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diff --git a/old/44186.txt b/old/44186.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e5f3031..0000000 --- a/old/44186.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6327 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Trees Every Child Should Know, by Julia Ellen Rogers - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Trees Every Child Should Know - Easy Tree Studies for All Seasons of the Year - -Author: Julia Ellen Rogers - -Release Date: November 15, 2013 [EBook #44186] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, L. Harrison and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: The Glory of Autumn Trees] - - - - - _Trees_ - EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW - - - EASY TREE STUDIES FOR - ALL SEASONS OF THE YEAR - BY - JULIA ELLEN ROGERS - - Illustrated - -[Illustration: Grosset & Dunlap] - - NEW YORK - GROSSET & DUNLAP - Publishers - - - - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION - INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN - - COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY - PUBLISHED OCTOBER, 1909 - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES - AT - THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - How to Know the Trees 3 - - AUTUMN STUDIES - The Nut Trees: - The Shagbark Hickories 9 - The Disappointing Hickories 12 - The Black Walnut 16 - The Butternut 18 - The English Walnut 19 - The Chestnut and Chinquapin 22 - The Beech 26 - The Witch Hazel 29 - The Oak Family 33 - The White Oak Group: - The White Oak 37 - The Bur or Mossy-cup Oak 39 - The Live Oak 41 - The Post Oak 44 - The Swamp White Oak 45 - The Chestnut Oak 46 - The Black Oak Group: - The Black Oak 47 - The Red Oak 50 - The Scarlet Oak 51 - The Pin Oak 52 - The Willow Oak 54 - Trees with Winged Seeds 55 - Tree Seeds that have Parachutes 62 - The Autumn Berries in the Woods 64 - The Changing Colour of the Autumn Woods 74 - - WINTER STUDIES - Trees We Know by Their Bark 83 - Trees We Know by Their Shapes 93 - Trees We Know by Their Thorns 98 - The Needle-leaved Evergreens 101 - The Five-leaved Soft Pines 108 - The White Pine 109 - The Great Sugar Pine 112 - The Nut Pines 114 - The Hard Pines 118 - The Southern Pitch Pines 119 - The Longleaf Pine 119 - The Shortleaf Pine 121 - The Cuban Pine 123 - The Loblolly Pine 124 - The Northern Pitch Pines 125 - The Cedars, White and Red 127 - Two Conifers Not Evergreen 131 - The Larches 131 - The Bald Cypress 134 - The Hollies 136 - The Burning Bush 139 - - SPRING STUDIES - The Awakening of the Trees 143 - Trees that Bloom in Early Spring 146 - The American Elm and Its Kin 150 - The Maple Family 154 - The Willow Family 163 - Why Trees Need Leaves 169 - Leaves of All Shapes and Sizes 173 - - SUMMER STUDIES - Trees with the Largest Flowers 183 - Trees Most Showy in Bloom 189 - Trees that Bloom in Midsummer 192 - The Early Berries in the Woods 197 - The Sassafras 200 - The Ash Family 203 - The Horse-chestnut and the Buckeyes 208 - The Buckeyes 211 - The Locusts and Other Pod-bearers 214 - Wild Apple Trees and Their Kin 221 - The Cherries 226 - The Plums 229 - The Serviceberries 232 - Valuable Sap of Trees 233 - The Uses of Trees 237 - - - Identification Keys to Tree Groups and Families 251 - Index 261 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - The Glory of Autumn Trees _Frontispiece_ - FACING PAGE - Three Pignuts, Three Shagbarks, and Two Pecans; Flowering Twig of - the Shagbark Hickory 16 - Black Walnut and Butternut; Twig of Butternut 17 - Buds and Flowers of the Beech Tree 32 - Catkins of a Hornbeam and a Birch; Catkins and Acorn Flowers of an - Oak 33 - Leaves, Acorns, and Twigs of the Bur Oak 48 - The Horizontal Limbs of the Pin Oak Form a Regular Pyramidal Head 49 - Cone Fruits of a Birch, a Pine, a Magnolia, and a Fir 64 - Clusters of the Winged Seeds of Hornbeam and White Ash 65 - The Flowering Dogwood Covers Its Bare Branches with Blossoms in May 76 - Flowering Dogwood, in Flower and Fruit, the Winter Flower Buds, and - Alligator Skin Bark 77 - We Recognise Birches by their Silky, Tattered Bark 84 - The Beech Trunk Is Clothed in Smooth, Pale Grey Bark 85 - The Loose, Stripping Bark Gives Its Name to the Shagbark Hickory 86 - Bark of Hackberry, Black Birch and Hornbeam 87 - Warty, Ridged Bark of the Sweet Gum, the Swinging Seed Balls, and - Winged Seeds 90 - Bark and Seed Balls of the Sycamore 91 - The Lombardy Poplar 92 - The Live Oak of the South 93 - Fruiting Branch of a Cockspur Thorn 96 - Clustered Thorns on Trunk of Honey Locust Tree; Flowers and Foliage - of the Black Locust 97 - Cones of Hemlock and Norway Spruce 112 - Pine Twig with Cones, and Clustered Staminate Flowers 113 - Thousands of Little Balsam Firs Supply the Market with Christmas - Trees 114 - Nathaniel Hawthorne's Outdoor Study 115 - The Spiny-leaved, Red-berried Holly 126 - What Would Christmas Be Without Holly Branches and Wreaths for - Decoration! 127 - "The Grizzly Giant," a Sequoia Over Three Hundred Feet High 128 - Scaly-leaved Evergreens 129 - The Opening Buds of the Shagbark Hickory 144 - Catkins and Leaves of the Trembling Aspen 145 - Flower Buds, Blossoms, Seeds, and Leaf of the American Elm 148 - Elm Tree in Bloom 149 - Buds and Flowers of the Red Maple 156 - Seeds of the Red Maple 157 - The Sugar Maple 176 - Leaves of the Black Willow; Pussy Willow Twigs 177 - Leaves and Flowers of the Ear-leaved Cucumber Tree 192 - The Orange-yellow Flower Cups and Squared Leaves of the Tulip Tree 193 - Flowers, Fruit, and the Three Different Leaf Patterns of the - Sassafras Tree 194 - Waxy Flowers of the Evergreen Magnolia 195 - Fruits, Leaves, and Flowers of the Basswood Tree 206 - The Chestnut Tree 207 - An Old Apple Orchard 224 - Nothing Tastes as Good as Ripe Apples Picked Right off the Tree! 225 - Flowers and Fruit of the Wild Black Cherry 240 - The Delicate, White Flower Clusters of the Serviceberry Tree 241 - - - - - HOW TO KNOW THE TREES - - -The best time to begin to study the trees is to-day! The place to begin -is right where you are, provided there is a tree near enough, for a -lesson about trees will be very dull unless there is a tree to look at, -to ask questions of, and to get answers from. But suppose it is winter -time, and the tree is bare. Then you have a chance to see the wonderful -framework of trunk and branches, the way the twigs spread apart on the -outer limbs, while the great boughs near the trunk are almost bare. Each -branch is trying to hold its twigs out into the sunshine, and each twig -is set with buds. When these buds open, and most of them send out leafy -shoots, the tree will be a shady summerhouse with a thick, leafy roof -that the sun cannot look through. Among the big branches near the trunk -very few leaves will be found compared with the number the outer twigs -bear. - -How can we tell whether the tree is alive or dead in winter? Break off a -twig. Is there a layer of green just inside the brown bark? This is the -sign that the tree is alive. Dead twigs are withered, and their buds are -not plump and bright. The green is gone from under the bark of these -twigs. - -Under each bud is the scar of last year's leaf, and if you look on the -ground you are pretty sure to find a dead leaf whose stem fits exactly -into that scar. If there are a number of these leaves under the tree, you -may feel sure that they fell from the tree last autumn. Look carefully -among the leaves, and on the branches for the seeds of this tree. If -there is an acorn left on the tree, you may be sure that you have the -tree's name! - -The name is the thing we wish first to know when we meet a stranger. If -an acorn is found growing on a tree, that tree has given us its name, for -trees that bear acorns are all oaks. An acorn is a kind of nut, and there -are many kinds of oaks, each with its own acorn pattern, unlike that of -other oaks. Yet all acorns sit in their little acorn cups, and we do not -confuse them with nuts of other trees. So we know the family name of all -trees whose fruits are acorns. They are all oaks, and there are fifty -kinds in our own country, growing wild in American forests. But if those -of all countries are counted, there are in all more than three hundred -kinds. - -If, instead of acorns, pods hang on the twigs, the tree belongs to the -locust family, related to our garden peas and beans. The signs by which -we learn to know trees are not many. The bark of the white birch is so -silky white that everybody knows that tree. The sycamore sheds its bark -in thin, irregular sheets, leaving patches of dirty white streaking the -trunk and limbs, as if the tree had been daubed and spattered with -whitewash. This tree is so strikingly different from others that nearly -everybody knows it by name. Or they call it "buttonwood." The seed-balls -hang on slender stems, swinging in the winter wind. - -The winter signs to notice are the bark, the buds, and the leaf scars, -the shape of the tree, and the way it branches. The fruit it bears may be -seen in summer, autumn, or winter. The flowers come in warm weather, some -kinds early, some later, and the leaves are new in spring, and most trees -shed them in autumn. There is no time of year when there are not three or -four of the important signs hung out on every tree to guide those who are -trying to find out its name, and learn the story of its interesting life. -And the finding out of tree names is not dreary and hard, but a good game -to be played out-of-doors. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE AUTUMN - - - THE SHAGBARK HICKORIES - -The best hickory nut tree that grows wild in our American forests is the -shagbark, or shellbark. Who says that the pecan is better than the nut of -the little shagbark? Southern people insist upon this, as the pecan is -the pride of the Southern states. As a compromise we may place side by -side the pecan of the South, and the little shagbark of the North, and -challenge the world to produce a nut that is worthy to rank with these -two in quality. - -The shagbark takes its name from the tree's habit of shedding the bark in -long, narrow strips or flakes, that curl away from the point of -attachment, but cling for months, perhaps, giving the trunk a shaggy -appearance, and making very easy the discovery of these trees in a -stretch of mixed woodland. And how it does cut and slash the stoutest of -overalls to scramble up and down one of these trees? Only boys and their -despairing mothers can know just how costly a Saturday afternoon nutting -expedition can be, and why many a boy finds it expedient to come back -with his bag of nuts in the late dusk. Otherwise he might be mistaken for -a tramp, so tattered are his clothes. - -The smooth little nuts are angled and pointed, and when they are ripe, -the thick, corky, green husks part into four equal divisions, and the -nuts fall out. So much less trouble than walnuts, in their spongy husks, -that never part regularly, but wait until they are torn off by impatient -boys or squirrels, or until they dry and gradually crumble away. - -The shagbark hickory is a beautiful tree when covered with its shining -foliage in summer. Each leaf is made of five leaflets on a wiry leaf -stem. The three outer leaflets are larger than the pair set nearest the -base of the stem. The whole leaf is often more than a foot long, and -sometimes there are seven leaflets on each. - -The most wonderful shagbark hickory tree I ever saw was one I met once at -sundown, after a long walk across country. It stood in a field, alone, -and so near my home that I had noticed it almost every day through a long -winter. I had gathered a quantity of nuts as they fell in the frosty -autumn days, and it was a race between me and the squirrels, often, to -see who should get the bigger share. I think they beat me, which is -perfectly right. I remember now how rich the foliage looked as it slowly -turned from green to golden brown, and fell in a great windrow all about -the shaggy trunk, as the nuts ripened. - -All winter I noticed how strong the lithe limbs were, and how flexible, -as the wind twisted them about in storms, and how much of promise there -was in the great, scaly buds that tipped the twigs. - -It was late April when I came by. As I looked up into that tree top the -sunlight was shining through, and at first I thought I must be dreaming. -Instead of buds, I saw what seemed like lighted candles, each with a -silken frill, like the recurved petals of an iris, below the tip of -flame! I had never seen a tree thus illuminated, and the sight was -enchanting. The warm spring air had brought out the hickory buds, with -those of other trees, and while I was looking for flowers on the ground, -the buds above had swollen, cast off the winter covers, revealing the -silky inner wrappings of the young shoots. The rich downward-curving -"petals" were only the inner scales of the great buds, grown long and -wide, their vivid orange setting off the compact yellow buds that still -stood erect. These concealed the tender, velvety leaves that were soon to -be revealed with the falling of the leaf scales. I had never seen a -hickory tree opening its iris-like buds before, but I have never missed -it since. - -The big shellbark, or shagbark, hickory is the sturdy "big brother" of -the little shagbark. In every particular it exaggerates the -characteristics of the favourite among our nut trees. The bark is more -shaggy, the tree grows larger, the nuts are bigger. Are they _better_? -No. But they are much the same in flavour, and being so good and so big, -they have the market name of "king nuts." The best of them are gathered -in the woods of Missouri and Arkansas. The tree is found from -Pennsylvania westward to Oklahoma, but the lumber is valuable for the -making of vehicles and tool handles, and so the trees are now scarce in -the states that are oldest. - -In winter the big shagbark trees show their orange-coloured twigs. They -are peculiar to this one hickory. The leaf stems stay on the twigs after -the leaves fall, and give the tree top in winter a ragged, hairy -appearance, that matches its shaggy trunk. - - - THE DISAPPOINTING HICKORIES - -The pignut has been given this ugly name because farmers, in the early -days, turned their pigs into woodland pastures to fatten on the -thin-shelled nuts that dropped from this kind of hickory tree. They are -not bitter, but merely tasteless, and it is only a "greenhorn" from town -or city who will spend time to gather these poor hickory nuts, mistaking -them for shellbarks. They are not usually angled, but smoothly rounded, -often pear-shaped, and the husks are thin. The shagbarks are in husks -nearly one-half inch thick, which split in four divisions, and fall apart -to release the ripe nuts. The husks of pignuts divide but part way down, -and so the nuts are not freed from them promptly. The kernels are -yellowish white. - -A look at the bark of a shagbark hickory, and then at a pignut fixes in -mind one of the chief differences between these trees. The pignut has -clean, smooth, grey bark, becoming coarser and rougher with increasing -age, but never shedding its bark in ragged strips as the shagbark begins -to do when the trees are still young. Smoother foliage and twigs, smaller -buds in winter, and a more regular round head make the pignut a fine tree -to plant on the lawn, where the shagbark would be out of place, on -account of its shaggy, untidy trunk. - -Another handsome hickory tree with nuts that are very disappointing to -the members of a nutting party is the mockernut, called also the big bud -hickory, and the white heart hickory. The last name is wrong because the -heart wood is brown, and it is the wood near the bark that is white. The -tree has the largest buds and the stoutest, clumsiest twigs and branches -in the whole hickory family. The leaves are correspondingly large, -sometimes nearly two feet long, of seven to nine leaflets, on downy, -swollen stalks. The catkins of the staminate flowers are like thick, -chenille fringes, six inches long, often longer, hanging in May below the -new leaves. - -The nuts are large and look most promising at first. The big, four-parted -husk is as thick as a shagbark's, but it does not split all the way down. -So the first difficulty is to get the nut out of the husk. The bony shell -is the next. It is astonishingly thick and hard to crack. Last -disappointment of all, the kernel is at best very small, and not worth -the trouble of getting it out, though there is no denying that it is -better-tasting than a pignut, and almost as sweet as a little shagbark. -Very often the shell contains a spongy substance that is tasteless, -instead of the kernel the patient nutter has a right to expect. - -Crumple leaflets of this tree in your hand, and they smell fruity, like -an apple. They turn to yellow and russet in autumn. - -The bitternut is a hickory nut whose kernel no squirrel eats. It is as -bitter as gall. Thin-shelled as a pignut, and usually less than an inch -in length, the nuts are enclosed in thin husks, that differ from others -in having thin ridges that rise along the four lines where they split at -the time the nuts are ripe. Two of these clefts run farther down than the -other pair. The nut shell is thin, slightly flattened sometimes, and -marked with dark lines. The kernel is white, and you will never taste a -second one. - -The sure sign by which to tell the bitternut hickory is the tapering, -flattened, yellow bud. At any time of year a few, at least, of these buds -are to be found. They are numerous from midsummer till May; after that, a -few dormant winter buds remain to tell the tree's name until the new buds -are showing in the angles between leaf and twig No other hickory has -little, yellow buds. - -In winter the slimness of the twigs, and in summer the small size of the -leaflets make this the most delicately built of the hickories. The buds -are the smallest to be found on a hickory tree. Yet it is the quickest to -grow, and one of the handsomest trees in the family. Because it loves -best to grow with its roots in wet soil, it is called the swamp hickory. - - - THE BLACK WALNUT - -No boy or girl who has ever gone nutting "in brown October's woods" can -forget the fruits of the black walnut trees that hang like green oranges, -high up on the ends of the branches, and have to be climbed for and -shaken down. And each fellow on the ground looks out for his own head, as -the shower of nuts comes down. Oh! the rich, walnut smell of those juicy -husks, as we bruised them on the nearest stone, tore them off, wiping our -damp fingers on the grass, before cracking the rough-shelled nuts. The -brown stains stayed until they wore off, but the memory of the sweet -kernels lasts longer, and the pungent odour of those nut husks is in -every twig, bud, and leaf of every walnut tree. Bruise any young shoot, -and by the odour of its sap the tree's name may be guessed. - -There is another test for a walnut tree, for those who do not know the -odour of the sap. Cut a twig, and split it. The pith of walnut trees is -not solid, but is in thin plates, separated by air spaces. This is a sure -sign. - -[Illustration: Three pignuts, with husks, three shagbarks, and two -pecans; Flowering twig of the little shagbark hickory] - -[Illustration: Black walnut and butternut. Twig of butternut, in winter -and in spring] - -Walnut trees grow rapidly, and are a valuable tree crop to plant. Nuts -for seed are packed in gravel, and left outdoors over winter. The -stubborn shells are cracked by Jack Frost in such a way as not to injure -the seed, which is the meat of the nut. The nuts are planted in spring -just where the trees are to stand, for it is much better for a walnut -tree never to be transplanted. - -I have heard my grandfather tell how the early settlers in Ohio cleared -the rich bottom land along the rivers. The great trees that had grown, -undisturbed, for centuries, were the "weeds" that had to be cut down and -removed, before the soil could be ploughed and sowed to oats or wheat. -The only way to do this was to burn the trees, by piling them together -and firing the pile, as soon as it was dry enough to burn. The -"log-rollings" were the neighbourhood gatherings, when men brought their -teams and log chains, and worked like Trojans, dragging the logs to the -places selected for the giant bonfires, later on. The women and children -had a grand time, watching the men at work, and preparing the dinner, -which was a feast, and a great social occasion. - -The stump of many a noble black walnut tree, cut down a century ago, has -stood, undecayed, until recent years. So valuable is its wood that these -stumps have been pulled up with expensive machinery, for the -gnarly-grained roots that are still sound. Cut into thin sheets, the wood -is used for veneering furniture. Think how many millions of dollars' -worth of lumber went up in smoke in those bonfires! Black walnut is -scarce now, and can hardly be bought at any price. - - - THE BUTTERNUT - -The butternut trees are stripped of their fruit in October by boys who -have visions of long evenings, such as Whittier describes in "Snow -Bound," with nuts and apples and cider, by a roaring fire. Some boys -leave the black walnut trees to others, and fill their bags entirely from -the low, broad butternut trees, that have more nuts in each cluster, and -they are not so hard to reach. Many will say that they are much sweeter -and richer than black walnuts. Others do not care for them because they -are so oily. Indeed, they are called "oil-nuts," and woe to the youngster -who has eaten "all he wanted"! - -The butternuts are oblong and pointed at one end, and sticky to the -touch, differing in this particular from the globular fruits of the black -walnut. The same clammy feeling makes it unpleasant to touch the leaves -of butternut tree. The resinous sap seems to ooze out through pores along -the hairy leaf veins. - -In summer time, when the fuzzy, green butternuts are scarcely larger than -olives, and their shells are so soft that a knitting-needle goes through -without any trouble, the time for making pickled nuts has come. The -gathering of the clustered green fruit is fun, but as soon as they are -scalded, the "fur" has to be rubbed off of each, before the nuts, husks -and all, are put down in spiced vinegar, to be used as a relish for -serving with meats the following winter. The "furring" usually falls to -the children, and they get very tired, for it is a slow and monotonous -job, whether one uses a coarse towel or a brush. However, it would be -unpleasant to eat a furry nut, no matter how carefully the spicing was -done. - - - THE ENGLISH WALNUT - -The English walnut trees are grown in orchards in Southern California. -These trees are quick to grow, and come early into bearing. When you buy -a pound of these thin-shelled nuts at the corner grocery store, you may -well wonder where they grew. Perhaps little children picked them up under -trees that grow in Italy or in Greece. Fine, large nuts come from France, -but none of them are raised in England. Many of the best nuts are raised -in California, where more and more trees of this kind are planted each -year. They grow in the Southern states, but have never been planted on a -large scale as a commercial nut tree. - -The English walnut tree grows in England, but the nuts never have time to -get ripe in that climate. They are gathered green, and pickled, husks and -all. From English grandmothers we learned to pickle our own butternuts -while the shells are still soft. - -The earliest shipments of the walnuts of Europe came into this country -from England. Probably merchants in London sent them to merchants in New -York. The dealers did not ask where these walnuts grew, but told people -who asked that they came from England. This explains the name by which -everybody now calls them. - -Far back in its history, this tree grew wild in Persia, and on the wooded -hillsides of Asia Minor. The people gathered the nuts for food. It was -the custom of visitors to send presents of these nuts back to their -friends in Europe when they were travelling in the Orient, and discovered -how very good these unknown nuts tasted. Englishmen were among these who -were loud in praise of them. "Walnut," the name they gave the trees, -means "a nut that comes from a foreign country." The Greeks had called it -"Jove's acorn," for they could not think of any other name good enough. -Kings sent presents of nuts to each other. Then people began to plant -nuts, instead of eating them all, and gradually all the warmer countries -of Europe found they could grow these walnuts. - -The size and quality of the nuts improved under cultivation. Now there -are many varieties, all larger, thinner-shelled, and better-flavoured -than the original wild nuts that still grow in the forests of Asia Minor. - -In the centuries when the countries of Europe were always at war with -their neighbours, another reason for planting walnut trees was -discovered. No wood was so good for gunstocks. No young man could marry -until he had planted a certain number of walnut trees. This was the law -in some countries in the seventeenth century. So multitudes of these -trees were set out. Besides gunstocks, walnut wood was much in fashion -for handsome furniture. A walnut forest was a very profitable crop to -raise, for lumber alone. A tree that bore such nuts, while its trunk was -growing big enough to go to the saw mill was doubly profitable. The -people of the colder countries were ambitious to share in this -prosperity. But an occasional winter of extra severity killed the young -trees. - - - THE CHESTNUT AND CHINQUAPIN - -Next to the hickory nuts, we must rank the chestnuts. Some may give them -first place in the list of American nut trees. In England the chestnut -trees one hears about are never praised for their nuts. English boys and -girls do not eagerly plan for half-holidays spent in the jolly sport of -chestnutting. Their chestnut trees turn out to be very familiar to our -eyes. They are the horse chestnuts that we see so often at home. Their -nuts are handsome enough, and quite worth gathering for use in some -games, and just to have and to handle. But chestnutting! That is one of -the great joys of October in our country, a thing no boy or girl would -miss without bitter disappointment. - -While the leaves turn yellow on the big trees, children and squirrels -have their eyes on the clustered, spiny balls at the ends of the -branches. "Not yet!" is the sign they read as plain as printed words. -Warm days come and go, and the tree holds out its sign, even after the -leaves begin to fall. Father and mother say: "Be patient!" But they do -not remember how hard that is. It is a long time since they were eight -and ten and twelve years old. - -Then a cold night comes, and in the early morning a hoar frost is -disappearing as the sun rises. Four seams can be seen on some chestnut -burs, and the impatient boys throw clubs into the tree tops. But their -fingers are sore with trying to pry the burs open. The nuts are cheesy -and insipid. - -"Just you wait a spell." This is the advice of John, the raggedy man, who -does the chores. "You can't hurry up chestnuts. When they're ready, I'll -take you where you can get a barrel of 'em, and not kill yourself, nor -ruin your hands gettin' 'em." He sees the rising tide of fear before it -is expressed in words, and answers mysteriously: "Nobody knows the place -but me. Let the little fellers an' the town folks hunt for nuts under the -trees along the road. They'll get a quart apiece, mebby, if they work -half a day. The place I'm goin' to, you can scoop 'em up in handfuls." - -The trees far back from the high road are certainly more generous to the -few who find them than are the more accessible, and therefore more -popular trees. Nobody "scoops them up in handfuls," literally, for there -are the burs, quite as prickly as before they split their four segments -apart, and let the two or three nuts fall out. Careful and quick motions -are needed to pick up the pointed nuts among the larger burs. But the -game is most absorbing. If the bags fill slowly, there is the consoling -thought that the shells are thin, and the nuts are almost solid meats. -The busy picker stops now and then to sample a few. They certainly are -riper and finer tasting than they were a short week ago. - -Unopened or partly opened husks are often gathered. The nuts will ripen -and roll out on the attic floor, or on the roof of the side porch. Few -parties who go chestnutting content themselves with the loose nuts they -gather. The end of the day is a scramble to fill the bags or baskets with -hulls not yet fully open. Mittens faced with leather or made of canvas -are a good protection for the hands. - -The saddest news from the woods of the Northeast is that a disease that -baffles the tree doctors has attacked and killed all the chestnut trees -in the neighbourhood of the city of New York, and it is marching steadily -westward. It has invaded New Jersey and Pennsylvania. A fungus attacking -the living layer under the bark of a tree is working where no remedy can -reach it. The tree loses vitality, but only when it is far gone does the -disease break through the bark, and show itself as small, yellow pimples -on the smooth bark of the branches. Out of these openings the spores -escape,--minute germs of the disease. The wind scatters them. So do -birds, insects, and squirrels. They lodge in cracks in the bark of other -trees. Only chestnut trees catch the disease, though the germs fall -everywhere. When it progresses far enough to produce a mat of fungus that -encircles the trunk, the tree is girdled, its food supply is cut off, and -death results. - -The chinquapin is a Southern tree, which closely resembles the chestnut. -It is usually shrubby and dwarfed in all of its parts. The nuts are about -as large as our little hazel nuts, and each is alone in a spiny husk that -parts into halves when mature. Five or six of these little burs are often -borne on a single stalk. - -In Arkansas the tree reaches medium size, but in the East it is familiar -as a scrubby tree that sends up suckers from the roots and forms -thickets, like hazel brush. Poor folks in the South have time to gather -these little nuts, which appear on market day in their season in some -cities and towns. They are sweet, and some people think they are better -than chestnuts. - - - THE BEECH - -Least of all the nuts good to eat that grow in our mixed woods is the -fruit of the grey-trunked beeches. In nutting time the beech tree's crown -of green is almost as clean and bright as in midsummer. The silky leaves -are little torn by the wind. They turn to a beautiful pale yellow, and -become thin and papery as the green pulp is drawn back into the twigs. -Few people see the spiny green burs on the ends of side twigs in summer, -even though the crop of nuts be heavy. In the autumn the brown spiny -husks open. Their four divisions flare outward, and two triangular brown -nuts are released. Almost unnoticed they drop on the ground under the -tree. They are so little that the wind helps to scatter them in the woods -around. The shifting leaf carpet sifts them through, and we shall have to -hunt for them, even under the parent trees. - -I need not tell any boy or girl how good and sweet these beech nuts are, -and how well they repay the trouble of getting the kernels out of the -thin, triangular shells. Yet people gather them less frequently than they -do chestnuts, because it is slow work, and there is more accomplished -under trees whose nuts are larger. - -The early settlers fattened their pigs in autumn by turning them into the -woods. Beech trees made the best possible pasture for this purpose. The -flavour of beech nut bacon is exceptionally delicate, and has an extra -high market value. Squirrels and all of the smaller furry-coats take the -time and trouble to gather and hoard quantities of beech nuts among their -winter stores. - -Fortunate for the beech tree, its nuts will grow even in the shade. We -shall find a fruiting beech tree surrounded by its children--saplings of -all ages, coming up from seeds of various sowings. - -By scratching carefully among the dead leaves in spring, we shall find, -among the gaping burs, the young trees at the very beginning of their -lives. The nuts have slipped down into the damp leaf mould, and the -melting of snow, and the warm spring air have started them growing. The -triangular shell clings to the top of the stem, while the root is getting -a foothold. A pair of broad seed leaves, totally unlike the leaves of the -beech tree, unfold. The spreading of these seed leaves soon splits the -walls of the nut-shell helmet. - -Little beech trees at this age are very weak and helpless, but patient -and struggling. Their pale leaves turn green as the root goes deeper -down, and draws food from the soil. A shoot bearing true beech leaves -rises from the tip, between the seed leaves. The stem straightens, and -grows tall, the seed leaves wither, and, unless it has bad luck, or some -accident befalls it, the little tree is a long, leafy whip by the end of -the season, and under each green leaf is a long bird's-claw beech bud, -just like those on the parent trees. In these buds are leafy shoots which -will be side branches during the following summer. - -Beech nuts are still one of the main foods of many wild animals. In the -earlier days they had much greater importance, for nuts were one of the -natural foods upon which the human race subsisted before the days when -men became civilised. They depended upon foods which Nature provided, and -ate them without cooking. Acorns served the same important purpose. - -We cannot go back to the days when men lived in caves, and dressed in the -skins of wild animals, and lived upon foods like nuts and berries, and -the flesh of wild beasts. But in camping out we return as closely as -possible to the simple life of these wild ancestors of ours. It is good -to know what foods the forest offers to hungry men and beasts. Some day -we may be lost in the woods. We may come to an oak tree, and attempt to -eat its acorns, but find them bitter. It is well to know that the oaks -with finger-pointed leaves bear acorns that are sweet and good. It is -only the oaks with spiny-lobed leaves whose acorns are bitter and unfit -for food. Beech trees offer no food to a hungry person, unless he knows -how little the nuts are, and how they hide by slipping under the leaves -when they fall. To know trees is delightful at any time, and in any -place. To know them when one is lost in a forest is often the means of -saving one's life. The forest still feeds the hungry, but only those who -know the trees are able to find these stores of food when they need them. - - - THE WITCH HAZEL - -The witch hazel is indeed the witch of the woods. It turns the year -up-side-down, by blossoming in October, at the same time that it is -ripening its seeds. For this reason every child who lives in a region -where this little tree grows should know the witch hazel. The better -people know it, the more wonderful they find it. It has many odd habits -and secrets, which it will reveal only to those who come and ask -questions, and keep their ears and eyes wide open to catch the answers. - -In spring the witch hazel hides under its green leaves, and attracts no -attention from those who have come out to see the great procession of the -spring flowers, under foot, and over head. It is simply a part of the -undergrowth, a shrubby little tree. But come in October, to the same -place. The acorns are dropping from the oak, the foliage ablaze with -colour, or faded and falling. There are no flowers overhead, but a few -belated asters and goldenrods under foot. Squirrels are busy hiding -winter stores, gathered under the nut trees, and on the wild hawthorns. - -A thicket of witch hazel is slowly dropping its yellowing leaves. You -might not have noticed it at all, had not one of the trees suddenly -called attention to itself by tweaking your ear! It is such a surprise to -feel in the silent woods the sharp sting of a shot from a silent air gun. -You stand still, listening, and feeling of your ear. It is a fine frosty -October day, and still. As you listen, another shot strikes the dead -leaves at your feet. Where do they come from? This question you will -probably not be able to answer at once; but while you are looking in the -bushes from which the missile seemed to come, thinking to rout some joker -from his ambush, you discover the blossoms of the witch hazel. Each one -is waving four little yellow petals, and among these delicate blossoms -the bullet pods are bunched. Some of these are yawning wide open, each -showing two empty seed pockets, but you do not find any seeds. - -Cut a bundle of these things, and carry them home. Put them in a vase of -water. The delicate fragrance of the flowers will go through the house, -and every one will marvel that any tree or bush can be found in blossom -at the very end of the year. Now the strangest thing will happen. Above -the quiet talk around the evening lamp sounds the sharp click, as of a -bit of metal, or a bead striking the wall with considerable force. Every -one sits up to listen. A second click, this time on the glass covering a -picture, is located, and a little black object, smaller than an apple -seed, pointed and tipped with white, is picked up from the floor. It is -this seed which was thrown against the glass; and it does not require a -Sherlock Holmes to prove that it came out of one of the witch hazel seed -pods. If each person takes a twig, and keeps an eye upon the pods, that -show a slight opening, more than one of the pods will be seen when they -burst, and throw their seeds. The warmth of the indoor air springs the -trigger, and the tiny projectiles fly. - -How surprised the squirrels must be when the witch hazel guns are -bombarding the dry leaf carpet of the woods! How much pleasure it gives -you to take your friends to the thicket, and explain to them the meaning -of those scattering shots the pods are firing each crisp autumn day! If -it is rainy weather the pods will all be closed. But let the sun come -out, and dry them, and the game begins again. - -Can any one wonder that witch hazel trees grow in companies? Each little -tree flings its seeds in all directions, and for each seed planted a -little tree may come. Twenty feet from the parent tree the pods are able -to throw their seeds. - -Extract of witch hazel is obtained by boiling twigs and leaves of this -tree in a still with alcohol. The Indians taught white men that this -plant contained a drug which had soothing and curative powers when rubbed -upon sprains and bruises. Whether there is any truth in this notion