure of the material he employed. - -Born in 1479, the Treasurer-general of Outre Seine lived until 1565. In -1563 an original manuscript shows him much occupied with finance at over -eighty-four years of age; but his passion for bindings had cooled down, -for few books signed with his name are found the manufacture of which -could descend to the son of Henri II. After great trials, after having -seen Semblançay suffer at Montfaucon, John Lallemand beheaded, and -himself having come nearly to losing life and fortune at one blow, -Grolier passed away quietly in his house, having collected most of the -fine books of the time and many curious medals. Christopher de Thou, his -friend and _confrère_ in the love of books, had saved his reputation -before the Parliament of Paris. After his death his library was -transported to the Hotel de Vic, and from there dispersed in 1675, a -hundred years after. - -Thus from Italian art came French binding, still remaining original. The -kings did not fail to follow the movement, and even to anticipate it, -thanks to the means at their disposal. We have seen Francis I. at work -with the energy of an artisan at least; but Geoffroy Tory was his -principal inspirer, and who knows but that he was the chief operative -for the prince, as for the great financier? - -[Illustration: Fig. 108.--Binding for Francis I., with the arms of -France and the salamander.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 109.--Mark of Guyot Marchant, printer and -bookbinder. He published the _Danse Macabre_ of 1485.] - -We have said that Louis XII. knew nothing of fine bindings. During his -travels in Italy he had received presentation copies of magnificently -covered books, and among others that of _Faustus Andrelinus_, that was -bound in calf in honour of the King. He, who was so little expert in -fine arts, purchased the entire library of the Sire de la Gruthuse, -and substituted his own emblems for those of the high and mighty lord. -Francis I., with innate sentiment for masterpieces and the powerful -protection he had given them, did not allow the experiments of Grolier -to pass unnoticed. The King did not desire to be behind the treasurer, -and the workmen were put to the task. He adopted the salamander, which -emblem he used on his castles and furniture and the liveries of his -people; he lavished it also on the sides of his books. On the side the -"F" is often seen crowned, then the emblem of France and the collar of -St. Michael. In the binding of which a facsimile is here given, Geoffroy -Tory has singularly inspired the gilder, if he did not himself make the -design. For it must not be thought that this work is done at a single -blow by means of an engraved plate or a block. On the contrary, every -line is impressed by the hot tool that the workman applies by hand to -the gold laid on in advance, making it, so to speak, enter into the skin -or morocco. There is the art; blocks serve only for commercial bindings, -quickly impressed and intended for ordinary purchasers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 110.--Binding for Henri II., with the "H" and -crescents.] - -Under the reign of Francis I. the binders were the booksellers, as -Verard and Vostre were. The King was ordinarily served by a publisher -named Pierre Roffet, and he frequently figures in accounts that have -been preserved. Roffet not only bound, but it appears that he rebound -books to patterns which the King desired. Philip Lenoir and Guyot -Marchant were also royal workmen. The latter, whose mark is here -reproduced, frequently added to it the saints Crispin and Crispinian, -patrons of the leather-dressers, who prepared the leather for the -binder. - -[Illustration: Fig. 111.--Binding for Henri II. (Mazarine Library)] - -The discoveries of Grolier did not allow the binders much time to be -idle. Thousands of volumes were then destroyed to make the boards for -sides. From this many discoveries are made in our days by pulling to -pieces sixteenth century work, unknown playing cards, and early printed -works. To mention only one example, twenty leaves of the "Perspective" -of Viator were discovered in the National Library of Paris. The board -thus formed was covered indifferently with sheepskin, parchment, calf, -morocco, or goatskin; the books were sewn on raised or sunk bands, -according to the owner's taste; the edges were gilt, sometimes -gauffered, and designs often impressed upon them to match those of the -sides. In large folios wooden boards were still used, more solid, and -protected from rubbing by nails in relief. But the inside of the cover -was as yet only covered with paper. Leather linings were very uncommon. - -The reign of Henri II. increased yet more the importance of bindings; it -was the time when Grolier collected, and clever artists came from all -parts. Geoffroy Tory had given the best models for letters and -interlacings. The Queen, Catherine, derived from her parents the taste -for decoration in gold and colours, and patronised the artists called by -her from the court of Florence; and the favourite, Diane de Poitiers, -Duchess of Valentinois, rivalled her in luxury and expenditure. Henri -II. in the decoration of his castles, as well as his books, introduced -equivocal emblems, of which the signification may be doubtful, but those -of his mistress may be recognised, not those of the legitimate Queen. He -interlaced two reversed "D's" by an "H," in the form shown in the border -on the preceding page. Strictly speaking, we ought to see there two -"C's" back to back; but as we find the "D" on all the bindings -displaying the arms of Diana, there can be no doubt, and Queen Catherine -doubted less than anybody. Other emblems of Diana are to be found in the -arcs and crescents that are plentifully displayed. The library of Diana -was large, owing to the King not hesitating to take valuable books from -the public collections for her. Two centuries after her death it was -dispersed, and the greater part of the books belonging to the national -collections were restored on the deaths of those who then purchased -them. Hence the largest number of the bindings of Henri II. and Diana of -Poitiers will be found in the National Library of Paris. - -[Illustration: Fig. 112.--Italian binding for Catherine de Medicis, with -the initials "C. C."] - -Queen Catherine also had special patterns with a monogram identical with -the double "D" mentioned above, but the branches of the "C" were a -little longer than the branches of the "H;" she also used a "K" on the -sides of her books. The specimen which we reproduce is a purely Italian -work. - -From kings and queens the fashion passed to the great lords, it having -come to the kings and queens from a private individual. The Constable -Anne de Montmorency adorned his bindings with a cross and spread -eagle. Among the amateurs of binding of the sixteenth, seventeenth, -and eighteenth centuries using distinctive marks, we may mention -Philip Desportes, the poet, who used two [phi] enlaced, as did also -Superintendent Fouquet in the seventeenth century. The brothers Dupuy -adopted the double [delta], arranged as a star. Colbert had a curled -snake (_coluber_ for Colbert!), the Gondis two masses of arms, Madame -de Pompadour three towers, etc. Fouquet beside the [phi] used a -squirrel on some of his bindings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 113.--Binding with the arms of Mansfeldt, with -_azure_ scroll work, from the Didot collection.] - -In Germany, Count Mansfeldt adopted the ornamental style with arms, of -which a specimen is here given; and Marc Laurin de Watervliet also -decorated and dedicated his books to his friends, using the motto -"Virtus in arduo." Among the lords of the French courts who favoured -polychromatic ornament and bold compositions were the young Valois, -Louis de Sainte Maure, Marquis of Nesle, and Henri de Guise, called -"Le balafré." Charles IX. had his emblems and devices, the double "C" -crowned the legend "Pietate et justitia," but his brother, Henri III., -loved the decoration of books more than he did. The passion of the King -for miniatures which he cut out of books is known; this passion for -golden things he repeated on bindings, for which he chose special -designs. Henri III. was an amateur of dances of death; he visited -cemeteries, attended funerals, and took a death's-head for his emblem. -This emblem was not his invention; long before him Marot had addressed -an epigram to a lady in which he brought love and death into close -conjunction. However that may be, the King chose skeletons and -penitents' tears to ornament his books. He also tolerated diamonds, -although he absolutely prohibited them in the clothing of ladies or -fixed the number _pro rata_ with the rank of the authorised person. -There was in this prince a singular mixture of taste and artistic -acuteness by the side of a mania or hallucination which was reflected on -the most intimate objects of his apparel or of his furniture. Thus if we -find, at the end of the sixteenth century, a death's-head on the sides -or the back of a volume, the binding is of the period of Henri III. - -The binders of his time are known by the mention that is made of them in -the royal accounts; the Eves were the most celebrated among all of them. -Nicholas Eve was charged with the binding of the Statutes of the Order -of St. Esprit, with which the King gratified his friends. Mention of -this work is found in the Clairambault manuscripts, where we read, "To -Nicholas Eve, washer and binder of books and bookseller to the King, -forty-seven and a half escus for washing, gilding, and squaring the -edges of forty-two books of statutes and ordinances of the Order, bound -and covered with orange Levant morocco, enriched on one side with the -arms of the King, fully gilt, and on the other of France and Poland, -with monograms at the four corners, and the rest flames, with orange and -blue ribbons," etc. - -[Illustration: Fig. 114.--Sixteenth century binding, called _à la -fanfare_. In the Dutuit collection.] - -Louise de Lorraine, wife of Henri III., counted for little in the life -of her husband; nevertheless she had a certain number of books decorated -with their united escutcheons. - -The bindings attributed to Eve were decorated all over the sides and -back with interlacing patterns of geometrical character, the spaces -between the parallel lines and in the middle of the figures left at -first quite blank, but afterwards filled in with palm branches and -wreaths of foliage; to these delicate and elaborate yet brilliant -toolings have been given the name of bindings _à la fanfare_. This -designation requires explanation, and is a good example of the grotesque -style adopted by modern amateurs in their appellations. - -[Illustration: Fig. 115.