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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Trees Every Child Should Know - Easy Tree Studies for All Seasons of the Year - -Author: Julia Ellen Rogers - -Release Date: November 15, 2013 [EBook #44186] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, L. Harrison and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: The Glory of Autumn Trees] - - - - - _Trees_ - EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW - - - EASY TREE STUDIES FOR - ALL SEASONS OF THE YEAR - BY - JULIA ELLEN ROGERS - - Illustrated - -[Illustration: Grosset & Dunlap] - - NEW YORK - GROSSET & DUNLAP - Publishers - - - - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION - INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN - - COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY - PUBLISHED OCTOBER, 1909 - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES - AT - THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - How to Know the Trees 3 - - AUTUMN STUDIES - The Nut Trees: - The Shagbark Hickories 9 - The Disappointing Hickories 12 - The Black Walnut 16 - The Butternut 18 - The English Walnut 19 - The Chestnut and Chinquapin 22 - The Beech 26 - The Witch Hazel 29 - The Oak Family 33 - The White Oak Group: - The White Oak 37 - The Bur or Mossy-cup Oak 39 - The Live Oak 41 - The Post Oak 44 - The Swamp White Oak 45 - The Chestnut Oak 46 - The Black Oak Group: - The Black Oak 47 - The Red Oak 50 - The Scarlet Oak 51 - The Pin Oak 52 - The Willow Oak 54 - Trees with Winged Seeds 55 - Tree Seeds that have Parachutes 62 - The Autumn Berries in the Woods 64 - The Changing Colour of the Autumn Woods 74 - - WINTER STUDIES - Trees We Know by Their Bark 83 - Trees We Know by Their Shapes 93 - Trees We Know by Their Thorns 98 - The Needle-leaved Evergreens 101 - The Five-leaved Soft Pines 108 - The White Pine 109 - The Great Sugar Pine 112 - The Nut Pines 114 - The Hard Pines 118 - The Southern Pitch Pines 119 - The Longleaf Pine 119 - The Shortleaf Pine 121 - The Cuban Pine 123 - The Loblolly Pine 124 - The Northern Pitch Pines 125 - The Cedars, White and Red 127 - Two Conifers Not Evergreen 131 - The Larches 131 - The Bald Cypress 134 - The Hollies 136 - The Burning Bush 139 - - SPRING STUDIES - The Awakening of the Trees 143 - Trees that Bloom in Early Spring 146 - The American Elm and Its Kin 150 - The Maple Family 154 - The Willow Family 163 - Why Trees Need Leaves 169 - Leaves of All Shapes and Sizes 173 - - SUMMER STUDIES - Trees with the Largest Flowers 183 - Trees Most Showy in Bloom 189 - Trees that Bloom in Midsummer 192 - The Early Berries in the Woods 197 - The Sassafras 200 - The Ash Family 203 - The Horse-chestnut and the Buckeyes 208 - The Buckeyes 211 - The Locusts and Other Pod-bearers 214 - Wild Apple Trees and Their Kin 221 - The Cherries 226 - The Plums 229 - The Serviceberries 232 - Valuable Sap of Trees 233 - The Uses of Trees 237 - - - Identification Keys to Tree Groups and Families 251 - Index 261 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - The Glory of Autumn Trees _Frontispiece_ - FACING PAGE - Three Pignuts, Three Shagbarks, and Two Pecans; Flowering Twig of - the Shagbark Hickory 16 - Black Walnut and Butternut; Twig of Butternut 17 - Buds and Flowers of the Beech Tree 32 - Catkins of a Hornbeam and a Birch; Catkins and Acorn Flowers of an - Oak 33 - Leaves, Acorns, and Twigs of the Bur Oak 48 - The Horizontal Limbs of the Pin Oak Form a Regular Pyramidal Head 49 - Cone Fruits of a Birch, a Pine, a Magnolia, and a Fir 64 - Clusters of the Winged Seeds of Hornbeam and White Ash 65 - The Flowering Dogwood Covers Its Bare Branches with Blossoms in May 76 - Flowering Dogwood, in Flower and Fruit, the Winter Flower Buds, and - Alligator Skin Bark 77 - We Recognise Birches by their Silky, Tattered Bark 84 - The Beech Trunk Is Clothed in Smooth, Pale Grey Bark 85 - The Loose, Stripping Bark Gives Its Name to the Shagbark Hickory 86 - Bark of Hackberry, Black Birch and Hornbeam 87 - Warty, Ridged Bark of the Sweet Gum, the Swinging Seed Balls, and - Winged Seeds 90 - Bark and Seed Balls of the Sycamore 91 - The Lombardy Poplar 92 - The Live Oak of the South 93 - Fruiting Branch of a Cockspur Thorn 96 - Clustered Thorns on Trunk of Honey Locust Tree; Flowers and Foliage - of the Black Locust 97 - Cones of Hemlock and Norway Spruce 112 - Pine Twig with Cones, and Clustered Staminate Flowers 113 - Thousands of Little Balsam Firs Supply the Market with Christmas - Trees 114 - Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Outdoor Study 115 - The Spiny-leaved, Red-berried Holly 126 - What Would Christmas Be Without Holly Branches and Wreaths for - Decoration! 127 - “The Grizzly Giant,” a Sequoia Over Three Hundred Feet High 128 - Scaly-leaved Evergreens 129 - The Opening Buds of the Shagbark Hickory 144 - Catkins and Leaves of the Trembling Aspen 145 - Flower Buds, Blossoms, Seeds, and Leaf of the American Elm 148 - Elm Tree in Bloom 149 - Buds and Flowers of the Red Maple 156 - Seeds of the Red Maple 157 - The Sugar Maple 176 - Leaves of the Black Willow; Pussy Willow Twigs 177 - Leaves and Flowers of the Ear-leaved Cucumber Tree 192 - The Orange-yellow Flower Cups and Squared Leaves of the Tulip Tree 193 - Flowers, Fruit, and the Three Different Leaf Patterns of the - Sassafras Tree 194 - Waxy Flowers of the Evergreen Magnolia 195 - Fruits, Leaves, and Flowers of the Basswood Tree 206 - The Chestnut Tree 207 - An Old Apple Orchard 224 - Nothing Tastes as Good as Ripe Apples Picked Right off the Tree! 225 - Flowers and Fruit of the Wild Black Cherry 240 - The Delicate, White Flower Clusters of the Serviceberry Tree 241 - - - - - HOW TO KNOW THE TREES - - -The best time to begin to study the trees is to-day! The place to begin -is right where you are, provided there is a tree near enough, for a -lesson about trees will be very dull unless there is a tree to look at, -to ask questions of, and to get answers from. But suppose it is winter -time, and the tree is bare. Then you have a chance to see the wonderful -framework of trunk and branches, the way the twigs spread apart on the -outer limbs, while the great boughs near the trunk are almost bare. Each -branch is trying to hold its twigs out into the sunshine, and each twig -is set with buds. When these buds open, and most of them send out leafy -shoots, the tree will be a shady summerhouse with a thick, leafy roof -that the sun cannot look through. Among the big branches near the trunk -very few leaves will be found compared with the number the outer twigs -bear. - -How can we tell whether the tree is alive or dead in winter? Break off a -twig. Is there a layer of green just inside the brown bark? This is the -sign that the tree is alive. Dead twigs are withered, and their buds are -not plump and bright. The green is gone from under the bark of these -twigs. - -Under each bud is the scar of last year’s leaf, and if you look on the -ground you are pretty sure to find a dead leaf whose stem fits exactly -into that scar. If there are a number of these leaves under the tree, you -may feel sure that they fell from the tree last autumn. Look carefully -among the leaves, and on the branches for the seeds of this tree. If -there is an acorn left on the tree, you may be sure that you have the -tree’s name! - -The name is the thing we wish first to know when we meet a stranger. If -an acorn is found growing on a tree, that tree has given us its name, for -trees that bear acorns are all oaks. An acorn is a kind of nut, and there -are many kinds of oaks, each with its own acorn pattern, unlike that of -other oaks. Yet all acorns sit in their little acorn cups, and we do not -confuse them with nuts of other trees. So we know the family name of all -trees whose fruits are acorns. They are all oaks, and there are fifty -kinds in our own country, growing wild in American forests. But if those -of all countries are counted, there are in all more than three hundred -kinds. - -If, instead of acorns, pods hang on the twigs, the tree belongs to the -locust family, related to our garden peas and beans. The signs by which -we learn to know trees are not many. The bark of the white birch is so -silky white that everybody knows that tree. The sycamore sheds its bark -in thin, irregular sheets, leaving patches of dirty white streaking the -trunk and limbs, as if the tree had been daubed and spattered with -whitewash. This tree is so strikingly different from others that nearly -everybody knows it by name. Or they call it “buttonwood.” The seed-balls -hang on slender stems, swinging in the winter wind. - -The winter signs to notice are the bark, the buds, and the leaf scars, -the shape of the tree, and the way it branches. The fruit it bears may be -seen in summer, autumn, or winter. The flowers come in warm weather, some -kinds early, some later, and the leaves are new in spring, and most trees -shed them in autumn. There is no time of year when there are not three or -four of the important signs hung out on every tree to guide those who are -trying to find out its name, and learn the story of its interesting life. -And the finding out of tree names is not dreary and hard, but a good game -to be played out-of-doors. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE AUTUMN - - - THE SHAGBARK HICKORIES - -The best hickory nut tree that grows wild in our American forests is the -shagbark, or shellbark. Who says that the pecan is better than the nut of -the little shagbark? Southern people insist upon this, as the pecan is -the pride of the Southern states. As a compromise we may place side by -side the pecan of the South, and the little shagbark of the North, and -challenge the world to produce a nut that is worthy to rank with these -two in quality. - -The shagbark takes its name from the tree’s habit of shedding the bark in -long, narrow strips or flakes, that curl away from the point of -attachment, but cling for months, perhaps, giving the trunk a shaggy -appearance, and making very easy the discovery of these trees in a -stretch of mixed woodland. And how it does cut and slash the stoutest of -overalls to scramble up and down one of these trees? Only boys and their -despairing mothers can know just how costly a Saturday afternoon nutting -expedition can be, and why many a boy finds it expedient to come back -with his bag of nuts in the late dusk. Otherwise he might be mistaken for -a tramp, so tattered are his clothes. - -The smooth little nuts are angled and pointed, and when they are ripe, -the thick, corky, green husks part into four equal divisions, and the -nuts fall out. So much less trouble than walnuts, in their spongy husks, -that never part regularly, but wait until they are torn off by impatient -boys or squirrels, or until they dry and gradually crumble away. - -The shagbark hickory is a beautiful tree when covered with its shining -foliage in summer. Each leaf is made of five leaflets on a wiry leaf -stem. The three outer leaflets are larger than the pair set nearest the -base of the stem. The whole leaf is often more than a foot long, and -sometimes there are seven leaflets on each. - -The most wonderful shagbark hickory tree I ever saw was one I met once at -sundown, after a long walk across country. It stood in a field, alone, -and so near my home that I had noticed it almost every day through a long -winter. I had gathered a quantity of nuts as they fell in the frosty -autumn days, and it was a race between me and the squirrels, often, to -see who should get the bigger share. I think they beat me, which is -perfectly right. I remember now how rich the foliage looked as it slowly -turned from green to golden brown, and fell in a great windrow all about -the shaggy trunk, as the nuts ripened. - -All winter I noticed how strong the lithe limbs were, and how flexible, -as the wind twisted them about in storms, and how much of promise there -was in the great, scaly buds that tipped the twigs. - -It was late April when I came by. As I looked up into that tree top the -sunlight was shining through, and at first I thought I must be dreaming. -Instead of buds, I saw what seemed like lighted candles, each with a -silken frill, like the recurved petals of an iris, below the tip of -flame! I had never seen a tree thus illuminated, and the sight was -enchanting. The warm spring air had brought out the hickory buds, with -those of other trees, and while I was looking for flowers on the ground, -the buds above had swollen, cast off the winter covers, revealing the -silky inner wrappings of the young shoots. The rich downward-curving -“petals” were only the inner scales of the great buds, grown long and -wide, their vivid orange setting off the compact yellow buds that still -stood erect. These concealed the tender, velvety leaves that were soon to -be revealed with the falling of the leaf scales. I had never seen a -hickory tree opening its iris-like buds before, but I have never missed -it since. - -The big shellbark, or shagbark, hickory is the sturdy “big brother” of -the little shagbark. In every particular it exaggerates the -characteristics of the favourite among our nut trees. The bark is more -shaggy, the tree grows larger, the nuts are bigger. Are they _better_? -No. But they are much the same in flavour, and being so good and so big, -they have the market name of “king nuts.” The best of them are gathered -in the woods of Missouri and Arkansas. The tree is found from -Pennsylvania westward to Oklahoma, but the lumber is valuable for the -making of vehicles and tool handles, and so the trees are now scarce in -the states that are oldest. - -In winter the big shagbark trees show their orange-coloured twigs. They -are peculiar to this one hickory. The leaf stems stay on the twigs after -the leaves fall, and give the tree top in winter a ragged, hairy -appearance, that matches its shaggy trunk. - - - THE DISAPPOINTING HICKORIES - -The pignut has been given this ugly name because farmers, in the early -days, turned their pigs into woodland pastures to fatten on the -thin-shelled nuts that dropped from this kind of hickory tree. They are -not bitter, but merely tasteless, and it is only a “greenhorn” from town -or city who will spend time to gather these poor hickory nuts, mistaking -them for shellbarks. They are not usually angled, but smoothly rounded, -often pear-shaped, and the husks are thin. The shagbarks are in husks -nearly one-half inch thick, which split in four divisions, and fall apart -to release the ripe nuts. The husks of pignuts divide but part way down, -and so the nuts are not freed from them promptly. The kernels are -yellowish white. - -A look at the bark of a shagbark hickory, and then at a pignut fixes in -mind one of the chief differences between these trees. The pignut has -clean, smooth, grey bark, becoming coarser and rougher with increasing -age, but never shedding its bark in ragged strips as the shagbark begins -to do when the trees are still young. Smoother foliage and twigs, smaller -buds in winter, and a more regular round head make the pignut a fine tree -to plant on the lawn, where the shagbark would be out of place, on -account of its shaggy, untidy trunk. - -Another handsome hickory tree with nuts that are very disappointing to -the members of a nutting party is the mockernut, called also the big bud -hickory, and the white heart hickory. The last name is wrong because the -heart wood is brown, and it is the wood near the bark that is white. The -tree has the largest buds and the stoutest, clumsiest twigs and branches -in the whole hickory family. The leaves are correspondingly large, -sometimes nearly two feet long, of seven to nine leaflets, on downy, -swollen stalks. The catkins of the staminate flowers are like thick, -chenille fringes, six inches long, often longer, hanging in May below the -new leaves. - -The nuts are large and look most promising at first. The big, four-parted -husk is as thick as a shagbark’s, but it does not split all the way down. -So the first difficulty is to get the nut out of the husk. The bony shell -is the next. It is astonishingly thick and hard to crack. Last -disappointment of all, the kernel is at best very small, and not worth -the trouble of getting it out, though there is no denying that it is -better-tasting than a pignut, and almost as sweet as a little shagbark. -Very often the shell contains a spongy substance that is tasteless, -instead of the kernel the patient nutter has a right to expect. - -Crumple leaflets of this tree in your hand, and they smell fruity, like -an apple. They turn to yellow and russet in autumn. - -The bitternut is a hickory nut whose kernel no squirrel eats. It is as -bitter as gall. Thin-shelled as a pignut, and usually less than an inch -in length, the nuts are enclosed in thin husks, that differ from others -in having thin ridges that rise along the four lines where they split at -the time the nuts are ripe. Two of these clefts run farther down than the -other pair. The nut shell is thin, slightly flattened sometimes, and -marked with dark lines. The kernel is white, and you will never taste a -second one. - -The sure sign by which to tell the bitternut hickory is the tapering, -flattened, yellow bud. At any time of year a few, at least, of these buds -are to be found. They are numerous from midsummer till May; after that, a -few dormant winter buds remain to tell the tree’s name until the new buds -are showing in the angles between leaf and twig No other hickory has -little, yellow buds. - -In winter the slimness of the twigs, and in summer the small size of the -leaflets make this the most delicately built of the hickories. The buds -are the smallest to be found on a hickory tree. Yet it is the quickest to -grow, and one of the handsomest trees in the family. Because it loves -best to grow with its roots in wet soil, it is called the swamp hickory. - - - THE BLACK WALNUT - -No boy or girl who has ever gone nutting “in brown October’s woods” can -forget the fruits of the black walnut trees that hang like green oranges, -high up on the ends of the branches, and have to be climbed for and -shaken down. And each fellow on the ground looks out for his own head, as -the shower of nuts comes down. Oh! the rich, walnut smell of those juicy -husks, as we bruised them on the nearest stone, tore them off, wiping our -damp fingers on the grass, before cracking the rough-shelled nuts. The -brown stains stayed until they wore off, but the memory of the sweet -kernels lasts longer, and the pungent odour of those nut husks is in -every twig, bud, and leaf of every walnut tree. Bruise any young shoot, -and by the odour of its sap the tree’s name may be guessed. - -There is another test for a walnut tree, for those who do not know the -odour of the sap. Cut a twig, and split it. The pith of walnut trees is -not solid, but is in thin plates, separated by air spaces. This is a sure -sign. - -[Illustration: Three pignuts, with husks, three shagbarks, and two -pecans; Flowering twig of the little shagbark hickory] - -[Illustration: Black walnut and butternut. Twig of butternut, in winter -and in spring] - -Walnut trees grow rapidly, and are a valuable tree crop to plant. Nuts -for seed are packed in gravel, and left outdoors over winter. The -stubborn shells are cracked by Jack Frost in such a way as not to injure -the seed, which is the meat of the nut. The nuts are planted in spring -just where the trees are to stand, for it is much better for a walnut -tree never to be transplanted. - -I have heard my grandfather tell how the early settlers in Ohio cleared -the rich bottom land along the rivers. The great trees that had grown, -undisturbed, for centuries, were the “weeds” that had to be cut down and -removed, before the soil could be ploughed and sowed to oats or wheat. -The only way to do this was to burn the trees, by piling them together -and firing the pile, as soon as it was dry enough to burn. The -“log-rollings” were the neighbourhood gatherings, when men brought their -teams and log chains, and worked like Trojans, dragging the logs to the -places selected for the giant bonfires, later on. The women and children -had a grand time, watching the men at work, and preparing the dinner, -which was a feast, and a great social occasion. - -The stump of many a noble black walnut tree, cut down a century ago, has -stood, undecayed, until recent years. So valuable is its wood that these -stumps have been pulled up with expensive machinery, for the -gnarly-grained roots that are still sound. Cut into thin sheets, the wood -is used for veneering furniture. Think how many millions of dollars’ -worth of lumber went up in smoke in those bonfires! Black walnut is -scarce now, and can hardly be bought at any price. - - - THE BUTTERNUT - -The butternut trees are stripped of their fruit in October by boys who -have visions of long evenings, such as Whittier describes in “Snow -Bound,” with nuts and apples and cider, by a roaring fire. Some boys -leave the black walnut trees to others, and fill their bags entirely from -the low, broad butternut trees, that have more nuts in each cluster, and -they are not so hard to reach. Many will say that they are much sweeter -and richer than black walnuts. Others do not care for them because they -are so oily. Indeed, they are called “oil-nuts,” and woe to the youngster -who has eaten “all he wanted”! - -The butternuts are oblong and pointed at one end, and sticky to the -touch, differing in this particular from the globular fruits of the black -walnut. The same clammy feeling makes it unpleasant to touch the leaves -of butternut tree. The resinous sap seems to ooze out through pores along -the hairy leaf veins. - -In summer time, when the fuzzy, green butternuts are scarcely larger than -olives, and their shells are so soft that a knitting-needle goes through -without any trouble, the time for making pickled nuts has come. The -gathering of the clustered green fruit is fun, but as soon as they are -scalded, the “fur” has to be rubbed off of each, before the nuts, husks -and all, are put down in spiced vinegar, to be used as a relish for -serving with meats the following winter. The “furring” usually falls to -the children, and they get very tired, for it is a slow and monotonous -job, whether one uses a coarse towel or a brush. However, it would be -unpleasant to eat a furry nut, no matter how carefully the spicing was -done. - - - THE ENGLISH WALNUT - -The English walnut trees are grown in orchards in Southern California. -These trees are quick to grow, and come early into bearing. When you buy -a pound of these thin-shelled nuts at the corner grocery store, you may -well wonder where they grew. Perhaps little children picked them up under -trees that grow in Italy or in Greece. Fine, large nuts come from France, -but none of them are raised in England. Many of the best nuts are raised -in California, where more and more trees of this kind are planted each -year. They grow in the Southern states, but have never been planted on a -large scale as a commercial nut tree. - -The English walnut tree grows in England, but the nuts never have time to -get ripe in that climate. They are gathered green, and pickled, husks and -all. From English grandmothers we learned to pickle our own butternuts -while the shells are still soft. - -The earliest shipments of the walnuts of Europe came into this country -from England. Probably merchants in London sent them to merchants in New -York. The dealers did not ask where these walnuts grew, but told people -who asked that they came from England. This explains the name by which -everybody now calls them. - -Far back in its history, this tree grew wild in Persia, and on the wooded -hillsides of Asia Minor. The people gathered the nuts for food. It was -the custom of visitors to send presents of these nuts back to their -friends in Europe when they were travelling in the Orient, and discovered -how very good these unknown nuts tasted. Englishmen were among these who -were loud in praise of them. “Walnut,” the name they gave the trees, -means “a nut that comes from a foreign country.” The Greeks had called it -“Jove’s acorn,” for they could not think of any other name good enough. -Kings sent presents of nuts to each other. Then people began to plant -nuts, instead of eating them all, and gradually all the warmer countries -of Europe found they could grow these walnuts. - -The size and quality of the nuts improved under cultivation. Now there -are many varieties, all larger, thinner-shelled, and better-flavoured -than the original wild nuts that still grow in the forests of Asia Minor. - -In the centuries when the countries of Europe were always at war with -their neighbours, another reason for planting walnut trees was -discovered. No wood was so good for gunstocks. No young man could marry -until he had planted a certain number of walnut trees. This was the law -in some countries in the seventeenth century. So multitudes of these -trees were set out. Besides gunstocks, walnut wood was much in fashion -for handsome furniture. A walnut forest was a very profitable crop to -raise, for lumber alone. A tree that bore such nuts, while its trunk was -growing big enough to go to the saw mill was doubly profitable. The -people of the colder countries were ambitious to share in this -prosperity. But an occasional winter of extra severity killed the young -trees. - - - THE CHESTNUT AND CHINQUAPIN - -Next to the hickory nuts, we must rank the chestnuts. Some may give them -first place in the list of American nut trees. In England the chestnut -trees one hears about are never praised for their nuts. English boys and -girls do not eagerly plan for half-holidays spent in the jolly sport of -chestnutting. Their chestnut trees turn out to be very familiar to our -eyes. They are the horse chestnuts that we see so often at home. Their -nuts are handsome enough, and quite worth gathering for use in some -games, and just to have and to handle. But chestnutting! That is one of -the great joys of October in our country, a thing no boy or girl would -miss without bitter disappointment. - -While the leaves turn yellow on the big trees, children and squirrels -have their eyes on the clustered, spiny balls at the ends of the -branches. “Not yet!” is the sign they read as plain as printed words. -Warm days come and go, and the tree holds out its sign, even after the -leaves begin to fall. Father and mother say: “Be patient!” But they do -not remember how hard that is. It is a long time since they were eight -and ten and twelve years old. - -Then a cold night comes, and in the early morning a hoar frost is -disappearing as the sun rises. Four seams can be seen on some chestnut -burs, and the impatient boys throw clubs into the tree tops. But their -fingers are sore with trying to pry the burs open. The nuts are cheesy -and insipid. - -“Just you wait a spell.” This is the advice of John, the raggedy man, who -does the chores. “You can’t hurry up chestnuts. When they’re ready, I’ll -take you where you can get a barrel of ’em, and not kill yourself, nor -ruin your hands gettin’ ’em.” He sees the rising tide of fear before it -is expressed in words, and answers mysteriously: “Nobody knows the place -but me. Let the little fellers an’ the town folks hunt for nuts under the -trees along the road. They’ll get a quart apiece, mebby, if they work -half a day. The place I’m goin’ to, you can scoop ’em up in handfuls.” - -The trees far back from the high road are certainly more generous to the -few who find them than are the more accessible, and therefore more -popular trees. Nobody “scoops them up in handfuls,” literally, for there -are the burs, quite as prickly as before they split their four segments -apart, and let the two or three nuts fall out. Careful and quick motions -are needed to pick up the pointed nuts among the larger burs. But the -game is most absorbing. If the bags fill slowly, there is the consoling -thought that the shells are thin, and the nuts are almost solid meats. -The busy picker stops now and then to sample a few. They certainly are -riper and finer tasting than they were a short week ago. - -Unopened or partly opened husks are often gathered. The nuts will ripen -and roll out on the attic floor, or on the roof of the side porch. Few -parties who go chestnutting content themselves with the loose nuts they -gather. The end of the day is a scramble to fill the bags or baskets with -hulls not yet fully open. Mittens faced with leather or made of canvas -are a good protection for the hands. - -The saddest news from the woods of the Northeast is that a disease that -baffles the tree doctors has attacked and killed all the chestnut trees -in the neighbourhood of the city of New York, and it is marching steadily -westward. It has invaded New Jersey and Pennsylvania. A fungus attacking -the living layer under the bark of a tree is working where no remedy can -reach it. The tree loses vitality, but only when it is far gone does the -disease break through the bark, and show itself as small, yellow pimples -on the smooth bark of the branches. Out of these openings the spores -escape,—minute germs of the disease. The wind scatters them. So do birds, -insects, and squirrels. They lodge in cracks in the bark of other trees. -Only chestnut trees catch the disease, though the germs fall everywhere. -When it progresses far enough to produce a mat of fungus that encircles -the trunk, the tree is girdled, its food supply is cut off, and death -results. - -The chinquapin is a Southern tree, which closely resembles the chestnut. -It is usually shrubby and dwarfed in all of its parts. The nuts are about -as large as our little hazel nuts, and each is alone in a spiny husk that -parts into halves when mature. Five or six of these little burs are often -borne on a single stalk. - -In Arkansas the tree reaches medium size, but in the East it is familiar -as a scrubby tree that sends up suckers from the roots and forms -thickets, like hazel brush. Poor folks in the South have time to gather -these little nuts, which appear on market day in their season in some -cities and towns. They are sweet, and some people think they are better -than chestnuts. - - - THE BEECH - -Least of all the nuts good to eat that grow in our mixed woods is the -fruit of the grey-trunked beeches. In nutting time the beech tree’s crown -of green is almost as clean and bright as in midsummer. The silky leaves -are little torn by the wind. They turn to a beautiful pale yellow, and -become thin and papery as the green pulp is drawn back into the twigs. -Few people see the spiny green burs on the ends of side twigs in summer, -even though the crop of nuts be heavy. In the autumn the brown spiny -husks open. Their four divisions flare outward, and two triangular brown -nuts are released. Almost unnoticed they drop on the ground under the -tree. They are so little that the wind helps to scatter them in the woods -around. The shifting leaf carpet sifts them through, and we shall have to -hunt for them, even under the parent trees. - -I need not tell any boy or girl how good and sweet these beech nuts are, -and how well they repay the trouble of getting the kernels out of the -thin, triangular shells. Yet people gather them less frequently than they -do chestnuts, because it is slow work, and there is more accomplished -under trees whose nuts are larger. - -The early settlers fattened their pigs in autumn by turning them into the -woods. Beech trees made the best possible pasture for this purpose. The -flavour of beech nut bacon is exceptionally delicate, and has an extra -high market value. Squirrels and all of the smaller furry-coats take the -time and trouble to gather and hoard quantities of beech nuts among their -winter stores. - -Fortunate for the beech tree, its nuts will grow even in the shade. We -shall find a fruiting beech tree surrounded by its children—saplings of -all ages, coming up from seeds of various sowings. - -By scratching carefully among the dead leaves in spring, we shall find, -among the gaping burs, the young trees at the very beginning of their -lives. The nuts have slipped down into the damp leaf mould, and the -melting of snow, and the warm spring air have started them growing. The -triangular shell clings to the top of the stem, while the root is getting -a foothold. A pair of broad seed leaves, totally unlike the leaves of the -beech tree, unfold. The spreading of these seed leaves soon splits the -walls of the nut-shell helmet. - -Little beech trees at this age are very weak and helpless, but patient -and struggling. Their pale leaves turn green as the root goes deeper -down, and draws food from the soil. A shoot bearing true beech leaves -rises from the tip, between the seed leaves. The stem straightens, and -grows tall, the seed leaves wither, and, unless it has bad luck, or some -accident befalls it, the little tree is a long, leafy whip by the end of -the season, and under each green leaf is a long bird’s-claw beech bud, -just like those on the parent trees. In these buds are leafy shoots which -will be side branches during the following summer. - -Beech nuts are still one of the main foods of many wild animals. In the -earlier days they had much greater importance, for nuts were one of the -natural foods upon which the human race subsisted before the days when -men became civilised. They depended upon foods which Nature provided, and -ate them without cooking. Acorns served the same important purpose. - -We cannot go back to the days when men lived in caves, and dressed in the -skins of wild animals, and lived upon foods like nuts and berries, and -the flesh of wild beasts. But in camping out we return as closely as -possible to the simple life of these wild ancestors of ours. It is good -to know what foods the forest offers to hungry men and beasts. Some day -we may be lost in the woods. We may come to an oak tree, and attempt to -eat its acorns, but find them bitter. It is well to know that the oaks -with finger-pointed leaves bear acorns that are sweet and good. It is -only the oaks with spiny-lobed leaves whose acorns are bitter and unfit -for food. Beech trees offer no food to a hungry person, unless he knows -how little the nuts are, and how they hide by slipping under the leaves -when they fall. To know trees is delightful at any time, and in any -place. To know them when one is lost in a forest is often the means of -saving one’s life. The forest still feeds the hungry, but only those who -know the trees are able to find these stores of food when they need them. - - - THE WITCH HAZEL - -The witch hazel is indeed the witch of the woods. It turns the year -up-side-down, by blossoming in October, at the same time that it is -ripening its seeds. For this reason every child who lives in a region -where this little tree grows should know the witch hazel. The better -people know it, the more wonderful they find it. It has many odd habits -and secrets, which it will reveal only to those who come and ask -questions, and keep their ears and eyes wide open to catch the answers. - -In spring the witch hazel hides under its green leaves, and attracts no -attention from those who have come out to see the great procession of the -spring flowers, under foot, and over head. It is simply a part of the -undergrowth, a shrubby little tree. But come in October, to the same -place. The acorns are dropping from the oak, the foliage ablaze with -colour, or faded and falling. There are no flowers overhead, but a few -belated asters and goldenrods under foot. Squirrels are busy hiding -winter stores, gathered under the nut trees, and on the wild hawthorns. - -A thicket of witch hazel is slowly dropping its yellowing leaves. You -might not have noticed it at all, had not one of the trees suddenly -called attention to itself by tweaking your ear! It is such a surprise to -feel in the silent woods the sharp sting of a shot from a silent air gun. -You stand still, listening, and feeling of your ear. It is a fine frosty -October day, and still. As you listen, another shot strikes the dead -leaves at your feet. Where do they come from? This question you will -probably not be able to answer at once; but while you are looking in the -bushes from which the missile seemed to come, thinking to rout some joker -from his ambush, you discover the blossoms of the witch hazel. Each one -is waving four little yellow petals, and among these delicate blossoms -the bullet pods are bunched. Some of these are yawning wide open, each -showing two empty seed pockets, but you do not find any seeds. - -Cut a bundle of these things, and carry them home. Put them in a vase of -water. The delicate fragrance of the flowers will go through the house, -and every one will marvel that any tree or bush can be found in blossom -at the very end of the year. Now the strangest thing will happen. Above -the quiet talk around the evening lamp sounds the sharp click, as of a -bit of metal, or a bead striking the wall with considerable force. Every -one sits up to listen. A second click, this time on the glass covering a -picture, is located, and a little black object, smaller than an apple -seed, pointed and tipped with white, is picked up from the floor. It is -this seed which was thrown against the glass; and it does not require a -Sherlock Holmes to prove that it came out of one of the witch hazel seed -pods. If each person takes a twig, and keeps an eye upon the pods, that -show a slight opening, more than one of the pods will be seen when they -burst, and throw their seeds. The warmth of the indoor air springs the -trigger, and the tiny projectiles fly. - -How surprised the squirrels must be when the witch hazel guns are -bombarding the dry leaf carpet of the woods! How much pleasure it gives -you to take your friends to the thicket, and explain to them the meaning -of those scattering shots the pods are firing each crisp autumn day! If -it is rainy weather the pods will all be closed. But let the sun come -out, and dry them, and the game begins again. - -Can any one wonder that witch hazel trees grow in companies? Each little -tree flings its seeds in all directions, and for each seed planted a -little tree may come. Twenty feet from the parent tree the pods are able -to throw their seeds. - -Extract of witch hazel is obtained by boiling twigs and leaves of this -tree in a still with alcohol. The Indians taught white men that this -plant contained a drug which had soothing and curative powers when rubbed -upon sprains and bruises. Whether there is any truth in this notion or -not, the belief is still strong, and people continue to rub extract of -witch hazel on their bruises, even though many doctors say there is -nothing medicinal in it but the alcohol. - -[Illustration: The beech tree opens its two kinds of flowers after the -long, pointed winter buds have opened, and the lengthening shoot has -spread out its leaves.] - -[Illustration: Catkins, staminate and pistillate, of a hornbeam and a -birch; catkins and acorn flowers of an oak] - -In England the witch elm corresponds to our own witch hazel. No one in -the mining regions would dare to sink a shaft for coal unless he had -warrant for doing so from the actions of a divining rod in the hands of a -competent person. In other regions the digging of a well depends upon the -same thing, and this idea prevails in many parts of this country. An old -fellow who can “water witch” may be found in most old-fashioned -communities. If you wish to dig a well, you must call on him to locate -the site. He cuts a y-shaped twig from the witch hazel, trims it, and is -ready for the ceremony. Grasping one of the two tips in each hand, and -holding the main stem erect, he paces over the ground you have chosen. In -his rigid hands the supple twigs waver, and finally the wand bends -downward. This, according to popular belief, is the proper place to find -good water, and plenty of it. The water witch moves away, again holding -the stem erect. He comes back finally, and as he crosses the spot again, -the wand goes down. Now every one is sure that this is the spot, and the -well is dug. If the seer’s prediction comes true, his reputation -improves, and scoffers concede that “there may be something in it, after -all.” In regions where the witch hazel does not grow, a twig of wild plum -tree will do. - - - THE OAK FAMILY - -The fifty kinds of oak trees that are native to America are about evenly -divided on the two sides of the Rocky Mountains. No Western oaks are -found in the Eastern states, and none of our Eastern kinds grows wild on -the other side of the mountains. The backbone of the continent is a bar -that neither group has been able to pass. - -To know fifty different kinds of oaks by sight, so as to call each one by -its right name, is not an easy task; and yet it is not so difficult as it -at first might seem. To begin with, any tree we meet, which bears acorns, -we at once recognise as an oak. By this one sign, we are able to set this -great family apart from every other tree. As soon as they are old enough, -all oaks bear acorns. If a tree which we suspect to be an oak has no -acorn to show us, on or under the tree, a little close looking will -usually find some acorn cups still hanging on, or lying where they fell -upon the ground. - -The leaves of oaks are distinctive. In general, they are all simple, and -their outline is oval. The borders are variously cut by deep or shallow -bays, between sharp points or rounding finger-like lobes. They are -leathery in texture, compared with leaves of most trees. After a little -practice, we learn to recognise oak leaves, no matter how variously cut -their borders may be. - -In spring the flowers of oaks come out with the leaves. A fringe of -catkins at the base of the new shoot is composed of pollen-bearing -flowers. In the angles of the new leaves farther up the stem, we shall -find the little acorn flowers, usually in twos. This is the flower -arrangement of all the oaks; staminate and pistillate flowers on the new -shoots, separate and very different from each other, but always close -together, and always both kinds on each tree. The fringe of catkins falls -as soon as the pollen is shed. Little, red, forked tongues are thrust out -by the pistillate flowers to catch the golden dust when it is flying -through the air, and thus to set seed. All through the summer, the little -acorns are growing. We can find them in their tiny cups in the angles of -the leaves. - -In the autumn the acorns are ripe, and falling. Some trees will show -acorns of two sizes, half-grown ones on the new shoots, and full-sized -ones on the bare twigs, just back of the new shoots. - -This peculiarity divides the oak family into two great groups. One group -is composed of trees which have light-coloured bark, bear a crop every -year, and in winter are bare of fruit. This is known as the White Oak -Group. Its leaves have rounded margin lobes which do not end in sharp -points, as many of the lobes of oak leaves do. - -All of the oaks whose leaves have pointed, spiny lobes on their margin -belong to the Black Oak Group. The bark of these trees is usually -dark-coloured. The acorns require two years of growth. For this reason, -there are half-grown acorns on the tree all winter, waiting for the -second summer to bring them to maturity. Every autumn the acorns which -are ripe are found on the twigs just back of the leafy shoots, which grew -during the past summer. These acorns have completed their second year of -growth. - -When we hear any one speak of annual-fruited and biennial-fruited oaks, -we know that the White Oak and Black Oak Groups are meant. If you see an -oak tree whose leaves are cut into sharp pointed lobes, you will find -acorns of two sizes on its twigs. If you look across the fence and see a -pale-barked oak with finger-lobed leaves, and not a spiny point on their -margins, you will know that acorns of but one size will be found. Fix -these three points in mind. Then study all the oak trees you can find. - - Trees of the White Oak Group have: - 1. Rounded lobes on their leaf margins. - 2. Acorns ripe in a single season. - 3. Pale-coloured bark. - - Trees of the Black Oak Group have: - 1. Spiny-pointed lobes on their leaves. - 2. Acorns requiring two seasons to ripen. - 3. Dark-coloured bark - - - THE WHITE OAK - -Those who know trees best agree that there is no nobler broad-leaved tree -in the American forests than the White Oak. Tree lovers in England have -but one native oak upon which to spend their loyal devotion, the tree -worship inherited from Druid ancestors, whose temples were their sacred -groves of oaks. The same feeling is in our blood, and roused at sight of -an aged white oak, with stout, buttressed trunk, and great horizontal -limbs supporting a rounded dome, much broader than high. - -The tree is grey in winter. It stands bare of leaves, clothed in its -pale, scaly bark. This is the time to study the framework of the dome. -The limbs are twisted and gnarled, and their branches end in dense -thickets of twigs. Each twig bears the winter buds, and five buds are -clustered at the tip of each. - -In spring these buds open, and a leafy shoot comes out of each. At the -base are the yellow, fringed catkins of the sterile flowers, and above -them, in the angles between leaves and twig, the fertile flowers thrust -out forked tongues for pollen. These will be acorns next autumn, if the -pollen falls upon them, and thus sets seed. - -All summer the leaves are green, with pale linings, and when summer ends, -they turn to rich shades of purplish red. The sweet acorns are ripe, and -as they fall, thrifty squirrels are all about, gathering them into their -hidden store-houses for winter use. Plenty of the thin, shallow cups we -shall find, but the kernels are scarce, unless we come when they are -falling in October. - -The Indians taught the early colonists in America to use acorns of this -species for food. They boiled them, like hominy, and found them not only -nourishing, but good to eat. - -If you find solitary white oaks growing here and there in a mixed woods, -you may wonder how they were planted thus. The tree cannot scatter its -own seeds. It depends upon the work of scampering nut-gatherers, in fur -coats, that put away more acorns than they can eat during the long -winter. An acorn that is left over in one of the dark pockets along a -squirrel’s run-way sprouts in the spring, and in a few years it is a -sturdy oak sapling. All oaks are dependent on outside help in planting. - -White oak lumber is very high-priced. The wood of this tree we rarely see -nowadays except in the most expensive oak furniture. The beautiful satiny -streaks that are the chief ornament of the grain in polished table tops, -are bands of fibres that radiate from the central pith to the bark. When -oak is “quarter-sawed,” these _pith rays_, called “mirrors,” show to best -advantage. They are most numerous in the wood of the white oak. - - - THE BUR OR MOSSY-CUP OAK - -The largest acorn I know is the fruit of the bur oak, and it is borne in -a mossy cup, indeed. The cup’s scales are drawn out into long, hairy -points, and those near the rim form a loose fringe. Once in a while you -may find an acorn almost covered up in its husk. But as a rule, the nut -is a little more than half-covered. Sometimes these nuts are two inches -long, but this is not usual. They are over an inch long, and almost as -broad, and the meat is white and sweet. No wonder squirrels harvest the -crop, and young trees spring up wherever an acorn is missed by the hungry -creatures. - -The bur oak is a shaggy tree, for it sheds its bark in big flakes, like -the sycamore. The small branches are stout, and their bark is developed -into corky wings, like the sweet gum. The tree is irregular in shape, -too, its gnarled limbs are thrown out in any direction, and so the top is -often unsymmetrical. But it is a rugged and picturesque tree, in spite of -all its faults, and it adds beauty of an unusual kind to parks and -woodlands. - -In Sioux City, Iowa, an aged bur oak stands in Riverside Park. It is -called “The Council Oak,” for it was a venerable tree in the days when -the Indians lived on the banks of the Missouri River. Under this tree -their chieftains used to meet the white men, and talk over the questions -that interested both. Here treaties were drawn up and signed that kept -peace between the red and white men. - -I promise a great deal of pleasure to any one who plants a mossy-cup -acorn. The seedling tree is wonderfully vigorous in growth. The leaves -are often a foot long in the first years of the tree’s life. The blades -are thick, lustrous above, and woolly lined, the finger lobes irregular, -and two opposite, deep sinuses near the middle of the leaf cut it almost -in two! - -Before the tree is more than a sapling it blossoms and bears big acorns -in their handsome mossy cups. There is no stage in the life of one of -these oaks that is not beautiful and interesting. - -This tree is found from Nova Scotia to Western Texas. It forms forests in -Winnipeg, and “oak openings” in Minnesota and Dakota. It is as much at -home in the hot, arid stretches of the plains of the West and Southwest -as in the raw, damp air of the New England coasts. In the rich valley of -the Ohio River it reached nearly two hundred feet in height in the virgin -forests. - -Unlike many oaks, it may be safely transplanted while young. - - - THE LIVE OAK - -The citizen of New Orleans takes his Northern visitors to Audubon Park, -and points with pride to the giant live oak trees. He does not hesitate, -for he knows that the noble pair called “George Washington,” and “Martha -Washington,” though crippled now by tornadoes, are more noted the country -over than any monument or building in this famous old city. In Charleston -and other Southern cities it is the same. Famous old live oaks adorn the -parks and avenues, and the same trees are planted year by year to take -the places of the veterans when age and storms shall make an end of their -long lives. - -These trees wear a crown of green throughout the year. The leaves last -but one year, but they cling to the twigs and remain green until they are -gradually pushed off by the opening of new leafy shoots. In spring the -new leaves are much brighter than the darker old ones. Everywhere the -trees are draped with the sage-green ropes of “Spanish moss,” which is -not a moss at all, but a flowering plant that steals its living by -lodging its roots in crevices in the bark of trees. - -The live oak acorns are dainty, dark-brown nuts, set in hoary, -long-stemmed cups. Each year there is a good crop of acorns, and they are -sweet, and pleasant to the taste. The Indians depended upon them for -food, roasting or boiling them. They also skimmed the boiling pot to -collect the oil, which the early colonists said was much like oil of -almonds. - -The “knees of oak” that early ship-builders used to brace the sides of -vessels, were taken from live oak trees, where the great boughs spring -out from the short, stout trunks. This natural joint is better than any -bolted union of two pieces of timber. The scarcity of these trees makes -it impossible now to supply these knees, but no steel frame serves the -purpose quite so well. The wood is as beautiful as white oak for the -making of handsome furniture, though it splits more easily, and is harder -for the cabinet-maker to use. - -The tree grows throughout the South to Texas; also in Mexico, and Lower -California. Its Northern limit is Virginia. - -A friend who has for a near neighbour the majestic McDonough Oak, -patriarch among the noble live oaks of the Audubon Park, New Orleans, -writes interestingly of the habits of this species. - -“The live oak sheds its leaves _in the spring_, just before the new -leaves open. So, for a brief time the tree stands leafless. In this -period, however, the tree puts out catkins in great abundance, so that -the tree does not appear bare. These catkins are light brown, and have a -soft, velvety appearance, and a tree has an absolute change of colour. -During this blossom time the splendid form of the trunk and the great -limbs is revealed. When the new leaves appear, the framework of branch -and bough is concealed by leafage so dense as to be impenetrable to sun -or eye. The tree is a symmetrical, shining green dome. The crown of the -McDonough oak is over two hundred feet in diameter.” - - - THE POST OAK - -The post oak, a small, rugged tree, is noticeable in winter, because its -leaves usually hang on until the open buds in spring push them off. The -colour of this winter foliage is yellowish brown, and not at all striking -nor beautiful. The bark is brown and deeply furrowed. The twigs wear a -yellow fuzz. The leaves are coarse, stiff and rough, four to five inches -long, tapering from three broad, squarish lobes to a narrow base, and a -short leaf stalk. They are lined with brownish wool, and are dark green -and shining above in summer. - -The acorns of the post oak are borne in a plentiful annual crop. Each is -dainty and trim, in a shallow cup of loose, blunt-pointed scales. The -kernel is sweet. In the days when wild game roamed the woods, wild -turkeys fattened on these acorns, and some people call the tree the -“turkey oak.” - -Another name for this tree is “iron oak,” for its wood is hard, and -heavy, and close-grained. It makes admirable posts and railroad ties, -because it does not rot in contact with water. It is used in -boat-building, and for barrel staves. “Knees” of post oak (the angles -between trunk and branch) form most admirable timbers to be used in the -framework of boats. - - - THE SWAMP WHITE OAK - -The swamp white oak is a rugged and ragged tree, with drooping branches -and crooked twigs, covered with greyish brown bark which peels in thin -flakes from branches and trunk. This habit of shedding its bark in -irregular plates reminds us strongly of the sycamore, which carries this -habit to excess. The leaves of this oak are large, wedge-shaped at the -base, wavy-toothed or lobed, and broadening towards the tips. They are -dark green above, and lined with white down. The acorns are borne in -pairs on long stems. The oval nut is hairy at its tip, and sits in a -rough cup made of scales, sometimes fringed at the border. The kernel is -sweet and eatable, not only for beasts, but for man. If one were lost in -the woods, he need not starve nor die of thirst, if he is near a stream, -and can get the fruit of a swamp white oak, which stands by the water -side. He will do well to make a fire, and roast the acorns, which will -improve their nutty flavour, and make them more digestible. - -This white oak is more beautiful in May than at any other season of the -year. The young leaves are pale green, and the tree top is illuminated by -the silky hairs that line them. The whiteness of the down is dimmed as -summer advances. In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, but never red. - -The wood of this oak is not distinguished in the lumber trade from any -other white oak. The demand for it for the building of houses and boats, -and for agricultural implements and vehicles, is greater than the supply. -It is too expensive now to be used as it was a few years ago, for fuel, -railroad ties, and fence posts. - - - THE CHESTNUT OAK - -The chestnut oak has leaves which are much like those of the chestnut -tree. They are larger, and wider, however, and have rounded lobes at the -ends of the side veins, making a very regular wavy margin, compared with -that of most oak leaves. The lining is often silky, and always much paler -than the upper surface. This tree is an exception to the rule that the -annual-fruited oaks have pale bark. This one has bark so dark in colour -that it is often mistaken for one of the Black Oak Group, although its -wavy leaf margins, and its annual crop of acorns, prove it to belong to -the White Oak Group. - -The acorns are very long, and smooth, and they sit in thin cups lined -with down, and covered with small swollen scales. They are usually borne -alone on short stems. This is one of the largest and sweetest acorns. The -squirrels pack them among their winter’s stores. - -The wood of chestnut oak is hard, and strong, and durable in contact with -the soil. The bark is especially rich in tannic acid. For this reason -many of the finest trees yield only tan bark, because the peelers take -the bark, and leave the log to fall a prey to forest fires. - - - THE BLACK OAK - -The black oak, which gives its name to the large group of -biennial-fruited oaks, is one of our handsome, sturdy forest trees. It -grows from Maine to Florida, and west to Minnesota, Kansas, and Eastern -Texas. Its bark is very dark grey or brown, and thick, with rough, broken -ridges and deep furrows. Under this outer layer is a yellow belt, rich in -tannin. This gives the tree the name “yellow oak,” and since its bark is -valuable in tanning leather, it is some times called the “tan bark oak.” - -The tree is not graceful nor symmetrical, but there is a picturesqueness -and strength about it that redeems its coarseness and irregularity. This -species would be planted oftener for shade, were there not so many -beautiful oaks to choose from. In the wild, however, a giant black oak is -a noble feature of the landscape. - -In early spring the large downy winter buds begin to swell, and soon the -leaves push rapidly out. The whole tree top flushes crimson in the -sunshine. The red glow is from the crinkly, half-awake baby leaves, whose -brilliance is softened by a silky covering of white hairs. In a day the -leaves turn green, and most of their silky covering is shed. - -The bloom of the black oak consists of a fringe of yellow catkins at the -base of each shoot, and pairs of red-tongued acorn flowers in the angles -of some of the leaves. Back of the new shoot the half-grown acorns of the -previous season are seen. In autumn the new crop is well along and the -full-grown acorns, which have taken two seasons to ripen, are ready to be -shed. Each kernel sits in a straight-sided cup of loosely shingled -scales, which form a fringe at the margin. The kernel is bitter, and -yellow, as it is in most of the species of the Black Oak Group. - -[Illustration: Leaves, mossy-cup acorns and warty twigs of the bur oak] - -[Illustration: The horizontal limbs of the pin oak form a regular -pyramidal head] - -The large, downy, pointed buds of this oak will often determine its name -for us when we are confused by the shapes of the leaves. Often the red -oak and the black oak “run together” in their leaf forms. To determine -the tree’s name we must call in the buds, the acorns, and their cups, and -the general shape of the trees, and consider all these points together. - -Black oak leaves are thick, coarse, and leathery. Crumple one in your -hand, and you cringe at the harsh scratching noise it makes. They vary -from four to ten inches in length, and from two to six inches in breadth. -The margins are deeply cut into seven or nine broad, bristly-toothed -lobes, with rounded bays between. The upper surface is dark green in -summer, shining and smooth, or sometimes hairy. The lining is brownish -and a remnant of the scurfy down is found in the neighbourhood of the -veins. In autumn these leaves turn brownish-yellow, but rarely show a -tinge of red. - -The bark of black oak is stripped and carried to the tan-yards. Or it -furnishes a yellow dye, used in the printing of calicoes. The wood is -used in house-building, and in the manufacture of furniture. - - - THE RED OAK - -The red oak is the tree most likely to be mistaken for the black oak. The -bark is brown, with a decided red tinge. The twigs are also reddish, and -the wood is red-brown. The inner bark has the same tinge instead of the -orange-coloured lining the black oak bark has. - -The red oak is a large, stately tree, sometimes 150 feet in height, and -far more symmetrical than the black oak. Its leaves vary greatly in the -depth of their marginal clefts, but in general they are oval in outline, -and their lobes and sinuses are triangular. These lobes always point -forward, rather than outward, along the sides of the leaf, and they -always end in the sharp, spiny points that belong to the leaves of all -the trees that fall into the Black Oak Group. Red oak leaves are thinner -than those of black oak, and not so harsh when crumpled in the hand. -Their linings are pale green and smooth in summer. Their autumn colour is -deep red. - -The buds of the red oak are pointed, smooth, reddish, and about -one-fourth of an inch