or -not, the belief is still strong, and people continue to rub extract of -witch hazel on their bruises, even though many doctors say there is -nothing medicinal in it but the alcohol. - -[Illustration: The beech tree opens its two kinds of flowers after the -long, pointed winter buds have opened, and the lengthening shoot has -spread out its leaves.] - -[Illustration: Catkins, staminate and pistillate, of a hornbeam and a -birch; catkins and acorn flowers of an oak] - -In England the witch elm corresponds to our own witch hazel. No one in -the mining regions would dare to sink a shaft for coal unless he had -warrant for doing so from the actions of a divining rod in the hands of a -competent person. In other regions the digging of a well depends upon the -same thing, and this idea prevails in many parts of this country. An old -fellow who can "water witch" may be found in most old-fashioned -communities. If you wish to dig a well, you must call on him to locate -the site. He cuts a y-shaped twig from the witch hazel, trims it, and is -ready for the ceremony. Grasping one of the two tips in each hand, and -holding the main stem erect, he paces over the ground you have chosen. In -his rigid hands the supple twigs waver, and finally the wand bends -downward. This, according to popular belief, is the proper place to find -good water, and plenty of it. The water witch moves away, again holding -the stem erect. He comes back finally, and as he crosses the spot again, -the wand goes down. Now every one is sure that this is the spot, and the -well is dug. If the seer's prediction comes true, his reputation -improves, and scoffers concede that "there may be something in it, after -all." In regions where the witch hazel does not grow, a twig of wild plum -tree will do. - - - THE OAK FAMILY - -The fifty kinds of oak trees that are native to America are about evenly -divided on the two sides of the Rocky Mountains. No Western oaks are -found in the Eastern states, and none of our Eastern kinds grows wild on -the other side of the mountains. The backbone of the continent is a bar -that neither group has been able to pass. - -To know fifty different kinds of oaks by sight, so as to call each one by -its right name, is not an easy task; and yet it is not so difficult as it -at first might seem. To begin with, any tree we meet, which bears acorns, -we at once recognise as an oak. By this one sign, we are able to set this -great family apart from every other tree. As soon as they are old enough, -all oaks bear acorns. If a tree which we suspect to be an oak has no -acorn to show us, on or under the tree, a little close looking will -usually find some acorn cups still hanging on, or lying where they fell -upon the ground. - -The leaves of oaks are distinctive. In general, they are all simple, and -their outline is oval. The borders are variously cut by deep or shallow -bays, between sharp points or rounding finger-like lobes. They are -leathery in texture, compared with leaves of most trees. After a little -practice, we learn to recognise oak leaves, no matter how variously cut -their borders may be. - -In spring the flowers of oaks come out with the leaves. A fringe of -catkins at the base of the new shoot is composed of pollen-bearing -flowers. In the angles of the new leaves farther up the stem, we shall -find the little acorn flowers, usually in twos. This is the flower -arrangement of all the oaks; staminate and pistillate flowers on the new -shoots, separate and very different from each other, but always close -together, and always both kinds on each tree. The fringe of catkins falls -as soon as the pollen is shed. Little, red, forked tongues are thrust out -by the pistillate flowers to catch the golden dust when it is flying -through the air, and thus to set seed. All through the summer, the little -acorns are growing. We can find them in their tiny cups in the angles of -the leaves. - -In the autumn the acorns are ripe, and falling. Some trees will show -acorns of two sizes, half-grown ones on the new shoots, and full-sized -ones on the bare twigs, just back of the new shoots. - -This peculiarity divides the oak family into two great groups. One group -is composed of trees which have light-coloured bark, bear a crop every -year, and in winter are bare of fruit. This is known as the White Oak -Group. Its leaves have rounded margin lobes which do not end in sharp -points, as many of the lobes of oak leaves do. - -All of the oaks whose leaves have pointed, spiny lobes on their margin -belong to the Black Oak Group. The bark of these trees is usually -dark-coloured. The acorns require two years of growth. For this reason, -there are half-grown acorns on the tree all winter, waiting for the -second summer to bring them to maturity. Every autumn the acorns which -are ripe are found on the twigs just back of the leafy shoots, which grew -during the past summer. These acorns have completed their second year of -growth. - -When we hear any one speak of annual-fruited and biennial-fruited oaks, -we know that the White Oak and Black Oak Groups are meant. If you see an -oak tree whose leaves are cut into sharp pointed lobes, you will find -acorns of two sizes on its twigs. If you look across the fence and see a -pale-barked oak with finger-lobed leaves, and not a spiny point on their -margins, you will know that acorns of but one size will be found. Fix -these three points in mind. Then study all the oak trees you can find. - - Trees of the White Oak Group have: - 1. Rounded lobes on their leaf margins. - 2. Acorns ripe in a single season. - 3. Pale-coloured bark. - - Trees of the Black Oak Group have: - 1. Spiny-pointed lobes on their leaves. - 2. Acorns requiring two seasons to ripen. - 3. Dark-coloured bark - - - THE WHITE OAK - -Those who know trees best agree that there is no nobler broad-leaved tree -in the American forests than the White Oak. Tree lovers in England have -but one native oak upon which to spend their loyal devotion, the tree -worship inherited from Druid ancestors, whose temples were their sacred -groves of oaks. The same feeling is in our blood, and roused at sight of -an aged white oak, with stout, buttressed trunk, and great horizontal -limbs supporting a rounded dome, much broader than high. - -The tree is grey in winter. It stands bare of leaves, clothed in its -pale, scaly bark. This is the time to study the framework of the dome. -The limbs are twisted and gnarled, and their branches end in dense -thickets of twigs. Each twig bears the winter buds, and five buds are -clustered at the tip of each. - -In spring these buds open, and a leafy shoot comes out of each. At the -base are the yellow, fringed catkins of the sterile flowers, and above -them, in the angles between leaves and twig, the fertile flowers thrust -out forked tongues for pollen. These will be acorns next autumn, if the -pollen falls upon them, and thus sets seed. - -All summer the leaves are green, with pale linings, and when summer ends, -they turn to rich shades of purplish red. The sweet acorns are ripe, and -as they fall, thrifty squirrels are all about, gathering them into their -hidden store-houses for winter use. Plenty of the thin, shallow cups we -shall find, but the kernels are scarce, unless we come when they are -falling in October. - -The Indians taught the early colonists in America to use acorns of this -species for food. They boiled them, like hominy, and found them not only -nourishing, but good to eat. - -If you find solitary white oaks growing here and there in a mixed woods, -you may wonder how they were planted thus. The tree cannot scatter its -own seeds. It depends upon the work of scampering nut-gatherers, in fur -coats, that put away more acorns than they can eat during the long -winter. An acorn that is left over in one of the dark pockets along a -squirrel's run-way sprouts in the spring, and in a few years it is a -sturdy oak sapling. All oaks are dependent on outside help in planting. - -White oak lumber is very high-priced. The wood of this tree we rarely see -nowadays except in the most expensive oak furniture. The beautiful satiny -streaks that are the chief ornament of the grain in polished table tops, -are bands of fibres that radiate from the central pith to the bark. When -oak is "quarter-sawed," these _pith rays_, called "mirrors," show to best -advantage. They are most numerous in the wood of the white oak. - - - THE BUR OR MOSSY-CUP OAK - -The largest acorn I know is the fruit of the bur oak, and it is borne in -a mossy cup, indeed. The cup's scales are drawn out into long, hairy -points, and those near the rim form a loose fringe. Once in a while you -may find an acorn almost covered up in its husk. But as a rule, the nut -is a little more than half-covered. Sometimes these nuts are two inches -long, but this is not usual. They are over an inch long, and almost as -broad, and the meat is white and sweet. No wonder squirrels harvest the -crop, and young trees spring up wherever an acorn is missed by the hungry -creatures. - -The bur oak is a shaggy tree, for it sheds its bark in big flakes, like -the sycamore. The small branches are stout, and their bark is developed -into corky wings, like the sweet gum. The tree is irregular in shape, -too, its gnarled limbs are thrown out in any direction, and so the top is -often unsymmetrical. But it is a rugged and picturesque tree, in spite of -all its faults, and it adds beauty of an unusual kind to parks and -woodlands. - -In Sioux City, Iowa, an aged bur oak stands in Riverside Park. It is -called "The Council Oak," for it was a venerable tree in the days when -the Indians lived on the banks of the Missouri River. Under this tree -their chieftains used to meet the white men, and talk over the questions -that interested both. Here treaties were drawn up and signed that kept -peace between the red and white men. - -I promise a great deal of pleasure to any one who plants a mossy-cup -acorn. The seedling tree is wonderfully vigorous in growth. The leaves -are often a foot long in the first years of the tree's life. The blades -are thick, lustrous above, and woolly lined, the finger lobes irregular, -and two opposite, deep sinuses near the middle of the leaf cut it almost -in two! - -Before the tree is more than a sapling it blossoms and bears big acorns -in their handsome mossy cups. There is no stage in the life of one of -these oaks that is not beautiful and interesting. - -This tree is found from Nova Scotia to Western Texas. It forms forests in -Winnipeg, and "oak openings" in Minnesota and Dakota. It is as much at -home in the hot, arid stretches of the plains of the West and Southwest -as in the raw, damp air of the New England coasts. In the rich valley of -the Ohio River it reached nearly two hundred feet in height in the virgin -forests. - -Unlike many oaks, it may be safely transplanted while young. - - - THE LIVE OAK - -The citizen of New Orleans takes his Northern visitors to Audubon Park, -and points with pride to the giant live oak trees. He does not hesitate, -for he knows that the noble pair called "George Washington," and "Martha -Washington," though crippled now by tornadoes, are more noted the country -over than any monument or building in this famous old city. In Charleston -and other Southern cities it is the same. Famous old live oaks adorn the -parks and avenues, and the same trees are planted year by year to take -the places of the veterans when age and storms shall make an end of their -long lives. - -These trees wear a crown of green throughout the year. The leaves last -but one year, but they cling to the twigs and remain green until they are -gradually pushed off by the opening of new leafy shoots. In spring the -new leaves are much brighter than the darker old ones. Everywhere the -trees are draped with the sage-green ropes of "Spanish moss," which is -not a moss at all, but a flowering plant that steals its living by -lodging its roots in crevices in the bark of trees. - -The live oak acorns are dainty, dark-brown nuts, set in hoary, -long-stemmed cups. Each year there is a good crop of acorns, and they are -sweet, and pleasant to the taste. The Indians depended upon them for -food, roasting or boiling them. They also skimmed the boiling pot to -collect the oil, which the early colonists said was much like oil of -almonds. - -The "knees of oak" that early ship-builders used to brace the sides of -vessels, were taken from live oak trees, where the great boughs spring -out from the short, stout trunks. This natural joint is better than any -bolted union of two pieces of timber. The scarcity of these trees makes -it impossible now to supply these knees, but no steel frame serves the -purpose quite so well. The wood is as beautiful as white oak for the -making of handsome furniture, though it splits more easily, and is harder -for the cabinet-maker to use. - -The tree grows throughout the South to Texas; also in Mexico, and Lower -California. Its Northern limit is Virginia. - -A friend who has for a near neighbour the majestic McDonough Oak, -patriarch among the noble live oaks of the Audubon Park, New Orleans, -writes interestingly of the habits of this species. - -"The live oak sheds its leaves _in the spring_, just before the new -leaves open. So, for a brief time the tree stands leafless. In this -period, however, the tree puts out catkins in great abundance, so that -the tree does not appear bare. These catkins are light brown, and have a -soft, velvety appearance, and a tree has an absolute change of colour. -During this blossom time the splendid form of the trunk and the great -limbs is revealed. When the new leaves appear, the framework of branch -and bough is concealed by leafage so dense as to be impenetrable to sun -or eye. The tree is a symmetrical, shining green dome. The crown of the -McDonough oak is over two hundred feet in diameter." - - - THE POST OAK - -The post oak, a small, rugged tree, is noticeable in winter, because its -leaves usually hang on until the open buds in spring push them off. The -colour of this winter foliage is yellowish brown, and not at all striking -nor beautiful. The bark is brown and deeply furrowed. The twigs wear a -yellow fuzz. The leaves are coarse, stiff and rough, four to five inches -long, tapering from three broad, squarish lobes to a narrow base, and a -short leaf stalk. They are lined with brownish wool, and are dark green -and shining above in summer. - -The acorns of the post oak are borne in a plentiful annual crop. Each is -dainty and trim, in a shallow cup of loose, blunt-pointed scales. The -kernel is sweet. In the days when wild game roamed the woods, wild -turkeys fattened on these acorns, and some people call the tree the -"turkey oak." - -Another name for this tree is "iron oak," for its wood is hard, and -heavy, and close-grained. It makes admirable posts and railroad ties, -because it does not rot in contact with water. It is used in -boat-building, and for barrel staves. "Knees" of post oak (the angles -between trunk and branch) form most admirable timbers to be used in the -framework of boats. - - - THE SWAMP WHITE OAK - -The swamp white oak is a rugged and ragged tree, with drooping branches -and crooked twigs, covered with greyish brown bark which peels in thin -flakes from branches and trunk. This habit of shedding its bark in -irregular plates reminds us strongly of the sycamore, which carries this -habit to excess. The leaves of this oak are large, wedge-shaped at the -base, wavy-toothed or lobed, and broadening towards the tips. They are -dark green above, and lined with white down. The acorns are borne in -pairs on long stems. The oval nut is hairy at its tip, and sits in a -rough cup made of scales, sometimes fringed at the border. The kernel is -sweet and eatable, not only for beasts, but for man. If one were lost in -the woods, he need not starve nor die of thirst, if he is near a stream, -and can get the fruit of a swamp white oak, which stands by the water -side. He will do well to make a fire, and roast the acorns, which will -improve their nutty flavour, and make them more digestible. - -This white oak is more beautiful in May than at any other season of the -year. The young leaves are pale green, and the tree top is illuminated by -the silky hairs that line them. The whiteness of the down is dimmed as -summer advances. In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, but never red. - -The wood of this oak is not distinguished in the lumber trade from any -other white oak. The demand for it for the building of houses and boats, -and for agricultural implements and vehicles, is greater than the supply. -It is too expensive now to be used as it was a few years ago, for fuel, -railroad ties, and fence posts. - - - THE CHESTNUT OAK - -The chestnut oak has leaves which are much like those of the chestnut -tree. They are larger, and wider, however, and have rounded lobes at the -ends of the side veins, making a very regular wavy margin, compared with -that of most oak leaves. The lining is often silky, and always much paler -than the upper surface. This tree is an exception to the rule that the -annual-fruited oaks have pale bark. This one has bark so dark in colour -that it is often mistaken for one of the Black Oak Group, although its -wavy leaf margins, and its annual crop of acorns, prove it to belong to -the White Oak Group. - -The acorns are very long, and smooth, and they sit in thin cups lined -with down, and covered with small swollen scales. They are usually borne -alone on short stems. This is one of the largest and sweetest acorns. The -squirrels pack them among their winter's stores. - -The wood of chestnut oak is hard, and strong, and durable in contact with -the soil. The bark is especially rich in tannic acid. For this reason -many of the finest trees yield only tan bark, because the peelers take -the bark, and leave the log to fall a prey to forest fires. - - - THE BLACK OAK - -The black oak, which gives its name to the large group of -biennial-fruited oaks, is one of our handsome, sturdy forest trees. It -grows from Maine to Florida, and west to Minnesota, Kansas, and Eastern -Texas. Its bark is very dark grey or brown, and thick, with rough, broken -ridges and deep furrows. Under this outer layer is a yellow belt, rich in -tannin. This gives the tree the name "yellow oak," and since its bark is -valuable in tanning leather, it is some times called the "tan bark oak." - -The tree is not graceful nor symmetrical, but there is a picturesqueness -and strength about it that redeems its coarseness and irregularity. This -species would be planted oftener for shade, were there not so many -beautiful oaks to choose from. In the wild, however, a giant black oak is -a noble feature of the landscape. - -In early spring the large downy winter buds begin to swell, and soon the -leaves push rapidly out. The whole tree top flushes crimson in the -sunshine. The red glow is from the crinkly, half-awake baby leaves, whose -brilliance is softened by a silky covering of white hairs. In a day the -leaves turn green, and most of their silky covering is shed. - -The bloom of the black oak consists of a fringe of yellow catkins at the -base of each shoot, and pairs of red-tongued acorn flowers in the angles -of some of the leaves. Back of the new shoot the half-grown acorns of the -previous season are seen. In autumn the new crop is well along and the -full-grown acorns, which have taken two seasons to ripen, are ready to be -shed. Each kernel sits in a straight-sided cup of loosely shingled -scales, which form a fringe at the margin. The kernel is bitter, and -yellow, as it is in most of the species of the Black Oak Group. - -[Illustration: Leaves, mossy-cup acorns and warty twigs of the bur oak] - -[Illustration: The horizontal limbs of the pin oak form a regular -pyramidal head] - -The large, downy, pointed buds of this oak will often determine its name -for us when we are confused by the shapes of the leaves. Often the red -oak and the black oak "run together" in their leaf forms. To determine -the tree's name we must call in the buds, the acorns, and their cups, and -the general shape of the trees, and consider all these points together. - -Black oak leaves are thick, coarse, and leathery. Crumple one in your -hand, and you cringe at the harsh scratching noise it makes. They vary -from four to ten inches in length, and from two to six inches in breadth. -The margins are deeply cut into seven or nine broad, bristly-toothed -lobes, with rounded bays between. The upper surface is dark green in -summer, shining and smooth, or sometimes hairy. The lining is brownish -and a remnant of the scurfy down is found in the neighbourhood of the -veins. In autumn these leaves turn brownish-yellow, but rarely show a -tinge of red. - -The bark of black oak is stripped and carried to the tan-yards. Or it -furnishes a yellow dye, used in the printing of calicoes. The wood is -used in house-building, and in the manufacture of furniture. - - - THE RED OAK - -The red oak is the tree most likely to be mistaken for the black oak. The -bark is brown, with a decided red tinge. The twigs are also reddish, and -the wood is red-brown. The inner bark has the same tinge instead of the -orange-coloured lining the black oak bark has. - -The red oak is a large, stately tree, sometimes 150 feet in height, and -far more symmetrical than the black oak. Its leaves vary greatly in the -depth of their marginal clefts, but in general they are oval in outline, -and their lobes and sinuses are triangular. These lobes always point -forward, rather than outward, along the sides of the leaf, and they -always end in the sharp, spiny points that belong to the leaves of all -the trees that fall into the Black Oak Group. Red oak leaves are thinner -than those of black oak, and not so harsh when crumpled in the hand. -Their linings are pale green and smooth in summer. Their autumn colour is -deep red. - -The buds of the red oak are pointed, smooth, reddish, and about -one-fourth of an inch long. They are much smaller, and lack the down of -the buds of the black oak. - -Red oak acorns are the most distinct feature of this species. They are -large, often over an inch in length, and broad, and they sit in saucers, -instead of cups. These saucers are made of close scales, and they curl in -closely at the top as if to tighten their hold on the nut, which extends -two-thirds its height above this rim. The kernel is white, and extremely -bitter. - - - THE SCARLET OAK - -The scarlet oak need not be confused with either the red or black oaks, -for it is a far more dainty tree than either in its trim trunk, graceful -curving branches, very slim twigs, and deeply cut leaves. In form, these -leaves are oval, but so much of the "cloth" is cut away by the four or -six deep bays along the sides that a small amount of green is left to do -leaf duty. The slender lobes are strengthened by the branching veins, -each of which ends in a spiny point. These almost skeleton leaves are -beautifully lustrous and thin, a trifle paler beneath and sometimes hairy -tufted at the veins. They are rarely six inches long, and the side lobes -sometimes measure five inches from tip to tip. The leaf stems are long -and flexible, and the whole tree top is as light and feathery and -tremulous in a breeze as that of a honey locust or a willow. In autumn -the scarlet oak blazes like a torch above the duller reds and browns of -the woods, and keeps its brilliancy later than any other oak. - -The acorn differs from the black oak in being smaller and daintier, and -in having its cup drawn in tightly at the rim. The scales are smooth and -close-pressed; the kernel white and bitter. - - - THE PIN OAK - -The pin oak has foliage much like the scarlet oak, but coarser and not so -lustrous. Often a pin oak tree has leaves that approach the red oak in -form, and these lead to confusion, if leaves alone are consulted in -determining the name of the tree. There are better signs in any pin oak -that set it apart from its larger-leaved relative. Consult the acorns. -They are plump little nuts, as broad as long, rarely measuring one-half -inch either way, pale brown, streaked with black in straight lines, down -from the pointed tips, and they sit in shallow, saucer-like cups made of -close reddish scales. As they fall, the nuts roll out of the cups, which -are lined with hair. The kernel is white and bitter and yet, late in -winter, it is very common to find them gnawed open by some hungry little -four-foot, whose winter store threatens to run short. - -The pin oak takes its name from the fact that its branches are thickly -set with short, pin-like twigs, many of which die but do not fall. These -stubs stay on for several years. This fact alone will soon enable us to -recognise the tree from a distance. No other species is so close-twigged, -and the symmetrical form of this tree is very striking in the winter. It -is a pyramid with many small branches thrust out horizontally from the -main shaft. Below the middle of the tree, the long branches have a -downward thrust, and the lowest ones often sweep the ground. Above the -middle of the tree the branches are horizontal, and they gradually become -shorter, and the tree ends in a pointed tip. There is no oak that I know -which has so much the pyramidal form of evergreens like the firs, -hemlocks, and spruces. - -On the avenues of the city of Washington, we shall find superb double -rows of American trees. On one which leads to the Navy Yard, I remember -the beautiful pin oaks, uniform in size, perfect in symmetry, that stood -in a double row along the sides of the avenue. To the crowds of tourists -who visit the capital city every year, I hope that this will be an object -lesson. In most towns and cities every owner plants the trees he likes in -front of his house, so our streets and avenues present a mixture of trees -of all ages, sizes, kinds, and conditions. The better way is for the city -to plant the same tree in double lines, the whole length of a street, as -has of late years been done in Washington. One needs only to see these -trees coming on, each year adding beauty and dignity to the city, to -realise that such planting may be done easily anywhere in the country, -where trees as beautiful as the pin oaks grow wild. - - - THE WILLOW OAK - -A Southern tree with slender twigs and narrow leaves like those of a -willow, surprises us by bearing acorns! It is the willow oak, a -beautiful, graceful tree for shade and for avenue planting. The tree -naturally chooses wet ground, but it thrives where the soil is deep and -well drained. I remember a fine large willow oak in John Bartram's garden -in Philadelphia, and a young tree in the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. This -little one grows rapidly, but the frost nips its twigs in the winter. The -species grows wild from New York southward, just back from the sea coast, -to Texas. In swampy land, it is found from Missouri southward. - -Willow oak acorns are downy, yellow-brown, and set in shallow -saucer-shaped cups. The kernel is orange-yellow, and bitter. Half-grown -acorns are found with the ripe ones on these trees, and the dark, rough -bark agrees with others of the Black Oak Group. Though the leaves have -rarely a side lobe, but are mostly narrow and plain-margined, the tip -ends in a spine, as all black oak leaves should. - - - TREES WITH WINGED SEEDS - -Why do the trees grow in such mixed groves, when Nature does the -planting? Here and there we find solid groves of beech or oak, but the -forest is, for the most part, a gathering together of all kinds of trees. -A part of the beauty of any woodland is this variety in the planting. -Under a tall oak we find a hornbeam, and under this the witch hazel, and -under the witch hazel, a carpet of low woodland plants. We may walk in a -straight line, or follow a woodland path a mile, and find every tree we -meet is different from all the rest. - -Many reasons explain the order in which Nature plants forests. One of the -best of these is found in the kind of seeds trees bear. We shall find -that trees most widely scattered are those whose seeds are winged. It is -not hard to find, from May until far past midwinter, trees bearing light, -winged seeds. All through the summer, the wind is busy sowing the seeds -of the early-fruiting trees. In autumn, and all through the winter, the -sowing of the larger crop goes on. - -Let us begin our study with the maples, whose winged seeds every child -knows. From the silver maple, whose seeds are dry before the first of -June, there is a procession of ripening maple seeds that lasts throughout -the year. A high wind shakes off the silver maple's keys in showers in -late May. Watch those in the tree-tops. The wind has a better chance up -there. Each key, loosening from its twig, turns round and round in a -dizzy whirl, and sails away still whirling as it falls, the heavy seed -end always pointed downward. A tree is soon stripped, and the ground -littered under it. But a great deal larger area than the tree's shadow -has the seeds scattered over it: the stronger the wind, the further these -seeds go. Before the summer is over, a crop of little maple trees springs -up from this sowing. - -The red maple's scarlet seed clusters turn brown, and the little winged -seeds take flight in June. Lighter and smaller, they are carried longer -distances than the seeds of the silver maple, and a crop of little red -maples follows this June sowing of the trees. - -I remember walking in a corn field in late June; the corn had been last -ploughed a month before. Among the weeds that had grown up in this short -time was a crop of young red maples, now six inches high. It was amazing -to see these little trees grow so plentifully in a cultivated field. I -looked for the seed tree, and there it stood on the edge of the field, -the only maple tree in sight. A few young trees were growing in the -matted grass of the roadside under the tree, but the great crop was from -the seeds that flew out to the mellow ground between the corn rows. The -disappointed seeds, those which fell and did not grow, were under the -tree and in the dusty road. - -In the autumn the hard maple, which we call the sugar maple, ripens its -winged seeds. So does the three-leaved box elder (which is a maple) and -the Norway maple, now a very familiar street tree. The wind takes its -time, and the trees stubbornly hang on to their seeds, so that these -maples are busy all winter with the sowing. Every day they give up a few, -and many seeds that fall on the snow are picked up, again and again, by -the wind and thus carried further and further away. - -The maple seed, with its curiously one-sided wing, is the sign by which -the maple family is easily recognised. Other trees have winged seeds, but -none have the peculiar form of this one. - -All summer long we may know the trees that belong to the ash family by -the clusters of pale green darts that hang among their leaves. These are -the ash seeds. Each one is a pointed seed case, containing the embryo -plant, and out behind it extends the thin, light, two-edged wing. There -is no one-sidedness to this blade. The seed is winged, but balanced like -a dart. When the wind loosens one from the wiry stem, it goes like an -arrow, seed downward. If there is a gale blowing, the seed may be caught -up and borne far away in the upper air, before a lull lets it take a -downward course, and drive its point into a snowbank, or into the ground. -This little feathered arrow may be long or short, depending upon whether -it belongs to the red ash, the white ash, or the black; but there is no -mistaking an ash tree for any other, once the form of an ash seed is -fixed in the mind. - -I have said that a maple seed is shaped like that of no other tree. I -must describe here the seeds of the needle-leaved evergreens, which, -though very much smaller, are somewhat like maple seeds in form. Go to a -pine tree or a spruce, and get one of the cones that has begun to spread -its scales apart. Shake the cone over a piece of paper. If nothing comes -out from between the scales, cut or break the cone open with knife or -hatchet. Under each scale will be found two seeds, each with a thin, -one-sided wing. Spruces, hemlocks, firs, and arbor vitaes, all have this -same type of seed, hid away in the same fashion, under the protecting -scales of their cones. Do you understand how the wind, blowing through -the tops of evergreens, shakes the winged seeds from their places, and -carries them far away? Do you understand why the ripe cones of these -trees hang on so stubbornly, and spread their scales to allow the seeds -to escape? - -It is a peculiarity of the firs that they hold their cones erect. It -would seem hard for the wind to get at the seeds, but the fir cones let -their scales fall, and when they loosen, the seeds are freed. - -Out of the balls of the sweet gum tree, which dangle on the twigs all -winter, the wind shakes little winged seeds, not unlike those of the -pines. - -Do you know the catalpa's long, green pods that hang all summer on the -top of trees? They are longer than the newest lead pencil, and show no -signs of splitting, until the autumn. Now, the two halves of the pod -spread apart, and gradually the thin seeds shake out. Each one is in the -centre of a thin, fringed wing, that looks as if made of tissue paper. -The wind can carry these ghostly seeds for miles. Indeed, it is strange -that they ever come to the ground, for they seem to have no thickness nor -weight at all. - -The birches all bear their seeds in cones, some long and pencil-like, -others quite the shape of a pine cone. Under each quaintly notched scale -of the cone, a seed is borne; and each heart-shaped seed has a thin rim, -which acts like a wing, catching the wind as the seed falls. We shall -look far in the woods before we find seeds daintier in form, or better -sailors through the air, than those of all the birch family. - -The hop hornbeam has a hop-like cluster of seeds, each in an inflated -papery bag. When the leaves drop in the fall, the wind has a chance to -pick off these little paper seed balloons, one at a time, from the -clusters. Take off one of these little bags, open it, and you will find, -set in the bottom, the shiny, pointed seed. It is likely to have a long -journey, if there be a good breeze, before its bag is punctured. - -Back to early May again, when the elm trees are green with their fruit -clusters, before the leaves are fully out. Elm trees grow scattered -through the woods, and no wonder: the seeds have papery rims, and the -wind catches these little falling discs, and scatters them far from the -tree where they were born. - -The ailanthus tree, whose long, fern-like leaves make it look like a tree -from the Tropics, is sowing its seeds all winter, with the help of the -wind. Examine one. In the middle of a slim blade is the little seed. The -blade is twisted as it ripens, and it sails through the air with a -tilting, uncertain flight. After a look at a bunch of these seeds, and -after throwing a handful of them out of an upper window, and watching -them as they sail away, we shall understand how it is that ailanthus -trees spring up in most unexpected places, year after year. And we shall -bless the breeze that plants such trees along the hot pavements, and in -the ugly back alleys of towns and cities, where few trees are able to -grow at all. - - - TREE SEEDS THAT HAVE PARACHUTES - -It is a thrilling moment when the man who goes up with the balloon lets -go at last, and drops to the ground. Before he drops, an umbrella-like -parachute opens, and by its aid, he comes to the ground gracefully, -slowly, and alights unhurt. Should anything go wrong with his parachute -he would drop to his death, so every onlooker is anxious as he comes -down, and breathes a sigh of relief when the wonderful feat is -accomplished. - -Seeds with wings sail away on the wind, and seeds with parachutes descend -so slowly and gracefully that the winds carry them far out of their -courses. The trees most fortunate in scattering their seeds, and thus -colonising new territory, have peculiar devices. - -The seeds of the basswood hang in clusters attached to a narrow, -leaf-like blade. This is a parachute, by which the whole cluster is able -to sail away on a good breeze. There is no seed parachute like this among -our forest trees. By this sign alone we may know the basswood trees. - -The balls of the sycamore bump against the branches, and tiny seeds with -hairy parachutes are loosened and scattered. Each is a minute spike, -which might drop to the ground, but for the umbrella-like parachute made -of a brush of fine hairs. By this, the wind lifts the seed, and carries -it away. - -Willow seeds, and those of the poplar, are almost too small to be seen. -Each seed is hid in a dainty fluff of white cotton, and in this the seed -rides. We may miss seeing these trees in fruit, unless we look at the -down which accumulates in June on the screens of windows and doors. The -air is full of the fluffy stuff when the pods open. In a few days this -harvest is over, and we may find the empty pods on the ground under our -neighbour poplars, cottonwoods, and willows. - -The blue beech, or hornbeam, has a parachute which is leafy, and crinkled -so as to look almost like a little boat. The shiny seed sits in one end, -and when it gets free, it has a fine long sail through the air before it -settles to the earth. - -There are wings and parachutes on the seeds of other trees. When you find -them you may know that the wind is the partner of the tree, by robbing it -of its children. The wind is saving those children from death, which -would have been their fate, if they fell on the ground under the shadow -of the parent tree. If all the fields that adjoin the woods were left -uncultivated for a few years they would grow up to forests. We know the -name of the sower, who gathers seeds in the woods, and plants them; who -is busy all the year at the endless work of the harvest and the sowing. - - - THE AUTUMN BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -In the roadside thickets, as the summer wanes, the berry clusters of the -shrubby viburnums turn red, and soften, and in September change to a -vivid, or a dark blue. They are very pretty on their coral red stems, and -look like little plums. Indeed, they are not unpleasant to taste, but it -is the birds who delight in these sweetish, juicy berries, and we are -willing that they should have them all. The names, sheepberry and -nannyberry, are given to these little trees, because sheep are said to -browse on the foliage and shoots in spring. - -The blue berries of the sassafras, also on coral red stems, are not -unlike those of the viburnums in appearance, but fewer