--Le Gascon binding.] - -The fine work of that time prepared for the coming in the seventeenth -century--about 1620--of the works of Le Gascon, or at least for the -artist with whom in our days are connected the works of the reign of -Louis XIII. Under Henri IV. the fleur-de-lys occupied most of the covers -of the royal books, from vellum to Levant morocco; works in this class -had nothing very remarkable. The first years of Louis XIII. revealed a -new process, inspired by the Eves. Le Gascon embroidered delightfully on -the fanfare ornaments; showing the fibres of the leaves, he made a new -kind of ornament, consisting of minute gold dots elaborated into lines -and curves of singular brilliancy and elegance. Of this style, called -_pointillé_, we give a specimen from the collection of M. Dutuit. The -fashion had arrived all at once; lace, banished from clothing by severe -edicts, found a refuge on the covering of books. - -The times were hard then for binders; they were constrained to live in -the university and to employ only its workmen. A binder was never his -own gilder; he employed the _gaufreurs_ of shoe-leather, more expert and -bolder, to gild his leather. Among these artisans was one named -Pigorreau, whom the edict found living in the midst of publishers and -working for them; he was compelled to choose either to remain bootmaker -or become bookseller; he chose the latter, against the syndics of the -trade, against every one, and he made enemies for himself. He revenged -himself by turning the masters into ridicule in a placard. - -[Illustration: Fig. 116.--Le Gascon binding for Cardinal Mazarin.] - -Le Gascon was probably the assumed name of an artist in this style. The -_Guirlande de Julie_, worked by him for Mademoiselle de Rambouillet, -gave him great honour in the special circle of this little literary -court. It was the fashion then for poor authors to put a fine covering -on their works and to offer them to the great for their own profit. -Tallement des Reaux notably signalises the poet Laserre, who displayed -his luxury in irreproachable bindings. And then the farmers of the -revenue, successors of Grolier in financial trusts, formed libraries for -pure fashion, never opening the volumes covered for them in sumptuous -attire. If we may believe Sauval, author of the _Antiquités de Paris_, -they went further, and on covers without books inscribed imaginary -titles and fantastic squibs to mislead their visitors. The bookcase -being carefully closed, it was difficult to discover the imposition. -Sauval writes, "In place of books, they are content with covers of -Levant morocco, on the backs of which, in gold letters, are inscribed -the names of the most celebrated authors. A binder of the university -assured me that not long since he and his _confrères_ had made them for -a single financier to the amount of 10,000 crowns!" - -The works of Le Gascon will be found more among great personages than -with the so-called collectors, which gives value to their grace and -charm. The King's brother Gaston possessed them, then Mazarin, an -example from whose library is here reproduced. On this binding Le Gascon -worked gilt compartments and elaborate arabesques; in the middle of the -sides are the arms of the Cardinal and his pretentious device: "Arma -Julii ornant Franciam!"--"The arms of Jules the ornament of France!" In -spite of the profusion of subjects, nothing could better please the eye -or indicate a man of taste. - -But if Le Gascon be a legendary personage, he had an imitator or rival, -very near to him, named Florimond Badier, whose works had at least the -advantage of being signed. At the bottom of the inside cover of an -inlaid morocco binding in the National Library at Paris is the -inscription "Florimond Badier fec., inv." The analogy between this work -and those known as Le Gascon's is palpable; inside and outside, the -cover is stippled with small tools (_au petit fer_) in the same manner. -Florimond Badier was not appointed bookseller until 1645, and so could -not have composed earlier bindings attributed to Le Gascon, but this -resemblance of style evidences the existence of a Parisian school, the -adepts of which copied one another, as they do nowadays. - -The work was soon simplified; pallets and wheel-shaped tools were -invented to produce that which was improperly called _dentelle_; this -mechanical work was done by a wheel-shaped tool, previously heated, on -gold in sized leaves, on which it impressed its projections. - -With Louis XIV. the passion for gilding increased. Charming festoons -were designed, but they were soon abused, and inundated the libraries. -On the sides were seen rising suns, arms, and golden garlands. Cramoisy -directed the royal bindings, the King having devoted large sums to the -purchase of Levant leathers. In 1666 the Director of Works ordered red -moroccos; in 1667 he received twenty-two dozen skins, amounting, with -the expenses of transport, to 1,020 livres tournois. Successive supplies -were made, and were used for the royal library, sixty-nine dozen in -1667, forty-six dozen in 1668, and three hundred and thirty-three dozen -in 1670, costing the King more than 12,000 livres. On these admirably -dressed skins, which, in spite of incessant use, still remain now as in -their first days, the King caused to be applied, according to the size, -tools of borders, having in the middle the arms of France, with the -collar of St. Esprit. - -Among the binders mentioned in the very useful work of M. J. J. Guiffrey -on the expenditure of Louis XIV., we find Gilles Dubois, who died before -1670; Levasseur, binder of Huet, Bishop of Avranches; La Tour, Mérins or -Mérius, who died before 1676; and also Ruette, the reputed inventor of -marbled paper for fly-leaves of books: to him the bindings of the -Chancellor de Séguier, with their ornament of the golden fleece, and of -Madame de Séguier, are attributed. It was probably these men who -decorated the books of the brothers Dupuy, Fouquet, and Colbert, -marvellous works of solidity, if not always of elegance, which have -resisted all assaults. Unhappily, in many instances the mechanical -_dentelle_ overburdened the work, and gave it a commonplace regularity. -In the Condé, Colbert, and perhaps even Madame de Longueville's -collections, there are many specimens of this kind with two or three -filleted borders. - -We have come to an epoch when the difficulties resulting from confusion -between the booksellers' and binders' trades began to be understood. The -revocation of the Edict of Nantes had implicitly prepared a crowd of -measures and rules in all branches of national industry. It was a good -occasion to prevent the artisans of binding unduly parading themselves -as booksellers and selling merchandise of which they understood nothing; -Louis XIV. interfered, and separated the two communities. The binders -then became the _relieurs-doreurs_ of books; they had their own -organisation, but remained subject to the university; the heads of the -fraternity were called the "guards." The principal arrangements of the -regulation of 1749 were: the members of the corporation had the sole -right to bind books, from the elegant volume to registers of blank -paper. Five years of apprenticeship and three of companionship were -necessary to obtain the brevet of freedom and to hold a shop. Moreover, -it was indispensable to read and write. One regulation ordained that -the workman should be "able to bind and ornament ordinary books or -others, to render them perfect and entire, to sew the sheets at most two -together with thread and real bands, with joints of parchment, and not -paper, and in case of infraction the said books were to be remade at the -expense of the offender, who was besides condemned to a penalty of -thirty livres for each volume." Their establishment was confined to the -quarter from the Rue St. André des Arts to the Place Maubert; they -regulated the sale of calfskin and of tools; in a word, they were -surrounded by precautions by which the production remained always under -the supervision of the masters and completely satisfied the client. This -calculating policy was, in fact, a close imitation of the royal -ordinance of 1686. - -[Illustration: Fig. 117.--Mosaic binding of the eighteenth century for -the _Spaccio de la Bestia Trionfante_.] - -The mosaic bindings used from the end of the reign of Louis XIV. were an -application of pared leathers of colours different from the background, -pasted on to the side. The binders of the regency composed a great -number, attributed now to Pasdeloup, as all the crayons of the sixteenth -century are called Clouets, and all the panels on wood Holbeins. It is -not that there was great originality in these works, or a particular -art; more often the workman did no more than transcribe Le Gascon or Eve -or the older binders, and accommodated the processes of these artists to -the fashion of his time. In this style we may cite the _Spaccio de la -Bestia Trionfante_, printed at Paris 1584, for which the binder designed -a cover of doubtful taste and, above all, an undeniable want of -proportion. The tendency was then to flowers occupying three-fourths -of the page, to compartments too large, to open pomegranates, like the -_Spaccio_ here reproduced. If Pasdeloup had discovered these mediocre -combinations, he could not be proclaimed the regenerator of a fallen -art. The bastard style of these works may be compared to their mosaics, -constructed of pieces; it is a little of everything, and together it is -nothing. However, in the midst of the quantity of mediocre things, some -pleasing decoration is from time to time met with; the design of a -volume with the arms of the Regent and his wife, Mademoiselle de Blois, -wants neither elegance nor taste; without being perfection, it has -better proportion and balance. - -[Illustration: Fig. 118.