long. They are much smaller, and lack the down of -the buds of the black oak. - -Red oak acorns are the most distinct feature of this species. They are -large, often over an inch in length, and broad, and they sit in saucers, -instead of cups. These saucers are made of close scales, and they curl in -closely at the top as if to tighten their hold on the nut, which extends -two-thirds its height above this rim. The kernel is white, and extremely -bitter. - - - THE SCARLET OAK - -The scarlet oak need not be confused with either the red or black oaks, -for it is a far more dainty tree than either in its trim trunk, graceful -curving branches, very slim twigs, and deeply cut leaves. In form, these -leaves are oval, but so much of the “cloth” is cut away by the four or -six deep bays along the sides that a small amount of green is left to do -leaf duty. The slender lobes are strengthened by the branching veins, -each of which ends in a spiny point. These almost skeleton leaves are -beautifully lustrous and thin, a trifle paler beneath and sometimes hairy -tufted at the veins. They are rarely six inches long, and the side lobes -sometimes measure five inches from tip to tip. The leaf stems are long -and flexible, and the whole tree top is as light and feathery and -tremulous in a breeze as that of a honey locust or a willow. In autumn -the scarlet oak blazes like a torch above the duller reds and browns of -the woods, and keeps its brilliancy later than any other oak. - -The acorn differs from the black oak in being smaller and daintier, and -in having its cup drawn in tightly at the rim. The scales are smooth and -close-pressed; the kernel white and bitter. - - - THE PIN OAK - -The pin oak has foliage much like the scarlet oak, but coarser and not so -lustrous. Often a pin oak tree has leaves that approach the red oak in -form, and these lead to confusion, if leaves alone are consulted in -determining the name of the tree. There are better signs in any pin oak -that set it apart from its larger-leaved relative. Consult the acorns. -They are plump little nuts, as broad as long, rarely measuring one-half -inch either way, pale brown, streaked with black in straight lines, down -from the pointed tips, and they sit in shallow, saucer-like cups made of -close reddish scales. As they fall, the nuts roll out of the cups, which -are lined with hair. The kernel is white and bitter and yet, late in -winter, it is very common to find them gnawed open by some hungry little -four-foot, whose winter store threatens to run short. - -The pin oak takes its name from the fact that its branches are thickly -set with short, pin-like twigs, many of which die but do not fall. These -stubs stay on for several years. This fact alone will soon enable us to -recognise the tree from a distance. No other species is so close-twigged, -and the symmetrical form of this tree is very striking in the winter. It -is a pyramid with many small branches thrust out horizontally from the -main shaft. Below the middle of the tree, the long branches have a -downward thrust, and the lowest ones often sweep the ground. Above the -middle of the tree the branches are horizontal, and they gradually become -shorter, and the tree ends in a pointed tip. There is no oak that I know -which has so much the pyramidal form of evergreens like the firs, -hemlocks, and spruces. - -On the avenues of the city of Washington, we shall find superb double -rows of American trees. On one which leads to the Navy Yard, I remember -the beautiful pin oaks, uniform in size, perfect in symmetry, that stood -in a double row along the sides of the avenue. To the crowds of tourists -who visit the capital city every year, I hope that this will be an object -lesson. In most towns and cities every owner plants the trees he likes in -front of his house, so our streets and avenues present a mixture of trees -of all ages, sizes, kinds, and conditions. The better way is for the city -to plant the same tree in double lines, the whole length of a street, as -has of late years been done in Washington. One needs only to see these -trees coming on, each year adding beauty and dignity to the city, to -realise that such planting may be done easily anywhere in the country, -where trees as beautiful as the pin oaks grow wild. - - - THE WILLOW OAK - -A Southern tree with slender twigs and narrow leaves like those of a -willow, surprises us by bearing acorns! It is the willow oak, a -beautiful, graceful tree for shade and for avenue planting. The tree -naturally chooses wet ground, but it thrives where the soil is deep and -well drained. I remember a fine large willow oak in John Bartram’s garden -in Philadelphia, and a young tree in the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. This -little one grows rapidly, but the frost nips its twigs in the winter. The -species grows wild from New York southward, just back from the sea coast, -to Texas. In swampy land, it is found from Missouri southward. - -Willow oak acorns are downy, yellow-brown, and set in shallow -saucer-shaped cups. The kernel is orange-yellow, and bitter. Half-grown -acorns are found with the ripe ones on these trees, and the dark, rough -bark agrees with others of the Black Oak Group. Though the leaves have -rarely a side lobe, but are mostly narrow and plain-margined, the tip -ends in a spine, as all black oak leaves should. - - - TREES WITH WINGED SEEDS - -Why do the trees grow in such mixed groves, when Nature does the -planting? Here and there we find solid groves of beech or oak, but the -forest is, for the most part, a gathering together of all kinds of trees. -A part of the beauty of any woodland is this variety in the planting. -Under a tall oak we find a hornbeam, and under this the witch hazel, and -under the witch hazel, a carpet of low woodland plants. We may walk in a -straight line, or follow a woodland path a mile, and find every tree we -meet is different from all the rest. - -Many reasons explain the order in which Nature plants forests. One of the -best of these is found in the kind of seeds trees bear. We shall find -that trees most widely scattered are those whose seeds are winged. It is -not hard to find, from May until far past midwinter, trees bearing light, -winged seeds. All through the summer, the wind is busy sowing the seeds -of the early-fruiting trees. In autumn, and all through the winter, the -sowing of the larger crop goes on. - -Let us begin our study with the maples, whose winged seeds every child -knows. From the silver maple, whose seeds are dry before the first of -June, there is a procession of ripening maple seeds that lasts throughout -the year. A high wind shakes off the silver maple’s keys in showers in -late May. Watch those in the tree-tops. The wind has a better chance up -there. Each key, loosening from its twig, turns round and round in a -dizzy whirl, and sails away still whirling as it falls, the heavy seed -end always pointed downward. A tree is soon stripped, and the ground -littered under it. But a great deal larger area than the tree’s shadow -has the seeds scattered over it: the stronger the wind, the further these -seeds go. Before the summer is over, a crop of little maple trees springs -up from this sowing. - -The red maple’s scarlet seed clusters turn brown, and the little winged -seeds take flight in June. Lighter and smaller, they are carried longer -distances than the seeds of the silver maple, and a crop of little red -maples follows this June sowing of the trees. - -I remember walking in a corn field in late June; the corn had been last -ploughed a month before. Among the weeds that had grown up in this short -time was a crop of young red maples, now six inches high. It was amazing -to see these little trees grow so plentifully in a cultivated field. I -looked for the seed tree, and there it stood on the edge of the field, -the only maple tree in sight. A few young trees were growing in the -matted grass of the roadside under the tree, but the great crop was from -the seeds that flew out to the mellow ground between the corn rows. The -disappointed seeds, those which fell and did not grow, were under the -tree and in the dusty road. - -In the autumn the hard maple, which we call the sugar maple, ripens its -winged seeds. So does the three-leaved box elder (which is a maple) and -the Norway maple, now a very familiar street tree. The wind takes its -time, and the trees stubbornly hang on to their seeds, so that these -maples are busy all winter with the sowing. Every day they give up a few, -and many seeds that fall on the snow are picked up, again and again, by -the wind and thus carried further and further away. - -The maple seed, with its curiously one-sided wing, is the sign by which -the maple family is easily recognised. Other trees have winged seeds, but -none have the peculiar form of this one. - -All summer long we may know the trees that belong to the ash family by -the clusters of pale green darts that hang among their leaves. These are -the ash seeds. Each one is a pointed seed case, containing the embryo -plant, and out behind it extends the thin, light, two-edged wing. There -is no one-sidedness to this blade. The seed is winged, but balanced like -a dart. When the wind loosens one from the wiry stem, it goes like an -arrow, seed downward. If there is a gale blowing, the seed may be caught -up and borne far away in the upper air, before a lull lets it take a -downward course, and drive its point into a snowbank, or into the ground. -This little feathered arrow may be long or short, depending upon whether -it belongs to the red ash, the white ash, or the black; but there is no -mistaking an ash tree for any other, once the form of an ash seed is -fixed in the mind. - -I have said that a maple seed is shaped like that of no other tree. I -must describe here the seeds of the needle-leaved evergreens, which, -though very much smaller, are somewhat like maple seeds in form. Go to a -pine tree or a spruce, and get one of the cones that has begun to spread -its scales apart. Shake the cone over a piece of paper. If nothing comes -out from between the scales, cut or break the cone open with knife or -hatchet. Under each scale will be found two seeds, each with a thin, -one-sided wing. Spruces, hemlocks, firs, and arbor vitæs, all have this -same type of seed, hid away in the same fashion, under the protecting -scales of their cones. Do you understand how the wind, blowing through -the tops of evergreens, shakes the winged seeds from their places, and -carries them far away? Do you understand why the ripe cones of these -trees hang on so stubbornly, and spread their scales to allow the seeds -to escape? - -It is a peculiarity of the firs that they hold their cones erect. It -would seem hard for the wind to get at the seeds, but the fir cones let -their scales fall, and when they loosen, the seeds are freed. - -Out of the balls of the sweet gum tree, which dangle on the twigs all -winter, the wind shakes little winged seeds, not unlike those of the -pines. - -Do you know the catalpa’s long, green pods that hang all summer on the -top of trees? They are longer than the newest lead pencil, and show no -signs of splitting, until the autumn. Now, the two halves of the pod -spread apart, and gradually the thin seeds shake out. Each one is in the -centre of a thin, fringed wing, that looks as if made of tissue paper. -The wind can carry these ghostly seeds for miles. Indeed, it is strange -that they ever come to the ground, for they seem to have no thickness nor -weight at all. - -The birches all bear their seeds in cones, some long and pencil-like, -others quite the shape of a pine cone. Under each quaintly notched scale -of the cone, a seed is borne; and each heart-shaped seed has a thin rim, -which acts like a wing, catching the wind as the seed falls. We shall -look far in the woods before we find seeds daintier in form, or better -sailors through the air, than those of all the birch family. - -The hop hornbeam has a hop-like cluster of seeds, each in an inflated -papery bag. When the leaves drop in the fall, the wind has a chance to -pick off these little paper seed balloons, one at a time, from the -clusters. Take off one of these little bags, open it, and you will find, -set in the bottom, the shiny, pointed seed. It is likely to have a long -journey, if there be a good breeze, before its bag is punctured. - -Back to early May again, when the elm trees are green with their fruit -clusters, before the leaves are fully out. Elm trees grow scattered -through the woods, and no wonder: the seeds have papery rims, and the -wind catches these little falling discs, and scatters them far from the -tree where they were born. - -The ailanthus tree, whose long, fern-like leaves make it look like a tree -from the Tropics, is sowing its seeds all winter, with the help of the -wind. Examine one. In the middle of a slim blade is the little seed. The -blade is twisted as it ripens, and it sails through the air with a -tilting, uncertain flight. After a look at a bunch of these seeds, and -after throwing a handful of them out of an upper window, and watching -them as they sail away, we shall understand how it is that ailanthus -trees spring up in most unexpected places, year after year. And we shall -bless the breeze that plants such trees along the hot pavements, and in -the ugly back alleys of towns and cities, where few trees are able to -grow at all. - - - TREE SEEDS THAT HAVE PARACHUTES - -It is a thrilling moment when the man who goes up with the balloon lets -go at last, and drops to the ground. Before he drops, an umbrella-like -parachute opens, and by its aid, he comes to the ground gracefully, -slowly, and alights unhurt. Should anything go wrong with his parachute -he would drop to his death, so every onlooker is anxious as he comes -down, and breathes a sigh of relief when the wonderful feat is -accomplished. - -Seeds with wings sail away on the wind, and seeds with parachutes descend -so slowly and gracefully that the winds carry them far out of their -courses. The trees most fortunate in scattering their seeds, and thus -colonising new territory, have peculiar devices. - -The seeds of the basswood hang in clusters attached to a narrow, -leaf-like blade. This is a parachute, by which the whole cluster is able -to sail away on a good breeze. There is no seed parachute like this among -our forest trees. By this sign alone we may know the basswood trees. - -The balls of the sycamore bump against the branches, and tiny seeds with -hairy parachutes are loosened and scattered. Each is a minute spike, -which might drop to the ground, but for the umbrella-like parachute made -of a brush of fine hairs. By this, the wind lifts the seed, and carries -it away. - -Willow seeds, and those of the poplar, are almost too small to be seen. -Each seed is hid in a dainty fluff of white cotton, and in this the seed -rides. We may miss seeing these trees in fruit, unless we look at the -down which accumulates in June on the screens of windows and doors. The -air is full of the fluffy stuff when the pods open. In a few days this -harvest is over, and we may find the empty pods on the ground under our -neighbour poplars, cottonwoods, and willows. - -The blue beech, or hornbeam, has a parachute which is leafy, and crinkled -so as to look almost like a little boat. The shiny seed sits in one end, -and when it gets free, it has a fine long sail through the air before it -settles to the earth. - -There are wings and parachutes on the seeds of other trees. When you find -them you may know that the wind is the partner of the tree, by robbing it -of its children. The wind is saving those children from death, which -would have been their fate, if they fell on the ground under the shadow -of the parent tree. If all the fields that adjoin the woods were left -uncultivated for a few years they would grow up to forests. We know the -name of the sower, who gathers seeds in the woods, and plants them; who -is busy all the year at the endless work of the harvest and the sowing. - - - THE AUTUMN BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -In the roadside thickets, as the summer wanes, the berry clusters of the -shrubby viburnums turn red, and soften, and in September change to a -vivid, or a dark blue. They are very pretty on their coral red stems, and -look like little plums. Indeed, they are not unpleasant to taste, but it -is the birds who delight in these sweetish, juicy berries, and we are -willing that they should have them all. The names, sheepberry and -nannyberry, are given to these little trees, because sheep are said to -browse on the foliage and shoots in spring. - -The blue berries of the sassafras, also on coral red stems, are not -unlike those of the viburnums in appearance, but fewer in a cluster. The -birds take them eagerly before they are fully ripe. To leave them until -they ripen would be to lose them to other birds. - -[Illustration: Cone fruits of (1) a birch, (2) a pine, (3) a magnolia, -and (4) a fir] - -[Illustration: Clusters of the winged seeds of hornbeam and white ash] - -The dogwood berries are redder than the whorl of leaves that surround the -fruit clusters in early October. These waxy berries have taken the place -of the central cluster of small flowers, which were surrounded in spring -by the four large, white bracts. - -It is the birds who first accept the invitation of these little trees. -The migrating hosts turn southward in September, and in October the bird -procession is in full swing. We hear them overhead, often so high in air -that we cannot see them. Tired of the long flight, they descend for food -and water, and if the neighbourhood has many fruiting dogwood trees, the -joy of the winged voyagers is correspondingly great. In a surprisingly -short time the hungry birds have taken the last one. - -Far in the winter we shall find red berries glowing in clusters on the -mountain ash trees, among the evergreen holly leaves, and in conical -spikes on the sumachs. The winter birds ignore these dry, insipid seeds, -until everything else is gone. Frequently, when winter snows cover up all -other foods, the berries of these two trees stand between the birds and -actual starvation. So it happens that many a mountain ash is stripped of -its fruit during the early days of March, and the holly berries which -have glowed red all winter disappear for the same reason. The sumachs are -rarely stripped as closely as the other two. - -In September the hackberry hangs full of its sugary fruits. It is -surprising to find a tree which looks like an elm, yet bearing soft, -purple berries. But this, we shall learn, is the hackberry’s way. Under -each leaf a long thread grows, on the end of which is a single, oblong -berry, the size of a pea, but not the same shape. The fruit hangs on late -into the winter, if the birds will permit such a thing, and it is a -grateful supply of food to birds that winter in the North. If there were -no other reason for planting hackberry trees, they are worth having as -fruit trees for the refreshment of birds. - -The autumn colour of hackberry leaves is yellow. The purple fruits make -little show, until the leaves fall. The bark of the tree is its chief -peculiarity. On the trunk it is deeply checked into small, thick, warty -plates. The branches are often ridged and broken into warty excrescences -that stand close together. - -The leaves are peculiar. There is no other tree that has not a main vein, -or a rib, which prolongs the leaf stem straight to the tip. The hackberry -leaf stem divides into three equal branches at the base. The two side -branches are shorter than the middle one, but their size is unusual. - -It is in autumn, of course, that the hackberry earns its name, -sugarberry. The bark will guide us to the tree at any season. The leaves -fix in mind another important family trait. The berries we may safely -taste to find out if they are as sugary as we are led to expect. - -Nettle tree is the common name of the European hackberry. You may have -read of the lotus-eaters, who, tasting the sweet fruit of this little -tree, straightway forgot their native land, and could not be persuaded to -return. The wood is tough and peculiarly adapted to make the handles of -hayforks, and similar agricultural implements. Young trees are grown for -these uses. The roots remain alive and send up suckers, slender but tall. -These are cut for walking sticks, whipstocks, and ramrods for guns. Older -trees furnish wood, as hard as box or holly, and beautiful as satinwood -when polished. This is a material which the wood-carvers delight to use. -The tree is widely planted for shade, and its leaves are used as fodder -for cattle. - -Bad as its reputation is, according to the tradition that its fruit had -power to rob men of their patriotism, yet this is one of the most useful -little trees. It grows easily, and is contented on land that is worthless -for other purposes. - -Besides the hackberry, another big tree in our woods bears a crop of -purple berries in September. That is the wild black cherry. The bark of -this tree is dark brown and shining, and satiny smooth on the branches. -It breaks on the trunk into rough, squarish plates, which curl -horizontally at the edges. The plates still retain the silky outer bark, -whose fibres run crosswise, and whose surface has many slit-like, -horizontal breathing holes. - -We are strongly reminded of the birches, especially the cherry birch, -which has dark-coloured bark, and has its name from its resemblance to -this tree. The thin young bark of the black cherry curls in a very -birch-like fashion. One difference is very marked. The bark of the cherry -is bitter, with the flavour of the pit of a peach or cherry. Birch bark -is pleasantly aromatic in flavour. - -The fruit of the black cherry is more plentiful than that of the -hackberry. The close-set side shoots on the new twigs end in fruit -clusters two or three inches long, and often containing a dozen berries -each. The sweet pulp is flavoured with the bitter taste of cherry pits, a -flavour found in the sap of this tree. Nibble the bark, or a bit of -cherry wood, a leaf, or the tip of the root, and you get the same Prussic -acid taste. - -I do not like wild black cherries, but many people do. Children and birds -seem not to notice the bitter with the sweet. They eat the berries as -soon as they change colour, with evident enjoyment. - -Cherry brandies and cordials are made from the fruit by people who rely -upon old-fashioned home remedies. These are the people who chew the -bitter opening buds of the wild cherry in spring, as they drink sassafras -tea, believing that spring is the time to clear the blood, and that -Nature offers free remedies far better than they can buy in bottles. - -We cannot wonder that wild cherry trees spring up in the woods, in fence -corners, and along roadsides. The birds are feasting in the trees each -autumn, and until the last berry is taken. They are the sowers of the -seed. - -Our greatest objection to the wild cherry is the fact that its shining -young leaves are regarded by the apple tree tent caterpillars as -particularly good. When the white blossom clusters deck this tree in May, -we often see a web of white silk wrapping together some of the upper -branches. Day by day the web is extended, and the twigs are stripped of -their leaves by the host of caterpillars which return at night to the -tent, and range more widely in the day time. When the tent is as large as -a peach basket, it is found empty, for the caterpillars have descended to -the ground, spun their cocoons, and will soon emerge as winged moths, to -lay their eggs, from which later broods of caterpillars come. The winged -females are very likely to seek the nearest orchard, and lay their eggs -in bands around apple twigs. Many an otherwise harmless roadside wild -cherry is a deadly menace to an orchard because it breeds the insects, -which, in a second generation, become a serious pest among the apple -trees. - -In the forest the lumberman is glad to find wild black cherry trees of -large size. The lumber is very valuable for interior finish of houses, -and for furniture. It is hard, and close-grained, and dark reddish-brown -in colour, with a lustre, when polished, that puts it in the class with -mahogany and rosewood. It is more often used nowadays as a veneer on -cheaper woods. Parlour cars and steamships, and fine houses are very -often finished in cherry. The small limbs and other bits of the lumber -are utilised for tool handles and for inlay work. The wood is too -valuable to waste. - -The largest berry that grows on a tree in the woods of the United States -is the persimmon. We should mistake this berry for an apple, perhaps, -when we see it for the first time—a little, orange-brown apple, one to -two inches in diameter. But there is no core such as apples have, though -there are from one to a dozen seeds in each fruit. - -The persimmon tree is tall, with a handsome round head, and zig-zag, -twisted branches. It grows from Rhode Island west to Kansas and south to -Florida and Texas. It is found scattered in mixed woods, and comes up in -fence rows and in abandoned fields wherever the seeds have been dropped. -Light, sandy soil is this tree’s preference. Although it is a relative of -the ebony of Ceylon, our persimmon is not an important lumber tree. Its -wood is hard, dark-brown in colour, and is used for shoe lasts, tool -handles, and various other small articles. - -In the South the persimmon ranks among the choicest of fruit trees. The -negro and the possum await the ripening of the ’simmons with eager eyes, -and the Southerner, born and bred, confesses an equal interest in this -native fruit. There is a long waiting period between the time when the -persimmons change colour from green to reddish-yellow and the time when -the frost mellows and sweetens the pulp, and takes away the harsh, -puckery taste which draws the lips and chokes the throat as if the fruit -were a lump of alum. The Northerner who judges by its appearance only, -dares to taste this fruit before it is ripe. He cannot be persuaded to -try it again. And he cannot understand the enthusiasm for persimmons that -all people in the South feel. - -A ’simmon tree, when the fruit is ripe, belongs to the first comer. The -negro and the opossum come into direct competition for the fruit of this -tree. You might think the negro would kill the opossum, and be rid of his -rival. He knows too much for that. “’Possum an’ ’simmons come together, -and bofe is good fruit.” Better divide the ’simmons with the ’possum and -his family. Then get the fat ’possum for the Christmas dinner. There is -no ’possum like the one that is fattened on persimmons, so it pays to be -patient and leave the beast his share of the fruit. - -In a hollow tree, or a woodpile, the opossums sleep by day, and trail out -in companies to climb the persimmon trees at night to feast. They hang by -their tails on the branches, or prop themselves in crotches of the limbs -within easy reach of the soft, sugary berries. The fatter they get, the -lazier they are; and as the season advances, and the fruit falls, the -opossums are likely to satisfy their appetites with the persimmons they -can pick up under the trees. Along about Thanksgiving day, or Christmas, -the day of reckoning arrives, when the negro hunter comes home with the -opossums which have stolen his persimmons. The whole score is wiped out -by the opossum feast, which suitably closes the season. - -Persimmons improve, the longer they hang upon the trees. As late as -January or February, little trees scarcely a dozen feet high, which have -been overlooked in the ’simmon harvest, are found to be still hung with -fruits exceptionally large and fine. To the hungry and thirsty hunter, -prowling for quail in the underbrush, these unexpected fruits are a -delightful surprise. They are delicious, sugary lumps, rich in flavour, -and juicy, taking away both hunger and thirst, and leaving no after-taste -that is bitter or puckery, suggesting their unripe stage. - -Japanese persimmon trees, whose fruit is larger and better in every -respect than our native species, have been successfully introduced into -California and the Southern states. These persimmons look like great ripe -tomatoes as we see them on the fruit stands, but these, too, must wait -until they are thoroughly ripe before they are fit to eat. - - - THE CHANGING COLOUR OF THE AUTUMN WOODS - -All through the autumn, when the wonderful colours come in the forest -leaves, we shall see the green of these leaves creeping back along the -veins. The horse chestnut leaves tell a very interesting story. They turn -brown first upon the edges. If we watch a single leaf for a whole week in -September, we may see the green gradually draw in towards the central -stem, and the brown papery borders widen, just as if something were -squeezing and crowding the pulp of the leaf, inch by inch, back through -the leaf stem into the twig. The last traces of green linger along the -sides of the veins, and before it falls, even these leaf channels will be -drained dry. - -When the leaves of a sugar maple give up their pulp there are wonderful -changes inside each leaf. A yellow liquid fills the cells where the green -pulp used to be. Chemical changes in the mineral substances deposited in -the leaf cells produce wonderful shades of red and yellow, which glow -where once the leaf was solid green. Iron is one of the minerals brought -up in the soil water, left in the leaf, and changed to produce the bright -red when the leaf mask of green is taken away. - -The scarlet maple remembers its name in the autumn days. It puts on a -cloak more brilliant perhaps than the sugar maple, which has a good deal -of orange as well as red in its autumn foliage. The scarlet oak is -amazingly brilliant; so is the sassafras and the sweet gum. The tupelo, -or sour gum, also called the pepperidge, has foliage that is splashed and -streaked with various shades of red and yellow. Each little leaf is so -brilliantly polished that the tree’s beauty and colour seem to be doubled -by reflection. The sumachs of the roadside thickets wear foliage of -scarlet, each leaf drooping away from the fruit pyramid which rises, a -deeper crimson, on the end of each upright shoot. The foliage and the -fruit together make a colour harmony that is dazzling, indeed. - -In contrast with its umbrellas of red leaves are the scarlet berry -clusters of the flowering dogwood. This tree has the habit of snuggling -up against the trunk of large forest trees and reaching its white flowery -arms out to us in spring. How wonderful they are, on the edge of the -woods, with the green leaves of the larger trees making a background for -their flowers! In the autumn the same surprise awaits us, when under a -towering tree with yellow or russet foliage, the dogwood leaps up like a -scarlet flame, against its dark background, holding straight out its -platformed branches of red leaves, tipped with berries, like rubies, set -on the upturned twigs. - -Often the trees are stripped by birds before the berries are ripe. It is -in woods where the trees are numerous that we shall find the fruit -reaching its perfection of ripeness and colour. - -Among the trees that turn to purple in the autumn we may name the white -oak and the ashes. Many oaks turn from green to russet, without showing -any red or yellow. The lindens and the tulip trees and the beeches turn -yellow; so do the poplars and willows, the hickories, and walnuts. Up and -down the street you may see the yellow crowns of the silver and the -Norway maples, and on the lawns the white birches have also turned to -gold. The deepest red is on the black and red oaks. The brightest red is -on the scarlet oak. - -[Illustration: The flowering dogwood covers its bare branches with -blossoms in May] - -[Illustration: Flowering dogwood, in flower and fruit, the winter flower -buds and alligator-skin bark] - -It is not fair to charge Jack Frost with all the gay colours of the -autumn woods. Perhaps I should say, rather, that he does not deserve all -the credit people give him for painting the landscape with the sunset -glories of the dying leaves. The cause is the ripening of the leaves -themselves, as I have already explained. Frost may hasten the process, -but if a heavy freeze comes in September, before the leaves have -coloured, we lose our chance for autumn colouring that year. The leaves -drop as if scalded, and the trees lose their leaf pulp, which they had -expected to withdraw and save for future use. A long dry autumn of warm -days and mildly frosty nights produces the finest succession of colours. - -Countries that have a more moist, warm climate than ours, do not have the -vivid autumn colours that we enjoy. England, and the countries of Western -Europe, are like our West coast in lacking the colour changes that make -October for us the most glorious month of the year. Our New England -woodlands and the forests of Canada are matched in brilliancy by the -wooded slopes of the Swiss Alps, and the forests along the Rhine and the -Danube. In our Southern states there is little or no change that comes to -the foliage towards the end of the year. The leaves on the trees of -Florida are lazy in falling. They wait until pushed off by the swelling -buds in early spring. Many trees that shed their leaves promptly each -autumn in the Northern states, gradually become evergreen in the Southern -parts of their range. The longer a tree carries its leaves, the more -battered and worn they become. A tree with fresh, new leaves mingling -with old ones is not a pleasant object, at least to Northern eyes. This -is the way most trees in the South look in spring. - -If we should travel the world over, and see the trees of many lands, in -spring, in summer, in autumn, and in winter, I believe we should all come -back to the clean, beautiful mixed woods of our north temperate zone, and -declare that these woods are the most beautiful in the world. In the dead -of winter, they are budded full of promise. We learn to love them as well -in this period of rest as we do in the beauty of their spring flowers, or -in the glory of their autumn colouring, or in the steady growth of -summer. - -Each leaf is nurse to a bud that is growing between its base and the -twig. Find these little buds on any tree with broad leaves. A part of all -the food that passes that way stops to feed this growing bud; and in the -late summer the twig provides for the future welfare of all its buds. The -thrifty tree withdraws the green pulp from its leaves, before it lets -them fall. A store of starch is put away in the twig, close to each bud. -This is the food supply which will be used in the spring to enable the -bud to open and spread its young leaves, or its flowers, in a -surprisingly short time. - -When the worn-out leaf has been drained of all of its pulp, the tree lets -it go. It has done its work, and given up its pulp to be stored in the -twig for future use. It seems as if the tree knows that, with the coming -of cooler weather, growth must stop; that the tender leaves must die when -frost overtakes them. So it is a frugal habit to save all of the good -green leaf pulp, and to cast off only the dry leaf skin. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE WINTER - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR BARK - -Hunters and foresters who spend much of their time in the woods learn to -know trees by name through long acquaintance. In the dead of winter, the -framework of a tree may be enough to recognise it by. Where trees are -crowded, this sign is not to be depended upon. The bark is often a guide -to the tree’s name. The forester will tell you that the bud is the surest -sign of all. The bark is one of the best signs. - -It is not the easiest thing in the world to learn to know trees by the -bark alone. To the beginner, so many trees with dark, furrowed bark look -strangely alike, although the trees are not even related to each other. -The foresters began with trees that have peculiar and easily recognised -bark. So we shall begin here, and hope that the hard cases will gradually -become easier. - -Every tree wears a garment of bark from the ground up to the utmost -twigs. The thinnest bark is on the youngest branches. The thickest is on -the trunk. - -Begin with the white birch upon the lawn. The bark of this tree is made -of thin layers; the outer one shining like white satin. It breaks and -tatters, and peels off around the trunk. Three-cornered patches of black -are found under each branch, and others on the trunk show where branches -once came out, but were broken or cut off. - -Do you notice narrow, horizontal slits of different lengths on the birch -bark? These are breathing holes that let the air in to the layer under -the bark. Spongy, porous substance fills these slits, but allows the air -to pass through. At the lower part of the trunk the satiny outer bark is -shed, leaving dark under layers, rough and checked into irregular blocks. -As the tree grows older, the trunk becomes rougher and darker, but the -branches always show the kind of bark that the little tree wore. - -In the Northern woods the white bark of the canoe birch is stripped from -the trees in layers as thick as sole leather. Out of these the Indians -once made their bark canoes. Now the same material is used for making all -manner of trifling souvenirs to sell to tourists. A square of this thick -bark, cut on the smooth side of a trunk, may be split into a great number -of thin sheets. This the camper uses to write letters upon, and it is a -beautiful and fitting substitute for note paper, when one is camping out. - -[Illustration: We recognize birches by their silky, tattered bark] - -[Illustration: The beech trunk is clothed in smooth, pale grey bark] - -It is a great pity that so many beautiful trees are girdled and killed to -supply the needs of camping parties. If the bark were stripped but part -way around it would not kill the tree. - -The yellow birch has a silvery yellow tint in the outer bark, which curls -back in ragged ribbons until the tree gets old. The red birch writes its -name in the rusty red colour of its papery bark, which splits into -tatters in true birch fashion, and flutters the ragged ends from each -branch throughout the year. The black birch has no tattered ribbons -flying, but wears a close, smooth, black bark, with the narrow slits that -all birches show. As the trunks grow larger the surface checks into -irregular plates, separated by furrows. It is called the cherry birch, -for the bark is like that of cherry trees. - -The sycamore has bark which is different from that of every other tree. -Indeed, it is by the bark that we recognise this tree. The tall trunk -looks as if it were blotched and streaked and spattered with whitewash, -from the trunk to the topmost limb. The bark is continually dropping off -in thin, irregular plates, leaving smooth whitish patches of an under -layer exposed. After sycamore trees grow older, the bark of the lower -portion of the trunk stops shedding. Fine-checked plates of rusty brown -cover this oldest portion. But even on the oldest and largest trees, the -pale blotches are seen in the branches and we shall never mistake the -name of the tree. - -The shagbark is one of the rugged and shaggy trees that boys find hard to -climb without tearing their clothes into tatters. The bark gives the tree -its name. Thin, narrow plates, close-woven and tough as sole leather, -seem to be attached very loosely to the body of the tree, but if you try -to pull off these narrow strips, you find their hold is very firm. Often -they are attached at the middle, and spring out at both ends. - -An old shagbark tree is a picturesque figure, as it lifts its bare arms -up toward the wintry sky. The trunk is straight, but the branches are -full of angles. Yet, with all their rigidity, these limbs have an -expression of strength, if not of grace, and the tree’s head is usually -symmetrical, and always full of character. - -A young hickory has smooth, close-knit bark like that on the branches of -the older trees. Gradually the growing trunk becomes furrowed, and the -peculiar splintering and splitting of the bark is seen only in trees six -inches or more in diameter. By the time the tree is old enough to bear -nuts, it has built itself a formidable fence that boys must climb over -with much hard work and many a scratch, to get up among the branches and -shake down the nuts. - -[Illustration: The loose, stripping bark gives its name to the shagbark -hickory] - -[Illustration: Warty bark of hackberry; Silky bark of black birch; Close, -sinewy bark of hornbeam] - -The tasteless pignuts grow on a smooth-barked hickory tree, very easy to -climb, but the bark of the little shellbark hickory is the guide-post -that leads to the trees where the sweet-flavoured hickory nuts grow. - -The close-knit, grey bark of beech trees hardly needs to be described. -The temptation to cut initials on beech trunks is more than folks with -pocket-knives can resist. No matter how many fine trees there are in a -beech grove near town, they are scarred all over with letters and -hieroglyphics as far as hand can reach. The tree never covers these -wounds. Though they do not cripple it, they mar its beauty painfully. - -A little further from the haunts of picnic parties, we shall come upon -beech woods that have not thus been abused by thoughtless jack-knives. -From the ground, far up into the high tops, a close, beautiful garment of -ashy grey bark clothes the tree. Saplings of all ages grow up among the -big trees, for beeches grow in colonies. A soft radiance from these many -pale tree trunks seems to lighten the woods paths, overshadowed by the -dense foliage of the tree tops. - -It is said that beech trees die when they come into contact with -civilisation. Fine beech woods are included in additions to towns; you -will see the great trees die when lawns and gardens are made about their -roots. In the outskirts of Indianapolis there are noble beech trees, but -they are dying, as the city grows around them. - -The copper beeches and the cut-leaved and weeping beeches have the same -close-knit bark as our native tree, but it is not grey, but dark brown. -These fancy forms are varieties of the European beech, one of the -principal lumber trees of the Old World. - -The bark of this tree played an interesting part in the early history of -the human race. Long before the European tribes had written languages, -they sent messages from one to another. These messages between tribes, -friendly or warlike, were written in hieroglyphics, cut into the smooth -surface of beech bark, and messengers carried them back and forth. - -Sheets of beech bark, as well as birch, made the walls and roofs of the -huts in which people lived. Their boats and various household utensils -were made out of beech wood, which is so close-grained that vessels made -of it hold water without leaking. - -Another American tree with bark like the beech, but darker grey, grows -always, by preference, with its roots in wet soil. It is a little tree, -with rigid, horizontal twigs, that form a flat tree top. This is called -the blue beech, and its trunk does often have a bluish cast. It is also -called hornbeam, for its wood is so hard that it was used in the early -days to make the beams which went across the horns of the oxen. This is -the part of the ox yoke which is the most subject to wear. Ironwood is -another name that describes the hard wood. - -We shall notice that this tree has not a regular cylindrical trunk like -that of a beech. Strong swellings, that look like muscles, are seen, -especially where the trunk branches into the main limbs. Have you ever -noticed the arms of a blacksmith, or of an athlete? How the veins and -muscles stand out when the arm is in use! Just like them are the -irregular swellings that course up the trunk of the hornbeam, and out -into the limbs. - -The hackberry is a handsome shade tree, which might, at first glance, be -mistaken for an elm. The bark is different from that of any other tree. -Once we see a hackberry, and learn its name, we will never mistake it -again. The bark is light brown or grey, and finely checked by deep -furrows. The ridges between bear strange, warty outgrowths. Look for -these warts among the small branches. The twigs are smooth, but back a -little way the warty eruptions begin, and become more prominent as the -limbs thicken and approach the trunk. Sometimes the limbs have these -warts so close together as to form continuous ridges. - -Another tree with warty bark is the sweet gum. The negroes of the South -call the tree “alligator wood,” because the lower part of the trunk is -broken by furrows and cross-furrows into horny plates like the skin of an -alligator. From the red-brown trunk up into the grey branches, there is a -change in the character of the bark. The fissures usually run lengthwise, -and the bark rises in thin ridges on each side of the fissure. These -ridges become thin as knife blades on the smaller twigs, which also have -a sprinkling of small warts. - -A sweet gum is very rugged looking in the dead of winter, with its warts -and ridges breaking out on each limb. We know it by this sign alone, but -are doubly sure when we see the seed balls dangling from the twigs. The -sycamore, blotched with white on trunk and limb, also carries a load of -dangling seed balls throughout the winter. There is no danger of -confusing these two trees, for the bark of each is so distinct. - -[Illustration: Warty, ridged bark of the sweet gum, the swinging seed -balls and winged seeds] - -[Illustration: Blotched bark of sycamore, and its seed balls that hang -all winter] - -A little tree with alligator skin bark grows North and South, and chiefly -in the eastern half of the country. This is the flowering dogwood, whose -grey bark breaks into small squarish plates. There is no such ruggedness -in its trunk as there is in the sweet gum’s, for it is always a little -tree, and the bark corresponds in its checking to the tree’s size. When -we see this peculiar type of bark in the winter woods we may look also -for little flattened, box-like flower buds, each enclosed in four scales. -We shall also find the twigs set opposite, and with these three signs be -sure we know the tree. - -A little tree, no larger in girth than the dogwood, but often taller, has -bark that strips and loosens somewhat as the bark of the shagbark hickory -does. This is the hop hornbeam, one of the ironwoods. Its bark strips are -always thin and narrow, no matter how old the tree becomes. It is never -as loose upon the trunk as the shagbark’s. The great buds and stout twigs -of the hickory are entirely different from the slender spray and the very -small buds this ironwood wears in winter. We may find on these twigs some -remnant of the hop-like seed clusters which give this little tree its -name, hop hornbeam. Inside its shaggy bark the lumbermen find wood so -hard that it is very difficult to work, and when made into tools it lasts -almost forever. - -When we have learned to know at sight a dozen trees by their bark alone, -we are ready to go further. A great many trees with furrowed bark like -chestnuts and elms and maples, are not so distinct as those already -learned, and we must study the tree’s form, its winter buds, the -arrangement of these buds, and the shape of the leaf scars in connection -with the bark, in order to be sure we know the tree’s name. The chestnut -from which we gathered so many nuts last fall, and whose furrowed trunk -we saw at every visit, we come to know through this familiarity. The -trunks of other chestnut trees look like this one, and though we may not -know just how we do it, we have added the chestnut to the list of trees -we recognise by their bark alone. The sugar maples which we tap in spring -for their sugary sap, have dark, furrowed bark, not very distinctive. And -yet, by going from tree to tree, emptying the sap pails, we gradually -learn to recognise the bark of the sugar maple, and add it to our growing -list. - -[Illustration: The Lombardy poplar stands like an exclamation point in -the landscape] - -[Illustration: The live oak of the South is usually hung with long skeins -of the weird, grey Spanish moss] - -Trees do not change their clothes, and they do not move away. Day after -day, if we use our eyes and notice what is going on in the tree tops, as -the seasons follow each other, we come to know our trees by name; we -recognise them in winter by their bark, and by the framework of their -tops, in summer by leaves and flowers, in autumn by their changing colour -and by their fruits. It is not hard work for those who love trees. It is -like getting acquainted with other neighbours whom we are glad to count -among our friends. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR SHAPES - -The life of every tree depends upon its success in holding its leaves out -into the sunlight. The tree which exposes the greatest amount of leaf -surface to the sun makes the greatest growth. The shape of their tops is -a character in which trees differ widely. We shall come to know many of -them in winter time better than in summer, by the distinct shapes -revealed when the foliage is gone. In any bare tree, the purpose of all -of the branching and branching again, is plainly seen. Each twig and -branch reaches out toward the outer surface of the dome, or pyramid. Here -the buds in winter are waiting to open, when spring comes, into leafy -shoots. These will cover the tree top with a dome of green greater than -the one of the previous summer. Their work through the growing season -will lengthen every branch and every root, and add a layer of wood under -the bark of trunks and branches and roots. - -The most remarkable tree shape is that of the Lombardy poplar. The tall -trunk is clothed with many short, close-branched limbs, which do not -spread, as in ordinary tree forms, but grow upright, so as to lie almost -against the main trunk. The upper branches are overlapped and crowded by -those below them, and so on down the trunk. The result is a tree shaped -like a capital I. In summer time, the heart-shaped leaves cover the twigs -on the outside of this spire, but the beauty of the tree top is marred by -the dead branches which have been smothered by the crowding. - -A young Lombardy poplar is handsome as it stands covered with its -twinkling leaves. It grows rapidly, and is especially striking and -effective in clumps of round-headed trees. It is like an exclamation -point. Architects always like to have a few of these trees dotted about -the grounds to keep company with tall chimneys and distant church spires. -There is no shade under trees of this form, though miles of them are -planted along roadsides where they stand like tin soldiers, all alike. -The older trees look very ragged, for they are unable to shed their dead -limbs, and as old age comes on they send up suckers from the roots that -form a little forest around the parent tree. - -Scattered over fallow fields of worthless ground, the red cedars are -allowed to grow. They are the evergreen counterparts of the slim Lombardy -poplars. Sometimes the red cedar broadens into a pyramid, wide at the -base, but we are all familiar with the green exclamation points, dotted -over the hillsides, wherever birds have dropped the blue berries full of -seeds. - -The pointed firs with their horizontal branches becoming longer and -longer towards the ground, are good examples of the pyramid form so -common among evergreens. This is the shape of the spruces, and the pines, -and the hemlocks, until storms have broken their branches, and taken away -the symmetry of the top. The pin oak and the honey locust send out -horizontal branches of graduated lengths from the central shaft, -imitating the evergreens in shape. - -The evergreen magnolia of the South has a dome like an old-fashioned -beehive, pyramidal, and regular when it grows in sheltered places. Such a -dome is the hard maple’s in the North. - -Some trees branch low, and their short trunks break into great limbs -whose ample spread forms a dome much broader than its height. The white -oak in the North and its evergreen counterpart, the live oak of the -South, illustrate this noble form. Somewhat like them, but with its dome -elevated upon a tall trunk, is the American elm with the fan top. The -lines of the elm branches are all curves from the arching limbs that rise -out of the trunk to the flexible twigs which droop at the extremities of -the branches. The dome of a white oak is made of angular limbs. Even the -twigs are likely to be crooked. No one would confuse the elm with an oak. - -Round-headed trees are many. Go from the apple tree in the orchard to the -red and Norway maples along our streets. A great many trees find this -form best adapted to spreading their leaves out towards the sun. Many -oaks and ash trees, the hickories and birches, and the beeches have -widely spreading limbs forming tops that are oblong in shape. There are -trees so irregular in habits of growth that we shall never know them by -their forms alone. - -The winter is the best time to study tree shapes, for then the framework -is revealed. The trees to study are those which stand apart from others, -so that they have been able to take their natural shapes. These we shall -find growing on the streets, and in yards, and parks, and in open spaces -in the woods. Where trees crowd each other in growing, their branches -chafe and clash in storms, destroying the buds and leaves, and bruising -the tender bark. Such limbs die of these injuries, and the whole shape of -the tree top is changed by its losses. - -[Illustration: Fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn] - -[Illustration: Clustered thorns on trunk of honey locust tree; Flowers -and foliage of the black locust] - -It is hopeless for lower limbs to live in a dense pine forest. The top -branches form so thick a wall of shade that lower branches die from lack -of sun. It is the same with broad-leaved trees. In any dense woods, the -trees stand bare as telegraph poles, lifting small heads of foliage at -the top, and competing there with their neighbour trees for sun and air. -It is only when set apart from other trees that a trunk can keep its -lower branches hale and strong as those at the top. - -The weeping habit gives us some strange tree forms. The Camperdown elm -forms a shady summer-house on many a lawn by arching limbs which droop to -the ground on all sides of the main trunk. The weeping mulberry has the -same habit. Weeping birches and willows have such light foliage, and such -fine, flexible twigs, that they look like fountains of green as they -stand among the other trees. - -All weeping trees are made by grafting in the nursery rows. They are not -grown from seeds, and it is not true that they “weep” because of being -planted up-side-down! This preposterous notion is not uncommon. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR THORNS - -In winter time, the bare limbs of trees reveal many strange secrets, -which the leaves cover up in summer. Some trees we may know by the thorns -they wear. - -The honey locust scarcely conceals in summer the three-branched thorns, -for which it is famous. These thorns are twigs, but they rarely bear -leaves. Each is sharpened to a needle point, and highly polished. -Sometimes it is single, oftener with a main thorn and two side branches; -sometimes short, but often reaching over a foot in length, and growing -stronger and more wicked-looking with age. Sometimes a honey locust has a -crowded group of these thorns growing out of the trunk and large limbs. -Once in a great while a honey locust is thornless, growing wild. From -such trees a thornless variety has been developed. It is, therefore, -possible to obtain from nurserymen trees of this variety. - -The unbranched spines of the osage orange trees make it a formidable -hedge plant, and no fences are needed where green barriers of these trees -grow. Each shining leaf has a spike at its base, stout and sharp as a -needle, and strong as steel. - -Two spines stand guard at the base of each leaf of the yellow or black -locust, and each leaflet has two little spines of the same type. The -basal spines remain after the leaves fall, so that in winter we shall -find these pairs of sentinels guarding the leaf scars up and down the -ridged twigs. On the thicker stems the thorns are larger, and the tree is -thus well-armed and able to do duty as a hedge plant, when thickly -planted. - -These thorns come off with the bark, hence they are more properly called -prickles. They are not rooted in the wood of the branch as the thorns of -the honey locust are, but they belong in the class with rose and -raspberry prickles, which are mere outgrowths of the bark. - -The hawthorn trees have single spines, some long and curved, some short, -some branched. All are rooted in the pith of the twig that bears them; -therefore, they are not prickles, but true thorns. - -The wild plum trees have a strange habit of ending their shoots with -thorny tips, as if the branches needed such defence against browsing -cattle. Certainly these stunted, sharp-pointed twigs are useful as -weapons of defence to the little trees that grow slowly in poor soil, and -are sufferers from poverty and abuse. Perhaps it is their hard luck that -makes them crabbed and thorny. Wild apple trees show the same tendency to -have thorny twigs. The same little trees, transplanted to mellow soil, -grow soft and leafy twigs, and abandon the carrying of weapons. - -Hercules’ club is a tree which beats the ailanthus at its own game. Stems -ten feet high and two inches in diameter at the base sometimes shoot up -in a single season. These clubs of Hercules are covered with spines as -thickly set as on a gooseberry bush, formidable and vicious, though only -skin deep. - -On account of its tropical growth, this tree is planted for ornament in -gardens where there is room. Its leaves are wonderful. They come out with -a rich, silky, bronze sheen in spring, and when they reach full size are -often four feet long, and more than half as wide. Each one is branched -and branched again, and ends in a multitude of small oval leaflets. These -giant leaves sway in the summer winds, giving the tree the grace of a -tree fern. In late summer a great pyramid of bloom rises above the -foliage. Purplish berries, which succeed the flowers, make a fine showing -in fall and winter, when the leaves have turned to red and gold. - -We dare not touch this spiny tree, but we may come close and admire its -wonderful crown of umbrella leaves, the biggest by far borne on any tree -outside of the Tropics. - - - THE NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - -In our town and in our neighbourhood most of the trees drop their leaves -before winter comes, and stand with bare limbs for several months. Here -and there, however, a single tree stands, wearing the same green leaves -it wore all summer. Everybody knows this tree as an evergreen. It belongs -to a group of trees strangely different from those around it which have -shed their leaves. Let us see how it differs from them. - -Take the one that is nearest to you, and pull down one of its leafy, -green branches. The leaves are like green needles, stiff, sharp-pointed, -with waxy resin on the brown twigs, that makes your fingers sticky. Up in -the tree tops strange oval, brown cones are hanging. Underfoot, a carpet -of dead needles lies thick upon the grass, and cones, with their -overlapping scales spread much wider than those upon the tree, lie about. -Squirrels have gnawed some of these scales away, leaving a central spike -like a cob from which the corn has been shelled. Little green cones, fat -and waxy, no larger than your thumb, are seen near the tips of some -branches. You can see the scales overlapping each other in these, even -though they seem to be grown solidly together. - -If we walk through the village or the city in which we live, and stop -under each evergreen tree we come to, we shall find nearly all alike in -these two points: they have needle-like leaves, and they have cones. The -evergreens with needle-like leaves, and cones on and under them, belong -to four evergreen tree families, whose names every one would like to -know. These four evergreen families are named pine, spruce, fir, and -hemlock, and they are planted everywhere. But few people are very sure -they know one from another. It is perfectly right to call them all -evergreens, or conifers, which means cone-bearers. These names include -all the four families. But it is common for people to call a spruce, a -pine, or a hemlock, a spruce, when the truth is that one may very easily -know these trees apart. - -Let us begin with the first needle-leaved cone-bearing evergreen we meet. -To find out whether this tree is a pine, a spruce, a fir, or a hemlock, -we must ask the tree some questions. It will answer them. First: “Are -your needles set _one_ in a place on the twig, or are they in groups, or -bundles, of _more than one_ at a place?” Pull down a twig and look -sharply for the answer. Suppose there are the leaves in pairs, or in -threes, or in fives, each bundle or group growing out of a single point -on the twig. The answer is: “Not single, but in bundles, more than one at -a place.” Towards the end of the shoot you will find a brownish or -silvery sheath binding the leaves into bundles. Further back, this sheath -may be missing, but the number of leaves in the bundle remains the same -for some distance back from the end of the shoot. The leaves begin to -fall from the bundles farthest from the tips, and therefore old. If two -leaves is the number in a bundle, there are never more than two, young -and old. If three is the number, you will find only threes. If five is -the number, then you will rarely find fewer than this in any bundle. - -All the trees with more than one leaf in a bundle are pines. All of the -rest of the needle-leaved evergreens have a single leaf at a place upon -the twig. They are the spruces, firs, and hemlocks. Let us go and look -for them. - -The very next evergreen we come to we must put the same question to: “Are -your leaves single, or are there more than one in a bundle?” Suppose -“three in a bundle” is the answer; we recognise the tree as a pine, and -pass it by. - -Across the street is a tree of different shape, though an evergreen and a -conifer. We see the long cones hanging from its drooping branches, -especially near the top of the tree. Cross over and examine a twig; the -needles are short and sharp-pointed, and they are set singly in spiral -lines on the twigs. Every leaf sits on a little shelf, or bracket, that -stands out from the twig. Pick up a dead twig under the tree. The leaves -are gone, but these little brackets in spiral rows wind around the twig. -They are horny and sharp, and would tear your fingers if you drew the -twig quickly between them. - -Notice that the little brackets are angled at the top. Pick up a dead -leaf and notice the shape of its base. The leaf itself has angled sides. -Roll it between your thumb and finger. It has three or four sides, and at -least three sharp angles. - -This is a spruce, and the signs by which we know it are the brackets on -the twig, the thick, sharp, three- or four-angled leaf, and the stout -twigs, to match the stout leaves. - -The next needle-leaved evergreen with cones we meet we may hope will turn -out to be a fir or hemlock, but the chances are that its twigs will show -two, three, or five needles in a bundle. What shall we call the tree? A -pine, of course, and pass it by. We need ask no further question. - -The next tree has stiff twigs with brackets, and stout, stiff, angled and -pointed leaves. Cones hang down upon its branches. We recognise a spruce, -and go on. - -Over yonder is an evergreen which waves a featherly spray of very slender -twigs. There is scarcely a breeze stirring, and yet the tree is all -a-tremble, and its drooping branches carry a load of pretty little brown -cones. Turn up a branch, and you notice that the leaves are all silvery -underneath. They are single on the twigs, so this is not a pine. They -part and lie flat, a row on each side of the twig. This is very different -from a spruce whose leaves stand out all around the twigs. These sprays -are flat, each like a feather. The leaves are soft, not stiff. They are -blunt, flat, and each has a tiny stem. The twigs are like fine wire, they -are so slender. The leaves are mounted on brackets, just as the spruce -leaves are, but the brackets are much smaller, to match the daintier -twigs and leaves. - -It is a hemlock tree. The tiny leaf stem is the thing which sets it apart -from all other needle-leaved evergreens. Take a good look before you go, -at the leaf itself, at the slender twigs, with their little brackets, at -the shining upper surface of the flat leaf and the silvery lining that -makes this tree so lovely as the wind lifts the flexible branches. Pick -up a handful of dead leaves, and notice that though dead and brown, they -show the flat surface with a middle ridge on the under side, prolonged -into the short leaf stem. The pale lining is not so distinct now. - -One tree family remains of the needle-leaved, cone-bearing evergreen. -That is the fir, the Christmas tree, and its close relatives. Not often -do we plant our native fir, because the trees are not as handsome, nor as -useful as pines, spruces, and hemlocks. We may walk far before we find an -evergreen which does not turn out to be a pine, a spruce, or a hemlock. -However, it is near Christmas time. The little firs will be brought into -market in sufficient numbers to supply a Christmas tree to every house. -This is our chance. We will go to market, and look at these little trees -that stand together, with their limbs trussed like fowls, ready to be -baked. This is for economy of space in shipping. - -The clean, pungent odour of balsam comes from the bleeding stub, and we -see tears of the whitish wax wherever the bark of a twig or branch is -bruised. These are balsam firs. They have their name from this fragrant, -sticky resin that leaks from their veins. - -First, as to the leaves. We find them single and spirally arranged, as in -the spruce, but there are no brackets on the twigs. Pull off a leaf and -the twig is smooth. The leaves are blunt, but flattened, and on most of -the twigs they spread, feather-like, on two sides. There are more of -them, however, than on the hemlock spray. They are white-lined, like the -hemlock leaves, but there are no little leaf stems. The twigs are stouter -than those of the hemlock, resembling the spruce twigs in size, but they -lack horny little leaf brackets which are so prominent on spruce twigs. - -One reason that spruce trees make poor Christmas trees is that the leaves -fall so soon. Almost the day after Christmas the floor is scattered with -them. The fir trees keep their leaves for weeks. This little bracket -makes all the difference. Fir leaves seem to be fastened right into the -twig itself, and made thus more secure. - -If it chances that you find a fir old enough to bear cones, you will see -another very distinct trait of this family. The cones are held erect on -the twigs; the cones of pines, and spruces, and hemlocks hang down. If -you are fortunate enough to find a fir tree growing, and old enough to -bear its fruit, these upright cones will tell you the tree’s name before -you come near enough to look at the leaves, and to see if the twigs are -smooth. - - - THE FIVE-LEAVED SOFT PINES - -An evergreen with needle-like leaves in bundles, two to five leaves in a -bundle, is a pine. These bundles are usually bound with a thin, papery -sheath at the base, and set in spiral rows that wind around the twig. The -leaves in the newest sheaths are nearest the growing tip of the shoot. -Here we shall find the leaves shorter, some so short that they have not -yet got outside of their sheaths. The silky covering hides them, as the -bud scales on other trees covered the undeveloped shoot with its flowers -and leaves, wrapped in the winter buds. - -The kind of pine depends upon the number of leaves in a bundle. This is -the first thing to find out when we undertake to determine the name of a -pine tree. All of the vigorous young shoots have bundles that do not vary -in number of needles. Further back on the limb are leaves more than a -year old. The sheaths are shorter, or have fallen away entirely. Now the -number of needles in a bundle begins to be uncertain. We find bundles -that have fewer needles than those on the younger wood. This is because -the older leaves are falling. Finally we reach a point where the twigs -are bare. On white pine shoots it is easy to find leaves that are five to -seven years old. - -“Soft pine” is a lumberman’s term. Carpenters use it, so do all people -who work in wood. It means that the wood of a certain group of pines is -soft and light, and the sap is not gummy. Any boy who has cut kindling -wood knows what a joy it is to whittle soft pine. Until a few years ago, -this was the wood out of which boxes of all sorts were made, and it was -the only kindling wood we had. Now things are changed. Much box lumber is -made of poplar and other soft woods, which do not split as easily as -pine. This means that soft pine is getting scarce, and is too valuable to -use where cheaper woods will serve. - - - THE WHITE PINE - -The white pine has the softest, most hair-like leaves in the whole pine -family. Five needles are in each bundle, and each is delicate and -flexible. When the wind blows through the top of one of these -five-needled trees, the end shoots nod like plumes. The tree sends up a -straight shaft sometimes to the height of nearly two hundred feet, and -whorls of branches, five in a place, form regular platforms extending -horizontally from the trunk. Each of these sets of branches counts a year -of the tree’s life; for the end bud lengthens the trunk, and at the same -time, five buds that surround it grow out into horizontal branches. It is -easy to count the age of a young white pine, by beginning at the tip, and -counting downward. We could do it with large trees, except that the lower -branches die, and at length are lost. The bark heals over the scars left -where they fell, so the count is lost when we reach the point where the -branches stop. The white pine is slow to shed its dead branches. - -In the woods of the Eastern half of the United States any five-leaved -pine that we meet is a white pine. Before we are near enough to count the -needles in a bundle, we may count five branches at a whorl around the -trunk, and this determines the name. Beautifully regular pyramids, the -little trees are. In old age these pines lose symmetry by the loss of -limbs, and become very rugged and picturesque. A white pine tree, -crippled by two or three centuries of struggle with winds and lightnings, -is a noble figure. The plume-like branches soften its rugged outlines, -and the sombre blue-green of the older leaves is brightened by the -fresher colour of the new ones. The upper half of the tree is hung with -slim cones whose smooth, thin scales spread wide in the autumn of their -second year to let the winged seeds go. - -In spring the clustering catkins of staminate flowers look like yellow -cones on the ends of the pale yellow-green shoots. The wind shakes an -abundant supply of golden dust out of these pollen flowers, then lets the -fading catkins fall. The pistillate flowers are pinkish-purple and almost -hidden, just back of the tips of the upper twigs. They are cone-shaped, -and they part their scales and stand erect to catch the pollen as it -drifts through the tree tops. The flowers on each scale require a grain -of pollen each, in order to set seed. When its flowers are fertilised the -cone closes its scales tight, but they stand erect all summer. In the -autumn they are green and fleshy, and they turn downward. In winter we -shall see among the swaying branches of these pines, the green, -half-grown fruits, and further back, on wood a year older, the brown, -full-grown cones with their scales spread. These cones often curve -slightly. The largest of them may be ten inches long, but the average -cone is little over half that length. - -The lumbermen have stripped the white pine from the Eastern forests until -there is very little left. Many states are planting this valuable timber -tree, to restore the forests that wasteful lumbering, and forest fires -have destroyed. Thousands of young trees grown in nursery rows are -transplanted to beautify home grounds and parks. We shall find no -difficulty in discovering white pine trees, even though no forest near us -has a specimen left. It is one of the commonest pines to be planted in -cities and villages. It is the only five-leaved pine that will grow -successfully on this side of the Rocky Mountains. - - - THE GREAT SUGAR PINE - -All along the coast mountains from Oregon to Lower California, a -five-leaved soft pine grows whose size makes our Eastern white pine seem -like a dwarf. In that far country of big trees, it is one of the giants. -I had read of these trees which grow to be over 200 feet in height, with -trunks six to ten feet in diameter at the ground, but figures do not give -much idea of the truth. I first saw the groves of sugar pines miles ahead -of us, as the stage climbed the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada -mountains. We were on the way into the wonderful Yosemite Valley. The -scrawny, grey, digger pines, with cones as big as a man’s head, grew on -the lower foot hills. Next came the great yellow pines, and still higher -up, the grand sugar pines, along the highest level of the stage road. -They stood oftenest in close ranks so that their tops were small, because -of the crowding. And here they had stood for centuries. The road was no -wider than the broad stumps of some that had been cut down, and their -prostrate trunks were longer than any log I have ever seen before. I -remember calculating that the round dining table at home could be set -upon this stump, and all the family seated round it with no danger of -their chairs being too near the edge. The standing trunks seemed like -great builded columns, too large for real trees to grow. Their feathery, -dark green tips reached nearer to the sky than any trees in Eastern -forests. - -[Illustration: Hemlock cones are small; those of Norway spruce are four -or five inches long] - -[Illustration: Pine twig with cones, young and old, and clustered -staminate flowers] - -Under these pines old cones were lying. They were big, to match the -trees. Twenty inches the longest one measured, with scales two inches -long, and plump seeds as big as navy beans. Far off in the tree top the -hanging cones looked moderate in size. We could just see the green, -half-grown cones nearer the ends of the branches, for this Western white -pine, like our Eastern species, requires two years to mature its fruit. - -“Why call them sugar pines?” I asked the stage driver. He pointed to some -drops of resin-like substance on the scales of the cone I held in my lap. -“Taste it,” he said. I did, and it was sweet, with somewhat the flavour -of maple sugar. Crystals of this sugar come from wounds in the bark, and -from the ends of green sticks when burning. The sap is quite as sweet as -that of maple trees, but one is soon surfeited in eating the candy-like -substance. - -The stage driver told me that a lumberman could cut $5,000 worth of -lumber from one of these sugar pine trees. No wonder they think that it -is a burning shame for the government to reserve these noble woods of the -Yosemite tract “just to be looked at.” Fortunately for us, and for the -people of the whole country, some thousands of acres of magnificent -forest are reserved on those Western-mountain slopes, where they are safe -from the lumberman’s axe. If we cannot go to see them this year, perhaps -we can fifty years hence. They will still be standing, still growing, -these noble remnants of the grandest forests of any country. Specimens of -what Mr. John Muir calls “the largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all -the seventy or eighty species of pine trees in the world.” - -[Illustration: Thousands of little balsam firs supply the market with -Christmas trees] - -[Illustration: In these tall white pine trees Nathaniel Hawthorne built -an out-door study, where he wrote undisturbed] - - - THE NUT PINES - -A group of soft pines, with fewer needles than five in a bundle, grows on -the Western mountain slopes. Small trees they are, which have to struggle -hard against the winds and storms, and with the scant moisture of the -desert air and soil for a bare living. They are very interesting because -of the fact that they have nuts, rich, sweet, and nutritious, under the -scales of their cones, and these nuts are important items in the food of -many Indian tribes of the West. - -The first is the four-leaved nut pine that grows on the barren mountain -slopes of Southern and Lower California. It is a desert tree, rarely -reaching forty feet in height, and this only in the most favourable -situations. The foliage is pale sage green. No other pine has four leaves -in a bundle. Its nut-like seeds are rich in oil, starch, and sugar. -Without them the Indians of Lower California would probably starve. In -Riverside County the tree is common at 5,000 feet above sea level. It has -a regular pyramidal head, when young, becoming low, round-topped and -irregular when very old. - -Another piñon, but this one with a bushy, broad top, and often -considerably taller, grows with the four-leaved pine on the mountains of -Lower California, and northward along the canyons and mountain slopes of -Arizona. The short leaves are dark green, and there are but two or three -in a bundle. The seeds are plump, and rounded, or angular. The upper side -is brown, the lower side black, and each has a pale brown wing. - -A third nut pine, or piñon, two- or three-leaved, grows on the eastern -foot hills of the outer ranges of the Rocky Mountains, on both sides of -the system. Forests of it are found on the high plains of Colorado and -Arizona. It sometimes grows large enough to be used for lumber. The nuts -are half an inch long, and have thin, brittle shells. They are gathered -by Indians and Mexicans, and may often be bought in the markets of -Colorado and New Mexico. - -The one-leaved nut pine seems to belong with the spruces and firs, and -other single-leaved evergreens, but there are frequently two leaves in -the bundle, and there is a little scaly sheath at the base. The -grey-green leaves often hang on for ten or twelve years. The winged nuts -are over half an inch long. The wood furnished fuel and charcoal to the -smelters in the mining regions, and the Indians of Nevada and California -harvest the nut crop. - -Every autumn when we are going for chestnuts and hickory nuts in our -Eastern woods, we may think of the Indian families who leave their homes -in the lowlands, and climb the mountain slopes to gather their nuts which -are their staff of life. If we should miss our nutting excursion, it -would make no vital difference in our lives during the coming winter. Our -nuts are not a serious part of the provisions of the household. But with -the Indians, to miss the nut pine harvest, means to have no bread for the -winter that is coming. - -Mr. John Muir, who has often lived among these stunted upland forests, -and seen the Indians gathering the nuts and using them later as food, -tells us many interesting things. The trees of the one-leaved nut pine -are low, like old apple trees, and full of cones. The Indians get long -poles, and beat the cones off the trees, then roast them on hot stones, -until the scales open. Then they shake out the nuts, and gather them in -baskets and bags to carry home. These nuts are eaten raw or parched on -hot stones. These are the easiest and simplest ways. But the best and -most palatable form in which they are prepared costs much more time and -labour. The nuts are parched, then ground or pounded into meal. This is -stirred up with water, into a kind of mush, which is formed into cakes -and baked. This is, in general, the way in which all pine nuts are made -into bread. - -The time of the nut harvest is, for the Indians, the merriest time of the -year. If the crop is heavy, the spirits of the party are light. A single -family, if it is fairly industrious, can gather fifty or sixty bushels of -these rich, thin-shelled nuts in a single autumn month; and with this -quantity to carry home, can go down the mountains, tired but happy, -knowing that their bread for the winter, and plenty of it, is assured. - - - THE HARD PINES - -The hard pines are a group of needle-leaved evergreens, whose leaf -bundles contain two or three needles, as a rule. The wood is heavy, -usually dark in colour, and saturated with a resinous, gummy sap. The -common name, “pitch pine,” refers to the resinous wood; it is much harder -to work with than that of soft pines. The most valuable hard pine forests -grow in the Southern states. These are now the chief sources of pine -lumber in the Eastern half of the continent. They furnish also quantities -of turpentine, pitch, tar, and oil, products of the resinous sap which -saturates the wood of these trees while they are growing. - -One trait of the pitch pines is that they retain the leaf sheath. The -soft pines shed the sheath as soon as the leaf bundle has attained its -full length. - - - THE SOUTHERN PITCH PINES - -The woodwork and floors of a great many houses of moderate cost are done -to-day in Southern pine, sometimes called “yellow pine,” sometimes “curly -pine.” The alternating bands of dark and light yellowish brown, often -very much waved, give the wood an ornamental grain that is much admired. -It is common and most desirable that this wood should not be stained nor -painted, but given the “natural finish” which brings out the rich orange -colour, and shows at their full value the wavy bands and intricate -patterns that are the chief beauty of the wood. The arching timbers that -support the roof of a church are often made of stiff timbers cut from -Southern pines, and dressed only with a coat of oil, under which time -deepens and enriches the wood’s natural colours. - - - THE LONGLEAF PINE - -The longleaf pine is one of four hard pines whose lumber is not -distinguished by ordinary carpenters, but is generally called “yellow -pine.” “Georgia pine” ranks a little higher than the rest. That is the -longleaf, which grows over a territory much greater than the state of -Georgia. This is the chief source of turpentine, pitch, and tar, as well -as one of the very best lumber trees of the pitch pine group. The most -ornamental wood is that with the curliest grain, and the narrowest bands -of alternating dark and light colour. It grows slowly in hard, sandy -soils on the damp coast plains near the Gulf of Mexico. - -We shall know this tree from all other pines by the length of its -needles. They are twelve to eighteen inches long, flexible, dark green, -shining, three in a bundle, enclosed at the base in long, pale, silvery -sheaths. They remain on the tree but two years, therefore the tree top is -bare except for thick tufts of these drooping leaves on the ends of the -branches. If you have never seen these trees growing in their natural -forest belt, that ranges from Virginia to Florida, and west to the -Mississippi River, or in small scattered forest patches in Northern -Alabama, Louisiana, or Texas, you may have seen branches or small trees -shipped north to be used for Christmas decorations. In the waste land -that the lumbermen have cut over, in the neighbourhood of these longleaf -forests, men go in early December, and cut the little trees. Saplings two -or three feet high bring good prices in the Northern markets, where holly -branches, ropes of ground pine, sprigs of mistletoe, and leaves of -Southern palms are sold. A little two-foot longleaf pine, standing erect, -with all its long flexible leaves bending outward like a fountain of -shining green, is handsomer than any palm of the same size. - -The popularity of these pine shoots is growing, and those who cut them -seem not to realise that they are killing the forests of the future. -Trees grow from seeds which fall in the territory cleared by the -lumbermen. If these little trees that Nature plants are cut as fast as -they show themselves above the forest floor, how are the longleaf pine -forests to be restored? It is a great problem, for a great part of the -natural wealth of the South is in these lumber tracts, now being cleared -at a terrific rate of speed, and the land left practically worthless when -stripped. - -The cones of the longleaf pine are narrow and tapering. The scales are -thick, and each bears a small spine. The leaves are the distinguishing -trait, and the tall, slender trunk crowned by a long open head of short, -twisted branches. - - - THE SHORTLEAF PINE - -The shortleaf pine ranks second only to the longleaf among the forest -pines of the South. It is the common “yellow pine,” and “North Carolina -pine” that is commonly sold from lumber yards in the North and Middle -West. Its wood is almost as beautiful in the natural finish. Its leaves -are short in comparison with those of the longleaf, and scarcely longer -than any pines of the North. They are found in clusters of twos and -threes, and they have the dark blue-green colour of the white pine, -lightened by the silvery sheaths at the bases of the clusters. The leaves -are soft and flexible, slender, and sharp-pointed. They vary from three -to five inches in length. The cones are two to three inches long, and -half as broad; the thickened scales have small spines. It takes two years -to bring cones to maturity, and the old ones hang on several years. In -this they differ from our Northern pitch pine. - -Forests of this timber pine are scattered from Connecticut to Florida, -and west to Illinois, Kansas, and Texas. They are being slaughtered by -lumbermen as fast as those of the longleaf. The young trees are tapped -for turpentine. In the South and East, these forests are practically -gone. The lumber mills are busy in the great tracts west of the -Mississippi, and below the Arkansas River, in the forests of shortleaf -pine, which until recently were untouched, and too far from the markets -to be profitably cut. - -The shortleaf pine will reforest the old areas, and spread over a -widening territory, if only it is given a chance. One hundred years is -enough time to restore a forest,—to grow a crop of these trees. Young -ones spring from the roots of old trees, a habit not at all common among -pines. Let us hope that before the Southwestern forests are gone, new -ones east of the Mississippi River will take their places, so that the -shortleaf shall not disappear from the lumber markets as the white pine -of the Northeastern states has done. - - - THE CUBAN PINE - -The Cuban pine or swamp pine of the South, with stout green leaves eight -to twelve inches long, in twos and threes, is not confused with the -longleaf nor the shortleaf, for its leaves are intermediate in length -between the two. This beautiful pine grows in forests that skirt swampy -coast land. Its leaves are carried two years, so the trees have dense, -luxuriant crowns of green, and are more beautiful as a part of the -landscape than any other forest pine of the South. The wood of the Cuban -pine is not distinguished in the lumber trade, as it is much the same in -quality and appearance as longleaf pine. - - - THE LOBLOLLY PINE - -The fourth of the yellow pines of the South is the loblolly or old field -pine, whose lumber is saturated with pitch. The trees grow in marshy -regions along the coast, and for the most part occupy land that is -sterile and worthless. These tide water pine forests follow the swamps -from New Jersey around to Texas. In early days this was the building pine -of the South. The virgin forests are gone, and the new generation is -inferior in quality, because the trees are not allowed to attain their -full growth. Though rich in resin, there is little flow of turpentine -from these trees, but the wood catches fire easily, and is one of the -best of fuels. - -We shall know this pine by its pale green, twisted leaves, always in -bundles of three, six to ten inches long, enclosed at the base in sheaths -that are not shed. The cones are three to five inches long, with ridged -scales set with prickles. This tree bears a great crop of cones yearly, -and its seeds are remarkable for their vitality. So are the seedlings, -which grow on land so wet or so poor that few other trees compete with -them. The first ten years in the life of a seedling pine is a period of -tremendous growth. Fire rarely sweeps these young forests, for the trees -are well protected by the marshy character of the land in which they -grow. Left for a century or two, these trees produce masts for the -largest vessels, equal in quality to the finest in the world. - - - THE NORTHERN PITCH PINES - -We have nothing in the Northeastern states that compares in importance -with the pitch pine of Southern forests, but we have pitch pines which -everybody knows. The first is the gnarled and picturesque pitch pine that -grows on worthless land, and thrives in patches along the sea coast, -where other evergreens are unsuccessful. The rough, rigid branches which -spring from the short trunks of these trees carry a burden of blackening -cones which give them a very untidy look when the trees are small. When -they reach fifty or seventy-five feet in height, a certain nobility and -picturesqueness of expression challenge our admiration, and the clusters -of cones are not at all objectionable; indeed they heighten the tree’s -beauty. - -The needle-like leaves of pitch pines are always in threes, rigid, stout, -and three to five inches long, dark yellow-green, the bundles in black -sheaths that are never shed. The cones require two years to ripen. They -are from one to three inches long, pointed, with sharp backward-pointed -beaks. The wood of this tree is used for fuel, and locally for lumber, -but it does not interest the lumbermen. The wood is not good enough, and -the trees are too small and scattered. The tree does a good work by -growing on worthless land, and near the sea coast. Its picturesqueness is -becoming to be more appreciated by landscape gardeners who are bringing -it into cultivation. - -The handsomest of our pitch pines is the red pine, whose dark green -leaves are six inches long, and cluster in twos upon the twigs. The bark, -the wood, and the bud scales are all red. The cones are from one to three -inches long, with thickened scales which have no spines. The tree grows -into a broad pyramid, branched to the ground, with stout twigs, and -luxuriant foliage. The symmetry and vigour of growth makes this red pine -a handsomer tree than the ragged, discouraged-looking pitch pines. It is -well for the landscape that its wood is very disappointing. So many -beautiful groves are allowed to reach great age, and size, where white -pines would have fallen to a lumberman’s axe. - -The home that has a beautiful red pine within sight of its windows, or a -double row of these trees serving as a wind-break to ward off the storms -of winter, is truly well planted. Without one or more of these trees, -there is a decided lack. Any nurseryman can furnish handsome young red -pines, so no one need hesitate to plant this native tree. - -[Illustration: The spiny-leaved, red-berried holly is a handsome -evergreen tree for the lawn] - -[Illustration: What would Christmas be without holly branches and wreaths -for decoration!] - -The Jersey pine is a twisted, low tree, with dark, discouraged-looking -branches, covered with grey-green leaves that have a sickly yellowish -tinge when the new shoots appear in spring. The leaves are always in -twos, and they range from one to three inches long. The small cones are -dark red, oval, with thickened scales spiny-tipped. These trees cover -waste land where there is a meagre living for any tree. What wonder that -they look stunted? Their chief merit is that they clothe the desert -places, and furnish wood for fuel and fences, and thus save the great -lumber pines for higher uses. - - - THE CEDARS, WHITE AND RED - -Beside the needle-leaved evergreens just described, there are some trees -we all know, that bear cones, and are evergreens, but their leaves are -strangely different from those of pines, spruces, firs, and hemlocks. One -of these is the familiar arbor vitæ, a conical tree, with flat leaf -spray. Looking closely, one can make out the tiny, scale-like leaves, -arranged in opposite pairs, clasping the wiry stems, and covering them -completely. These stems are flat, so that one pair of leaves has a sharp -keel on the middle. The next pair is spread out flat. The keeled pair -covers the edge of the stem. The flat pair covers the broader surface. -These pairs alternate through the length of the stem, and an aromatic -resin seals them close. - -The cones of the arbor vitæ are small, and they have few scales, compared -with the cones of the needle-leaved evergreens. Each year a crop is -borne, with two seeds under each scale. Few of us see the little red cone -flowers in May, nor the pellets of yellow on other twigs, which are the -pollen flowers. We watch the hedge clipper at work, trimming the thick -green fronds that make a solid wall of green. Look carefully hereafter -for the flowers and the ripe cones, in the proper season for each. - -[Illustration: This big tree, “The Grizzly Giant,” is over three hundred -feet high. It is a sequoia, one of the cone-bearing evergreens] - -[Illustration: SCALY-LEAVED EVERGREENS: Upper: two branches from the same -red cedar tree; Lower: flat sprays of arbor vitæ] - -The white cedar grows, a fine, conical evergreen tree, in the coast -states, from Maine to Mississippi. It loves best the deep swamps, but -grows well in wet, sandy soil farther inland. Here we see again the flat -spray of minute, pointed, and keeled leaves, but the cones are different. -These are pale grey, and globular; the few scales are thick and horny, -and curiously sculptured, each with a beak projecting from the centre. - -The foliage mass is a peculiar blue-green, and the bark, thin, and rusty -red, parts into strings and shreds. - -Lumbermen call this tree a cedar. So they do the arbor vitæ. The wood of -each is pale-coloured, and notable for its durability when exposed to -weather and water. Fence posts of white cedar, and cedar pails, shingles, -and the like, have a great reputation for durability. - -The peculiarity of a red cedar is its fruit. Instead of a cone, a blue, -juicy, sweet berry follows the blossoming of this tree. The foliage, too, -is erratic. Minute leaves of the scale form, discovered in the other -cedars, are found here on most twigs. They are still smaller, and the -twigs are much smaller. But on new shoots, and often on a whole branch, -the leaves are needle-like, one-half to three-quarters of an inch long, -and spreading as the leaves of a spruce. The mass of the foliage is -blue-green; these new ones are yellow-green. Among the branches hang -these surprising berries! - -The truth is that the scales of the cone thicken, and become soft when -ripe. They grow together, and the berry is, therefore, a cone, but much -changed in its development from the cone on which the fruits of other -evergreen trees are patterned. - -We all know a red cedar tree by its tall, slim shape. The birds eat the -berries, and scatter the seeds far and wide. The trees come up in -irregular clumps in pastures and fence-rows, and in rough, uncultivated -land. They are pretty widely distributed in the eastern half of the -United States. - -The true name for this tree is juniper. That is the name by which all its -related species are known. Red cedar is the lumberman’s name for its -wood, and this name, though not right, will probably stick to it always. - -Red cedar chests and closets are believed to be moth-proof. The aromatic -resin in the wood is supposed to be distasteful to the insects which are -the pests of housekeepers. To put furs and woollen blankets and clothing -into these chests does not always prevent their being moth-eaten. This -many people have learned by sorrowful experience. We know the fragrance -of this wood in pencils. Thousands of trees are cut every year to supply -pencil factories. With the scarcity of these trees, other woods are being -substituted. But who will be quite satisfied, or be persuaded that cedar -pencils are not the best? - - - TWO CONIFERS NOT EVERGREEN - -Two cone-bearing trees have the astonishing habit of letting go their -leaves in the fall, and thus setting themselves apart from the -evergreens, to which they are otherwise closely related. Their cones are -like those of pines and spruces. Their leaves are needle-like, and their -flowers are the cone flowers like the rest. Although they stand bare in -winter time, their fruits declare their kinships with the evergreen. -Their forms also suggest this kinship, for each is a spire-like shaft, -from which short branches stand out horizontally like those of the -pointed firs and spruces. - - - THE LARCHES - -In the Northern states, and Canada, long stretches of cold marsh land are -covered with solid growths of tamarack, our American larch tree. In -summer the branches are covered with long, drooping twigs, each set with -many blunt side spurs, from which a tuft of soft, needle-like leaves -forms a green rosette or pompom. The end twigs have needle leaves -scattered their whole length, after the fashion of the spruces. Purplish -cone flowers, and yellow staminate cones appear in spring, and in autumn -among the leaves that are turning yellow a crop of cones is ripening. -They stand erect and solitary on the twigs between the rosettes of -leaves. - -In winter the long, flexible twigs are bare except for these cones. The -little knobs along the twigs are the stubs which bore leaves. In the -spring new leaves come out, pale lettuce green, feathery, transforming -the tree top into a thing of beauty. - -This larch tree of ours is more sparsely branched than the larch of -Europe. It looks ragged and unhappy when planted on our lawns. It is at -its best in the cold North, where it grows in dense crowds, and the tall -trunks are stripped free from limbs well towards the tops. These straight -shafts are cut for telegraph poles, railroad ties, and posts. The heavy, -resinous wood lasts a long time in the ground. - -The larches planted for shade and ornament are of the European species, -which thrives in any soil. It has a denser head of branches, and much -more luxuriant crown of foliage than our native species. It is a -beautiful feathery pyramid of green, distinctly different from other -trees. In Europe large forests are grown on the mountain sides, and from -these the tallest masts for vessels are obtained. The heavy, resinous -wood does not easily take fire as do the pitch pines. The old wooden -battle ships were faced with larch wood because of this, and because -larch wood is so durable in contact with water. Indeed it has the -reputation of outlasting oak, and the wood of all other conifers. - -In the woods of the far Northwest, and inland to Montana, the Western -larch is one of the mighty forest trees. Six feet in diameter, and 200 -feet in height are not uncommon dimensions among these giant larches. -These trees are of slow growth, and they stand with their roots in water -or in wet soil, though on the mountain side. This is an important lumber -tree with wood that has all the good qualities of its family. In Europe -the tree is planted for forests, and as an ornamental tree. We cannot -grow it in the Eastern United States. It is worth a journey across the -continent to see it growing, one of the most magnificent trees in the -world. - - - THE BALD CYPRESS - -Travellers in the South pass forests of dark pines, and along the edges -of swamps the pines often give way to solid stretches of trees with pale -grey trunks, and lettuce green foliage, whose lightness contrasts -strangely and beautifully with the solid bank of dark green that roofs -the forests of pines. A closer look at these strange trees, which often -stand knee-deep in water, is not so easy. At certain seasons of the year, -however, these swamps are dry enough so that one may walk dry-shod among -them, and so learn to know the bald cypress of the South, one of the most -beautiful and interesting of native American trees. - -This is the second of the cone-bearing trees which is not an evergreen. -The leaves on the new shoots are two-ranked, soft and pale sage green in -colour. The stems that bear these plumy leaves bear also scattered single -blades. Among them are older twigs, tipped with cones, and bearing -branchlets with scale-like leaves scarcely spreading at the tips. These -are much smaller than the leaves arranged in two ranks, forming -feather-like, leafy branchlets. It is these which are shed, branchlets, -and all, in the autumn, and fresh in spring renew the feathery grace of -the long, narrow tree top. - -The most surprising thing about the bald cypress is the flaring base of -the trunk, and the root system which seems too large for the tall but -usually narrow top. Knees of cypress rising out of the water from the -main roots, are distinguished from stumps by their smooth, conical tops. -The base of a great tree often spreads into wide flying buttresses, each -hollowed on the inside, but serving with the others to support the -hollow-trunked tree. Many a giant of great age stands thus on stilts -whose submerged ends are the gnarled roots of the tree. From these rise -many smooth, knobbed knees above the surface of the water in the rainy -season. By some foresters, humps on the roots are supposed to be -necessary to the proper breathing of the roots, submerged under water so -large a part of the year. The question of what causes these growths, and -of what use they are, is not fully determined. - -The cones of the bald cypress are globular, and about the size of an -olive. By them the tree declares its relationship to the needle-leaved -evergreens. The wood is light and easy to work, but not noticeably -resinous. It is used for buildings, and for special parts, such as doors, -shingles. It is beautiful when stained, and would be more valuable for -interior finish of houses did it not keep the record of each bump and -dent, as all soft woods do. Buckets and barrels to contain liquids are -largely made of this wood. In railroad ties it proves very durable. - -The best and strangest fact about this tree is that though it belongs to -the South, and is a swamp tree by preference, it grows large and -beautiful in the North, and in soil that is only moderately moist. The -parks of Brooklyn have some noble specimens of this bald cypress of the -South. They stand, tall, handsome shafts, feathered lightly with their -short, drooping side branches, clothed with pale green leaves. There is -no peculiarity of spreading trunk or knees to disturb the sod that comes -up around the base of the tree. In the autumn the foliage turns yellow, -and drops with the larch leaves. Through the winter the globular cones -are present to prove this bald cypress a relative of the evergreens, -which are its neighbours. - - - THE HOLLIES - -No Christmas is Christmas truly without at least a few branches of the -evergreen holly of the South, whose leathery, spiny-pointed leaves are -brightened by clusters of red berries. Every year, hundreds of crates and -boxes of these holly branches are shipped north from the woods of -Alabama, and other Southern states. Many people make their living by -cutting loads of these branches, and hauling them to the shipping sheds -where they are packed and put onto the railroad. The business has grown -so rapidly within the past twenty-five years that holly trees are -becoming very scarce. It has never occurred to those who cut down and -strip the trees that it takes years to grow new ones, and that nobody is -planting for the future. - -Holly wood is white, and very close-grained. It is admirable for tool -handles, whipstocks, walking sticks, and for the blocks on which wood -engravings are made. The living trees are planted for hedges, and for -ornament. The leaves are evergreen, and the berries add brightness and -warmth to the shrubbery border when snow covers the ground. - -Although it reaches its greatest size, and is most commonly found in -Southern woods, this little tree follows the coast as far north as Long -Island. I have found it much higher than my head, growing wild on the -sand bar that separates Great South Bay from the ocean, east of New York -Harbour. Further north, it is occasionally found, but in stunted sizes, -and it is easily winter-killed. - -The holly of Europe, which has brightened the English Christmas for -centuries, has a far more deeply cleft and spiny leaf than ours. Beside -it, our holly leaves and berries are dull, and dark-coloured. The whole -tree lacks the brightness of the European species. Hedges of this -lustrous-leaved holly shut in many an English garden, and their bright -berries glow cheerfully through the grey, sunless, winter days. No wonder -the gardeners frown upon the little thrushes that feed upon these -berries, thus robbing the garden of one of its chief winter charms. - -Three other American hollies are found as shrubby trees in our Eastern -woods, but none of them is evergreen, and the trees are not numerous in -any locality. We shall oftenest see the species known as the winterberry, -whose abundant red berries remain untouched by the birds, until late in -the spring. Many of these fruit-laden branches are gathered in the wild, -and sold in cities for Christmas decorations. Sprays of these berries are -often added to the evergreen holly branches when their own berries are -scarce. - -Christmas holly is something we cannot do without. As the supply grows -less, the price will mount higher. Then will come a time when it is -profitable to raise these trees in quantities, and holly farming will be -practised in favourable localities in the Southern states. But that time -has not yet come. - - - THE BURNING BUSH - -A little tree, not at all related to the holly, but truly a cousin of the -bitter-sweet, has a rather surprising name. In summer it looks like a -wild plum tree, except for its fluted, ash-grey bark. The flowers have -purple petals, and look somewhat like potato blossoms. They would never -attract your attention as you pass the tree. - -In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, and gradually the purple husks that -cover the scarlet berries split open, and curl back. Watch the gradual -opening of these husks, and notice, from some little distance, the -gradual reddening of the tree top, as the yellow leaves fall, and more -and more of the scarlet berries are revealed, as the husks curl and -shrink away from them. It is in this seed and its husk that the -resemblance and relationship of the burning bush and the bitter-sweet -vine is revealed. - -The European spindle tree, and a number of Japanese and Chinese species, -are now planted in American gardens, and called by their genus name, -Evonymus. The red-fruited sorts all come under the common name, burning -bush, and they do burn with a steady flame when winter has robbed the -gardens of colour. Evergreens form a beautiful background for these ruddy -little trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SPRING - - - THE AWAKENING OF THE TREES - -All winter the grey beech trunks look almost white among the dark trunks -of neighbouring trees. Their branches are dark at the tips, and the buds -are long, slim, and sharp-pointed. Silky, brown bud scales, in many -layers, protect the young shoots hidden in these buds. In April these -shoots impatiently push aside their wrappings. The outer scales fall, the -inner ones grow longer, but the growing tip leaves them behind, and they -fall, while the silky-coated, fan-plaited baby leaves hang limp and -helpless on the lengthening stem. - -No tree of the woods is more beautiful than the beech as its twigs cover -themselves with the tender green of spring. Beech leaves are _handsome_ -when full grown. In the short hours of their babyhood they are _lovely_. - -The sturdy shagbark hickory is late in waking. Poplars and beeches are in -full leaf when the big buds of this familiar tree with the shaggy bark -begin to swell, and show the pale, silky inner scales under the black -outer pairs, which soon fall off. - -The branches are stiff and angular, but the twigs hold up their big buds, -and the trees look like great candelabra, each holding up a thousand -lighted candles. As the pointed buds push upward, the protecting scales -grow rapidly larger, and the outer ones turn back like the sepals of an -iris. Wonderful tints of olive and yellow, violet and rose, blend in -their silky covering. Out of this petal-like frill rises the cluster of -young leaves, small but perfectly formed, and just as varied and delicate -in colouring under their velvet covering. These complete the flower-like -appearance of the young shoots. The illusion lasts only until the leaves -spread out, and take on their natural, colour and size. The scales fall, -their duty done, and the flower catkins come out, under the broad -umbrellas of the fresh, new leaves. The tree is thoroughly awake, and has -begun its long summer’s work. - -[Illustration: The great winter buds of the shagbark hickory open like -flowers in May] - -[Illustration: Pink and silvery catkins of trembling aspen, and the -white, flannel-like leaves, just opened] - -The poplar likes to grow in moist ground, and in companies of its own -kind. Copses of these trees, especially if they be young ones, are sure -heralds of the coming spring. Their stems and branches are smooth, and -almost as pale as white birches. They become greenish, especially the -smaller branches and twigs, as the sap rises. They are alive from root -tips to shining buds. - -The brown scales loosen in March on the plumpest buds. The fuzzy grey -pussies push out, and lengthen into soft chenille fringes that wave -gracefully from every twig. They are grey, with a flush of pink, an -exquisite colour harmony, too lovely to last. Their catkins fall as soon -as their golden pollen dust is ripened and scattered by the wind. The -plain, green fertile ones on other trees catch the pollen, and set seed -which ripens, in green, berry-like capsules, in May. The seeds are almost -too small to be seen. Each floats away with the small wisp of down in -which it hides. - -The slim buds on the same twigs open while the trees are still in -blossom. The young shoots come out, and unroll their baby leaves, soft -and white, covered with a silky down, and tinted pink under the -protective hairs. For a short time only they look like white velvet, and -are limp and helpless. Then the hairy coat is shed; the leaves become -shiny and bright green, and twinkle in the sunshine. The stems are -flexible and long and flattened. This makes them catch the breeze, if the -blades do not, so the foliage trembles whenever a breeze goes through the -tree top. - -Quaking aspen, trembling aspen, and “quakenasp” are popular names given -this tree, whose foliage has the appearance and the sound of rippling -water. Tradition says the tree is forever accursed, and trembles as from -fear, because the traitor, Judas, hanged himself on an aspen. This is a -foolish notion. Only gaiety is expressed by the continual fluttering of -the aspen’s leaves. - -The buds of cottonwood and Balm of Gilead trees are sealed with a -fragrant wax which softens as spring loosens the scales and growth -begins. - -Bees throng these trees, and gather the soft wax to carry to their hives. -They use it to stop up cracks that would let in the rain. What is not -needed at once they store for future use. Bee-keepers call it “propolis.” -They have offered the bees something “just as good,” but they will take -no substitute for the genuine. That is produced only on the buds of trees -of the poplar family, and for a brief season it is ready for them in -spring. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN EARLY SPRING - -In late March, or early in April, before the leaves have come out on any -of the trees along your street, you may look out of an upper window and -notice that strange-looking tassels are hanging on the twigs of a poplar -or cottonwood tree. Its buds are large and they shine in the sun, as if -they were wet. A day or two later you may be walking with your mother or -sister, and she will be startled to see the sidewalk covered with what -look to her like great red caterpillars! Then you may remember the tree -with the tassels on it, and recognise them, and explain where they came -from. - -A single look shows that this worm-like object is a catkin, and the -lovely red is the colour of the many stamens that contain the pollen -dust. When this is ripe the stamens burst and let it fly away. Then the -tree lets its catkins fall, for they have done their part. - -Green catkins hang on other trees of the same kind in the neighbourhood. -The flowers are waiting for pollen that will enable them to set seed. If -the wind blows in the right direction when the pollen is flying about, -the green, fertile flowers will get all they need. These catkins are not -shed as the red ones are. They make little show among the opening leaves, -but little seed balls take the place of the flowers. By the end of May -the green balls the size of peas turn yellow, and open. Out of each pod -floats tufts of white down, each bearing away a tiny white seed. This is -the end of the story. Before the chestnut trees have begun to blossom, -the poplars have scattered their seeds, and have all the summer to spend -in growing long, supple shoots covered with their dancing, shining -leaves. They look as if they enjoy life! - -The pussy willows push their fuzzy noses out in winter. Some are even -showing in autumn. But the yellow pollen is not seen on these flowers -until the catkins are full grown, and they wait till winter is past. They -dare not risk a frost. - -Among pussy willow trees there is a difference in the catkins. On one -tree they turn yellow when mature; the golden pollen dust rises in a -cloud when the twig is disturbed. These catkins soon fall off. - -On other trees the catkins are greenish, and they stay on after reaching -full size. They are the fertile flowers, which develop into seed pods. -Pollen brought to them by the wind or by visiting insects in search of -nectar, insures the setting of seed in these flowers. Though the gayer -flowers fall, they are quite as necessary to the making of seeds as the -fertile ones. In all the willows and poplars, it requires two trees, -bearing the two kind of flowers, to make the seed. And the wind and -nectar-seeking insects are necessary as pollen-carriers. - -[Illustration: The winter flower buds, the blossoms, the full-grown -winged seeds, and the ribbed leaf of our American elm] - -[Illustration: The majestic, fan-shaped elm blossoms while snow is still -on the fields] - -In marshy land, or by a brook or river, or even just outside the window -at home, there is a tree that turns rosy in March with a multitude of -small red flowers clustered on the sides of its twigs. It is the swamp -maple, the red maple, the river maple, the scarlet maple. Two of these -names tell of the tree’s thirst; two name its colour when in blossom, and -also when the leaves change colour in autumn. - -Each flower is a red bell, for the petals are red. One has a red forked -pistil thrust out; another lacks a pistil, but has a cluster of yellow -stamens. One tree may be deep red throughout, having only pistillate -flowers. Another may have only staminate flowers; it will be orange -coloured, by the blending of the colours of the yellow stamens, and the -red petals. Another tree may have flowers of both kinds. Occasionally -flowers will be found that have both stamens and pistils. - -The bees are in the scarlet maples at the first loosening of the bud -scales. There is nectar in those flower bells. The colour and a faint -fragrance tell this secret. From pollen flowers the busy insects carry -the golden dust to the forked pistils that set seeds. - -The wind helps by scattering pollen in the tree tops, and very soon the -flowers are gone. The staminate trees turn green when the opening leaves -lose their vivid red. The pistillate trees hang out red clusters of -winged seeds below the opening leaf clusters. These red trees keep their -name written plainly as long as the seed clusters swing. - -Early in March, the side buds on the elm twigs begin to swell, and soon -clusters of purplish flowers, small but very pretty, come out of the -largest buds, and the tree top has a purplish haze upon it, that means -that spring is coming. The bees come to get nectar from these early -blossoms, but few people speak of the blossoming elms. They do not notice -that elms ever blossom; and are rather incredulous when a spray is shown -them covered with the graceful little tassels. “Who ever _heard_ of elms -having flowers?” - -The truth is that every tree, when it is large enough, bears flowers. Not -every one bears fruit, for some have pollen flowers only, the seeds being -borne on the fertile trees. Elms have perfect flowers, and soon after the -leaves open, the green fruits are seen in clusters, and before May -passes, the seeds, each surrounded by an oval wing, flutter off in the -wind. - - - THE AMERICAN ELM AND ITS KIN - -Beautiful and stately, yet full of grace is the form of a big elm tree -against the grey sky of a cloudy winter day. The tall trunk is crowned -with many main branches, which spread into a widening funnel shape, -subdividing into numberless smaller branches, whose direction is outward -and downward. The numerous twigs have the droop of a weeping willow. The -tree top is wonderful when every limb is bare. - -In summer the same tree is a great fountain of green leaves. The long, -leafy twigs of new wood are flung out to the wind, and the twinkling -blades dazzle the eyes like spray. This is the time that we love the elm -for its shade, and as an ornament to home grounds and parks. Roadside -elms are the favourite nesting trees of the Baltimore oriole, whose -hanging pocket of grasses and yarns swings at the end of a high outer -branch. - -When winter is still in the air, and snow on the landscape, the dark -twigs of these bare elm trees change colour. It is the purple flower -clusters that are flung out from opening buds in late March. It takes -sharp eyes to see the cause of the wine-coloured flush in the tree top. -With the opening of the leafy shoots in April, the trees get an added -colour from the pale green seed discs that replace the flowers. These are -winged, and they soon turn brown, and fly away on the first breeze. This -is the elm’s way of sowing seeds. A crop of young elms grows each summer -in fields and gardens near these seed trees. The leaf of the seedling is -exactly after the pattern of the parental tree, but smaller. - -The English elm is less graceful than our American tree. It has more the -stature of the white oak. The head is compact, and the foliage mass -thicker, and longer-lived. The robin red-breast nests close to the sturdy -trunk, shielded by the earliest leaves. - -An old couplet guides the farmer in the old country: - - “When the elm leaf is as big as a mouse’s ear, - Then to sow barley never fear.” - -The toughness of elm is remembered by all who have “read of the wonderful -one-hoss shay.” Nothing but “ellum” was proper stuff for the hubs, you -know. As it is durable in soil, elm is good timber for posts and railroad -ties. By its toughness and flexibility, it is fit for waggon tongues, and -all kinds of agricultural implements. The ancient warrior of England was -likely to carry a longbow made of the tough British elm. - -Slippery elms grow more irregular in form than the American, and are -usually smaller trees. Both kinds grow together in the wooded regions -east of the Rocky Mountains. The difference between them can be easily -detected by a blind person. Twigs, buds, and leaves of slippery elms are -made rough and harsh to the touch by coarse, reddish hairs. - -Boys and many other people like the taste of the glutinous inner bark of -this tree when the sap is running, and the limbs and trunks peel easily. -Many a tree is sacrificed to this appetite. The same delectable -mucilaginous substance quenches the thirst and allays hunger,—so hunters -say, who have eaten it when lost in the woods, and threatened with -starvation. Poultices of it relieve throat troubles, when there is -congestion. It is a home remedy for inflammations and fevers. Dried and -ground, the rich cambium is mixed with milk, and forms a nutritious and -tasty food for invalids. It is a staple on the shelves of apothecary -shops. - -The rock elm might be mistaken for a bur oak were the leaves not decided -proof that it is an elm. The limbs are shaggy, and the twigs winged by -the corky bark. Indeed, another name for the tree is the cork elm. The -framework of this tree is stiff and irregular, a decided contrast to the -graceful drooping top of the American elm, whose symmetry is one of its -best points. - -The wood has its fibres so interlaced that no wood excels it in toughness -and springiness. It is the wheelwright’s choice. It makes the finest -bridge timbers, and the best axe handles, and wheel hubs. - -The winged elm is the smallest and daintiest of the elms. The twigs are -broadened by a corky ridge on each side. This gives the tree its name. -The Indian name, Wahoo, is also heard in the South. The leaves are of the -elm type, but unusually small. - -It is seen as a street and lawn tree in cities and towns south of -Virginia, and west to Illinois and Texas. - - - THE MAPLE FAMILY - -If you meet a tree of good size, with slender branches, and small buds -set opposite upon the twigs, you may suspect it of being a maple. The -leaves are needed to assure you. If it is winter time, and the tree -stands on the street, the leaves may all have been raked away. If the -tree grows in the woods, the chances are that there is a leaf carpet over -its roots, and that most of these leaves have fallen from its branches. -You can make sure of this point by picking up a dead leaf, examining the -base of its stalk to see if it fits the leaf scars on the twigs. If the -leaves are simple, that is, if they have a single blade, the evidence -that this is a maple is very strong. There are a few small trees with -simple leaves set opposite on the twigs, but they do not grow as large as -maples. - -Does the leaf have three main divisions, each with a vein which is one of -three large branches of the leaf stalk? Then you may be sure that the -tree is one of the maple family. - -Simple leaves, of three main lobes, set opposite on the twigs, and the -twigs set opposite on the branches,—in these are the plain signature of -the maples. They write their names in these characters, across every -branch throughout the growing season, and on the leafless branches, and -the dead leaves under the tree in winter. Another signature is the -one-sided maple key, which hangs on the trees all summer, and even late -into the winter on some kinds, but is shed in early summer by a few. - -The two early-blooming maples are commonly planted as street and shade -trees all over the Eastern half of the country. It is easy to recognise -these, and to know them apart by the leaf alone. - -The red maple is a spreading, symmetrical tree, of medium size with -slender, erect branches. The leaves are red when they open in spring; so -are the flowers which cluster on the bare twigs in early April, before -the leaves are out. The clustered fruits that dangle in pairs all along -the stems in May are red, and in the autumn the tree changes its green -robe of foliage to scarlet before winter comes. The buds that cluster at -the joints are red as rubies, and the slim twigs glow with the same warm -colour, which is warmer by contrast with the snow. - -All maple leaves are more or less cleft into three main divisions. The -red maple has two shallow clefts, V-shaped, at the top, and the lobes are -pointed and triangular. The margins are irregularly saw-toothed. These -leaves are often downy beneath, and always white-lined when young. In -summer they have pale green linings. As a rule, red maple leaves are -small, averaging less than three inches in the length of their blades. -They are larger on young trees. - -The silver maple is much more easily grown from seed than the red maple, -but it has a far more irregular tree top. The limbs branch low on the -trunk, and these limbs grow very long, giving the tree a loose head of -great height, and great horizontal spread. The small branches curve -downward, and the twigs are held erect. The wind twists and breaks these -great weak limbs, or wrenches them loose from the trunk. It is dangerous -to have these trees near the house, for wind and ice storms are -constantly snapping off branches large enough to break windows, or knock -down chimneys as they fall. - -[Illustration: The flowers of the red maple are concealed in winter in -brown buds] - -[Illustration: Seeds of red maple, in late May, and in early April] - -The flowers of the silver maple show no red. They come out -greenish-yellow on the twigs when the red maple’s flowers are glowing on -their red twigs in March, and early April. The leaves are pale green, -white beneath, and set on long flexible stems. They are larger than the -leaves of the red maple, and cleft in a distinctly different way. A -narrow, deep fissure divides the leaf in thirds, and two side clefts -divide the lower lobes in two unequal halves. These fissures reach -two-thirds of the way through the leaf blade, and each lobe is cleft -along its sides, into many irregular bays and capes. These leaves are -always silvery white beneath in summer, and they turn to yellow in the -autumn. - -In late May the pairs of winged keys hang on short stems. Each key is -about two inches long, fuzzy green, until ripe, twice the length of the -smooth keys of the red maple, which are ripening at the same time. - -It is good fun to lie under a maple tree, and watch the seeds as they -fall. If the wind is strong, they shower down like rain. Each key -separates from its mate, and as it lets go its hold on the twig, the wind -catches its thin wing, and sends it whirling round and round. The heavy -seed makes for the earth, while the flat blade above it acts as a -parachute, or a sail, to keep it in the air. - -How far does a silver maple send its seeds in these summer days, when -they are falling? It is easy to answer this question by pacing the -distance from the tree trunk in a straight line to the point where the -farthest key falls. Go in the direction towards which the wind is -blowing, in determining this distance. It will be interesting to run out -another line from the tree trunk to find out how far the seeds are thrown -on the side that is against the wind. - -From the silver maple go to a red maple, and watch the harvest of these -small-winged keys. Do a little measuring here, and find out if their -smaller size and weight enables these seeds to sail further in the same -breeze than those of the silver maple. - -The sugar maple is known also as the rock or hard maple, because its wood -is harder, and therefore slower to grow, than the two quick-growing soft -maples just described. This is the one whose trunk is tapped in spring, -and the sap boiled down in great kettles over an open fire in the woods. -When the water is all evaporated, solid cakes of maple sugar remain. If -you are walking in the woods in winter, and come upon any trees bored -with small auger holes, several near the base of each trunk, you may -suspect that this is a grove of hard maples which the New England farmer -calls his “sugar bush.” - -Look at the twigs, and you will see that the plump round buds are set -opposite, and the twigs are opposite on the branch. This is the way with -all maple trees. Are the branches many, and do they shoot upward rather -than outward, and form an oval head? This is the typical habit of young -hard maple trees. As they grow older the heavy lower limbs become -horizontal. They are clean, hardy, vigorous trees, long-lived, -dependable, able to meet the storms, and to suffer the theft of their -rich sap every spring without apparent loss of strength and vitality. - -The leaves come out later than those of the soft maples. They are firm, -and broad, with five pointed lobes between wide fissures that reach -half-way to the stem. Margins of these lobes are wavy, never saw-toothed, -like those of the silver maple. They are dark green above, with paler -linings. In autumn they turn to yellow, orange, and red. - -The flowers open in May, shortly after the leaves appear. They are in -thick, hairy, yellowish clusters. Some are pistillate, some staminate, in -the same cluster. Those with the forked pistils remain and grow into -smooth fruits towards the end of summer. The keys of sugar maples are -short-winged, like those of the red maple, but have stouter, thicker -seeds. They are shed in late autumn and early winter. - -Hard maples are among the best of shade trees, and the glory of their -autumn colouring makes them one of the most to be desired among trees -planted merely for ornament. A street planted to hard maples is well -planted always. But people are impatient for trees to grow up. The slow -growth of the sugar maple is discouraging. It is a good plan to plant the -quick-growing soft maples, and alternate with them the slow-growing -species. For a few years the soft maples are pretty, and with each year’s -growth they give more abundant shade. By the time the wind has crippled -their long arms, and made the trees unsightly, the hard maples are coming -on to take their places, and they need the room which is given them by -the removal of their neighbours on to the left and right. - -When I went into the woods of Oregon, I found the vine maple trees, which -seems not to have sufficient backbone to stand upright. These trees start -to grow erect, but their weight soon overcomes their strength, and they -droop, but keep on growing, with their limbs prostrate on the ground. The -wet land in many places was covered with a network of the interfering -branches of these serpentine maple trees. - -The leaf is about the size of the palm of my hand, and almost circular. -The border is cut into many shallow lobes. The seeds are characteristic -keys, smooth, and the wings of each pair are spread almost opposite each -other. - -The Norway maple is a most popular street tree. Its foliage is very -dense, and the tree forms a round, symmetrical head. The broad, -five-lobed leaves are remotely toothed, smooth, thin, and dark green on -both sides. Break a leaf stem, and a milky juice appears. The seeds are -very flat, and have broad, flaring wings. The flowers are yellowish. -Great clusters of them come out with the leaves. The seeds are ripe in -autumn. - -We shall find that the foliage of the Norway maple stands the wear and -tear better than that of many shade trees. The crown of a Norway maple -turns to bright gold in autumn, and most of the leaves are still unmarred -when they fall. - -The box elder is the one native maple which has compound leaves. The leaf -blade is cleft quite to the stem, and the thirds form separate leaflets, -each mounted on its own stalk. These leaves are set opposite on the -twigs, like those of other maples. - -In spring pink fringes like corn silk decorate the branches of certain -box elder trees. Other trees of the same kind hide little green flowers -among the opening leaves. The pink fringes are the pollen-bearing -flowers, which fall when ripe. Staminate trees never bear fruit. All -through the summer the trees which bore the greenish flower are dangling -clusters of pale green seeds, each with the peculiar wing, which proves -it a maple. When the ragged, yellowing foliage falls, these seed clusters -remain on the branches, and all through the winter the wind is plucking -and carrying them away. - -The wood of box elder is very soft. The tree is planted because it grows -so quickly and surely, and its seeds are so easily obtained. But broken -branches give the older trees a crippled, unhappy look, and the ragged -clusters of seeds give them a disheveled appearance all winter. Fortunate -is the man who has planted elms or hard maples along the road, so that he -may take out the decrepit box elders, and have the better trees coming on -to take their places. - -The striped maple is a little tree, which hides in the woods, and only a -few people know the tree, and love it as it deserves. The stripes are on -its smooth green bark, which breaks into a network of furrows as the -stems increase in diameter. These furrows expose a very pale under-bark, -so that at a short distance the trunk seems to be delicately traced with -white lines. - -In its blossoming season the striped maple has a loose, drooping cluster -of yellow, bell-like flowers. The leaves that surround them are broad and -shallowly three-lobed, and saw-toothed all around. The seeds are little -maple keys, smaller than those of the red maple. - -The mountain maple is another little tree quite as modest and retiring as -its striped cousin. It has longer, more taper-pointed leaves. The flower -clusters are much smaller than those of the striped maple, and they stand -erect. The fruits hang late in the winter, on the grey downy twigs, which -are brightened by red buds. - - - THE WILLOW FAMILY - -One of the first tree families whose name we learn is the willow family. -The members are numerous, and the botanists find great difficulty in -distinguishing certain species, which closely resemble each other; but -these troubles we shall leave to the scientist. The point for us to -consider is this: When we see a tree which we know to be a willow, _how_ -do we know it? “It looks like a willow,” some one says. But who knows, -and can tell _how_ willows look—how they differ from other trees? - -First, willows have slender, flexible twigs that give the tree tops grace -and lightness. Second, willow leaves are nearly always long and slim to -match the supple twigs. They are always simple, and short-stemmed. The -wood is light and soft, so the trees break easily in storms of wind and -ice. An old willow tree is likely to be crippled, but its scars and -wounds are covered in summer by the arching branches and the abundant -foliage. - -The first trees to blossom in spring are the shrubby pussy willows, a -distinct kind whose catkins are so eager to push out of their scales that -their grey, silky noses are often seen in November. Frequently, they are -out and the scales dropped in February; but the yellow stamens and the -long-tongued pistils do not rise above the grey fur until March, at -least. The most attractive stage of these catkins is the earlier one, -when the flower buds are concealed by the grey silk. - -By cutting pussy willow twigs in the late fall, or any time during the -winter, and putting them into a jar of water, we may see the blossoming, -quite out of season. Sufficient food is stored in the twig to force out -the blossoms, even to the shedding of the pollen. It is a charming thing -in the winter to have a vase of these twigs in full bloom on a window -sill when snow banks are piled high just outside. - -Willows are lovers of wet ground, and we shall see groves of them -scattered along streams and on the margins of ponds and swamps. A few -species thrive in dry soil, and seem to prefer it. Some grow at sea -level, others are found on high mountains. From small shrubs they vary to -mighty trees. There is no climate and no soil that does not have its -native willows. The family is distributed from the Equator to the Arctic -Circle. - -It is very common in many places for farmers to plant a grove of willows -for a windbreak, to protect their houses and barns. This is especially -seen in prairie states and other treeless regions. Willows are -quick-growing trees, and sure to grow. All one needs do is to cut limbs -from a growing tree, chop these limbs into pieces the length of stove -wood, and drive them into the ground. Each one takes root, and grows into -a tree, if the soil is at all moist. - -Another plan is to cut fence posts from the willow grove, and drive them -into the ground. Each of these posts forms the trunk of a willow tree, -which soon has a great head of branches. - -In Holland and other countries, willows are thickly planted to form -hedges and for their roots to hold the soil along the banks of streams -and ditches. The same trees may perform a double service. Willow wood -makes good summer fuel, where a quick, hot fire is desired. The twigs -make the best charcoal used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The long, -flexible twigs of a low-growing willow are used in the manufacture of -wicker chairs, tables, and other furniture. These trees are grown on a -large scale in France and other European countries, and the industry is -being introduced in some parts of America. - -When spring comes on, we may notice a peculiar change in the colour of -the bare willows that line the stream borders. The twigs turn gradually -green, and the long, pointed buds prepare to cast off their single -scales. These are shaped like the long, knitted caps which children wear -in winter time, although there is no tassel at the end. The cap fits -snugly over the long bud, and is fastened in a circle at the joint. The -swelling bud simply pushes it off. - -Under these trees, we shall find a good many fresh twigs. Reaching up to -break one, we find that it snaps off short at the base. It is not brittle -along its whole length. Try a dozen twigs, and off they snap, almost at a -touch. The wind has broken off those that fell to the ground. Some that -fall in the water, float away down stream. They catch on sandbars, and -strike root. Some swing in to the shore, and grow on the banks. - -We have discovered a habit of certain kinds of willow trees. The shedding -of their twigs at the season when they are fullest of life is the tree’s -method of colonising new territory. These twigs float away, and blow -away, and those which lodge in wet ground before they dry are almost sure -to grow. The billowy acres of green which cover sandbars and stream -borders are willow trees, children of parents that grow far up stream. - -Along roadsides in this country a large willow is much planted, whose -leaves are pale beneath, so that they look very cheerful and cool in -midsummer. The most striking thing about these willows is that their -twigs are yellow as ducks’ feet, and particularly bright in early spring. -The older trees grow very stout, and great branches leave the trunk close -to the ground. This is the golden osier willow, one form of the white -willow of Europe, which does not grow vigorously in this country. - -The weeping willows, whose long, supple branches sweep out and downward, -sometimes yards in length, from the tree top, came originally from -Babylon. Who were they in that far country who “hung their harps on the -willow trees”? A great many weeping willows in the Eastern states are -said to be sprung from the parent tree, which grew on the Island of St. -Helena. What famous prisoner probably sat under the shadows of this -willow tree, and dreamed again of conquering the world? The weeping -willow has the habit of snapping its twigs off, short, at the base. One -of these long withes, cut into bits with one or two buds on each cutting, -will start as many weeping willow trees, if the bits are stuck into wet -sand and kept wet until rooted, and then set out and given plenty of -water until they become established in the ground. - -The black willow is named for the black bark of the old tree. It is the -only one of the narrow-leaved willows whose leaves are uniformly green on -both sides. These leaves are often curved like a sickle. At the base of -each leaf is a pair of heart-shaped, leafy blades, called stipules. Many -trees have stipules that come out with the leaves, and are dropped off, -but these persist, as a rule, all summer. The black willow is one of -those with the twigs that snap. It takes possession of stream borders, -and its offspring may cover miles of new territory in a single season. - -The balsam willow we shall know by the fragrant coating of wax, or -balsam, on its young shoots and buds. Its broad leaves are blunt at the -tip, and look scarcely willow-like, but the tree is known by its buds and -its catkins. To find it we shall have to go into the boggy regions in the -Northern tier of states, where it is numerous, but never more than a -shrubby tree. - -One use is served by no tree as well as a willow. When the sap rises in -spring, the willow branches are in prime condition to make whistles. I -wonder if there is a boy, in town or country, who does not know how to -make a willow whistle that will “go”? Surely not, unless his supply of -uncles and grandfathers is short. You cannot make a willow whistle by -following printed directions. Some skilful person, who has been a boy, -must show you, and one lesson is enough. - - - WHY TREES NEED LEAVES - -Spring or early summer is the best time to study the leaves of trees. -They are clean, and fresh, and new. Every tree is a great mound of green. -The broad-leaved trees seem to be thatched or shingled with overlapping -blades so that no sunlight can get into the darkened room, which is empty -except for the bare branches that support this outer dome of leaves. A -sugar maple, or a linden tree, shows best this outer thatch, which is so -thick that the sun is unable to look through. The bird flying overhead -sees only a solid mass of leaves. The one on its nest in a forked limb -looks up and sees the inside of this leafy tree cover. She is glad for -the twilight that surrounds her, and for the coolness of this shady -place; but more glad that her nest is hidden from sight of hawks that -sail overhead, while she keeps a close watch for sly, thieving red -squirrels that may come to steal her eggs, by climbing up the branches. - -What are the leaves for? Why does the tree put out in spring young shoots -with rows of leaves along their sides? Why does the tree hold these -branches out as far as possible from the trunk, and bend the leaf stems -and the twigs so as to face the leaf blades towards the sun? - -The reason is this: the life of the trees is in the green layer which we -see on the surface of all green shoots, and which we can discover under -the older bark of twigs, which has turned brown. Following the twig back -from its tip, all of the leafy part is green. Behind it the smooth twig -is no longer green, but a thumb nail easily strips off the layer of -brown, and reveals the green under bark. Go a little further back, and -gradually the outer bark thickens, and it is more difficult to get at the -soft under layer. After a while, we shall need a knife to reach it, for -old bark is hard and tough. - -When the bark gets so thick that the sun cannot reach the green layer, -the colour fades out. The living part of the trunk of the tree is the -soft, juicy layer between the bark and wood. Through this portion of the -tree the sap rises from the roots, and finally reaches the leaves. This -sap needs to be changed before it can be useful to the tree as food. - -The leaves are the places where these changes take place. Through little -doorways in the under sides of the leaf air passes in. With it goes -carbonic acid gas, an important food element. The soft green leaf pulp, -which is the green juice of a bruised leaf, has a wonderful work to do. -It cannot do this work unless the sun is shining upon it. On a bright day -every leaf is making starch, and sending it down through the twigs and -branches as food. This starch is contained in the sugary sap that flows -back constantly from the leaves to the farthest root tips. It is made in -the leaves out of the sap brought up from the roots and the carbonic acid -gas which the leaves absorb from the air. - -As long as the leaves do their work, the tree is able to grow, and to -blossom, and to ripen its seeds. When the leaves have done their work the -summer has passed; the tree lets go the leaves, and rests without growing -all winter. - -It is not easy to explain the work of the leaves, nor even to understand -the wonderful work accomplished there all through the summer. When we -eat, our food must go into the stomach to be changed by the processes -called digestion. It is hours before the digested food is poured into the -blood and carried to all parts of the body. The tree takes its food from -the air, and from the soil. Neither the dirty water that rises as sap to -the leaves, nor the gas which enters the leaf doorways from the air, is -useful as food to the growing tree until they have been combined and -changed. The leaves are, then, in a sense, the stomachs of the trees, for -in them the raw foods must be “digested” before they are ready to be -poured into the life blood that flows down through all the live parts of -the tree. Now they are fit to feed the growing cells, which are always -hungry. - - - LEAVES OF ALL SHAPES AND SIZES - -The leaf of the tree is its visiting card. We shall learn to know trees -by their leaves, as easily as if the name were written across the face of -the leaf. Some leaves have a single blade of green, and for this reason -the botanist calls them _simple_ leaves. This blade has a stem that -unites it with the twig. A _compound_ leaf is one whose stem bears more -than one blade. These small blades are called _leaflets_. There are two -types of compound leaves, one feather-like, having a main stem with -leaflets arranged in two rows on opposite sides of this stem. Such a leaf -is feather-like. The other type has a leaf stem with all the leaflets -attached at one end. The horse chestnut is the best example of this type. -The leaves spread from the end of the stalk somewhat as the fingers rise -from the palm of your hand. - -The biggest leaves with single blades to be found in our forests grow on -trees of the magnolia family. The silver-lined leaves of the large-leaved -cucumber tree are over a foot in length, sometimes two and one-half feet, -down South. These great leaves are about one-fourth as wide as long, and -at the base each one broadens and extends backward into two rounded -ear-like lobes. This gives the tree the name, ear-leaved magnolia. The -whole leaf flaps in the wind, like the ear of an elephant, and, of -course, the wind lashes it into strings and soon robs it of its beauty. - -The Northern cucumber tree is another magnolia whose leaves are -tropical-looking. This is the hardiest of the magnolia family, and its -heart-shaped leaves are six to ten inches long. They are not large for a -magnolia of the South, but they look larger because they grow among the -small-leaved trees of the Northern states. - -The tulip tree has a large leaf of peculiar form. It is broad like a -maple leaf at the base, but at the tip it is cut off square as if with a -pair of shears, forming a right angle with its straight sides. Sometimes -the leaf is notched, as if a V-shaped piece were cut out of the square -tip. These leaves are long-stemmed, their blades polished, and they -flutter on the twigs with the lightness of a poplar leaf. Once we have in -mind the form of the leaf of the tulip tree, we shall never forget it, -for it is different from all other leaves. - -The catalpa tree, which lifts its great blossom clusters above the -foliage in late June, is another of the few large-leaved trees of the -North. The single blade is heart-shaped, six to eight inches long, and -more than half as broad. These leaves usually have plain margins, but -sometimes they are wavy and notched near the base so as to produce faint -side lobes. The blades hang on long, stout stems. - -Among the feather-leaved trees, the walnuts and butternuts, the sumachs, -and the ailanthus, furnish examples. A black walnut leaf is often two -feet long, with a dozen or more leaflets on the longest ones. These -leaflets are always set opposite in pairs, with an odd one on the tip of -the leaf stem. Butternut leaves have the same form, but the leaves are -longer. They range from fifteen to thirty inches, and have from ten to -twenty leaflets, but always an odd number. The peculiar gummy feeling of -these hairy leaves, and their pungent butternut odour when bruised, make -it easy to know the tree wherever we meet it, through the long summer. - -The hickories are cousins of the walnuts, but their leaves, though of the -feather form, have larger and fewer leaflets than any walnut tree. A -shagbark hickory leaf has one or two pairs of little leaflets on the -stem, and above them three of larger size. The pignut has the same habit -of clustering its three largest leaves at the tip of the leaf stem, and -tapering off at the base with one or two pairs of decreasing size. - -The largest of all the compound leaves have branched stems to which -leaflets are attached. The main leaf stem’s side branches may yet branch -again, forming a twice-branched framework that is set with leaflets, not -large, but so numerous as to make the whole leaf surprisingly large. The -greatest of these twice-compound leaves is borne by that astonishing, -spiny-stemmed Hercules’ club. A single leaf is often four feet long, and -nearly a yard wide. There are no leaflets on the main stem; they are on -the side branches. - -How shall we tell a leaf stem from a twig? Leaf stems do not look like -the twigs of the tree. A little practice in looking closely and comparing -these leaf stems and twigs will obviate any confusion of the two. The -leaf has a bud at its base, and it breaks off easily at this joint. - -[Illustration: The sugar maple trees are tapped in February; they bloom -in May after the leaves come out; they ripen their keys in October, when -the foliage turns to red and yellow.] - -[Illustration: Leaves of black willow have frills at their bases. Twigs -of pussy-willows, cut and brought indoors, can be forced into bloom in -midwinter] - -Among the fine, feathery leaves that are so beautiful and light that they -give great beauty to the tree tops are those of the honey locust. These -leaves are of the feather type, the slender stems, with double rows of -tiny leaflets. Very often we find among the single feather forms, leaves -of greater size, which have branched stems. This branching multiplies the -number of leaflets, and gives us, on the same trees, what the botanists -call _once compound_, and _twice compound_ leaves. The simple feather and -the branched feather forms add greatly to the beauty and luxuriance of -the foliage of the honey locust. - -The common black locust of the roadside has single leaf stems with oblong -leaflets set in opposite rows upon it. Ash trees have the same feather -type of leaves, the leaflets usually pointed and oval, and always an odd -one at the tip. They are all larger than leaves of the locusts. - -In the maple family there is a broad, simple blade, about as wide as it -is long. It is a family trait to have three main veins running out from -the end of the leaf stem, into the blade. Each of these veins has side -branches, and they are connected with a network of smaller veins. Between -the tips of these three main veins the leaf is usually notched, so as to -divide it into thirds. In the red maple these notches are shallow V’s cut -out, leaving triangular points. In the silver maple the leaves are cut by -deeper clefts, which reach more than half-way to the leaf stalk. The -three lobes are cut with jagged points into an uneven margin. The sugar -maple has its three lobes separated by wide, deep clefts, and its margins -are irregularly wavy. The box elder, which is a maple, is cleft so deeply -that the blade is split into three distinct leaflets, each with its own -short stem. This makes a compound leaf of it. It is the only maple with a -leaf of more than one blade. - -The tree which shows the greatest difference in the form of its leaves is -the sassafras, whose oval leaves grow on the same stem with mittens and -double mittens—a mitten pattern with a thumb on each side. The hawthorns -have small oval leaves with variously cleft borders. There are over a -hundred kinds of hawthorns in our woods, and each kind has a leaf -different from all the rest; yet a single tree will often show leaves -that differ so much from the others in form that we might easily suspect, -if some one brought them to us, that each grew on a different tree from -all the rest. - -Many oak trees have the same habit of leaf variation, so that even a -forester has to examine many leaves with care, and with them the buds and -the acorns, to make sure that he has called the oak by its right name. - -The behaviour of the leaves of a tree depends largely on the length and -flexibility of their stems. If they are long, and slender, and supple, -the tree-top is in a continual flutter when the wind blows. If they are -thick and stiff, they do not catch the breeze as readily, and their -blades lie comparatively still when other trees near by may be twinkling -and trembling. Leaves with deeply cut borders, like some oaks and maples, -flutter much more than leaves like the basswood, whose borders are -unbroken. Oak leaves that are deeply cut will rarely lie down flat. The -curving bays in its borders cause the leaf to curl, so that no matter -what face is presented, the wind gets under and strikes some surface, and -sets the leaf to dancing. - -The flat leaf stems of the trembling aspen, one of the poplar family, are -very flexible, and they are flattened at right angles to the blades of -the leaves. When a breeze comes by, it may strike the edge of the leaf, -but if so, it catches the flat leaf stem broadside. If it comes from any -other direction the leaf trembles, because one of the blades is sure to -receive the force of the wind. So the tree top is in one constant tremor, -even when the breeze is scarcely sufficient to disturb broad-leaved trees -which are near neighbours of the aspens. - -Whatever the form and size and shape of its leaf, the tree depends upon -its foliage mass for all the life it enjoys, and for all the growth it -makes. The soil and the air feed the tree. The leaves and the sun do the -work of digesting the food. In the porous wood and bark are the channels -through which sap mounts upward to the leaves, and another set of -channels which carry the prepared food back, leaving it wherever needed, -along the way from tip of twig to tip of root. Whatever is not needed is -stored away, to be dissolved as needed and carried to the points where -the need is. In spring it is the growing buds that chiefly need this -stored food. Its presence explains the miracle of the bursting of -blossoms and leaves when spring comes. - -One by one the trees of your own yard may be learned by name this summer. -The leaves are your sure guide. Trees stay where they are. Once we -recognise their leaves and call them by name, we may depend upon finding -them still standing the next day we pass them, and their leaves are still -held out as the sign of recognition. Every time we pass yonder red maple -let us glance at its three-pointed leaf, and fix its shape indelibly in -the mind. When we have done this a dozen times, I am sure that we shall -be able to pick out all the red maples in town; and if we journey far -from home we may find and recognise the same kind of trees by the same -sign. More and more as we grow older, we find out that half the pleasure -of travelling is the occasional meeting with old friends, be they people -or trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SUMMER - - - TREES WITH THE LARGEST FLOWERS - -If we set out to find the trees that have the largest flowers, meaning to -count only trees that grow wild in our woods, it will save time to go -straight south into North Carolina, and climb the foot hills of the -Allegheny Mountains. Or it may be that in the fertile valleys that lie -between the low ridges we shall first come upon a magnolia, called the -large-leaved cucumber tree. Anywhere from North Carolina to Florida, and -west to Arkansas, these remarkable trees are likely to be found, in small -groups. In cultivation, they are successfully planted as far north as -Boston. - -Before the tree has attained more than a man’s height it is a wonder, on -account of the leaves which measure more than a foot in length, and have -their long, green blades lined with white. In June the flowers open—great -white bowls, made of waxen petals, in a double row, the inner ones -painted purple at their bases, giving the flower a purple centre. - -The wind blows the leaves about, and tears them into rags, unless the -tree is in a sheltered place. The silvery leaf linings, as white as the -blossoms, make it difficult to see that the tree is in bloom, until one -is close enough to see the petals. If the leaves were green on both sides -the great blossoms, as large as a man’s head, would be seen afar off. The -tree would look like a giant rose bush. - -From Pennsylvania southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to Arkansas -and Texas, the evergreen magnolia grows on stream borders, and even on -uplands where the soil is not very moist. When this pyramid of shining -green leaves lights all its waxen tapers, it is a sight worth a day’s -journey to see. Each stiff twig is bent upward, and there a bud appears -in spring. A few at a time, the flowers open, and the blooming time lasts -till August. - -Each blossom is a deep, creamy cup, made of six wax-like petals, -surrounded by three white sepals. Inside are many stamens, purple at the -base, and a cone of pistils, all grown together. - -The leaves are oblong or oval, often eight inches long, thick, deep -green, and bright as if polished on the upper surface. The lining is dull -green, sometimes covered with rusty down. The paler green and the -brighter polish on the young leaves add much beauty to the tree in -summer. In winter the leaves get grimy and the tree top is sombre, for -most of the foliage has seen much wear and tear. - -In autumn the ends of the twigs hold up green cones, made of many furry -capsules that end in curved horns. Each capsule splits when ripe, and a -scarlet seed, like a berry, hangs out on an elastic thread, and swings -lower and lower, until finally it is carried away. Thus the magnolia sows -its seeds in winter. - -The shining leaves of this magnolia come North at the Christmas season, -and are used to decorate homes and churches. Holly, mistletoe, palm -leaves, and the beautiful Southern smilax are other Christmas greens now -commonly in use. They are all gathered with magnolia and shoots of the -long-leaf pine, in the woods down South. - -The swamp bay is a magnolia that grows as a shrub to New England, keeping -to the swampy lands that skirt the Atlantic coast. Every spring the -fragrant, creamy blossoms are to be bought from street Arabs in New York -and Philadelphia. A single globular flower is surrounded by a whorl of -oval leaves, bright green, but lined with a white, powdery substance that -makes them look silver-lined. The flowers are deliciously fragrant, and -most beautiful when not spread wide open. The seller often takes the -trouble to spring the petals back, to make the blossom seem bigger. The -waxy petals turn brown soon after such handling, and all their natural -beauty departs. - -From Florida westward to Texas this magnolia becomes a slender, tall -evergreen tree. The best flowers of this tree are borne on shoots that -are produced by pruning back the new growth each year. The largest leaves -and flowers are also the handsomest. - -The cucumber tree is the magnolia of the North. It is a fine tree in -Ontario, Canada, and from this region it spreads south, its range -widening like a fan, reaching from Arkansas to the Carolinas, and -Mississippi, and Alabama. The tropical appearance of the tree is due to -the big, heart-shaped leaves. Their tulip-like flowers are as large as -garden tulips, but they make scarcely any show, because they are very -much the same in colour as the yellowish-green new leaves that surround -them. - -The “cucumbers” are the green cones that contain the seeds. They are very -lumpy and irregular in form, but when ripe the cells split open and the -scarlet seed, let down on an elastic thread from each, looks like any -magnolia seed. - -Cucumber wood is soft, yellowish-brown, and close-grained. It is not very -good lumber, though put to many uses. The tree is worth more alive than -dead. It is an admirable shade tree, though not planted as much as it -deserves. - -The tulip tree is a close relative of the magnolias. It is one of the -trees with large flowers, though, like the cucumber tree, the colour of -the flowers makes them rather inconspicuous. In June the upturned twigs -blossom with yellow tulips. The three sepals flare outward, the petals -form the cup. A band of orange decorates the cup, and signals the bees -which come for nectar hidden near the bottom of the flower cup, among the -bases of the many stamens. - -Many people see the gay petals of the tulip tree flowers when they fall -on the sidewalk, and some wonder what these bits of colour are. A few -will say: “There must be a tulip tree near by,” and look up to find the -singular squared-leaf blades that belong to no other tree. There is a -whole tree top fluttering with them, and this tremulous motion explains -why the tree is often called the tulip poplar. The yellow wood gives the -name, yellow poplar. Pulp of this wood is used for the manufacture of the -ordinary postal cards. It has many other uses, and is a valuable lumber -tree. For shade and ornament it is one of the best trees to plant. - -The cones of the tulip tree do not set free their seeds, as those of the -magnolias do. Instead of horned capsules, the cone has flat, overlapping -blades, like the wing of a maple seed, and the small, closed seed case is -the base of the blade. A few of these seeds are fully developed. But when -the winter strips the tree of its leaves, the wind shakes the cones, and -the loosened scales gradually fall. The wind catches the flat wings, and -away they sail. Little tulip trees grow up where good seeds fall in -favourable ground. - -One day a neighbour told me that there was a tree in blossom on the side -of the ravine. This was a strange story, for it was the dead of winter. -We went to see this wonderful tree. What do you think it was? A tulip -tree, with the seed cones half stripped of their seeds, and shining like -yellow flowers on the ends of the twigs. It was not strange at all that a -person who did not know the tree, and had never seen its cones in -mid-winter, should make this very mistake. - -The flowering dogwood invites us every spring to break off branches -covered with big, white blossoms, each like a four-pointed star, with a -cluster of small white buds in the centre. The trees are small and -low-branching, their limbs are flat, and they spread outward and slightly -downward. Who can resist cutting a few of the blossoming boughs of this -lovely tree! The best part is that the tree suffers not at all if the -pruning is done with some care. Take a thought for the tree; cut the -branches clean with a knife. Take them off where they are thick, and you -will leave the tree better in shape than when you came. Do not strip it -of flowers. This will cripple it. A few sprays of dogwood, prettily -arranged in a vase, are a delight to the eye. A crowded mass of them is -not at all. - -The four outer wings of white are not the petals of a dogwood blossom. -They are colourless leaves, the full-grown scales of the winter flower -buds. The notch at the tip is made by the falling off of the withered tip -which in winter protected the flowers. The base grew long and broad and -turned gradually white. The bees see these white banners farther, -perhaps, than they can catch the faint perfume. Watch the bee as she -probes the middle flowers for nectar. See the pollen on her hairy body. -From one to another, she is the pollen distributor of these flowers, and -she doesn’t know it. - - - TREES MOST SHOWY IN BLOOM - -Sometimes a tree with very small flowers has such a multitude of them -that it attracts more attention and admiration when in blossom than the -trees with the largest flowers. A magnolia blossom as large as a cabbage -head must sacrifice delicacy to size. We must see it at a distance to -overlook its coarseness, and to escape its overpowering perfume. - -An orchard in early May is transformed into fairyland by the opening of -millions of buds. Apple trees have just begun to unfold the new leaves. -They are pale green, and coated with white hairs, so that a silvery cloud -rests on the tree when the white blossoms, warmed with a tinge of pink, -come with a rush that takes one’s breath away. - -A single apple blossom has its five flaring petals inside of five green -sepals that are the bud’s green overcoat. The stamens are many; the -pistils five in the centre of the flower. The plan of the flower is five. -The green lump below the blossom is the apple, already forming. Inside it -are the five cells of the core, and each has its seeds already forming, -if the five pistils have each caught a grain of pollen for each of the -embryo seeds its chamber of the core contained. - -The delicate colour and rich fragrance of the apple orchard are -enchanting. To the honey bees these two signals call to a feast of -nectar. All unknown to them, they carry pollen on their furry bodies from -flower to flower, and thus enable the pistils to set seed. If the days -are damp and there are frequent showers while the apple trees are in -bloom, the bees are kept at home, and there will be but a small crop of -apples. Fortunately for the bees and for us, the blossoms do not all come -out on the same day. The trees and the bees are hopeful till the last -moment that the sun will shine, and the nectar be gathered, before the -opportunity of the year passes. - -Flowers much like apple blossoms in form cover the twigs of hawthorn -trees. They are usually in many-flowered clusters, set off by the green -leaves. Fragrance, sometimes sickening sweet, draws the bees and other -insects to these trees. Nectar drips from the blossoms of some species. -The thorny branches spread sidewise, holding the blossoms out in wide -platforms. The red fruits, called haws, adorn the trees in late summer. - -Plum and cherry trees are laden with white bloom, and heavy with -fragrance. Some species haven’t a leaf when they bloom. And these are -among the showiest of blossoming trees. In these flowers there are single -pistils, and but a single grain of pollen is needed to set seed. The -single seed is the pit, or stone, of this family known as the trees with -stone fruits. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN MIDSUMMER - -In spring the big chestnut tree is late in putting out its leaves. It is -May before the bare limbs are clothed with green. This crown is made of -long, pointed leaves, each short-stemmed, strongly ribbed, with parallel -veins on each side of the midrib, polished and sharp-toothed along its -margin. It is a superb dome of unusually handsome leaves. - -When the flower procession is long past and the grain fields have turned -yellow, and the mower and reaper are humming busily, the chestnut’s crown -turns from green to gold, as if to harmonise with the landscape of -midsummer. Each twig ends in a feathery yellow plume, which waves in the -breezes, and sheds its yellow pollen abroad. The fertile flowers are at -the base of the plume. As the yellow pollen flowers fade, the green scaly -ones below them are swelling. They are the young chestnuts. The long -tongue each held out to catch pollen when it was ready for use. Each -flower has three nuts as its full quota to form. Failure to be pollenated -may cause one of the three to fail. The husk will then contain two nuts. - -[Illustration: Leaves and flowers of the ear-leaved cucumber tree are the -largest in the magnolia family] - -[Illustration: The orange-yellow flower cups and squared leaves of the -tulip tree] - -In May the yellow locust trees still stand along the roadsides, or herded -together along the banks of streams, bare and ugly, while the trees -around them are beautifully clothed in their green garments, and adorned -with blossoms. The dead pods still cling to the locust’s branches, and -not even the buds are in sight to prove the twigs alive. - -Suddenly the trees wake, push out their hidden buds into shoots which -unfold leaves made of tiny leaflets. The leafy spray is light and -graceful, pale green with a silvery sheen at first. Soon the leaves are -inundated with a flood of white blossoms, fragrant with their nectar, -which hang in clusters from each twig. The bees see the white cloud on -the locust tree, and hurry to the feast. Each curious pea-like flower has -a honey pot in its horned petal. Throughout the summer the locust trees -wave their fern-like leaves, among which the young pods swing, rosy and -green, and velvety soft. The two thorns at the base of each leaf are -there, but they are not conspicuous, unless you grasp a limb; then they -let you know where they are, and what they can do. - -On a summer evening we shall see that the locust has closed its leaves, -folding the opposite leaflets together, and the whole leaf drooping from -its stem. It reminds us of the old-fashioned sensitive plant whose leaves -resembled these, folded its leaflets and drooped whenever it was touched. -Indeed, the locust tree and these plants are near relatives. The locust -leaves are sensitive to the evening air. They close if a rain comes up, -but open when the sun comes out again and the sky clears. - -Locust trees have an insect enemy which bores into the solid wood, and -ruins it for lumber. Even the twigs are swollen and distorted by these -insects, which feed upon the rich sap that should go to feed the tree. It -is impossible to reach this enemy with poison, so the trees are helpless. - -Except for this unfortunate fact, locusts would be a profitable crop to -raise for timber. Locust wood is very hard, durable, and strong. It is -slow to decay when in water, so it is valuable for fence posts, and for -boat building. It is used for hubs and spokes of waggon wheels, and it is -an excellent fuel. The locust timber that reaches market comes from the -mountain slopes, where the locust-borer is thus far unknown. The range of -the tree is all over the Eastern states and west to the Rocky Mountains. -We shall not find them south of the latitude of Tennessee. - -[Illustration: Flowers, fruit, and the three different leaf patterns of -the sassafras tree] - -[Illustration: Waxy flower of the evergreen magnolia, usually eight -inches across when open] - -The catalpa’s great heart-shaped leaves, as broad as a man’s hat, come -out in May, but the leafy shoots grow a foot or more in length, and it is -well along toward Independence Day before the flower buds show streaks of -white above the foliage mass. The upturned twigs end in a spike of -blossoms, creamy in colour, but speckled within their wide throats with -purple and yellow. The rim of the flower cup is daintily scalloped, and -frilled, and the tree top is even more showy than the horse chestnut a -month earlier. - -There is stateliness, even stiffness, in the figure of a blossoming horse -chestnut—a pyramid of green holding up a thousand pyramids of white. The -catalpa has a round head, and the loose flower clusters are quite -informal in their arrangement. The flowers nod gracefully on their -stems—a thing the horse chestnut flowers are unable to do. - -Why are the dots of colour sprinkled in the throat of the flower? Why are -they arranged in lines that lead to the nectar sac? To guide the bees -which come in swarms in answer to the signals of colour and fragrance the -flowers fling out as lures to them. - -The two stamens are ripe before the pistil. The bee rubs the pollen off -by crowding into the flower. Some of this dust is bound to be rubbed off -on the ripe stigma of an older blossom visited by this bee. Thus, -unconsciously the bee helps the tree to set good seed. Of these we will -study when we come to the tree again in autumn. Only a hint of the seed -vessel is given by looking at the oldest flower in a cluster, and -noticing the green part at the base. - -The linden or basswood holds its arms out so that the broad leaves are -exposed to the sun in slanting strata, or platforms of shade, that strike -downward. The tree’s frame is roofed in with them in an almost unbroken -thatch of green. Cattle love to crop this foliage, and to enjoy the dense -shade on a hot day. - -In July the dark green is illuminated by thousands of starry white -blossoms, a few at the end of a slender stem that rises out of a pale -green, leaf-like blade. There is nothing like it borne on any other tree. - -The news that the basswoods are in bloom reaches the hives in good time. -One is able to hear the murmur of bees as far as he can see the flowers, -but the fragrance travels much farther. Basswood honey is higher in price -than other kinds. Is this the reason the bees are so hard at work? Small -as the individual flowers are, they have an unusual supply of nectar, and -the bees revel in the plenty of what will feed them and yield wax. They -make honey while the sun shines, counting the basswoods their best source -of the crude materials for honeymaking. It was so in the days of old. -Greek poets sang of the honey-laden lindens. Honey made from linden trees -in the Lithuanian forests was carried to Rome, where it sold for three -times the price of ordinary honey. - -Bees swarm, and the new colony often takes to the woods and sets up -housekeeping in a hollow tree. This is so likely in the Southern states -to be a linden that “bee tree” is a familiar name of this tree. - - - THE EARLY BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -Robins come to our cherry trees in June, and they hunt for our -strawberries under the green leaves. The blackberries come on, and the -raspberries, and currants. The birds look at them with calculating eyes. -An appetite for berries is inherited in them, learned in the woods, where -wild berries have grown, and ripened for them, from the times long before -there were gardens and cultivated fruits. - -Back in the woods we shall find wild berries ripening, and birds feasting -thankfully upon them. The harvest begins with the June-berries in the -month of June. Serviceberries they are also called, and the tree is known -also as the shadbush. We remember the lovely veil of white blossoms this -tree put on before its leaves came out. In June we might not know the -trees, except that they bear red berries, few on a cluster, and here the -birds are feasting. - -There is no other tree with berries that ripen so early, unless it be the -broad-leaved mulberry. Here, too, the birds will be found in numbers. -Turn back the wide, heart-shaped leaves, and you will find the single -berries of all sizes, some green, some reddening and soft. They are like -blackberries, each made of many tiny berries, grown together. - -The beauty of the mulberry is that its fruit keeps coming on from June -until August. It is a very slow, easy-going tree, in no hurry to have its -harvest over. The birds like the soft, seedy berries, which to our taste -are insipid. - -It is a shrewd thing to plant mulberry trees on the edges of fruit -gardens, and set a row of June-berry trees along the road outside the -cherry orchard. It is the scarcity of wild berries that brings the birds -into our gardens. Many a fruit-grower has saved his crop by planting wild -berry trees for the birds. - -The elders are shrubby trees with large, fern-like leaves. They lift up -flat, white flower clusters, sometimes as large as dinner plates, in -June, and in the middle of summer dark red berries are ripening where the -flowers were. Here is another feast for the birds, and elderberry pies -are the reward of boys and girls who gather the berries, and take them -home to mother. Grandma thinks of elderberry wine, so good for many -ailments, and if the berries are plenty it is easy to gather a bucketful -to make a few pints of this old-fashioned cordial. - -Among the shining green leaves of the wild red cherry tree the little -fruits glow like rubies in the summer. Here is a feast for the birds. We -find these small pin cherries very thin-fleshed, and sour, and the -biggest of them is no larger than a pea. But how the birds love them! The -bird cherry is indeed the bird’s tree. In blossom it belongs to the bees, -which come in swarms for nectar. To them, unconscious carriers of pollen -from flower to flower, the birds owe a debt of gratitude. They insure the -setting of seed, and this means a big crop of fruit. - -The wild black cherry is later with its shining clusters of dark red -cherries. They come in September, when the birds’ procession has turned -southward. The earliest comers hold high carnival in these trees, devour -quantities of the bitter-sweet fruit, and drop the seeds near and far. -The wind can do little in scattering the seeds of fruit trees. The birds -are the chief agents of distribution. - - - THE SASSAFRAS - -The sassafras is not important as a forest tree, yet I do not know -another to whom so many kinds of people, of all ages, go, asking for -favours this tree alone can give. Even in regions where the tree does not -grow, its name is well known. Sassafras tea has a world-wide reputation -as a cure for “spring fever,” otherwise known as “that tired feeling.” -Drug store windows are piled high in spring with bits of the corky bark -of the sassafras roots, and the buds in winter taste of the same aromatic -oil, whose flavour rises from a steaming pot of sassafras tea. Many a -bad-tasting medicine is made more palatable by a drop or two of oil of -sassafras. - -The leaves and twigs of young sassafras trees are used in the South to -flavour and thicken gumbo soups. The wood of sassafras is light and -tough. The long limbs are cut and stripped by country boys going fishing, -who know what trees yield the best fishing rods. Sassafras posts last a -long while, for the wood does not rot in contact with soil, or soaked -with water. It makes good boats and barrels for this same reason. - -Children know the sassafras tree. In winter they nibble the dainty green -buds, or dig away the snow at the roots to get a morsel of the aromatic -bark. In summer it is the leaves that are the chief charm of the tree. It -is a fascinating game to look for the “mittens and double mittens,” which -seem to be more numerous than the plain oval leaves on this tree. There -is no other tree that has three distinct leaf shapes. The mitten form has -its thumb just right, on one side. It might be used for a mitten pattern. -There are lefts and rights, and mittens of all sizes. The doll-sized ones -are the youngest, and they grow near the tips of the twigs. The double -mittens have a thumb on each side, and the simple oval shape—the hand -part with no thumb at all—is usually harder to find than either of the -others. - -When looking for these strange leaf shapes, there is always a chance of -coming upon a strange inhabitant of the sassafras tree. A great green -caterpillar is lying at ease upon a hammock of silk, which he has spun -for himself. There he lies, and gazes at the startled person who -discovers him. Are those really eyes, or only black spots? They probably -scare away birds which are looking for worms. The effect of the two “eye -spots” is almost as surprising as if two rolling eyeballs glared at the -intruder, and threatened violence if he came near. - -Carry home this fearsome green mummy on the leaf; put him in a cage made -of wire screen, and watch him. He needs no food, for he is asleep. When -he awakes his mummy case will split open, and out of it will emerge a -wonderful butterfly, with banded wings of black and yellow velvet, and -long, tapering points trailing behind, which gives him his name—the -swallow-tailed butterfly. He has a flexible tongue, an inch or more in -length, coiled like a watch spring. With it he will probe the tubes of -flowers, and find the nectar at the base of each. He is hungry now, so -let him go. Turn him loose in a bed of flowers, and you may see just how -he feeds. - -When the mother butterfly laid its tiny green egg on the face of an open -leaf of the sassafras, the tree was probably in blossom. In June, -delicate, starry, greenish-yellow flowers come out in clusters on the -ends of twigs. The butterfly finds nectar in these fragrant and dainty -blossoms. In the autumn birds come and feast upon the blue berries which -look very handsome on their red stems. Indeed, it is quite usual for the -trees to be stripped while the berries are still green, so hungry are the -birds that stop to feed on their long journey to the South. - -In the autumn the sassafras trees change colour from the brilliant green -of summer. All colours of the sunset, purple, red, and golden, blend in -these shining tree tops. A clump of sassafras and sweet gum trees, with -here and there a tupelo and a dogwood, a scarlet oak and a hard