in a cluster. The -birds take them eagerly before they are fully ripe. To leave them until -they ripen would be to lose them to other birds. - -[Illustration: Cone fruits of (1) a birch, (2) a pine, (3) a magnolia, -and (4) a fir] - -[Illustration: Clusters of the winged seeds of hornbeam and white ash] - -The dogwood berries are redder than the whorl of leaves that surround the -fruit clusters in early October. These waxy berries have taken the place -of the central cluster of small flowers, which were surrounded in spring -by the four large, white bracts. - -It is the birds who first accept the invitation of these little trees. -The migrating hosts turn southward in September, and in October the bird -procession is in full swing. We hear them overhead, often so high in air -that we cannot see them. Tired of the long flight, they descend for food -and water, and if the neighbourhood has many fruiting dogwood trees, the -joy of the winged voyagers is correspondingly great. In a surprisingly -short time the hungry birds have taken the last one. - -Far in the winter we shall find red berries glowing in clusters on the -mountain ash trees, among the evergreen holly leaves, and in conical -spikes on the sumachs. The winter birds ignore these dry, insipid seeds, -until everything else is gone. Frequently, when winter snows cover up all -other foods, the berries of these two trees stand between the birds and -actual starvation. So it happens that many a mountain ash is stripped of -its fruit during the early days of March, and the holly berries which -have glowed red all winter disappear for the same reason. The sumachs are -rarely stripped as closely as the other two. - -In September the hackberry hangs full of its sugary fruits. It is -surprising to find a tree which looks like an elm, yet bearing soft, -purple berries. But this, we shall learn, is the hackberry's way. Under -each leaf a long thread grows, on the end of which is a single, oblong -berry, the size of a pea, but not the same shape. The fruit hangs on late -into the winter, if the birds will permit such a thing, and it is a -grateful supply of food to birds that winter in the North. If there were -no other reason for planting hackberry trees, they are worth having as -fruit trees for the refreshment of birds. - -The autumn colour of hackberry leaves is yellow. The purple fruits make -little show, until the leaves fall. The bark of the tree is its chief -peculiarity. On the trunk it is deeply checked into small, thick, warty -plates. The branches are often ridged and broken into warty excrescences -that stand close together. - -The leaves are peculiar. There is no other tree that has not a main vein, -or a rib, which prolongs the leaf stem straight to the tip. The hackberry -leaf stem divides into three equal branches at the base. The two side -branches are shorter than the middle one, but their size is unusual. - -It is in autumn, of course, that the hackberry earns its name, -sugarberry. The bark will guide us to the tree at any season. The leaves -fix in mind another important family trait. The berries we may safely -taste to find out if they are as sugary as we are led to expect. - -Nettle tree is the common name of the European hackberry. You may have -read of the lotus-eaters, who, tasting the sweet fruit of this little -tree, straightway forgot their native land, and could not be persuaded to -return. The wood is tough and peculiarly adapted to make the handles of -hayforks, and similar agricultural implements. Young trees are grown for -these uses. The roots remain alive and send up suckers, slender but tall. -These are cut for walking sticks, whipstocks, and ramrods for guns. Older -trees furnish wood, as hard as box or holly, and beautiful as satinwood -when polished. This is a material which the wood-carvers delight to use. -The tree is widely planted for shade, and its leaves are used as fodder -for cattle. - -Bad as its reputation is, according to the tradition that its fruit had -power to rob men of their patriotism, yet this is one of the most useful -little trees. It grows easily, and is contented on land that is worthless -for other purposes. - -Besides the hackberry, another big tree in our woods bears a crop of -purple berries in September. That is the wild black cherry. The bark of -this tree is dark brown and shining, and satiny smooth on the branches. -It breaks on the trunk into rough, squarish plates, which curl -horizontally at the edges. The plates still retain the silky outer bark, -whose fibres run crosswise, and whose surface has many slit-like, -horizontal breathing holes. - -We are strongly reminded of the birches, especially the cherry birch, -which has dark-coloured bark, and has its name from its resemblance to -this tree. The thin young bark of the black cherry curls in a very -birch-like fashion. One difference is very marked. The bark of the cherry -is bitter, with the flavour of the pit of a peach or cherry. Birch bark -is pleasantly aromatic in flavour. - -The fruit of the black cherry is more plentiful than that of the -hackberry. The close-set side shoots on the new twigs end in fruit -clusters two or three inches long, and often containing a dozen berries -each. The sweet pulp is flavoured with the bitter taste of cherry pits, a -flavour found in the sap of this tree. Nibble the bark, or a bit of -cherry wood, a leaf, or the tip of the root, and you get the same Prussic -acid taste. - -I do not like wild black cherries, but many people do. Children and birds -seem not to notice the bitter with the sweet. They eat the berries as -soon as they change colour, with evident enjoyment. - -Cherry brandies and cordials are made from the fruit by people who rely -upon old-fashioned home remedies. These are the people who chew the -bitter opening buds of the wild cherry in spring, as they drink sassafras -tea, believing that spring is the time to clear the blood, and that -Nature offers free remedies far better than they can buy in bottles. - -We cannot wonder that wild cherry trees spring up in the woods, in fence -corners, and along roadsides. The birds are feasting in the trees each -autumn, and until the last berry is taken. They are the sowers of the -seed. - -Our greatest objection to the wild cherry is the fact that its shining -young leaves are regarded by the apple tree tent caterpillars as -particularly good. When the white blossom clusters deck this tree in May, -we often see a web of white silk wrapping together some of the upper -branches. Day by day the web is extended, and the twigs are stripped of -their leaves by the host of caterpillars which return at night to the -tent, and range more widely in the day time. When the tent is as large as -a peach basket, it is found empty, for the caterpillars have descended to -the ground, spun their cocoons, and will soon emerge as winged moths, to -lay their eggs, from which later broods of caterpillars come. The winged -females are very likely to seek the nearest orchard, and lay their eggs -in bands around apple twigs. Many an otherwise harmless roadside wild -cherry is a deadly menace to an orchard because it breeds the insects, -which, in a second generation, become a serious pest among the apple -trees. - -In the forest the lumberman is glad to find wild black cherry trees of -large size. The lumber is very valuable for interior finish of houses, -and for furniture. It is hard, and close-grained, and dark reddish-brown -in colour, with a lustre, when polished, that puts it in the class with -mahogany and rosewood. It is more often used nowadays as a veneer on -cheaper woods. Parlour cars and steamships, and fine houses are very -often finished in cherry. The small limbs and other bits of the lumber -are utilised for tool handles and for inlay work. The wood is too -valuable to waste. - -The largest berry that grows on a tree in the woods of the United States -is the persimmon. We should mistake this berry for an apple, perhaps, -when we see it for the first time--a little, orange-brown apple, one to -two inches in diameter. But there is no core such as apples have, though -there are from one to a dozen seeds in each fruit. - -The persimmon tree is tall, with a handsome round head, and zig-zag, -twisted branches. It grows from Rhode Island west to Kansas and south to -Florida and Texas. It is found scattered in mixed woods, and comes up in -fence rows and in abandoned fields wherever the seeds have been dropped. -Light, sandy soil is this tree's preference. Although it is a relative of -the ebony of Ceylon, our persimmon is not an important lumber tree. Its -wood is hard, dark-brown in colour, and is used for shoe lasts, tool -handles, and various other small articles. - -In the South the persimmon ranks among the choicest of fruit trees. The -negro and the possum await the ripening of the 'simmons with eager eyes, -and the Southerner, born and bred, confesses an equal interest in this -native fruit. There is a long waiting period between the time when the -persimmons change colour from green to reddish-yellow and the time when -the frost mellows and sweetens the pulp, and takes away the harsh, -puckery taste which draws the lips and chokes the throat as if the fruit -were a lump of alum. The Northerner who judges by its appearance only, -dares to taste this fruit before it is ripe. He cannot be persuaded to -try it again. And he cannot understand the enthusiasm for persimmons that -all people in the South feel. - -A 'simmon tree, when the fruit is ripe, belongs to the first comer. The -negro and the opossum come into direct competition for the fruit of this -tree. You might think the negro would kill the opossum, and be rid of his -rival. He knows too much for that. "'Possum an' 'simmons come together, -and bofe is good fruit." Better divide the 'simmons with the 'possum and -his family. Then get the fat 'possum for the Christmas dinner. There is -no 'possum like the one that is fattened on persimmons, so it pays to be -patient and leave the beast his share of the fruit. - -In a hollow tree, or a woodpile, the opossums sleep by day, and trail out -in companies to climb the persimmon trees at night to feast. They hang by -their tails on the branches, or prop themselves in crotches of the limbs -within easy reach of the soft, sugary berries. The fatter they get, the -lazier they are; and as the season advances, and the fruit falls, the -opossums are likely to satisfy their appetites with the persimmons they -can pick up under the trees. Along about Thanksgiving day, or Christmas, -the day of reckoning arrives, when the negro hunter comes home with the -opossums which have stolen his persimmons. The whole score is wiped out -by the opossum feast, which suitably closes the season. - -Persimmons improve, the longer they hang upon the trees. As late as -January or February, little trees scarcely a dozen feet high, which have -been overlooked in the 'simmon harvest, are found to be still hung with -fruits exceptionally large and fine. To the hungry and thirsty hunter, -prowling for quail in the underbrush, these unexpected fruits are a -delightful surprise. They are delicious, sugary lumps, rich in flavour, -and juicy, taking away both hunger and thirst, and leaving no after-taste -that is bitter or puckery, suggesting their unripe stage. - -Japanese persimmon trees, whose fruit is larger and better in every -respect than our native species, have been successfully introduced into -California and the Southern states. These persimmons look like great ripe -tomatoes as we see them on the fruit stands, but these, too, must wait -until they are thoroughly ripe before they are fit to eat. - - - THE CHANGING COLOUR OF THE AUTUMN WOODS - -All through the autumn, when the wonderful colours come in the forest -leaves, we shall see the green of these leaves creeping back along the -veins. The horse chestnut leaves tell a very interesting story. They turn -brown first upon the edges. If we watch a single leaf for a whole week in -September, we may see the green gradually draw in towards the central -stem, and the brown papery borders widen, just as if something were -squeezing and crowding the pulp of the leaf, inch by inch, back through -the leaf stem into the twig. The last traces of green linger along the -sides of the veins, and before it falls, even these leaf channels will be -drained dry. - -When the leaves of a sugar maple give up their pulp there are wonderful -changes inside each leaf. A yellow liquid fills the cells where the green -pulp used to be. Chemical changes in the mineral substances deposited in -the leaf cells produce wonderful shades of red and yellow, which glow -where once the leaf was solid green. Iron is one of the minerals brought -up in the soil water, left in the leaf, and changed to produce the bright -red when the leaf mask of green is taken away. - -The scarlet maple remembers its name in the autumn days. It puts on a -cloak more brilliant perhaps than the sugar maple, which has a good deal -of orange as well as red in its autumn foliage. The scarlet oak is -amazingly brilliant; so is the sassafras and the sweet gum. The tupelo, -or sour gum, also called the pepperidge, has foliage that is splashed and -streaked with various shades of red and yellow. Each little leaf is so -brilliantly polished that the tree's beauty and colour seem to be doubled -by reflection. The sumachs of the roadside thickets wear foliage of -scarlet, each leaf drooping away from the fruit pyramid which rises, a -deeper crimson, on the end of each upright shoot. The foliage and the -fruit together make a colour harmony that is dazzling, indeed. - -In contrast with its umbrellas of red leaves are the scarlet berry -clusters of the flowering dogwood. This tree has the habit of snuggling -up against the trunk of large forest trees and reaching its white flowery -arms out to us in spring. How wonderful they are, on the edge of the -woods, with the green leaves of the larger trees making a background for -their flowers! In the autumn the same surprise awaits us, when under a -towering tree with yellow or russet foliage, the dogwood leaps up like a -scarlet flame, against its dark background, holding straight out its -platformed branches of red leaves, tipped with berries, like rubies, set -on the upturned twigs. - -Often the trees are stripped by birds before the berries are ripe. It is -in woods where the trees are numerous that we shall find the fruit -reaching its perfection of ripeness and colour. - -Among the trees that turn to purple in the autumn we may name the white -oak and the ashes. Many oaks turn from green to russet, without showing -any red or yellow. The lindens and the tulip trees and the beeches turn -yellow; so do the poplars and willows, the hickories, and walnuts. Up and -down the street you may see the yellow crowns of the silver and the -Norway maples, and on the lawns the white birches have also turned to -gold. The deepest red is on the black and red oaks. The brightest red is -on the scarlet oak. - -[Illustration: The flowering dogwood covers its bare branches with -blossoms in May] - -[Illustration: Flowering dogwood, in flower and fruit, the winter flower -buds and alligator-skin bark] - -It is not fair to charge Jack Frost with all the gay colours of the -autumn woods. Perhaps I should say, rather, that he does not deserve all -the credit people give him for painting the landscape with the sunset -glories of the dying leaves. The cause is the ripening of the leaves -themselves, as I have already explained. Frost may hasten the process, -but if a heavy freeze comes in September, before the leaves have -coloured, we lose our chance for autumn colouring that year. The leaves -drop as if scalded, and the trees lose their leaf pulp, which they had -expected to withdraw and save for future use. A long dry autumn of warm -days and mildly frosty nights produces the finest succession of colours. - -Countries that have a more moist, warm climate than ours, do not have the -vivid autumn colours that we enjoy. England, and the countries of Western -Europe, are like our West coast in lacking the colour changes that make -October for us the most glorious month of the year. Our New England -woodlands and the forests of Canada are matched in brilliancy by the -wooded slopes of the Swiss Alps, and the forests along the Rhine and the -Danube. In our Southern states there is little or no change that comes to -the foliage towards the end of the year. The leaves on the trees of -Florida are lazy in falling. They wait until pushed off by the swelling -buds in early spring. Many trees that shed their leaves promptly each -autumn in the Northern states, gradually become evergreen in the Southern -parts of their range. The longer a tree carries its leaves, the more -battered and worn they become. A tree with fresh, new leaves mingling -with old ones is not a pleasant object, at least to Northern eyes. This -is the way most trees in the South look in spring. - -If we should travel the world over, and see the trees of many lands, in -spring, in summer, in autumn, and in winter, I believe we should all come -back to the clean, beautiful mixed woods of our north temperate zone, and -declare that these woods are the most beautiful in the world. In the dead -of winter, they are budded full of promise. We learn to love them as well -in this period of rest as we do in the beauty of their spring flowers, or -in the glory of their autumn colouring, or in the steady growth of -summer. - -Each leaf is nurse to a bud that is growing between its base and the -twig. Find these little buds on any tree with broad leaves. A part of all -the food that passes that way stops to feed this growing bud; and in the -late summer the twig provides for the future welfare of all its buds. The -thrifty tree withdraws the green pulp from its leaves, before it lets -them fall. A store of starch is put away in the twig, close to each bud. -This is the food supply which will be used in the spring to enable the -bud to open and spread its young leaves, or its flowers, in a -surprisingly short time. - -When the worn-out leaf has been drained of all of its pulp, the tree lets -it go. It has done its work, and given up its pulp to be stored in the -twig for future use. It seems as if the tree knows that, with the coming -of cooler weather, growth must stop; that the tender leaves must die when -frost overtakes them. So it is a frugal habit to save all of the good -green leaf pulp, and to cast off only the dry leaf skin. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE WINTER - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR BARK - -Hunters and foresters who spend much of their time in the woods learn to -know trees by name through long acquaintance. In the dead of winter, the -framework of a tree may be enough to recognise it by. Where trees are -crowded, this sign is not to be depended upon. The bark is often a guide -to the tree's name. The forester will tell you that the bud is the surest -sign of all. The bark is one of the best signs. - -It is not the easiest thing in the world to learn to know trees by the -bark alone. To the beginner, so many trees with dark, furrowed bark look -strangely alike, although the trees are not even related to each other. -The foresters began with trees that have peculiar and easily recognised -bark. So we shall begin here, and hope that the hard cases will gradually -become easier. - -Every tree wears a garment of bark from the ground up to the utmost -twigs. The thinnest bark is on the youngest branches. The thickest is on -the trunk. - -Begin with the white birch upon the lawn. The bark of this tree is made -of thin layers; the outer one shining like white satin. It breaks and -tatters, and peels off around the trunk. Three-cornered patches of black -are found under each branch, and others on the trunk show where branches -once came out, but were broken or cut off. - -Do you notice narrow, horizontal slits of different lengths on the birch -bark? These are breathing holes that let the air in to the layer under -the bark. Spongy, porous substance fills these slits, but allows the air -to pass through. At the lower part of the trunk the satiny outer bark is -shed, leaving dark under layers, rough and checked into irregular blocks. -As the tree grows older, the trunk becomes rougher and darker, but the -branches always show the kind of bark that the little tree wore. - -In the Northern woods the white bark of the canoe birch is stripped from -the trees in layers as thick as sole leather. Out of these the Indians -once made their bark canoes. Now the same material is used for making all -manner of trifling souvenirs to sell to tourists. A square of this thick -bark, cut on the smooth side of a trunk, may be split into a great number -of thin sheets. This the camper uses to write letters upon, and it is a -beautiful and fitting substitute for note paper, when one is camping out. - -[Illustration: We recognize birches by their silky, tattered bark] - -[Illustration: The beech trunk is clothed in smooth, pale grey bark] - -It is a great pity that so many beautiful trees are girdled and killed to -supply the needs of camping parties. If the bark were stripped but part -way around it would not kill the tree. - -The yellow birch has a silvery yellow tint in the outer bark, which curls -back in ragged ribbons until the tree gets old. The red birch writes its -name in the rusty red colour of its papery bark, which splits into -tatters in true birch fashion, and flutters the ragged ends from each -branch throughout the year. The black birch has no tattered ribbons -flying, but wears a close, smooth, black bark, with the narrow slits that -all birches show. As the trunks grow larger the surface checks into -irregular plates, separated by furrows. It is called the cherry birch, -for the bark is like that of cherry trees. - -The sycamore has bark which is different from that of every other tree. -Indeed, it is by the bark that we recognise this tree. The tall trunk -looks as if it were blotched and streaked and spattered with whitewash, -from the trunk to the topmost limb. The bark is continually dropping off -in thin, irregular plates, leaving smooth whitish patches of an under -layer exposed. After sycamore trees grow older, the bark of the lower -portion of the trunk stops shedding. Fine-checked plates of rusty brown -cover this oldest portion. But even on the oldest and largest trees, the -pale blotches are seen in the branches and we shall never mistake the -name of the tree. - -The shagbark is one of the rugged and shaggy trees that boys find hard to -climb without tearing their clothes into tatters. The bark gives the tree -its name. Thin, narrow plates, close-woven and tough as sole leather, -seem to be attached very loosely to the body of the tree, but if you try -to pull off these narrow strips, you find their hold is very firm. Often -they are attached at the middle, and spring out at both ends. - -An old shagbark tree is a picturesque figure, as it lifts its bare arms -up toward the wintry sky. The trunk is straight, but the branches are -full of angles. Yet, with all their rigidity, these limbs have an -expression of strength, if not of grace, and the tree's head is usually -symmetrical, and always full of character. - -A young hickory has smooth, close-knit bark like that on the branches of -the older trees. Gradually the growing trunk becomes furrowed, and the -peculiar splintering and splitting of the bark is seen only in trees six -inches or more in diameter. By the time the tree is old enough to bear -nuts, it has built itself a formidable fence that boys must climb over -with much hard work and many a scratch, to get up among the branches and -shake down the nuts. - -[Illustration: The loose, stripping bark gives its name to the shagbark -hickory] - -[Illustration: Warty bark of hackberry; Silky bark of black birch; Close, -sinewy bark of hornbeam] - -The tasteless pignuts grow on a smooth-barked hickory tree, very easy to -climb, but the bark of the little shellbark hickory is the guide-post -that leads to the trees where the sweet-flavoured hickory nuts grow. - -The close-knit, grey bark of beech trees hardly needs to be described. -The temptation to cut initials on beech trunks is more than folks with -pocket-knives can resist. No matter how many fine trees there are in a -beech grove near town, they are scarred all over with letters and -hieroglyphics as far as hand can reach. The tree never covers these -wounds. Though they do not cripple it, they mar its beauty painfully. - -A little further from the haunts of picnic parties, we shall come upon -beech woods that have not thus been abused by thoughtless jack-knives. -From the ground, far up into the high tops, a close, beautiful garment of -ashy grey bark clothes the tree. Saplings of all ages grow up among the -big trees, for beeches grow in colonies. A soft radiance from these many -pale tree trunks seems to lighten the woods paths, overshadowed by the -dense foliage of the tree tops. - -It is said that beech trees die when they come into contact with -civilisation. Fine beech woods are included in additions to towns; you -will see the great trees die when lawns and gardens are made about their -roots. In the outskirts of Indianapolis there are noble beech trees, but -they are dying, as the city grows around them. - -The copper beeches and the cut-leaved and weeping beeches have the same -close-knit bark as our native tree, but it is not grey, but dark brown. -These fancy forms are varieties of the European beech, one of the -principal lumber trees of the Old World. - -The bark of this tree played an interesting part in the early history of -the human race. Long before the European tribes had written languages, -they sent messages from one to another. These messages between tribes, -friendly or warlike, were written in hieroglyphics, cut into the smooth -surface of beech bark, and messengers carried them back and forth. - -Sheets of beech bark, as well as birch, made the walls and roofs of the -huts in which people lived. Their boats and various household utensils -were made out of beech wood, which is so close-grained that vessels made -of it hold water without leaking. - -Another American tree with bark like the beech, but darker grey, grows -always, by preference, with its roots in wet soil. It is a little tree, -with rigid, horizontal twigs, that form a flat tree top. This is called -the blue beech, and its trunk does often have a bluish cast. It is also -called hornbeam, for its wood is so hard that it was used in the early -days to make the beams which went across the horns of the oxen. This is -the part of the ox yoke which is the most subject to wear. Ironwood is -another name that describes the hard wood. - -We shall notice that this tree has not a regular cylindrical trunk like -that of a beech. Strong swellings, that look like muscles, are seen, -especially where the trunk branches into the main limbs. Have you ever -noticed the arms of a blacksmith, or of an athlete? How the veins and -muscles stand out when the arm is in use! Just like them are the -irregular swellings that course up the trunk of the hornbeam, and out -into the limbs. - -The hackberry is a handsome shade tree, which might, at first glance, be -mistaken for an elm. The bark is different from that of any other tree. -Once we see a hackberry, and learn its name, we will never mistake it -again. The bark is light brown or grey, and finely checked by deep -furrows. The ridges between bear strange, warty outgrowths. Look for -these warts among the small branches. The twigs are smooth, but back a -little way the warty eruptions begin, and become more prominent as the -limbs thicken and approach the trunk. Sometimes the limbs have these -warts so close together as to form continuous ridges. - -Another tree with warty bark is the sweet gum. The negroes of the South -call the tree "alligator wood," because the lower part of the trunk is -broken by furrows and cross-furrows into horny plates like the skin of an -alligator. From the red-brown trunk up into the grey branches, there is a -change in the character of the bark. The fissures usually run lengthwise, -and the bark rises in thin ridges on each side of the fissure. These -ridges become thin as knife blades on the smaller twigs, which also have -a sprinkling of small warts. - -A sweet gum is very rugged looking in the dead of winter, with its warts -and ridges breaking out on each limb. We know it by this sign alone, but -are doubly sure when we see the seed balls dangling from the twigs. The -sycamore, blotched with white on trunk and limb, also carries a load of -dangling seed balls throughout the winter. There is no danger of -confusing these two trees, for the bark of each is so distinct. - -[Illustration: Warty, ridged bark of the sweet gum, the swinging seed -balls and winged seeds] - -[Illustration: Blotched bark of sycamore, and its seed balls that hang -all winter] - -A little tree with alligator skin bark grows North and South, and chiefly -in the eastern half of the country. This is the flowering dogwood, whose -grey bark breaks into small squarish plates. There is no such ruggedness -in its trunk as there is in the sweet gum's, for it is always a little -tree, and the bark corresponds in its checking to the tree's size. When -we see this peculiar type of bark in the winter woods we may look also -for little flattened, box-like flower buds, each enclosed in four scales. -We shall also find the twigs set opposite, and with these three signs be -sure we know the tree. - -A little tree, no larger in girth than the dogwood, but often taller, has -bark that strips and loosens somewhat as the bark of the shagbark hickory -does. This is the hop hornbeam, one of the ironwoods. Its bark strips are -always thin and narrow, no matter how old the tree becomes. It is never -as loose upon the trunk as the shagbark's. The great buds and stout twigs -of the hickory are entirely different from the slender spray and the very -small buds this ironwood wears in winter. We may find on these twigs some -remnant of the hop-like seed clusters which give this little tree its -name, hop hornbeam. Inside its shaggy bark the lumbermen find wood so -hard that it is very difficult to work, and when made into tools it lasts -almost forever. - -When we have learned to know at sight a dozen trees by their bark alone, -we are ready to go further. A great many trees with furrowed bark like -chestnuts and elms and maples, are not so distinct as those already -learned, and we must study the tree's form, its winter buds, the -arrangement of these buds, and the shape of the leaf scars in connection -with the bark, in order to be sure we know the tree's name. The chestnut -from which we gathered so many nuts last fall, and whose furrowed trunk -we saw at every visit, we come to know through this familiarity. The -trunks of other chestnut trees look like this one, and though we may not -know just how we do it, we have added the chestnut to the list of trees -we recognise by their bark alone. The sugar maples which we tap in spring -for their sugary sap, have dark, furrowed bark, not very distinctive. And -yet, by going from tree to tree, emptying the sap pails, we gradually -learn to recognise the bark of the sugar maple, and add it to our growing -list. - -[Illustration: The Lombardy poplar stands like an exclamation point in -the landscape] - -[Illustration: The live oak of the South is usually hung with long skeins -of the weird, grey Spanish moss] - -Trees do not change their clothes, and they do not move away. Day after -day, if we use our eyes and notice what is going on in the tree tops, as -the seasons follow each other, we come to know our trees by name; we -recognise them in winter by their bark, and by the framework of their -tops, in summer by leaves and flowers, in autumn by their changing colour -and by their fruits. It is not hard work for those who love trees. It is -like getting acquainted with other neighbours whom we are glad to count -among our friends. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR SHAPES - -The life of every tree depends upon its success in holding its leaves out -into the sunlight. The tree which exposes the greatest amount of leaf -surface to the sun makes the greatest growth. The shape of their tops is -a character in which trees differ widely. We shall come to know many of -them in winter time better than in summer, by the distinct shapes -revealed when the foliage is gone. In any bare tree, the purpose of all -of the branching and branching again, is plainly seen. Each twig and -branch reaches out toward the outer surface of the dome, or pyramid. Here -the buds in winter are waiting to open, when spring comes, into leafy -shoots. These will cover the tree top with a dome of green greater than -the one of the previous summer. Their work through the growing season -will lengthen every branch and every root, and add a layer of wood under -the bark of trunks and branches and roots. - -The most remarkable tree shape is that of the Lombardy poplar. The tall -trunk is clothed with many short, close-branched limbs, which do not -spread, as in ordinary tree forms, but grow upright, so as to lie almost -against the main trunk. The upper branches are overlapped and crowded by -those below them, and so on down the trunk. The result is a tree shaped -like a capital I. In summer time, the heart-shaped leaves cover the twigs -on the outside of this spire, but the beauty of the tree top is marred by -the dead branches which have been smothered by the crowding. - -A young Lombardy poplar is handsome as it stands covered with its -twinkling leaves. It grows rapidly, and is especially striking and -effective in clumps of round-headed trees. It is like an exclamation -point. Architects always like to have a few of these trees dotted about -the grounds to keep company with tall chimneys and distant church spires. -There is no shade under trees of this form, though miles of them are -planted along roadsides where they stand like tin soldiers, all alike. -The older trees look very ragged, for they are unable to shed their dead -limbs, and as old age comes on they send up suckers from the roots that -form a little forest around the parent tree. - -Scattered over fallow fields of worthless ground, the red cedars are -allowed to grow. They are the evergreen counterparts of the slim Lombardy -poplars. Sometimes the red cedar broadens into a pyramid, wide at the -base, but we are all familiar with the green exclamation points, dotted -over the hillsides, wherever birds have dropped the blue berries full of -seeds. - -The pointed firs with their horizontal branches becoming longer and -longer towards the ground, are good examples of the pyramid form so -common among evergreens. This is the shape of the spruces, and the pines, -and the hemlocks, until storms have broken their branches, and taken away -the symmetry of the top. The pin oak and the honey locust send out -horizontal branches of graduated lengths from the central shaft, -imitating the evergreens in shape. - -The evergreen magnolia of the South has a dome like an old-fashioned -beehive, pyramidal, and regular when it grows in sheltered places. Such a -dome is the hard maple's in the North. - -Some trees branch low, and their short trunks break into great limbs -whose ample spread forms a dome much broader than its height. The white -oak in the North and its evergreen counterpart, the live oak of the -South, illustrate this noble form. Somewhat like them, but with its dome -elevated upon a tall trunk, is the American elm with the fan top. The -lines of the elm branches are all curves from the arching limbs that rise -out of the trunk to the flexible twigs which droop at the extremities of -the branches. The dome of a white oak is made of angular limbs. Even the -twigs are likely to be crooked. No one would confuse the elm with an oak. - -Round-headed trees are many. Go from the apple tree in the orchard to the -red and Norway maples along our streets. A great many trees find this -form best adapted to spreading their leaves out towards the sun. Many -oaks and ash trees, the hickories and birches, and the beeches have -widely spreading limbs forming tops that are oblong in shape. There are -trees so irregular in habits of growth that we shall never know them by -their forms alone. - -The winter is the best time to study tree shapes, for then the framework -is revealed. The trees to study are those which stand apart from others, -so that they have been able to take their natural shapes. These we shall -find growing on the streets, and in yards, and parks, and in open spaces -in the woods. Where trees crowd each other in growing, their branches -chafe and clash in storms, destroying the buds and leaves, and bruising -the tender bark. Such limbs die of these injuries, and the whole shape of -the tree top is changed by its losses. - -[Illustration: Fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn] - -[Illustration: Clustered thorns on trunk of honey locust tree; Flowers -and foliage of the black locust] - -It is hopeless for lower limbs to live in a dense pine forest. The top -branches form so thick a wall of shade that lower branches die from lack -of sun. It is the same with broad-leaved trees. In any dense woods, the -trees stand bare as telegraph poles, lifting small heads of foliage at -the top, and competing there with their neighbour trees for sun and air. -It is only when set apart from other trees that a trunk can keep its -lower branches hale and strong as those at the top. - -The weeping habit gives us some strange tree forms. The Camperdown elm -forms a shady summer-house on many a lawn by arching limbs which droop to -the ground on all sides of the main trunk. The weeping mulberry has the -same habit. Weeping birches and willows have such light foliage, and such -fine, flexible twigs, that they look like fountains of green as they -stand among the other trees. - -All weeping trees are made by grafting in the nursery rows. They are not -grown from seeds, and it is not true that they "weep" because of being -planted up-side-down! This preposterous notion is not uncommon. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR THORNS - -In winter time, the bare limbs of trees reveal many strange secrets, -which the leaves cover up in summer. Some trees we may know by the thorns -they wear. - -The honey locust scarcely conceals in summer the three-branched thorns, -for which it is famous. These thorns are twigs, but they rarely bear -leaves. Each is sharpened to a needle point, and highly polished. -Sometimes it is single, oftener with a main thorn and two side branches; -sometimes short, but often reaching over a foot in length, and growing -stronger and more wicked-looking with age. Sometimes a honey locust has a -crowded group of these thorns growing out of the trunk and large limbs. -Once in a great while a honey locust is thornless, growing wild. From -such trees a thornless variety has been developed. It is, therefore, -possible to obtain from nurserymen trees of this variety. - -The unbranched spines of the osage orange trees make it a formidable -hedge plant, and no fences are needed where green barriers of these trees -grow. Each shining leaf has a spike at its base, stout and sharp as a -needle, and strong as steel. - -Two spines stand guard at the base of each leaf of the yellow or black -locust, and each leaflet has two little spines of the same type. The -basal spines remain after the leaves fall, so that in winter we shall -find these pairs of sentinels guarding the leaf scars up and down the -ridged twigs. On the thicker stems the thorns are larger, and the tree is -thus well-armed and able to do duty as a hedge plant, when thickly -planted. - -These thorns come off with the bark, hence they are more properly called -prickles. They are not rooted in the wood of the branch as the thorns of -the honey locust are, but they belong in the class with rose and -raspberry prickles, which are mere outgrowths of the bark. - -The hawthorn trees have single spines, some long and curved, some short, -some branched. All are rooted in the pith of the twig that bears them; -therefore, they are not prickles, but true thorns. - -The wild plum trees have a strange habit of ending their shoots with -thorny tips, as if the branches needed such defence against browsing -cattle. Certainly these stunted, sharp-pointed twigs are useful as -weapons of defence to the little trees that grow slowly in poor soil, and -are sufferers from poverty and abuse. Perhaps it is their hard luck that -makes them crabbed and thorny. Wild apple trees show the same tendency to -have thorny twigs. The same little trees, transplanted to mellow soil, -grow soft and leafy twigs, and abandon the carrying of weapons. - -Hercules' club is a tree which beats the ailanthus at its own game. Stems -ten feet high and two inches in diameter at the base sometimes shoot up -in a single season. These clubs of Hercules are covered with spines as -thickly set as on a gooseberry bush, formidable and vicious, though only -skin deep. - -On account of its tropical growth, this tree is planted for ornament in -gardens where there is room. Its leaves are wonderful. They come out with -a rich, silky, bronze sheen in spring, and when they reach full size are -often four feet long, and more than half as wide. Each one is branched -and branched again, and ends in a multitude of small oval leaflets. These -giant leaves sway in the summer winds, giving the tree the grace of a -tree fern. In late summer a great pyramid of bloom rises above the -foliage. Purplish berries, which succeed the flowers, make a fine showing -in fall and winter, when the leaves have turned to red and gold. - -We dare not touch this spiny tree, but we may come close and admire its -wonderful crown of umbrella leaves, the biggest by far borne on any tree -outside of the Tropics. - - - THE NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - -In our town and in our neighbourhood most of the trees drop their leaves -before winter comes, and stand with bare limbs for several months. Here -and there, however, a single tree stands, wearing the same green leaves -it wore all summer. Everybody knows this tree as an evergreen. It belongs -to a group of trees strangely different from those around it which have -shed their leaves. Let us see how it differs from them. - -Take the one that is nearest to you, and pull down one of its leafy, -green branches. The leaves are like green needles, stiff, sharp-pointed, -with waxy resin on the brown twigs, that makes your fingers sticky. Up in -the tree tops strange oval, brown cones are hanging. Underfoot, a carpet -of dead needles lies thick upon the grass, and cones, with their -overlapping scales spread much wider than those upon the tree, lie about. -Squirrels have gnawed some of these scales away, leaving a central spike -like a cob from which the corn has been shelled. Little green cones, fat -and waxy, no larger than your thumb, are seen near the tips of some -branches. You can see the scales overlapping each other in these, even -though they seem to be grown solidly together. - -If we walk through the village or the city in which we live, and stop -under each evergreen tree we come to, we shall find nearly all alike in -these two points: they have needle-like leaves, and they have cones. The -evergreens with needle-like leaves, and cones on and under them, belong -to four evergreen tree families, whose names every one would like to -know. These four evergreen families are named pine, spruce, fir, and -hemlock, and they are planted everywhere. But few people are very sure -they know one from another. It is perfectly right to call them all -evergreens, or conifers, which means cone-bearers. These names include -all the four families. But it is common for people to call a spruce, a -pine, or a hemlock, a spruce, when the truth is that one may very easily -know these trees apart. - -Let us begin with the first needle-leaved cone-bearing evergreen we meet. -To find out whether this tree is a pine, a spruce, a fir, or a hemlock, -we must ask the tree some questions. It will answer them. First: "Are -your needles set _one_ in a place on the twig, or are they in groups, or -bundles, of _more than one_ at a place?" Pull down a twig and look -sharply for the answer. Suppose there are the leaves in pairs, or in -threes, or in fives, each bundle or group growing out of a single point -on the twig. The answer is: "Not single, but in bundles, more than one at -a place." Towards the end of the shoot you will find a brownish or -silvery sheath binding the leaves into bundles. Further back, this sheath -may be missing, but the number of leaves in the bundle remains the same -for some distance back from the end of the shoot. The leaves begin to -fall from the bundles farthest from the tips, and therefore old. If two -leaves is the number in a bundle, there are never more than two, young -and old. If three is the number, you will find only threes. If five is -the number, then you will rarely find fewer than this in any bundle. - -All the trees with more than one leaf in a bundle are pines. All of the -rest of the needle-leaved evergreens have a single leaf at a place upon -the twig. They are the spruces, firs, and hemlocks. Let us go and look -for them. - -The very next evergreen we come to we must put the same question to: "Are -your leaves single, or are there more than one in a bundle?" Suppose -"three in a bundle" is the answer; we recognise the tree as a pine, and -pass it by. - -Across the street is a tree of different shape, though an evergreen and a -conifer. We see the long cones hanging from its drooping branches, -especially near the top of the tree. Cross over and examine a twig; the -needles are short and sharp-pointed, and they are set singly in spiral -lines on the twigs. Every leaf sits on a little shelf, or bracket, that -stands out from the twig. Pick up a dead twig under the tree. The leaves -are gone, but these little brackets in spiral rows wind around the twig. -They are horny and sharp, and would tear your fingers if you drew the -twig quickly between them. - -Notice that the little brackets are angled at the top. Pick up a dead -leaf and notice the shape of its base. The leaf itself has angled sides. -Roll it between your thumb and finger. It has three or four sides, and at -least three sharp angles. - -This is a spruce, and the signs by which we know it are the brackets on -the twig, the thick, sharp, three- or four-angled leaf, and the stout -twigs, to match the stout leaves. - -The next needle-leaved evergreen with cones we meet we may hope will turn -out to be a fir or hemlock, but the chances are that its twigs will show -two, three, or five needles in a bundle. What shall we call the tree? A -pine, of course, and pass it by. We need ask no further question. - -The next tree has stiff twigs with brackets, and stout, stiff, angled and -pointed leaves. Cones hang down upon its branches. We recognise a spruce, -and go on. - -Over yonder is an evergreen which waves a featherly spray of very slender -twigs. There is scarcely a breeze stirring, and yet the tree is all -a-tremble, and its drooping branches carry a load of pretty little brown -cones. Turn up a branch, and you notice that the leaves are all silvery -underneath. They are single on the twigs, so this is not a pine. They -part and lie flat, a row on each side of the twig. This is very different -from a spruce whose leaves stand out all around the twigs. These sprays -are flat, each like a feather. The leaves are soft, not stiff. They are -blunt, flat, and each has a tiny stem. The twigs are like fine wire, they -are so slender. The leaves are mounted on brackets, just as the spruce -leaves are, but the brackets are much smaller, to match the daintier -twigs and leaves. - -It is a hemlock tree. The tiny leaf stem is the thing which sets it apart -from all other needle-leaved evergreens. Take a good look before you go, -at the leaf itself, at the slender twigs, with their little brackets, at -the shining upper surface of the flat leaf and the silvery lining that -makes this tree so lovely as the wind lifts the flexible branches. Pick -up a handful of dead leaves, and notice that though dead and brown, they -show the flat surface with a middle ridge on the under side, prolonged -into the short leaf stem. The pale lining is not so distinct now. - -One tree family remains of the needle-leaved, cone-bearing evergreen. -That is the fir, the Christmas tree, and its close relatives. Not often -do we plant our native fir, because the trees are not as handsome, nor as -useful as pines, spruces, and hemlocks. We may walk far before we find an -evergreen which does not turn out to be a pine, a spruce, or a hemlock. -However, it is near Christmas time. The little firs will be brought into -market in sufficient numbers to supply a Christmas tree to every house. -This is our chance. We will go to market, and look at these little trees -that stand together, with their limbs trussed like fowls, ready to be -baked. This is for economy of space in shipping. - -The clean, pungent odour of balsam comes from the bleeding stub, and we -see tears of the whitish wax wherever the bark of a twig or branch is -bruised. These are balsam firs. They have their name from this fragrant, -sticky resin that leaks from their veins. - -First, as to the leaves. We find them single and spirally arranged, as in -the spruce, but there are no brackets on the twigs. Pull off a leaf and -the twig is smooth. The leaves are blunt, but flattened, and on most of -the twigs they spread, feather-like, on two sides. There are more of -them, however, than on the hemlock spray. They are white-lined, like the -hemlock leaves, but there are no little leaf stems. The twigs are stouter -than those of the hemlock, resembling the spruce twigs in size, but they -lack horny little leaf brackets which are so prominent on spruce twigs. - -One reason that spruce trees make poor Christmas trees is that the leaves -fall so soon. Almost the day after Christmas the floor is scattered with -them. The fir trees keep their leaves for weeks. This little bracket -makes all the difference. Fir leaves seem to be fastened right into the -twig itself, and made thus more secure. - -If it chances that you find a fir old enough to bear cones, you will see -another very distinct trait of this family. The cones are held erect on -the twigs; the cones of pines, and spruces, and hemlocks hang down. If -you are fortunate enough to find a fir tree growing, and old enough to -bear its fruit, these upright cones will tell you the tree's name before -you come near enough to look at the leaves, and to see if the twigs are -smooth. - - - THE FIVE-LEAVED SOFT PINES - -An evergreen with needle-like leaves in bundles, two to five leaves in a -bundle, is a pine. These bundles are usually bound with a thin, papery -sheath at the base, and set in spiral rows that wind around the twig. The -leaves in the newest sheaths are nearest the growing tip of the shoot. -Here we shall find the leaves shorter, some so short that they have not -yet got outside of their sheaths. The silky covering hides them, as the -bud scales on other trees covered the undeveloped shoot with its flowers -and leaves, wrapped in the winter buds. - -The kind of pine depends upon the number of leaves in a bundle. This is -the first thing to find out when we undertake to determine the name of a -pine tree. All of the vigorous young shoots have bundles that do not vary -in number of needles. Further back on the limb are leaves more than a -year old. The sheaths are shorter, or have fallen away entirely. Now the -number of needles in a bundle begins to be uncertain. We find bundles -that have fewer needles than those on the younger wood. This is because -the older leaves are falling. Finally we reach a point where the twigs -are bare. On white pine shoots it is easy to find leaves that are five to -seven years old. - -"Soft pine" is a lumberman's term. Carpenters use it, so do all people -who work in wood. It means that the wood of a certain group of pines is -soft and light, and the sap is not gummy. Any boy who has cut kindling -wood knows what a joy it is to whittle soft pine. Until a few years ago, -this was the wood out of which boxes of all sorts were made, and it was -the only kindling wood we had. Now things are changed. Much box lumber is -made of poplar and other soft woods, which do not split as easily as -pine. This means that soft pine is getting scarce, and is too valuable to -use where cheaper woods will serve. - - - THE WHITE PINE - -The white pine has the softest, most hair-like leaves in the whole pine -family. Five needles are in each bundle, and each is delicate and -flexible. When the wind blows through the top of one of these -five-needled trees, the end shoots nod like plumes. The tree sends up a -straight shaft sometimes to the height of nearly two hundred feet, and -whorls of branches, five in a place, form regular platforms extending -horizontally from the trunk. Each of these sets of branches counts a year -of the tree's life; for the end bud lengthens the trunk, and at the same -time, five buds that surround it grow out into horizontal branches. It is -easy to count the age of a young white pine, by beginning at the tip, and -counting downward. We could do it with large trees, except that the lower -branches die, and at length are lost. The bark heals over the scars left -where they fell, so the count is lost when we reach the point where the -branches stop. The white pine is slow to shed its dead branches. - -In the woods of the Eastern half of the United States any five-leaved -pine that we meet is a white pine. Before we are near enough to count the -needles in a bundle, we may count five branches at a whorl around the -trunk, and this determines the name. Beautifully regular pyramids, the -little trees are. In old age these pines lose symmetry by the loss of -limbs, and become very rugged and picturesque. A white pine tree, -crippled by two or three centuries of struggle with winds and lightnings, -is a noble figure. The plume-like branches soften its rugged outlines, -and the sombre blue-green of the older leaves is brightened by the -fresher colour of the new ones. The upper half of the tree is hung with -slim cones whose smooth, thin scales spread wide in the autumn of their -second year to let the winged seeds go. - -In spring the clustering catkins of staminate flowers look like yellow -cones on the ends of the pale yellow-green shoots. The wind shakes an -abundant supply of golden dust out of these pollen flowers, then lets the -fading catkins fall. The pistillate flowers are pinkish-purple and almost -hidden, just back of the tips of the upper twigs. They are cone-shaped, -and they part their scales and stand erect to catch the pollen as it -drifts through the tree tops. The flowers on each scale require a grain -of pollen each, in order to set seed. When its flowers are fertilised the -cone closes its scales tight, but they stand erect all summer. In the -autumn they are green and fleshy, and they turn downward. In winter we -shall see among the swaying branches of these pines, the green, -half-grown fruits, and further back, on wood a year older, the brown, -full-grown cones with their scales spread. These cones often curve -slightly. The largest of them may be ten inches long, but the average -cone is little over half that length. - -The lumbermen have stripped the white pine from the Eastern forests until -there is very little left. Many states are planting this valuable timber -tree, to restore the forests that wasteful lumbering, and forest fires -have destroyed. Thousands of young trees grown in nursery rows are -transplanted to beautify home grounds and parks. We shall find no -difficulty in discovering white pine trees, even though no forest near us -has a specimen left. It is one of the commonest pines to be planted in -cities and villages. It is the only five-leaved pine that will grow -successfully on this side of the Rocky Mountains. - - - THE GREAT SUGAR PINE - -All along the coast mountains from Oregon to Lower California, a -five-leaved soft pine grows whose size makes our Eastern white pine seem -like a dwarf. In that far country of big trees, it is one of the giants. -I had read of these trees which grow to be over 200 feet in height, with -trunks six to ten feet in diameter at the ground, but figures do not give -much idea of the truth. I first saw the groves of sugar pines miles ahead -of us, as the stage climbed the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada -mountains. We were on the way into the wonderful Yosemite Valley. The -scrawny, grey, digger pines, with cones as big as a man's head, grew on -the lower foot hills. Next came the great yellow pines, and still higher -up, the grand sugar pines, along the highest level of the stage road. -They stood oftenest in close ranks so that their tops were small, because -of the crowding. And here they had stood for centuries. The road was no -wider than the broad stumps of some that had been cut down, and their -prostrate trunks were longer than any log I have ever seen before. I -remember calculating that the round dining table at home could be set -upon this stump, and all the family seated round it with no danger of -their chairs being too near the edge. The standing trunks seemed like -great builded columns, too large for real trees to grow. Their feathery, -dark green tips reached nearer to the sky than any trees in Eastern -forests. - -[Illustration: Hemlock cones are small; those of Norway spruce are four -or five inches long] - -[Illustration: Pine twig with cones, young and old, and clustered -staminate flowers] - -Under these pines old cones were lying. They were big, to match the -trees. Twenty inches the longest one measured, with scales two inches -long, and plump seeds as big as navy beans. Far off in the tree top the -hanging cones looked moderate in size. We could just see the green, -half-grown cones nearer the ends of the branches, for this Western white -pine, like our Eastern species, requires two years to mature its fruit. - -"Why call them sugar pines?" I asked the stage driver. He pointed to some -drops of resin-like substance on the scales of the cone I held in my lap. -"Taste it," he said. I did, and it was sweet, with somewhat the flavour -of maple sugar. Crystals of this sugar come from wounds in the bark, and -from the ends of green sticks when burning. The sap is quite as sweet as -that of maple trees, but one is soon surfeited in eating the candy-like -substance. - -The stage driver told me that a lumberman could cut $5,000 worth of -lumber from one of these sugar pine trees. No wonder they think that it -is a burning shame for the government to reserve these noble woods of the -Yosemite tract "just to be looked at." Fortunately for us, and for the -people of the whole country, some thousands of acres of magnificent -forest are reserved on those Western-mountain slopes, where they are safe -from the lumberman's axe. If we cannot go to see them this year, perhaps -we can fifty years hence. They will still be standing, still growing, -these noble remnants of the grandest forests of any country. Specimens of -what Mr. John Muir calls "the largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all -the seventy or eighty species of pine trees in the world." - -[Illustration: Thousands of little balsam firs supply the market with -Christmas trees] - -[Illustration: In these tall white pine trees Nathaniel Hawthorne built -an out-door study, where he wrote undisturbed] - - - THE NUT PINES - -A group of soft pines, with fewer needles than five in a bundle, grows on -the Western mountain slopes. Small trees they are, which have to struggle -hard against the winds and storms, and with the scant moisture of the -desert air and soil for a bare living. They are very interesting because -of the fact that they have nuts, rich, sweet, and nutritious, under the -scales of their cones, and these nuts are important items in the food of -many Indian tribes of the West. - -The first is the four-leaved nut pine that grows on the barren mountain -slopes of Southern and Lower California. It is a desert tree, rarely -reaching forty feet in height, and this only in the most favourable -situations. The foliage is pale sage green. No other pine has four leaves -in a bundle. Its nut-like seeds are rich in oil, starch, and sugar. -Without them the Indians of Lower California would probably starve. In -Riverside County the tree is common at 5,000 feet above sea level. It has -a regular pyramidal head, when young, becoming low, round-topped and -irregular when very old. - -Another pinon, but this one with a bushy, broad top, and often -considerably taller, grows with the four-leaved pine on the mountains of -Lower California, and northward along the canyons and mountain slopes of -Arizona. The short leaves are dark green, and there are but two or three -in a bundle. The seeds are plump, and rounded, or angular. The upper side -is brown, the lower side black, and each has a pale brown wing. - -A third nut pine, or pinon, two- or three-leaved, grows on the eastern -foot hills of the outer ranges of the Rocky Mountains, on both sides of -the system. Forests of it are found on the high plains of Colorado and -Arizona. It sometimes grows large enough to be used for lumber. The nuts -are half an inch long, and have thin, brittle shells. They are gathered -by Indians and Mexicans, and may often be bought in the markets of -Colorado and New Mexico. - -The one-leaved nut pine seems to belong with the spruces and firs, and -other single-leaved evergreens, but there are frequently two leaves in -the bundle, and there is a little scaly sheath at the base. The -grey-green leaves often hang on for ten or twelve years. The winged nuts -are over half an inch long. The wood furnished fuel and charcoal to the -smelters in the mining regions, and the Indians of Nevada and California -harvest the nut crop. - -Every autumn when we are going for chestnuts and hickory nuts in our -Eastern woods, we may think of the Indian families who leave their homes -in the lowlands, and climb the mountain slopes to gather their nuts which -are their staff of life. If we should miss our nutting excursion, it -would make no vital difference in our lives during the coming winter. Our -nuts are not a serious part of the provisions of the household. But with -the Indians, to miss the nut pine harvest, means to have no bread for the -winter that is coming. - -Mr. John Muir, who has often lived among these stunted upland forests, -and seen the Indians gathering the nuts and using them later as food, -tells us many interesting things. The trees of the one-leaved nut pine -are low, like old apple trees, and full of cones. The Indians get long -poles, and beat the cones off the trees, then roast them on hot stones, -until the scales open. Then they shake out the nuts, and gather them in -baskets and bags to carry home. These nuts are eaten raw or parched on -hot stones. These are the easiest and simplest ways. But the best and -most palatable form in which they are prepared costs much more time and -labour. The nuts are parched, then ground or pounded into meal. This is -stirred up with water, into a kind of mush, which is formed into cakes -and baked. This is, in general, the way in which all pine nuts are made -into bread. - -The time of the nut harvest is, for the Indians, the merriest time of the -year. If the crop is heavy, the spirits of the party are light. A single -family, if it is fairly industrious, can gather fifty or sixty bushels of -these rich, thin-shelled nuts in a single autumn month; and with this -quantity to carry home, can go down the mountains, tired but happy, -knowing that their bread for the winter, and plenty of it, is assured. - - - THE HARD PINES - -The hard pines are a group of needle-leaved evergreens, whose leaf -bundles contain two or three needles, as a rule. The wood is heavy, -usually dark in colour, and saturated with a resinous, gummy sap. The -common name, "pitch pine," refers to the resinous wood; it is much harder -to work with than that of soft pines. The most valuable hard pine forests -grow in the Southern states. These are now the chief sources of pine -lumber in the Eastern half of the continent. They furnish also quantities -of turpentine, pitch, tar, and oil, products of the resinous sap which -saturates the wood of these trees while they are growing. - -One trait of the pitch pines is that they retain the leaf sheath. The -soft pines shed the sheath as soon as the leaf bundle has attained its -full length. - - - THE SOUTHERN PITCH PINES - -The woodwork and floors of a great many houses of moderate cost are done -to-day in Southern pine, sometimes called "yellow pine," sometimes "curly -pine." The alternating bands of dark and light yellowish brown, often -very much waved, give the wood an ornamental grain that is much admired. -It is common and most desirable that this wood should not be stained nor -painted, but given the "natural finish" which brings out the rich orange -colour, and shows at their full value the wavy bands and intricate -patterns that are the chief beauty of the wood. The arching timbers that -support the roof of a church are often made of stiff timbers cut from -Southern pines, and dressed only with a coat of oil, under which time -deepens and enriches the wood's natural colours. - - - THE LONGLEAF PINE - -The longleaf pine is one of four hard pines whose lumber is not -distinguished by ordinary carpenters, but is generally called "yellow -pine." "Georgia pine" ranks a little higher than the rest. That is the -longleaf, which grows over a territory much greater than the state of -Georgia. This is the chief source of turpentine, pitch, and tar, as well -as one of the very best lumber trees of the pitch pine group. The most -ornamental wood is that with the curliest grain, and the narrowest bands -of alternating dark and light colour. It grows slowly in hard, sandy -soils on the damp coast plains near the Gulf of Mexico. - -We shall know this tree from all other pines by the length of its -needles. They are twelve to eighteen inches long, flexible, dark green, -shining, three in a bundle, enclosed at the base in long, pale, silvery -sheaths. They remain on the tree but two years, therefore the tree top is -bare except for thick tufts of these drooping leaves on the ends of the -branches. If you have never seen these trees growing in their natural -forest belt, that ranges from Virginia to Florida, and west to the -Mississippi River, or in small scattered forest patches in Northern -Alabama, Louisiana, or Texas, you may have seen branches or small trees -shipped north to be used for Christmas decorations. In the waste land -that the lumbermen have cut over, in the neighbourhood of these longleaf -forests, men go in early December, and cut the little trees. Saplings two -or three feet high bring good prices in the Northern markets, where holly -branches, ropes of ground pine, sprigs of mistletoe, and leaves of -Southern palms are sold. A little two-foot longleaf pine, standing erect, -with all its long flexible leaves bending outward like a fountain of -shining green, is handsomer than any palm of the same size. - -The popularity of these pine shoots is growing, and those who cut them -seem not to realise that they are killing the forests of the future. -Trees grow from seeds which fall in the territory cleared by the -lumbermen. If these little trees that Nature plants are cut as fast as -they show themselves above the forest floor, how are the longleaf pine -forests to be restored? It is a great problem, for a great part of the -natural wealth of the South is in these lumber tracts, now being cleared -at a terrific rate of speed, and the land left practically worthless when -stripped. - -The cones of the longleaf pine are narrow and tapering. The scales are -thick, and each bears a small spine. The leaves are the distinguishing -trait, and the tall, slender trunk crowned by a long open head of short, -twisted branches. - - - THE SHORTLEAF PINE - -The shortleaf pine ranks second only to the longleaf among the forest -pines of the South. It is the common "yellow pine," and "North Carolina -pine" that is commonly sold from lumber yards in the North and Middle -West. Its wood is almost as beautiful in the natural finish. Its leaves -are short in comparison with those of the longleaf, and scarcely longer -than any pines of the North. They are found in clusters of twos and -threes, and they have the dark blue-green colour of the white pine, -lightened by the silvery sheaths at the bases of the clusters. The leaves -are soft and flexible, slender, and sharp-pointed. They vary from three -to five inches in length. The cones are two to three inches long, and -half as broad; the thickened scales have small spines. It takes two years -to bring cones to maturity, and the old ones hang on several years. In -this they differ from our Northern pitch pine. - -Forests of this timber pine are scattered from Connecticut to Florida, -and west to Illinois, Kansas, and Texas. They are being slaughtered by -lumbermen as fast as those of the longleaf. The young trees are tapped -for turpentine. In the South and East, these forests are practically -gone. The lumber mills are busy in the great tracts west of the -Mississippi, and below the Arkansas River, in the forests of shortleaf -pine, which until recently were untouched, and too far from the markets -to be profitably cut. - -The shortleaf pine will reforest the old areas, and spread over a -widening territory, if only it is given a chance. One hundred years is -enough time to restore a forest,--to grow a crop of these trees. Young -ones spring from the roots of old trees, a habit not at all common among -pines. Let us hope that before the Southwestern forests are gone, new -ones east of the Mississippi River will take their places, so that the -shortleaf shall not disappear from the lumber markets as the white pine -of the Northeastern states has done. - - - THE CUBAN PINE - -The Cuban pine or swamp pine of the South, with stout green leaves eight -to twelve inches long, in twos and threes, is not confused with the -longleaf nor the shortleaf, for its leaves are intermediate in length -between the two. This beautiful pine grows in forests that skirt swampy -coast land. Its leaves are carried two years, so the trees have dense, -luxuriant crowns of green, and are more beautiful as a part of the -landscape than any other forest pine of the South. The wood of the Cuban -pine is not distinguished in the lumber trade, as it is much the same in -quality and appearance as longleaf pine. - - - THE LOBLOLLY PINE - -The fourth of the yellow pines of the South is the loblolly or old field -pine, whose lumber is saturated with pitch. The trees grow in marshy -regions along the coast, and for the most part occupy land that is -sterile and worthless. These tide water pine forests follow the swamps -from New Jersey around to Texas. In early days this was the building pine -of the South. The virgin forests are gone, and the new generation is -inferior in quality, because the trees are not allowed to attain their -full growth. Though rich in resin, there is little flow of turpentine -from these trees, but the wood catches fire easily, and is one of the -best of fuels. - -We shall know this pine by its pale green, twisted leaves, always in -bundles of three, six to ten inches long, enclosed at the base in sheaths -that are not shed. The cones are three to five inches long, with ridged -scales set with prickles. This tree bears a great crop of cones yearly, -and its seeds are remarkable for their vitality. So are the seedlings, -which grow on land so wet or so poor that few other trees compete with -them. The first ten years in the life of a seedling pine is a period of -tremendous growth. Fire rarely sweeps these young forests, for the trees -are well protected by the marshy character of the land in which they -grow. Left for a century or two, these trees produce masts for the -largest vessels, equal in quality to the finest in the world. - - - THE NORTHERN PITCH PINES - -We have nothing in the Northeastern states that compares in importance -with the pitch pine of Southern forests, but we have pitch pines which -everybody knows. The first is the gnarled and picturesque pitch pine that -grows on worthless land, and thrives in patches along the sea coast, -where other evergreens are unsuccessful. The rough, rigid branches which -spring from the short trunks of these trees carry a burden of blackening -cones which give them a very untidy look when the trees are small. When -they reach fifty or seventy-five feet in height, a certain nobility and -picturesqueness of expression challenge our admiration, and the clusters -of cones are not at all objectionable; indeed they heighten the tree's -beauty. - -The needle-like leaves of pitch pines are always in threes, rigid, stout, -and three to five inches long, dark yellow-green, the bundles in black -sheaths that are never shed. The cones require two years to ripen. They -are from one to three inches long, pointed, with sharp backward-pointed -beaks. The wood of this tree is used for fuel, and locally for lumber, -but it does not interest the lumbermen. The wood is not good enough, and -the trees are too small and scattered. The tree does a good work by -growing on worthless land, and near the sea coast. Its picturesqueness is -becoming to be more appreciated by landscape gardeners who are bringing -it into cultivation. - -The handsomest of our pitch pines is the red pine, whose dark green -leaves are six inches long, and cluster in twos upon the twigs. The bark, -the wood, and the bud scales are all red. The cones are from one to three -inches long, with thickened scales which have no spines. The tree grows -into a broad pyramid, branched to the ground, with stout twigs, and -luxuriant foliage. The symmetry and vigour of growth makes this red pine -a handsomer tree than the ragged, discouraged-looking pitch pines. It is -well for the landscape that its wood is very disappointing. So many -beautiful groves are allowed to reach great age, and size, where white -pines would have fallen to a lumberman's axe. - -The home that has a beautiful red pine within sight of its windows, or a -double row of these trees serving as a wind-break to ward off the storms -of winter, is truly well planted. Without one or more of these trees, -there is a decided lack. Any nurseryman can furnish handsome young red -pines, so no one need hesitate to plant this native tree. - -[Illustration: The spiny-leaved, red-berried holly is a handsome -evergreen tree for the lawn] - -[Illustration: What would Christmas be without holly branches and wreaths -for decoration!] - -The Jersey pine is a twisted, low tree, with dark, discouraged-looking -branches, covered with grey-green leaves that have a sickly yellowish -tinge when the new shoots appear in spring. The leaves are always in -twos, and they range from one to three inches long. The small cones are -dark red, oval, with thickened scales spiny-tipped. These trees cover -waste land where there is a meagre living for any tree. What wonder that -they look stunted? Their chief merit is that they clothe the desert -places, and furnish wood for fuel and fences, and thus save the great -lumber pines for higher uses. - - - THE CEDARS, WHITE AND RED - -Beside the needle-leaved evergreens just described, there are some trees -we all know, that bear cones, and are evergreens, but their leaves are -strangely different from those of pines, spruces, firs, and hemlocks. One -of these is the familiar arbor vitae, a conical tree, with flat leaf -spray. Looking closely, one can make out the tiny, scale-like leaves, -arranged in opposite pairs, clasping the wiry stems, and covering them -completely. These stems are flat, so that one pair of leaves has a sharp -keel on the middle. The next pair is spread out flat. The keeled pair -covers the edge of the stem. The flat pair covers the broader surface. -These pairs alternate through the length of the stem, and an aromatic -resin seals them close. - -The cones of the arbor vitae are small, and they have few scales, compared -with the cones of the needle-leaved evergreens. Each year a crop is -borne, with two seeds under each scale. Few of us see the little red cone -flowers in May, nor the pellets of yellow on other twigs, which are the -pollen flowers. We watch the hedge clipper at work, trimming the thick -green fronds that make a solid wall of green. Look carefully hereafter -for the flowers and the ripe cones, in the proper season for each. - -[Illustration: This big tree, "The Grizzly Giant," is over three hundred -feet high. It is a sequoia, one of the cone-bearing evergreens] - -[Illustration: SCALY-LEAVED EVERGREENS: Upper: two branches from the same -red cedar tree; Lower: flat sprays of arbor vitae] - -The white cedar grows, a fine, conical evergreen tree, in the coast -states, from Maine to Mississippi. It loves best the deep swamps, but -grows well in wet, sandy soil farther inland. Here we see again the flat -spray of minute, pointed, and keeled leaves, but the cones are different. -These are pale grey, and globular; the few scales are thick and horny, -and curiously sculptured, each