--Mosaic binding of the eighteenth century, with -the arms of the Regent. M. Morgand's collection.] - -We should, however, hesitate to give names to all these works. Besides -Pasdeloup, there were the Deromes, abandoning a little the mosaics, -devising flowers and _dentelles_ in combination, and no longer the -simple products of the fillet. They formed a dynasty; and if the -Pasdeloups were at least twelve, there were fourteen Deromes all -booksellers and binders from the reign of Louis XIV. The most celebrated -was James Anthony, who died in 1761. - -Peter Paul Dubuisson was not only a binder; he was a designer. He -invented heraldic ornaments, and composed models of gilding tools, in -which his contemporaries emulated him. He was intimate with the delicate -vignettist Eisen, and the counsels of an artist of this value could not -but be useful to him. It is an extraordinary thing that in this world of -celebrated printers, amateur financiers, and notable painters and -engravers, not a single man can be met to give a real impulse to the -art of which we speak, and to prevent the dull continuance of -experiments on the whole so poor. Doubtless the _dentelles_ of Derome -had a certain air of gaiety, to which the books of the eighteenth -century accommodated themselves perfectly; the tools of Dubuisson -produce most pleasing designs; but the old, the great binders, had -altogether disappeared. - -Besides, Derome massacred without pity the rarest works. He loved edges -very regularly cut, and he did not fail to hew down margins opposed to -his taste. He sawed books as well; that is to say, in place of sewing -the sheets on to projecting bands, he made a groove in the back, in -which the cord was embedded. The books have no resistance. - -To these celebrated names of French binders of the eighteenth century we -may add Le Monnier, who worked for the Orleans princes; Tessier, his -successor; Laferté, who decorated the small volumes of the Duc de la -Vallière as Chamot covered the large ones; in 1766 Chamot was royal -binder. There was also Pierre Engerrand, then Biziaux, an original, who -worked for Madame de Pompadour and Beaumarchais. Boyet, or Boyer, worked -(1670-80) in the style of Le Gascon, with the same minute tooling, but -simpler in character. Duseuil put very elaborate and delicate tooling on -his covers from about 1710 to 1720. - -The Revolution effaced many of the fine works which displayed the -symbols "of a royalty justly detested," and Mercier wrote certain wicked -little poems against binding. Lesné was the poet of bookbinding, and he -invented the process of plain calf without boards. Certainly from -Grolier to Lesné there were numerous changes, so numerous that, in -spite of the nude calf, it may be said that the art was nearly dead. In -our days it has a little recovered. Amateurs have found new names, and -often artists, to patronise: Trautz-Bauzonnet, Capé, Duru, Lortic, -Marius Michel, in France; Bedford, Rivière, Zaehnsdorf, Pratt, in -England; Matthews, Bradstreet, Smith, in the United States; and many -others. Unhappily, fortune does not permit every one to furnish his -library luxuriously; the true connoisseur searches rather for Groliers, -Eves, and Le Gascons, than concerns himself about modern workmanship. -Whatever may be its value, it is only fit to clothe the works of the -time. A book published by Lemerre and bound by Petit is in true -character, but a fifteenth or sixteenth century book passed under the -hands of Trautz-Bauzonnet himself will be very much like an ancient -enamel in a modern frame newly gilt. - -Bookbinding in England has, with very few exceptions, never attained the -artistic excellence reached in France. From the earliest times to the -present day servile imitations of foreign work only are seen. The one -purely original English binder is Roger Payne, who from about 1770 -worked for thirty or forty years in London, performing with his own -hands every stage of the work, even to cutting his own tools. The result -was good, solid work, with perfectly original and often very beautiful -decoration, appropriate to the character of the work itself. His -favourite style was drooping lines of leaf ornaments in the borders and -geometrical patterns in small tools. After him came Charles Lewis, who -was an artist in the true sense of the word, and, coming down to our own -time, Francis Bedford, who, never pretending to originality, copied the -best designs of the old French and Italian binders. His full calf books, -with handsomely tooled backs, are models of solidity and taste; and his -decorations on the sides of morocco-bound books are always in good -taste, and often of great elegance. The binders of the present day, -perhaps for lack of patronage, seem to have abandoned originality; and -although much excellent work is done, it is no more than a copy of the -Eves, Le Gascon, Derome, and the older artists. - -Parallel with the luxurious bindings with which we have been exclusively -occupied, there has always been the commercial work, prepared in -advance. Liturgical works, above all, are sold in this form. Books in -the Grolier style or other grand personages were worked from a pattern -engraved in relief, leaving nothing to the caprice of the artist, by -being applied to the side by a press. This process is termed blocking. -Germany made use of this process principally; also Vostre, Verard, and -Tory employed the same means. Even the interlacings and the capricious -arabesques of Grolier were imitated by means of a fixed plate, parts of -which were finished by hand to make it appear a complete work of -imagination and handicraft. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -LIBRARIES. - - -Art, science, and literature took refuge in convents before the -invention of Printing, and libraries did not count many books. According -to daily wants, the monastery scribes copied the treatises lent by -neighbouring houses, and the collection was thus painfully made during -many centuries. Two or three hundred works constituted ordinary -collections; the powerful abbeys found in their staff the means of -enriching their libraries, as we have said, but they were the privileged -ones. - -Excepting kings and some princes, few people possessed a library. The -great expense of transcription, the want of facility for procuring -originals, and the enormous price of manuscripts left no hope to -bibliophiles of moderate fortune. Typography, on the contrary, having -multiplied books and put at relatively modest prices reproductions -formerly inaccessible, private collections commenced. We have had -occasion to speak before of Grolier and Maioli; they were the most -illustrious, but not the only ones. - -At first a public library was an unknown thing. The richest and the most -easily got together, that of the King of France, was private. Since -John the Good in France the acquisitions were numerous, and Gutenberg's -invention contributed to augment the stock of volumes everywhere. -Charles VIII. and Louis XII. found or took in their expeditions in -Italy, and were able to add to the original nucleus, many rare editions, -especially from the Sforzas at Pavia, who had marvels without number. -Brought together at Blois, under the care of John de Labarre, the royal -library did not yet occupy a very large space, in spite of its increase. -Under Charles V. the number of books was about a thousand; about 1500 or -1510 they were nearly doubled, and the printed books did not number more -than two hundred. - -So restricted, the royal library travelled with the other treasures of -the Crown; Francis I. transported it from Blois to Fontainebleau, and -even parts of it to the Italian wars, as related above. In its new -quarters the royal collection, in spite of the successive accessions of -the books of John d'Angoulême, grandfather of the King, and of those of -the dukes of Orleans, counted but 1,781 manuscripts and a hundred and -nine printed books on the shelves. The King, ambitious in literature no -less than in arts, nominated an illustrious _savant_, Guillaume Budé, to -the office of master of his library; and this qualification was -maintained by his successors until the fall of the royal power. - -With Budé commenced the system of continuous acquisitions. The treasury -was liberally opened to vendors of rarities. At this time the books, -placed upon their sides, one upon another, gave no idea of a modern -library, with its volumes ranged on end, having their titles between -the bands of the back. In speaking of Grolier, we remarked that the -sides of a binding alone had importance on account of their place on the -shelves; it was the same with Francis I. - -Under Henri II. the Fontainebleau collection was somewhat pillaged for -Diana of Poitiers, but, as a corrective for this dilapidation, the King -adopted a measure, since preserved, which substituted for acquisitions a -regular and uninterrupted supply; this was the contribution by -publishers to the library of one bound copy on vellum of all the works -printed under privilege. The ordinance was made in 1556; the successors -of Henri II. had only this means of increasing the number of their -volumes, with the exception that Charles IX. expended a large sum in the -purchase of Grolier's collection of medals. - -Such was the working of the royal library for about a half-century, but -the idea of making it public had not come. Diffused as was then the -passion for books, it had not yet been democratised to the point of -being understood by the people. Amateurs and lovers of reading formed -special collections in their houses, at times rivalling that of the -King. Then the fashion was no more to lay the books on their sides, but -they were now ranged to allow room for new acquisitions. Henri IV., who -had not his great-uncle's predilection for Fontainebleau, commanded the -removal to Paris of the books buried in the castle. He added to them -those of Catherine de Medicis coming from Marshal Strozzi; and as the -college of Clermont had become vacant by the dispersion of the Jesuits, -he lodged the library in 1599 in one of the rooms of that -establishment, under the care of James Augustus de Thou, master of the -library. - -We now see the royal collection brought to Paris, which it has never -quitted; but before its definitive installation, before it was made -public, it passed through a century, during which additions were made, -purchases increased, and the number of manuscripts and printed books -augmented in enormous proportions. Henri IV. desired to place it near -the court, to avoid pillage and to have the chief librarian near to him. -The return of the Jesuits in 1604 upset the first establishment a -little; the college of Clermont was evacuated; the books were -transported to the Cordeliers and distributed in rooms on the ground and -first floors, whence the names of upper and lower libraries. There was a -mass of volumes very little used, for the public did not enjoy them, and -the King held them as his own; but the time was near when the collection -was to take a very serious step under the influence of the brothers -Dupuy in 1645, and afterwards of Jerome Bignon. Always shut up in the -incommodious chambers of the Cordeliers, the library contained 5,259 -volumes, manuscript and printed, perhaps less than some private -libraries; after the Dupuys it had at least 10,329 printed books. - -Mazarin was the first to comprehend the natural use of collections of -books: publicity. His private library, placed before 1651 in his -magnificent house in the Rue Richelieu, where later was definitively -lodged the royal library, was opened to readers every Tuesday, from -eight to eleven and two to five. Dispersed in 1651, at the fall of the -Cardinal, it was later reconstituted, and in less than ten years -afterwards the former minister was able to open it in its new quarters, -the College of the Four Nations, where it is still. - -While the Mazarin library was administering liberally to the wants of -the public, that of the King remained closely shut up in the rooms of -the Cordeliers. Colbert, influenced by this state of things, offered two -houses in the Rue Vivienne to the King, where the books could find a -more convenient lodging, and allow room for increase. The removal was -made in 1666. The royal collection for fifty-five years was lodged only -a few steps from its final resting-place, the Hotel de Nevers. So was -called at the end of the seventeenth century the splendid mansion of -Mazarin, situated near the Porte de Richelieu, in the street of the same -name, whence his books had been previously torn