maple, -make a picture never to be forgotten. If the roadside trees were on fire, -they would not show any more vivid colouring. It is their glorious -good-bye to the year, before they all let their leaves fall and enter -into the sleep of winter. - - - THE ASH FAMILY - -The trees whose leaves are set opposite upon the twigs are few in the -American woods compared with those whose leaves alternate. The maples -have the opposite arrangement of leaves; so have the dogwoods. These -trees have simple leaves. The horse chestnuts and buckeyes have their -leaves set opposite, and these leaves are compound: five or seven -leaflets rise from the end of the stout leaf stem. The ash family is -another large group of trees, with leaves set opposite on the twigs. -These leaves are compound, but of a different pattern from those of the -horse chestnut. The leaf stem has the leaflets arranged in pairs along -its sides. This is the feather type of compound leaf, seen in the locust -family, and among walnuts and hickories. - -Ash trees are recognised by their opposite compound leaves. There is -another sign: the fruit has a dry seed, pointed and winged like a dart. -There is no other seed exactly like those of the ash. The seed clusters -hang on the bare twigs, far into winter. The twigs are stout, and set in -pairs on the branches. The trees grow large, and their tops are regular -and handsome. The bark is close, broken by shallow fissures into small, -often diamond-shaped plates. - -Our common ash trees are distinguished by colour, as the names indicate. -A few well-marked differences are shown by the species, which are often -found growing together in mixed woods. - -The white ash is a tall, handsome, stately tree, with a trunk like a grey -granite column. The white in its name is from the pale leaf linings, that -illuminate the tree top in summer. The twigs are pale, and the bark is -often as pale grey as that of a white oak. The slender, dart-like seeds -are one to two inches long, with a wing which is twice the length of the -round, tapering seed. They hang in thick clusters, paler green than the -leaves, and often flushed with a rosy tinge in late summer. All winter -the wind harvests the crop of seeds, and plants young white ashes -wherever the darts fall on good ground. - -The black ash is a slender, upright tree, with narrow head and stout -twigs. The plump, leathery buds on the winter twigs are almost black, and -the bark is a very dark grey. The foliage in summer is much darker green -than that of any other ash, so the name is earned by buds, bark, and -leaves. The seeds are flat and short, and the wing is broad and short, -and deeply notched. A black ash leaf has all its leaflets stemless except -the one at the tip. The white ash has a much fleecier foliage than that -of the black, because each leaflet has a stem of its own. - -The wood of the black ash splits readily into thin sheets, each -representing the growth of a single year. The Indians taught the white -men to make baskets out of black ash splints. They cut the tree down, -sawed the log into the lengths required, split the blocks into pieces as -wide as the splints should be. These sticks were bent over a board, and -the strain separated the bands of dense, tough wood into the thin strips -just right for basket weaving. - -The red ash is a small, spreading tree, with a close head, slender -branches, and crowded twigs. Its bark is reddish, closely furrowed, and -scaly. The young twigs are covered with soft hairs. The leaves are a -shiny yellow-green above, often a foot long, made of seven to nine -slender leaflets, whose stems and veins have a silky down, that remains -all summer. - -Red ash seeds are extremely slender and long, and they hang on hairy -stems. - -The green ash has dark, lustrous foliage, the leaf lining green, like its -upper surface. The bark is grey, and closely checked, and the twigs are -smooth and slender. - -This is the ash tree which grows in the regions of scant rainfall; in -Utah, Arizona, and Texas. In the East it is found from Virginia to -Florida. It is one of the beautiful shade trees in the regions where few -trees grow well. East of the Alleghenies it is but one among many ash -trees, and is little noticed; but in the far West, and on the treeless -plains of Nebraska and Dakota, it is a far handsomer tree than its -companions, the willows and the cottonwoods. - -[Illustration: Fruits, leaves and flowers of basswood tree, called also -linden] - -[Illustration: Chestnut trees blossom in July, and the nuts drop after -the first severe frost] - -The blue ash is common on the rich river lands along the principal -tributaries of the Mississippi. Some of the finest specimens grow on the -limestone hills of the Smoky Mountains. It is a tall, graceful, -grey-stemmed ash. We shall know it anywhere as an ash tree by its -opposite twigs and leaves, and by its dart-like fruits. It differs from -all other ash trees in having four-angled twigs. The tree has a kind of -blue dye in its inner bark. Cut out a piece and put it in water, and it -is as if you had added a few grains of indigo. - -The blue ash ranks high as a shade tree, and its wood is quite the equal -of white ash. It is used for vehicles, for flooring, and for tool -handles. It is especially desired for pitchfork handles. - -The native ash of Europe is a large timber tree, whose range extends -through Asia Minor. The wood of this tree had a wonderful reputation for -general usefulness. Its tough, thin inner bark was used to write on -before paper was invented. The wood was used for lances and spears, for -bows, pikes, and shields by the soldiers, during ancient times. Every -tool, vehicle, and implement of the farmer and mechanic were made of this -wood. “Every prudent lord of a manor should employ one acre of ground -with ash to every twenty acres of other land. In as many years it would -be worth more than the land itself.” - -The seeds of ash trees were used for fattening pigs. They were also used -as remedies for many diseases. They were called birds’ tongues, from -their shape, and every apothecary kept a stock of them. Ash wood makes -the best of fuel, and its ashes, rich in potash, make a splendid -fertiliser, especially in orchards. - -One warning the old English rhyme offers regarding this tree. It is -supposed to attract lightning. Oaks have the same reputation. On the -other hand, tradition holds that a beech tree is never struck by -lightning. There is opportunity, where these trees grow, and where -thunderstorms are frequent, to notice how true are the popular beliefs. - -Have you ever been warned by this old rhyme? - - “Beware of the oak, it draws the stroke; - Avoid the ash, it courts the flash; - Creep under the thorn—it will save you from harm.” - - - THE HORSE-CHESTNUT AND THE BUCKEYES - -When an English lad speaks of a chestnut, he means the horse-chestnut, -and the chances are that he does not know anything about the American -trees, whose sweet nuts we gather in the woods at home after the frost -has opened their spiny burs. In America the European tree is planted very -commonly for ornament and shade, and it is always called horse-chestnut -here, except by English cousins who may be visiting us. - -They ask us why we put the word “horse” before this tree’s name. For -answer we pull down a twig, snap off a leaf, and show the scar of the -leaf’s attachment to the twig. It is somewhat like the print of a horse’s -hoof on the ground. Even the horseshoe nails are there, for a thread from -each leaflet goes down through the leaf stem, and its fibres are buried -in the twig. There are five or seven of these nail prints in the scar, -depending upon the number of leaflets. Five is the usual number, but -seven is not at all unusual. - -An old tradition states that the people of Eastern countries feed these -chestnuts to their horses to cure them of cough, shortness of breath, and -other lung disorders. Upon this is based a second claim for using the -word “horse” before this tree’s name. The quality of the fruit, however, -is probably the best answer to the question. The coarse, large nuts are -not fit for human food. It is quite common to think that horses can eat -things too rank for our more fastidious taste. Horse sugar is the name of -a small tree whose sweetish twigs are browsed upon by cattle and horses -in wooded pastures. Horse-radish and horse-mint are coarser, more -rank-growing kinds of plants, than their closely related species which -are used for human food. - -We shall know the horse-chestnut in the dead of winter by the large buds, -the large hoof-print leaf scars, and by the pyramidal form of the tree. -The twigs are stout, and they turn upward so that the largest of the -varnished buds are held up like candles. The main branches leave the -trunk with an upward curve, then bend outward and downward, then up again -to hold the buds upright. The tree looks, therefore, like a great complex -candlestick, with many arms and many candles. The twigs are stout, and -they come out opposite each other on the branch. This is a peculiarity of -few trees. It belongs to all of the members of the horse-chestnut family, -which includes the buckeye trees, our native horse-chestnuts. - -In early spring, watch the horse-chestnut tree outside your windows and -along the streets as they begin to swell, and until they finally open. -The tree lights all its candles when the brown, varnished outer bud -scales fall, and the soft, silky inner ones, yellow as a candle flame, -are revealed. On the side twigs the buds are smaller than on the tips. -Out of each small bud comes a bunch of leaves. Out of the big buds come -the flowers. - -In June a big horse-chestnut tree holds up a thousand pyramids of white -blossoms. Below each flower duster is an umbrella-like circle of leaves. -Each blossom of the dense spike has in its throat dashes of yellow and -red. The petals form a ruffled border. The curving stamens are thrust far -out. Bees come in search of pollen and nectar. - -After the flowers pass, green fruits appear, a few in a cluster, and all -covered with spines. Not many of these reach full size. It seems to be -enough for the tree to ripen one or two fruits in a cluster. In the -autumn they turn brown, and the husk splits into three equal parts. Out -of this spreading husk the brown nuts fall. - -Now the boys assail the tree with sticks and stones, and the harvest of -nuts is on. Who does not love them for their beauty alone? The great -white spot is the place where they were attached to the husk. The kernel -is as bitter as gall, and I know of no animal which eats it. If any one -counts them useless, let him see the hoards of them which children -gather, and use in their play. He will change his mind completely. Their -glowing, soft colour is a feast to the eye, and they just fit the hand. - - - THE BUCKEYES - -The Ohio buckeye is a little tree, but it has given its name to the -Buckeye State. There must have been many of them in the virgin forest -that the Ohio pioneer cut down to make room for his crops of corn and -grain. He noticed these trees particularly because of a disagreeable -odour that comes from the bitter sap. The chopping and handling of these -trees intensifies this odour, which is noticeable even when one drives -past a growing tree. - -The name was given by some imaginative person who saw a resemblance -between the smooth brown nuts and the soft brown eyes of a buck. The -white of the eye corresponds to the dash of white on the nut. Deer -abounded in the virgin forests, and no doubt it was one of the first -settlers, a hunter as well as a farmer, who named the tree. - -The flowers and leaves resemble those of the horse-chestnut, but are -smaller, as the tree is. The number of leaflets is five, rarely seven, -and they cluster on the end of a long leaf stem. The flowers appear in -April and May, and are not conspicuous, for they are yellowish-green, and -make little contrast with the new leaves. - -One thing is to be said in favour of this ill-smelling tree. Its wood has -been found to be the best kind for the making of artificial limbs. To -this special use the lumber is chiefly devoted. - -The sweet buckeye lacks the disagreeable odour of the Ohio buckeye, and -its nuts are eaten by cattle. It is a handsome, large tree, with leaves -of five slim leaflets, more or less hairy below, and on the veins above. -The flowers are yellow and showy. Each corolla is drawn out into a tube, -like a honeysuckle’s. The husks of the nuts are smooth. This species -grows from Western Pennsylvania along the mountain slopes to Alabama, and -on the prairies westward to Iowa. The nuts are full of starch, and these -are ground into flour, which is used by bookbinders in making their -paste. The reason why this paste is preferred is that destructive insects -do not eat it as they do paste made of wheat flour. - -A red-flowered buckeye tree of small size grows wild from Missouri to -Texas, and east into Tennessee to Northern Alabama. This is not the same -as the red horse-chestnut, which is sometimes seen in cultivation as a -handsome tree, twenty to thirty feet high. - -In the far West, the California buckeye is a wide-topped tree of good -size, with leaves of the true horse-chestnut type, and white or -rose-coloured flowers, in showy clusters, and smooth, pear-shaped nuts. -This is the only one of our native species which grows beyond the Rocky -Mountains. - - - THE LOCUSTS AND OTHER POD-BEARERS - -When you find a tree with flat pods, containing a row of seeds, you may -be sure it is a locust, or one of the family to which locusts belong. It -is a near relative of the peas and beans that grow in the vegetable -garden. This is a great and valuable family to the human race, for it -furnishes some of the most valuable foods upon which the people of all -countries live. Only one family, the grasses, is more important. This -includes not only grasses that are used for making hay, but all the -grains—wheat, barley, rice, oats, and corn, that make the bread of the -world, and forage crops for horses and cattle. The banana and sugar cane -and bamboos are in this wonderful grass family. - -Along the roadsides, along rivers, and in the woods grow the black or -yellow locusts that bloom in June, covering their ugly limbs with a -cataract of white, pea-like blossoms, in large clusters. All summer the -slim, thin pods are velvety and green, with a lovely flush of rose, as -they swing among the feathery, fern-like leaves. In autumn the pods turn -brown, and in winter, when the wind can switch them against the bare -twigs, they split, and one by one, the hard little seeds are shaken out. -They are too heavy to be carried in the wind. So we see little locusts -coming up among the old ones, and on the outer edges of the clump. - -No tree is so discouraged-looking, unkempt, and diseased as a black -locust infested with the borers, and stripped of the foliage that covered -its thin, irregular limbs in the summer time. The buds, even, are hidden, -and the tree looks as if life had left it. But the late spring denies the -rumour by clothing the dead-looking twigs with foliage whose tender -shadings and delicate leaf forms make it one of the most graceful and -lovely of all native trees. - -Unfortunately, we cannot have locusts of this species in this Eastern -country without exposing them to the attacks of insects against which we -cannot defend the trees. The eggs are laid in clefts of the bark, and the -grubs hatch quite out of reach of poisons and other damaging spraying -solutions. They feed on the living substance under the bark, and their -presence is shown by swellings above their burrows. Twigs, limbs, and -trunks are distorted, and gradually the tree loses vitality, and the wood -is made worthless by the honeycombing it receives. Only in the -mountainous parts of its range does the black locust reach its best -growth. No tree has better lumber for posts and other uses requiring -durability in contact with the soil and with water. - -The clammy locust is a pink-flowered species with a sticky substance -exuding from the hairy surface of new shoots. The flowers are lovely but -scentless. The trees are much planted in parks and on lawns as an -ornament, in all temperate climates. - -The honey locust earns its name in the summer time, when the curving -green pods are full of a sweet, gelatinous pulp. Boys would like to get -these honey pods, but the vicious thorns permit no climbing of the trees. -Stoning and other throwing of missiles is a slow and unsatisfactory means -of obtaining the forbidden fruit that hangs so high. By the time they -ripen and fall off the pods are bitter as gall. - -An old-world relative has thick, purple pods, which are sweet and -palatable when ripe. These are brought to this country, and sold on small -fruit stands under the name, St. John’s bread. It is said that this was -the food of John the Baptist in the wilderness. - -The Kentucky coffee tree is the coarsest member of the locust family in -our woods. Its pods are thick and short, and the seeds inside are as -large as hazel nuts. In the story of the Revolutionary War, the patriotic -citizens refused to pay duties on imported goods. The seeds of this -locust were used as a substitute for coffee. I have tasted the bitter -outside of one of these nuts, and tried to break one with a hammer, but -unsuccessfully. It is not easy to understand how a beverage made of such -a nut could have been fit to drink. The name of the tree seems to give -colour of truth to the tradition. - -A coffee tree much like our native species grows in China. We may believe -that it is called by another name, for the people use its heavy pods for -soap. Whether green or ripe, I do not know. - -The club-like branches of our coffee tree give it a burly, clumsy -appearance in winter, when nothing conceals them from view. The dangling -pods rattle against the bare, stubby twigs, calling attention to their -lack of grace and symmetry. Even the buds are out of sight, buried under -the thin bark, just above the big leaf scars. All winter the wind strives -with the stubborn pods. When one is torn off, it lies unopened until -melting snow softens it, and the horny seed lies long before it is able -to sprout. - -A thin pod adorns the most delicate of the locust trees. This is the -little red bud, a flat-topped tree, of slender, thornless branches, most -of them horizontal. Early in spring this tree earns its name. Quantities -of rosy magenta, pea-shaped flowers cluster on its slim, angular twigs, -quite covering the smaller branches. It is an unusual colour, and an -unusual time to see pea-blossoms. You cannot forget it, if you have seen -the tree once. - -The leaves that soon follow are as unusual as the flowers. Roundish, -heart-shaped, smooth, and shining as if polished, they flutter on thin, -flexible stems, and the slim pods hang among them. They ripen and turn -from green to rich purple when the leaves change to bright yellow. The -hard little seeds are close together in the pods, so that they are -numerous, though the pods are but two or three inches long. - -I do not know when the red bud is most charming. Certainly its autumn -garment of yellow is beautiful, trimmed with a fringe of purple pods. It -is a royal robe, and so fresh and new-looking when the foliage of so many -larger trees is faded and in tatters. The trees that hide in the shelter -of larger ones can often save their leaves from wear and tear, and this -the red bud does. - -Judas tree is the name by which the red bud of Europe is commonly called. -It is one of a few species to which an ugly tradition has been fastened -by custom. It is said that this is the kind of tree upon which Judas -Iscariot hanged himself. Our little American tree has had to share the -disgrace, for it looks like its European cousin. The name to use is the -true one. - -Nurserymen have imported a large-flowered red bud from China. Its flowers -are not only more showy, but they have a paler, prettier colour—a rosy -pink, and lacking the sad, blue tone of the others. - -It is easy to raise red bud trees, and they are admirable in the border -planting of a garden or lawn. They begin to blossom when quite young, and -they never grow so large as to be out of place among shrubbery. - -The yellow-wood has larger and lovelier blossom clusters than the black -locust, with which it might most easily be confused. In autumn the flower -stems hang full of thin pods, one to three seeds in a pod. No other -locust is so scantily supplied with seeds in a pod. - -In summer the leaflets prove that the tree is not a black locust. They -are larger and fewer, though of the same feathered type. In the seasons -when the tree blooms freely, which is by no means every year, the twigs -are loaded with clusters larger than any black locust produces. In winter -it is the bark that distinguishes the tree. It is grey and smooth, like -that of the beech; not at all like the dark trunk and rough limbs of the -locust. The form of the tree is a regular head of horizontally-spreading -limbs, ending in tapering twigs that droop gracefully. It is one of the -handsomest trees in winter. The locust is one of the weediest and ugliest -of trees when bare. - -To find the yellow-wood in its native haunts, we must go to the mountains -of Eastern Tennessee and North Carolina. It goes farther north and south, -but its range is scant. Better chance of our meeting it in our -neighbour’s yard. It is cultivated as a flowering tree by people who -appreciate the finest trees that grow wild in American woods. The -nurserymen call it Virgilia. This is certainly a graceful name, fitted to -a tree that deserves only the best. - -The catalpas are pod-bearers of a different type. Their long pencils are -green, and there is no sign of splitting until autumn. The seeds are not -like those of the flat pods, set in a single row. They are thin as tissue -paper, and packed in overlapping layers about the thin partition that -divides the pod into two compartments. - -The pods hang on after the large, heart-shaped leaves fall. Winter winds -bang them against the twigs, and their two sides separate lengthwise. -Gradually the thin, two-winged seeds escape, and are scattered. The -sowing lasts a long time. - -Willows and poplars have pods of a sort, but like neither locusts nor -catalpas. The seeds are very minute in each family, and carried in -delicate wisps of cottony down. The pods open by splitting down their -walls, along two or four lines, curling back the dry segments, and thus -letting the seeds escape. These trees are early in scattering their -seeds. The true pod-bearers are late about it. - - - WILD APPLE TREES AND THEIR KIN - -Go out into the woods, and you will find wild crab apple trees, bearing -hard, sour little apples, unfit to eat. Four distinct kinds are native to -this country. In Eastern Asia wild apple trees grow in greater variety -than here. Our orchard apple trees are descended from these Oriental wild -apples, which were brought under cultivation long before America was -discovered. Nurserymen in Europe and Japan have for centuries worked with -the wild species to improve them. The Japanese worked to produce finer -flowering trees. European horticulturists desired finer and larger fruit. -American orchards show how well they have succeeded. For over a century -American horticulture has made marked progress. Many valuable kinds of -fruit have originated in this country. Our own wild apples are now -studied with the aim of bringing them into cultivation, just as the -Asiatic species were improved centuries ago. It is a wonderful work, -accomplished by crossing, grafting, budding, by fertilising, and good -tillage,—processes too special to be explained in this book. - -The taming of wild apples, however, is one of the great achievements of -the centuries. Every boy and every girl who enjoys the eating of a fine -apple will wish to know how such glorious fruit, in abundance sufficient -to supply the world’s needs, has been produced from such unpromising -beginnings as the gnarled little crab trees scattered through the woods, -and dwarfed by the larger forest trees that overshadowed them. - -“Grafting” or “budding” a little tree insures that the fruit it bears -later on will be of the variety of the tree from which the scions came. -Only once in a long while does a good variety of fruit come on a seedling -tree. Plant the seed of the best apple you ever ate, and then wait a -dozen years or more for this tree to bear fruit. The chances are -ninety-nine to one that the apples turn out to be miserable, sour, or -tasteless nubbins, like the roadside apples, that nobody planted. It is -too expensive to experiment in hope of getting good varieties from seed. - -“Johnny Appleseed” was a funny old fellow who wandered up and down the -Ohio valley states, and planted apple seeds wherever he went. Queer, and -perhaps crazy, he was a kindly soul, who dreamed of the days when -orchards should dot the landscape, and be a part of every farm homestead. -He did what he could to make the wild prairie wilderness blossom and bear -fruit. No doubt many pioneer orchards came from his planting. Seedling -trees, all of them, for he believed firmly that it is _wrong_ to graft a -tree! - -Each year better and bigger apples are shown at fairs, and fruit shows. -The history of apple culture is full of interest. It requires hundreds of -books to tell the story. But any man who has an orchard can tell you how -his trees were made into the varieties he ordered at the nursery. He may -show you how grafting and budding is done, and how a tree may be made -over in a few years to change entirely the kind of apple it bears. He may -show a tree that bears distinct kinds of apples on different limbs, and -show you the scar of the graft from which each new variety has sprung. -When you are old enough, you can grow apple trees from seed, and graft or -bud them to the variety you choose,—greening, russet, northern spy—taking -your scions from a tree whose apples are especially fine. It is a -fascinating game to play, with the soil, and the sun, and the rain all -working with you to help you win. - -Meanwhile, the wild apple, though worthless as a fruit tree, is well -worth knowing. No well-fed orchard tree has charm to compare with this -wild thing when spring transforms its ugly, thorny twigs. - -The rosy blossoms of the wild crab apple come out of a multitude of -coral-red buds which open just after the leaves. The gnarled limbs are -bare and ugly, until late in May. Then the silvery, velvet leaves unfold, -scarcely green at first, because each one wears so thick a garment of -soft, white hairs. Before the leaves have lost this velvet coat, the -flower buds begin to glow, and the tree top is soon blushing with the -blossoms, and the air is full of their spicy fragrance. - -[Illustration: An old apple orchard is a fairy land indeed when blossoms -cover the trees] - -[Illustration: Nothing tastes so good as ripe apples picked right off the -tree!] - -Their charm is the charm of the wild rose. Their arrangement on the -gnarled twigs is irregular. The artist loves the unstudied grace of it. -The great botanist, Linnæus, probably saw only pressed specimens, but he -named the tree _coronaria_, which means, “fit for crowns and garlands.” - -I remember gathering the little green apples in the fall. Hard, and -almost bitter, when eaten out of hand, they make a jelly that is as -distinct and delightful in its way as the flowers are more admirable than -common apple blossoms. The taste is wild, and almost bitter, but beside -it ordinary apple jelly tastes insipid. Perhaps I am prejudiced, and the -memory of that wild crab-apple jelly too remote to be depended upon. But -many people agree with me. If you are in the woods in October, and come -to a thicket of trees bearing flat, yellow apples, pick as many as you -can carry home. Smell their spicy fragrance, and persuade your mother to -make them into jelly, so that you can form your own opinion of it. - -The Eastern crab apple grows over a large part of the region between the -Atlantic coast, and the dry plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and south -to Northern Alabama and Texas. The prairie crab, a different species, -grows in the Mississippi Valley. A narrow-leaved species grows in the -South, and the Oregon crab is the native wild apple of the woods, from -California north into Alaska. - -Quinces are core fruits, cousins of the apples. So are pears. All of our -orchard pears and quinces are cultivated varieties of species that once -grew wild in Europe or Asia. The Japanese quince in America is a hedge -plant which in spring covers its bare twigs with large, deep -rose-coloured flowers, and bears hard, freckled fruits that smell better -than they taste, in September. We know all these fruits, and have them in -our gardens, but they are foreigners here, though much at home. We have -no native pears or quinces in America. - - - THE CHERRIES - -Do you know the peculiar taste and odour of the pit of a cherry or peach? -Then you will recognise it without difficulty when you meet it in a -bruised leaf or twig of any tree that bears stone fruits, wild or -cultivated. It belongs to the family which includes plums, cherries, -peaches, apricots, and almonds. But one species of native cherry is a -large tree. It is chiefly as fruit trees that the cultivated varieties -are important. A few are grown for their beauty as flowering trees and -shrubs; some for their rich bronze foliage. - -The wild cherry is the one lumber tree in the family. Its wood ranks with -mahogany, though not so expensive as the tree which grows no nearer to us -than lower Florida and Central America. It is made into furniture or used -in the interior finishing of houses, parlour cars, and ocean liners. It -takes a beautiful polish, and has a rich brown colour that improves with -time. It is largely used as veneer on cheaper woods. “Solid cherry” is -likely to be birch, if the article is of modern make. - -This cherry has dark, shiny bark when young, which breaks into shallow -furrows, and curls back like birch bark. The unquestionable sign by which -to know a wild cherry is the bitter, peach-pit taste of the sap. Nibble a -leaf or twig or bit of bark, and you get that unforgettable taste, that -stays on the tongue longer than we like. - -Birds feast in September on the long clusters of dark purple berries. -They are bitter sweet, barely edible, I say. But birds take them -thankfully, and children usually eat them freely. Old-fashioned people -make them into wines or cordials for home remedies. - -The choke cherry is a shrubby tree, with a rank, disagreeable odour added -to the bitter and pungent odour that belongs to the black cherry. The -leaves are twice as wide as the black cherry’s. The fruit shares the rank -quality of the leaves and bark. Until dead ripe, the cherries are so -bitter, harsh, and puckery that children, who eat the black cherries -eagerly, cannot be persuaded to taste choke cherries a second time. This -is well-named the “choke” cherry. Only the birds can eat the berries -without choking. They seem not to mind its rankness, for the fruit is all -taken by the time it has turned black-ripe. - -Early in summer the red bird cherry is in fruit, after its crown of white -blossoms has passed. The pit is large, and the flesh thin and sour, and -the whole fruit is discouragingly small. But birds are happy among the -shining leaves until the last cherry is gone. This is quite sufficient -appreciation. The seeds are dropped, and the little trees come up all -through the woods and in the most unexpected places, due to the birds’ -scattering of the seeds. - -Garden cherries of the sweet and sour groups have sprung from wild -species that grow in Europe. The red, black, and yellow cherries of -California are the largest, most improved varieties. The garden cherries -of the Eastern states are not nearly so large. - -The native cherry of Japan has been cultivated as a flowering tree, until -it is wonderfully beautiful. In its season of bloom, Japan is a perfect -fairyland. The country is one great garden of pink cherry blossoms. At -this time the people turn out to see the marvellous sight. A national -holiday is dedicated to this tree, which is the symbol of happiness in -the Flower Kingdom. - - - THE PLUMS - -All plum trees are small in stature, and many are thorny by the -sharpening of side twigs, as if the struggle with adverse conditions made -it necessary to carry weapons of defence. I speak now of the wild -species. They grow in thickets, another habit of self-protection. - -The wild red and yellow plums that still grow in thickets along streams -in the great middle country between the East coast and the Rocky -Mountains, furnished an important article of food to the pioneer -families, which led the westward march of civilisation, and founded the -prairie states. Only people who remember those times, and actually took -part in the work of the pioneer, can know how valuable the wild fruits -were, while the young orchards were growing, and no fruit was to be had -for the greater part of the year. - -After the first heavy frost in September the plums were fit to eat. They -became soft, and sweet, and pleasant in flavour. But the skin was thick, -very sour and puckery, so eating plums was not an unmixed joy. - -When a team and part of the family could be spared from the farm work, a -day was taken for “plumming,” and a happy and laborious day it was, but -always enjoyed in true holiday spirit. Usually neighbours joined in the -outing, and had a picnic dinner together in the woods. Only the oldest -clothes were worn, for in the plum thickets one must risk the ruin of his -raiment by the angular, thorny branches. Sheets were spread under the -trees where possible, and a severe shaking or beating of the branches -showered the fruit down. All hands were busy at gathering the plums, and -loading the waggons with the harvest. - -Perhaps there was time afterward for the boys to explore the hazel -thickets, and gather a generous bagful of these small, but deliciously -flavoured nuts, still in their husks. Wild grape vines, loaded with the -purple fruit, tempted the frugal wife to strip them, even though the sun -was low. For days after the return home, she was at work putting away for -winter use preserves and jellies and pickles, and good old-fashioned plum -and grape “butter,” sweetened with molasses made from sorghum cane. - -Little plum trees, dug in the woods in early spring, were planted in the -home garden. By setting these carefully, and tilling and enriching the -soil around them, larger trees and finer fruit were produced than the -wild plum thicket could show. Some of the good cultivated plums have had -such an origin. - -A half dozen different species of wild plum grow wild in different soils -and regions of the United States. Where two grow in the same territory, -natural hybrids have originated, better than either parent in the quality -of their fruit. Such a cross has given rise to several varieties of -garden plums, of which the Miner group is a fair example. The best -orchard plums for the middle of the country are crosses between native -and Japanese species. The European species, like Damsons and Green Gages, -do well in the Eastern states, and on the Pacific slope. - -The prunes we buy are dried plums. For a century or two France has led -all countries in the prune industry. Now California leads. The kinds of -plums that can be dried are sweet and fleshy. Ordinary juicy plums cannot -be made into prunes. The hot sun of California soon takes all the -moisture out of the plums spread on tables to dry. There is no rain to -fear in the hot summer months. - -Peaches, nectarines, and apricots are stone fruits, closely related to -the plums and peaches. These Old World fruits are grown in the warm parts -of this country. California raises them in quantities. The most -profitable of the stone fruits has woody flesh, and is raised for its -pit, which we eat. This is the sweet almond, a valuable nut. Its related -species, the bitter almond, yields almond oil and hydrocyanic acid, both -important drugs. - - - THE SERVICEBERRIES - -In the same family with apples and plums and cherries is a group of -slender, pretty trees called June berry, serviceberry, and on the East -coast, shadbush. When the shadbush blossoms white, the fishermen know -that it is time to expect the shad, which are taken in nets when they run -up the rivers to spawn. The red berries are ripe in June, and the birds -celebrate the event, and even take them before they begin to redden. -Competition is strong, and the supply never equals the demand. Rarely can -a human berry-picker find a ripe berry, to discover how it tastes. - -The charm of this little tree is that it covers its slim branches so -early with white blossoms. The clusters are soft and feathery, and a warm -flush underlies the white, the ruddy, strap-shaped bracts, two of which -are under each flower. The dainty opening leaves are also ruddy, and -these have opened before the blossoms pass. - -In early April it is worth a long walk or drive through the woods to see -the scattered serviceberry trees standing out from the bare background of -leafless trees, lovely as any tree can ever be, in their robes of white. -Thereafter, they seem to retire from view, engulfed by the foliage -curtain the woodland draws about itself, as spring advances. - - - VALUABLE SAP OF TREES - -In early spring on the New Hampshire hillsides, the sap begins to mount -the trunks of the sugar maple trees, dissolving the sugar stored in the -wood cells during the previous summer. It is time for the making of maple -sugar. Winter is over. Spring work has begun. - -Hundreds of twigs of elder have been cut in short lengths, and the pith -pushed out, to make “spiles.” Holes are bored in the trunks of the trees, -and in each hole one of these hollow spiles is driven. These are the -little spouts that drain the sap from the tree into the waiting buckets -that stand or hang below. Drip, drip, drip, the sweet sap flows into the -buckets; and as often as they fill, the farmer makes the rounds of the -trees with barrels on a low sled or “stone boat,” emptying the buckets. - -The sap he gathers is poured into the evaporating pans in the sugar -house, and a roaring fire keeps it boiling. As the water goes off in -steam, the remainder becomes maple syrup, which thickens as it boils. -Skimming and straining removes any dirt or chips that fall into the sap. -When it is just thick enough, the syrup is drawn off into cans, and -sealed to be sent to market. A part of it, however, is boiled longer, and -when drawn off, and cooled, it crystalises into the granular yellow maple -sugar. It is cooled in shallow pans that hold a certain amount, and thus -the bricks of maple sugar are formed. Little heart-shaped cakes are made -by filling “patty pans” with this heavy syrup. - -As long as the sap flows in sufficient quantities, the sugar harvest goes -on. If the trees are bored with care, with holes not too close together, -the tree will stand this draining from year to year, and seem not to be -injured by the loss of sap. If the holes are close together, and extend -all around the trunk, the tree will be practically girdled and it will -die from the injury. - -The finest kind of maple sugar is the wax which is made by pouring heavy -syrup on the snow to cool. Quickly it thickens by the cold into stringy -yellow wax, which tastes like other maple sugar, but does not have the -unpleasant gritty feeling, which sets some teeth on edge. Maple wax may -be made at home, by melting the sugar, and pouring it into snow; but the -time and the place to enjoy it most, is in the sugar camp when the hot -syrup is poured from the long-handled ladle onto the nearest snow bank by -the person who is in charge of the boiling. The cold air of the woods -puts a keen edge on the appetite. The warm fire under the boiler takes -off the chill, and the silent woods all around give a charm to the scene -which one does not feel in any other place. - -Hickory sap is sweet. This is sometimes added to that of the maples when -maple trees are scarce. - -The sap of pine trees is a liquid called _resin_. The pine forests of the -South are rich stores of this resin, which we call also pitch. The crude -liquid drained from these trees is heated, and a light liquid called -_turpentine_ is drawn off. The remainder hardens, and is known as -_rosin_. The pine trees are tapped, not as the sugar trees of the North -are, but in a way that is far more injurious to the trees. Resin hardens -into gum when exposed to the air, so it is impossible to draw it out -through small tubes like spiles of elder that drain the maple sap. A -great gash is cut in the side of the trunk of a pine tree, forming a -pocket holding three pints or more. Now a square foot or more of the bark -above the pocket is cut off, and the wood is chipped to a depth of an -inch or more. The bleeding surface of the wood fills the pocket below -with resin, and a man comes around with pails and dipper to empty these -pockets as fast as they fill. The pails are carried to a still, where the -resin is poured into a tank and heated to draw off the limpid turpentine. - -Once a week, from March till November, more bark and wood, above the -scored surface, must be chipped to renew the flow of resin. If this fresh -wounding did not occur, the flow would cease, because the resin thickens -and hardens when exposed to the air. This stops up the pores of the wood. - -Fortunes have been made by the draining of these pine trees of their -rich, pitchy sap. Turpentine and tar and rosin are all products of the -sap of pines, and all are immensely valuable, especially in shipyards, -and in the provisioning of sea-going craft of all sorts. The term, “naval -stores,” has been applied to the products of turpentine gathering. Our -forests supply most of these products to other countries. - -The sap of certain tropical trees hardens into rubber. This is one of the -most valuable of tree crops, for there is hardly a household that does -not have rubber articles of a dozen kinds that are daily used. Lacquer -varnish is the juice of certain sumach trees that grow in Japan. Gums of -fir trees have a special use in medicine, and in various arts. - -Sweet gum oozes from trees of that name. This is not noticeable in our -trees of the North, but if we follow the trees southward, the gum flow -increases. In Mexico it is an article of commerce, obtained by wounding -the bark of the trees. It is one of the staple glove perfumes in France. -It is also made into medicines, perfumes, and incense. - -The sap of wild cherry, holly, and buckthorn, of witch hazel and -sassafras all yield medicinal drugs. The flowers of locust, of basswood, -and all the fruit trees furnish nectar out of which bees make honey. The -juicy inner bark of the slippery elm is valuable for food, and as a -medicine. - - - THE USES OF TREES - -Imagine a stranger who has lived all his life in a desert where no trees -grow, coming suddenly into our village, and looking with wonder at the -trees that shade the streets. He knows only the spiny cactuses, and other -plants of the desert. His first question would be, “What are these great -plants that stand so tall?” The name, _tree_, is new to him. It would be -a strange experience to take such an eager and ignorant man and show him -the trees, on the streets, planted in orchards, and growing wild in the -woods outside of the town. His questions set us to thinking. He wants to -know why we plant trees, and how we use those that grow in forests. - -First, we tell him the uses of the living trees. Up and down the streets -they are set for shade, and for their beauty. Rows of evergreens set -close together make a protecting wall of green against the cold winds. -Low clipped hedges of many kinds of trees make living boundaries, much -more beautiful than wooden or wire fences. On lawns and near houses trees -are planted for their beauty and for their shade. Orchards of fruit trees -are planted because they furnish food. Nut orchards are set out for the -same reasons. - -The trees cut down in the woods, and sawed at the mills give us lumber to -build houses to live in, and furniture to make them comfortable, and the -same forest furnishes the fuel that keeps us warm. There is so much to -explain to a person who discovers trees for the first time. It takes a -long time to tell all we know. - -Do we think that we know a great deal about the uses of trees? If so, we -are mistaken. The truth is that trees serve us in ways of which we have -never dreamed. - -We must travel over the world and read a great deal to learn how the -people of other countries make use of trees. The basswood or linden which -nobody cared to use except for fuel in the Middle West might pass for a -useless tree, compared with those whose wood is harder and stronger. But -in older countries people have quite a different opinion of the tree. - -In Russia the tough bark of young lindens is used to make the shoes of -peasants. Ropes, fishing nets, and braided mats are made from the same -tough “bast” fibres, which are very long and tough in this family of -trees. The seeds yield oil that is declared to be quite as good as olive -oil for cooking, and for the table. Perfume is distilled from the -flowers. Cattle browse on the twigs and leaves. The wood is the carver’s -delight—soft, white, free from knots and imperfections. It is used for -bureau drawers, carriage bodies, shoe soles, barrel staves and paper -pulp. Its twigs make artist’s charcoal pencils. - -Linden trees are planted for shade in many countries, and in Europe they -are often cut into grotesque shapes of animals as they grow. They are -clipped into hedges, as close as box or yew. In America they are usually -allowed to grow naturally, as shade trees. European species are rather -more symmetrical than our native kinds. - -The Indians of the Northwest used the soft inner bark of the tamarack -pine for food. They cut down the trees, strip them of bark, and scraped -out this soft lining layer. With water, they mash it into a pulp, which -they cook and then mould into large cakes. A hole is next dug in the -ground, lined with stones, and a fire is built in it. When the stones are -hot, all ashes are removed, and the cakes, wrapped in green skunk cabbage -leaves, are laid in. A fire of damp moss is built on top, and thus the -cakes are thoroughly, baked. To insure their keeping, they are next -smoked in a close tent for a week or more. This dries and cures them so -that they may be safely packed away for future use. These hard, dry cakes -are afterward broken into pieces and boiled. When the mass softens and -cools, it is ready to eat. The fat of different animals is used for -butter on this strange Alaskan bread. - -[Illustration: Flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry] - -[Illustration: The delicate white flower clusters of the serviceberry -tree] - -Everybody knows that trees bear fruits of many kinds that are useful as -food for men and beasts. Spices, such as nutmegs, mace, cloves, and -allspice, may be added to this list of fruits which we have as human -foods. - -The bark of birches is invaluable to the Indians for the making of their -canoes, baskets, and all kinds of utensils. Huts and teepees are walled -with it. Rope and coarse cloth are made out of the fibre of mulberry -bark, and berry baskets out of the bark of the lodgepole pine. The -fibrous roots of the larch tree furnished tough thread, with which the -Indians sewed canoes of birch, and they made them water-tight with the -gum of the balsam. The brown gum that oozes from wounds of the Western -larch is sweet and starchy. The Indians discovered in it a valuable -article of food. - -One of the latest uses of wood is the making of paper, although the white -hornet showed in its conical paper nest that this could be done. She has -been making wooden paper for hundreds of years, scraping the wood from -the surface of weathern-worn fence boards, and from the dead limbs of -forest trees. Our newspapers are made of ground wood, cooked to a soft -pulp, and rolled out into thin sheets. The high price of paper makes it -worth while to gather up papers, bleach them, convert them into pulp, and -roll them out again into sheets. Spruce wood and poplar are among the -cheap woods which have come into demand at the paper mills. The forests -of these trees, counted of little use for lumber, have become valuable -because the paper mills can use them. - -Look about the room, and a dozen articles, beside the chairs and table, -are products of wood, or in some way owe a debt to trees. The paint that -covers the window sash and frames was mixed with turpentine, which is -obtained from the pitchy sap of pine trees. The shades and curtains are -coloured. Dyes of many kinds are extracted from the various dyewoods, -trees that grow in tropical forests. The newspaper and the books on the -shelves are made of wood pulp. The lacquered box from Japan is a handsome -thing. The lacquer varnish is the sap of a certain Oriental sumach tree. -The perfume of the gloves in the box is made from the fragrant gum of an -Oriental sweet gum tree. The skin out of which the gloves were made was -tanned, not with bark, but with the acorn cups, or galls, of a European -oak. - -The shoes on your feet are made of leather. The hemlock trees that grow -on the hills were stripped of their bark by peelers in early spring. -Black oak and chestnut oak are also stripped in our woods. Carloads of -bark are shipped to the tanneries to be used in the tanning of skins -which changes them into leather. - -That beautiful book upon the table is bound in Russia leather. The acorn -cups of a European oak were used to tan the skins that made this leather -so much more beautiful than that of your shoes. Your gloves are made of -kid skins tanned in Europe. For this particular work the nut-like galls -that grow on certain oak trees are gathered in the woods. - -Tannin is the substance in oak bark which makes it valuable in tanning -leather. A high percentage of tannin is found in oak galls. For this -reason they are gathered in many countries, and are among the most -valuable and high-priced supplies for the establishments that tan skins -for gloves. The most expensive inks and dyes, those that do not fade, but -are practically permanent, are made from selected oak galls. - -Oak apples are a strange fruit, found in more or less abundance on the -leaves of our own oak trees in autumn. You have seen them in summer time, -plump, green balls, sometimes as large as a hen’s egg, but globular, -sitting upon a leaf. In autumn the balls take on the colour of the dying -leaves. - -The same tree may have hard little marble-like balls growing on its -twigs. These are of different sizes, and it is not unusual to find a hole -in the side of each. - -All such outgrowths on the leaves and twigs of oaks are called galls, and -they are chiefly caused by winged insects called gall-gnats. An egg is -laid in early spring, in a slit pierced in the twig or leaf. As this egg -hatches, the tissue about it is disturbed in its growth by the presence -of this feeding grub. The soft leaf pulp, or the tender tissues of the -twig that surround it, are exactly what the grub likes to eat. Food and -drink are all about it, and as it feeds, it grows. The leaf swells, and -so surrounds the grub with an abnormal growth. The grub still feeds, and -the swelling becomes larger, until finally, when the insect ceases to -eat, it is housed in the peculiar ball which we know as an oak gall. Each -species of gall-maker is known by its house. - -The oak apples are of several kinds. Some are empty except for a little -shell in the centre, in which the fat grub sleeps. Sometimes the -substance within the “apple” is corky, sometimes spongy. Bullet galls, -which form on twigs like little marbles, are usually solid to the centre, -where the grub lies until the time comes for it to bore its way out to -the surface, and fly away, to lay eggs which will produce other galls. -Usually oak galls, found in winter, contain the sleeping grub, whose -transformation into a winged insect waits until the coming of spring. - -The cork in your ink bottle is the bark of an oak tree. Go to Portugal or -to Northern Africa, and you may see the cork harvest in progress in July -or August. There is no place to go for genuine cork except to a small -evergreen oak that rarely reaches a height over thirty feet. When these -trees are twenty-five years old, a hard, thin layer of bark is stripped -off. This is a valuable tan bark, but it is not in the least corky. The -tree now produces a spongy bark entirely different from the first. It is -not disturbed for eight or ten years. This is stripped off. It is the -poor quality of bark which fishermen use to float their nets with. - -Ten years later the bark is stripped again. It is better in quality than -the first. Each ten years brings the bark stripper again to the tree. In -the fiftieth year, the bark is of the finest quality, and for fifty years -that follow there are five strippings of bark of the highest grade. Then -the quality becomes poorer. The trees are cut down, the bark is sold to -the tanners, and the wood is used for charcoal or for fuel. - -It is a very particular job to get the cork off and leave the under layer -uninjured. The trunk is stripped from the ground to the point where it -branches, and the inner “mother bark” must not be bruised, for no more -cork will grow on any bruised spot. Two circular cuts are made, one at -the top, one at the bottom of the columnar trunk, then two opposite slits -are made dividing the bark of the trunk into two halves. These curved -plates are worked off by inserting a wedged-shaped tool between the bark -and the trunk, and gradually working it further in until the whole curved -plate of cork comes off. These two big sheets are steamed and flattened, -then bound in bundles, and shipped to wholesale dealers in cork. - -The owner of a grove of cork oaks must wait ten years between crops of -the bark, but every year three crops of acorns are borne on these trees. -The pigs of the owner, turned into the grove, fatten on this rich food. -So the little trees are very profitable in two ways. - -In the south of Europe, the handsome, evergreen holm oak grows wild; its -glossy leaves and compact form remind us of our holly trees. It is one of -the most valuable ornamental oaks, but as a fruit tree, it has unusual -value. Its acorns are sweet and rich, and the crop is heavy. Hogs are -fattened upon them. In earlier days they were used as human food, and -even now gipsies gather them to eat. Its acorn cups, bark, and the galls -it bears are of the very best quality. They are used in the most -particular jobs of dyeing and tanning. - -Under ground, the holm oak bears a strange fruit—a fungus called -“truffle” develops on the roots. These truffles are somewhat like -mushrooms in their growth. They are far more delicious to eat, and -expensive to buy than ordinary mushrooms. The best of them are found in -France, and French people are especially fond of them. - -Trees that grow on chalky lands are more likely to produce truffles. At a -dozen years old, they begin to yield, and truffles may be found upon -their roots for about twenty-five years. - -Not every holm oak has truffles on its roots. The finding of these -delicacies is a very interesting and exciting game, and a great deal of a -lottery. There is but one way to find them, and that is by the sense of -smell. The truffle has a rich, strong odour. Dogs and pigs are the only -animals that are able to find it. The truffle-hunter is usually an old -woman, who goes with a trained pig or a trained dog into the oak forest. -She has a basket, and a spading fork, and she keeps a close eye on her -four-footed partner. If the pig, in rooting about under an oak, suddenly -becomes excited, and begins to root furiously, she drives him away, and -digs out the precious ball of fungus he has scented. It is irregular in -form, and looks somewhat like a potato. Meanwhile the pig locates -another, and is again disappointed. The truffle dog is treated in the -same manner. Unless put into a pen, or chained at night, these -truffle-hunters are likely to take to the woods and feast when no one is -by to interfere with their pleasure. - -Truffles are shipped in cans to the United States, but we have not yet -discovered them growing on the roots of our oak trees. Probably we have -not yet looked for them with sufficient care and patience. - - - - - APPENDIX - - - APPENDIX - IDENTIFICATION KEYS TO TREE GROUPS AND FAMILIES - - - A KEY TO NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Leaves few, in sheathed bundles, set spirally on the twig. - THE PINES. - AA. Leaves solitary, set spirally on the twig. - B. Twigs with bracket-like projections for attachment of leaves; - cones hanging down. - C. Leaves flat, blunt, with short stalks. - The Hemlocks. - CC. Leaves angled, sharp, without stalks. - The Spruces. - BB. Twigs smooth; cones standing erect. - The Firs. - - - A KEY TO THE PINES - - - A. Sheaths of leaf-bundles soon shed; wood soft, pale. - SOFT PINES. - B. Needles, 5 in a bundle. - C. Cones, 5 to 8 inches long; Eastern. - White Pine. - CC. Cones, 12 to 18 inches long; Western. - Sugar Pine. - BB. Needles fewer than 5 in a bundle; Western. - Nut Pines. - AA. Sheaths of leaf-bundles not soon shed; wood hard, heavy, dark, - resinous. - HARD PINES. - B. Needles, 3 in a bundle. - C. Length of needles, 8 to 18 inches; cones, 6 to 10 inches. - Longleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 6 to 9 inches; cones, 3 to 5 inches. - Loblolly Pine. - CCC. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Pitch Pine. - BB. Needles, 2 in a bundle; Northern. - C. Length of needles, 4 to 6 inches; cones 2 inches. - Red Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 1 to 3 inches; cones, 2 to 3 inches. - Jersey Pine. - BBB. Needles, 2 or 3 in a bundle; Southern. - C. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Shortleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 8 to 12 inches; cones, 3 to 6 inches. - Cuban Pine. - - - A KEY TO THE SCALE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Seeds borne in a woody cone; twigs flattened, leaves minute. - Arbor Vitae. White Cedar. - AA. Seeds borne in a fleshy, blue berry; leaves scale-like or spiny, or - both. - Juniper. Red Cedar. - - - A KEY TO THE NUT TREES - - - A. Nuts in a husk that opens when ripe. - B. Husk opens in four divisions. - C. Surface of husk, spiny. - D. Nut three-angled, small, two in a husk. - Beech. - DD. Nut rounded, or flattened, 2 or 3 in a husk. - Chestnut. - CC. Surface of husk not spiny. - Hickories. - BB. Husk opens in three divisions. - Horse-chestnuts and Buckeyes. - BBB. Husk opens in two divisions; spiny. - Chinquapin. - A. Nuts in a husk that does not open when ripe. - B. Shape of nut, globular; surface, smooth. - Black Walnut. - BB. Shape of nut, oblong; surface, clammy. - Butternut. - - - A KEY TO THE GROUPS OF OAKS - - - A. Acorns, annual; bark usually pale; leaves with rounded lobes, not - spiny-pointed. - The White Oak Group. - AA. Acorns, biennial; bark usually dark; leaves with spiny-pointed - lobes. - The Black Oak Group. - - - A KEY TO THE WHITE OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves evergreen; Southern tree. - Live Oak. - AA. Leaves not evergreen. - B. Lining of leaves pale, not downy; lobes finger-like. - White Oak. - BB. Lining of leaves pale, downy. - C. Bark of branches corky-ridged; acorn large, in fringed cup. - Bur Oak. - CC. Bark of branches shed in rough flakes; acorns large, on - long stalks. - Swamp White Oak. - CCC. Bark of branches not corky-ridged, nor scaly. - D. Acorn medium-sized; leaf margins cut into squarish lobes. - Post Oak. - DD. Acorn large; leaf margins wavy; bark dark brown. - Chestnut Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE BLACK OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves narrow, willow-like; Southern tree. - Willow Oak. - AA. Leaves oval, with deeply-cleft margins. - B. Acorn cups, shallow, broader than high. - C. Tree pyramidal, twigs with pin-like spurs. - Pin Oak. - CC. Tree spreading; acorns large, in shallow saucers. - Red Oak. - BB. Acorn cups as deep as broad. - C. Leaves thin, smooth, deeply cut; acorn cup drawn in at the top. - Scarlet Oak. - CC. Leaves leathery, rough, with rusty hairs beneath; acorn cup - not drawn in at the top. - Black Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE ELMS - - - A. Twigs smooth, not hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches not corky-ridged. - American Elm. - BB. Bark of branches corky-ridged. - Winged Elm. Wahoo. - AA. Twigs hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches corky. - Cork Elm. Rock Elm. - BB. Bark of branches not corky; buds coarsely hairy. - Slippery Elm. - - - A KEY TO THE MAPLES - - - A. Leaves simple. - B. Bloom before the leaves open; seeds ripe in May. - C. Flowers red; leaves pale beneath, with three triangular lobes. - Red Maple. - CC. Flowers greenish; leaves pale beneath, deeply cleft, with - long, spiny lobes. - Silver Maple. - BB. Bloom after the leaves open; seeds ripe in autumn. - C. Leaves wider than long; lobes spiny-tipped. - D. Lining of leaves, pale; keys joined at acute angle. - Sugar Maple. - DD. Lining of leaves, not pale; keys joined at wide angle. - Norway Maple. - CC. Leaves circular, lobed; tree prostrate. - Vine Maple. - CCC. Leaves about as wide as long; trees small. - D. Bark striped with white lines; flowers and seeds in - dense, pendant clusters. - Striped Maple. - DD. Bark not striped; flowers and seeds in pendant clusters. - Mountain Maple. - AA. Leaves compound, of 3 to 7 leaflets. - Ash-leaved Maple. Box Elder. - - - A KEY TO THE WILLOWS - - - A. Twigs long, drooping. - Weeping Willow. - AA. Twigs erect. - B. Leaves white beneath. - C. Twigs yellow in spring; leaves narrow. - Golden Osier Willow. - CC. Twigs reddish in spring; leaves broad. - Pussy Willow. - BB. Leaves not white beneath; heart-shaped frill at base of leaf stem. - Black Willow. - - - A KEY TO THE LOCUSTS - - - A. Leaves simple; flowers rosy. - Redbud. - AA. Leaves compound. - B. Trees thorny. - C. Thorns simple, paired, at bases of leaves; pods small, thin. - Black Locust. - CC. Thorns often branched, clustered; pods large, curved. - Honey Locust. - BB. Trees not thorny. - C. Pods thick; limbs clumsy; leaves twice compound. - Kentucky Coffee Tree. - CC. Pods thin, small; limbs not clumsy; leaves once compound. - Yellow-wood. Virgilia. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Acorns, 28. - Ailanthus, 61, 175. - Alligator-wood, 90. - Almond, Bitter, 232. - Sweet, 232. - Apple, 96, 190. - Crab, 224. - Oak, 243. - Wild, 99, 221, 224. - Apricots, 231. - Arbor Vitæ, 59, 128. - Ash, 58. - Black, 205. - Blue, 206. - Green, 206. - Mountain, 65. - Red, 205, 206. - White, 204. - Ashes, 96, 203. - Aspen, Quaking, 145, 179. - - B - Balm of Gilead, 146. - Bark, 83. - Bark, Birch, 88, 241. - Basswood, 62, 196, 237, 239. - Bay, Swamp, 185. - Beech, 26, 143, 208. - Blue, 63, 89. - Copper, 88. - Cut-leaved, 88. - European, 88. - Weeping, 88. - Beeches, 87, 88. - Bee Tree, 197. - Birch, 60, 76, 96. - Black, 85. - Canoe, 84. - Cherry, 85. - Red, 85. - White, 83. - Yellow, 85. - Birches, Weeping, 97. - Box Elder, 57, 161, 177. - Buckeye, 203. - California, 213. - Ohio, 211. - Red, 213. - Sweet, 212. - Buckthorn, 237. - Budding, 222, 223. - Burning Bush, 139. - Butternut, 18, 175. - - C - Cambium, 153. - Catalpa, 60, 174, 195, 220. - Cedar, Red, 95. - Cedars, 127. - Red, 129. - White, 128. - Cherry, 191. - Choke, 227. - Japanese, 228. - Red, 199. - Wild Black, 68, 216, 237. - Chestnut, 22, 92. - Horse, 74, 195, 203, 208. - Chestnuts, 116, 192. - Chinquapin, 25. - Coffee Tree, Kentucky, 216. - Conifers, 102. - Cottonwood, 146, 147. - Cucumber Tree, Large-leaved, 174, 183. - Northern, 174, 186. - Cypress, Bald, 134. - Knees of, 135. - - D - Dogwood, 65, 75, 91, 188, 203. - - E - Elders, 198. - Elm, 61, 96, 150, 151. - Camperdown, 97. - Cork, 153. - English, 152. - Rock, 153. - Slippery, 152, 237. - Weeping, 97. - Winged, 154. - Evergreens, 59, 101. - Evonymus, 139. - - F - Fir, 59. - Balsam, 106. - Firs, 95. - - G - Galls, Oak, 244. - Grafting, 222, 223. - Gum, Sweet, 59, 90, 203, 237. - - H - Hackberry, 66, 89. - Hawthorn, 99, 178, 191. - Hazel, Witch, 29, 32, 237. - Hemlock, 59, 105. - Hercules’ Club, 100, 176. - Hickories, 76, 96. - Hickory, Big Bud, 13. - Big Shellback, 11. - Bitternut, 14. - Shagbark, 9, 13, 86, 143. - Shellback, 9, 13. - Swamp, 15. - White Heart, 13. - Hickory Nuts, 116. - Holly, 66, 136, 237. - European, 138. - Hornbeam, 60, 63, 89. - Hop, 90. - - I - Ironwood, 89, 91. - - J - Judas Tree, 219. - June Berries, 197, 232. - Juniper, 130. - - K - King Nuts, 12. - - L - Lacquer, 242. - Larch, 131. - European, 132. - Western, 133. - Leaf, Compound, 173, 176. - Simple, 173. - Leaflet, 173. - Leaf Pulp, 79, 171. - Linden, 76, 170, 196. - Locust, 237. - Black, 99, 177, 214. - Clammy, 216. - Honey, 95, 98, 176, 216. - Yellow, 99, 177, 192. - Log-rollings, 17. - - M - Magnolia, Evergreen, 184. - Maple, 154. - Mountain, 163. - Norway, 57, 76, 96, 161. - Red, 57, 96, 149, 155, 177. - Scarlet, 75, 149. - Silver, 56, 156, 177. - Striped, 162. - Sugar, 74, 92, 158, 170, 177. - Swamp, 149. - Vine, 150. - Mockernut, 13. - Mulberry, Weeping, 97, 198. - - N - Nannyberry, 64. - Naval Stores, 236. - Nectarines, 231. - - O - Oak, Black, 36, 47, 49, 242. - Bur, 39. - Chestnut, 46, 242. - Cork, 245. - Council, 40. - Holm, 246. - Iron, 44. - Knees of, 42, 44. - Live, 41, 96. - Mossy-cup, 39. - Pin, 53, 95. - Post, 44. - Red, 49, 50. - Scarlet, 51. - Swamp White, 45. - Tanbark, 48. - Turkey, 44. - White, 35, 37, 95. - Willow, 54. - Yellow, 47. - Oaks, 4, 28, 33, 76, 96, 178, 179. - Oilnuts, 18. - Osage Orange, 98. - - P - Paper, 241. - Peaches, 231. - Pecan, 9. - Persimmon, 71. - Pignut, 12, 87. - Pine, 103, 108. - Cuban, 123. - Curly, 119. - Digger, 112. - Georgia, 119. - Hard, 118. - Jersey, 127. - Loblolly, 124. - Longleaf, 119. - North Carolina, 122. - Nut, 114, 117. - Old Field, 124. - Pitch, 118, 125. - Red, 126. - Shortleaf, 121. - Soft, 109. - Sugar, 112. - Swamp, 123. - Tamarack, 240. - White, 109. - Yellow, 112, 119, 122. - Plum, 191. - Wild Red, 229. - Yellow, 229. - Poplar, 76, 144. - Lombardy, 94. - Tulip, 187. - Yellow, 187. - Poplars, 221. - Propolis, 146. - Prunes, 231. - Pulp, Wood, 241. - - Q - Quakenasp, 143. - - R - Redbud, 217. - Resin, 235. - Rosin, 235. - - S - Sassafras, 64, 178, 200, 237. - Seedlings, 222. - Serviceberries, 197, 232. - Shadbush, 232. - Sheepberry, 64. - Spindle-tree, 139. - Spruce, 59, 104. - St. John’s Bread, 216. - Sugar Bush, 159. - Maple, 233. - Pine, 112. - Sumach, 66, 175, 242. - Sycamore, 5, 85. - - T - Tamarack, 131. - Tanbark, 47. - Tannin, 243. - Truffle, 247. - Tulip Tree, 76, 174, 187. - Turpentine, 118. - - V - Viburnums, 64. - Virgilia, 220. - - W - Wahoo, 184. - Walnut, Black, 16, 175. - English, 19. - Willow, 63. - Balsam, 169. - Black, 168. - Golden Osier, 167. - Pussy, 148, 164. - Weeping, 97, 168. - White, 167. - Willows, 221. - Winterberry, 138. - Witch Hazel, 29. - - Y - Yellow-wood, 219. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - ---Corrected some palpable typos, and standardized the form of some names - (_e.g._ serviceberry). - ---In the text versions only, represented text font and size variations - (the HTML version preserves the presentation of the original): - ---Text in italics is delimited by _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Trees Every Child Should Know, by -Julia Ellen Rogers - 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Trees Every Child Should Know - Easy Tree Studies for All Seasons of the Year - -Author: Julia Ellen Rogers - -Release Date: November 15, 2013 [EBook #44186] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, L. Harrison and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: The Glory of Autumn Trees] - - - - - _Trees_ - EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW - - - EASY TREE STUDIES FOR - ALL SEASONS OF THE YEAR - BY - JULIA ELLEN ROGERS - - Illustrated - -[Illustration: Grosset & Dunlap] - - NEW YORK - GROSSET & DUNLAP - Publishers - - - - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION - INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN - - COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY - PUBLISHED OCTOBER, 1909 - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES - AT - THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - How to Know the Trees 3 - - AUTUMN STUDIES - The Nut Trees: - The Shagbark Hickories 9 - The Disappointing Hickories 12 - The Black Walnut 16 - The Butternut 18 - The English Walnut 19 - The Chestnut and Chinquapin 22 - The Beech 26 - The Witch Hazel 29 - The Oak Family 33 - The White Oak Group: - The White Oak 37 - The Bur or Mossy-cup Oak 39 - The Live Oak 41 - The Post Oak 44 - The Swamp White Oak 45 - The Chestnut Oak 46 - The Black Oak Group: - The Black Oak 47 - The Red Oak 50 - The Scarlet Oak 51 - The Pin Oak 52 - The Willow Oak 54 - Trees with Winged Seeds 55 - Tree Seeds that have Parachutes 62 - The Autumn Berries in the Woods 64 - The Changing Colour of the Autumn Woods 74 - - WINTER STUDIES - Trees We Know by Their Bark 83 - Trees We Know by Their Shapes 93 - Trees We Know by Their Thorns 98 - The Needle-leaved Evergreens 101 - The Five-leaved Soft Pines 108 - The White Pine 109 - The Great Sugar Pine 112 - The Nut Pines 114 - The Hard Pines 118 - The Southern Pitch Pines 119 - The Longleaf Pine 119 - The Shortleaf Pine 121 - The Cuban Pine 123 - The Loblolly Pine 124 - The Northern Pitch Pines 125 - The Cedars, White and Red 127 - Two Conifers Not Evergreen 131 - The Larches 131 - The Bald Cypress 134 - The Hollies 136 - The Burning Bush 139 - - SPRING STUDIES - The Awakening of the Trees 143 - Trees that Bloom in Early Spring 146 - The American Elm and Its Kin 150 - The Maple Family 154 - The Willow Family 163 - Why Trees Need Leaves 169 - Leaves of All Shapes and Sizes 173 - - SUMMER STUDIES - Trees with the Largest Flowers 183 - Trees Most Showy in Bloom 189 - Trees that Bloom in Midsummer 192 - The Early Berries in the Woods 197 - The Sassafras 200 - The Ash Family 203 - The Horse-chestnut and the Buckeyes 208 - The Buckeyes 211 - The Locusts and Other Pod-bearers 214 - Wild Apple Trees and Their Kin 221 - The Cherries 226 - The Plums 229 - The Serviceberries 232 - Valuable Sap of Trees 233 - The Uses of Trees 237 - - - Identification Keys to Tree Groups and Families 251 - Index 261 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - The Glory of Autumn Trees _Frontispiece_ - FACING PAGE - Three Pignuts, Three Shagbarks, and Two Pecans; Flowering Twig of - the Shagbark Hickory 16 - Black Walnut and Butternut; Twig of Butternut 17 - Buds and Flowers of the Beech Tree 32 - Catkins of a Hornbeam and a Birch; Catkins and Acorn Flowers of an - Oak 33 - Leaves, Acorns, and Twigs of the Bur Oak 48 - The Horizontal Limbs of the Pin Oak Form a Regular Pyramidal Head 49 - Cone Fruits of a Birch, a Pine, a Magnolia, and a Fir 64 - Clusters of the Winged Seeds of Hornbeam and White Ash 65 - The Flowering Dogwood Covers Its Bare Branches with Blossoms in May 76 - Flowering Dogwood, in Flower and Fruit, the Winter Flower Buds, and - Alligator Skin Bark 77 - We Recognise Birches by their Silky, Tattered Bark 84 - The Beech Trunk Is Clothed in Smooth, Pale Grey Bark 85 - The Loose, Stripping Bark Gives Its Name to the Shagbark Hickory 86 - Bark of Hackberry, Black Birch and Hornbeam 87 - Warty, Ridged Bark of the Sweet Gum, the Swinging Seed Balls, and - Winged Seeds 90 - Bark and Seed Balls of the Sycamore 91 - The Lombardy Poplar 92 - The Live Oak of the South 93 - Fruiting Branch of a Cockspur Thorn 96 - Clustered Thorns on Trunk of Honey Locust Tree; Flowers and Foliage - of the Black Locust 97 - Cones of Hemlock and Norway Spruce 112 - Pine Twig with Cones, and Clustered Staminate Flowers 113 - Thousands of Little Balsam Firs Supply the Market with Christmas - Trees 114 - Nathaniel Hawthorne's Outdoor Study 115 - The Spiny-leaved, Red-berried Holly 126 - What Would Christmas Be Without Holly Branches and Wreaths for - Decoration! 127 - "The Grizzly Giant," a Sequoia Over Three Hundred Feet High 128 - Scaly-leaved Evergreens 129 - The Opening Buds of the Shagbark Hickory 144 - Catkins and Leaves of the Trembling Aspen 145 - Flower Buds, Blossoms, Seeds, and Leaf of the American Elm 148 - Elm Tree in Bloom 149 - Buds and Flowers of the Red Maple 156 - Seeds of the Red Maple 157 - The Sugar Maple 176 - Leaves of the Black Willow; Pussy Willow Twigs 177 - Leaves and Flowers of the Ear-leaved Cucumber Tree 192 - The Orange-yellow Flower Cups and Squared Leaves of the Tulip Tree 193 - Flowers, Fruit, and the Three Different Leaf Patterns of the - Sassafras Tree 194 - Waxy Flowers of the Evergreen Magnolia 195 - Fruits, Leaves, and Flowers of the Basswood Tree 206 - The Chestnut Tree 207 - An Old Apple Orchard 224 - Nothing Tastes as Good as Ripe Apples Picked Right off the Tree! 225 - Flowers and Fruit of the Wild Black Cherry 240 - The Delicate, White Flower Clusters of the Serviceberry Tree 241 - - - - - HOW TO KNOW THE TREES - - -The best time to begin to study the trees is to-day! The place to begin -is right where you are, provided there is a tree near enough, for a -lesson about trees will be very dull unless there is a tree to look at, -to ask questions of, and to get answers from. But suppose it is winter -time, and the tree is bare. Then you have a chance to see the wonderful -framework of trunk and branches, the way the twigs spread apart on the -outer limbs, while the great boughs near the trunk are almost bare. Each -branch is trying to hold its twigs out into the sunshine, and each twig -is set with buds. When these buds open, and most of them send out leafy -shoots, the tree will be a shady summerhouse with a thick, leafy roof -that the sun cannot look through. Among the big branches near the trunk -very few leaves will be found compared with the number the outer twigs -bear. - -How can we tell whether the tree is alive or dead in winter? Break off a -twig. Is there a layer of green just inside the brown bark? This is the -sign that the tree is alive. Dead twigs are withered, and their buds are -not plump and bright. The green is gone from under the bark of these -twigs. - -Under each bud is the scar of last year's leaf, and if you look on the -ground you are pretty sure to find a dead leaf whose stem fits exactly -into that scar. If there are a number of these leaves under the tree, you -may feel sure that they fell from the tree last autumn. Look carefully -among the leaves, and on the branches for the seeds of this tree. If -there is an acorn left on the tree, you may be sure that you have the -tree's name! - -The name is the thing we wish first to know when we meet a stranger. If -an acorn is found growing on a tree, that tree has given us its name, for -trees that bear acorns are all oaks. An acorn is a kind of nut, and there -are many kinds of oaks, each with its own acorn pattern, unlike that of -other oaks. Yet all acorns sit in their little acorn cups, and we do not -confuse them with nuts of other trees. So we know the family name of all -trees whose fruits are acorns. They are all oaks, and there are fifty -kinds in our own country, growing wild in American forests. But if those -of all countries are counted, there are in all more than three hundred -kinds. - -If, instead of acorns, pods hang on the twigs, the tree belongs to the -locust family, related to our garden peas and beans. The signs by which -we learn to know trees are not many. The bark of the white birch is so -silky white that everybody knows that tree. The sycamore sheds its bark -in thin, irregular sheets, leaving patches of dirty white streaking the -trunk and limbs, as if the tree had been daubed and spattered with -whitewash. This tree is so strikingly different from others that nearly -everybody knows it by name. Or they call it "buttonwood." The seed-balls -hang on slender stems, swinging in the winter wind. - -The winter signs to notice are the bark, the buds, and the leaf scars, -the shape of the tree, and the way it branches. The fruit it bears may be -seen in summer, autumn, or winter. The flowers come in warm weather, some -kinds early, some later, and the leaves are new in spring, and most trees -shed them in autumn. There is no time of year when there are not three or -four of the important signs hung out on every tree to guide those who are -trying to find out its name, and learn the story of its interesting life. -And the finding out of tree names is not dreary and hard, but a good game -to be played out-of-doors. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE AUTUMN - - - THE SHAGBARK HICKORIES - -The best hickory nut tree that grows wild in our American forests is the -shagbark, or shellbark. Who says that the pecan is better than the nut of -the little shagbark? Southern people insist upon this, as the pecan is -the pride of the Southern states. As a compromise we may place side by -side the pecan of the South, and the little shagbark of the North, and -challenge the world to produce a nut that is worthy to rank with these -two in quality. - -The shagbark takes its name from the tree's habit of shedding the bark in -long, narrow strips or flakes, that curl away from the point of -attachment, but cling for months, perhaps, giving the trunk a shaggy -appearance, and making very easy the discovery of these trees in a -stretch of mixed woodland. And how it does cut and slash the stoutest of -overalls to scramble up and down one of these trees? Only boys and their -despairing mothers can know just how costly a Saturday afternoon nutting -expedition can be, and why many a boy finds it expedient to come back -with his bag of nuts in the late dusk. Otherwise he might be mistaken for -a tramp, so tattered are his clothes. - -The smooth little nuts are angled and pointed, and when they are ripe, -the thick, corky, green husks part into four equal divisions, and the -nuts fall out. So much less trouble than walnuts, in their spongy husks, -that never part regularly, but wait until they are torn off by impatient -boys or squirrels, or until they dry and gradually crumble away. - -The shagbark hickory is a beautiful tree when covered with its shining -foliage in summer. Each leaf is made of five leaflets on a wiry leaf -stem. The three outer leaflets are larger than the pair set nearest the -base of the stem. The whole leaf is often more than a foot long, and -sometimes there are seven leaflets on each. - -The most wonderful shagbark hickory tree I ever saw was one I met once at -sundown, after a long walk across country. It stood in a field, alone, -and so near my home that I had noticed it almost every day through a long -winter. I had gathered a quantity of nuts as they fell in the frosty -autumn days, and it was a race between me and the squirrels, often, to -see who should get the bigger share. I think they beat me, which is -perfectly right. I remember now how rich the foliage looked as it slowly -turned from green to golden brown, and fell in a great windrow all about -the shaggy trunk, as the nuts ripened. - -All winter I noticed how strong the lithe limbs were, and how flexible, -as the wind twisted them about in storms, and how much of promise there -was in the great, scaly buds that tipped the twigs. - -It was late April when I came by. As I looked up into that tree top the -sunlight was shining through, and at first I thought I must be dreaming. -Instead of buds, I saw what seemed like lighted candles, each with a -silken frill, like the recurved petals of an iris, below the tip of -flame! I had never seen a tree thus illuminated, and the sight was -enchanting. The warm spring air had brought out the hickory buds, with -those of other trees, and while I was looking for flowers on the ground, -the buds above had swollen, cast off the winter covers, revealing the -silky inner wrappings of the young shoots. The rich downward-curving -"petals" were only the inner scales of the great buds, grown long and -wide, their vivid orange setting off the compact yellow buds that still -stood erect. These concealed the tender, velvety leaves that were soon to -be revealed with the falling of the leaf scales. I had never seen a -hickory tree opening its iris-like buds before, but I have never missed -it since. - -The big shellbark, or shagbark, hickory is the sturdy "big brother" of -the little shagbark. In every particular it exaggerates the -characteristics of the favourite among our nut trees. The bark is more -shaggy, the tree grows larger, the nuts are bigger. Are they _better_? -No. But they are much the same in flavour, and being so good and so big, -they have the market name of "king nuts." The best of them are gathered -in the woods of Missouri and Arkansas. The tree is found from -Pennsylvania westward to Oklahoma, but the lumber is valuable for the -making of vehicles and tool handles, and so the trees are now scarce in -the states that are oldest. - -In winter the big shagbark trees show their orange-coloured twigs. They -are peculiar to this one hickory. The leaf stems stay on the twigs after -the leaves fall, and give the tree top in winter a ragged, hairy -appearance, that matches its shaggy trunk. - - - THE DISAPPOINTING HICKORIES - -The pignut has been given this ugly name because farmers, in the early -days, turned their pigs into woodland pastures to fatten on the -thin-shelled nuts that dropped from this kind of hickory tree. They are -not bitter, but merely tasteless, and it is only a "greenhorn" from town -or city who will spend time to gather these poor hickory nuts, mistaking -them for shellbarks. They are not usually angled, but smoothly rounded, -often pear-shaped, and the husks are thin. The shagbarks are in husks -nearly one-half inch thick, which split in four divisions, and fall apart -to release the ripe nuts. The husks of pignuts divide but part way down, -and so the nuts are not freed from them promptly. The kernels are -yellowish white. - -A look at the bark of a shagbark hickory, and then at a pignut fixes in -mind one of the chief differences between these trees. The pignut has -clean, smooth, grey bark, becoming coarser and rougher with increasing -age, but never shedding its bark in ragged strips as the shagbark begins -to do when the trees are still young. Smoother foliage and twigs, smaller -buds in winter, and a more regular round head make the pignut a fine tree -to plant on the lawn, where the shagbark would be out of place, on -account of its shaggy, untidy trunk. - -Another handsome hickory tree with nuts that are very disappointing to -the members of a nutting party is the mockernut, called also the big bud -hickory, and the white heart hickory. The last name is wrong because the -heart wood is brown, and it is the wood near the bark that is white. The -tree has the largest buds and the stoutest, clumsiest twigs and branches -in the whole hickory family. The leaves are correspondingly large, -sometimes nearly two feet long, of seven to nine leaflets, on downy, -swollen stalks. The catkins of the staminate flowers are like thick, -chenille fringes, six inches long, often longer, hanging in May below the -new leaves. - -The nuts are large and look most promising at first. The big, four-parted -husk is as thick as a shagbark's, but it does not split all the way down. -So the first difficulty is to get the nut out of the husk. The bony shell -is the next. It is astonishingly thick and hard to crack. Last -disappointment of all, the kernel is at best very small, and not worth -the trouble of getting it out, though there is no denying that it is -better-tasting than a pignut, and almost as sweet as a little shagbark. -Very often the shell contains a spongy substance that is tasteless, -instead of the kernel the patient nutter has a right to expect. - -Crumple leaflets of this tree in your hand, and they smell fruity, like -an apple. They turn to yellow and russet in autumn. - -The bitternut is a hickory nut whose kernel no squirrel eats. It is as -bitter as gall. Thin-shelled as a pignut, and usually less than an inch -in length, the nuts are enclosed in thin husks, that differ from others -in having thin ridges that rise along the four lines where they split at -the time the nuts are ripe. Two of these clefts run farther down than the -other pair. The nut shell is thin, slightly flattened sometimes, and -marked with dark lines. The kernel is white, and you will never taste a -second one. - -The sure sign by which to tell the bitternut hickory is the tapering, -flattened, yellow bud. At any time of year a few, at least, of these buds -are to be found. They are numerous from midsummer till May; after that, a -few dormant winter buds remain to tell the tree's name until the new buds -are showing in the angles between leaf and twig No other hickory has -little, yellow buds. - -In winter the slimness of the twigs, and in summer the small size of the -leaflets make this the most delicately built of the hickories. The buds -are the smallest to be found on a hickory tree. Yet it is the quickest to -grow, and one of the handsomest trees in the family. Because it loves -best to grow with its roots in wet soil, it is called the swamp hickory. - - - THE BLACK WALNUT - -No boy or girl who has ever gone nutting "in brown October's woods" can -forget the fruits of the black walnut trees that hang like green oranges, -high up on the ends of the branches, and have to be climbed for and -shaken down. And each fellow on the ground looks out for his own head, as -the shower of nuts comes down. Oh! the rich, walnut smell of those juicy -husks, as we bruised them on the nearest stone, tore them off, wiping our -damp fingers on the grass, before cracking the rough-shelled nuts. The -brown stains stayed until they wore off, but the memory of the sweet -kernels lasts longer, and the pungent odour of those nut husks is in -every twig, bud, and leaf of every walnut tree. Bruise any young shoot, -and by the odour of its sap the tree's name may be guessed. - -There is another test for a walnut tree, for those who do not know the -odour of the sap. Cut a twig, and split it. The pith of walnut trees is -not solid, but is in thin plates, separated by air spaces. This is a sure -sign. - -[Illustration: Three pignuts, with husks, three shagbarks, and two -pecans; Flowering twig of the little shagbark hickory] - -[Illustration: Black walnut and butternut. Twig of butternut, in winter -and in spring] - -Walnut trees grow rapidly, and are a valuable tree crop to plant. Nuts -for seed are packed in gravel, and left outdoors over winter. The -stubborn shells are cracked by Jack Frost in such a way as not to injure -the seed, which is the meat of the nut. The nuts are planted in spring -just where the trees are to stand, for it is much better for a walnut -tree never to be transplanted. - -I have heard my grandfather tell how the early settlers in Ohio cleared -the rich bottom land along the rivers. The great trees that had grown, -undisturbed, for centuries, were the "weeds" that had to be cut down and -removed, before the soil could be ploughed and sowed to oats or wheat. -The only way to do this was to burn the trees, by piling them together -and firing the pile, as soon as it was dry enough to burn. The -"log-rollings" were the neighbourhood gatherings, when men brought their -teams and log chains, and worked like Trojans, dragging the logs to the -places selected for the giant bonfires, later on. The women and children -had a grand time, watching the men at work, and preparing the dinner, -which was a feast, and a great social occasion. - -The stump of many a noble black walnut tree, cut down a century ago, has -stood, undecayed, until recent years. So valuable is its wood that these -stumps have been pulled up with expensive machinery, for the -gnarly-grained roots that are still sound. Cut into thin sheets, the wood -is used for veneering furniture. Think how many millions of dollars' -worth of lumber went up in smoke in those bonfires! Black walnut is -scarce now, and can hardly be bought at any price. - - - THE BUTTERNUT - -The butternut trees are stripped of their fruit in October by boys who -have visions of long evenings, such as Whittier describes in "Snow -Bound," with nuts and apples and cider, by a roaring fire. Some boys -leave the black walnut trees to others, and fill their bags entirely from -the low, broad butternut trees, that have more nuts in each cluster, and -they are not so hard to reach. Many will say that they are much sweeter -and richer than black walnuts. Others do not care for them because they -are so oily. Indeed, they are called "oil-nuts," and woe to the youngster -who has eaten "all he wanted"! - -The butternuts are oblong and pointed at one end, and sticky to the -touch, differing in this particular from the globular fruits of the black -walnut. The same clammy feeling makes it unpleasant to touch the leaves -of butternut tree. The resinous sap seems to ooze out through pores along -the hairy leaf veins. - -In summer time, when the fuzzy, green butternuts are scarcely larger than -olives, and their shells are so soft that a knitting-needle goes through -without any trouble, the time for making pickled nuts has come. The -gathering of the clustered green fruit is fun, but as soon as they are -scalded, the "fur" has to be rubbed off of each, before the nuts, husks -and all, are put down in spiced vinegar, to be used as a relish for -serving with meats the following winter. The "furring" usually falls to -the children, and they get very tired, for it is a slow and monotonous -job, whether one uses a coarse towel or a brush. However, it would be -unpleasant to eat a furry nut, no matter how carefully the spicing was -done. - - - THE ENGLISH WALNUT - -The English walnut trees are grown in orchards in Southern California. -These trees are quick to grow, and come early into bearing. When you buy -a pound of these thin-shelled nuts at the corner grocery store, you may -well wonder where they grew. Perhaps little children picked them up under -trees that grow in Italy or in Greece. Fine, large nuts come from France, -but none of them are raised in England. Many of the best nuts are raised -in California, where more and more trees of this kind are planted each -year. They grow in the Southern states, but have never been planted on a -large scale as a commercial nut tree. - -The English walnut tree grows in England, but the nuts never have time to -get ripe in that climate. They are gathered green, and pickled, husks and -all. From English grandmothers we learned to pickle our own butternuts -while the shells are still soft. - -The earliest shipments of the walnuts of Europe came into this country -from England. Probably merchants in London sent them to merchants in New -York. The dealers did not ask where these walnuts grew, but told people -who asked that they came from England. This explains the name by which -everybody now calls them. - -Far back in its history, this tree grew wild in Persia, and on the wooded -hillsides of Asia Minor. The people gathered the nuts for food. It was -the custom of visitors to send presents of these nuts back to their -friends in Europe when they were travelling in the Orient, and discovered -how very good these unknown nuts tasted. Englishmen were among these who -were loud in praise of them. "Walnut," the name they gave the trees, -means "a nut that comes from a foreign country." The Greeks had called it -"Jove's acorn," for they could not think of any other name good enough. -Kings sent presents of nuts to each other. Then people began to plant -nuts, instead of eating them all, and gradually all the warmer countries -of Europe found they could grow these walnuts. - -The size and quality of the nuts improved under cultivation. Now there -are many varieties, all larger, thinner-shelled, and better-flavoured -than the original wild nuts that still grow in the forests of Asia Minor. - -In the centuries when the countries of Europe were always at war with -their neighbours, another reason for planting walnut trees was -discovered. No wood was so good for gunstocks. No young man could marry -until he had planted a certain number of walnut trees. This was the law -in some countries in the seventeenth century. So multitudes of these -trees were set out. Besides gunstocks, walnut wood was much in fashion -for handsome furniture. A walnut forest was a very profitable crop to -raise, for lumber alone. A tree that bore such nuts, while its trunk was -growing big enough to go to the saw mill was doubly profitable. The -people of the colder countries were ambitious to share in this -prosperity. But an occasional winter of extra severity killed the young -trees. - - - THE CHESTNUT AND CHINQUAPIN - -Next to the hickory nuts, we must rank the chestnuts. Some may give them -first place in the list of American nut trees. In England the chestnut -trees one hears about are never praised for their nuts. English boys and -girls do not eagerly plan for half-holidays spent in the jolly sport of -chestnutting. Their chestnut trees turn out to be very familiar to our -eyes. They are the horse chestnuts that we see so often at home. Their -nuts are handsome enough, and quite worth gathering for use in some -games, and just to have and to handle. But chestnutting! That is one of -the great joys of October in our country, a thing no boy or girl would -miss without bitter disappointment. - -While the leaves turn yellow on the big trees, children and squirrels -have their eyes on the clustered, spiny balls at the ends of the -branches. "Not yet!" is the sign they read as plain as printed words. -Warm days come and go, and the tree holds out its sign, even after the -leaves begin to fall. Father and mother say: "Be patient!" But they do -not remember how hard that is. It is a long time since they were eight -and ten and twelve years old. - -Then a cold night comes, and in the early morning a hoar frost is -disappearing as the sun rises. Four seams can be seen on some chestnut -burs, and the impatient boys throw clubs into the tree tops. But their -fingers are sore with trying to pry the burs open. The nuts are cheesy -and insipid. - -"Just you wait a spell." This is the advice of John, the raggedy man, who -does the chores. "You can't hurry up chestnuts. When they're ready, I'll -take you where you can get a barrel of 'em, and not kill yourself, nor -ruin your hands gettin' 'em." He sees the rising tide of fear before it -is expressed in words, and answers mysteriously: "Nobody knows the place -but me. Let the little fellers an' the town folks hunt for nuts under the -trees along the road. They'll get a quart apiece, mebby, if they work -half a day. The place I'm goin' to, you can scoop 'em up in handfuls." - -The trees far back from the high road are certainly more generous to the -few who find them than are the more accessible, and therefore more -popular trees. Nobody "scoops them up in handfuls," literally, for there -are the burs, quite as prickly as before they split their four segments -apart, and let the two or three nuts fall out. Careful and quick motions -are needed to pick up the pointed nuts among the larger burs. But the -game is most absorbing. If the bags fill slowly, there is the consoling -thought that the shells are thin, and the nuts are almost solid meats. -The busy picker stops now and then to sample a few. They certainly are -riper and finer tasting than they were a short week ago. - -Unopened or partly opened husks are often gathered. The nuts will ripen -and roll out on the attic floor, or on the roof of the side porch. Few -parties who go chestnutting content themselves with the loose nuts they -gather. The end of the day is a scramble to fill the bags or baskets with -hulls not yet fully open. Mittens faced with leather or made of canvas -are a good protection for the hands. - -The saddest news from the woods of the Northeast is that a disease that -baffles the tree doctors has attacked and killed all the chestnut trees -in the neighbourhood of the city of New York, and it is marching steadily -westward. It has invaded New Jersey and Pennsylvania. A fungus attacking -the living layer under the bark of a tree is working where no remedy can -reach it. The tree loses vitality, but only when it is far gone does the -disease break through the bark, and show itself as small, yellow pimples -on the smooth bark of the branches. Out of these openings the spores -escape,--minute germs of the disease. The wind scatters them. So do -birds, insects, and squirrels. They lodge in cracks in the bark of other -trees. Only chestnut trees catch the disease, though the germs fall -everywhere. When it progresses far enough to produce a mat of fungus that -encircles the trunk, the tree is girdled, its food supply is cut off, and -death results. - -The chinquapin is a Southern tree, which closely resembles the chestnut. -It is usually shrubby and dwarfed in all of its parts. The nuts are about -as large as our little hazel nuts, and each is alone in a spiny husk that -parts into halves when mature. Five or six of these little burs are often -borne on a single stalk. - -In Arkansas the tree reaches medium size, but in the East it is familiar -as a scrubby tree that sends up suckers from the roots and forms -thickets, like hazel brush. Poor folks in the South have time to gather -these little nuts, which appear on market day in their season in some -cities and towns. They are sweet, and some people think they are better -than chestnuts. - - - THE BEECH - -Least of all the nuts good to eat that grow in our mixed woods is the -fruit of the grey-trunked beeches. In nutting time the beech tree's crown -of green is almost as clean and bright as in midsummer. The silky leaves -are little torn by the wind. They turn to a beautiful pale yellow, and -become thin and papery as the green pulp is drawn back into the twigs. -Few people see the spiny green burs on the ends of side twigs in summer, -even though the crop of nuts be heavy. In the autumn the brown spiny -husks open. Their four divisions flare outward, and two triangular brown -nuts are released. Almost unnoticed they drop on the ground under the -tree. They are so little that the wind helps to scatter them in the woods -around. The shifting leaf carpet sifts them through, and we shall have to -hunt for them, even under the parent trees. - -I need not tell any boy or girl how good and sweet these beech nuts are, -and how well they repay the trouble of getting the kernels out of the -thin, triangular shells. Yet people gather them less frequently than they -do chestnuts, because it is slow work, and there is more accomplished -under trees whose nuts are larger. - -The early settlers fattened their pigs in autumn by turning them into the -woods. Beech trees made the best possible pasture for this purpose. The -flavour of beech nut bacon is exceptionally delicate, and has an extra -high market value. Squirrels and all of the smaller furry-coats take the -time and trouble to gather and hoard quantities of beech nuts among their -winter stores. - -Fortunate for the beech tree, its nuts will grow even in the shade. We -shall find a fruiting beech tree surrounded by its children--saplings of -all ages, coming up from seeds of various sowings. - -By scratching carefully among the dead leaves in spring, we shall find, -among the gaping burs, the young trees at the very beginning of their -lives. The nuts have slipped down into the damp leaf mould, and the -melting of snow, and the warm spring air have started them growing. The -triangular shell clings to the top of the stem, while the root is getting -a foothold. A pair of broad seed leaves, totally unlike the leaves of the -beech tree, unfold. The spreading of these seed leaves soon splits the -walls of the nut-shell helmet. - -Little beech trees at this age are very weak and helpless, but patient -and struggling. Their pale leaves turn green as the root goes deeper -down, and draws food from the soil. A shoot bearing true beech leaves -rises from the tip, between the seed leaves. The stem straightens, and -grows tall, the seed leaves wither, and, unless it has bad luck, or some -accident befalls it, the little tree is a long, leafy whip by the end of -the season, and under each green leaf is a long bird's-claw beech bud, -just like those on the parent trees. In these buds are leafy shoots which -will be side branches during the following summer. - -Beech nuts are still one of the main foods of many wild animals. In the -earlier days they had much greater importance, for nuts were one of the -natural foods upon which the human race subsisted before the days when -men became civilised. They depended upon foods which Nature provided, and -ate them without cooking. Acorns served the same important purpose. - -We cannot go back to the days when men lived in caves, and dressed in the -skins of wild animals, and lived upon foods like nuts and berries, and -the flesh of wild beasts. But in camping out we return as closely as -possible to the simple life of these wild ancestors of ours. It is good -to know what foods the forest offers to hungry men and beasts. Some day -we may be lost in the woods. We may come to an oak tree, and attempt to -eat its acorns, but find them bitter. It is well to know that the oaks -with finger-pointed leaves bear acorns that are sweet and good. It is -only the oaks with spiny-lobed leaves whose acorns are bitter and unfit -for food. Beech trees offer no food to a hungry person, unless he knows -how little the nuts are, and how they hide by slipping under the leaves -when they fall. To know trees is delightful at any time, and in any -place. To know them when one is lost in a forest is often the means of -saving one's life. The forest still feeds the hungry, but only those who -know the trees are able to find these stores of food when they need them. - - - THE WITCH HAZEL - -The witch hazel is indeed the witch of the woods. It turns the year -up-side-down, by blossoming in October, at the same time that it is -ripening its seeds. For this reason every child who lives in a region -where this little tree grows should know the witch hazel. The better -people know it, the more wonderful they find it. It has many odd habits -and secrets, which it will reveal only to those who come and ask -questions, and keep their ears and eyes wide open to catch the answers. - -In spring the witch hazel hides under its green leaves, and attracts no -attention from those who have come out to see the great procession of the -spring flowers, under foot, and over head. It is simply a part of the -undergrowth, a shrubby little tree. But come in October, to the same -place. The acorns are dropping from the oak, the foliage ablaze with -colour, or faded and falling. There are no flowers overhead, but a few -belated asters and goldenrods under foot. Squirrels are busy hiding -winter stores, gathered under the nut trees, and on the wild hawthorns. - -A thicket of witch hazel is slowly dropping its yellowing leaves. You -might not have noticed it at all, had not one of the trees suddenly -called attention to itself by tweaking your ear! It is such a surprise to -feel in the silent woods the sharp sting of a shot from a silent air gun. -You stand still, listening, and feeling of your ear. It is a fine frosty -October day, and still. As you listen, another shot strikes the dead -leaves at your feet. Where do they come from? This question you will -probably not be able to answer at once; but while you are looking in the -bushes from which the missile seemed to come, thinking to rout some joker -from his ambush, you discover the blossoms of the witch hazel. Each one -is waving four little yellow petals, and among these delicate blossoms -the bullet pods are bunched. Some of these are yawning wide open, each -showing two empty seed pockets, but you do not find any seeds. - -Cut a bundle of these things, and carry them home. Put them in a vase of -water. The delicate fragrance of the flowers will go through the house, -and every one will marvel that any tree or bush can be found in blossom -at the very end of the year. Now the strangest thing will happen. Above -the quiet talk around the evening lamp sounds the sharp click, as of a -bit of metal, or a bead striking the wall with considerable force. Every -one sits up to listen. A second click, this time on the glass covering a -picture, is located, and a little black object, smaller than an apple -seed, pointed and tipped with white, is picked up from the floor. It is -this seed which was thrown against the glass; and it does not require a -Sherlock Holmes to prove that it came out of one of the witch hazel seed -pods. If each person takes a twig, and keeps an eye upon the pods, that -show a slight opening, more than one of the pods will be seen when they -burst, and throw their seeds. The warmth of the indoor air springs the -trigger, and the tiny projectiles fly. - -How surprised the squirrels must be when the witch hazel guns are -bombarding the dry leaf carpet of the woods! How much pleasure it gives -you to take your friends to the thicket, and explain to them the meaning -of those scattering shots the pods are firing each crisp autumn day! If -it is rainy weather the pods will all be closed. But let the sun come -out, and dry them, and the game begins again. - -Can any one wonder that witch hazel trees grow in companies? Each little -tree flings its seeds in all directions, and for each seed planted a -little tree may come. Twenty feet from the parent tree the pods are able -to throw their seeds. - -Extract of witch hazel is obtained by boiling twigs and leaves of this -tree in a still with alcohol. The Indians taught white men that this -plant contained a drug which had soothing and curative powers when rubbed -upon sprains and bruises. Whether there is any truth in this notion or -not, the belief is still strong, and people continue to rub extract of -witch hazel on their bruises, even though many doctors say there is -nothing medicinal in it but the alcohol. - -[Illustration: The beech tree opens its two kinds of flowers after the -long, pointed winter buds have opened, and the lengthening shoot has -spread out its leaves.] - -[Illustration: Catkins, staminate and pistillate, of a hornbeam and a -birch; catkins and acorn flowers of an oak] - -In England the witch elm corresponds to our own witch hazel. No one in -the mining regions would dare to sink a shaft for coal unless he had -warrant for doing so from the actions of a divining rod in the hands of a -competent person. In other regions the digging of a well depends upon the -same thing, and this idea prevails in many parts of this country. An old -fellow who can "water witch" may be found in most old-fashioned -communities. If you wish to dig a well, you must call on him to locate -the site. He cuts a y-shaped twig from the witch hazel, trims it, and is -ready for the ceremony. Grasping one of the two tips in each hand, and -holding the main stem erect, he paces over the ground you have chosen. In -his rigid hands the supple twigs waver, and finally the wand bends -downward. This, according to popular belief, is the proper place to find -good water, and plenty of it. The water witch moves away, again holding -the stem erect. He comes back finally, and as he crosses the spot again, -the wand goes down. Now every one is sure that this is the spot, and the -well is dug. If the seer's prediction comes true, his reputation -improves, and scoffers concede that "there may be something in it, after -all." In regions where the witch hazel does not grow, a twig of wild plum -tree will do. - - - THE OAK FAMILY - -The fifty kinds of oak trees that are native to America are about evenly -divided on the two sides of the Rocky Mountains. No Western oaks are -found in the Eastern states, and none of our Eastern kinds grows wild on -the other side of the mountains. The backbone of the continent is a bar -that neither group has been able to pass. - -To know fifty different kinds of oaks by sight, so as to call each one by -its right name, is not an easy task; and yet it is not so difficult as it -at first might seem. To begin with, any tree we meet, which bears acorns, -we at once recognise as an oak. By this one sign, we are able to set this -great family apart from every other tree. As soon as they are old enough, -all oaks bear acorns. If a tree which we suspect to be an oak has no -acorn to show us, on or under the tree, a little close looking will -usually find some acorn cups still hanging on, or lying where they fell -upon the ground. - -The leaves of oaks are distinctive. In general, they are all simple, and -their outline is oval. The borders are variously cut by deep or shallow -bays, between sharp points or rounding finger-like lobes. They are -leathery in texture, compared with leaves of most trees. After a little -practice, we learn to recognise oak leaves, no matter how variously cut -their borders may be. - -In spring the flowers of oaks come out with the leaves. A fringe of -catkins at the base of the new shoot is composed of pollen-bearing -flowers. In the angles of the new leaves farther up the stem, we shall -find the little acorn flowers, usually in twos. This is the flower -arrangement of all the oaks; staminate and pistillate flowers on the new -shoots, separate and very different from each other, but always close -together, and always both kinds on each tree. The fringe of catkins falls -as soon as the pollen is shed. Little, red, forked tongues are thrust out -by the pistillate flowers to catch the golden dust when it is flying -through the air, and thus to set seed. All through the summer, the little -acorns are growing. We can find them in their tiny cups in the angles of -the leaves. - -In the autumn the acorns are ripe, and falling. Some trees will show -acorns of two sizes, half-grown ones on the new shoots, and full-sized -ones on the bare twigs, just back of the new shoots. - -This peculiarity divides the oak family into two great groups. One group -is composed of trees which have light-coloured bark, bear a crop every -year, and in winter are bare of fruit. This is known as the White Oak -Group. Its leaves have rounded margin lobes which do not end in sharp -points, as many of the lobes of oak leaves do. - -All of the oaks whose leaves have pointed, spiny lobes on their margin -belong to the Black Oak Group. The bark of these trees is usually -dark-coloured. The acorns require two years of growth. For this reason, -there are half-grown acorns on the tree all winter, waiting for the -second summer to bring them to maturity. Every autumn the acorns which -are ripe are found on the twigs just back of the leafy shoots, which grew -during the past summer. These acorns have completed their second year of -growth. - -When we hear any one speak of annual-fruited and biennial-fruited oaks, -we know that the White Oak and Black Oak Groups are meant. If you see an -oak tree whose leaves are cut into sharp pointed lobes, you will find -acorns of two sizes on its twigs. If you look across the fence and see a -pale-barked oak with finger-lobed leaves, and not a spiny point on their -margins, you will know that acorns of but one size will be found. Fix -these three points in mind. Then study all the oak trees you can find. - - Trees of the White Oak Group have: - 1. Rounded lobes on their leaf margins. - 2. Acorns ripe in a single season. - 3. Pale-coloured bark. - - Trees of the Black Oak Group have: - 1. Spiny-pointed lobes on their leaves. - 2. Acorns requiring two seasons to ripen. - 3. Dark-coloured bark - - - THE WHITE OAK - -Those who know trees best agree that there is no nobler broad-leaved tree -in the American forests than the White Oak. Tree lovers in England have -but one native oak upon which to spend their loyal devotion, the tree -worship inherited from Druid ancestors, whose temples were their sacred -groves of oaks. The same feeling is in our blood, and roused at sight of -an aged white oak, with stout, buttressed trunk, and great horizontal -limbs supporting a rounded dome, much broader than high. - -The tree is grey in winter. It stands bare of leaves, clothed in its -pale, scaly bark. This is the time to study the framework of the dome. -The limbs are twisted and gnarled, and their branches end in dense -thickets of twigs. Each twig bears the winter buds, and five buds are -clustered at the tip of each. - -In spring these buds open, and a leafy shoot comes out of each. At the -base are the yellow, fringed catkins of the sterile flowers, and above -them, in the angles between leaves and twig, the fertile flowers thrust -out forked tongues for pollen. These will be acorns next autumn, if the -pollen falls upon them, and thus sets seed. - -All summer the leaves are green, with pale linings, and when summer ends, -they turn to rich shades of purplish red. The sweet acorns are ripe, and -as they fall, thrifty squirrels are all about, gathering them into their -hidden store-houses for winter use. Plenty of the thin, shallow cups we -shall find, but the kernels are scarce, unless we come when they are -falling in October. - -The Indians taught the early colonists in America to use acorns of this -species for food. They boiled them, like hominy, and found them not only -nourishing, but good to eat. - -If you find solitary white oaks growing here and there in a mixed woods, -you may wonder how they were planted thus. The tree cannot scatter its -own seeds. It depends upon the work of scampering nut-gatherers, in fur -coats, that put away more acorns than they can eat during the long -winter. An acorn that is left over in one of the dark pockets along a -squirrel's run-way sprouts in the spring, and in a few years it is a -sturdy oak sapling. All oaks are dependent on outside help in planting. - -White oak lumber is very high-priced. The wood of this tree we rarely see -nowadays except in the most expensive oak furniture. The beautiful satiny -streaks that are the chief ornament of the grain in polished table tops, -are bands of fibres that radiate from the central pith to the bark. When -oak is "quarter-sawed," these _pith rays_, called "mirrors," show to best -advantage. They are most numerous in the wood of the white oak. - - - THE BUR OR MOSSY-CUP OAK - -The largest acorn I know is the fruit of the bur oak, and it is borne in -a mossy cup, indeed. The cup's scales are drawn out into long, hairy -points, and those near the rim form a loose fringe. Once in a while you -may find an acorn almost covered up in its husk. But as a rule, the nut -is a little more than half-covered. Sometimes these nuts are two inches -long, but this is not usual. They are over an inch long, and almost as -broad, and the meat is white and sweet. No wonder squirrels harvest the -crop, and young trees spring up wherever an acorn is missed by the hungry -creatures. - -The bur oak is a shaggy tree, for it sheds its bark in big flakes, like -the sycamore. The small branches are stout, and their bark is developed -into corky wings, like the sweet gum. The tree is irregular in shape, -too, its gnarled limbs are thrown out in any direction, and so the top is -often unsymmetrical. But it is a rugged and picturesque tree, in spite of -all its faults, and it adds beauty of an unusual kind to parks and -woodlands. - -In Sioux City, Iowa, an aged bur oak stands in Riverside Park. It is -called "The Council Oak," for it was a venerable tree in the days when -the Indians lived on the banks of the Missouri River. Under this tree -their chieftains used to meet the white men, and talk over the questions -that interested both. Here treaties were drawn up and signed that kept -peace between the red and white men. - -I promise a great deal of pleasure to any one who plants a mossy-cup -acorn. The seedling tree is wonderfully vigorous in growth. The leaves -are often a foot long in the first years of the tree's life. The blades -are thick, lustrous above, and woolly lined, the finger lobes irregular, -and two opposite, deep sinuses near the middle of the leaf cut it almost -in two! - -Before the tree is more than a sapling it blossoms and bears big acorns -in their handsome mossy cups. There is no stage in the life of one of -these oaks that is not beautiful and interesting. - -This tree is found from Nova Scotia to Western Texas. It forms forests in -Winnipeg, and "oak openings" in Minnesota and Dakota. It is as much at -home in the hot, arid stretches of the plains of the West and Southwest -as in the raw, damp air of the New England coasts. In the rich valley of -the Ohio River it reached nearly two hundred feet in height in the virgin -forests. - -Unlike many oaks, it may be safely transplanted while young. - - - THE LIVE OAK - -The citizen of New Orleans takes his Northern visitors to Audubon Park, -and points with pride to the giant live oak trees. He does not hesitate, -for he knows that the noble pair called "George Washington," and "Martha -Washington," though crippled now by tornadoes, are more noted the country -over than any monument or building in this famous old city. In Charleston -and other Southern cities it is the same. Famous old live oaks adorn the -parks and avenues, and the same trees are planted year by year to take -the places of the veterans when age and storms shall make an end of their -long lives. - -These trees wear a crown of green throughout the year. The leaves last -but one year, but they cling to the twigs and remain green until they are -gradually pushed off by the opening of new leafy shoots. In spring the -new leaves are much brighter than the darker old ones. Everywhere the -trees are draped with the sage-green ropes of "Spanish moss," which is -not a moss at all, but a flowering plant that steals its living by -lodging its roots in crevices in the bark of trees. - -The live oak acorns are dainty, dark-brown nuts, set in hoary, -long-stemmed cups. Each year there is a good crop of acorns, and they are -sweet, and pleasant to the taste. The Indians depended upon them for -food, roasting or boiling them. They also skimmed the boiling pot to -collect the oil, which the early colonists said was much like oil of -almonds. - -The "knees of oak" that early ship-builders used to brace the sides of -vessels, were taken from live oak trees, where the great boughs spring -out from the short, stout trunks. This natural joint is better than any -bolted union of two pieces of timber. The scarcity of these trees makes -it impossible now to supply these knees, but no steel frame serves the -purpose quite so well. The wood is as beautiful as white oak for the -making of handsome furniture, though it splits more easily, and is harder -for the cabinet-maker to use. - -The tree grows throughout the South to Texas; also in Mexico, and Lower -California. Its Northern limit is Virginia. - -A friend who has for a near neighbour the majestic McDonough Oak, -patriarch among the noble live oaks of the Audubon Park, New Orleans, -writes interestingly of the habits of this species. - -"The live oak sheds its leaves _in the spring_, just before the new -leaves open. So, for a brief time the tree stands leafless. In this -period, however, the tree puts out catkins in great abundance, so that -the tree does not appear bare. These catkins are light brown, and have a -soft, velvety appearance, and a tree has an absolute change of colour. -During this blossom time the splendid form of the trunk and the great -limbs is revealed. When the new leaves appear, the framework of branch -and bough is concealed by leafage so dense as to be impenetrable to sun -or eye. The tree is a symmetrical, shining green dome. The crown of the -McDonough oak is over two hundred feet in diameter." - - - THE POST OAK - -The post oak, a small, rugged tree, is noticeable in winter, because its -leaves usually hang on until the open buds in spring push them off. The -colour of this winter foliage is yellowish brown, and not at all striking -nor beautiful. The bark is brown and deeply furrowed. The twigs wear a -yellow fuzz. The leaves are coarse, stiff and rough, four to five inches -long, tapering from three broad, squarish lobes to a narrow base, and a -short leaf stalk. They are lined with brownish wool, and are dark green -and shining above in summer. - -The acorns of the post oak are borne in a plentiful annual crop. Each is -dainty and trim, in a shallow cup of loose, blunt-pointed scales. The -kernel is sweet. In the days when wild game roamed the woods, wild -turkeys fattened on these acorns, and some people call the tree the -"turkey oak." - -Another name for this tree is "iron oak," for its wood is hard, and -heavy, and close-grained. It makes