with a beak projecting from the centre. - -The foliage mass is a peculiar blue-green, and the bark, thin, and rusty -red, parts into strings and shreds. - -Lumbermen call this tree a cedar. So they do the arbor vitae. The wood of -each is pale-coloured, and notable for its durability when exposed to -weather and water. Fence posts of white cedar, and cedar pails, shingles, -and the like, have a great reputation for durability. - -The peculiarity of a red cedar is its fruit. Instead of a cone, a blue, -juicy, sweet berry follows the blossoming of this tree. The foliage, too, -is erratic. Minute leaves of the scale form, discovered in the other -cedars, are found here on most twigs. They are still smaller, and the -twigs are much smaller. But on new shoots, and often on a whole branch, -the leaves are needle-like, one-half to three-quarters of an inch long, -and spreading as the leaves of a spruce. The mass of the foliage is -blue-green; these new ones are yellow-green. Among the branches hang -these surprising berries! - -The truth is that the scales of the cone thicken, and become soft when -ripe. They grow together, and the berry is, therefore, a cone, but much -changed in its development from the cone on which the fruits of other -evergreen trees are patterned. - -We all know a red cedar tree by its tall, slim shape. The birds eat the -berries, and scatter the seeds far and wide. The trees come up in -irregular clumps in pastures and fence-rows, and in rough, uncultivated -land. They are pretty widely distributed in the eastern half of the -United States. - -The true name for this tree is juniper. That is the name by which all its -related species are known. Red cedar is the lumberman's name for its -wood, and this name, though not right, will probably stick to it always. - -Red cedar chests and closets are believed to be moth-proof. The aromatic -resin in the wood is supposed to be distasteful to the insects which are -the pests of housekeepers. To put furs and woollen blankets and clothing -into these chests does not always prevent their being moth-eaten. This -many people have learned by sorrowful experience. We know the fragrance -of this wood in pencils. Thousands of trees are cut every year to supply -pencil factories. With the scarcity of these trees, other woods are being -substituted. But who will be quite satisfied, or be persuaded that cedar -pencils are not the best? - - - TWO CONIFERS NOT EVERGREEN - -Two cone-bearing trees have the astonishing habit of letting go their -leaves in the fall, and thus setting themselves apart from the -evergreens, to which they are otherwise closely related. Their cones are -like those of pines and spruces. Their leaves are needle-like, and their -flowers are the cone flowers like the rest. Although they stand bare in -winter time, their fruits declare their kinships with the evergreen. -Their forms also suggest this kinship, for each is a spire-like shaft, -from which short branches stand out horizontally like those of the -pointed firs and spruces. - - - THE LARCHES - -In the Northern states, and Canada, long stretches of cold marsh land are -covered with solid growths of tamarack, our American larch tree. In -summer the branches are covered with long, drooping twigs, each set with -many blunt side spurs, from which a tuft of soft, needle-like leaves -forms a green rosette or pompom. The end twigs have needle leaves -scattered their whole length, after the fashion of the spruces. Purplish -cone flowers, and yellow staminate cones appear in spring, and in autumn -among the leaves that are turning yellow a crop of cones is ripening. -They stand erect and solitary on the twigs between the rosettes of -leaves. - -In winter the long, flexible twigs are bare except for these cones. The -little knobs along the twigs are the stubs which bore leaves. In the -spring new leaves come out, pale lettuce green, feathery, transforming -the tree top into a thing of beauty. - -This larch tree of ours is more sparsely branched than the larch of -Europe. It looks ragged and unhappy when planted on our lawns. It is at -its best in the cold North, where it grows in dense crowds, and the tall -trunks are stripped free from limbs well towards the tops. These straight -shafts are cut for telegraph poles, railroad ties, and posts. The heavy, -resinous wood lasts a long time in the ground. - -The larches planted for shade and ornament are of the European species, -which thrives in any soil. It has a denser head of branches, and much -more luxuriant crown of foliage than our native species. It is a -beautiful feathery pyramid of green, distinctly different from other -trees. In Europe large forests are grown on the mountain sides, and from -these the tallest masts for vessels are obtained. The heavy, resinous -wood does not easily take fire as do the pitch pines. The old wooden -battle ships were faced with larch wood because of this, and because -larch wood is so durable in contact with water. Indeed it has the -reputation of outlasting oak, and the wood of all other conifers. - -In the woods of the far Northwest, and inland to Montana, the Western -larch is one of the mighty forest trees. Six feet in diameter, and 200 -feet in height are not uncommon dimensions among these giant larches. -These trees are of slow growth, and they stand with their roots in water -or in wet soil, though on the mountain side. This is an important lumber -tree with wood that has all the good qualities of its family. In Europe -the tree is planted for forests, and as an ornamental tree. We cannot -grow it in the Eastern United States. It is worth a journey across the -continent to see it growing, one of the most magnificent trees in the -world. - - - THE BALD CYPRESS - -Travellers in the South pass forests of dark pines, and along the edges -of swamps the pines often give way to solid stretches of trees with pale -grey trunks, and lettuce green foliage, whose lightness contrasts -strangely and beautifully with the solid bank of dark green that roofs -the forests of pines. A closer look at these strange trees, which often -stand knee-deep in water, is not so easy. At certain seasons of the year, -however, these swamps are dry enough so that one may walk dry-shod among -them, and so learn to know the bald cypress of the South, one of the most -beautiful and interesting of native American trees. - -This is the second of the cone-bearing trees which is not an evergreen. -The leaves on the new shoots are two-ranked, soft and pale sage green in -colour. The stems that bear these plumy leaves bear also scattered single -blades. Among them are older twigs, tipped with cones, and bearing -branchlets with scale-like leaves scarcely spreading at the tips. These -are much smaller than the leaves arranged in two ranks, forming -feather-like, leafy branchlets. It is these which are shed, branchlets, -and all, in the autumn, and fresh in spring renew the feathery grace of -the long, narrow tree top. - -The most surprising thing about the bald cypress is the flaring base of -the trunk, and the root system which seems too large for the tall but -usually narrow top. Knees of cypress rising out of the water from the -main roots, are distinguished from stumps by their smooth, conical tops. -The base of a great tree often spreads into wide flying buttresses, each -hollowed on the inside, but serving with the others to support the -hollow-trunked tree. Many a giant of great age stands thus on stilts -whose submerged ends are the gnarled roots of the tree. From these rise -many smooth, knobbed knees above the surface of the water in the rainy -season. By some foresters, humps on the roots are supposed to be -necessary to the proper breathing of the roots, submerged under water so -large a part of the year. The question of what causes these growths, and -of what use they are, is not fully determined. - -The cones of the bald cypress are globular, and about the size of an -olive. By them the tree declares its relationship to the needle-leaved -evergreens. The wood is light and easy to work, but not noticeably -resinous. It is used for buildings, and for special parts, such as doors, -shingles. It is beautiful when stained, and would be more valuable for -interior finish of houses did it not keep the record of each bump and -dent, as all soft woods do. Buckets and barrels to contain liquids are -largely made of this wood. In railroad ties it proves very durable. - -The best and strangest fact about this tree is that though it belongs to -the South, and is a swamp tree by preference, it grows large and -beautiful in the North, and in soil that is only moderately moist. The -parks of Brooklyn have some noble specimens of this bald cypress of the -South. They stand, tall, handsome shafts, feathered lightly with their -short, drooping side branches, clothed with pale green leaves. There is -no peculiarity of spreading trunk or knees to disturb the sod that comes -up around the base of the tree. In the autumn the foliage turns yellow, -and drops with the larch leaves. Through the winter the globular cones -are present to prove this bald cypress a relative of the evergreens, -which are its neighbours. - - - THE HOLLIES - -No Christmas is Christmas truly without at least a few branches of the -evergreen holly of the South, whose leathery, spiny-pointed leaves are -brightened by clusters of red berries. Every year, hundreds of crates and -boxes of these holly branches are shipped north from the woods of -Alabama, and other Southern states. Many people make their living by -cutting loads of these branches, and hauling them to the shipping sheds -where they are packed and put onto the railroad. The business has grown -so rapidly within the past twenty-five years that holly trees are -becoming very scarce. It has never occurred to those who cut down and -strip the trees that it takes years to grow new ones, and that nobody is -planting for the future. - -Holly wood is white, and very close-grained. It is admirable for tool -handles, whipstocks, walking sticks, and for the blocks on which wood -engravings are made. The living trees are planted for hedges, and for -ornament. The leaves are evergreen, and the berries add brightness and -warmth to the shrubbery border when snow covers the ground. - -Although it reaches its greatest size, and is most commonly found in -Southern woods, this little tree follows the coast as far north as Long -Island. I have found it much higher than my head, growing wild on the -sand bar that separates Great South Bay from the ocean, east of New York -Harbour. Further north, it is occasionally found, but in stunted sizes, -and it is easily winter-killed. - -The holly of Europe, which has brightened the English Christmas for -centuries, has a far more deeply cleft and spiny leaf than ours. Beside -it, our holly leaves and berries are dull, and dark-coloured. The whole -tree lacks the brightness of the European species. Hedges of this -lustrous-leaved holly shut in many an English garden, and their bright -berries glow cheerfully through the grey, sunless, winter days. No wonder -the gardeners frown upon the little thrushes that feed upon these -berries, thus robbing the garden of one of its chief winter charms. - -Three other American hollies are found as shrubby trees in our Eastern -woods, but none of them is evergreen, and the trees are not numerous in -any locality. We shall oftenest see the species known as the winterberry, -whose abundant red berries remain untouched by the birds, until late in -the spring. Many of these fruit-laden branches are gathered in the wild, -and sold in cities for Christmas decorations. Sprays of these berries are -often added to the evergreen holly branches when their own berries are -scarce. - -Christmas holly is something we cannot do without. As the supply grows -less, the price will mount higher. Then will come a time when it is -profitable to raise these trees in quantities, and holly farming will be -practised in favourable localities in the Southern states. But that time -has not yet come. - - - THE BURNING BUSH - -A little tree, not at all related to the holly, but truly a cousin of the -bitter-sweet, has a rather surprising name. In summer it looks like a -wild plum tree, except for its fluted, ash-grey bark. The flowers have -purple petals, and look somewhat like potato blossoms. They would never -attract your attention as you pass the tree. - -In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, and gradually the purple husks that -cover the scarlet berries split open, and curl back. Watch the gradual -opening of these husks, and notice, from some little distance, the -gradual reddening of the tree top, as the yellow leaves fall, and more -and more of the scarlet berries are revealed, as the husks curl and -shrink away from them. It is in this seed and its husk that the -resemblance and relationship of the burning bush and the bitter-sweet -vine is revealed. - -The European spindle tree, and a number of Japanese and Chinese species, -are now planted in American gardens, and called by their genus name, -Evonymus. The red-fruited sorts all come under the common name, burning -bush, and they do burn with a steady flame when winter has robbed the -gardens of colour. Evergreens form a beautiful background for these ruddy -little trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SPRING - - - THE AWAKENING OF THE TREES - -All winter the grey beech trunks look almost white among the dark trunks -of neighbouring trees. Their branches are dark at the tips, and the buds -are long, slim, and sharp-pointed. Silky, brown bud scales, in many -layers, protect the young shoots hidden in these buds. In April these -shoots impatiently push aside their wrappings. The outer scales fall, the -inner ones grow longer, but the growing tip leaves them behind, and they -fall, while the silky-coated, fan-plaited baby leaves hang limp and -helpless on the lengthening stem. - -No tree of the woods is more beautiful than the beech as its twigs cover -themselves with the tender green of spring. Beech leaves are _handsome_ -when full grown. In the short hours of their babyhood they are _lovely_. - -The sturdy shagbark hickory is late in waking. Poplars and beeches are in -full leaf when the big buds of this familiar tree with the shaggy bark -begin to swell, and show the pale, silky inner scales under the black -outer pairs, which soon fall off. - -The branches are stiff and angular, but the twigs hold up their big buds, -and the trees look like great candelabra, each holding up a thousand -lighted candles. As the pointed buds push upward, the protecting scales -grow rapidly larger, and the outer ones turn back like the sepals of an -iris. Wonderful tints of olive and yellow, violet and rose, blend in -their silky covering. Out of this petal-like frill rises the cluster of -young leaves, small but perfectly formed, and just as varied and delicate -in colouring under their velvet covering. These complete the flower-like -appearance of the young shoots. The illusion lasts only until the leaves -spread out, and take on their natural, colour and size. The scales fall, -their duty done, and the flower catkins come out, under the broad -umbrellas of the fresh, new leaves. The tree is thoroughly awake, and has -begun its long summer's work. - -[Illustration: The great winter buds of the shagbark hickory open like -flowers in May] - -[Illustration: Pink and silvery catkins of trembling aspen, and the -white, flannel-like leaves, just opened] - -The poplar likes to grow in moist ground, and in companies of its own -kind. Copses of these trees, especially if they be young ones, are sure -heralds of the coming spring. Their stems and branches are smooth, and -almost as pale as white birches. They become greenish, especially the -smaller branches and twigs, as the sap rises. They are alive from root -tips to shining buds. - -The brown scales loosen in March on the plumpest buds. The fuzzy grey -pussies push out, and lengthen into soft chenille fringes that wave -gracefully from every twig. They are grey, with a flush of pink, an -exquisite colour harmony, too lovely to last. Their catkins fall as soon -as their golden pollen dust is ripened and scattered by the wind. The -plain, green fertile ones on other trees catch the pollen, and set seed -which ripens, in green, berry-like capsules, in May. The seeds are almost -too small to be seen. Each floats away with the small wisp of down in -which it hides. - -The slim buds on the same twigs open while the trees are still in -blossom. The young shoots come out, and unroll their baby leaves, soft -and white, covered with a silky down, and tinted pink under the -protective hairs. For a short time only they look like white velvet, and -are limp and helpless. Then the hairy coat is shed; the leaves become -shiny and bright green, and twinkle in the sunshine. The stems are -flexible and long and flattened. This makes them catch the breeze, if the -blades do not, so the foliage trembles whenever a breeze goes through the -tree top. - -Quaking aspen, trembling aspen, and "quakenasp" are popular names given -this tree, whose foliage has the appearance and the sound of rippling -water. Tradition says the tree is forever accursed, and trembles as from -fear, because the traitor, Judas, hanged himself on an aspen. This is a -foolish notion. Only gaiety is expressed by the continual fluttering of -the aspen's leaves. - -The buds of cottonwood and Balm of Gilead trees are sealed with a -fragrant wax which softens as spring loosens the scales and growth -begins. - -Bees throng these trees, and gather the soft wax to carry to their hives. -They use it to stop up cracks that would let in the rain. What is not -needed at once they store for future use. Bee-keepers call it "propolis." -They have offered the bees something "just as good," but they will take -no substitute for the genuine. That is produced only on the buds of trees -of the poplar family, and for a brief season it is ready for them in -spring. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN EARLY SPRING - -In late March, or early in April, before the leaves have come out on any -of the trees along your street, you may look out of an upper window and -notice that strange-looking tassels are hanging on the twigs of a poplar -or cottonwood tree. Its buds are large and they shine in the sun, as if -they were wet. A day or two later you may be walking with your mother or -sister, and she will be startled to see the sidewalk covered with what -look to her like great red caterpillars! Then you may remember the tree -with the tassels on it, and recognise them, and explain where they came -from. - -A single look shows that this worm-like object is a catkin, and the -lovely red is the colour of the many stamens that contain the pollen -dust. When this is ripe the stamens burst and let it fly away. Then the -tree lets its catkins fall, for they have done their part. - -Green catkins hang on other trees of the same kind in the neighbourhood. -The flowers are waiting for pollen that will enable them to set seed. If -the wind blows in the right direction when the pollen is flying about, -the green, fertile flowers will get all they need. These catkins are not -shed as the red ones are. They make little show among the opening leaves, -but little seed balls take the place of the flowers. By the end of May -the green balls the size of peas turn yellow, and open. Out of each pod -floats tufts of white down, each bearing away a tiny white seed. This is -the end of the story. Before the chestnut trees have begun to blossom, -the poplars have scattered their seeds, and have all the summer to spend -in growing long, supple shoots covered with their dancing, shining -leaves. They look as if they enjoy life! - -The pussy willows push their fuzzy noses out in winter. Some are even -showing in autumn. But the yellow pollen is not seen on these flowers -until the catkins are full grown, and they wait till winter is past. They -dare not risk a frost. - -Among pussy willow trees there is a difference in the catkins. On one -tree they turn yellow when mature; the golden pollen dust rises in a -cloud when the twig is disturbed. These catkins soon fall off. - -On other trees the catkins are greenish, and they stay on after reaching -full size. They are the fertile flowers, which develop into seed pods. -Pollen brought to them by the wind or by visiting insects in search of -nectar, insures the setting of seed in these flowers. Though the gayer -flowers fall, they are quite as necessary to the making of seeds as the -fertile ones. In all the willows and poplars, it requires two trees, -bearing the two kind of flowers, to make the seed. And the wind and -nectar-seeking insects are necessary as pollen-carriers. - -[Illustration: The winter flower buds, the blossoms, the full-grown -winged seeds, and the ribbed leaf of our American elm] - -[Illustration: The majestic, fan-shaped elm blossoms while snow is still -on the fields] - -In marshy land, or by a brook or river, or even just outside the window -at home, there is a tree that turns rosy in March with a multitude of -small red flowers clustered on the sides of its twigs. It is the swamp -maple, the red maple, the river maple, the scarlet maple. Two of these -names tell of the tree's thirst; two name its colour when in blossom, and -also when the leaves change colour in autumn. - -Each flower is a red bell, for the petals are red. One has a red forked -pistil thrust out; another lacks a pistil, but has a cluster of yellow -stamens. One tree may be deep red throughout, having only pistillate -flowers. Another may have only staminate flowers; it will be orange -coloured, by the blending of the colours of the yellow stamens, and the -red petals. Another tree may have flowers of both kinds. Occasionally -flowers will be found that have both stamens and pistils. - -The bees are in the scarlet maples at the first loosening of the bud -scales. There is nectar in those flower bells. The colour and a faint -fragrance tell this secret. From pollen flowers the busy insects carry -the golden dust to the forked pistils that set seeds. - -The wind helps by scattering pollen in the tree tops, and very soon the -flowers are gone. The staminate trees turn green when the opening leaves -lose their vivid red. The pistillate trees hang out red clusters of -winged seeds below the opening leaf clusters. These red trees keep their -name written plainly as long as the seed clusters swing. - -Early in March, the side buds on the elm twigs begin to swell, and soon -clusters of purplish flowers, small but very pretty, come out of the -largest buds, and the tree top has a purplish haze upon it, that means -that spring is coming. The bees come to get nectar from these early -blossoms, but few people speak of the blossoming elms. They do not notice -that elms ever blossom; and are rather incredulous when a spray is shown -them covered with the graceful little tassels. "Who ever _heard_ of elms -having flowers?" - -The truth is that every tree, when it is large enough, bears flowers. Not -every one bears fruit, for some have pollen flowers only, the seeds being -borne on the fertile trees. Elms have perfect flowers, and soon after the -leaves open, the green fruits are seen in clusters, and before May -passes, the seeds, each surrounded by an oval wing, flutter off in the -wind. - - - THE AMERICAN ELM AND ITS KIN - -Beautiful and stately, yet full of grace is the form of a big elm tree -against the grey sky of a cloudy winter day. The tall trunk is crowned -with many main branches, which spread into a widening funnel shape, -subdividing into numberless smaller branches, whose direction is outward -and downward. The numerous twigs have the droop of a weeping willow. The -tree top is wonderful when every limb is bare. - -In summer the same tree is a great fountain of green leaves. The long, -leafy twigs of new wood are flung out to the wind, and the twinkling -blades dazzle the eyes like spray. This is the time that we love the elm -for its shade, and as an ornament to home grounds and parks. Roadside -elms are the favourite nesting trees of the Baltimore oriole, whose -hanging pocket of grasses and yarns swings at the end of a high outer -branch. - -When winter is still in the air, and snow on the landscape, the dark -twigs of these bare elm trees change colour. It is the purple flower -clusters that are flung out from opening buds in late March. It takes -sharp eyes to see the cause of the wine-coloured flush in the tree top. -With the opening of the leafy shoots in April, the trees get an added -colour from the pale green seed discs that replace the flowers. These are -winged, and they soon turn brown, and fly away on the first breeze. This -is the elm's way of sowing seeds. A crop of young elms grows each summer -in fields and gardens near these seed trees. The leaf of the seedling is -exactly after the pattern of the parental tree, but smaller. - -The English elm is less graceful than our American tree. It has more the -stature of the white oak. The head is compact, and the foliage mass -thicker, and longer-lived. The robin red-breast nests close to the sturdy -trunk, shielded by the earliest leaves. - -An old couplet guides the farmer in the old country: - - "When the elm leaf is as big as a mouse's ear, - Then to sow barley never fear." - -The toughness of elm is remembered by all who have "read of the wonderful -one-hoss shay." Nothing but "ellum" was proper stuff for the hubs, you -know. As it is durable in soil, elm is good timber for posts and railroad -ties. By its toughness and flexibility, it is fit for waggon tongues, and -all kinds of agricultural implements. The ancient warrior of England was -likely to carry a longbow made of the tough British elm. - -Slippery elms grow more irregular in form than the American, and are -usually smaller trees. Both kinds grow together in the wooded regions -east of the Rocky Mountains. The difference between them can be easily -detected by a blind person. Twigs, buds, and leaves of slippery elms are -made rough and harsh to the touch by coarse, reddish hairs. - -Boys and many other people like the taste of the glutinous inner bark of -this tree when the sap is running, and the limbs and trunks peel easily. -Many a tree is sacrificed to this appetite. The same delectable -mucilaginous substance quenches the thirst and allays hunger,--so hunters -say, who have eaten it when lost in the woods, and threatened with -starvation. Poultices of it relieve throat troubles, when there is -congestion. It is a home remedy for inflammations and fevers. Dried and -ground, the rich cambium is mixed with milk, and forms a nutritious and -tasty food for invalids. It is a staple on the shelves of apothecary -shops. - -The rock elm might be mistaken for a bur oak were the leaves not decided -proof that it is an elm. The limbs are shaggy, and the twigs winged by -the corky bark. Indeed, another name for the tree is the cork elm. The -framework of this tree is stiff and irregular, a decided contrast to the -graceful drooping top of the American elm, whose symmetry is one of its -best points. - -The wood has its fibres so interlaced that no wood excels it in toughness -and springiness. It is the wheelwright's choice. It makes the finest -bridge timbers, and the best axe handles, and wheel hubs. - -The winged elm is the smallest and daintiest of the elms. The twigs are -broadened by a corky ridge on each side. This gives the tree its name. -The Indian name, Wahoo, is also heard in the South. The leaves are of the -elm type, but unusually small. - -It is seen as a street and lawn tree in cities and towns south of -Virginia, and west to Illinois and Texas. - - - THE MAPLE FAMILY - -If you meet a tree of good size, with slender branches, and small buds -set opposite upon the twigs, you may suspect it of being a maple. The -leaves are needed to assure you. If it is winter time, and the tree -stands on the street, the leaves may all have been raked away. If the -tree grows in the woods, the chances are that there is a leaf carpet over -its roots, and that most of these leaves have fallen from its branches. -You can make sure of this point by picking up a dead leaf, examining the -base of its stalk to see if it fits the leaf scars on the twigs. If the -leaves are simple, that is, if they have a single blade, the evidence -that this is a maple is very strong. There are a few small trees with -simple leaves set opposite on the twigs, but they do not grow as large as -maples. - -Does the leaf have three main divisions, each with a vein which is one of -three large branches of the leaf stalk? Then you may be sure that the -tree is one of the maple family. - -Simple leaves, of three main lobes, set opposite on the twigs, and the -twigs set opposite on the branches,--in these are the plain signature of -the maples. They write their names in these characters, across every -branch throughout the growing season, and on the leafless branches, and -the dead leaves under the tree in winter. Another signature is the -one-sided maple key, which hangs on the trees all summer, and even late -into the winter on some kinds, but is shed in early summer by a few. - -The two early-blooming maples are commonly planted as street and shade -trees all over the Eastern half of the country. It is easy to recognise -these, and to know them apart by the leaf alone. - -The red maple is a spreading, symmetrical tree, of medium size with -slender, erect branches. The leaves are red when they open in spring; so -are the flowers which cluster on the bare twigs in early April, before -the leaves are out. The clustered fruits that dangle in pairs all along -the stems in May are red, and in the autumn the tree changes its green -robe of foliage to scarlet before winter comes. The buds that cluster at -the joints are red as rubies, and the slim twigs glow with the same warm -colour, which is warmer by contrast with the snow. - -All maple leaves are more or less cleft into three main divisions. The -red maple has two shallow clefts, V-shaped, at the top, and the lobes are -pointed and triangular. The margins are irregularly saw-toothed. These -leaves are often downy beneath, and always white-lined when young. In -summer they have pale green linings. As a rule, red maple leaves are -small, averaging less than three inches in the length of their blades. -They are larger on young trees. - -The silver maple is much more easily grown from seed than the red maple, -but it has a far more irregular tree top. The limbs branch low on the -trunk, and these limbs grow very long, giving the tree a loose head of -great height, and great horizontal spread. The small branches curve -downward, and the twigs are held erect. The wind twists and breaks these -great weak limbs, or wrenches them loose from the trunk. It is dangerous -to have these trees near the house, for wind and ice storms are -constantly snapping off branches large enough to break windows, or knock -down chimneys as they fall. - -[Illustration: The flowers of the red maple are concealed in winter in -brown buds] - -[Illustration: Seeds of red maple, in late May, and in early April] - -The flowers of the silver maple show no red. They come out -greenish-yellow on the twigs when the red maple's flowers are glowing on -their red twigs in March, and early April. The leaves are pale green, -white beneath, and set on long flexible stems. They are larger than the -leaves of the red maple, and cleft in a distinctly different way. A -narrow, deep fissure divides the leaf in thirds, and two side clefts -divide the lower lobes in two unequal halves. These fissures reach -two-thirds of the way through the leaf blade, and each lobe is cleft -along its sides, into many irregular bays and capes. These leaves are -always silvery white beneath in summer, and they turn to yellow in the -autumn. - -In late May the pairs of winged keys hang on short stems. Each key is -about two inches long, fuzzy green, until ripe, twice the length of the -smooth keys of the red maple, which are ripening at the same time. - -It is good fun to lie under a maple tree, and watch the seeds as they -fall. If the wind is strong, they shower down like rain. Each key -separates from its mate, and as it lets go its hold on the twig, the wind -catches its thin wing, and sends it whirling round and round. The heavy -seed makes for the earth, while the flat blade above it acts as a -parachute, or a sail, to keep it in the air. - -How far does a silver maple send its seeds in these summer days, when -they are falling? It is easy to answer this question by pacing the -distance from the tree trunk in a straight line to the point where the -farthest key falls. Go in the direction towards which the wind is -blowing, in determining this distance. It will be interesting to run out -another line from the tree trunk to find out how far the seeds are thrown -on the side that is against the wind. - -From the silver maple go to a red maple, and watch the harvest of these -small-winged keys. Do a little measuring here, and find out if their -smaller size and weight enables these seeds to sail further in the same -breeze than those of the silver maple. - -The sugar maple is known also as the rock or hard maple, because its wood -is harder, and therefore slower to grow, than the two quick-growing soft -maples just described. This is the one whose trunk is tapped in spring, -and the sap boiled down in great kettles over an open fire in the woods. -When the water is all evaporated, solid cakes of maple sugar remain. If -you are walking in the woods in winter, and come upon any trees bored -with small auger holes, several near the base of each trunk, you may -suspect that this is a grove of hard maples which the New England farmer -calls his "sugar bush." - -Look at the twigs, and you will see that the plump round buds are set -opposite, and the twigs are opposite on the branch. This is the way with -all maple trees. Are the branches many, and do they shoot upward rather -than outward, and form an oval head? This is the typical habit of young -hard maple trees. As they grow older the heavy lower limbs become -horizontal. They are clean, hardy, vigorous trees, long-lived, -dependable, able to meet the storms, and to suffer the theft of their -rich sap every spring without apparent loss of strength and vitality. - -The leaves come out later than those of the soft maples. They are firm, -and broad, with five pointed lobes between wide fissures that reach -half-way to the stem. Margins of these lobes are wavy, never saw-toothed, -like those of the silver maple. They are dark green above, with paler -linings. In autumn they turn to yellow, orange, and red. - -The flowers open in May, shortly after the leaves appear. They are in -thick, hairy, yellowish clusters. Some are pistillate, some staminate, in -the same cluster. Those with the forked pistils remain and grow into -smooth fruits towards the end of summer. The keys of sugar maples are -short-winged, like those of the red maple, but have stouter, thicker -seeds. They are shed in late autumn and early winter. - -Hard maples are among the best of shade trees, and the glory of their -autumn colouring makes them one of the most to be desired among trees -planted merely for ornament. A street planted to hard maples is well -planted always. But people are impatient for trees to grow up. The slow -growth of the sugar maple is discouraging. It is a good plan to plant the -quick-growing soft maples, and alternate with them the slow-growing -species. For a few years the soft maples are pretty, and with each year's -growth they give more abundant shade. By the time the wind has crippled -their long arms, and made the trees unsightly, the hard maples are coming -on to take their places, and they need the room which is given them by -the removal of their neighbours on to the left and right. - -When I went into the woods of Oregon, I found the vine maple trees, which -seems not to have sufficient backbone to stand upright. These trees start -to grow erect, but their weight soon overcomes their strength, and they -droop, but keep on growing, with their limbs prostrate on the ground. The -wet land in many places was covered with a network of the interfering -branches of these serpentine maple trees. - -The leaf is about the size of the palm of my hand, and almost circular. -The border is cut into many shallow lobes. The seeds are characteristic -keys, smooth, and the wings of each pair are spread almost opposite each -other. - -The Norway maple is a most popular street tree. Its foliage is very -dense, and the tree forms a round, symmetrical head. The broad, -five-lobed leaves are remotely toothed, smooth, thin, and dark green on -both sides. Break a leaf stem, and a milky juice appears. The seeds are -very flat, and have broad, flaring wings. The flowers are yellowish. -Great clusters of them come out with the leaves. The seeds are ripe in -autumn. - -We shall find that the foliage of the Norway maple stands the wear and -tear better than that of many shade trees. The crown of a Norway maple -turns to bright gold in autumn, and most of the leaves are still unmarred -when they fall. - -The box elder is the one native maple which has compound leaves. The leaf -blade is cleft quite to the stem, and the thirds form separate leaflets, -each mounted on its own stalk. These leaves are set opposite on the -twigs, like those of other maples. - -In spring pink fringes like corn silk decorate the branches of certain -box elder trees. Other trees of the same kind hide little green flowers -among the opening leaves. The pink fringes are the pollen-bearing -flowers, which fall when ripe. Staminate trees never bear fruit. All -through the summer the trees which bore the greenish flower are dangling -clusters of pale green seeds, each with the peculiar wing, which proves -it a maple. When the ragged, yellowing foliage falls, these seed clusters -remain on the branches, and all through the winter the wind is plucking -and carrying them away. - -The wood of box elder is very soft. The tree is planted because it grows -so quickly and surely, and its seeds are so easily obtained. But broken -branches give the older trees a crippled, unhappy look, and the ragged -clusters of seeds give them a disheveled appearance all winter. Fortunate -is the man who has planted elms or hard maples along the road, so that he -may take out the decrepit box elders, and have the better trees coming on -to take their places. - -The striped maple is a little tree, which hides in the woods, and only a -few people know the tree, and love it as it deserves. The stripes are on -its smooth green bark, which breaks into a network of furrows as the -stems increase in