and sold to all the -dealers. Divided into two parts at the death of the Cardinal in 1661, -the palace fell, one part to the Duc de Mazarin, the other to the Duc de -Nevers, his nephews. At first the King dreamed, under the advice of -Louvais, of acquiring the land in the neighbourhood of the Rue Vivienne -and of elevating a monument for his library, for the thought of putting -the Hotel de Nevers to this use had not then occurred to him; but the -Duc de Mazarin having alienated his part of the palace in favour of the -Company of the Indies, Abbé Bignon, then royal librarian, perceived the -part he could play from that fact. - -Thanks to the administration of Colbert and the liberalities of the -King, the collection had been augmented threefold. At the time of the -removal to the Rue Vivienne, Nicolas Clément worked at the classifying -and cataloguing of 35,000 volumes. He distributed them into methodical -classes, and devoted nine years--1675 to 1684--to his work. But this -first unravelling was soon insufficient. Less than four years after, he -commenced a new inventory in twenty-one volumes, which occupied thirty -years, having been finished in the course of March, 1714. This time the -numbers amounted to 43,000 printed volumes; his twenty-three principal -divisions, containing all the letters of the alphabet, are very nearly -preserved up to our day. In 1697 the question of publishing this -enormous work was agitated, and on this point Clément had a curious -correspondence with a learned Dane named Frederick Bostgaard; he also, -in a celebrated pamphlet, _Idée d'une Nouvelle Manière de dresser le -Catalogue d'une Bibliothèque_, indicated practical observations; he -resolved this arduous question for important collections by difference -of sizes; but his project was not executed, although favoured from the -first by Abbé Bignon. - -As the collection was not available for workers, the work of Clément had -only a relative importance. A councillor of the Prince of Waldeck, a -German of the name of Nemeitz, who travelled in France in the beginning -of the eighteenth century, having seen it in the houses of the Rue -Vivienne, says that the library occupied then twenty-six rooms and -contained 75,000 volumes in all; it was shown voluntarily to strangers, -but not to the public. Nemeitz gives some other curious particulars as -to the libraries of Paris (_Séjour à Paris:_ Leyde, 1727, 8vo). - -The bank of Law, that had been lodged for some time in the Hotel de -Nevers, alienated by the heirs of Mazarin, soon disappeared with the -ruin of his system. As we have said above, Bignon appreciated the -importance of the neglected palace for commodiously lodging the royal -collections. This was in 1721. The collection was about to be subdivided -into four sections, or, as they were then called in the administrative -style, four distinct departments: manuscripts, printed books, titles, -and engraved plates. The master of the library pressed the Regent to -profit by the occasion, to which he agreed. In the month of September -the removal commenced, and from the Rue Vivienne, the royal library, the -first in the world and the most valuable, as Naudé says, entered the -former palace of the Cardinal, which it was never to quit again. - -We approach the epoch when this great scientific establishment was to -quit its private character and to open its doors to the learned of all -countries. In 1735 it was decided to print the catalogue of some -divisions only: theology, canonical law, public law, and _belles -lettres_. This resolution coincided precisely with the opening of the -doors which took place in 1737, in which year appeared the first volume -of the catalogue comprising the sacred Scriptures. At the end of the -eighteenth century the royal library was finally established; the -printed books then comprised about 200,000 volumes, and access was had -by a staircase leading to six grand saloons, which were surrounded by -galleries. From this moment the rooms became too small. At the -Revolution the number of books had increased to 300,000, and projects of -enlargement commenced, to be continued to our time; but, in spite of -these proposals, the surface occupied by the library has remained the -same since the time of Louis XV. Enlargements and alterations have been -made year after year on the same ground without much new construction. -But how the treasures have been augmented to this time! If the printed -books at the Revolution represented a little more than 300,000 volumes, -to-day they exceed two millions; the prints number two and a half -millions; the medals, 100,000; the manuscripts, something over 90,000. - -If we have thus brought the summary history of the National Library of -Paris to our days, it was to avoid mixing it with other matters. We have -entered into such detail regarding it as is fitting for the most -important library in the world. We now return to the seventeenth -century. - -At the time when Henri IV. carried from Fontainebleau to Paris the -nucleus of volumes that was to have so brilliant a destiny, the passion -for books had singularly spread itself in France. We have already spoken -of Mazarin; after him Cardinal Richelieu designed to open his private -collection to the public, and in his will he manifested his clearly held -intention. He went further in his last wishes: he prescribed the daily -sweeping and dusting of the precious collection, and its augmentation by -a thousand livres tournois each year. The great personages of the time -were not behind; and Sauval says that in the seventeenth century there -were 1,000 or 1,200 private libraries in Paris, numbering 1,700,000 -volumes. - -In the provinces there were few public libraries. The communities and -learned Societies, the Jesuits and other religious houses, and the -universities had collections At Orleans a library was opened for -Germans, and the students of that country were able to work at their -ease under the supervision of two librarians. - -At the end of the eighteenth century the number of libraries had -increased in large proportions; the amateurs had made their influence -felt. The Book was not sought only for what it contained, but also for -its exterior clothing. Only the great libraries open to everybody -remained eclectic, and provided a little of everything. Besides the -royal library, there were in Paris a great number of other collections, -which the revolutionary storm upset and often destroyed. That of St. -Germain des Près was burnt in 1794. That of St. Geneviève, founded in -1625, had benefited by celebrated donations, among others those of the -cardinals De Berulle and De la Rochefoucauld; the Arsenal, created by -the Marquis de Paulmy, was successively enriched by important -acquisitions, among which was the collection of the Duc de la Vallière. -These collections still exist, and are open to the public, as also are -the National Library, the Mazarine, the Sorbonne, the Museum, the School -of Fine Arts, the City of Paris, the Institute, the Louvre, and the -several scientific faculties. - -The provinces have not been behind in the movement. Many of the great -cities contain a considerable number of books easily accessible, among -them the libraries of Bordeaux and Rouen, amounting to 150,000 volumes; -Troyes and Besançon, 100,000, etc. Few important centres have less than -20,000. These collections have been generally composed of those of the -religious establishments, closed by the Revolution. - -In our time public libraries are augmented by the legal deposit, gifts -of the State, legacies of private persons, and purchases. The legal -deposit in France relates almost exclusively to the National Library, -and proceeds from the measures taken by Henri II. in 1556. Each French -printer has now to deposit a certain number of copies of the works that -he issues, and these volumes go to swell the number of books in the Rue -de Richelieu. At the rate of 30,000 a year, the time is easily -anticipated and very near when the space will be found insufficient. -Some measures will have to be taken. - -Germany, the cradle of printing, was not favoured in the beginning. It -had, however, in the seventeenth century, in Wolfenbüttel, a little town -in the duchy of Brunswick, a curious collection of books, in a detached -building, of which the engraver Merian has preserved for us the -physiognomy; it contained nearly 200,000 volumes, an enormous number for -the time. The rather low rooms were shelved all round; in the middle -were cases of the height of a man, also filled with books; the readers -helped themselves, and were seated for working. The exterior of the -building, without being sumptuous, was isolated and detached. In our -time this collection includes the Bible, glass, and inkstand of Luther -and his portrait by Lucas Cranach. - -Another curious library, dating from the beginning of the seventeenth -century, is that of the city of Leyden. An engraving by Woudan shows its -state in 1610, with its classifications and divisions. The books were -ranged in cases provided with breast-high desks. The books were placed -with the edges in front, and not as now, and were so attached that they -could only be consulted in their place. Each body of shelving contained -a series of authors: theology, philosophy, mathematics, history, -medicine, law, and literature. The room, of square shape, was lighted by -windows right and left. Between the bays were portraits, views of -cities, and maps. On the right, in a shrine, was enclosed the legacy of -Joseph Scaliger. Communication was less liberal than at Wolfenbüttel; -the readers were obliged to take the books from the shelves themselves -and read them standing before the desks. - -In England, the celebrated Oxford Library should be mentioned, augmented -and restored in 1597 by Sir Thomas Bodley, ambassador of Queen -Elizabeth. The generous overtures of this rich gentleman met with -unanimous approbation. He offered to the library of the university the -volumes collected by him during his travels on the Continent, whose -value exceeded £10,000. The first stone of a new building was laid in -1610, but from 1602 the collection was open to readers in a provisional -locality. David Loggan, the engraver, has preserved for us interior -views of the Bodleian of the seventeenth century. The rooms are disposed -in the form of the letter H, with pavilions to east and west, united by -a gallery. The books were and are still in the body of the library, -placed against the walls, with tables and immovable seats. The volumes -were not displaced; they were consulted in their own place. Each room -had two floors, with access to the second by stairs. - -In London it was Hans Sloane who had the idea of founding a great -collection by offering to the State for £20,000 his collection of -books, which was valued at £50,000. Created in 1753 by an Act of -Parliament, the British Museum, as it was named, was quickly augmented -by many private libraries, among which was the library of printed books -and manuscripts collected by the kings of England from Henry VII. to -William