diameter. These furrows expose a very pale under-bark, -so that at a short distance the trunk seems to be delicately traced with -white lines. - -In its blossoming season the striped maple has a loose, drooping cluster -of yellow, bell-like flowers. The leaves that surround them are broad and -shallowly three-lobed, and saw-toothed all around. The seeds are little -maple keys, smaller than those of the red maple. - -The mountain maple is another little tree quite as modest and retiring as -its striped cousin. It has longer, more taper-pointed leaves. The flower -clusters are much smaller than those of the striped maple, and they stand -erect. The fruits hang late in the winter, on the grey downy twigs, which -are brightened by red buds. - - - THE WILLOW FAMILY - -One of the first tree families whose name we learn is the willow family. -The members are numerous, and the botanists find great difficulty in -distinguishing certain species, which closely resemble each other; but -these troubles we shall leave to the scientist. The point for us to -consider is this: When we see a tree which we know to be a willow, _how_ -do we know it? "It looks like a willow," some one says. But who knows, -and can tell _how_ willows look--how they differ from other trees? - -First, willows have slender, flexible twigs that give the tree tops grace -and lightness. Second, willow leaves are nearly always long and slim to -match the supple twigs. They are always simple, and short-stemmed. The -wood is light and soft, so the trees break easily in storms of wind and -ice. An old willow tree is likely to be crippled, but its scars and -wounds are covered in summer by the arching branches and the abundant -foliage. - -The first trees to blossom in spring are the shrubby pussy willows, a -distinct kind whose catkins are so eager to push out of their scales that -their grey, silky noses are often seen in November. Frequently, they are -out and the scales dropped in February; but the yellow stamens and the -long-tongued pistils do not rise above the grey fur until March, at -least. The most attractive stage of these catkins is the earlier one, -when the flower buds are concealed by the grey silk. - -By cutting pussy willow twigs in the late fall, or any time during the -winter, and putting them into a jar of water, we may see the blossoming, -quite out of season. Sufficient food is stored in the twig to force out -the blossoms, even to the shedding of the pollen. It is a charming thing -in the winter to have a vase of these twigs in full bloom on a window -sill when snow banks are piled high just outside. - -Willows are lovers of wet ground, and we shall see groves of them -scattered along streams and on the margins of ponds and swamps. A few -species thrive in dry soil, and seem to prefer it. Some grow at sea -level, others are found on high mountains. From small shrubs they vary to -mighty trees. There is no climate and no soil that does not have its -native willows. The family is distributed from the Equator to the Arctic -Circle. - -It is very common in many places for farmers to plant a grove of willows -for a windbreak, to protect their houses and barns. This is especially -seen in prairie states and other treeless regions. Willows are -quick-growing trees, and sure to grow. All one needs do is to cut limbs -from a growing tree, chop these limbs into pieces the length of stove -wood, and drive them into the ground. Each one takes root, and grows into -a tree, if the soil is at all moist. - -Another plan is to cut fence posts from the willow grove, and drive them -into the ground. Each of these posts forms the trunk of a willow tree, -which soon has a great head of branches. - -In Holland and other countries, willows are thickly planted to form -hedges and for their roots to hold the soil along the banks of streams -and ditches. The same trees may perform a double service. Willow wood -makes good summer fuel, where a quick, hot fire is desired. The twigs -make the best charcoal used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The long, -flexible twigs of a low-growing willow are used in the manufacture of -wicker chairs, tables, and other furniture. These trees are grown on a -large scale in France and other European countries, and the industry is -being introduced in some parts of America. - -When spring comes on, we may notice a peculiar change in the colour of -the bare willows that line the stream borders. The twigs turn gradually -green, and the long, pointed buds prepare to cast off their single -scales. These are shaped like the long, knitted caps which children wear -in winter time, although there is no tassel at the end. The cap fits -snugly over the long bud, and is fastened in a circle at the joint. The -swelling bud simply pushes it off. - -Under these trees, we shall find a good many fresh twigs. Reaching up to -break one, we find that it snaps off short at the base. It is not brittle -along its whole length. Try a dozen twigs, and off they snap, almost at a -touch. The wind has broken off those that fell to the ground. Some that -fall in the water, float away down stream. They catch on sandbars, and -strike root. Some swing in to the shore, and grow on the banks. - -We have discovered a habit of certain kinds of willow trees. The shedding -of their twigs at the season when they are fullest of life is the tree's -method of colonising new territory. These twigs float away, and blow -away, and those which lodge in wet ground before they dry are almost sure -to grow. The billowy acres of green which cover sandbars and stream -borders are willow trees, children of parents that grow far up stream. - -Along roadsides in this country a large willow is much planted, whose -leaves are pale beneath, so that they look very cheerful and cool in -midsummer. The most striking thing about these willows is that their -twigs are yellow as ducks' feet, and particularly bright in early spring. -The older trees grow very stout, and great branches leave the trunk close -to the ground. This is the golden osier willow, one form of the white -willow of Europe, which does not grow vigorously in this country. - -The weeping willows, whose long, supple branches sweep out and downward, -sometimes yards in length, from the tree top, came originally from -Babylon. Who were they in that far country who "hung their harps on the -willow trees"? A great many weeping willows in the Eastern states are -said to be sprung from the parent tree, which grew on the Island of St. -Helena. What famous prisoner probably sat under the shadows of this -willow tree, and dreamed again of conquering the world? The weeping -willow has the habit of snapping its twigs off, short, at the base. One -of these long withes, cut into bits with one or two buds on each cutting, -will start as many weeping willow trees, if the bits are stuck into wet -sand and kept wet until rooted, and then set out and given plenty of -water until they become established in the ground. - -The black willow is named for the black bark of the old tree. It is the -only one of the narrow-leaved willows whose leaves are uniformly green on -both sides. These leaves are often curved like a sickle. At the base of -each leaf is a pair of heart-shaped, leafy blades, called stipules. Many -trees have stipules that come out with the leaves, and are dropped off, -but these persist, as a rule, all summer. The black willow is one of -those with the twigs that snap. It takes possession of stream borders, -and its offspring may cover miles of new territory in a single season. - -The balsam willow we shall know by the fragrant coating of wax, or -balsam, on its young shoots and buds. Its broad leaves are blunt at the -tip, and look scarcely willow-like, but the tree is known by its buds and -its catkins. To find it we shall have to go into the boggy regions in the -Northern tier of states, where it is numerous, but never more than a -shrubby tree. - -One use is served by no tree as well as a willow. When the sap rises in -spring, the willow branches are in prime condition to make whistles. I -wonder if there is a boy, in town or country, who does not know how to -make a willow whistle that will "go"? Surely not, unless his supply of -uncles and grandfathers is short. You cannot make a willow whistle by -following printed directions. Some skilful person, who has been a boy, -must show you, and one lesson is enough. - - - WHY TREES NEED LEAVES - -Spring or early summer is the best time to study the leaves of trees. -They are clean, and fresh, and new. Every tree is a great mound of green. -The broad-leaved trees seem to be thatched or shingled with overlapping -blades so that no sunlight can get into the darkened room, which is empty -except for the bare branches that support this outer dome of leaves. A -sugar maple, or a linden tree, shows best this outer thatch, which is so -thick that the sun is unable to look through. The bird flying overhead -sees only a solid mass of leaves. The one on its nest in a forked limb -looks up and sees the inside of this leafy tree cover. She is glad for -the twilight that surrounds her, and for the coolness of this shady -place; but more glad that her nest is hidden from sight of hawks that -sail overhead, while she keeps a close watch for sly, thieving red -squirrels that may come to steal her eggs, by climbing up the branches. - -What are the leaves for? Why does the tree put out in spring young shoots -with rows of leaves along their sides? Why does the tree hold these -branches out as far as possible from the trunk, and bend the leaf stems -and the twigs so as to face the leaf blades towards the sun? - -The reason is this: the life of the trees is in the green layer which we -see on the surface of all green shoots, and which we can discover under -the older bark of twigs, which has turned brown. Following the twig back -from its tip, all of the leafy part is green. Behind it the smooth twig -is no longer green, but a thumb nail easily strips off the layer of -brown, and reveals the green under bark. Go a little further back, and -gradually the outer bark thickens, and it is more difficult to get at the -soft under layer. After a while, we shall need a knife to reach it, for -old bark is hard and tough. - -When the bark gets so thick that the sun cannot reach the green layer, -the colour fades out. The living part of the trunk of the tree is the -soft, juicy layer between the bark and wood. Through this portion of the -tree the sap rises from the roots, and finally reaches the leaves. This -sap needs to be changed before it can be useful to the tree as food. - -The leaves are the places where these changes take place. Through little -doorways in the under sides of the leaf air passes in. With it goes -carbonic acid gas, an important food element. The soft green leaf pulp, -which is the green juice of a bruised leaf, has a wonderful work to do. -It cannot do this work unless the sun is shining upon it. On a bright day -every leaf is making starch, and sending it down through the twigs and -branches as food. This starch is contained in the sugary sap that flows -back constantly from the leaves to the farthest root tips. It is made in -the leaves out of the sap brought up from the roots and the carbonic acid -gas which the leaves absorb from the air. - -As long as the leaves do their work, the tree is able to grow, and to -blossom, and to ripen its seeds. When the leaves have done their work the -summer has passed; the tree lets go the leaves, and rests without growing -all winter. - -It is not easy to explain the work of the leaves, nor even to understand -the wonderful work accomplished there all through the summer. When we -eat, our food must go into the stomach to be changed by the processes -called digestion. It is hours before the digested food is poured into the -blood and carried to all parts of the body. The tree takes its food from -the air, and from the soil. Neither the dirty water that rises as sap to -the leaves, nor the gas which enters the leaf doorways from the air, is -useful as food to the growing tree until they have been combined and -changed. The leaves are, then, in a sense, the stomachs of the trees, for -in them the raw foods must be "digested" before they are ready to be -poured into the life blood that flows down through all the live parts of -the tree. Now they are fit to feed the growing cells, which are always -hungry. - - - LEAVES OF ALL SHAPES AND SIZES - -The leaf of the tree is its visiting card. We shall learn to know trees -by their leaves, as easily as if the name were written across the face of -the leaf. Some leaves have a single blade of green, and for this reason -the botanist calls them _simple_ leaves. This blade has a stem that -unites it with the twig. A _compound_ leaf is one whose stem bears more -than one blade. These small blades are called _leaflets_. There are two -types of compound leaves, one feather-like, having a main stem with -leaflets arranged in two rows on opposite sides of this stem. Such a leaf -is feather-like. The other type has a leaf stem with all the leaflets -attached at one end. The horse chestnut is the best example of this type. -The leaves spread from the end of the stalk somewhat as the fingers rise -from the palm of your hand. - -The biggest leaves with single blades to be found in our forests grow on -trees of the magnolia family. The silver-lined leaves of the large-leaved -cucumber tree are over a foot in length, sometimes two and one-half feet, -down South. These great leaves are about one-fourth as wide as long, and -at the base each one broadens and extends backward into two rounded -ear-like lobes. This gives the tree the name, ear-leaved magnolia. The -whole leaf flaps in the wind, like the ear of an elephant, and, of -course, the wind lashes it into strings and soon robs it of its beauty. - -The Northern cucumber tree is another magnolia whose leaves are -tropical-looking. This is the hardiest of the magnolia family, and its -heart-shaped leaves are six to ten inches long. They are not large for a -magnolia of the South, but they look larger because they grow among the -small-leaved trees of the Northern states. - -The tulip tree has a large leaf of peculiar form. It is broad like a -maple leaf at the base, but at the tip it is cut off square as if with a -pair of shears, forming a right angle with its straight sides. Sometimes -the leaf is notched, as if a V-shaped piece were cut out of the square -tip. These leaves are long-stemmed, their blades polished, and they -flutter on the twigs with the lightness of a poplar leaf. Once we have in -mind the form of the leaf of the tulip tree, we shall never forget it, -for it is different from all other leaves. - -The catalpa tree, which lifts its great blossom clusters above the -foliage in late June, is another of the few large-leaved trees of the -North. The single blade is heart-shaped, six to eight inches long, and -more than half as broad. These leaves usually have plain margins, but -sometimes they are wavy and notched near the base so as to produce faint -side lobes. The blades hang on long, stout stems. - -Among the feather-leaved trees, the walnuts and butternuts, the sumachs, -and the ailanthus, furnish examples. A black walnut leaf is often two -feet long, with a dozen or more leaflets on the longest ones. These -leaflets are always set opposite in pairs, with an odd one on the tip of -the leaf stem. Butternut leaves have the same form, but the leaves are -longer. They range from fifteen to thirty inches, and have from ten to -twenty leaflets, but always an odd number. The peculiar gummy feeling of -these hairy leaves, and their pungent butternut odour when bruised, make -it easy to know the tree wherever we meet it, through the long summer. - -The hickories are cousins of the walnuts, but their leaves, though of the -feather form, have larger and fewer leaflets than any walnut tree. A -shagbark hickory leaf has one or two pairs of little leaflets on the -stem, and above them three of larger size. The pignut has the same habit -of clustering its three largest leaves at the tip of the leaf stem, and -tapering off at the base with one or two pairs of decreasing size. - -The largest of all the compound leaves have branched stems to which -leaflets are attached. The main leaf stem's side branches may yet branch -again, forming a twice-branched framework that is set with leaflets, not -large, but so numerous as to make the whole leaf surprisingly large. The -greatest of these twice-compound leaves is borne by that astonishing, -spiny-stemmed Hercules' club. A single leaf is often four feet long, and -nearly a yard wide. There are no leaflets on the main stem; they are on -the side branches. - -How shall we tell a leaf stem from a twig? Leaf stems do not look like -the twigs of the tree. A little practice in looking closely and comparing -these leaf stems and twigs will obviate any confusion of the two. The -leaf has a bud at its base, and it breaks off easily at this joint. - -[Illustration: The sugar maple trees are tapped in February; they bloom -in May after the leaves come out; they ripen their keys in October, when -the foliage turns to red and yellow.] - -[Illustration: Leaves of black willow have frills at their bases. Twigs -of pussy-willows, cut and brought indoors, can be forced into bloom in -midwinter] - -Among the fine, feathery leaves that are so beautiful and light that they -give great beauty to the tree tops are those of the honey locust. These -leaves are of the feather type, the slender stems, with double rows of -tiny leaflets. Very often we find among the single feather forms, leaves -of greater size, which have branched stems. This branching multiplies the -number of leaflets, and gives us, on the same trees, what the botanists -call _once compound_, and _twice compound_ leaves. The simple feather and -the branched feather forms add greatly to the beauty and luxuriance of -the foliage of the honey locust. - -The common black locust of the roadside has single leaf stems with oblong -leaflets set in opposite rows upon it. Ash trees have the same feather -type of leaves, the leaflets usually pointed and oval, and always an odd -one at the tip. They are all larger than leaves of the locusts. - -In the maple family there is a broad, simple blade, about as wide as it -is long. It is a family trait to have three main veins running out from -the end of the leaf stem, into the blade. Each of these veins has side -branches, and they are connected with a network of smaller veins. Between -the tips of these three main veins the leaf is usually notched, so as to -divide it into thirds. In the red maple these notches are shallow V's cut -out, leaving triangular points. In the silver maple the leaves are cut by -deeper clefts, which reach more than half-way to the leaf stalk. The -three lobes are cut with jagged points into an uneven margin. The sugar -maple has its three lobes separated by wide, deep clefts, and its margins -are irregularly wavy. The box elder, which is a maple, is cleft so deeply -that the blade is split into three distinct leaflets, each with its own -short stem. This makes a compound leaf of it. It is the only maple with a -leaf of more than one blade. - -The tree which shows the greatest difference in the form of its leaves is -the sassafras, whose oval leaves grow on the same stem with mittens and -double mittens--a mitten pattern with a thumb on each side. The hawthorns -have small oval leaves with variously cleft borders. There are over a -hundred kinds of hawthorns in our woods, and each kind has a leaf -different from all the rest; yet a single tree will often show leaves -that differ so much from the others in form that we might easily suspect, -if some one brought them to us, that each grew on a different tree from -all the rest. - -Many oak trees have the same habit of leaf variation, so that even a -forester has to examine many leaves with care, and with them the buds and -the acorns, to make sure that he has called the oak by its right name. - -The behaviour of the leaves of a tree depends largely on the length and -flexibility of their stems. If they are long, and slender, and supple, -the tree-top is in a continual flutter when the wind blows. If they are -thick and stiff, they do not catch the breeze as readily, and their -blades lie comparatively still when other trees near by may be twinkling -and trembling. Leaves with deeply cut borders, like some oaks and maples, -flutter much more than leaves like the basswood, whose borders are -unbroken. Oak leaves that are deeply cut will rarely lie down flat. The -curving bays in its borders cause the leaf to curl, so that no matter -what face is presented, the wind gets under and strikes some surface, and -sets the leaf to dancing. - -The flat leaf stems of the trembling aspen, one of the poplar family, are -very flexible, and they are flattened at right angles to the blades of -the leaves. When a breeze comes by, it may strike the edge of the leaf, -but if so, it catches the flat leaf stem broadside. If it comes from any -other direction the leaf trembles, because one of the blades is sure to -receive the force of the wind. So the tree top is in one constant tremor, -even when the breeze is scarcely sufficient to disturb broad-leaved trees -which are near neighbours of the aspens. - -Whatever the form and size and shape of its leaf, the tree depends upon -its foliage mass for all the life it enjoys, and for all the growth it -makes. The soil and the air feed the tree. The leaves and the sun do the -work of digesting the food. In the porous wood and bark are the channels -through which sap mounts upward to the leaves, and another set of -channels which carry the prepared food back, leaving it wherever needed, -along the way from tip of twig to tip of root. Whatever is not needed is -stored away, to be dissolved as needed and carried to the points where -the need is. In spring it is the growing buds that chiefly need this -stored food. Its presence explains the miracle of the bursting of -blossoms and leaves when spring comes. - -One by one the trees of your own yard may be learned by name this summer. -The leaves are your sure guide. Trees stay where they are. Once we -recognise their leaves and call them by name, we may depend upon finding -them still standing the next day we pass them, and their leaves are still -held out as the sign of recognition. Every time we pass yonder red maple -let us glance at its three-pointed leaf, and fix its shape indelibly in -the mind. When we have done this a dozen times, I am sure that we shall -be able to pick out all the red maples in town; and if we journey far -from home we may find and recognise the same kind of trees by the same -sign. More and more as we grow older, we find out that half the pleasure -of travelling is the occasional meeting with old friends, be they people -or trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SUMMER - - - TREES WITH THE LARGEST FLOWERS - -If we set out to find the trees that have the largest flowers, meaning to -count only trees that grow wild in our woods, it will save time to go -straight south into North Carolina, and climb the foot hills of the -Allegheny Mountains. Or it may be that in the fertile valleys that lie -between the low ridges we shall first come upon a magnolia, called the -large-leaved cucumber tree. Anywhere from North Carolina to Florida, and -west to Arkansas, these remarkable trees are likely to be found, in small -groups. In cultivation, they are successfully planted as far north as -Boston. - -Before the tree has attained more than a man's height it is a wonder, on -account of the leaves which measure more than a foot in length, and have -their long, green blades lined with white. In June the flowers -open--great white bowls, made of waxen petals, in a double row, the inner -ones painted purple at their bases, giving the flower a purple centre. - -The wind blows the leaves about, and tears them into rags, unless the -tree is in a sheltered place. The silvery leaf linings, as white as the -blossoms, make it difficult to see that the tree is in bloom, until one -is close enough to see the petals. If the leaves were green on both sides -the great blossoms, as large as a man's head, would be seen afar off. The -tree would look like a giant rose bush. - -From Pennsylvania southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to Arkansas -and Texas, the evergreen magnolia grows on stream borders, and even on -uplands where the soil is not very moist. When this pyramid of shining -green leaves lights all its waxen tapers, it is a sight worth a day's -journey to see. Each stiff twig is bent upward, and there a bud appears -in spring. A few at a time, the flowers open, and the blooming time lasts -till August. - -Each blossom is a deep, creamy cup, made of six wax-like petals, -surrounded by three white sepals. Inside are many stamens, purple at the -base, and a cone of pistils, all grown together. - -The leaves are oblong or oval, often eight inches long, thick, deep -green, and bright as if polished on the upper surface. The lining is dull -green, sometimes covered with rusty down. The paler green and the -brighter polish on the young leaves add much beauty to the tree in -summer. In winter the leaves get grimy and the tree top is sombre, for -most of the foliage has seen much wear and tear. - -In autumn the ends of the twigs hold up green cones, made of many furry -capsules that end in curved horns. Each capsule splits when ripe, and a -scarlet seed, like a berry, hangs out on an elastic thread, and swings -lower and lower, until finally it is carried away. Thus the magnolia sows -its seeds in winter. - -The shining leaves of this magnolia come North at the Christmas season, -and are used to decorate homes and churches. Holly, mistletoe, palm -leaves, and the beautiful Southern smilax are other Christmas greens now -commonly in use. They are all gathered with magnolia and shoots of the -long-leaf pine, in the woods down South. - -The swamp bay is a magnolia that grows as a shrub to New England, keeping -to the swampy lands that skirt the Atlantic coast. Every spring the -fragrant, creamy blossoms are to be bought from street Arabs in New York -and Philadelphia. A single globular flower is surrounded by a whorl of -oval leaves, bright green, but lined with a white, powdery substance that -makes them look silver-lined. The flowers are deliciously fragrant, and -most beautiful when not spread wide open. The seller often takes the -trouble to spring the petals back, to make the blossom seem bigger. The -waxy petals turn brown soon after such handling, and all their natural -beauty departs. - -From Florida westward to Texas this magnolia becomes a slender, tall -evergreen tree. The best flowers of this tree are borne on shoots that -are produced by pruning back the new growth each year. The largest leaves -and flowers are also the handsomest. - -The cucumber tree is the magnolia of the North. It is a fine tree in -Ontario, Canada, and from this region it spreads south, its range -widening like a fan, reaching from Arkansas to the Carolinas, and -Mississippi, and Alabama. The tropical appearance of the tree is due to -the big, heart-shaped leaves. Their tulip-like flowers are as large as -garden tulips, but they make scarcely any show, because they are very -much the same in colour as the yellowish-green new leaves that surround -them. - -The "cucumbers" are the green cones that contain the seeds. They are very -lumpy and irregular in form, but when ripe the cells split open and the -scarlet seed, let down on an elastic thread from each, looks like any -magnolia seed. - -Cucumber wood is soft, yellowish-brown, and close-grained. It is not very -good lumber, though put to many uses. The tree is worth more alive than -dead. It is an admirable shade tree, though not planted as much as it -deserves. - -The tulip tree is a close relative of the magnolias. It is one of the -trees with large flowers, though, like the cucumber tree, the colour of -the flowers makes them rather inconspicuous. In June the upturned twigs -blossom with yellow tulips. The three sepals flare outward, the petals -form the cup. A band of orange decorates the cup, and signals the bees -which come for nectar hidden near the bottom of the flower cup, among the -bases of the many stamens. - -Many people see the gay petals of the tulip tree flowers when they fall -on the sidewalk, and some wonder what these bits of colour are. A few -will say: "There must be a tulip tree near by," and look up to find the -singular squared-leaf blades that belong to no other tree. There is a -whole tree top fluttering with them, and this tremulous motion explains -why the tree is often called the tulip poplar. The yellow wood gives the -name, yellow poplar. Pulp of this wood is used for the manufacture of the -ordinary postal cards. It has many other uses, and is a valuable lumber -tree. For shade and ornament it is one of the best trees to plant. - -The cones of the tulip tree do not set free their seeds, as those of the -magnolias do. Instead of horned capsules, the cone has flat, overlapping -blades, like the wing of a maple seed, and the small, closed seed case is -the base of the blade. A few of these seeds are fully developed. But when -the winter strips the tree of its leaves, the wind shakes the cones, and -the loosened scales gradually fall. The wind catches the flat wings, and -away they sail. Little tulip trees grow up where good seeds fall in -favourable ground. - -One day a neighbour told me that there was a tree in blossom on the side -of the ravine. This was a strange story, for it was the dead of winter. -We went to see this wonderful tree. What do you think it was? A tulip -tree, with the seed cones half stripped of their seeds, and shining like -yellow flowers on the ends of the twigs. It was not strange at all that a -person who did not know the tree, and had never seen its cones in -mid-winter, should make this very mistake. - -The flowering dogwood invites us every spring to break off branches -covered with big, white blossoms, each like a four-pointed star, with a -cluster of small white buds in the centre. The trees are small and -low-branching, their limbs are flat, and they spread outward and slightly -downward. Who can resist cutting a few of the blossoming boughs of this -lovely tree! The best part is that the tree suffers not at all if the -pruning is done with some care. Take a thought for the tree; cut the -branches clean with a knife. Take them off where they are thick, and you -will leave the tree better in shape than when you came. Do not strip it -of flowers. This will cripple it. A few sprays of dogwood, prettily -arranged in a vase, are a delight to the eye. A crowded mass of them is -not at all. - -The four outer wings of white are not the petals of a dogwood blossom. -They are colourless leaves, the full-grown scales of the winter flower -buds. The notch at the tip is made by the falling off of the withered tip -which in winter protected the flowers. The base grew long and broad and -turned gradually white. The bees see these white banners farther, -perhaps, than they can catch the faint perfume. Watch the bee as she -probes the middle flowers for nectar. See the pollen on her hairy body. -From one to another, she is the pollen distributor of these flowers, and -she doesn't know it. - - - TREES MOST SHOWY IN BLOOM - -Sometimes a tree with very small flowers has such a multitude of them -that it attracts more attention and admiration when in blossom than the -trees with the largest flowers. A magnolia blossom as large as a cabbage -head must sacrifice delicacy to size. We must see it at a distance to -overlook its coarseness, and to escape its overpowering perfume. - -An orchard in early May is transformed into fairyland by the opening of -millions of buds. Apple trees have just begun to unfold the new leaves. -They are pale green, and coated with white hairs, so that a silvery cloud -rests on the tree when the white blossoms, warmed with a tinge of pink, -come with a rush that takes one's breath away. - -A single apple blossom has its five flaring petals inside of five green -sepals that are the bud's green overcoat. The stamens are many; the -pistils five in the centre of the flower. The plan of the flower is five. -The green lump below the blossom is the apple, already forming. Inside it -are the five cells of the core, and each has its seeds already forming, -if the five pistils have each caught a grain of pollen for each of the -embryo seeds its chamber of the core contained. - -The delicate colour and rich fragrance of the apple orchard are -enchanting. To the honey bees these two signals call to a feast of -nectar. All unknown to them, they carry pollen on their furry bodies from -flower to flower, and thus enable the pistils to set seed. If the days -are damp and there are frequent showers while the apple trees are in -bloom, the bees are kept at home, and there will be but a small crop of -apples. Fortunately for the bees and for us, the blossoms do not all come -out on the same day. The trees and the bees are hopeful till the last -moment that the sun will shine, and the nectar be gathered, before the -opportunity of the year passes. - -Flowers much like apple blossoms in form cover the twigs of hawthorn -trees. They are usually in many-flowered clusters, set off by the green -leaves. Fragrance, sometimes sickening sweet, draws the bees and other -insects to these trees. Nectar drips from the blossoms of some species. -The thorny branches spread sidewise, holding the blossoms out in wide -platforms. The red fruits, called haws, adorn the trees in late summer. - -Plum and cherry trees are laden with white bloom, and heavy with -fragrance. Some species haven't a leaf when they bloom. And these are -among the showiest of blossoming trees. In these flowers there are single -pistils, and but a single grain of pollen is needed to set seed. The -single seed is the pit, or stone, of this family known as the trees with -stone fruits. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN MIDSUMMER - -In spring the big chestnut tree is late in putting out its leaves. It is -May before the bare limbs are clothed with green. This crown is made of -long, pointed leaves, each short-stemmed, strongly ribbed, with parallel -veins on each side of the midrib, polished and sharp-toothed along its -margin. It is a superb dome of unusually handsome leaves. - -When the flower procession is long past and the grain fields have turned -yellow, and the mower and reaper are humming busily, the chestnut's crown -turns from green to gold, as if to harmonise with the landscape of -midsummer. Each twig ends in a feathery yellow plume, which waves in the -breezes, and sheds its yellow pollen abroad. The fertile flowers are at -the base of the plume. As the yellow pollen flowers fade, the green scaly -ones below them are swelling. They are the young chestnuts. The long -tongue each held out to catch pollen when it was ready for use. Each -flower has three nuts as its full quota to form. Failure to be pollenated -may cause one of the three to fail. The husk will then contain two nuts. - -[Illustration: Leaves and flowers of the ear-leaved cucumber tree are the -largest in the magnolia family] - -[Illustration: The orange-yellow flower cups and squared leaves of the -tulip tree] - -In May the yellow locust trees still stand along the roadsides, or herded -together along the banks of streams, bare and ugly, while the trees -around them are beautifully clothed in their green garments, and adorned -with blossoms. The dead pods still cling to the locust's branches, and -not even the buds are in sight to prove the twigs alive. - -Suddenly the trees wake, push out their hidden buds into shoots which -unfold leaves made of tiny leaflets. The leafy spray is light and -graceful, pale green with a silvery sheen at first. Soon the leaves are -inundated with a flood of white blossoms, fragrant with their nectar, -which hang in clusters from each twig. The bees see the white cloud on -the locust tree, and hurry to the feast. Each curious pea-like flower has -a honey pot in its horned petal. Throughout the summer the locust trees -wave their fern-like leaves, among which the young pods swing, rosy and -green, and velvety soft. The two thorns at the base of each leaf are -there, but they are not conspicuous, unless you grasp a limb; then they -let you know where they are, and what they can do. - -On a summer evening we shall see that the locust has closed its leaves, -folding the opposite leaflets together, and the whole leaf drooping from -its stem. It reminds us of the old-fashioned sensitive plant whose leaves -resembled these, folded its leaflets and drooped whenever it was touched. -Indeed, the locust tree and these plants are near relatives. The locust -leaves are sensitive to the evening air. They close if a rain comes up, -but open when the sun comes out again and the sky clears. - -Locust trees have an insect enemy which bores into the solid wood, and -ruins it for lumber. Even the twigs are swollen and distorted by these -insects, which feed upon the rich sap that should go to feed the tree. It -is impossible to reach this enemy with poison, so the trees are helpless. - -Except for this unfortunate fact, locusts would be a profitable crop to -raise for timber. Locust wood is very hard, durable, and strong. It is -slow to decay when in water, so it is valuable for fence posts, and for -boat building. It is used for hubs and spokes of waggon wheels, and it is -an excellent fuel. The locust timber that reaches market comes from the -mountain slopes, where the locust-borer is thus far unknown. The range of -the tree is all over the Eastern states and west to the Rocky Mountains. -We shall not find them south of the latitude of Tennessee. - -[Illustration: Flowers, fruit, and the three different leaf patterns of -the sassafras tree] - -[Illustration: Waxy flower of the evergreen magnolia, usually eight -inches across when open] - -The catalpa's great heart-shaped leaves, as broad as a man's hat, come -out in May, but the leafy shoots grow a foot or more in length, and it is -well along toward Independence Day before the flower buds show streaks of -white above the foliage mass. The upturned twigs end in a spike of -blossoms, creamy in colour, but speckled within their wide throats with -purple and yellow. The rim of the flower cup is daintily scalloped, and -frilled, and the tree top is even more showy than the horse chestnut a -month earlier. - -There is stateliness, even stiffness, in the figure of a blossoming horse -chestnut--a pyramid of green holding up a thousand pyramids of white. The -catalpa has a round head, and the loose flower clusters are quite -informal in their arrangement. The flowers nod gracefully on their -stems--a thing the horse chestnut flowers are unable to do. - -Why are the dots of colour sprinkled in the throat of the flower? Why are -they arranged in lines that lead to the nectar sac? To guide the bees -which come in swarms in answer to the signals of colour and fragrance the -flowers fling out as lures to them. - -The two stamens are ripe before the pistil. The bee rubs the pollen off -by crowding into the flower. Some of this dust is bound to be rubbed off -on the ripe stigma of an older blossom visited by this bee. Thus, -unconsciously the bee helps the tree to set good seed. Of these we will -study when we come to the tree again in autumn. Only a hint of the seed -vessel is given by looking at the oldest flower in a cluster, and -noticing the green part at the base. - -The linden or basswood holds its arms out so that the broad leaves are -exposed to the sun in slanting strata, or platforms of shade, that strike -downward. The tree's frame is roofed in with them in an almost unbroken -thatch of green. Cattle love to crop this foliage, and to enjoy the dense -shade on a hot day. - -In July the dark green is illuminated by thousands of starry white -blossoms, a few at the end of a slender stem that rises out of a pale -green, leaf-like blade. There is nothing like it borne on any other tree. - -The news that the basswoods are in bloom reaches the hives in good time. -One is able to hear the murmur of bees as far as he can see the flowers, -but the fragrance travels much farther. Basswood honey is higher in price -than other kinds. Is this the reason the bees are so hard at work? Small -as the individual flowers are, they have an unusual supply of nectar, and -the bees revel in the plenty of what will feed them and yield wax. They -make honey while the sun shines, counting the basswoods their best source -of the crude materials for honeymaking. It was so in the days of old. -Greek poets sang of the honey-laden lindens. Honey made from linden trees -in the Lithuanian forests was carried to Rome, where it sold for three -times the price of ordinary honey. - -Bees swarm, and the new colony often takes to the woods and sets up -housekeeping in a hollow tree. This is so likely in the Southern states -to be a linden that "bee tree" is a familiar name of this tree. - - - THE EARLY BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -Robins come to our cherry trees in June, and they hunt for our -strawberries under the green leaves. The blackberries come on, and the -raspberries, and currants. The birds look at them with calculating eyes. -An appetite for berries is inherited in them, learned in the woods, where -wild berries have grown, and ripened for them, from the times long before -there were gardens and cultivated fruits. - -Back in the woods we shall find wild berries ripening, and birds feasting -thankfully upon them. The harvest begins with the June-berries in the -month of June. Serviceberries they are also called, and the tree is known -also as the shadbush. We remember the lovely veil of white blossoms this -tree put on before its leaves came out. In June we might not know the -trees, except that they bear red berries, few on a cluster, and here the -birds are feasting. - -There is no other tree with berries that ripen so early, unless it be the -broad-leaved mulberry. Here, too, the birds will be found in numbers. -Turn back the wide, heart-shaped leaves, and you will find the single -berries of all sizes, some green, some reddening and soft. They are like -blackberries, each made of many tiny berries, grown together. - -The beauty of the mulberry is that its fruit keeps coming on from June -until August. It is a very slow, easy-going tree, in no hurry to have its -harvest over. The birds like the soft, seedy berries, which to our taste -are insipid. - -It is a shrewd thing to plant mulberry trees on the edges of fruit -gardens, and set a row of June-berry trees along the road outside the -cherry orchard. It is the scarcity of wild berries that brings the birds -into our gardens. Many a fruit-grower has saved his crop by planting wild -berry trees for the birds. - -The elders are shrubby trees with large, fern-like leaves. They lift up -flat, white flower clusters, sometimes as large as dinner plates, in -June, and in the middle of summer dark red berries are ripening where the -flowers were. Here is another feast for the birds, and elderberry pies -are the reward of boys and girls who gather the berries, and take them -home to mother. Grandma thinks of elderberry wine, so good for many -ailments, and if the berries are plenty it is easy to gather a bucketful -to make a few pints of this old-fashioned cordial. - -Among the shining green leaves of the wild red cherry tree the little -fruits glow like rubies in the summer. Here is a feast for the birds. We -find these small pin cherries very thin-fleshed, and sour, and the -biggest of them is no larger than a pea. But how the birds love them! The -bird cherry is indeed the bird's tree. In blossom it belongs to the bees, -which come in swarms for nectar. To them, unconscious carriers of pollen -from flower to flower, the birds owe a debt of gratitude. They insure the -setting of seed, and this means a big crop of fruit. - -The wild black cherry is later with its shining clusters of dark red -cherries. They come in September, when the birds' procession has turned -southward. The earliest comers hold high carnival in these trees, devour -quantities of the bitter-sweet fruit, and drop the seeds near and far. -The wind can do little in scattering the seeds of fruit trees. The birds -are the chief agents of distribution. - - - THE SASSAFRAS - -The sassafras is not important as a forest tree, yet I do not know -another to whom so many kinds of people, of all ages, go, asking for -favours this tree alone can give. Even in regions where the tree does not -grow, its name is well known. Sassafras tea has a world-wide reputation -as a cure for "spring fever," otherwise known as "that tired feeling." -Drug store windows are piled high in spring with bits of the corky bark -of the sassafras roots, and the buds in winter taste of the same aromatic -oil, whose flavour rises from a steaming pot of sassafras tea. Many a -bad-tasting medicine is made more palatable by a drop or two of oil of -sassafras. - -The leaves and twigs of young sassafras trees are used in the South to -flavour and thicken gumbo soups. The wood of sassafras is light and -tough. The long limbs are cut and stripped by country boys going fishing, -who know what trees yield the best fishing rods. Sassafras posts last a -long while, for the wood does not rot in contact with soil, or soaked -with water. It makes good boats and barrels for this same reason. - -Children know the sassafras tree. In winter they nibble the dainty green -buds, or dig away the snow at the roots to get a morsel of the aromatic -bark. In summer it is the leaves that are the chief charm of the tree. It -is a fascinating game to look for the "mittens and double mittens," which -seem to be more numerous than the plain oval leaves on this tree. There -is no other tree that has three distinct leaf shapes. The mitten form has -its thumb just right, on one side. It might be used for a mitten pattern. -There are lefts and rights, and mittens of all sizes. The doll-sized ones -are the youngest, and they grow near the tips of the twigs. The double -mittens have a thumb on each side, and the simple oval shape--the hand -part with no thumb at all--is usually harder to find than either of the -others. - -When looking for these strange leaf shapes, there is always a chance of -coming upon a strange inhabitant of the sassafras tree. A great green -caterpillar is lying at ease upon a hammock of silk, which he has spun -for himself. There he lies, and gazes at the startled person who -discovers him. Are those really eyes, or only black spots? They probably -scare away birds which are looking for worms. The effect of the two "eye -spots" is almost as surprising as if two rolling eyeballs glared at the -intruder, and threatened violence if he came near. - -Carry home this fearsome green mummy on the leaf; put him in a cage made -of wire screen, and watch him. He needs no food, for he is asleep. When -he awakes his mummy case will split open, and out of it will emerge a -wonderful butterfly, with banded wings of black and yellow velvet, and -long, tapering points trailing behind, which gives him his name--the -swallow-tailed butterfly. He has a flexible tongue, an inch or more in -length, coiled like a watch spring. With it he will probe the tubes of -flowers, and find the nectar at the base of each. He is hungry now, so -let him go. Turn him loose in a bed of flowers, and you may see just how -he feeds. - -When the mother butterfly laid its tiny green egg on the face of an open -leaf of the sassafras, the tree was probably in blossom. In June, -delicate, starry, greenish-yellow flowers come out in clusters on the -ends of twigs. The butterfly finds nectar in these fragrant and dainty -blossoms. In the autumn birds come and feast upon the blue berries which -look very handsome on their red stems. Indeed, it is quite usual for the -trees to be stripped while the berries are still green, so hungry are the -birds that stop to feed on their long journey to the South. - -In the autumn the sassafras trees change colour from the brilliant green -of summer. All colours of the sunset, purple, red, and golden, blend in -these shining tree tops. A clump of sassafras and sweet gum trees, with -here and there a tupelo and a dogwood, a scarlet oak and a hard maple, -make a picture never to be forgotten. If the roadside trees were on fire, -they would not show any more vivid colouring. It is their glorious -good-bye to the year, before they all let their leaves fall and enter -into the sleep of winter. - - - THE ASH FAMILY - -The trees whose leaves are set opposite upon the twigs are few in the -American woods compared with those whose leaves alternate. The maples -have the opposite arrangement of leaves; so have the dogwoods. These -trees have simple leaves. The horse chestnuts and buckeyes have their -leaves set opposite, and these leaves are compound: five or seven -leaflets rise from the end of the stout leaf stem. The ash family is -another large group of trees, with leaves set opposite on the twigs. -These leaves are compound, but of a different pattern from those of the -horse chestnut. The leaf stem has the leaflets arranged in pairs along -its sides. This is the feather type of compound leaf, seen in the locust -family, and among walnuts and hickories. - -Ash trees are recognised by their opposite compound leaves. There is -another sign: the fruit has a dry seed, pointed and winged like a dart. -There is no other seed exactly like those of the ash. The seed clusters -hang on the bare twigs, far into winter. The twigs are stout, and set in -pairs on the branches. The trees grow large, and their tops are regular -and handsome. The bark is close, broken by shallow fissures into small, -often diamond-shaped plates. - -Our common ash trees are distinguished by colour, as the names indicate. -A few well-marked differences are shown by the species, which are often -found growing together in mixed woods. - -The white ash is a tall, handsome, stately tree, with a trunk like a grey -granite column. The white in its name is from the pale leaf linings, that -illuminate the tree top in summer. The twigs are pale, and the bark is -often as pale grey as that of a white oak. The slender, dart-like seeds -are one to two inches long, with a wing which is twice the length of the -round, tapering seed. They hang in thick clusters, paler green than the -leaves, and often flushed with a rosy tinge in late summer. All winter -the wind harvests the crop of seeds, and plants young white ashes -wherever the darts fall on good ground. - -The black ash is a slender, upright tree, with narrow head and stout -twigs. The plump, leathery buds on the winter twigs are almost black, and -the bark is a very dark grey. The foliage in summer is much darker green -than that of any other ash, so the name is earned by buds, bark, and -leaves. The seeds are flat and short, and the wing is broad and short, -and deeply notched. A black ash leaf has all its leaflets stemless except -the one at the tip. The white ash has a much fleecier foliage than that -of the black, because each leaflet has a stem of its own. - -The wood of the black ash splits readily into thin sheets, each -representing the growth of a single year. The Indians taught the white -men to make baskets out of black ash splints. They cut the tree down, -sawed the log into the lengths required, split the blocks into pieces as -wide as the splints should be. These sticks were bent over a board, and -the strain separated the bands of dense, tough wood into the thin strips -just right for basket weaving. - -The red ash is a small, spreading tree, with a close head, slender -branches, and crowded twigs. Its bark is reddish, closely furrowed, and -scaly. The young twigs are covered with soft hairs. The leaves are a -shiny yellow-green above, often a foot long, made of seven to nine -slender leaflets, whose stems and veins have a silky down, that remains -all summer. - -Red ash seeds are extremely slender and long, and they hang on hairy -stems. - -The green ash has dark, lustrous foliage, the leaf lining green, like its -upper surface. The bark is grey, and closely checked, and the twigs are -smooth and slender. - -This is the ash tree which grows in the regions of scant rainfall; in -Utah, Arizona, and Texas. In the East it is found from Virginia to -Florida. It is one of the beautiful shade trees in the regions where few -trees grow well. East of the Alleghenies it is but one among many ash -trees, and is little noticed; but in the far West, and on the treeless -plains of Nebraska and Dakota, it is a far handsomer tree than its -companions, the willows and the cottonwoods. - -[Illustration: Fruits, leaves and flowers of basswood tree, called also -linden] - -[Illustration: Chestnut trees blossom in July, and the nuts drop after -the first severe frost] - -The blue ash is common on the rich river lands along the principal -tributaries of the Mississippi. Some of the finest specimens grow on the -limestone hills of the Smoky Mountains. It is a tall, graceful, -grey-stemmed ash. We shall know it anywhere as an ash tree by its -opposite twigs and leaves, and by its dart-like fruits. It differs from -all other ash trees in having four-angled twigs. The tree has a kind of -blue dye in its inner bark. Cut out a piece and put it in water, and it -is as if you had added a few grains of indigo. - -The blue ash ranks high as a shade tree, and its wood is quite the equal -of white ash. It is used for vehicles, for flooring, and for tool -handles. It is especially desired for pitchfork handles. - -The native ash of Europe is a large timber tree, whose range extends -through Asia Minor. The wood of this tree had a wonderful reputation for -general usefulness. Its tough, thin inner bark was used to write on -before paper was invented. The wood was used for lances and spears, for -bows, pikes, and shields by the soldiers, during ancient times. Every -tool, vehicle, and implement of the farmer and mechanic were made of this -wood. "Every prudent lord of a manor should employ one acre of ground -with ash to every twenty acres of other land. In as many years it would -be worth more than the land itself." - -The seeds of ash trees were used for fattening pigs. They were also used -as remedies for many diseases. They were called birds' tongues, from -their shape, and every apothecary kept a stock of them. Ash wood makes -the best of fuel, and its ashes, rich in potash, make a splendid -fertiliser, especially in orchards. - -One warning the old English rhyme offers regarding this tree. It is -supposed to attract lightning. Oaks have the same reputation. On the -other hand, tradition holds that a beech tree is never struck by -lightning. There is opportunity, where these trees grow, and where -thunderstorms are frequent, to notice how true are the popular beliefs. - -Have you ever been warned by this old rhyme? - - "Beware of the oak, it draws the stroke; - Avoid the ash, it courts the flash; - Creep under the thorn--it will save you from harm." - - - THE HORSE-CHESTNUT AND THE BUCKEYES - -When an English lad speaks of a chestnut, he means the horse-chestnut, -and the chances are that he does not know anything about the American -trees, whose sweet nuts we gather in the woods at home after the frost -has opened their spiny burs. In America the European tree is planted very -commonly for ornament and shade, and it is always called horse-chestnut -here, except by English cousins who may be visiting us. - -They ask us why we put the word "horse" before this tree's name. For -answer we pull down a twig, snap off a leaf, and show the scar of the -leaf's attachment to the twig. It is somewhat like the print of a horse's -hoof on the ground. Even the horseshoe nails are there, for a thread from -each leaflet goes down through the leaf stem, and its fibres are buried -in the twig. There are five or seven of these nail prints in the scar, -depending upon the number of leaflets. Five is the usual number, but -seven is not at all unusual. - -An old tradition states that the people of Eastern countries feed these -chestnuts to their horses to cure them of cough, shortness of breath, and -other lung disorders. Upon this is based a second claim for using the -word "horse" before this tree's name. The quality of the fruit, however, -is probably the best answer to the question. The coarse, large nuts are -not fit for human food. It is quite common to think that horses can eat -things too rank for our more fastidious taste. Horse sugar is the name of -a small tree whose sweetish twigs are browsed upon by cattle and horses -in wooded pastures. Horse-radish and horse-mint are coarser, more -rank-growing kinds of plants, than their closely related species which -are used for human food. - -We shall know the horse-chestnut in the dead of winter by the large buds, -the large hoof-print leaf scars, and by the pyramidal form of the tree. -The twigs are stout, and they turn upward so that the largest of the -varnished buds are held up like candles. The main branches leave the -trunk with an upward curve, then bend outward and downward, then up again -to hold the buds upright. The tree looks, therefore, like a great complex -candlestick, with many arms and many candles. The twigs are stout, and -they come out opposite each other on the branch. This is a peculiarity of -few trees. It belongs to all of the members of the horse-chestnut family, -which includes the buckeye trees, our native horse-chestnuts. - -In early spring, watch the horse-chestnut tree outside your windows and -along the streets as they begin to swell, and until they finally open. -The tree lights all its candles when the brown, varnished outer bud -scales fall, and the soft, silky inner ones, yellow as a candle flame, -are revealed. On the side twigs the buds are smaller than on the tips. -Out of each small bud comes a bunch of leaves. Out of the big buds come -the flowers. - -In June a big horse-chestnut tree holds up a thousand pyramids of white -blossoms. Below each flower duster is an umbrella-like circle of leaves. -Each blossom of the dense spike has in its throat dashes of yellow and -red. The petals form a ruffled border. The curving stamens are thrust far -out. Bees come in search of pollen and nectar. - -After the flowers pass, green fruits appear, a few in a cluster, and all -covered with spines. Not many of these reach full size. It seems to be -enough for the tree to ripen one or two fruits in a cluster. In the -autumn they turn brown, and the husk splits into three equal parts. Out -of this spreading husk the brown nuts fall. - -Now the boys assail the tree with sticks and stones, and the harvest of -nuts is on. Who does not love them for their beauty alone? The great -white spot is the place where they were attached to the husk. The kernel -is as bitter as gall, and I know of no animal which eats it. If any one -counts them useless, let him see the hoards of them which children -gather, and use in their play. He will change his mind completely. Their -glowing, soft colour is a feast to the eye, and they just fit the hand. - - - THE BUCKEYES - -The Ohio buckeye is a little tree, but it has given its name to the -Buckeye State. There must have been many of them in the virgin forest -that the Ohio pioneer cut down to make room for his crops of corn and -grain. He noticed these trees particularly because of a disagreeable -odour that comes from the bitter sap. The chopping and handling of these -trees intensifies this odour, which is noticeable even when one drives -past a growing tree. - -The name was given by some imaginative person who saw a resemblance -between the smooth brown nuts and the soft brown eyes of a buck. The -white of the eye corresponds to the dash of white on the nut. Deer -abounded in the virgin forests, and no doubt it was one of the first -settlers, a hunter as well as a farmer, who named the tree. - -The flowers and leaves resemble those of the horse-chestnut, but are -smaller, as the tree is. The number of leaflets is five, rarely seven, -and they cluster on the end of a long leaf stem. The flowers appear in -April and May, and are not conspicuous, for they are yellowish-green, and -make little contrast with the new leaves. - -One thing is to be said in favour of this ill-smelling tree. Its wood has -been found to be the best kind for the making of artificial limbs. To -this special use the lumber is chiefly devoted. - -The sweet buckeye lacks the disagreeable odour of the Ohio buckeye, and -its nuts are eaten by cattle. It is a handsome, large tree, with leaves -of five slim leaflets, more or less hairy below, and on the veins above. -The flowers are yellow and showy. Each corolla is drawn out into a tube, -like a honeysuckle's. The husks of the nuts are smooth. This species -grows from Western Pennsylvania along the mountain slopes to Alabama, and -on the prairies westward to Iowa. The nuts are full of starch, and these -are ground into flour, which is used by bookbinders in making their -paste. The reason why this paste is preferred is that destructive insects -do not eat it as they do paste made of wheat flour. - -A red-flowered buckeye tree of small size grows wild from Missouri to -Texas, and east into Tennessee to Northern Alabama. This is not the same -as the red horse-chestnut, which is sometimes seen in cultivation as a -handsome tree, twenty to thirty feet high. - -In the far West, the California buckeye is a wide-topped tree of good -size, with leaves of the true horse-chestnut type, and white or -rose-coloured flowers, in showy clusters, and smooth, pear-shaped nuts. -This is the only one of our native species which grows beyond the Rocky -Mountains. - - - THE LOCUSTS AND OTHER POD-BEARERS - -When you find a tree with flat pods, containing a row of seeds, you may -be sure it is a locust, or one of the family to which locusts belong. It -is a near relative of the peas and beans that grow in the vegetable -garden. This is a great and valuable family to the human race, for it -furnishes some of the most valuable foods upon which the people of all -countries live. Only one family, the grasses, is more important. This -includes not only grasses that are used for making hay, but all the -grains--wheat, barley, rice, oats, and corn, that make the bread of the -world, and forage crops for horses and cattle. The banana and sugar cane -and bamboos are in this wonderful grass family. - -Along the roadsides, along rivers, and in the woods grow the black or -yellow locusts that bloom in June, covering their ugly limbs with a -cataract of white, pea-like blossoms, in large clusters. All summer the -slim, thin pods are velvety and green, with a lovely flush of rose, as -they swing among the feathery, fern-like leaves. In autumn the pods turn -brown, and in winter, when the wind can switch them against the bare -twigs, they split, and one by one, the hard little seeds are shaken out. -They are too heavy to be carried in the wind. So we see little locusts -coming up among the old ones, and on the outer edges of the clump. - -No tree is so discouraged-looking, unkempt, and diseased as a black -locust infested with the borers, and stripped of the foliage that covered -its thin, irregular limbs in the summer time. The buds, even, are hidden, -and the tree looks as if life had left it. But the late spring denies the -rumour by clothing the dead-looking twigs with foliage whose tender -shadings and delicate leaf forms make it one of the most graceful and -lovely of all native trees. - -Unfortunately, we cannot have locusts of this species in this Eastern -country without exposing them to the attacks of insects against which we -cannot defend the trees. The eggs are laid in clefts of the bark, and the -grubs hatch quite out of reach of poisons and other damaging spraying -solutions. They feed on the living substance under the bark, and their -presence is shown by swellings above their burrows. Twigs, limbs, and -trunks are distorted, and gradually the tree loses vitality, and the wood -is made worthless by the honeycombing it receives. Only in the -mountainous parts of its range does the black locust reach its best -growth. No tree has better lumber for posts and other uses requiring -durability in contact with the soil and with water. - -The clammy locust is a pink-flowered species with a sticky substance -exuding from the hairy surface of new shoots. The flowers are lovely but -scentless. The trees are much planted in parks and on lawns as an -ornament, in all temperate climates. - -The honey locust earns its name in the summer time, when the curving -green pods are full of a sweet, gelatinous pulp. Boys would like to get -these honey pods, but the vicious thorns permit no climbing of the trees. -Stoning and other throwing of missiles is a slow and unsatisfactory means -of obtaining the forbidden fruit that hangs so high. By the time they -ripen and fall off the pods are bitter as gall. - -An old-world relative has thick, purple pods, which are sweet and -palatable when ripe. These are brought to this country, and sold on small -fruit stands under the name, St. John's bread. It is said that this was -the food of John the Baptist in the wilderness. - -The Kentucky coffee tree is the coarsest member of the locust family in -our woods. Its pods are thick and short, and the seeds inside are as -large as hazel nuts. In the story of the Revolutionary War, the patriotic -citizens refused to pay duties on imported goods. The seeds of this -locust were used as a substitute for coffee. I have tasted the bitter -outside of one of these nuts, and tried to break one with a hammer, but -unsuccessfully. It is not easy to understand how a beverage made of such -a nut could have been fit to drink. The name of the tree seems to give -colour of truth to the tradition. - -A coffee tree much like our native species grows in China. We may believe -that it is called by another name, for the people use its heavy pods for -soap. Whether green or ripe, I do not know. - -The club-like branches of our coffee tree give it a burly, clumsy -appearance in winter, when nothing conceals them from view. The dangling -pods rattle against the bare, stubby twigs, calling attention to their -lack of grace and symmetry. Even the buds are out of sight, buried under -the thin bark, just above the big leaf scars. All winter the wind strives -with the stubborn pods. When one is torn off, it lies unopened until -melting snow softens it, and the horny seed lies long before it is able -to sprout. - -A thin pod adorns the most delicate of the locust trees. This is the -little red bud, a flat-topped tree, of slender, thornless branches, most -of them horizontal. Early in spring this tree earns its name. Quantities -of rosy magenta, pea-shaped flowers cluster on its slim, angular twigs, -quite covering the smaller branches. It is an unusual colour, and an -unusual time to see pea-blossoms. You cannot forget it, if you have seen -the tree once. - -The leaves that soon follow are as unusual as the flowers. Roundish, -heart-shaped, smooth, and shining as if polished, they flutter on thin, -flexible stems, and the slim pods hang among them. They ripen and turn -from green to rich purple when the leaves change to bright yellow. The -hard little seeds are close together in the pods, so that they are -numerous, though the pods are but two or three inches long. - -I do not know when the red bud is most charming. Certainly its autumn -garment of yellow is beautiful, trimmed with a fringe of purple pods. It -is a royal robe, and so fresh and new-looking when the foliage of so many -larger trees is faded and in tatters. The trees that hide in the shelter -of larger ones can often save their leaves from wear and tear, and this -the red bud does. - -Judas tree is the name by which the red bud of Europe is commonly called. -It is one of a few species to which an ugly tradition has been fastened -by custom. It is said that this is the kind of tree upon which Judas -Iscariot hanged himself. Our little American tree has had to share the -disgrace, for it looks like its European cousin. The name to use is the -true one. - -Nurserymen have imported a large-flowered red bud from China. Its flowers -are not only more showy, but they have a paler, prettier colour--a rosy -pink, and lacking the sad, blue tone of the others. - -It is easy to raise red bud trees, and they are admirable in the border -planting of a garden or lawn. They begin to blossom when quite young, and -they never grow so large as to be out of place among shrubbery. - -The yellow-wood has larger and lovelier blossom clusters than the black -locust, with which it might most easily be confused. In autumn the flower -stems hang full of thin pods, one to three seeds in a pod. No other -locust is so scantily supplied with seeds in a pod. - -In summer the leaflets prove that the tree is not a black locust. They -are larger and fewer, though of the same feathered type. In the seasons -when the tree blooms freely, which is by no means every year, the twigs -are loaded with clusters larger than any black locust produces. In winter -it is the bark that distinguishes the tree. It is grey and smooth, like -that of the beech; not at all like the dark trunk and rough limbs of the -locust. The form of the tree is a regular head of horizontally-spreading -limbs, ending in tapering twigs that droop gracefully. It is one of the -handsomest trees in winter. The locust is one of the weediest and ugliest -of trees when bare. - -To find the yellow-wood in its native haunts, we must go to the mountains -of Eastern Tennessee and North Carolina. It goes farther north and south, -but its range is scant. Better chance of our meeting it in our -neighbour's yard. It is cultivated as a flowering tree by people who -appreciate the finest trees that grow wild in American woods. The -nurserymen call it Virgilia. This is certainly a graceful name, fitted to -a tree that deserves only the best. - -The catalpas are pod-bearers of a different type. Their long pencils are -green, and there is no sign of splitting until autumn. The seeds are not -like those of the flat pods, set in a single row. They are thin as tissue -paper, and packed in overlapping layers about the thin partition that -divides the pod into two compartments. - -The pods hang on after the large, heart-shaped leaves fall. Winter winds -bang them against the twigs, and their two sides separate lengthwise. -Gradually the thin, two-winged seeds escape, and are scattered. The -sowing lasts a long time. - -Willows and poplars have pods of a sort, but like neither locusts nor -catalpas. The seeds are very minute in each family, and carried in -delicate wisps of cottony down. The pods open by splitting down their -walls, along two or four lines, curling back the dry segments, and thus -letting the seeds escape. These trees are early in scattering their -seeds. The true pod-bearers are late about it. - - - WILD APPLE TREES AND THEIR KIN - -Go out into the woods, and you will find wild crab apple trees, bearing -hard, sour little apples, unfit to eat. Four distinct kinds are native to -this country. In Eastern Asia wild apple trees grow in greater variety -than here. Our orchard apple trees are descended from these Oriental wild -apples, which were brought under cultivation long before America was -discovered. Nurserymen in Europe and Japan have for centuries worked with -the wild species to improve them. The Japanese worked to produce finer -flowering trees. European horticulturists desired finer and larger fruit. -American orchards show how well they have succeeded. For over a century -American horticulture has made marked progress. Many valuable kinds of -fruit have originated in this country. Our own wild apples are now -studied with the aim of bringing them into cultivation, just as the -Asiatic species were improved centuries ago. It is a wonderful work, -accomplished by crossing, grafting, budding, by fertilising, and good -tillage,--processes too special to be explained in this book. - -The taming of wild apples, however, is one of the great achievements of -the centuries. Every boy and every girl who enjoys the eating of a fine -apple will wish to know how such glorious fruit, in abundance sufficient -to supply the world's needs, has been produced from such unpromising -beginnings as the gnarled little crab trees scattered through the woods, -and dwarfed by the larger forest trees that overshadowed them. - -"Grafting" or "budding" a little tree insures that the fruit it bears -later on will be of the variety of the tree from which the scions came. -Only once in a long while does a good variety of fruit come on a seedling -tree. Plant the seed of the best apple you ever ate, and then wait a -dozen years or more for this tree to bear fruit. The chances are -ninety-nine to one that the apples turn out to be miserable, sour, or -tasteless nubbins, like the roadside apples, that nobody planted. It is -too expensive to experiment in hope of getting good varieties from seed. - -"Johnny Appleseed" was a funny old fellow who wandered up and down the -Ohio valley states, and planted apple seeds wherever he went. Queer, and -perhaps crazy, he was a kindly soul, who dreamed of the days when -orchards should dot the landscape, and be a part of every farm homestead. -He did what he could to make the wild prairie wilderness blossom and bear -fruit. No doubt many pioneer orchards came from his planting. Seedling -trees, all of them, for he believed firmly that it is _wrong_ to graft a -tree! - -Each year better and bigger apples are shown at fairs, and fruit shows. -The history of apple culture is full of interest. It requires hundreds of -books to tell the story. But any man who has an orchard can tell you how -his trees were made into the varieties he ordered at the nursery. He may -show you how grafting and budding is done, and how a tree may be made -over in a few years to change entirely the kind of apple it bears. He may -show a tree that bears distinct kinds of apples on different limbs, and -show you the scar of the graft from which each new variety has sprung. -When you are old enough, you can grow apple trees from seed, and graft or -bud them to the variety you choose,--greening, russet, northern -spy--taking your scions from a tree whose apples are especially fine. It -is a fascinating game to play, with the soil, and the sun, and the rain -all working with you to help you win. - -Meanwhile, the wild apple, though worthless as a fruit tree, is well -worth knowing. No well-fed orchard tree has charm to compare with this -wild thing when spring transforms its ugly, thorny twigs. - -The rosy blossoms of the wild crab apple come out of a multitude of -coral-red buds which open just after the leaves. The gnarled limbs are -bare and ugly, until late in May. Then the silvery, velvet leaves unfold, -scarcely green at first, because each one wears so thick a garment of -soft, white hairs. Before the leaves have lost this velvet coat, the -flower buds begin to glow, and the tree top is soon blushing with the -blossoms, and the air is full of their spicy fragrance. - -[Illustration: An old apple orchard is a fairy land indeed when blossoms -cover the trees] - -[Illustration: Nothing tastes so good as ripe apples picked right off the -tree!] - -Their charm is the charm of the wild rose. Their arrangement on the -gnarled twigs is irregular. The artist loves the unstudied grace of it. -The great botanist, Linnaeus, probably saw only pressed specimens, but he -named the tree _coronaria_, which means, "fit for crowns and garlands." - -I remember gathering the little green apples in the fall. Hard, and -almost bitter, when eaten out of hand, they make a jelly that is as -distinct and delightful in its way as the flowers are more admirable than -common apple blossoms. The taste is wild, and almost bitter, but beside -it ordinary apple jelly tastes insipid. Perhaps I am prejudiced, and the -memory of that wild crab-apple jelly too remote to be depended upon. But -many people agree with me. If you are in the woods in October, and come -to a thicket of trees bearing flat, yellow apples, pick as many as you -can carry home. Smell their spicy fragrance, and persuade your mother to -make them into jelly, so that you can form your own opinion of it. - -The Eastern crab apple grows over a large part of the region between the -Atlantic coast, and the dry plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and south -to Northern Alabama and Texas. The prairie crab, a different species, -grows in the Mississippi Valley. A narrow-leaved species grows in the -South, and the Oregon crab is the native wild apple of the woods, from -California north into Alaska. - -Quinces are core fruits, cousins of the apples. So are pears. All of our -orchard pears and quinces are cultivated varieties of species that once -grew wild in Europe or Asia. The Japanese quince in America is a hedge -plant which in spring covers its bare twigs with large, deep -rose-coloured flowers, and bears hard, freckled fruits that smell better -than they taste, in September. We know all these fruits, and have them in -our gardens, but they are foreigners here, though much at home. We have -no native pears or quinces in America. - - - THE CHERRIES - -Do you know the peculiar taste and odour of the pit of a cherry or