III., which was added in the reign of George II. The very -extensive and valuable library of George III., 250,000 volumes, was -added by George IV. The Harleian collection added 7,500 volumes, and -Robert Cotton his manuscripts. To-day the printed books amount to -1,300,000, and are only surpassed by the National Library of France as -well in number of books as in number of readers. This immense collection -increases at a great rate, one source being the compulsory deposit of a -copy of every new book in order to secure copyright. Donations and -legacies are constantly being made, and an annual sum for purchases is -voted by Parliament. Besides the copy deposited by publishers in the -British Museum, the law of copyright compels the deposit of four other -copies, which go to augment the collections of the Bodleian Library of -Oxford, the University Library of Cambridge, and the libraries of -Edinburgh and Dublin. - -If we search among the cities of Europe where establishments of this -kind are most honoured, Berlin will take the third place with 900,000 -printed books and 20,000 manuscripts, preserved in the Imperial Library. -The building, constructed between 1775 and 1780, owes its special form -to Frederick II., who desired that it should take the form of a chest of -drawers. On the façade an inscription in the Latin tongue, but -conceived in German spirit, indicates that here is a spiritual -refectory--_nutrimentum spiritus_. Following come Munich, with 800,000 -printed books; Vienna 400,000; Dresden, 300,000; then the universities: -Leipzig, whose library, founded in 1409 and reorganised in 1830, -contains 150,000 books and 2,000 manuscripts; Heidelberg; Göttingen, -etc. - -In Italy, Florence keeps, in the National Library, 300,000 volumes, -proceeding from various amateurs, and formed since 1860. The collection -of the goldsmith Magliabecchi, that was open to readers since 1747, has -been transported there. Besides this library, Florence possesses the -celebrated Laurentian, created by Cosmo de Medicis in the middle of the -fifteenth century, where are united more than 8,000 manuscripts of an -incalculable value. Milan has at the Brera a collection of 200,000 -printed books and 50,000 medals, and at the Ambrosian, due to Cardinal -Frederick Borromeo, 160,000 printed books and 8,000 manuscripts. - -Rome possesses a dozen collections and celebrated deposits. The Vatican, -not numerous, is most choice; the importance of its manuscripts is known -to the entire world, but only a part of the 50,000 printed books are -catalogued. The Library of Victor Emmanuel, formerly of the Jesuits, -amounts to about 66,000 volumes. At Venice the splendid monument called -the Antiqua Libraria di St. Marco has changed its destination; -constructed in the sixteenth century and commenced by Sansovino for a -library, it is now a royal palace. This city has lost that which had -made its glory, and its collections are very modest in our days. - -The magnificent educational establishments in the form of public -libraries provided in the United States deserve special mention. Nearly -every city has its public library, supported by a small tax; and many -large libraries are wholly supported by private munificence. The first -to be established was founded in 1732 by Benjamin Franklin in -Philadelphia, and still exists as the Library Company; many important -bequests have been made to it, the latest being £200,000 by Dr. Richard -Rush. The library now numbers 150,000 volumes. The Congressional Library -of Washington, besides its annual income from Government, receives by -deposit for copyright a copy of every work published in the United -States; it now has 565,000 volumes. - -The Astor Library and the Lenox Library of New York were both founded -and endowed by the families whose name they bear; the former has 223,284 -volumes, the latter 25,000. The city of Chicago recently fell heir to -the magnificent sum of over one million sterling for the establishment -of a library of reference, and New York was benefited by the late Mr. -Tilden to the extent of £800,000 for a public library. - -When we have named the libraries of St. Petersburg and Moscow for -Russia, Stockholm for Sweden, and the Escurial for Spain, we shall have -mentioned very hastily the most important establishments in the world. -For more than four centuries the love of books has preserved and -fortified itself, and increases each day. If we were to endeavour to -approximately imagine the number of printed books diffused, we should -be frightened at it. It is by miles that to-day are counted the shelves -of the National Library or of the British Museum; and each year the -production is accelerated, as is also the number of readers. - - -THE END. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Albi, first printer at, 47. - - Alciati, books of emblems, 126. - - Alding, Henry, printer in Sicily, 35. - - Aldus Manutius, son-in-law of Torresani, 51; - printer in Venice, 99, 103, 128; - books for Grolier, 260. - - America, North, printing in, 216. - - Antwerp, early printing at, 67; - Plantin, 140. - - _Ars Memorandi_, block book, 10. - - _Ars Moriendi_, block book, 8. - - Asola, Andrew d', successor of Jenson, 50. - - Audran, C., engraver, 158. - - Augsburg, _Formschneiders_ at, 58. - - - Badier, Florimond, bookbinder, 280. - - Badius, Jodocus, printer in Paris, 122, 246. - - Baldini, designs for early Italian books, 54. - - Ballard, printer for music, 186. - - Bamberg, early printing at, 25, 29. - - Barcelona, first printer, 36. - - Bartolozzi, engraver, 209. - - Baskerville, printer of Birmingham, 208. - - Basle, first printer, 36; - school of engraving, 125. - - Beaujoyeux, Balthasar de, _Ballet Comique_, 136. - - Bechtermuncze, Henry, pupil of Gutenberg, 25, 36. - - Bedford, Francis, bookbinder, 288. - - Belfort, Andrew, printer at Ferrara, 35. - - Berlin, Imperial Library of, 301. - - Bernard, _le petit_, designer, 128. - - Bewick, Thomas, engraver, 209, 213, 225, 234. - - Bible, Gutenberg's, 15, 20; - of 1462, the Mayence, 27; - first English, 146; - Authorised Version, 182; - the Polyglot, Plantin's, 141; - Richelieu's, 173. - - _Biblia Pauperum_, block book, 8. - - Bignon, Jerome, royal librarian, 293. - - Binding, early, 253. - - Biziaux, bookbinder, 287. - - Blind Asylum, printers in 1786, 216. - - Bocard, Andrew, printer in Paris, 88. - - Bodleian Library, 300. - - Bohn, H. G., publisher, 223. - - Bologna, Francisco da, engraver of type, 100. - - Bonhomme, printer in Lyons, 128. - - Book, the, earliest forms of, 1, 6. - - Books of Hours, 70, 112; - for English use, 147. - - Booksellers of Paris, 170, 186, 190, 196. - - Bosse, Abraham, engraver, 170. - - Botticelli, plates to Dante, 55. - - Boucher, designer, 188. - - Bourdichon, John, artist, 69. - - Boydell, Alderman, publisher, 210. - - Boyet, bookbinder, 287. - - Brandt's "Ship of Fools," 65. - - British Museum, library, 301. - - Brothers of Common Life, printers, 1468, 36. - - Browne, H. K., book illustrator, 235. - - Bruges, early printing at, 37, 67. - - Buckinck, Arnold, printer at - Rome, printed the first atlas, 55. - - Budé, Guillaume, royal librarian, 291. - - - Cæsaris, Peter, and John Stol, second Paris printers, 68. - - Callot, engraver, 167. - - Cambridge, first printing at, 149. - - Cars, Laurent, engraver, 189. - - Cases for type, 243. - - Caslon, William, type-founder, 208. - - Catherine de Medicis, bindings for, 270. - - "Catholicon," the, of 1460, printed by Gutenberg, 23. - - Caxton, William, first English printer, 37, 92, 240. - - Cazin, publisher, 200. - - Cerceau, _Bastiments de France_, 1576, 135. - - Chaillot, Robin, publisher in Paris, 82. - - Challeux, James le, wood engraver, 137. - - Chamot, bookbinder, 287. - - _Champfleury_, Geoffroy Tory's, 116, 261. - - Characters, variety of, 243. - - Charles VII. sends Jenson to Mayence, 38. - - Charles VIII., royal library, 291. - - Charles IX., bindings for, 274. - - Charles of Angoulême, books specially printed for him, 78. - - Chauveau, Francis, engraver, 179. - - Chess, Caxton's book on, 92. - - Chodowiecki, engraver, 208. - - Choffard, engraver, 198, 211. - - Clement V., _Constitutiones_, 1460, printed by Schoeffer, 26. - - Clément, Nicholas, royal librarian, 294. - - Clennell, Luke, wood engraver, 215, 225, 234. - - Cochin the younger, engraver, 191. - - Colbert, bindings for, 272, 282. - - Collines, Simon de, type-founder, 241. - - Cologne, first printer, 36. - - "Cologne Chronicle," 58. - - Colonna, Francis, Poliphilus of, 1499, 56; - in French, 1545, 123. - - Colophons, use of, by early printers, 88. - - Commin, Vincent, bookseller in Paris, 82. - - Companies of printers in France, 165. - - Copper plate engraving, 135; - in England, 149. - - Coster, Laurent, alleged inventor of printing, 6, 30. - - Cousin, John, designs for books, 132. - - Cramoisy, Sebastian, printer of Paris, 155, 165; - director of bindings for Louis XIV., 281. - - Cranach, Lucas, his _Passional Christi_, 106. - - Cranmer's Catechism, 1548, 148. - - Cruikshank, George, book illustrator, 235. - - Curmer, publisher of Paris, 230. - - - Dances of death, 58, 72, 85, 124. - - Dante, 1481, with engraved plates, 54; - 1491, with Botticelli plates, 55; - 1487, printed by Bonnini, 58. - - Day, John, printer, 146. - - Della Bella, engraver, 168. - - Deromes, bookbinders, 286. - - Desportes, Philip, bindings for, 272. - - Devéria, engraver, 227. - - Dibdin, T. F., bibliographical works, 223. - - Didot, François, printer of Paris, 194. - - Didot, Pierre F., printer of Paris, 216, 219. - - Didot family, 218, 242. - - Dijon, first printer at, 47. - - Diodorus Siculus, Geoffroy Tory's edition, 118. - - Donatus, the Latin syntax of, 4, 30. - - Doré, Gustave, influence on illustration, 234. - - Doyle, Richard, book illustrator, 235. - - Dritzehen, Andrew, associate of Gutenberg, 13. - - Dubois, Gilles, bookbinder, 281. - - Dubuisson, Peter Paul, bookbinder, 286. - - Duchesne on wood engraving, 225. - - Duplat, relief engraving on stone, 213. - - Duplessis-Bertaux, engraver, 206. - - Du Pré, John, printer of Books of Hours, 80. - - Dupuy brothers, bindings for, 272, 282; - royal librarians, 293. - - Durand's _Rationale_, 1459, printed by Schoeffer, 26. - - Dürer, Albert, pupil of Wohlgemuth, 60; - "Apocalypse," 62, 104; - influence on Geoffroy Tory, 116. - - Duseuil, bookbinder, 287. - - - Eisen, engraver, 196. - - Eltvil, first printer, 36. - - Elzevirs, printers at Leyden, 162. - - Emblems, books of, 126, 135. - - England, bookbinding in, 288; - public libraries, 300. - - English books, in the fifteenth century, 92; - in the sixteenth century, 144; - seventeenth century, 181; - eighteenth century, 208; - nineteenth century, 222, 234; - school of engraving eighteenth century, 209. - - Engraved plates, first book with, 52; - in France, 134, 190. - - Engravers, employed by Plantin, 142; - in relief, the first, 3. - - Engraving, introduction of metal plates for, 32; - the process, 52; - in the Books of Hours, 71. - - Erasmus, visit to Aldus, 101. - - Estienne, Robert, printer in Paris, 121, 242. - - Etching, process of, 189. - - Eustache, William, printer of Books of Hours, 82. - - Eve, Nicholas, bookbinder, 274. - - - Ferrara, first printer, 35. - - Fichet, William, ascribes invention of printing to Gutenberg, 31. - - Flemish, illustration, 66; - printers, early, 36, 106. - - Florence, National Library of, 302. - - Foligno, first printer, 35. - - Fontainebleau school of engraving, 128. - - Fornazeris, J. de, engraver, 158. - - Foucquet, John, artist, 69. - - Fount of type, 243. - - Fouquet, Superintendent, bindings for, 272, 282. - - Fournier, type-engraver, 242. - - France, early printing in, 47. - - Francis I., father of letters, 120; - bindings for, 266; - royal library, 291. - - Frankfort, books of the seventeenth century, 159. - - Franklin, Benjamin, printer at Philadelphia, 217; - founded first American public library, 303. - - French book illustration, 68, 76, 106, 166, 203; - provinces, public libraries of, 298. - - Fresne, Trichet du, corrector of Royal Printing House, 166. - - Furne, publisher of Paris, 232. - - Fust, John, 12 _et seq_.; - in partnership with Gutenberg, 15. - - - Garamond, Claude, type-founder, 121, 166, 241. - - Gaultier, Leonard, engraver, 142, 154. - - Gavarni, designer, 233. - - Ged, William, inventor of stereotype, 220. - - Gering, Freyburger, and Crantz, first printers in Paris, 41. - - German books, in the seventeenth century, 158; - eighteenth century, 208; - nineteenth century, 224. - - German public libraries, 299. - - Gigoux, John, vignettist, 228. - - Gillot, Claude, engraver, 180, 186. - - Giunta, Lucantonio, printer at Venice, 102. - - Gondi, bindings for, 272. - - Gourmont, John de, wood engraver, 137. - - Grandjean, Philip, royal printer, 242. - - Grandville, designer, 233. - - Gravelot, Hubert Francis, engraver, 196, 213. - - Grolier, John, bindings for, 256. - - Guadagnino, artist of Venice, 102. - - Guise, Henri de, "Le Balafré," bindings for, 274. - - Gutenberg, John, 12 _et seq_.; - at Mayence, 15; - death of, 29. - - - Haarlem, book illustration at, 67. - - Hachette, publisher of Paris, 234. - - Hagenbach, Peter, printer at Toledo, 36. - - Hahn, Ulrich, printer at Rome, 35; - printed first illustrated book in Italy, 48. - - Hardouins, printers of Books of Hours, 82. - - Haye, Cornelis de la, painter, 130. - - Heilmann, Andrew, associate of Gutenberg, 13. - - Heinlein and Fichet introduce printing into Paris, 40. - - Henri II., _Entrée à Lyon_, 1549, 130; - bindings for, 270; - royal library, 292. - - Henri III., bindings for, 274. - - Henri IV., royal library, 292. - - Hoe printing machines, 249. - - Holbein, "Dance of Death," 86, 124; - Cranmer's Catechism, 148. - - Holland, artists in the seventeenth century, 160. - - - Illustrations, first, in books, 47; - in the sixteenth century, 123. - - Imposition, process of, 245. - - Ink, composition of, 252. - - Ipswich, first printer, 149. - - Isaac, Jasper, engraver, 156. - - Italian, books in the seventeenth century, 159; - influence on French illustration, 125; - on bindings, 256. - - Italic type introduced, 100. - - Italy, public libraries of, 302. - - - Jenson, Nicholas, sent to Mayence to learn type-founding, 38; - printer at Venice, 38, 103. - - Johannot brothers, engravers, 227. - - John of Cologne, master _à la navette_, 67. - - Jombert, printer of Paris, 192. - - Junius, Hadrian, narrator of the Coster legend, 6, 12. - - - Kerver, Thielman, printer of Books of Hours, 80, 88. - - Knight, Charles, publisher, 223. - - Koburger, first printer at Nuremberg, 36, 60. - - Koelhof, first printer to use signatures, 36. - - - Labarre, John de, royal librarian, 291. - - Laborde, _Chansons_, 202. - - Laferté, bookbinder, 287. - - La Fontaine, the _Contes_, 198. - - La Marche, Oliver de, his _Chevalier Delibéré_, 67. - - Laserre, luxury in bindings for, 278. - - La Tour, bookbinder, 281. - - Lavoignat, wood engraver, 230. - - Lebé, William, type-founder, 140, 242. - - Le Brun, painter, 175. - - Leclerc, Sébastien, engraver, 176. - - Leech, John, book illustrator, 235. - - Leeu, Gerard de, printer at Antwerp, 67. - - Le Gascon bindings, 276. - - Le Jay and the Polyglot Bible, 173. - - Le Maire, John, _Illustrations de la Gaule_, 107. - - Le Monnier, bookbinder, 287. - - Lenoir, Philip, bindings for Francis I., 268. - - Lepautre, engraver, 179. - - Lesné, poet of bookbinding, 287. - - Letters of Indulgence, the first printed, 17. - - Lettou, John, early English printer, 95. - - Leu, Thomas de, engraver, 142, 154. - - Levasseur, bookbinder, 281. - - Lewis, Charles, bookbinder, 288. - - Leyden, the Elzevirs at, 162; - public library of, 299. - - Libraries, 290. - - Library, National, of Paris, 291. - - Lipsius, Justus, employed by Plantin, 140. - - Logography, invention of, 216. - - Lorenzo, Nicholas di, printer of _El Monte Santo di Dio_, first book - with engraved plates, 52. - - Loslein, Peter, printer at Venice, 35. - - Louis XII., ordinance on printing, 108; - bindings for, 256, 264; - royal library, 291. - - Louis XIV., bindings for, 281; - regulations for bookbinders, 282. - - Louvain, printer in 1474, 37. - - Lutzelburger, Hans, engraver of "Dance of Death," 125. - - Lyons, first printing at, 47; - in the sixteenth century, 124; - seventeenth century, 158. - - - Machlinia, William, early English printer, 37, 95. - - Macon, first printer at, 47. - - _Magasin Pittoresque_, 226. - - Mainyal, George, associate of Gering, 47. - - Maioli, Thomas, bindings for, 259. - - Mansfeldt, Count, bindings for, 272. - - Mansion, Colard, printer at Bruges, 1473, 37. - - Manuscripts, influence of printing upon, 34. - - Manutius. See Aldus. - - Marchant, Guyot, his "Dance of Death," 86; - bindings for Francis I., 268. - - Marinoni printing press, 249. - - Marnef, Geoffroy and Gilbert, French printers, 107. - - Mayence, revolution at, in 1462, 27; - printing in the seventeenth century, 158. - - Mayer, Henry, printer at Toulouse, 47. - - Mazarin, Cardinal, bindings for, 280; - his library, 293. - - Meissonier, designer on wood, 230. - - Mellan, Claude, engraver, 156. - - Menzel, Adolph, book illustrator, 224. - - _Mer des Histoires_, 1488, 70, 107. - - Mérius, bookbinder, 281. - - Meslier, Denis, publisher in Paris, 82. - - Metal plates used for illustration, 134. - - Metlinger, printer at Dijon, 47. - - Milan, printing in the sixteenth - century, 103; - public libraries of, 302. - - Montenay, Georgette de, his emblems, 135. - - Monteregio, _Calendario_, first book with title-page, 50. - - Montmorency, Anne de, bindings for, 272. - - Moreau the younger, engraver, 200. - - Moretus, printer of Antwerp, 141. - - Mosaic bindings, 284. - - Motte, Houdart de la, his "Fables," 186. - - - Necker, Jost, engraver of the _Theuerdanck_, 105. - - Neumeister, John, printer at Albi, 47. - - Neumeister, John, printer at Foligno, 35. - - Nevers, Duc de, book published in 1577, 138. - - Notary, Julian, early English printer, 96. - - Noyers, Sublet de, superintendent of Royal Printing House, 166. - - Nuremberg, first printer, 36; - books of the sixteenth century, 104; - Chronicle, 1493, 62; - books of the seventeenth century, 159. - - - Orleans, public library at, 298. - - Os, Peter van, his _Biblia Pauperum_, 67. - - Oswen, John, first printer at Ipswich, 149. - - Oxford, first printer, 37; - Bodleian Library, 300. - - - Palermo, first printer, 35. - - Palmart, Lambert, printer at Valencia, 1477, 36. - - Pannartz, Arnold, printer at Rome, 35. - - Paper, manufacture of, 249. - - Papillons, wood engravers, 212. - - Paris, Fust's visit to, 27; - first book printed at, 42; - public libraries of, 298. - - Pasdeloup, bookbinder, 284. - - Pasquier-Bonhomme, printer in Paris, 68. - - Pass family, engravers, 160. - - Pasti, Matteo, designs for Valturius, 49. - - Paulin, publisher of Paris, 228. - - Payne, Roger, bookbinder, 288. - - Perréal, John, artist, 69. - - Pfinzfing, _Theuerdanck_, 104. - - Pfister, Albert, printer of Bamberg, 25. - - Philippe, Laurent, publisher in Paris, 82. - - Photography, use in illustration, 233. - - Picart, Bernard, engraver, 180. - - Picart, John, engraver, 156. - - Piccini, engraver, 159. - - Pickering, William, publisher, 223. - - Pictor, Bernard, printer of Venice, 35. - - Pigouchet, Philip, printer of Paris, 68, 70. - - Plantin, Christopher, printer of Antwerp, 140. - - Pluvinel, _Manège Royal_, 160. - - Poitiers, Diane de, bindings for, 270. - - Poliphilus, printed by Aldus, 1499, 56; - by Kerver, 1545, 123. - - Polytypes, invention of, 216. - - Pompadour, Madame de, bindings for, 272. - - Portraits as illustrations, 89, 123, 137. - - Prault, publisher of Paris, 192. - - Prayer-book, Queen Elizabeth's, 146; - Edward VI's., 148. - - Presses, printing, 248. - - Press work, process of, 246. - - Printers' marks, 87. - - Prohibitions on printers, 152, 185. - - _Promptuaire des Médailles_, printed by Roville, 130. - - Psalter of 1457, the first dated book, 23. - - Ptolemy, 1478, first printed atlas, 55. - - Pynson, Richard, early English printer, 37, 95, 146. - - - Racine, works, the Louvre edition, 219. - - Raffet, wood engraver, 232. - - Ratdolt, Erhardt, printer at Venice, 35; - printed first title-page, 50, 103. - - Rembold, Berthold, associate of Gering, 47. - - Richelieu, Cardinal, his library, 297. - - Roffet, Peter, bindings for Francis I., 267. - - Rogers, Samuel, his poetical works, 222. - - Roman character, 38, 240. - - Rome, first printers, 35; - public libraries of, 302. - - Rood, Theod., first printer at Oxford, 37. - - Roville, printer of Lyons, 128, 130. - - Royal Printing House in Paris, 166, 215. - - Royer, John le, printer for mathematics, 1560, 132. - - Ruette, bookbinder, 282. - - Rüppel, Berthold, first printer at Basle, 36. - - - St. Albans, first printer, 37. - - St. Aubin, designer and engraver, 192, 200. - - St. Pierre, Bernardin de, and the Didots, 221. - - Salomon, Bernard, designer, 128. - - Sanlecque, James, type-founder, 242. - - Schäufelein, designs for the _Theuerdanck_, 105. - - Schiedam, early printing at, 67. - - Schoeffer, Peter, associate of Gutenberg and Fust, 16. - - Schongauer, Martin, influence on French art, 72. - - Schönsperger, printer of Augsburg, 105. - - Séguier, bindings for, 282. - - Siberch, John, first printer at Cambridge, 149. - - Sicily, first printer, 35. - - Sizes of books, 147, 189. - - Sloane, Sir Hans, founder of the British Museum, 300. - - Smirke, Robert, book illustrator, 210. - - Southwark, first printer at, 149. - - Spain, book illustration in, 106. - - _Speculum Humanæ Salvationis_, 7. - - Spindeler, Nicholas, printer at Barcelona, 36. - - Spire, John and Vendelin of, printers at Venice, 35. - - Spyes, Weigand, pupil of Gutenberg, 25. - - Stanhope press, 248. - - Steel plates for illustrations, 232. - - Stereotype, invention of, 220. - - Stothard, Thomas, book illustrator, 210, 222, 234. - - Strasbourg, Gutenberg's retreat to, 13. - - Sweynheim, Conrad, printer at Rome, 35. - - - _Tailleurs d'images_ of the Middle Ages, 3. - - Tauchnitz, Baron, publisher of Leipzig, 224. - - Tessier, bookbinder, 287. - - Ther-Hoenen, Arnold, first printer using Arabic numerals for pages, - 36, 58, 88. - - _Theuerdanck_, printed at Nuremberg, 104. - - Thevet, books with plates, 135. - - Thompson