peach? -Then you will recognise it without difficulty when you meet it in a -bruised leaf or twig of any tree that bears stone fruits, wild or -cultivated. It belongs to the family which includes plums, cherries, -peaches, apricots, and almonds. But one species of native cherry is a -large tree. It is chiefly as fruit trees that the cultivated varieties -are important. A few are grown for their beauty as flowering trees and -shrubs; some for their rich bronze foliage. - -The wild cherry is the one lumber tree in the family. Its wood ranks with -mahogany, though not so expensive as the tree which grows no nearer to us -than lower Florida and Central America. It is made into furniture or used -in the interior finishing of houses, parlour cars, and ocean liners. It -takes a beautiful polish, and has a rich brown colour that improves with -time. It is largely used as veneer on cheaper woods. "Solid cherry" is -likely to be birch, if the article is of modern make. - -This cherry has dark, shiny bark when young, which breaks into shallow -furrows, and curls back like birch bark. The unquestionable sign by which -to know a wild cherry is the bitter, peach-pit taste of the sap. Nibble a -leaf or twig or bit of bark, and you get that unforgettable taste, that -stays on the tongue longer than we like. - -Birds feast in September on the long clusters of dark purple berries. -They are bitter sweet, barely edible, I say. But birds take them -thankfully, and children usually eat them freely. Old-fashioned people -make them into wines or cordials for home remedies. - -The choke cherry is a shrubby tree, with a rank, disagreeable odour added -to the bitter and pungent odour that belongs to the black cherry. The -leaves are twice as wide as the black cherry's. The fruit shares the rank -quality of the leaves and bark. Until dead ripe, the cherries are so -bitter, harsh, and puckery that children, who eat the black cherries -eagerly, cannot be persuaded to taste choke cherries a second time. This -is well-named the "choke" cherry. Only the birds can eat the berries -without choking. They seem not to mind its rankness, for the fruit is all -taken by the time it has turned black-ripe. - -Early in summer the red bird cherry is in fruit, after its crown of white -blossoms has passed. The pit is large, and the flesh thin and sour, and -the whole fruit is discouragingly small. But birds are happy among the -shining leaves until the last cherry is gone. This is quite sufficient -appreciation. The seeds are dropped, and the little trees come up all -through the woods and in the most unexpected places, due to the birds' -scattering of the seeds. - -Garden cherries of the sweet and sour groups have sprung from wild -species that grow in Europe. The red, black, and yellow cherries of -California are the largest, most improved varieties. The garden cherries -of the Eastern states are not nearly so large. - -The native cherry of Japan has been cultivated as a flowering tree, until -it is wonderfully beautiful. In its season of bloom, Japan is a perfect -fairyland. The country is one great garden of pink cherry blossoms. At -this time the people turn out to see the marvellous sight. A national -holiday is dedicated to this tree, which is the symbol of happiness in -the Flower Kingdom. - - - THE PLUMS - -All plum trees are small in stature, and many are thorny by the -sharpening of side twigs, as if the struggle with adverse conditions made -it necessary to carry weapons of defence. I speak now of the wild -species. They grow in thickets, another habit of self-protection. - -The wild red and yellow plums that still grow in thickets along streams -in the great middle country between the East coast and the Rocky -Mountains, furnished an important article of food to the pioneer -families, which led the westward march of civilisation, and founded the -prairie states. Only people who remember those times, and actually took -part in the work of the pioneer, can know how valuable the wild fruits -were, while the young orchards were growing, and no fruit was to be had -for the greater part of the year. - -After the first heavy frost in September the plums were fit to eat. They -became soft, and sweet, and pleasant in flavour. But the skin was thick, -very sour and puckery, so eating plums was not an unmixed joy. - -When a team and part of the family could be spared from the farm work, a -day was taken for "plumming," and a happy and laborious day it was, but -always enjoyed in true holiday spirit. Usually neighbours joined in the -outing, and had a picnic dinner together in the woods. Only the oldest -clothes were worn, for in the plum thickets one must risk the ruin of his -raiment by the angular, thorny branches. Sheets were spread under the -trees where possible, and a severe shaking or beating of the branches -showered the fruit down. All hands were busy at gathering the plums, and -loading the waggons with the harvest. - -Perhaps there was time afterward for the boys to explore the hazel -thickets, and gather a generous bagful of these small, but deliciously -flavoured nuts, still in their husks. Wild grape vines, loaded with the -purple fruit, tempted the frugal wife to strip them, even though the sun -was low. For days after the return home, she was at work putting away for -winter use preserves and jellies and pickles, and good old-fashioned plum -and grape "butter," sweetened with molasses made from sorghum cane. - -Little plum trees, dug in the woods in early spring, were planted in the -home garden. By setting these carefully, and tilling and enriching the -soil around them, larger trees and finer fruit were produced than the -wild plum thicket could show. Some of the good cultivated plums have had -such an origin. - -A half dozen different species of wild plum grow wild in different soils -and regions of the United States. Where two grow in the same territory, -natural hybrids have originated, better than either parent in the quality -of their fruit. Such a cross has given rise to several varieties of -garden plums, of which the Miner group is a fair example. The best -orchard plums for the middle of the country are crosses between native -and Japanese species. The European species, like Damsons and Green Gages, -do well in the Eastern states, and on the Pacific slope. - -The prunes we buy are dried plums. For a century or two France has led -all countries in the prune industry. Now California leads. The kinds of -plums that can be dried are sweet and fleshy. Ordinary juicy plums cannot -be made into prunes. The hot sun of California soon takes all the -moisture out of the plums spread on tables to dry. There is no rain to -fear in the hot summer months. - -Peaches, nectarines, and apricots are stone fruits, closely related to -the plums and peaches. These Old World fruits are grown in the warm parts -of this country. California raises them in quantities. The most -profitable of the stone fruits has woody flesh, and is raised for its -pit, which we eat. This is the sweet almond, a valuable nut. Its related -species, the bitter almond, yields almond oil and hydrocyanic acid, both -important drugs. - - - THE SERVICEBERRIES - -In the same family with apples and plums and cherries is a group of -slender, pretty trees called June berry, serviceberry, and on the East -coast, shadbush. When the shadbush blossoms white, the fishermen know -that it is time to expect the shad, which are taken in nets when they run -up the rivers to spawn. The red berries are ripe in June, and the birds -celebrate the event, and even take them before they begin to redden. -Competition is strong, and the supply never equals the demand. Rarely can -a human berry-picker find a ripe berry, to discover how it tastes. - -The charm of this little tree is that it covers its slim branches so -early with white blossoms. The clusters are soft and feathery, and a warm -flush underlies the white, the ruddy, strap-shaped bracts, two of which -are under each flower. The dainty opening leaves are also ruddy, and -these have opened before the blossoms pass. - -In early April it is worth a long walk or drive through the woods to see -the scattered serviceberry trees standing out from the bare background of -leafless trees, lovely as any tree can ever be, in their robes of white. -Thereafter, they seem to retire from view, engulfed by the foliage -curtain the woodland draws about itself, as spring advances. - - - VALUABLE SAP OF TREES - -In early spring on the New Hampshire hillsides, the sap begins to mount -the trunks of the sugar maple trees, dissolving the sugar stored in the -wood cells during the previous summer. It is time for the making of maple -sugar. Winter is over. Spring work has begun. - -Hundreds of twigs of elder have been cut in short lengths, and the pith -pushed out, to make "spiles." Holes are bored in the trunks of the trees, -and in each hole one of these hollow spiles is driven. These are the -little spouts that drain the sap from the tree into the waiting buckets -that stand or hang below. Drip, drip, drip, the sweet sap flows into the -buckets; and as often as they fill, the farmer makes the rounds of the -trees with barrels on a low sled or "stone boat," emptying the buckets. - -The sap he gathers is poured into the evaporating pans in the sugar -house, and a roaring fire keeps it boiling. As the water goes off in -steam, the remainder becomes maple syrup, which thickens as it boils. -Skimming and straining removes any dirt or chips that fall into the sap. -When it is just thick enough, the syrup is drawn off into cans, and -sealed to be sent to market. A part of it, however, is boiled longer, and -when drawn off, and cooled, it crystalises into the granular yellow maple -sugar. It is cooled in shallow pans that hold a certain amount, and thus -the bricks of maple sugar are formed. Little heart-shaped cakes are made -by filling "patty pans" with this heavy syrup. - -As long as the sap flows in sufficient quantities, the sugar harvest goes -on. If the trees are bored with care, with holes not too close together, -the tree will stand this draining from year to year, and seem not to be -injured by the loss of sap. If the holes are close together, and extend -all around the trunk, the tree will be practically girdled and it will -die from the injury. - -The finest kind of maple sugar is the wax which is made by pouring heavy -syrup on the snow to cool. Quickly it thickens by the cold into stringy -yellow wax, which tastes like other maple sugar, but does not have the -unpleasant gritty feeling, which sets some teeth on edge. Maple wax may -be made at home, by melting the sugar, and pouring it into snow; but the -time and the place to enjoy it most, is in the sugar camp when the hot -syrup is poured from the long-handled ladle onto the nearest snow bank by -the person who is in charge of the boiling. The cold air of the woods -puts a keen edge on the appetite. The warm fire under the boiler takes -off the chill, and the silent woods all around give a charm to the scene -which one does not feel in any other place. - -Hickory sap is sweet. This is sometimes added to that of the maples when -maple trees are scarce. - -The sap of pine trees is a liquid called _resin_. The pine forests of the -South are rich stores of this resin, which we call also pitch. The crude -liquid drained from these trees is heated, and a light liquid called -_turpentine_ is drawn off. The remainder hardens, and is known as -_rosin_. The pine trees are tapped, not as the sugar trees of the North -are, but in a way that is far more injurious to the trees. Resin hardens -into gum when exposed to the air, so it is impossible to draw it out -through small tubes like spiles of elder that drain the maple sap. A -great gash is cut in the side of the trunk of a pine tree, forming a -pocket holding three pints or more. Now a square foot or more of the bark -above the pocket is cut off, and the wood is chipped to a depth of an -inch or more. The bleeding surface of the wood fills the pocket below -with resin, and a man comes around with pails and dipper to empty these -pockets as fast as they fill. The pails are carried to a still, where the -resin is poured into a tank and heated to draw off the limpid turpentine. - -Once a week, from March till November, more bark and wood, above the -scored surface, must be chipped to renew the flow of resin. If this fresh -wounding did not occur, the flow would cease, because the resin thickens -and hardens when exposed to the air. This stops up the pores of the wood. - -Fortunes have been made by the draining of these pine trees of their -rich, pitchy sap. Turpentine and tar and rosin are all products of the -sap of pines, and all are immensely valuable, especially in shipyards, -and in the provisioning of sea-going craft of all sorts. The term, "naval -stores," has been applied to the products of turpentine gathering. Our -forests supply most of these products to other countries. - -The sap of certain tropical trees hardens into rubber. This is one of the -most valuable of tree crops, for there is hardly a household that does -not have rubber articles of a dozen kinds that are daily used. Lacquer -varnish is the juice of certain sumach trees that grow in Japan. Gums of -fir trees have a special use in medicine, and in various arts. - -Sweet gum oozes from trees of that name. This is not noticeable in our -trees of the North, but if we follow the trees southward, the gum flow -increases. In Mexico it is an article of commerce, obtained by wounding -the bark of the trees. It is one of the staple glove perfumes in France. -It is also made into medicines, perfumes, and incense. - -The sap of wild cherry, holly, and buckthorn, of witch hazel and -sassafras all yield medicinal drugs. The flowers of locust, of basswood, -and all the fruit trees furnish nectar out of which bees make honey. The -juicy inner bark of the slippery elm is valuable for food, and as a -medicine. - - - THE USES OF TREES - -Imagine a stranger who has lived all his life in a desert where no trees -grow, coming suddenly into our village, and looking with wonder at the -trees that shade the streets. He knows only the spiny cactuses, and other -plants of the desert. His first question would be, "What are these great -plants that stand so tall?" The name, _tree_, is new to him. It would be -a strange experience to take such an eager and ignorant man and show him -the trees, on the streets, planted in orchards, and growing wild in the -woods outside of the town. His questions set us to thinking. He wants to -know why we plant trees, and how we use those that grow in forests. - -First, we tell him the uses of the living trees. Up and down the streets -they are set for shade, and for their beauty. Rows of evergreens set -close together make a protecting wall of green against the cold winds. -Low clipped hedges of many kinds of trees make living boundaries, much -more beautiful than wooden or wire fences. On lawns and near houses trees -are planted for their beauty and for their shade. Orchards of fruit trees -are planted because they furnish food. Nut orchards are set out for the -same reasons. - -The trees cut down in the woods, and sawed at the mills give us lumber to -build houses to live in, and furniture to make them comfortable, and the -same forest furnishes the fuel that keeps us warm. There is so much to -explain to a person who discovers trees for the first time. It takes a -long time to tell all we know. - -Do we think that we know a great deal about the uses of trees? If so, we -are mistaken. The truth is that trees serve us in ways of which we have -never dreamed. - -We must travel over the world and read a great deal to learn how the -people of other countries make use of trees. The basswood or linden which -nobody cared to use except for fuel in the Middle West might pass for a -useless tree, compared with those whose wood is harder and stronger. But -in older countries people have quite a different opinion of the tree. - -In Russia the tough bark of young lindens is used to make the shoes of -peasants. Ropes, fishing nets, and braided mats are made from the same -tough "bast" fibres, which are very long and tough in this family of -trees. The seeds yield oil that is declared to be quite as good as olive -oil for cooking, and for the table. Perfume is distilled from the -flowers. Cattle browse on the twigs and leaves. The wood is the carver's -delight--soft, white, free from knots and imperfections. It is used for -bureau drawers, carriage bodies, shoe soles, barrel staves and paper -pulp. Its twigs make artist's charcoal pencils. - -Linden trees are planted for shade in many countries, and in Europe they -are often cut into grotesque shapes of animals as they grow. They are -clipped into hedges, as close as box or yew. In America they are usually -allowed to grow naturally, as shade trees. European species are rather -more symmetrical than our native kinds. - -The Indians of the Northwest used the soft inner bark of the tamarack -pine for food. They cut down the trees, strip them of bark, and scraped -out this soft lining layer. With water, they mash it into a pulp, which -they cook and then mould into large cakes. A hole is next dug in the -ground, lined with stones, and a fire is built in it. When the stones are -hot, all ashes are removed, and the cakes, wrapped in green skunk cabbage -leaves, are laid in. A fire of damp moss is built on top, and thus the -cakes are thoroughly, baked. To insure their keeping, they are next -smoked in a close tent for a week or more. This dries and cures them so -that they may be safely packed away for future use. These hard, dry cakes -are afterward broken into pieces and boiled. When the mass softens and -cools, it is ready to eat. The fat of different animals is used for -butter on this strange Alaskan bread. - -[Illustration: Flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry] - -[Illustration: The delicate white flower clusters of the serviceberry -tree] - -Everybody knows that trees bear fruits of many kinds that are useful as -food for men and beasts. Spices, such as nutmegs, mace, cloves, and -allspice, may be added to this list of fruits which we have as human -foods. - -The bark of birches is invaluable to the Indians for the making of their -canoes, baskets, and all kinds of utensils. Huts and teepees are walled -with it. Rope and coarse cloth are made out of the fibre of mulberry -bark, and berry baskets out of the bark of the lodgepole pine. The -fibrous roots of the larch tree furnished tough thread, with which the -Indians sewed canoes of birch, and they made them water-tight with the -gum of the balsam. The brown gum that oozes from wounds of the Western -larch is sweet and starchy. The Indians discovered in it a valuable -article of food. - -One of the latest uses of wood is the making of paper, although the white -hornet showed in its conical paper nest that this could be done. She has -been making wooden paper for hundreds of years, scraping the wood from -the surface of weathern-worn fence boards, and from the dead limbs of -forest trees. Our newspapers are made of ground wood, cooked to a soft -pulp, and rolled out into thin sheets. The high price of paper makes it -worth while to gather up papers, bleach them, convert them into pulp, and -roll them out again into sheets. Spruce wood and poplar are among the -cheap woods which have come into demand at the paper mills. The forests -of these trees, counted of little use for lumber, have become valuable -because the paper mills can use them. - -Look about the room, and a dozen articles, beside the chairs and table, -are products of wood, or in some way owe a debt to trees. The paint that -covers the window sash and frames was mixed with turpentine, which is -obtained from the pitchy sap of pine trees. The shades and curtains are -coloured. Dyes of many kinds are extracted from the various dyewoods, -trees that grow in tropical forests. The newspaper and the books on the -shelves are made of wood pulp. The lacquered box from Japan is a handsome -thing. The lacquer varnish is the sap of a certain Oriental sumach tree. -The perfume of the gloves in the box is made from the fragrant gum of an -Oriental sweet gum tree. The skin out of which the gloves were made was -tanned, not with bark, but with the acorn cups, or galls, of a European -oak. - -The shoes on your feet are made of leather. The hemlock trees that grow -on the hills were stripped of their bark by peelers in early spring. -Black oak and chestnut oak are also stripped in our woods. Carloads of -bark are shipped to the tanneries to be used in the tanning of skins -which changes them into leather. - -That beautiful book upon the table is bound in Russia leather. The acorn -cups of a European oak were used to tan the skins that made this leather -so much more beautiful than that of your shoes. Your gloves are made of -kid skins tanned in Europe. For this particular work the nut-like galls -that grow on certain oak trees are gathered in the woods. - -Tannin is the substance in oak bark which makes it valuable in tanning -leather. A high percentage of tannin is found in oak galls. For this -reason they are gathered in many countries, and are among the most -valuable and high-priced supplies for the establishments that tan skins -for gloves. The most expensive inks and dyes, those that do not fade, but -are practically permanent, are made from selected oak galls. - -Oak apples are a strange fruit, found in more or less abundance on the -leaves of our own oak trees in autumn. You have seen them in summer time, -plump, green balls, sometimes as large as a hen's egg, but globular, -sitting upon a leaf. In autumn the balls take on the colour of the dying -leaves. - -The same tree may have hard little marble-like balls growing on its -twigs. These are of different sizes, and it is not unusual to find a hole -in the side of each. - -All such outgrowths on the leaves and twigs of oaks are called galls, and -they are chiefly caused by winged insects called gall-gnats. An egg is -laid in early spring, in a slit pierced in the twig or leaf. As this egg -hatches, the tissue about it is disturbed in its growth by the presence -of this feeding grub. The soft leaf pulp, or the tender tissues of the -twig that surround it, are exactly what the grub likes to eat. Food and -drink are all about it, and as it feeds, it grows. The leaf swells, and -so surrounds the grub with an abnormal growth. The grub still feeds, and -the swelling becomes larger, until finally, when the insect ceases to -eat, it is housed in the peculiar ball which we know as an oak gall. Each -species of gall-maker is known by its house. - -The oak apples are of several kinds. Some are empty except for a little -shell in the centre, in which the fat grub sleeps. Sometimes the -substance within the "apple" is corky, sometimes spongy. Bullet galls, -which form on twigs like little marbles, are usually solid to the centre, -where the grub lies until the time comes for it to bore its way out to -the surface, and fly away, to lay eggs which will produce other galls. -Usually oak galls, found in winter, contain the sleeping grub, whose -transformation into a winged insect waits until the coming of spring. - -The cork in your ink bottle is the bark of an oak tree. Go to Portugal or -to Northern Africa, and you may see the cork harvest in progress in July -or August. There is no place to go for genuine cork except to a small -evergreen oak that rarely reaches a height over thirty feet. When these -trees are twenty-five years old, a hard, thin layer of bark is stripped -off. This is a valuable tan bark, but it is not in the least corky. The -tree now produces a spongy bark entirely different from the first. It is -not disturbed for eight or ten years. This is stripped off. It is the -poor quality of bark which fishermen use to float their nets with. - -Ten years later the bark is stripped again. It is better in quality than -the first. Each ten years brings the bark stripper again to the tree. In -the fiftieth year, the bark is of the finest quality, and for fifty years -that follow there are five strippings of bark of the highest grade. Then -the quality becomes poorer. The trees are cut down, the bark is sold to -the tanners, and the wood is used for charcoal or for fuel. - -It is a very particular job to get the cork off and leave the under layer -uninjured. The trunk is stripped from the ground to the point where it -branches, and the inner "mother bark" must not be bruised, for no more -cork will grow on any bruised spot. Two circular cuts are made, one at -the top, one at the bottom of the columnar trunk, then two opposite slits -are made dividing the bark of the trunk into two halves. These curved -plates are worked off by inserting a wedged-shaped tool between the bark -and the trunk, and gradually working it further in until the whole curved -plate of cork comes off. These two big sheets are steamed and flattened, -then bound in bundles, and shipped to wholesale dealers in cork. - -The owner of a grove of cork oaks must wait ten years between crops of -the bark, but every year three crops of acorns are borne on these trees. -The pigs of the owner, turned into the grove, fatten on this rich food. -So the little trees are very profitable in two ways. - -In the south of Europe, the handsome, evergreen holm oak grows wild; its -glossy leaves and compact form remind us of our holly trees. It is one of -the most valuable ornamental oaks, but as a fruit tree, it has unusual -value. Its acorns are sweet and rich, and the crop is heavy. Hogs are -fattened upon them. In earlier days they were used as human food, and -even now gipsies gather them to eat. Its acorn cups, bark, and the galls -it bears are of the very best quality. They are used in the most -particular jobs of dyeing and tanning. - -Under ground, the holm oak bears a strange fruit--a fungus called -"truffle" develops on the roots. These truffles are somewhat like -mushrooms in their growth. They are far more delicious to eat, and -expensive to buy than ordinary mushrooms. The best of them are found in -France, and French people are especially fond of them. - -Trees that grow on chalky lands are more likely to produce truffles. At a -dozen years old, they begin to yield, and truffles may be found upon -their roots for about twenty-five years. - -Not every holm oak has truffles on its roots. The finding of these -delicacies is a very interesting and exciting game, and a great deal of a -lottery. There is but one way to find them, and that is by the sense of -smell. The truffle has a rich, strong odour. Dogs and pigs are the only -animals that are able to find it. The truffle-hunter is usually an old -woman, who goes with a trained pig or a trained dog into the oak forest. -She has a basket, and a spading fork, and she keeps a close eye on her -four-footed partner. If the pig, in rooting about under an oak, suddenly -becomes excited, and begins to root furiously, she drives him away, and -digs out the precious ball of fungus he has scented. It is irregular in -form, and looks somewhat like a potato. Meanwhile the pig locates -another, and is again disappointed. The truffle dog is treated in the -same manner. Unless put into a pen, or chained at night, these -truffle-hunters are likely to take to the woods and feast when no one is -by to interfere with their pleasure. - -Truffles are shipped in cans to the United States, but we have not yet -discovered them growing on the roots of our oak trees. Probably we have -not yet looked for them with sufficient care and patience. - - - - - APPENDIX - - - APPENDIX - IDENTIFICATION KEYS TO TREE GROUPS AND FAMILIES - - - A KEY TO NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Leaves few, in sheathed bundles, set spirally on the twig. - THE PINES. - AA. Leaves solitary, set spirally on the twig. - B. Twigs with bracket-like projections for attachment of leaves; - cones hanging down. - C. Leaves flat, blunt, with short stalks. - The Hemlocks. - CC. Leaves angled, sharp, without stalks. - The Spruces. - BB. Twigs smooth; cones standing erect. - The Firs. - - - A KEY TO THE PINES - - - A. Sheaths of leaf-bundles soon shed; wood soft, pale. - SOFT PINES. - B. Needles, 5 in a bundle. - C. Cones, 5 to 8 inches long; Eastern. - White Pine. - CC. Cones, 12 to 18 inches long; Western. - Sugar Pine. - BB. Needles fewer than 5 in a bundle; Western. - Nut Pines. - AA. Sheaths of leaf-bundles not soon shed; wood hard, heavy, dark, - resinous. - HARD PINES. - B. Needles, 3 in a bundle. - C. Length of needles, 8 to 18 inches; cones, 6 to 10 inches. - Longleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 6 to 9 inches; cones, 3 to 5 inches. - Loblolly Pine. - CCC. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Pitch Pine. - BB. Needles, 2 in a bundle; Northern. - C. Length of needles, 4 to 6 inches; cones 2 inches. - Red Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 1 to 3 inches; cones, 2 to 3 inches. - Jersey Pine. - BBB. Needles, 2 or 3 in a bundle; Southern. - C. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Shortleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 8 to 12 inches; cones, 3 to 6 inches. - Cuban Pine. - - - A KEY TO THE SCALE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Seeds borne in a woody cone; twigs flattened, leaves minute. - Arbor Vitae. White Cedar. - AA. Seeds borne in a fleshy, blue berry; leaves scale-like or spiny, or - both. - Juniper. Red Cedar. - - - A KEY TO THE NUT TREES - - - A. Nuts in a husk that opens when ripe. - B. Husk opens in four divisions. - C. Surface of husk, spiny. - D. Nut three-angled, small, two in a husk. - Beech. - DD. Nut rounded, or flattened, 2 or 3 in a husk. - Chestnut. - CC. Surface of husk not spiny. - Hickories. - BB. Husk opens in three divisions. - Horse-chestnuts and Buckeyes. - BBB. Husk opens in two divisions; spiny. - Chinquapin. - A. Nuts in a husk that does not open when ripe. - B. Shape of nut, globular; surface, smooth. - Black Walnut. - BB. Shape of nut, oblong; surface, clammy. - Butternut. - - - A KEY TO THE GROUPS OF OAKS - - - A. Acorns, annual; bark usually pale; leaves with rounded lobes, not - spiny-pointed. - The White Oak Group. - AA. Acorns, biennial; bark usually dark; leaves with spiny-pointed - lobes. - The Black Oak Group. - - - A KEY TO THE WHITE OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves evergreen; Southern tree. - Live Oak. - AA. Leaves not evergreen. - B. Lining of leaves pale, not downy; lobes finger-like. - White Oak. - BB. Lining of leaves pale, downy. - C. Bark of branches corky-ridged; acorn large, in fringed cup. - Bur Oak. - CC. Bark of branches shed in rough flakes; acorns large, on - long stalks. - Swamp White Oak. - CCC. Bark of branches not corky-ridged, nor scaly. - D. Acorn medium-sized; leaf margins cut into squarish lobes. - Post Oak. - DD. Acorn large; leaf margins wavy; bark dark brown. - Chestnut Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE BLACK OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves narrow, willow-like; Southern tree. - Willow Oak. - AA. Leaves oval, with deeply-cleft margins. - B. Acorn cups, shallow, broader than high. - C. Tree pyramidal, twigs with pin-like spurs. - Pin Oak. - CC. Tree spreading; acorns large, in shallow saucers. - Red Oak. - BB. Acorn cups as deep as broad. - C. Leaves thin, smooth, deeply cut; acorn cup drawn in at the - top. - Scarlet Oak. - CC. Leaves leathery, rough, with rusty hairs beneath; acorn - cup not drawn in at the top. - Black Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE ELMS - - - A. Twigs smooth, not hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches not corky-ridged. - American Elm. - BB. Bark of branches corky-ridged. - Winged Elm. Wahoo. - AA. Twigs hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches corky. - Cork Elm. Rock Elm. - BB. Bark of branches not corky; buds coarsely hairy. - Slippery Elm. - - - A KEY TO THE MAPLES - - - A. Leaves simple. - B. Bloom before the leaves open; seeds ripe in May. - C. Flowers red; leaves pale beneath, with three triangular lobes. - Red Maple. - CC. Flowers greenish; leaves pale beneath, deeply cleft, with - long, spiny lobes. - Silver Maple. - BB. Bloom after the leaves open; seeds ripe in autumn. - C. Leaves wider than long; lobes spiny-tipped. - D. Lining of leaves, pale; keys joined at acute angle. - Sugar Maple. - DD. Lining of leaves, not pale; keys joined at wide angle. - Norway Maple. - CC. Leaves circular, lobed; tree prostrate. - Vine Maple. - CCC. Leaves about as wide as long; trees small. - D. Bark striped with white lines; flowers and seeds in - dense, pendant clusters. - Striped Maple. - DD. Bark not striped; flowers and seeds in pendant clusters. - Mountain Maple. - AA. Leaves compound, of 3 to 7 leaflets. - Ash-leaved Maple. Box Elder. - - - A KEY TO THE WILLOWS - - - A. Twigs long, drooping. - Weeping Willow. - AA. Twigs erect. - B. Leaves white beneath. - C. Twigs yellow in spring; leaves narrow. - Golden Osier Willow. - CC. Twigs reddish in spring; leaves broad. - Pussy Willow. - BB. Leaves not white beneath; heart-shaped frill at base of leaf stem. - Black Willow. - - - A KEY TO THE LOCUSTS - - - A. Leaves simple; flowers rosy. - Redbud. - AA. Leaves compound. - B. Trees thorny. - C. Thorns simple, paired, at bases of leaves; pods small, thin. - Black Locust. - CC. Thorns often branched, clustered; pods large, curved. - Honey Locust. - BB. Trees not thorny. - C. Pods thick; limbs clumsy; leaves twice compound. - Kentucky Coffee Tree. - CC. Pods thin, small; limbs not clumsy; leaves once compound. - Yellow-wood. Virgilia. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Acorns, 28. - Ailanthus, 61, 175. - Alligator-wood, 90. - Almond, Bitter, 232. - Sweet, 232. - Apple, 96, 190. - Crab, 224. - Oak, 243. - Wild, 99, 221, 224. - Apricots, 231. - Arbor Vitae, 59, 128. - Ash, 58. - Black, 205. - Blue, 206. - Green, 206. - Mountain, 65. - Red, 205, 206. - White, 204. - Ashes, 96, 203. - Aspen, Quaking, 145, 179. - - B - Balm of Gilead, 146. - Bark, 83. - Bark, Birch, 88, 241. - Basswood, 62, 196, 237, 239. - Bay, Swamp, 185. - Beech, 26, 143, 208. - Blue, 63, 89. - Copper, 88. - Cut-leaved, 88. - European, 88. - Weeping, 88. - Beeches, 87, 88. - Bee Tree, 197. - Birch, 60, 76, 96. - Black, 85. - Canoe, 84. - Cherry, 85. - Red, 85. - White, 83. - Yellow, 85. - Birches, Weeping, 97. - Box Elder, 57, 161, 177. - Buckeye, 203. - California, 213. - Ohio, 211. - Red, 213. - Sweet, 212. - Buckthorn, 237. - Budding, 222, 223. - Burning Bush, 139. - Butternut, 18, 175. - - C - Cambium, 153. - Catalpa, 60, 174, 195, 220. - Cedar, Red, 95. - Cedars, 127. - Red, 129. - White, 128. - Cherry, 191. - Choke, 227. - Japanese, 228. - Red, 199. - Wild Black, 68, 216, 237. - Chestnut, 22, 92. - Horse, 74, 195, 203, 208. - Chestnuts, 116, 192. - Chinquapin, 25. - Coffee Tree, Kentucky, 216. - Conifers, 102. - Cottonwood, 146, 147. - Cucumber Tree, Large-leaved, 174, 183. - Northern, 174, 186. - Cypress, Bald, 134. - Knees of, 135. - - D - Dogwood, 65, 75, 91, 188, 203. - - E - Elders, 198. - Elm, 61, 96, 150, 151. - Camperdown, 97. - Cork, 153. - English, 152. - Rock, 153. - Slippery, 152, 237. - Weeping, 97. - Winged, 154. - Evergreens, 59, 101. - Evonymus, 139. - - F - Fir, 59. - Balsam, 106. - Firs, 95. - - G - Galls, Oak, 244. - Grafting, 222, 223. - Gum, Sweet, 59, 90, 203, 237. - - H - Hackberry, 66, 89. - Hawthorn, 99, 178, 191. - Hazel, Witch, 29, 32, 237. - Hemlock, 59, 105. - Hercules' Club, 100, 176. - Hickories, 76, 96. - Hickory, Big Bud, 13. - Big Shellback, 11. - Bitternut, 14. - Shagbark, 9, 13, 86, 143. - Shellback, 9, 13. - Swamp, 15. - White Heart, 13. - Hickory Nuts, 116. - Holly, 66, 136, 237. - European, 138. - Hornbeam, 60, 63, 89. - Hop, 90. - - I - Ironwood, 89, 91. - - J - Judas Tree, 219. - June Berries, 197, 232. - Juniper, 130. - - K - King Nuts, 12. - - L - Lacquer, 242. - Larch, 131. - European, 132. - Western, 133. - Leaf, Compound, 173, 176. - Simple, 173. - Leaflet, 173. - Leaf Pulp, 79, 171. - Linden, 76, 170, 196. - Locust, 237. - Black, 99, 177, 214. - Clammy, 216. - Honey, 95, 98, 176, 216. - Yellow, 99, 177, 192. - Log-rollings, 17. - - M - Magnolia, Evergreen, 184. - Maple, 154. - Mountain, 163. - Norway, 57, 76, 96, 161. - Red, 57, 96, 149, 155, 177. - Scarlet, 75, 149. - Silver, 56, 156, 177. - Striped, 162. - Sugar, 74, 92, 158, 170, 177. - Swamp, 149. - Vine, 150. - Mockernut, 13. - Mulberry, Weeping, 97, 198. - - N - Nannyberry, 64. - Naval Stores, 236. - Nectarines, 231. - - O - Oak, Black, 36, 47, 49, 242. - Bur, 39. - Chestnut, 46, 242. - Cork, 245. - Council, 40. - Holm, 246. - Iron, 44. - Knees of, 42, 44. - Live, 41, 96. - Mossy-cup, 39. - Pin, 53, 95. - Post, 44. - Red, 49, 50. - Scarlet, 51. - Swamp White, 45. - Tanbark, 48. - Turkey, 44. - White, 35, 37, 95. - Willow, 54. - Yellow, 47. - Oaks, 4, 28, 33, 76, 96, 178, 179. - Oilnuts, 18. - Osage Orange, 98. - - P - Paper, 241. - Peaches, 231. - Pecan, 9. - Persimmon, 71. - Pignut, 12, 87. - Pine, 103, 108. - Cuban, 123. - Curly, 119. - Digger, 112. - Georgia, 119. - Hard, 118. - Jersey, 127. - Loblolly, 124. - Longleaf, 119. - North Carolina, 122. - Nut, 114, 117. - Old Field, 124. - Pitch, 118, 125. - Red, 126. - Shortleaf, 121. - Soft, 109. - Sugar, 112. - Swamp, 123. - Tamarack, 240. - White, 109. - Yellow, 112, 119, 122. - Plum, 191. - Wild Red, 229. - Yellow, 229. - Poplar, 76, 144. - Lombardy, 94. - Tulip, 187. - Yellow, 187. - Poplars, 221. - Propolis, 146. - Prunes, 231. - Pulp, Wood, 241. - - Q - Quakenasp, 143. - - R - Redbud, 217. - Resin, 235. - Rosin, 235. - - S - Sassafras, 64, 178, 200, 237. - Seedlings, 222. - Serviceberries, 197, 232. - Shadbush, 232. - Sheepberry, 64. - Spindle-tree, 139. - Spruce, 59, 104. - St. John's Bread, 216. - Sugar Bush, 159. - Maple, 233. - Pine, 112. - Sumach, 66, 175, 242. - Sycamore, 5, 85. - - T - Tamarack, 131. - Tanbark, 47. - Tannin, 243. - Truffle, 247. - Tulip Tree, 76, 174, 187. - Turpentine, 118. - - V - Viburnums, 64. - Virgilia, 220. - - W - Wahoo, 184. - Walnut, Black, 16, 175. - English, 19. - Willow, 63. - Balsam, 169. - Black, 168. - Golden Osier, 167. - Pussy, 148, 164. - Weeping, 97, 168. - White, 167. - Willows, 221. - Winterberry, 138. - Witch Hazel, 29. - - Y - Yellow-wood, 219. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Corrected some palpable typos, and standardized the form of some names - (_e.g._ serviceberry). - ---In the text versions only, represented text font and size variations - (the HTML version preserves the presentation of the original): - ---Text in italics is delimited by _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Trees Every Child Should Know, by -Julia Ellen Rogers - 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