brothers, wood engravers, 225. - - Thou, James Augustus de, royal librarian, 293. - - Titian, influence on book illustration, 103. - - Title-page, the first, 50, 86; - illustrated, 133, 142. - - Toledo, first printer, 36. - - Tornes, Hans de, printer in Lyons, 128. - - Torresani, Andrea, succeeded Jenson, 50. - - Tortorel and Perrissin, plates on the religious wars, 137. - - Tory, Geoffroy, printer and engraver, 110, 241, 261. - - Toulouse, first printer, 47. - - Travel, books of, 148, 182. - - Treschel, John, printer at Lyons, 88, 124. - - Treves, Peter of, first printer at Southwark, 149. - - Trithemius, account of Peter Schoeffer, 16. - - Turner, J. M. W., designs for Rogers' works, 222. - - Type-founding, 239, 243. - - - United States, printing in, 216; - public libraries in, 302. - - Utrecht, early printers at, 36, 67. - - - Valdarfer, Christopher, printer at Venice, 35. - - Valencia, first printer, 36. - - Valladier, Andrew, _Métanéologie_, 155. - - Valturius, _De Re Militari_, 1472, 49. - - Veldener, John, printer at Louvain, 67. - - Venice, first printers, 35; - first title-page printed at, 50; - sixteenth century work, 102; - seventeenth century, 159; - libraries of, 302. - - Verard, Antony, printer in Paris, 68, 76; - his Books of Hours, 78. - - Versailles, printing office of the Minister for War, 215. - - Vinci, Leonardo da, influence on book illustration, 103. - - Vitré, Antoine, publisher of Paris, 172. - - Voragine, "Golden Legend," Venice, 1518, 103. - - Vostre, Simon, printer in Paris, 68; - his Books of Hours, 70. - - Vyel, Andrew, printer at Palermo, 35. - - - Walchius, story of Fust's visit to Paris, 28. - - Walter, John, printer of the _Times_, 216, 249. - - Water marks in paper, 251. - - Watervliet, Marc Laurin de, bindings for, 272. - - Watteau, engraver, 187. - - Wechel, printer in Paris, 128. - - Wensler, Michael, printer at Macon, 47. - - Westminster, Caxton first printer at, 37. - - Westphalia, John of, printer at Louvain, 1474, 37, 67. - - Whittingham, Charles, printer, 223. - - Woériot, Peter, engraver of emblems, 135. - - Wohlgemuth, Michael, designs for the _Schatzbehalter_, 60. - - Wolfenbüttel, public library of, 299. - - Woodcuts, first book printed with, 48. - - Wood engraving, revival of, 209, 213, 230. - - Wynken de Worde, early English printer, 37, 95. - - - Xylographs of the fifteenth century, 8. - - - Zainer, Gunther, printer at Augsburg, 58. - - Zell, Ulrich, pupil of Gutenberg, 25, 30, 36. - - Zwoll, book illustration at, 67. - - - - -Transcriber's Note - -In this text version, symbols and Greek letters in the text are replaced -by their name, enclosed in square brackets, e.g. [phi], [double cross]. -In addition, oe ligatures are replaced with the letters oe, and -superscripts are introduced with the caret character, e.g. XVIII^e - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - -***** This file should be named 44890-8.txt or 44890-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/8/9/44890/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/44890-8.zip b/44890-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f76218d..0000000 --- a/44890-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/44890-h.zip b/44890-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1d7acde..0000000 --- a/44890-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/44890-h/44890-h.htm b/44890-h/44890-h.htm index 8a2ef43..20d865c 100644 --- a/44890-h/44890-h.htm +++ b/44890-h/44890-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Printed Book, Its History, Illustration, and Adornment, by Henri Bouchot. @@ -109,49 +109,7 @@ p.drop-capi1:first-letter { padding-right:0.2em;margin-left:-1.8em; } </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Printed Book - Its History, Illustration and Adornment, from the Days of - Gutenberg to the Present Time - -Author: Henri Bouchot - -Translator: Edward C. Bigmore - -Release Date: February 13, 2014 [EBook #44890] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44890 ***</div> <div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/i_cover.jpg" alt="Cover" /> @@ -2183,7 +2141,7 @@ of prints that received a text in the sixteenth century.</p> <a href="images/i_071f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_071.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 21.—Title of the "Apocalypse," by Albert Dürer, +<p class="caption">Fig. 21.—Title of the "Apocalypse," by Albert Dürer, printed in 1498. First edition, without text.</p> </div> @@ -2435,7 +2393,7 @@ and perfect toleration.</p> <a href="images/i_081f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_081.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 25.—Border in four separate blocks in the <i>Heures à +<p class="caption">Fig. 25.—Border in four separate blocks in the <i>Heures à l'Usaige de Rome</i>, by Pigouchet, for Simon Vostre, in 1488. Small figures from the "Dance of Death."</p> </div> @@ -2567,7 +2525,7 @@ of present money.</p> <img src="images/i_087.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 29.—Plate from the Tristan published by Antony -Verard, a copy of which was illuminated for Charles of Angoulême.</p> +Verard, a copy of which was illuminated for Charles of Angoulême.</p> </div> <p>Verard had preceded Simon Vostre in the publication @@ -3327,7 +3285,7 @@ friends, and he saw that it was an unapproachable work.</p> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 45.—Plate taken from the <i>Theuerdanck</i>, representing Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. Engraved on wood after -Schäufelein.</p> +Schäufelein.</p> </div> <p>Bold strokes, majestic letters, intertwined ornaments, @@ -3486,7 +3444,7 @@ Gaule et Singularitez de Troye</i>. Queen Anne of Brittany as Juno.</p> <a href="images/i_119f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 47.—Title of the <i>Entree d'Eléonore d'Autriche a +<p class="caption">Fig. 47.—Title of the <i>Entree d'Eléonore d'Autriche a Paris</i>, by Guillaume Bochetel. Printed by Geoffroy Tory in May, 1531, quarto.</p> </div> @@ -3723,7 +3681,7 @@ the wine with which each of them makes himself drunk."</p> <img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 53.—Robert Estienne, after the engraving in the -<i>Chronologie Collée</i>.</p> +<i>Chronologie Collée</i>.</p> </div> <p>This piece is only cited to show to what lengths @@ -4015,8 +3973,8 @@ Lyons.</p> <img src="images/i_137b.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 59.—Portraits of Francis, dauphin, and of Charles, -Duke of Angoûleme, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons. Woodcuts -taken from Roville's <i>Promptuaire des Médailles</i>.</p> +Duke of Angoûleme, after the originals of Cornelis of Lyons. Woodcuts +taken from Roville's <i>Promptuaire des Médailles</i>.</p> </div> <p>The workshops of the second city of France, we see,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> @@ -4081,7 +4039,7 @@ an official position, like Clouet.</p> <a href="images/i_139f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 60.—Captain of foot from the <i>Entree de Henri II. à +<p class="caption">Fig. 60.—Captain of foot from the <i>Entree de Henri II. à Lyon</i> (1549).</p> </div> @@ -4114,7 +4072,7 @@ title-pages for the use of publishers.</p> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 61.—Title of John Cousin's <i>Livre de Portraiture</i>, published in 1593 by Le Clerc. (The spot on the title is in the -original, preserved among the prints of the Bibliothèque Nationale.)</p> +original, preserved among the prints of the Bibliothèque Nationale.)</p> </div> @@ -4208,8 +4166,8 @@ the boastings of courtiers and political abstractions.</p> <a href="images/i_144f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 62.—Engraving by P. Woériot for Georgette de -Montenay's <i>Emblèmes</i>.</p> +<p class="caption">Fig. 62.—Engraving by P. Woériot for Georgette de +Montenay's <i>Emblèmes</i>.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>Among the publications opposed to the Government @@ -4784,7 +4742,7 @@ give a copy.</p> <img src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 71.—Title engraved by Claude Mellan for Urban -VIII.'s <i>Poésies</i>, printed at the Royal Printing House, in 1642.</p> +VIII.'s <i>Poésies</i>, printed at the Royal Printing House, in 1642.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span>Lyons did not remain far behind in the movement, @@ -4895,7 +4853,7 @@ de l'Espée</i> came in 1628, among numerous others.</p> <a href="images/i_169f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 72.—Title of Pluvinel's <i>Manège Royal</i>, engraved by +<p class="caption">Fig. 72.—Title of Pluvinel's <i>Manège Royal</i>, engraved by Crispin Pass in 1624.</p> </div> @@ -5041,7 +4999,7 @@ the commencement of the eighteenth century.</p> <a href="images/i_175f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_175.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 74.—Plate taken from the <i>Lumière du Cloistre</i>. +<p class="caption">Fig. 74.—Plate taken from the <i>Lumière du Cloistre</i>. Copper plate by Callot.</p> </div> @@ -5112,7 +5070,7 @@ the vignettists of the eighteenth century.</p> <a href="images/i_177f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_177.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 75.—Title of the <i>Manière Universelle</i>, by +<p class="caption">Fig. 75.—Title of the <i>Manière Universelle</i>, by Desargues, in 1643, by Abraham Bosse.</p> </div> @@ -5308,7 +5266,7 @@ with Bossuet, Boileau, and the others.</p> <a href="images/i_184f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_184.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 77.—Tailpiece of Sébastien Leclerc for the +<p class="caption">Fig. 77.—Tailpiece of Sébastien Leclerc for the <i>Promenade de St. Germain</i>.</p> </div> @@ -5391,7 +5349,7 @@ thousand other works of small repute.</p> <a href="images/i_187f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_187.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 78.—Small figure of Sébastien Leclerc for +<p class="caption">Fig. 78.—Small figure of Sébastien Leclerc for Richesource's pamphlet.</p> </div> @@ -5563,7 +5521,7 @@ eighteenth century.</p> <a href="images/i_192f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_192.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 79.—Letter by Cochin for the <i>Mémoires d' +<p class="caption">Fig. 79.—Letter by Cochin for the <i>Mémoires d' Artillerie</i> of Suvirey de St. Remy.</p> </div> @@ -5839,7 +5797,7 @@ is here reproduced.</p> <img src="images/i_201.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 82.—Title-page engraved by Fessard after Cochin for -the works of Madame Deshoulières, 1747.</p> +the works of Madame Deshoulières, 1747.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>Nearly all the frontispieces of the Book with vignettes @@ -5881,7 +5839,7 @@ office of the eighteenth century.</p> <a href="images/i_203f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 83.—Vignette taken from P. Corneille's <i>Théâtre</i>, +<p class="caption">Fig. 83.—Vignette taken from P. Corneille's <i>Théâtre</i>, by Gravelot.</p> </div> @@ -5985,7 +5943,7 @@ of the first order, and it was put on sale by Barbou.</p> <img src="images/i_207.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 85.—Vignette by Eisen for the Quiproquo in the -Contes of La Fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers généraux.</p> +Contes of La Fontaine, in the edition of the fermiers généraux.</p> </div> <p>It is not a book to be recommended from a moral @@ -6057,7 +6015,7 @@ by the artist without disappointment.</p> <a href="images/i_210f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 87.—Tailpiece from the <i>Médecin malgre Lui</i>, by +<p class="caption">Fig. 87.—Tailpiece from the <i>Médecin malgre Lui</i>, by Moreau le Jeune.</p> </div> @@ -6836,7 +6794,7 @@ in such cases, the disciples outstripped their masters.</p> <a href="images/i_235f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 94.—Vignette by Devéria for the <i>Fiancé de la +<p class="caption">Fig. 94.—Vignette by Devéria for the <i>Fiancé de la Tombe</i>.</p> </div> @@ -6950,7 +6908,7 @@ to willing publishers!"</p> <a href="images/i_239f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_239.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 96.—Vignette by Daumier for the <i>Cholera à Paris</i></p> +<p class="caption">Fig. 96.—Vignette by Daumier for the <i>Cholera à Paris</i></p> </div> <p>Curmer acknowledges the importance of English @@ -7014,7 +6972,7 @@ produced.</p> <a href="images/i_241f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_241.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 97.—Vignette by Gavarni for <i>Paris Marié</i>.</p> +<p class="caption">Fig. 97.—Vignette by Gavarni for <i>Paris Marié</i>.</p> </div> @@ -7050,8 +7008,8 @@ on wood.</p> <a href="images/i_242f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_242.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 98.—Balzac writing his <i>Contes Drôlatiques</i>. -Vignette by Gustave Doré.</p> +<p class="caption">Fig. 98.—Balzac writing his <i>Contes Drôlatiques</i>. +Vignette by Gustave Doré.</p> </div> <hr class="tb" /> @@ -7436,7 +7394,7 @@ the principle is always the same.</p> <img src="images/i_255.jpg" alt="" /> </a> <p class="caption">Fig. 103.—Mark of Jodocus Badius of Asch, representing -the interior of a printing office about 1535. Engraving <i>à la croix de +the interior of a printing office about 1535. Engraving <i>à la croix de Lorraine</i>.</p> </div> @@ -8154,7 +8112,7 @@ the binding is of the period of Henri III.</p> <a href="images/i_283f.jpg"> <img src="images/i_283.jpg" alt="" /> </a> -<p class="caption">Fig. 114.—Sixteenth century binding, called <i>à la +<p class="caption">Fig. 114.—Sixteenth century binding, called <i>à la fanfare</i>. In the Dutuit collection.</p> </div> @@ -9531,383 +9489,6 @@ accelerated, as is also the number of readers.</p> <li>Zwoll, book illustration at, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> </ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Printed Book, by Henri Bouchot - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PRINTED BOOK *** - -***** This file should be named 44890-h.htm or 44890-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/8/9/44890/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tony De Vita and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project -Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you -charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you -do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the -rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose -such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and -research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do -practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is -subject to the trademark license, especially commercial -redistribution. - - - -*** START: FULL LICENSE *** - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project -Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at - www.gutenberg.org/license. - - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy -all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. -If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the -terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or -entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement -and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" -or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the -collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an -individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are -located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from -copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative -works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg -are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project -Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by -freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of -this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with -the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by -keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project -Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in -a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check -the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement -before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or -creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project -Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning -the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United -States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate -access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently -whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, -copied or distributed: - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived -from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is -posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied -and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees -or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work -with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the -work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 -through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the -Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or -1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional -terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked -to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the -permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any -word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or -distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than -"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version -posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), -you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a -copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon -request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other -form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided -that - -- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is - owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he - has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the - Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments - must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you - prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax - returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and - sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the - address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to - the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." - -- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or - destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium - and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of - Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any - money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days - of receipt of the work. - -- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set -forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from -both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael -Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the -Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm -collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain -"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or -corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual -property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a -computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by -your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with -your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with -the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a -refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity -providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to -receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy -is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further -opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER -WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO -WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. -If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the -law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be -interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by -the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any -provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance -with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, -promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, -harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, -that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do -or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm -work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any -Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. - - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers -including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists -because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from -people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. -To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 -and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive -Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent -permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. -Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered -throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 -North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email -contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the -Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To -SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any -particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. -To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic -works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44890 ***</div> </body> </html> diff --git a/44890.zip b/44890.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3dfbdf1..0000000 --- a/44890.zip +++ /dev/null |