admirable posts and railroad ties, -because it does not rot in contact with water. It is used in -boat-building, and for barrel staves. "Knees" of post oak (the angles -between trunk and branch) form most admirable timbers to be used in the -framework of boats. - - - THE SWAMP WHITE OAK - -The swamp white oak is a rugged and ragged tree, with drooping branches -and crooked twigs, covered with greyish brown bark which peels in thin -flakes from branches and trunk. This habit of shedding its bark in -irregular plates reminds us strongly of the sycamore, which carries this -habit to excess. The leaves of this oak are large, wedge-shaped at the -base, wavy-toothed or lobed, and broadening towards the tips. They are -dark green above, and lined with white down. The acorns are borne in -pairs on long stems. The oval nut is hairy at its tip, and sits in a -rough cup made of scales, sometimes fringed at the border. The kernel is -sweet and eatable, not only for beasts, but for man. If one were lost in -the woods, he need not starve nor die of thirst, if he is near a stream, -and can get the fruit of a swamp white oak, which stands by the water -side. He will do well to make a fire, and roast the acorns, which will -improve their nutty flavour, and make them more digestible. - -This white oak is more beautiful in May than at any other season of the -year. The young leaves are pale green, and the tree top is illuminated by -the silky hairs that line them. The whiteness of the down is dimmed as -summer advances. In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, but never red. - -The wood of this oak is not distinguished in the lumber trade from any -other white oak. The demand for it for the building of houses and boats, -and for agricultural implements and vehicles, is greater than the supply. -It is too expensive now to be used as it was a few years ago, for fuel, -railroad ties, and fence posts. - - - THE CHESTNUT OAK - -The chestnut oak has leaves which are much like those of the chestnut -tree. They are larger, and wider, however, and have rounded lobes at the -ends of the side veins, making a very regular wavy margin, compared with -that of most oak leaves. The lining is often silky, and always much paler -than the upper surface. This tree is an exception to the rule that the -annual-fruited oaks have pale bark. This one has bark so dark in colour -that it is often mistaken for one of the Black Oak Group, although its -wavy leaf margins, and its annual crop of acorns, prove it to belong to -the White Oak Group. - -The acorns are very long, and smooth, and they sit in thin cups lined -with down, and covered with small swollen scales. They are usually borne -alone on short stems. This is one of the largest and sweetest acorns. The -squirrels pack them among their winter's stores. - -The wood of chestnut oak is hard, and strong, and durable in contact with -the soil. The bark is especially rich in tannic acid. For this reason -many of the finest trees yield only tan bark, because the peelers take -the bark, and leave the log to fall a prey to forest fires. - - - THE BLACK OAK - -The black oak, which gives its name to the large group of -biennial-fruited oaks, is one of our handsome, sturdy forest trees. It -grows from Maine to Florida, and west to Minnesota, Kansas, and Eastern -Texas. Its bark is very dark grey or brown, and thick, with rough, broken -ridges and deep furrows. Under this outer layer is a yellow belt, rich in -tannin. This gives the tree the name "yellow oak," and since its bark is -valuable in tanning leather, it is some times called the "tan bark oak." - -The tree is not graceful nor symmetrical, but there is a picturesqueness -and strength about it that redeems its coarseness and irregularity. This -species would be planted oftener for shade, were there not so many -beautiful oaks to choose from. In the wild, however, a giant black oak is -a noble feature of the landscape. - -In early spring the large downy winter buds begin to swell, and soon the -leaves push rapidly out. The whole tree top flushes crimson in the -sunshine. The red glow is from the crinkly, half-awake baby leaves, whose -brilliance is softened by a silky covering of white hairs. In a day the -leaves turn green, and most of their silky covering is shed. - -The bloom of the black oak consists of a fringe of yellow catkins at the -base of each shoot, and pairs of red-tongued acorn flowers in the angles -of some of the leaves. Back of the new shoot the half-grown acorns of the -previous season are seen. In autumn the new crop is well along and the -full-grown acorns, which have taken two seasons to ripen, are ready to be -shed. Each kernel sits in a straight-sided cup of loosely shingled -scales, which form a fringe at the margin. The kernel is bitter, and -yellow, as it is in most of the species of the Black Oak Group. - -[Illustration: Leaves, mossy-cup acorns and warty twigs of the bur oak] - -[Illustration: The horizontal limbs of the pin oak form a regular -pyramidal head] - -The large, downy, pointed buds of this oak will often determine its name -for us when we are confused by the shapes of the leaves. Often the red -oak and the black oak "run together" in their leaf forms. To determine -the tree's name we must call in the buds, the acorns, and their cups, and -the general shape of the trees, and consider all these points together. - -Black oak leaves are thick, coarse, and leathery. Crumple one in your -hand, and you cringe at the harsh scratching noise it makes. They vary -from four to ten inches in length, and from two to six inches in breadth. -The margins are deeply cut into seven or nine broad, bristly-toothed -lobes, with rounded bays between. The upper surface is dark green in -summer, shining and smooth, or sometimes hairy. The lining is brownish -and a remnant of the scurfy down is found in the neighbourhood of the -veins. In autumn these leaves turn brownish-yellow, but rarely show a -tinge of red. - -The bark of black oak is stripped and carried to the tan-yards. Or it -furnishes a yellow dye, used in the printing of calicoes. The wood is -used in house-building, and in the manufacture of furniture. - - - THE RED OAK - -The red oak is the tree most likely to be mistaken for the black oak. The -bark is brown, with a decided red tinge. The twigs are also reddish, and -the wood is red-brown. The inner bark has the same tinge instead of the -orange-coloured lining the black oak bark has. - -The red oak is a large, stately tree, sometimes 150 feet in height, and -far more symmetrical than the black oak. Its leaves vary greatly in the -depth of their marginal clefts, but in general they are oval in outline, -and their lobes and sinuses are triangular. These lobes always point -forward, rather than outward, along the sides of the leaf, and they -always end in the sharp, spiny points that belong to the leaves of all -the trees that fall into the Black Oak Group. Red oak leaves are thinner -than those of black oak, and not so harsh when crumpled in the hand. -Their linings are pale green and smooth in summer. Their autumn colour is -deep red. - -The buds of the red oak are pointed, smooth, reddish, and about -one-fourth of an inch long. They are much smaller, and lack the down of -the buds of the black oak. - -Red oak acorns are the most distinct feature of this species. They are -large, often over an inch in length, and broad, and they sit in saucers, -instead of cups. These saucers are made of close scales, and they curl in -closely at the top as if to tighten their hold on the nut, which extends -two-thirds its height above this rim. The kernel is white, and extremely -bitter. - - - THE SCARLET OAK - -The scarlet oak need not be confused with either the red or black oaks, -for it is a far more dainty tree than either in its trim trunk, graceful -curving branches, very slim twigs, and deeply cut leaves. In form, these -leaves are oval, but so much of the "cloth" is cut away by the four or -six deep bays along the sides that a small amount of green is left to do -leaf duty. The slender lobes are strengthened by the branching veins, -each of which ends in a spiny point. These almost skeleton leaves are -beautifully lustrous and thin, a trifle paler beneath and sometimes hairy -tufted at the veins. They are rarely six inches long, and the side lobes -sometimes measure five inches from tip to tip. The leaf stems are long -and flexible, and the whole tree top is as light and feathery and -tremulous in a breeze as that of a honey locust or a willow. In autumn -the scarlet oak blazes like a torch above the duller reds and browns of -the woods, and keeps its brilliancy later than any other oak. - -The acorn differs from the black oak in being smaller and daintier, and -in having its cup drawn in tightly at the rim. The scales are smooth and -close-pressed; the kernel white and bitter. - - - THE PIN OAK - -The pin oak has foliage much like the scarlet oak, but coarser and not so -lustrous. Often a pin oak tree has leaves that approach the red oak in -form, and these lead to confusion, if leaves alone are consulted in -determining the name of the tree. There are better signs in any pin oak -that set it apart from its larger-leaved relative. Consult the acorns. -They are plump little nuts, as broad as long, rarely measuring one-half -inch either way, pale brown, streaked with black in straight lines, down -from the pointed tips, and they sit in shallow, saucer-like cups made of -close reddish scales. As they fall, the nuts roll out of the cups, which -are lined with hair. The kernel is white and bitter and yet, late in -winter, it is very common to find them gnawed open by some hungry little -four-foot, whose winter store threatens to run short. - -The pin oak takes its name from the fact that its branches are thickly -set with short, pin-like twigs, many of which die but do not fall. These -stubs stay on for several years. This fact alone will soon enable us to -recognise the tree from a distance. No other species is so close-twigged, -and the symmetrical form of this tree is very striking in the winter. It -is a pyramid with many small branches thrust out horizontally from the -main shaft. Below the middle of the tree, the long branches have a -downward thrust, and the lowest ones often sweep the ground. Above the -middle of the tree the branches are horizontal, and they gradually become -shorter, and the tree ends in a pointed tip. There is no oak that I know -which has so much the pyramidal form of evergreens like the firs, -hemlocks, and spruces. - -On the avenues of the city of Washington, we shall find superb double -rows of American trees. On one which leads to the Navy Yard, I remember -the beautiful pin oaks, uniform in size, perfect in symmetry, that stood -in a double row along the sides of the avenue. To the crowds of tourists -who visit the capital city every year, I hope that this will be an object -lesson. In most towns and cities every owner plants the trees he likes in -front of his house, so our streets and avenues present a mixture of trees -of all ages, sizes, kinds, and conditions. The better way is for the city -to plant the same tree in double lines, the whole length of a street, as -has of late years been done in Washington. One needs only to see these -trees coming on, each year adding beauty and dignity to the city, to -realise that such planting may be done easily anywhere in the country, -where trees as beautiful as the pin oaks grow wild. - - - THE WILLOW OAK - -A Southern tree with slender twigs and narrow leaves like those of a -willow, surprises us by bearing acorns! It is the willow oak, a -beautiful, graceful tree for shade and for avenue planting. The tree -naturally chooses wet ground, but it thrives where the soil is deep and -well drained. I remember a fine large willow oak in John Bartram's garden -in Philadelphia, and a young tree in the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. This -little one grows rapidly, but the frost nips its twigs in the winter. The -species grows wild from New York southward, just back from the sea coast, -to Texas. In swampy land, it is found from Missouri southward. - -Willow oak acorns are downy, yellow-brown, and set in shallow -saucer-shaped cups. The kernel is orange-yellow, and bitter. Half-grown -acorns are found with the ripe ones on these trees, and the dark, rough -bark agrees with others of the Black Oak Group. Though the leaves have -rarely a side lobe, but are mostly narrow and plain-margined, the tip -ends in a spine, as all black oak leaves should. - - - TREES WITH WINGED SEEDS - -Why do the trees grow in such mixed groves, when Nature does the -planting? Here and there we find solid groves of beech or oak, but the -forest is, for the most part, a gathering together of all kinds of trees. -A part of the beauty of any woodland is this variety in the planting. -Under a tall oak we find a hornbeam, and under this the witch hazel, and -under the witch hazel, a carpet of low woodland plants. We may walk in a -straight line, or follow a woodland path a mile, and find every tree we -meet is different from all the rest. - -Many reasons explain the order in which Nature plants forests. One of the -best of these is found in the kind of seeds trees bear. We shall find -that trees most widely scattered are those whose seeds are winged. It is -not hard to find, from May until far past midwinter, trees bearing light, -winged seeds. All through the summer, the wind is busy sowing the seeds -of the early-fruiting trees. In autumn, and all through the winter, the -sowing of the larger crop goes on. - -Let us begin our study with the maples, whose winged seeds every child -knows. From the silver maple, whose seeds are dry before the first of -June, there is a procession of ripening maple seeds that lasts throughout -the year. A high wind shakes off the silver maple's keys in showers in -late May. Watch those in the tree-tops. The wind has a better chance up -there. Each key, loosening from its twig, turns round and round in a -dizzy whirl, and sails away still whirling as it falls, the heavy seed -end always pointed downward. A tree is soon stripped, and the ground -littered under it. But a great deal larger area than the tree's shadow -has the seeds scattered over it: the stronger the wind, the further these -seeds go. Before the summer is over, a crop of little maple trees springs -up from this sowing. - -The red maple's scarlet seed clusters turn brown, and the little winged -seeds take flight in June. Lighter and smaller, they are carried longer -distances than the seeds of the silver maple, and a crop of little red -maples follows this June sowing of the trees. - -I remember walking in a corn field in late June; the corn had been last -ploughed a month before. Among the weeds that had grown up in this short -time was a crop of young red maples, now six inches high. It was amazing -to see these little trees grow so plentifully in a cultivated field. I -looked for the seed tree, and there it stood on the edge of the field, -the only maple tree in sight. A few young trees were growing in the -matted grass of the roadside under the tree, but the great crop was from -the seeds that flew out to the mellow ground between the corn rows. The -disappointed seeds, those which fell and did not grow, were under the -tree and in the dusty road. - -In the autumn the hard maple, which we call the sugar maple, ripens its -winged seeds. So does the three-leaved box elder (which is a maple) and -the Norway maple, now a very familiar street tree. The wind takes its -time, and the trees stubbornly hang on to their seeds, so that these -maples are busy all winter with the sowing. Every day they give up a few, -and many seeds that fall on the snow are picked up, again and again, by -the wind and thus carried further and further away. - -The maple seed, with its curiously one-sided wing, is the sign by which -the maple family is easily recognised. Other trees have winged seeds, but -none have the peculiar form of this one. - -All summer long we may know the trees that belong to the ash family by -the clusters of pale green darts that hang among their leaves. These are -the ash seeds. Each one is a pointed seed case, containing the embryo -plant, and out behind it extends the thin, light, two-edged wing. There -is no one-sidedness to this blade. The seed is winged, but balanced like -a dart. When the wind loosens one from the wiry stem, it goes like an -arrow, seed downward. If there is a gale blowing, the seed may be caught -up and borne far away in the upper air, before a lull lets it take a -downward course, and drive its point into a snowbank, or into the ground. -This little feathered arrow may be long or short, depending upon whether -it belongs to the red ash, the white ash, or the black; but there is no -mistaking an ash tree for any other, once the form of an ash seed is -fixed in the mind. - -I have said that a maple seed is shaped like that of no other tree. I -must describe here the seeds of the needle-leaved evergreens, which, -though very much smaller, are somewhat like maple seeds in form. Go to a -pine tree or a spruce, and get one of the cones that has begun to spread -its scales apart. Shake the cone over a piece of paper. If nothing comes -out from between the scales, cut or break the cone open with knife or -hatchet. Under each scale will be found two seeds, each with a thin, -one-sided wing. Spruces, hemlocks, firs, and arbor vits, all have this -same type of seed, hid away in the same fashion, under the protecting -scales of their cones. Do you understand how the wind, blowing through -the tops of evergreens, shakes the winged seeds from their places, and -carries them far away? Do you understand why the ripe cones of these -trees hang on so stubbornly, and spread their scales to allow the seeds -to escape? - -It is a peculiarity of the firs that they hold their cones erect. It -would seem hard for the wind to get at the seeds, but the fir cones let -their scales fall, and when they loosen, the seeds are freed. - -Out of the balls of the sweet gum tree, which dangle on the twigs all -winter, the wind shakes little winged seeds, not unlike those of the -pines. - -Do you know the catalpa's long, green pods that hang all summer on the -top of trees? They are longer than the newest lead pencil, and show no -signs of splitting, until the autumn. Now, the two halves of the pod -spread apart, and gradually the thin seeds shake out. Each one is in the -centre of a thin, fringed wing, that looks as if made of tissue paper. -The wind can carry these ghostly seeds for miles. Indeed, it is strange -that they ever come to the ground, for they seem to have no thickness nor -weight at all. - -The birches all bear their seeds in cones, some long and pencil-like, -others quite the shape of a pine cone. Under each quaintly notched scale -of the cone, a seed is borne; and each heart-shaped seed has a thin rim, -which acts like a wing, catching the wind as the seed falls. We shall -look far in the woods before we find seeds daintier in form, or better -sailors through the air, than those of all the birch family. - -The hop hornbeam has a hop-like cluster of seeds, each in an inflated -papery bag. When the leaves drop in the fall, the wind has a chance to -pick off these little paper seed balloons, one at a time, from the -clusters. Take off one of these little bags, open it, and you will find, -set in the bottom, the shiny, pointed seed. It is likely to have a long -journey, if there be a good breeze, before its bag is punctured. - -Back to early May again, when the elm trees are green with their fruit -clusters, before the leaves are fully out. Elm trees grow scattered -through the woods, and no wonder: the seeds have papery rims, and the -wind catches these little falling discs, and scatters them far from the -tree where they were born. - -The ailanthus tree, whose long, fern-like leaves make it look like a tree -from the Tropics, is sowing its seeds all winter, with the help of the -wind. Examine one. In the middle of a slim blade is the little seed. The -blade is twisted as it ripens, and it sails through the air with a -tilting, uncertain flight. After a look at a bunch of these seeds, and -after throwing a handful of them out of an upper window, and watching -them as they sail away, we shall understand how it is that ailanthus -trees spring up in most unexpected places, year after year. And we shall -bless the breeze that plants such trees along the hot pavements, and in -the ugly back alleys of towns and cities, where few trees are able to -grow at all. - - - TREE SEEDS THAT HAVE PARACHUTES - -It is a thrilling moment when the man who goes up with the balloon lets -go at last, and drops to the ground. Before he drops, an umbrella-like -parachute opens, and by its aid, he comes to the ground gracefully, -slowly, and alights unhurt. Should anything go wrong with his parachute -he would drop to his death, so every onlooker is anxious as he comes -down, and breathes a sigh of relief when the wonderful feat is -accomplished. - -Seeds with wings sail away on the wind, and seeds with parachutes descend -so slowly and gracefully that the winds carry them far out of their -courses. The trees most fortunate in scattering their seeds, and thus -colonising new territory, have peculiar devices. - -The seeds of the basswood hang in clusters attached to a narrow, -leaf-like blade. This is a parachute, by which the whole cluster is able -to sail away on a good breeze. There is no seed parachute like this among -our forest trees. By this sign alone we may know the basswood trees. - -The balls of the sycamore bump against the branches, and tiny seeds with -hairy parachutes are loosened and scattered. Each is a minute spike, -which might drop to the ground, but for the umbrella-like parachute made -of a brush of fine hairs. By this, the wind lifts the seed, and carries -it away. - -Willow seeds, and those of the poplar, are almost too small to be seen. -Each seed is hid in a dainty fluff of white cotton, and in this the seed -rides. We may miss seeing these trees in fruit, unless we look at the -down which accumulates in June on the screens of windows and doors. The -air is full of the fluffy stuff when the pods open. In a few days this -harvest is over, and we may find the empty pods on the ground under our -neighbour poplars, cottonwoods, and willows. - -The blue beech, or hornbeam, has a parachute which is leafy, and crinkled -so as to look almost like a little boat. The shiny seed sits in one end, -and when it gets free, it has a fine long sail through the air before it -settles to the earth. - -There are wings and parachutes on the seeds of other trees. When you find -them you may know that the wind is the partner of the tree, by robbing it -of its children. The wind is saving those children from death, which -would have been their fate, if they fell on the ground under the shadow -of the parent tree. If all the fields that adjoin the woods were left -uncultivated for a few years they would grow up to forests. We know the -name of the sower, who gathers seeds in the woods, and plants them; who -is busy all the year at the endless work of the harvest and the sowing. - - - THE AUTUMN BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -In the roadside thickets, as the summer wanes, the berry clusters of the -shrubby viburnums turn red, and soften, and in September change to a -vivid, or a dark blue. They are very pretty on their coral red stems, and -look like little plums. Indeed, they are not unpleasant to taste, but it -is the birds who delight in these sweetish, juicy berries, and we are -willing that they should have them all. The names, sheepberry and -nannyberry, are given to these little trees, because sheep are said to -browse on the foliage and shoots in spring. - -The blue berries of the sassafras, also on coral red stems, are not -unlike those of the viburnums in appearance, but fewer in a cluster. The -birds take them eagerly before they are fully ripe. To leave them until -they ripen would be to lose them to other birds. - -[Illustration: Cone fruits of (1) a birch, (2) a pine, (3) a magnolia, -and (4) a fir] - -[Illustration: Clusters of the winged seeds of hornbeam and white ash] - -The dogwood berries are redder than the whorl of leaves that surround the -fruit clusters in early October. These waxy berries have taken the place -of the central cluster of small flowers, which were surrounded in spring -by the four large, white bracts. - -It is the birds who first accept the invitation of these little trees. -The migrating hosts turn southward in September, and in October the bird -procession is in full swing. We hear them overhead, often so high in air -that we cannot see them. Tired of the long flight, they descend for food -and water, and if the neighbourhood has many fruiting dogwood trees, the -joy of the winged voyagers is correspondingly great. In a surprisingly -short time the hungry birds have taken the last one. - -Far in the winter we shall find red berries glowing in clusters on the -mountain ash trees, among the evergreen holly leaves, and in conical -spikes on the sumachs. The winter birds ignore these dry, insipid seeds, -until everything else is gone. Frequently, when winter snows cover up all -other foods, the berries of these two trees stand between the birds and -actual starvation. So it happens that many a mountain ash is stripped of -its fruit during the early days of March, and the holly berries which -have glowed red all winter disappear for the same reason. The sumachs are -rarely stripped as closely as the other two. - -In September the hackberry hangs full of its sugary fruits. It is -surprising to find a tree which looks like an elm, yet bearing soft, -purple berries. But this, we shall learn, is the hackberry's way. Under -each leaf a long thread grows, on the end of which is a single, oblong -berry, the size of a pea, but not the same shape. The fruit hangs on late -into the winter, if the birds will permit such a thing, and it is a -grateful supply of food to birds that winter in the North. If there were -no other reason for planting hackberry trees, they are worth having as -fruit trees for the refreshment of birds. - -The autumn colour of hackberry leaves is yellow. The purple fruits make -little show, until the leaves fall. The bark of the tree is its chief -peculiarity. On the trunk it is deeply checked into small, thick, warty -plates. The branches are often ridged and broken into warty excrescences -that stand close together. - -The leaves are peculiar. There is no other tree that has not a main vein, -or a rib, which prolongs the leaf stem straight to the tip. The hackberry -leaf stem divides into three equal branches at the base. The two side -branches are shorter than the middle one, but their size is unusual. - -It is in autumn, of course, that the hackberry earns its name, -sugarberry. The bark will guide us to the tree at any season. The leaves -fix in mind another important family trait. The berries we may safely -taste to find out if they are as sugary as we are led to expect. - -Nettle tree is the common name of the European hackberry. You may have -read of the lotus-eaters, who, tasting the sweet fruit of this little -tree, straightway forgot their native land, and could not be persuaded to -return. The wood is tough and peculiarly adapted to make the handles of -hayforks, and similar agricultural implements. Young trees are grown for -these uses. The roots remain alive and send up suckers, slender but tall. -These are cut for walking sticks, whipstocks, and ramrods for guns. Older -trees furnish wood, as hard as box or holly, and beautiful as satinwood -when polished. This is a material which the wood-carvers delight to use. -The tree is widely planted for shade, and its leaves are used as fodder -for cattle. - -Bad as its reputation is, according to the tradition that its fruit had -power to rob men of their patriotism, yet this is one of the most useful -little trees. It grows easily, and is contented on land that is worthless -for other purposes. - -Besides the hackberry, another big tree in our woods bears a crop of -purple berries in September. That is the wild black cherry. The bark of -this tree is dark brown and shining, and satiny smooth on the branches. -It breaks on the trunk into rough, squarish plates, which curl -horizontally at the edges. The plates still retain the silky outer bark, -whose fibres run crosswise, and whose surface has many slit-like, -horizontal breathing holes. - -We are strongly reminded of the birches, especially the cherry birch, -which has dark-coloured bark, and has its name from its resemblance to -this tree. The thin young bark of the black cherry curls in a very -birch-like fashion. One difference is very marked. The bark of the cherry -is bitter, with the flavour of the pit of a peach or cherry. Birch bark -is pleasantly aromatic in flavour. - -The fruit of the black cherry is more plentiful than that of the -hackberry. The close-set side shoots on the new twigs end in fruit -clusters two or three inches long, and often containing a dozen berries -each. The sweet pulp is flavoured with the bitter taste of cherry pits, a -flavour found in the sap of this tree. Nibble the bark, or a bit of -cherry wood, a leaf, or the tip of the root, and you get the same Prussic -acid taste. - -I do not like wild black cherries, but many people do. Children and birds -seem not to notice the bitter with the sweet. They eat the berries as -soon as they change colour, with evident enjoyment. - -Cherry brandies and cordials are made from the fruit by people who rely -upon old-fashioned home remedies. These are the people who chew the -bitter opening buds of the wild cherry in spring, as they drink sassafras -tea, believing that spring is the time to clear the blood, and that -Nature offers free remedies far better than they can buy in bottles. - -We cannot wonder that wild cherry trees spring up in the woods, in fence -corners, and along roadsides. The birds are feasting in the trees each -autumn, and until the last berry is taken. They are the sowers of the -seed. - -Our greatest objection to the wild cherry is the fact that its shining -young leaves are regarded by the apple tree tent caterpillars as -particularly good. When the white blossom clusters deck this tree in May, -we often see a web of white silk wrapping together some of the upper -branches. Day by day the web is extended, and the twigs are stripped of -their leaves by the host of caterpillars which return at night to the -tent, and range more widely in the day time. When the tent is as large as -a peach basket, it is found empty, for the caterpillars have descended to -the ground, spun their cocoons, and will soon emerge as winged moths, to -lay their eggs, from which later broods of caterpillars come. The winged -females are very likely to seek the nearest orchard, and lay their eggs -in bands around apple twigs. Many an otherwise harmless roadside wild -cherry is a deadly menace to an orchard because it breeds the insects, -which, in a second generation, become a serious pest among the apple -trees. - -In the forest the lumberman is glad to find wild black cherry trees of -large size. The lumber is very valuable for interior finish of houses, -and for furniture. It is hard, and close-grained, and dark reddish-brown -in colour, with a lustre, when polished, that puts it in the class with -mahogany and rosewood. It is more often used nowadays as a veneer on -cheaper woods. Parlour cars and steamships, and fine houses are very -often finished in cherry. The small limbs and other bits of the lumber -are utilised for tool handles and for inlay work. The wood is too -valuable to waste. - -The largest berry that grows on a tree in the woods of the United States -is the persimmon. We should mistake this berry for an apple, perhaps, -when we see it for the first time--a little, orange-brown apple, one to -two inches in diameter. But there is no core such as apples have, though -there are from one to a dozen seeds in each fruit. - -The persimmon tree is tall, with a handsome round head, and zig-zag, -twisted branches. It grows from Rhode Island west to Kansas and south to -Florida and Texas. It is found scattered in mixed woods, and comes up in -fence rows and in abandoned fields wherever the seeds have been dropped. -Light, sandy soil is this tree's preference. Although it is a relative of -the ebony of Ceylon, our persimmon is not an important lumber tree. Its -wood is hard, dark-brown in colour, and is used for shoe lasts, tool -handles, and various other small articles. - -In the South the persimmon ranks among the choicest of fruit trees. The -negro and the possum await the ripening of the 'simmons with eager eyes, -and the Southerner, born and bred, confesses an equal interest in this -native fruit. There is a long waiting period between the time when the -persimmons change colour from green to reddish-yellow and the time when -the frost mellows and sweetens the pulp, and takes away the harsh, -puckery taste which draws the lips and chokes the throat as if the fruit -were a lump of alum. The Northerner who judges by its appearance only, -dares to taste this fruit before it is ripe. He cannot be persuaded to -try it again. And he cannot understand the enthusiasm for persimmons that -all people in the South feel. - -A 'simmon tree, when the fruit is ripe, belongs to the first comer. The -negro and the opossum come into direct competition for the fruit of this -tree. You might think the negro would kill the opossum, and be rid of his -rival. He knows too much for that. "'Possum an' 'simmons come together, -and bofe is good fruit." Better divide the 'simmons with the 'possum and -his family. Then get the fat 'possum for the Christmas dinner. There is -no 'possum like the one that is fattened on persimmons, so it pays to be -patient and leave the beast his share of the fruit. - -In a hollow tree, or a woodpile, the opossums sleep by day, and trail out -in companies to climb the persimmon trees at night to feast. They hang by -their tails on the branches, or prop themselves in crotches of the limbs -within easy reach of the soft, sugary berries. The fatter they get, the -lazier they are; and as the season advances, and the fruit falls, the -opossums are likely to satisfy their appetites with the persimmons they -can pick up under the trees. Along about Thanksgiving day, or Christmas, -the day of reckoning arrives, when the negro hunter comes home with the -opossums which have stolen his persimmons. The whole score is wiped out -by the opossum feast, which suitably closes the season. - -Persimmons improve, the longer they hang upon the trees. As late as -January or February, little trees scarcely a dozen feet high, which have -been overlooked in the 'simmon harvest, are found to be still hung with -fruits exceptionally large and fine. To the hungry and thirsty hunter, -prowling for quail in the underbrush, these unexpected fruits are a -delightful surprise. They are delicious, sugary lumps, rich in flavour, -and juicy, taking away both hunger and thirst, and leaving no after-taste -that is bitter or puckery, suggesting their unripe stage. - -Japanese persimmon trees, whose fruit is larger and better in every -respect than our native species, have been successfully introduced into -California and the Southern states. These persimmons look like great ripe -tomatoes as we see them on the fruit stands, but these, too, must wait -until they are thoroughly ripe before they are fit to eat. - - - THE CHANGING COLOUR OF THE AUTUMN WOODS - -All through the autumn, when the wonderful colours come in the forest -leaves, we shall see the green of these leaves creeping back along the -veins. The horse chestnut leaves tell a very interesting story. They turn -brown first upon the edges. If we watch a single leaf for a whole week in -September, we may see the green gradually draw in towards the central -stem, and the brown papery borders widen, just as if something were -squeezing and crowding the pulp of the leaf, inch by inch, back through -the leaf stem into the twig. The last traces of green linger along the -sides of the veins, and before it falls, even these leaf channels will be -drained dry. - -When the leaves of a sugar maple give up their pulp there are wonderful -changes inside each leaf. A yellow liquid fills the cells where the green -pulp used to be. Chemical changes in the mineral substances deposited in -the leaf cells produce wonderful shades of red and yellow, which glow -where once the leaf was solid green. Iron is one of the minerals brought -up in the soil water, left in the leaf, and changed to produce the bright -red when the leaf mask of green is taken away. - -The scarlet maple remembers its name in the autumn days. It puts on a -cloak more brilliant perhaps than the sugar maple, which has a good deal -of orange as well as red in its autumn foliage. The scarlet oak is -amazingly brilliant; so is the sassafras and the sweet gum. The tupelo, -or sour gum, also called the pepperidge, has foliage that is splashed and -streaked with various shades of red and yellow. Each little leaf is so -brilliantly polished that the tree's beauty and colour seem to be doubled -by reflection. The sumachs of the roadside thickets wear foliage of -scarlet, each leaf drooping away from the fruit pyramid which rises, a -deeper crimson, on the end of each upright shoot. The foliage and the -fruit together make a colour harmony that is dazzling, indeed. - -In contrast with its umbrellas of red leaves are the scarlet berry -clusters of the flowering dogwood. This tree has the habit of snuggling -up against the trunk of large forest trees and reaching its white flowery -arms out to us in spring. How wonderful they are, on the edge of the -woods, with the green leaves of the larger trees making a background for -their flowers! In the autumn the same surprise awaits us, when under a -towering tree with yellow or russet foliage, the dogwood leaps up like a -scarlet flame, against its dark background, holding straight out its -platformed branches of red leaves, tipped with berries, like rubies, set -on the upturned twigs. - -Often the trees are stripped by birds before the berries are ripe. It is -in woods where the trees are numerous that we shall find the fruit -reaching its perfection of ripeness and colour. - -Among the trees that turn to purple in the autumn we may name the white -oak and the ashes. Many oaks turn from green to russet, without showing -any red or yellow. The lindens and the tulip trees and the beeches turn -yellow; so do the poplars and willows, the hickories, and walnuts. Up and -down the street you may see the yellow crowns of the silver and the -Norway maples, and on the lawns the white birches have also turned to -gold. The deepest red is on the black and red oaks. The brightest red is -on the scarlet oak. - -[Illustration: The flowering dogwood covers its bare branches with -blossoms in May] - -[Illustration: Flowering dogwood, in flower and fruit, the winter flower -buds and alligator-skin bark] - -It is not fair to charge Jack Frost with all the gay colours of the -autumn woods. Perhaps I should say, rather, that he does not deserve all -the credit people give him for painting the landscape with the sunset -glories of the dying leaves. The cause is the ripening of the leaves -themselves, as I have already explained. Frost may hasten the process, -but if a heavy freeze comes in September, before the leaves have -coloured, we lose our chance for autumn colouring that year. The leaves -drop as if scalded, and the trees lose their leaf pulp, which they had -expected to withdraw and save for future use. A long dry autumn of warm -days and mildly frosty nights produces the finest succession of colours. - -Countries that have a more moist, warm climate than ours, do not have the -vivid autumn colours that we enjoy. England, and the countries of Western -Europe, are like our West coast in lacking the colour changes that make -October for us the most glorious month of the year. Our New England -woodlands and the forests of Canada are matched in brilliancy by the -wooded slopes of the Swiss Alps, and the forests along the Rhine and the -Danube. In our Southern states there is little or no change that comes to -the foliage towards the end of the year. The leaves on the trees of -Florida are lazy in falling. They wait until pushed off by the swelling -buds in early spring. Many trees that shed their leaves promptly each -autumn in the Northern states, gradually become evergreen in the Southern -parts of their range. The longer a tree carries its leaves, the more -battered and worn they become. A tree with fresh, new leaves mingling -with old ones is not a pleasant object, at least to Northern eyes. This -is the way most trees in the South look in spring. - -If we should travel the world over, and see the trees of many lands, in -spring, in summer, in autumn, and in winter, I believe we should all come -back to the clean, beautiful mixed woods of our north temperate zone, and -declare that these woods are the most beautiful in the world. In the dead -of winter, they are budded full of promise. We learn to love them as well -in this period of rest as we do in the beauty of their spring flowers, or -in the glory of their autumn colouring, or in the steady growth of -summer. - -Each leaf is nurse to a bud that is growing between its base and the -twig. Find these little buds on any tree with broad leaves. A part of all -the food that passes that way stops to feed this growing bud; and in the -late summer the twig provides for the future welfare of all its buds. The -thrifty tree withdraws the green pulp from its leaves, before it lets -them fall. A store of starch is put away in the twig, close to each bud. -This is the food supply which will be used in the spring to enable the -bud to open and spread its young leaves, or its flowers, in a -surprisingly short time. - -When the worn-out leaf has been drained of all of its pulp, the tree lets -it go. It has done its work, and given up its pulp to be stored in the -twig for future use. It seems as if the tree knows that, with the coming -of cooler weather, growth must stop; that the tender leaves must die when -frost overtakes them. So it is a frugal habit to save all of the good -green leaf pulp, and to cast off only the dry leaf skin. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE WINTER - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR BARK - -Hunters and foresters who spend much of their time in the woods learn to -know trees by name through long acquaintance. In the dead of winter, the -framework of a tree may be enough to recognise it by. Where trees are -crowded, this sign is not to be depended upon. The bark is often a guide -to the tree's name. The forester will tell you that the bud is the surest -sign of all. The bark is one of the best signs. - -It is not the easiest thing in the world to learn to know trees by the -bark alone. To the beginner, so many trees with dark, furrowed bark look -strangely alike, although the trees are not even related to each other. -The foresters began with trees that have peculiar and easily recognised -bark. So we shall begin here, and hope that the hard cases will gradually -become easier. - -Every tree wears a garment of bark from the ground up to the utmost -twigs. The thinnest bark is on the youngest branches. The thickest is on -the trunk. - -Begin with the white birch upon the lawn. The bark of this tree is made -of thin layers; the outer one shining like white satin. It breaks and -tatters, and peels off around the trunk. Three-cornered patches of black -are found under each branch, and others on the trunk show where branches -once came out, but were broken or cut off. - -Do you notice narrow, horizontal slits of different lengths on the birch -bark? These are breathing holes that let the air in to the layer under -the bark. Spongy, porous substance fills these slits, but allows the air -to pass through. At the lower part of the trunk the satiny outer bark is -shed, leaving dark under layers, rough and checked into irregular blocks. -As the tree grows older, the trunk becomes rougher and darker, but the -branches always show the kind of bark that the little tree wore. - -In the Northern woods the white bark of the canoe birch is stripped from -the trees in layers as thick as sole leather. Out of these the Indians -once made their bark canoes. Now the same material is used for making all -manner of trifling souvenirs to sell to tourists. A square of this thick -bark, cut on the smooth side of a trunk, may be split into a great number -of thin sheets. This the camper uses to write letters upon, and it is a -beautiful and fitting substitute for note paper, when one is camping out. - -[Illustration: We recognize birches by their silky, tattered bark] - -[Illustration: The beech trunk is clothed in smooth, pale grey bark] - -It is a great pity that so many beautiful trees are girdled and killed to -supply the needs of camping parties. If the bark were stripped but part -way around it would not kill the tree. - -The yellow birch has a silvery yellow tint in the outer bark, which curls -back in ragged ribbons until the tree gets old. The red birch writes its -name in the rusty red colour of its papery bark, which splits into -tatters in true birch fashion, and flutters the ragged ends from each -branch throughout the year. The black birch has no tattered ribbons -flying, but wears a close, smooth, black bark, with the narrow slits that -all birches show. As the trunks grow larger the surface checks into -irregular plates, separated by furrows. It is called the cherry birch, -for the bark is like that of cherry trees. - -The sycamore has bark which is different from that of every other tree. -Indeed, it is by the bark that we recognise this tree. The tall trunk -looks as if it were blotched and streaked and spattered with whitewash, -from the trunk to the topmost limb. The bark is continually dropping off -in thin, irregular plates, leaving smooth whitish patches of an under -layer exposed. After sycamore trees grow older, the bark of the lower -portion of the trunk stops shedding. Fine-checked plates of rusty brown -cover this oldest portion. But even on the oldest and largest trees, the -pale blotches are seen in the branches and we shall never mistake the -name of the tree. - -The shagbark is one of the rugged and shaggy trees that boys find hard to -climb without tearing their clothes into tatters. The bark gives the tree -its name. Thin, narrow plates, close-woven and tough as sole leather, -seem to be attached very loosely to the body of the tree, but if you try -to pull off these narrow strips, you find their hold is very firm. Often -they are attached at the middle, and spring out at both ends. - -An old shagbark tree is a picturesque figure, as it lifts its bare arms -up toward the wintry sky. The trunk is straight, but the branches are -full of angles. Yet, with all their rigidity, these limbs have an -expression of strength, if not of grace, and the tree's head is usually -symmetrical, and always full of character. - -A young hickory has smooth, close-knit bark like that on the branches of -the older trees. Gradually the growing trunk becomes furrowed, and the -peculiar splintering and splitting of the bark is seen only in trees six -inches or more in diameter. By the time the tree is old enough to bear -nuts, it has built itself a formidable fence that boys must climb over -with much hard work and many a scratch, to get up among the branches and -shake down the nuts. - -[Illustration: The loose, stripping bark gives its name to the shagbark -hickory] - -[Illustration: Warty bark of hackberry; Silky bark of black birch; Close, -sinewy bark of hornbeam] - -The tasteless pignuts grow on a smooth-barked hickory tree, very easy to -climb, but the bark of the little shellbark hickory is the guide-post -that leads to the trees where the sweet-flavoured hickory nuts grow. - -The close-knit, grey bark of beech trees hardly needs to be described. -The temptation to cut initials on beech trunks is more than folks with -pocket-knives can resist. No matter how many fine trees there are in a -beech grove near town, they are scarred all over with letters and -hieroglyphics as far as hand can reach. The tree never covers these -wounds. Though they do not cripple it, they mar its beauty painfully. - -A little further from the haunts of picnic parties, we shall come upon -beech woods that have not thus been abused by thoughtless jack-knives. -From the ground, far up into the high tops, a close, beautiful garment of -ashy grey bark clothes the tree. Saplings of all ages grow up among the -big trees, for beeches grow in colonies. A soft radiance from these many -pale tree trunks seems to lighten the woods paths, overshadowed by the -dense foliage of the tree tops. - -It is said that beech trees die when they come into contact with -civilisation. Fine beech woods are included in additions to towns; you -will see the great trees die when lawns and gardens are made about their -roots. In the outskirts of Indianapolis there are noble beech trees, but -they are dying, as the city grows around them. - -The copper beeches and the cut-leaved and weeping beeches have the same -close-knit bark as our native tree, but it is not grey, but dark brown. -These fancy forms are varieties of the European beech, one of the -principal lumber trees of the Old World. - -The bark of this tree played an interesting part in the early history of -the human race. Long before the European tribes had written languages, -they sent messages from one to another. These messages between tribes, -friendly or warlike, were written in hieroglyphics, cut into the smooth -surface of beech bark, and messengers carried them back and forth. - -Sheets of beech bark, as well as birch, made the walls and roofs of the -huts in which people lived. Their boats and various household utensils -were made out of beech wood, which is so close-grained that vessels made -of it hold water without leaking. - -Another American tree with bark like the beech, but darker grey, grows -always, by preference, with its roots in wet soil. It is a little tree, -with rigid, horizontal twigs, that form a flat tree top. This is called -the blue beech, and its trunk does often have a bluish cast. It is also -called hornbeam, for its wood is so hard that it was used in the early -days to make the beams which went across the horns of the oxen. This is -the part of the ox yoke which is the most subject to wear. Ironwood is -another name that describes the hard wood. - -We shall notice that this tree has not a regular cylindrical trunk like -that of a beech. Strong swellings, that look like muscles, are seen, -especially where the trunk branches into the main limbs. Have you ever -noticed the arms of a blacksmith, or of an athlete? How the veins and -muscles stand out when the arm is in use! Just like them are the -irregular swellings that course up the trunk of the hornbeam, and out -into the limbs. - -The hackberry is a handsome shade tree, which might, at first glance, be -mistaken for an elm. The bark is different from that of any other tree. -Once we see a hackberry, and learn its name, we will never mistake it -again. The bark is light brown or grey, and finely checked by deep -furrows. The ridges between bear strange, warty outgrowths. Look for -these warts among the small branches. The twigs are smooth, but back a -little way the warty eruptions begin, and become more prominent as the -limbs thicken and approach the trunk. Sometimes the limbs have these -warts so close together as to form continuous ridges. - -Another tree with warty bark is the sweet gum. The negroes of the South -call the tree "alligator wood," because the lower part of the trunk is -broken by furrows and cross-furrows into horny plates like the skin of an -alligator. From the red-brown trunk up into the grey branches, there is a -change in the character of the bark. The fissures usually run lengthwise, -and the bark rises in thin ridges on each side of the fissure. These -ridges become thin as knife blades on the smaller twigs, which also have -a sprinkling of small warts. - -A sweet gum is very rugged looking in the dead of winter, with its warts -and ridges breaking out on each limb. We know it by this sign alone, but -are doubly sure when we see the seed balls dangling from the twigs. The -sycamore, blotched with white on trunk and limb, also carries a load of -dangling seed balls throughout the winter. There is no danger of -confusing these two trees, for the bark of each is so distinct. - -[Illustration: Warty, ridged bark of the sweet gum, the swinging seed -balls and winged seeds] - -[Illustration: Blotched bark of sycamore, and its seed balls that hang -all winter] - -A little tree with alligator skin bark grows North and South, and chiefly -in the eastern half of the country. This is the flowering dogwood, whose -grey bark breaks into small squarish plates. There is no such ruggedness -in its trunk as there is in the sweet gum's, for it is always a little -tree, and the bark corresponds in its checking to the tree's size. When -we see this peculiar type of bark in the winter woods we may look also -for little flattened, box-like flower buds, each enclosed in four scales. -We shall also find the twigs set opposite, and with these three signs be -sure we know the tree. - -A little tree, no larger in girth than the dogwood, but often taller, has -bark that strips and loosens somewhat as the bark of the shagbark hickory -does. This is the hop hornbeam, one of the ironwoods. Its bark strips are -always thin and narrow, no matter how old the tree becomes. It is never -as loose upon the trunk as the shagbark's. The great buds and stout twigs -of the hickory are entirely different from the slender spray and the very -small buds this ironwood wears in winter. We may find on these twigs some -remnant of the hop-like seed clusters which give this little tree its -name, hop hornbeam. Inside its shaggy bark the lumbermen find wood so -hard that it is very difficult to work, and when made into tools it lasts -almost forever. - -When we have learned to know at sight a dozen trees by their bark alone, -we are ready to go further. A great many trees with furrowed bark like -chestnuts and elms and maples, are not so distinct as those already -learned, and we must study the tree's form, its winter buds, the -arrangement of these buds, and the shape of the leaf scars in connection -with the bark, in order to be sure we know the tree's name. The chestnut -from which we gathered so many nuts last fall, and whose furrowed trunk -we saw at every visit, we come to know through this familiarity. The -trunks of other chestnut trees look like this one, and though we may not -know just how we do it, we have added the chestnut to the list of trees -we recognise by their bark alone. The sugar maples which we tap in spring -for their sugary sap, have dark, furrowed bark, not very distinctive. And -yet, by going from tree to tree, emptying the sap pails, we gradually -learn to recognise the bark of the sugar maple, and add it to our growing -list. - -[Illustration: The Lombardy poplar stands like an exclamation point in -the landscape] - -[Illustration: The live oak of the South is usually hung with long skeins -of the weird, grey Spanish moss] - -Trees do not change their clothes, and they do not move away. Day after -day, if we use our eyes and notice what is going on in the tree tops, as -the seasons follow each other, we come to know our trees by name; we -recognise them in winter by their bark, and by the framework of their -tops, in summer by leaves and flowers, in autumn by their changing colour -and by their fruits. It is not hard work for those who love trees. It is -like getting acquainted with other neighbours whom we are glad to count -among our friends. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR SHAPES - -The life of every tree depends upon its success in holding its leaves out -into the sunlight. The tree which exposes the greatest amount of leaf -surface to the sun makes the greatest growth. The shape of their tops is -a character in which trees differ widely. We shall come to know many of -them in winter time better than in summer, by the distinct shapes -revealed when the foliage is gone. In any bare tree, the purpose of all -of the branching and branching again, is plainly seen. Each twig and -branch reaches out toward the outer surface of the dome, or pyramid. Here -the buds in winter are waiting to open, when spring comes, into leafy -shoots. These will cover the tree top with a dome of green greater than -the one of the previous summer. Their work through the growing season -will lengthen every branch and every root, and add a layer of wood under -the bark of trunks and branches and roots. - -The most remarkable tree shape is that of the Lombardy poplar. The tall -trunk is clothed with many short, close-branched limbs, which do not -spread, as in ordinary tree forms, but grow upright, so as to lie almost -against the main trunk. The upper branches are overlapped and crowded by -those below them, and so on down the trunk. The result is a tree shaped -like a capital I. In summer time, the heart-shaped leaves cover the twigs -on the outside of this spire, but the beauty of the tree top is marred by -the dead branches which have been smothered by the crowding. - -A young Lombardy poplar is handsome as it stands covered with its -twinkling leaves. It grows rapidly, and is especially striking and -effective in clumps of round-headed trees. It is like an exclamation -point. Architects always like to have a few of these trees dotted about -the grounds to keep company with tall chimneys and distant church spires. -There is no shade under trees of this form, though miles of them are -planted along roadsides where they stand like tin soldiers, all alike. -The older trees look very ragged, for they are unable to shed their dead -limbs, and as old age comes on they send up suckers from the roots that -form a little forest around the parent tree. - -Scattered over fallow fields of worthless ground, the red cedars are -allowed to grow. They are the evergreen counterparts of the slim Lombardy -poplars. Sometimes the red cedar broadens into a pyramid, wide at the -base, but we are all familiar with the green exclamation points, dotted -over the hillsides, wherever birds have dropped the blue berries full of -seeds. - -The pointed firs with their horizontal branches becoming longer and -longer towards the ground, are good examples of the pyramid form so -common among evergreens. This is the shape of the spruces, and the pines, -and the hemlocks, until storms have broken their branches, and taken away -the symmetry of the top. The pin oak and the honey locust send out -horizontal branches of graduated lengths from the central shaft, -imitating the evergreens in shape. - -The evergreen magnolia of the South has a dome like an old-fashioned -beehive, pyramidal, and regular when it grows in sheltered places. Such a -dome is the hard maple's in the North. - -Some trees branch low, and their short trunks break into great limbs -whose ample spread forms a dome much broader than its height. The white -oak in the North and its evergreen counterpart, the live oak of the -South, illustrate this noble form. Somewhat like them, but with its dome -elevated upon a tall trunk, is the American elm with the fan top. The -lines of the elm branches are all curves from the arching limbs that rise -out of the trunk to the flexible twigs which droop at the extremities of -the branches. The dome of a white oak is made of angular limbs. Even the -twigs are likely to be crooked. No one would confuse the elm with an oak. - -Round-headed trees are many. Go from the apple tree in the orchard to the -red and Norway maples along our streets. A great many trees find this -form best adapted to spreading their leaves out towards the sun. Many -oaks and ash trees, the hickories and birches, and the beeches have -widely spreading limbs forming tops that are oblong in shape. There are -trees so irregular in habits of growth that we shall never know them by -their forms alone. - -The winter is the best time to study tree shapes, for then the framework -is revealed. The trees to study are those which stand apart from others, -so that they have been able to take their natural shapes. These we shall -find growing on the streets, and in yards, and parks, and in open spaces -in the woods. Where trees crowd each other in growing, their branches -chafe and clash in storms, destroying the buds and leaves, and bruising -the tender bark. Such limbs die of these injuries, and the whole shape of -the tree top is changed by its losses. - -[Illustration: Fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn] - -[Illustration: Clustered thorns on trunk of honey locust tree; Flowers -and foliage of the black locust] - -It is hopeless for lower limbs to live in a dense pine forest. The top -branches form so thick a wall of shade that lower branches die from lack -of sun. It is the same with broad-leaved trees. In any dense woods, the -trees stand bare as telegraph poles, lifting small heads of foliage at -the top, and competing there with their neighbour trees for sun and air. -It is only when set apart from other trees that a trunk can keep its -lower branches hale and strong as those at the top. - -The weeping habit gives us some strange tree forms. The Camperdown elm -forms a shady summer-house on many a lawn by arching limbs which droop to -the ground on all sides of the main trunk. The weeping mulberry has the -same habit. Weeping birches and willows have such light foliage, and such -fine, flexible twigs, that they look like fountains of green as they -stand among the other trees. - -All weeping trees are made by grafting in the nursery rows. They are not -grown from seeds, and it is not true that they "weep" because of being -planted up-side-down! This preposterous notion is not uncommon. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR THORNS - -In winter time, the bare limbs of trees reveal many strange secrets, -which the leaves cover up in summer. Some trees we may know by the thorns -they wear. - -The honey locust scarcely conceals in summer the three-branched thorns, -for which it is famous. These thorns are twigs, but they rarely bear -leaves. Each is sharpened to a needle point, and highly polished. -Sometimes it is single, oftener with a main thorn and two side branches; -sometimes short, but often reaching over a foot in length, and growing -stronger and more wicked-looking with age. Sometimes a honey locust has a -crowded group of these thorns growing out of the trunk and large limbs. -Once in a great while a honey locust is thornless, growing wild. From -such trees a thornless variety has been developed. It is, therefore, -possible to obtain from nurserymen trees of this variety. - -The unbranched spines of the osage orange trees make it a formidable -hedge plant, and no fences are needed where green barriers of these trees -grow. Each shining leaf has a spike at its base, stout and sharp as a -needle, and strong as steel. - -Two spines stand guard at the base of each leaf of the yellow or black -locust, and each leaflet has two little spines of the same type. The -basal spines remain after the leaves fall, so that in winter we shall -find these pairs of sentinels guarding the leaf scars up and down the -ridged twigs. On the thicker stems the thorns are larger, and the tree is -thus well-armed and able to do duty as a hedge plant, when thickly -planted. - -These thorns come off with the bark, hence they are more properly called -prickles. They are not rooted in the wood of the branch as the thorns of -the honey locust are, but they belong in the class with rose and -raspberry prickles, which are mere outgrowths of the bark. - -The hawthorn trees have single spines, some long and curved, some short, -some branched. All are rooted in the pith of the twig that bears them; -therefore, they are not prickles, but true thorns. - -The wild plum trees have a strange habit of ending their shoots with -thorny tips, as if the branches needed such defence against browsing -cattle. Certainly these stunted, sharp-pointed twigs are useful as -weapons of defence to the little trees that grow slowly in poor soil, and -are sufferers from poverty and abuse. Perhaps it is their hard luck that -makes them crabbed and thorny. Wild apple trees show the same tendency to -have thorny twigs. The same little trees, transplanted to mellow soil, -grow soft and leafy twigs, and abandon the carrying of weapons. - -Hercules' club is a tree which beats the ailanthus at its own game. Stems -ten feet high and two inches in diameter at the base sometimes shoot up -in a single season. These clubs of Hercules are covered with spines as -thickly set as on a gooseberry bush, formidable and vicious, though only -skin deep. - -On account of its tropical growth, this tree is planted for ornament in -gardens where there is room. Its leaves are wonderful. They come out with -a rich, silky, bronze sheen in spring, and when they reach full size are -often four feet long, and more than half as wide. Each one is branched -and branched again, and ends in a multitude of small oval leaflets. These -giant leaves sway in the summer winds, giving the tree the grace of a -tree fern. In late summer a great pyramid of bloom rises above the -foliage. Purplish berries, which succeed the flowers, make a fine showing -in fall and winter, when the leaves have turned to red and gold. - -We dare not touch this spiny tree, but we may come close and admire its -wonderful crown of umbrella leaves, the biggest by far borne on any tree -outside of the Tropics. - - - THE NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - -In our town and in our neighbourhood most of the trees drop their leaves -before winter comes, and stand with bare limbs for several months. Here -and there, however, a single tree stands, wearing the same green leaves -it wore all summer. Everybody knows this tree as an evergreen. It belongs -to a group of trees strangely different from those around it which have -shed their leaves. Let us see how it differs from them. - -Take the one that is nearest to you, and pull down one of its leafy, -green branches. The leaves are like green needles, stiff, sharp-pointed, -with waxy resin on the brown twigs, that makes your fingers sticky. Up in -the tree tops strange oval, brown cones are hanging. Underfoot, a carpet -of dead needles lies thick upon the grass, and cones, with their -overlapping scales spread much wider than those upon the tree, lie about. -Squirrels have gnawed some of these scales away, leaving a central spike -like a cob from which the corn has been shelled. Little green cones, fat -and waxy, no larger than your thumb, are seen near the tips of some -branches. You can see the scales overlapping each other in these, even -though they seem to be grown solidly together. - -If we walk through the village or the city in which we live, and stop -under each evergreen tree we come to, we shall find nearly all alike in -these two points: they have needle-like leaves, and they have cones. The -evergreens with needle-like leaves, and cones on and under them, belong -to four evergreen tree families, whose names every one would like to -know. These four evergreen families are named pine, spruce, fir, and -hemlock, and they are planted everywhere. But few people are very sure -they know one from another. It is perfectly right to call them all -evergreens, or conifers, which means cone-bearers. These names include -all the four families. But it is common for people to call a spruce, a -pine, or a hemlock, a spruce, when the truth is that one may very easily -know these trees apart. - -Let us begin with the first needle-leaved cone-bearing evergreen we meet. -To find out whether this tree is a pine, a spruce, a fir, or a hemlock, -we must ask the tree some questions. It will answer them. First: "Are -your needles set _one_ in a place on the twig, or are they in groups, or -bundles, of _more than one_ at a place?" Pull down a twig and look -sharply for the answer. Suppose there are the leaves in pairs, or in -threes, or in fives, each bundle or group growing out of a single point -on the twig. The answer is: "Not single, but in bundles, more than one at -a place." Towards the end of the shoot you will find a brownish or -silvery sheath binding the leaves into bundles. Further back, this sheath -may be missing, but the number of leaves in the bundle remains the same -for some distance back from the end of the shoot. The leaves begin to -fall from the bundles farthest from the tips, and therefore old. If two -leaves is the number in a bundle, there are never more than two, young -and old. If three is the number, you will find only threes. If five is -the number, then you will rarely find fewer than this in any bundle. - -All the trees with more than one leaf in a bundle are pines. All of the -rest of the needle-leaved evergreens have a single leaf at a place upon -the twig. They are the spruces, firs, and hemlocks. Let us go and look -for them. - -The very next evergreen we come to we must put the same question to: "Are -your leaves single, or are there more than one in a bundle?" Suppose -"three in a bundle" is the answer; we recognise the tree as a pine, and -pass it by. - -Across the street is a tree of different shape, though an evergreen and a -conifer. We see the long cones hanging from its drooping branches, -especially near the top of the tree. Cross over and examine a twig; the -needles are short and sharp-pointed, and they are set singly in spiral -lines on the twigs. Every leaf sits on a little shelf, or bracket, that -stands out from the twig. Pick up a dead twig under the tree. The leaves -are gone, but these little brackets in spiral rows wind around the twig. -They are horny and sharp, and would tear your fingers if you drew the -twig quickly between them. - -Notice that the little brackets are angled at the top. Pick up a dead -leaf and notice the shape of its base. The leaf itself has angled sides. -Roll it between your thumb and finger. It has three or four sides, and at -least three sharp angles. - -This is a spruce, and the signs by which we know it are the brackets on -the twig, the thick, sharp, three- or four-angled leaf, and the stout -twigs, to match the stout leaves. - -The next needle-leaved evergreen with cones we meet we may hope will turn -out to be a fir or hemlock, but the chances are that its twigs will show -two, three, or five needles in a bundle. What shall we call the tree? A -pine, of course, and pass it by. We need ask no further question. - -The next tree has stiff twigs with brackets, and stout, stiff, angled and -pointed leaves. Cones hang down upon its branches. We recognise a spruce, -and go on. - -Over yonder is an evergreen which waves a featherly spray of very slender -twigs. There is scarcely a breeze stirring, and yet the tree is all -a-tremble, and its drooping branches carry a load of pretty little brown -cones. Turn up a branch, and you notice that the leaves are all silvery -underneath. They are single on the twigs, so this is not a pine. They -part and lie flat, a row on each side of the twig. This is very different -from a spruce whose leaves stand out all around the twigs. These sprays -are flat, each like a feather. The leaves are soft, not stiff. They are -blunt, flat, and each has a tiny stem. The twigs are like fine wire, they -are so slender. The leaves are mounted on brackets, just as the spruce -leaves are, but the brackets are much smaller, to match the daintier -twigs and leaves. - -It is a hemlock tree. The tiny leaf stem is the thing which sets it apart -from all other needle-leaved evergreens. Take a good look before you go, -at the leaf itself, at the slender twigs, with their little brackets, at -the shining upper surface of the flat leaf and the silvery lining that -makes this tree so lovely as the wind lifts the flexible branches. Pick -up a handful of dead leaves, and notice that though dead and brown, they -show the flat surface with a middle ridge on the under side, prolonged -into the short leaf stem. The pale lining is not so distinct now. - -One tree family remains of the needle-leaved, cone-bearing evergreen. -That is the fir, the Christmas tree, and its close relatives. Not often -do we plant our native fir, because the trees are not as handsome, nor as -useful as pines, spruces, and hemlocks. We may walk far before we find an -evergreen which does not turn out to be a pine, a spruce, or a hemlock. -However, it is near Christmas time. The little firs will be brought into -market in sufficient numbers to supply a Christmas tree to every house. -This is our chance. We will go to market, and look at these little trees -that stand together, with their limbs trussed like fowls, ready to be -baked. This is for economy of space in shipping. - -The clean, pungent odour of balsam comes from the bleeding stub, and we -see tears of the whitish wax wherever the bark of a twig or branch is -bruised. These are balsam firs. They have their name from this fragrant, -sticky resin that leaks from their veins. - -First, as to the leaves. We find them single and spirally arranged, as in -the spruce, but there are no brackets on the twigs. Pull off a leaf and -the twig is smooth. The leaves are blunt, but flattened, and on most of -the twigs they spread, feather-like, on two sides. There are more of -them, however, than on the hemlock spray. They are white-lined, like the -hemlock leaves, but there are no little leaf stems. The twigs are stouter -than those of the hemlock, resembling the spruce twigs in size, but they -lack horny little leaf brackets which are so prominent on spruce twigs. - -One reason that spruce trees make poor Christmas trees is that the leaves -fall so soon. Almost the day after Christmas the floor is scattered with -them. The fir trees keep their leaves for weeks. This little bracket -makes all the difference. Fir leaves seem to be fastened right into the -twig itself, and made thus more secure. - -If it chances that you find a fir old enough to bear cones, you will see -another very distinct trait of this family. The cones are held erect on -the twigs; the cones of pines, and spruces, and hemlocks hang down. If -you are fortunate enough to find a fir tree growing, and old enough to -bear its fruit, these upright cones will tell you the tree's name before -you come near enough to look at the leaves, and to see if the twigs are -smooth. - - - THE FIVE-LEAVED SOFT PINES - -An evergreen with needle-like leaves in bundles, two to five leaves in a -bundle, is a pine. These bundles are usually bound with a thin, papery -sheath at the base, and set in spiral rows that wind around the twig. The -leaves in the newest sheaths are nearest the growing tip of the shoot. -Here we shall find the leaves shorter, some so short that they have not -yet got outside of their sheaths. The silky covering hides them, as the -bud scales on other trees covered the undeveloped shoot with its flowers -and leaves, wrapped in the winter buds. - -The kind of pine depends upon the number of leaves in a bundle. This is -the first thing to find out when we undertake to determine the name of a -pine tree. All of the vigorous young shoots have bundles that do not vary -in number of needles. Further back on the limb are leaves more than a -year old. The sheaths are shorter, or have fallen away entirely. Now the -number of needles in a bundle begins to be uncertain. We find bundles -that have fewer needles than those on the younger wood. This is because -the older leaves are falling. Finally we reach a point where the twigs -are bare. On white pine shoots it is easy to find leaves that are five to -seven years old. - -"Soft pine" is a lumberman's term. Carpenters use it, so do all people -who work in wood. It means that the wood of a certain group of pines is -soft and light, and the sap is not gummy. Any boy who has cut kindling -wood knows what a joy it is to whittle soft pine. Until a few years ago, -this was the wood out of which boxes of all sorts were made, and it was -the only kindling wood we had. Now things are changed. Much box lumber is -made of poplar and other soft woods, which do not split as easily as -pine. This means that soft pine is getting scarce, and is too valuable to -use where cheaper woods will serve. - - - THE WHITE PINE - -The white pine has the softest, most hair-like leaves in the whole pine -family. Five needles are in each bundle, and each is delicate and -flexible. When the wind blows through the top of one of these -five-needled trees, the end shoots nod like plumes. The tree sends up a -straight shaft sometimes to the height of nearly two hundred feet, and -whorls of branches, five in a place, form regular platforms extending -horizontally from the trunk. Each of these sets of branches counts a year -of the tree's life; for the end bud lengthens the trunk, and at the same -time, five buds that surround it grow out into horizontal branches. It is -easy to count the age of a young white pine, by beginning at the tip, and -counting downward. We could do it with large trees, except that the lower -branches die, and at length are lost. The bark heals over the scars left -where they fell, so the count is lost when we reach the point where the -branches stop. The white pine is slow to shed its dead branches. - -In the woods of the Eastern half of the United States any five-leaved -pine that we meet is a white pine. Before we are near enough to count the -needles in a bundle, we may count five branches at a whorl around the -trunk, and this determines the name. Beautifully regular pyramids, the -little trees are. In old age these pines lose symmetry by the loss of -limbs, and become very rugged and picturesque. A white pine tree, -crippled by two or three centuries of struggle with winds and lightnings, -is a noble figure. The plume-like branches soften its rugged outlines, -and the sombre blue-green of the older leaves is brightened by the -fresher colour of the new ones. The upper half of the tree is hung with -slim cones whose smooth, thin scales spread wide in the autumn of their -second year to let the winged seeds go. - -In spring the clustering catkins of staminate flowers look like yellow -cones on the ends of the pale yellow-green shoots. The wind shakes an -abundant supply of golden dust out of these pollen flowers, then lets the -fading catkins fall. The pistillate flowers are pinkish-purple and almost -hidden, just back of the tips of the upper twigs. They are cone-shaped, -and they part their scales and stand erect to catch the pollen as it -drifts through the tree tops. The flowers on each scale require a grain -of pollen each, in order to set seed. When its flowers are fertilised the -cone closes its scales tight, but they stand erect all summer. In the -autumn they are green and fleshy, and they turn downward. In winter we -shall see among the swaying branches of these pines, the green, -half-grown fruits, and further back, on wood a year older, the brown, -full-grown cones with their scales spread. These cones often curve -slightly. The largest of them may be ten inches long, but the average -cone is little over half that length. - -The lumbermen have stripped the white pine from the Eastern forests until -there is very little left. Many states are planting this valuable timber -tree, to restore the forests that wasteful lumbering, and forest fires -have destroyed. Thousands of young trees grown in nursery rows are -transplanted to beautify home grounds and parks. We shall find no -difficulty in discovering white pine trees, even though no forest near us -has a specimen left. It is one of the commonest pines to be planted in -cities and villages. It is the only five-leaved pine that will grow -successfully on this side of the Rocky Mountains. - - - THE GREAT SUGAR PINE - -All along the coast mountains from Oregon to Lower California, a -five-leaved soft pine grows whose size makes our Eastern white pine seem -like a dwarf. In that far country of big trees, it is one of the giants. -I had read of these trees which grow to be over 200 feet in height, with -trunks six to ten feet in diameter at the ground, but figures do not give -much idea of the truth. I first saw the groves of sugar pines miles ahead -of us, as the stage climbed the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada -mountains. We were on the way into the wonderful Yosemite Valley. The -scrawny, grey, digger pines, with cones as big as a man's head, grew on -the lower foot hills. Next came the great yellow pines, and still higher -up, the grand sugar pines, along the highest level of the stage road. -They stood oftenest in close ranks so that their tops were small, because -of the crowding. And here they had stood for centuries. The road was no -wider than the broad stumps of some that had been cut down, and their -prostrate trunks were longer than any log I have ever seen before. I -remember calculating that the round dining table at home could be set -upon this stump, and all the family seated round it with no danger of -their chairs being too near the edge. The standing trunks seemed like -great builded columns, too large for real trees to grow. Their feathery, -dark green tips reached nearer to the sky than any trees in Eastern -forests. - -[Illustration: Hemlock cones are small; those of Norway spruce are four -or five inches long] - -[Illustration: Pine twig with cones, young and old, and clustered -staminate flowers] - -Under these pines old cones were lying. They were big, to match the -trees. Twenty inches the longest one measured, with scales two inches -long, and plump seeds as big as navy beans. Far off in the tree top the -hanging cones looked moderate in size. We could just see the green, -half-grown cones nearer the ends of the branches, for this Western white -pine, like our Eastern species, requires two years to mature its fruit. - -"Why call them sugar pines?" I asked the stage driver. He pointed to some -drops of resin-like substance on the scales of the cone I held in my lap. -"Taste it," he said. I did, and it was sweet, with somewhat the flavour -of maple sugar. Crystals of this sugar come from wounds in the bark, and -from the ends of green sticks when burning. The sap is quite as sweet as -that of maple trees, but one is soon surfeited in eating the candy-like -substance. - -The stage driver told me that a lumberman could cut $5,000 worth of -lumber from one of these sugar pine trees. No wonder they think that it -is a burning shame for the government to reserve these noble woods of the -Yosemite tract "just to be looked at." Fortunately for us, and for the -people of the whole country, some thousands of acres of magnificent -forest are reserved on those Western-mountain slopes, where they are safe -from the lumberman's axe. If we cannot go to see them this year, perhaps -we can fifty years hence. They will still be standing, still growing, -these noble remnants of the grandest forests of any country. Specimens of -what Mr. John Muir calls "the largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all -the seventy or eighty species of pine trees in the world." - -[Illustration: Thousands of little balsam firs supply the market with -Christmas trees] - -[Illustration: In these tall white pine trees Nathaniel Hawthorne built -an out-door study, where he wrote undisturbed] - - - THE NUT PINES - -A group of soft pines, with fewer needles than five in a bundle, grows on -the Western mountain slopes. Small trees they are, which have to struggle -hard against the winds and storms, and with the scant moisture of the -desert air and soil for a bare living. They are very interesting because -of the fact that they have nuts, rich, sweet, and nutritious, under the -scales of their cones, and these nuts are important items in the food of -many Indian tribes of the West. - -The first is the four-leaved nut pine that grows on the barren mountain -slopes of Southern and Lower California. It is a desert tree, rarely -reaching forty feet in height, and this only in the most favourable -situations. The foliage is pale sage green. No other pine has four leaves -in a bundle. Its nut-like seeds are rich in oil, starch, and sugar. -Without them the Indians of Lower California would probably starve. In -Riverside County the tree is common at 5,000 feet above sea level. It has -a regular pyramidal head, when young, becoming low, round-topped and -irregular when very old. - -Another pion, but this one with a bushy, broad top, and often -considerably taller, grows with the four-leaved pine on the mountains of -Lower California, and northward along the canyons and mountain slopes of -Arizona. The short leaves are dark green, and there are but two or three -in a bundle. The seeds are plump, and rounded, or angular. The upper side -is brown, the lower side black, and each has a pale brown wing. - -A third nut pine, or pion, two- or three-leaved, grows on the eastern -foot hills of the outer ranges of the Rocky Mountains, on both sides of -the system. Forests of it are found on the high plains of Colorado and -Arizona. It sometimes grows large enough to be used for lumber. The nuts -are half an inch long, and have thin, brittle shells. They are gathered -by Indians and Mexicans, and may often be bought in the markets of -Colorado and New Mexico. - -The one-leaved nut pine seems to belong with the spruces and firs, and -other single-leaved evergreens, but there are frequently two leaves in -the bundle, and there is a little scaly sheath at the base. The -grey-green leaves often hang on for ten or twelve years. The winged nuts -are over half an inch long. The wood furnished fuel and charcoal to the -smelters in the mining regions, and the Indians of Nevada and California -harvest the nut crop. - -Every autumn when we are going for chestnuts and hickory nuts in our -Eastern woods, we may think of the Indian families who leave their homes -in the lowlands, and climb the mountain slopes to gather their nuts which -are their staff of life. If we should miss our nutting excursion, it -would make no vital difference in our lives during the coming winter. Our -nuts are not a serious part of the provisions of the household. But with -the Indians, to miss the nut pine harvest, means to have no bread for the -winter that is coming. - -Mr. John Muir, who has often lived among these stunted upland forests, -and seen the Indians gathering the nuts and using them later as food, -tells us many interesting things. The trees of the one-leaved nut pine -are low, like old apple trees, and full of cones. The Indians get long -poles, and beat the cones off the trees, then roast them on hot stones, -until the scales open. Then they shake out the nuts, and gather them in -baskets and bags to carry home. These nuts are eaten raw or parched on -hot stones. These are the easiest and simplest ways. But the best and -most palatable form in which they are prepared costs much more time and -labour. The nuts are parched, then ground or pounded into meal. This is -stirred up with water, into a kind of mush, which is formed into cakes -and baked. This is, in general, the way in which all pine nuts are made -into bread. - -The time of the nut harvest is, for the Indians, the merriest time of the -year. If the crop is heavy, the spirits of the party are light. A single -family, if it is fairly industrious, can gather fifty or sixty bushels of -these rich, thin-shelled nuts in a single autumn month; and with this -quantity to carry home, can go down the mountains, tired but happy, -knowing that their bread for the winter, and plenty of it, is assured. - - - THE HARD PINES - -The hard pines are a group of needle-leaved evergreens, whose leaf -bundles contain two or three needles, as a rule. The wood is heavy, -usually dark in colour, and saturated with a resinous, gummy sap. The -common name, "pitch pine," refers to the resinous wood; it is much harder -to work with than that of soft pines. The most valuable hard pine forests -grow in the Southern states. These are now the chief sources of pine -lumber in the Eastern half of the continent. They furnish also quantities -of turpentine, pitch, tar, and oil, products of the resinous sap which -saturates the wood of these trees while they are growing. - -One trait of the pitch pines is that they retain the leaf sheath. The -soft pines shed the sheath as soon as the leaf bundle has attained its -full length. - - - THE SOUTHERN PITCH PINES - -The woodwork and floors of a great many houses of moderate cost are done -to-day in Southern pine, sometimes called "yellow pine," sometimes "curly -pine." The alternating bands of dark and light yellowish brown, often -very much waved, give the wood an ornamental grain that is much admired. -It is common and most desirable that this wood should not be stained nor -painted, but given the "natural finish" which brings out the rich orange -colour, and shows at their full value the wavy bands and intricate -patterns that are the chief beauty of the wood. The arching timbers that -support the roof of a church are often made of stiff timbers cut from -Southern pines, and dressed only with a coat of oil, under which time -deepens and enriches the wood's natural colours. - - - THE LONGLEAF PINE - -The longleaf pine is one of four hard pines whose lumber is not -distinguished by ordinary carpenters, but is generally called "yellow -pine." "Georgia pine" ranks a little higher than the rest. That is the -longleaf, which grows over a territory much greater than the state of -Georgia. This is the chief source of turpentine, pitch, and tar, as well -as one of the very best lumber trees of the pitch pine group. The most -ornamental wood is that with the curliest grain, and the narrowest bands -of alternating dark and light colour. It grows slowly in hard, sandy -soils on the damp coast plains near the Gulf of Mexico. - -We shall know this tree from all other pines by the length of its -needles. They are twelve to eighteen inches long, flexible, dark green, -shining, three in a bundle, enclosed at the base in long, pale, silvery -sheaths. They remain on the tree but two years, therefore the tree top is -bare except for thick tufts of these drooping leaves on the ends of the -branches. If you have never seen these trees growing in their natural -forest belt, that ranges from Virginia to Florida, and west to the -Mississippi River, or in small scattered forest patches in Northern -Alabama, Louisiana, or Texas, you may have seen branches or small trees -shipped north to be used for Christmas decorations. In the waste land -that the lumbermen have cut over, in the neighbourhood of these longleaf -forests, men go in early December, and cut the little trees. Saplings two -or three feet high bring good prices in the Northern markets, where holly -branches, ropes of ground pine, sprigs of mistletoe, and leaves of -Southern palms are sold. A little two-foot longleaf pine, standing erect, -with all its long flexible leaves bending outward like a fountain of -shining green, is handsomer than any palm of the same size. - -The popularity of these pine shoots is growing, and those who cut them -seem not to realise that they are killing the forests of the future. -Trees grow from seeds which fall in the territory cleared by the -lumbermen. If these little trees that Nature plants are cut as fast as -they show themselves above the forest floor, how are the longleaf pine -forests to be restored? It is a great problem, for a great part of the -natural wealth of the South is in these lumber tracts, now being cleared -at a terrific rate of speed, and the land left practically worthless when -stripped. - -The cones of the longleaf pine are narrow and tapering. The scales are -thick, and each bears a small spine. The leaves are the distinguishing -trait, and the tall, slender trunk crowned by a long open head of short, -twisted branches. - - - THE SHORTLEAF PINE - -The shortleaf pine ranks second only to the longleaf among the forest -pines of the South. It is the common "yellow pine," and "North Carolina -pine" that is commonly sold from lumber yards in the North and Middle -West. Its wood is almost as beautiful in the natural finish. Its leaves -are short in comparison with those of the longleaf, and scarcely longer -than any pines of the North. They are found in clusters of twos and -threes, and they have the dark blue-green colour of the white pine, -lightened by the silvery sheaths at the bases of the clusters. The leaves -are soft and flexible, slender, and sharp-pointed. They vary from three -to five inches in length. The cones are two to three inches long, and -half as broad; the thickened scales have small spines. It takes two years -to bring cones to maturity, and the old ones hang on several years. In -this they differ from our Northern pitch pine. - -Forests of this timber pine are scattered from Connecticut to Florida, -and west to Illinois, Kansas, and Texas. They are being slaughtered by -lumbermen as fast as those of the longleaf. The young trees are tapped -for turpentine. In the South and East, these forests are practically -gone. The lumber mills are busy in the great tracts west of the -Mississippi, and below the Arkansas River, in the forests of shortleaf -pine, which until recently were untouched, and too far from the markets -to be profitably cut. - -The shortleaf pine will reforest the old areas, and spread over a -widening territory, if only it is given a chance. One hundred years is -enough time to restore a forest,--to grow a crop of these trees. Young -ones spring from the roots of old trees, a habit not at all common among -pines. Let us hope that before the Southwestern forests are gone, new -ones east of the Mississippi River will take their places, so that the -shortleaf shall not disappear from the lumber markets as the white pine -of the Northeastern states has done. - - - THE CUBAN PINE - -The Cuban pine or swamp pine of the South, with stout green leaves eight -to twelve inches long, in twos and threes, is not confused with the -longleaf nor the shortleaf, for its leaves are intermediate in length -between the two. This beautiful pine grows in forests that skirt swampy -coast land. Its leaves are carried two years, so the trees have dense, -luxuriant crowns of green, and are more beautiful as a part of the -landscape than any other forest pine of the South. The wood of the Cuban -pine is not distinguished in the lumber trade, as it is much the same in -quality and appearance as longleaf pine. - - - THE LOBLOLLY PINE - -The fourth of the yellow pines of the South is the loblolly or old field -pine, whose lumber is saturated with pitch. The trees grow in marshy -regions along the coast, and for the most part occupy land that is -sterile and worthless. These tide water pine forests follow the swamps -from New Jersey around to Texas. In early days this was the building pine -of the South. The virgin forests are gone, and the new generation is -inferior in quality, because the trees are not allowed to attain their -full growth. Though rich in resin, there is little flow of turpentine -from these trees, but the wood catches fire easily, and is one of the -best of fuels. - -We shall know this pine by its pale green, twisted leaves, always in -bundles of three, six to ten inches long, enclosed at the base in sheaths -that are not shed. The cones are three to five inches long, with ridged -scales set with prickles. This tree bears a great crop of cones yearly, -and its seeds are remarkable for their vitality. So are the seedlings, -which grow on land so wet or so poor that few other trees compete with -them. The first ten years in the life of a seedling pine is a period of -tremendous growth. Fire rarely sweeps these young forests, for the trees -are well protected by the marshy character of the land in which they -grow. Left for a century or two, these trees produce masts for the -largest vessels, equal in quality to the finest in the world. - - - THE NORTHERN PITCH PINES - -We have nothing in the Northeastern states that compares in importance -with the pitch pine of Southern forests, but we have pitch pines which -everybody knows. The first is the gnarled and picturesque pitch pine that -grows on worthless land, and thrives in patches along the sea coast, -where other evergreens are unsuccessful. The rough, rigid branches which -spring from the short trunks of these trees carry a burden of blackening -cones which give them a very untidy look when the trees are small. When -they reach fifty or seventy-five feet in height, a certain nobility and -picturesqueness of expression challenge our admiration, and the clusters -of cones are not at all objectionable; indeed they heighten the tree's -beauty. - -The needle-like leaves of pitch pines are always in threes, rigid, stout, -and three to five inches long, dark yellow-green, the bundles in black -sheaths that are never shed. The cones require two years to ripen. They -are from one to three inches long, pointed, with sharp backward-pointed -beaks. The wood of this tree is used for fuel, and locally for lumber, -but it does not interest the lumbermen. The wood is not good enough, and -the trees are too small and scattered. The tree does a good work by -growing on worthless land, and near the sea coast. Its picturesqueness is -becoming to be more appreciated by landscape gardeners who are bringing -it into cultivation. - -The handsomest of our pitch pines is the red pine, whose dark green -leaves are six inches long, and cluster in twos upon the twigs. The bark, -the wood, and the bud scales are all red. The cones are from one to three -inches long, with thickened scales which have no spines. The tree grows -into a broad pyramid, branched to the ground, with stout twigs, and -luxuriant foliage. The symmetry and vigour of growth makes this red pine -a handsomer tree than the ragged, discouraged-looking pitch pines. It is -well for the landscape that its wood is very disappointing. So many -beautiful groves are allowed to reach great age, and size, where white -pines would have fallen to a lumberman's axe. - -The home that has a beautiful red pine within sight of its windows, or a -double row of these trees serving as a wind-break to ward off the storms -of winter, is truly well planted. Without one or more of these trees, -there is a decided lack. Any nurseryman can furnish handsome young red -pines, so no one need hesitate to plant this native tree. - -[Illustration: The spiny-leaved, red-berried holly is a handsome -evergreen tree for the lawn] - -[Illustration: What would Christmas be without holly branches and wreaths -for decoration!] - -The Jersey pine is a twisted, low tree, with dark, discouraged-looking -branches, covered with grey-green leaves that have a sickly yellowish -tinge when the new shoots appear in spring. The leaves are always in -twos, and they range from one to three inches long. The small cones are -dark red, oval, with thickened scales spiny-tipped. These trees cover -waste land where there is a meagre living for any tree. What wonder that -they look stunted? Their chief merit is that they clothe the desert -places, and furnish wood for fuel and fences, and thus save the great -lumber pines for higher uses. - - - THE CEDARS, WHITE AND RED - -Beside the needle-leaved evergreens just described, there are some trees -we all know, that bear cones, and are evergreens, but their leaves are -strangely different from those of pines, spruces, firs, and hemlocks. One -of these is the familiar arbor vit, a conical tree, with flat leaf -spray. Looking closely, one can make out the tiny, scale-like leaves, -arranged in opposite pairs, clasping the wiry stems, and covering them -completely. These stems are flat, so that one pair of leaves has a sharp -keel on the middle. The next pair is spread out flat. The keeled pair -covers the edge of the stem. The flat pair covers the broader surface. -These pairs alternate through the length of the stem, and an aromatic -resin seals them close. - -The cones of the arbor vit are small, and they have few scales, compared -with the cones of the needle-leaved evergreens. Each year a crop is -borne, with two seeds under each scale. Few of us see the little red cone -flowers in May, nor the pellets of yellow on other twigs, which are the -pollen flowers. We watch the hedge clipper at work, trimming the thick -green fronds that make a solid wall of green. Look carefully hereafter -for the flowers and the ripe cones, in the proper season for each. - -[Illustration: This big tree, "The Grizzly Giant," is over three hundred -feet high. It is a sequoia, one of the cone-bearing evergreens] - -[Illustration: SCALY-LEAVED EVERGREENS: Upper: two branches from the same -red cedar tree; Lower: flat sprays of arbor vit] - -The white cedar grows, a fine, conical evergreen tree, in the coast -states, from Maine to Mississippi. It loves best the deep swamps, but -grows well in wet, sandy soil farther inland. Here we see again the flat -spray of minute, pointed, and keeled leaves, but the cones are different. -These are pale grey, and globular; the few scales are thick and horny, -and curiously sculptured, each with a beak projecting from the centre. - -The foliage mass is a peculiar blue-green, and the bark, thin, and rusty -red, parts into strings and shreds. - -Lumbermen call this tree a cedar. So they do the arbor vit. The wood of -each is pale-coloured, and notable for its durability when exposed to -weather and water. Fence posts of white cedar, and cedar pails, shingles, -and the like, have a great reputation for durability. - -The peculiarity of a red cedar is its fruit. Instead of a cone, a blue, -juicy, sweet berry follows the blossoming of this tree. The foliage, too, -is erratic. Minute leaves of the scale form, discovered in the other -cedars, are found here on most twigs. They are still smaller, and the -twigs are much smaller. But on new shoots, and often on a whole branch, -the leaves are needle-like, one-half to three-quarters of an inch long, -and spreading as the leaves of a spruce. The mass of the foliage is -blue-green; these new ones are yellow-green. Among the branches hang -these surprising berries! - -The truth is that the scales of the cone thicken, and become soft when -ripe. They grow together, and the berry is, therefore, a cone, but much -changed in its development from the cone on which the fruits of other -evergreen trees are patterned. - -We all know a red cedar tree by its tall, slim shape. The birds eat the -berries, and scatter the seeds far and wide. The trees come up in -irregular clumps in pastures and fence-rows, and in rough, uncultivated -land. They are pretty widely distributed in the eastern half of the -United States. - -The true name for this tree is juniper. That is the name by which all its -related species are known. Red cedar is the lumberman's name for its -wood, and this name, though not right, will probably stick to it always. - -Red cedar chests and closets are believed to be moth-proof. The aromatic -resin in the wood is supposed to be distasteful to the insects which are -the pests of housekeepers. To put furs and woollen blankets and clothing -into these chests does not always prevent their being moth-eaten. This -many people have learned by sorrowful experience. We know the fragrance -of this wood in pencils. Thousands of trees are cut every year to supply -pencil factories. With the scarcity of these trees, other woods are being -substituted. But who will be quite satisfied, or be persuaded that cedar -pencils are not the best? - - - TWO CONIFERS NOT EVERGREEN - -Two cone-bearing trees have the astonishing habit of letting go their -leaves in the fall, and thus setting themselves apart from the -evergreens, to which they are otherwise closely related. Their cones are -like those of pines and spruces. Their leaves are needle-like, and their -flowers are the cone flowers like the rest. Although they stand bare in -winter time, their fruits declare their kinships with the evergreen. -Their forms also suggest this kinship, for each is a spire-like shaft, -from which short branches stand out horizontally like those of the -pointed firs and spruces. - - - THE LARCHES - -In the Northern states, and Canada, long stretches of cold marsh land are -covered with solid growths of tamarack, our American larch tree. In -summer the branches are covered with long, drooping twigs, each set with -many blunt side spurs, from which a tuft of soft, needle-like leaves -forms a green rosette or pompom. The end twigs have needle leaves -scattered their whole length, after the fashion of the spruces. Purplish -cone flowers, and yellow staminate cones appear in spring, and in autumn -among the leaves that are turning yellow a crop of cones is ripening. -They stand erect and solitary on the twigs between the rosettes of -leaves. - -In winter the long, flexible twigs are bare except for these cones. The -little knobs along the twigs are the stubs which bore leaves. In the -spring new leaves come out, pale lettuce green, feathery, transforming -the tree top into a thing of beauty. - -This larch tree of ours is more sparsely branched than the larch of -Europe. It looks ragged and unhappy when planted on our lawns. It is at -its best in the cold North, where it grows in dense crowds, and the tall -trunks are stripped free from limbs well towards the tops. These straight -shafts are cut for telegraph poles, railroad ties, and posts. The heavy, -resinous wood lasts a long time in the ground. - -The larches planted for shade and ornament are of the European species, -which thrives in any soil. It has a denser head of branches, and much -more luxuriant crown of foliage than our native species. It is a -beautiful feathery pyramid of green, distinctly different from other -trees. In Europe large forests are grown on the mountain sides, and from -these the tallest masts for vessels are obtained. The heavy, resinous -wood does not easily take fire as do the pitch pines. The old wooden -battle ships were faced with larch wood because of this, and because -larch wood is so durable in contact with water. Indeed it has the -reputation of outlasting oak, and the wood of all other conifers. - -In the woods of the far Northwest, and inland to Montana, the Western -larch is one of the mighty forest trees. Six feet in diameter, and 200 -feet in height are not uncommon dimensions among these giant larches. -These trees are of slow growth, and they stand with their roots in water -or in wet soil, though on the mountain side. This is an important lumber -tree with wood that has all the good qualities of its family. In Europe -the tree is planted for forests, and as an ornamental tree. We cannot -grow it in the Eastern United States. It is worth a journey across the -continent to see it growing, one of the most magnificent trees in the -world. - - - THE BALD CYPRESS - -Travellers in the South pass forests of dark pines, and along the edges -of swamps the pines often give way to solid stretches of trees with pale -grey trunks, and lettuce green foliage, whose lightness contrasts -strangely and beautifully with the solid bank of dark green that roofs -the forests of pines. A closer look at these strange trees, which often -stand knee-deep in water, is not so easy. At certain seasons of the year, -however, these swamps are dry enough so that one may walk dry-shod among -them, and so learn to know the bald cypress of the South, one of the most -beautiful and interesting of native American trees. - -This is the second of the cone-bearing trees which is not an evergreen. -The leaves on the new shoots are two-ranked, soft and pale sage green in -colour. The stems that bear these plumy leaves bear also scattered single -blades. Among them are older twigs, tipped with cones, and bearing -branchlets with scale-like leaves scarcely spreading at the tips. These -are much smaller than the leaves arranged in two ranks, forming -feather-like, leafy branchlets. It is these which are shed, branchlets, -and all, in the autumn, and fresh in spring renew the feathery grace of -the long, narrow tree top. - -The most surprising thing about the bald cypress is the flaring base of -the trunk, and the root system which seems too large for the tall but -usually narrow top. Knees of cypress rising out of the water from the -main roots, are distinguished from stumps by their smooth, conical tops. -The base of a great tree often spreads into wide flying buttresses, each -hollowed on the inside, but serving with the others to support the -hollow-trunked tree. Many a giant of great age stands thus on stilts -whose submerged ends are the gnarled roots of the tree. From these rise -many smooth, knobbed knees above the surface of the water in the rainy -season. By some foresters, humps on the roots are supposed to be -necessary to the proper breathing of the roots, submerged under water so -large a part of the year. The question of what causes these growths, and -of what use they are, is not fully determined. - -The cones of the bald cypress are globular, and about the size of an -olive. By them the tree declares its relationship to the needle-leaved -evergreens. The wood is light and easy to work, but not noticeably -resinous. It is used for buildings, and for special parts, such as doors, -shingles. It is beautiful when stained, and would be more valuable for -interior finish of houses did it not keep the record of each bump and -dent, as all soft woods do. Buckets and barrels to contain liquids are -largely made of this wood. In railroad ties it proves very durable. - -The best and strangest fact about this tree is that though it belongs to -the South, and is a swamp tree by preference, it grows large and -beautiful in the North, and in soil that is only moderately moist. The -parks of Brooklyn have some noble specimens of this bald cypress of the -South. They stand, tall, handsome shafts, feathered lightly with their -short, drooping side branches, clothed with pale green leaves. There is -no peculiarity of spreading trunk or knees to disturb the sod that comes -up around the base of the tree. In the autumn the foliage turns yellow, -and drops with the larch leaves. Through the winter the globular cones -are present to prove this bald cypress a relative of the evergreens, -which are its neighbours. - - - THE HOLLIES - -No Christmas is Christmas truly without at least a few branches of the -evergreen holly of the South, whose leathery, spiny-pointed leaves are -brightened by clusters of red berries. Every year, hundreds of crates and -boxes of these holly branches are shipped north from the woods of -Alabama, and other Southern states. Many people make their living by -cutting loads of these branches, and hauling them to the shipping sheds -where they are packed and put onto the railroad. The business has grown -so rapidly within the past twenty-five years that holly trees are -becoming very scarce. It has never occurred to those who cut down and -strip the trees that it takes years to grow new ones, and that nobody is -planting for the future. - -Holly wood is white, and very close-grained. It is admirable for tool -handles, whipstocks, walking sticks, and for the blocks on which wood -engravings are made. The living trees are planted for hedges, and for -ornament. The leaves are evergreen, and the berries add brightness and -warmth to the shrubbery border when snow covers the ground. - -Although it reaches its greatest size, and is most commonly found in -Southern woods, this little tree follows the coast as far north as Long -Island. I have found it much higher than my head, growing wild on the -sand bar that separates Great South Bay from the ocean, east of New York -Harbour. Further north, it is occasionally found, but in stunted sizes, -and it is easily winter-killed. - -The holly of Europe, which has brightened the English Christmas for -centuries, has a far more deeply cleft and spiny leaf than ours. Beside -it, our holly leaves and berries are dull, and dark-coloured. The whole -tree lacks the brightness of the European species. Hedges of this -lustrous-leaved holly shut in many an English garden, and their bright -berries glow cheerfully through the grey, sunless, winter days. No wonder -the gardeners frown upon the little thrushes that feed upon these -berries, thus robbing the garden of one of its chief winter charms. - -Three other American hollies are found as shrubby trees in our Eastern -woods, but none of them is evergreen, and the trees are not numerous in -any locality. We shall oftenest see the species known as the winterberry, -whose abundant red berries remain untouched by the birds, until late in -the spring. Many of these fruit-laden branches are gathered in the wild, -and sold in cities for Christmas decorations. Sprays of these berries are -often added to the evergreen holly branches when their own berries are -scarce. - -Christmas holly is something we cannot do without. As the supply grows -less, the price will mount higher. Then will come a time when it is -profitable to raise these trees in quantities, and holly farming will be -practised in favourable localities in the Southern states. But that time -has not yet come. - - - THE BURNING BUSH - -A little tree, not at all related to the holly, but truly a cousin of the -bitter-sweet, has a rather surprising name. In summer it looks like a -wild plum tree, except for its fluted, ash-grey bark. The flowers have -purple petals, and look somewhat like potato blossoms. They would never -attract your attention as you pass the tree. - -In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, and gradually the purple husks that -cover the scarlet berries split open, and curl back. Watch the gradual -opening of these husks, and notice, from some little distance, the -gradual reddening of the tree top, as the yellow leaves fall, and more -and more of the scarlet berries are revealed, as the husks curl and -shrink away from them. It is in this seed and its husk that the -resemblance and relationship of the burning bush and the bitter-sweet -vine is revealed. - -The European spindle tree, and a number of Japanese and Chinese species, -are now planted in American gardens, and called by their genus name, -Evonymus. The red-fruited sorts all come under the common name, burning -bush, and they do burn with a steady flame when winter has robbed the -gardens of colour. Evergreens form a beautiful background for these ruddy -little trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SPRING - - - THE AWAKENING OF THE TREES - -All winter the grey beech trunks look almost white among the dark trunks -of neighbouring trees. Their branches are dark at the tips, and the buds -are long, slim, and sharp-pointed. Silky, brown bud scales, in many -layers, protect the young shoots hidden in these buds. In April these -shoots impatiently push aside their wrappings. The outer scales fall, the -inner ones grow longer, but the growing tip leaves them behind, and they -fall, while the silky-coated, fan-plaited baby leaves hang limp and -helpless on the lengthening stem. - -No tree of the woods is more beautiful than the beech as its twigs cover -themselves with the tender green of spring. Beech leaves are _handsome_ -when full grown. In the short hours of their babyhood they are _lovely_. - -The sturdy shagbark hickory is late in waking. Poplars and beeches are in -full leaf when the big buds of this familiar tree with the shaggy bark -begin to swell, and show the pale, silky inner scales under the black -outer pairs, which soon fall off. - -The branches are stiff and angular, but the twigs hold up their big buds, -and the trees look like great candelabra, each holding up a thousand -lighted candles. As the pointed buds push upward, the protecting scales -grow rapidly larger, and the outer ones turn back like the sepals of an -iris. Wonderful tints of olive and yellow, violet and rose, blend in -their silky covering. Out of this petal-like frill rises the cluster of -young leaves, small but perfectly formed, and just as varied and delicate -in colouring under their velvet covering. These complete the flower-like -appearance of the young shoots. The illusion lasts only until the leaves -spread out, and take on their natural, colour and size. The scales fall, -their duty done, and the flower catkins come out, under the broad -umbrellas of the fresh, new leaves. The tree is thoroughly awake, and has -begun its long summer's work. - -[Illustration: The great winter buds of the shagbark hickory open like -flowers in May] - -[Illustration: Pink and silvery catkins of trembling aspen, and the -white, flannel-like leaves, just opened] - -The poplar likes to grow in moist ground, and in companies of its own -kind. Copses of these trees, especially if they be young ones, are sure -heralds of the coming spring. Their stems and branches are smooth, and -almost as pale as white birches. They become greenish, especially the -smaller branches and twigs, as the sap rises. They are alive from root -tips to shining buds. - -The brown scales loosen in March on the plumpest buds. The fuzzy grey -pussies push out, and lengthen into soft chenille fringes that wave -gracefully from every twig. They are grey, with a flush of pink, an -exquisite colour harmony, too lovely to last. Their catkins fall as soon -as their golden pollen dust is ripened and scattered by the wind. The -plain, green fertile ones on other trees catch the pollen, and set seed -which ripens, in green, berry-like capsules, in May. The seeds are almost -too small to be seen. Each floats away with the small wisp of down in -which it hides. - -The slim buds on the same twigs open while the trees are still in -blossom. The young shoots come out, and unroll their baby leaves, soft -and white, covered with a silky down, and tinted pink under the -protective hairs. For a short time only they look like white velvet, and -are limp and helpless. Then the hairy coat is shed; the leaves become -shiny and bright green, and twinkle in the sunshine. The stems are -flexible and long and flattened. This makes them catch the breeze, if the -blades do not, so the foliage trembles whenever a breeze goes through the -tree top. - -Quaking aspen, trembling aspen, and "quakenasp" are popular names given -this tree, whose foliage has the appearance and the sound of rippling -water. Tradition says the tree is forever accursed, and trembles as from -fear, because the traitor, Judas, hanged himself on an aspen. This is a -foolish notion. Only gaiety is expressed by the continual fluttering of -the aspen's leaves. - -The buds of cottonwood and Balm of Gilead trees are sealed with a -fragrant wax which softens as spring loosens the scales and growth -begins. - -Bees throng these trees, and gather the soft wax to carry to their hives. -They use it to stop up cracks that would let in the rain. What is not -needed at once they store for future use. Bee-keepers call it "propolis." -They have offered the bees something "just as good," but they will take -no substitute for the genuine. That is produced only on the buds of trees -of the poplar family, and for a brief season it is ready for them in -spring. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN EARLY SPRING - -In late March, or early in April, before the leaves have come out on any -of the trees along your street, you may look out of an upper window and -notice that strange-looking tassels are hanging on the twigs of a poplar -or cottonwood tree. Its buds are large and they shine in the sun, as if -they were wet. A day or two later you may be walking with your mother or -sister, and she will be startled to see the sidewalk covered with what -look to her like great red caterpillars! Then you may remember the tree -with the tassels on it, and recognise them, and explain where they came -from. - -A single look shows that this worm-like object is a catkin, and the -lovely red is the colour of the many stamens that contain the pollen -dust. When this is ripe the stamens burst and let it fly away. Then the -tree lets its catkins fall, for they have done their part. - -Green catkins hang on other trees of the same kind in the neighbourhood. -The flowers are waiting for pollen that will enable them to set seed. If -the wind blows in the right direction when the pollen is flying about, -the green, fertile flowers will get all they need. These catkins are not -shed as the red ones are. They make little show among the opening leaves, -but little seed balls take the place of the flowers. By the end of May -the green balls the size of peas turn yellow, and open. Out of each pod -floats tufts of white down, each bearing away a tiny white seed. This is -the end of the story. Before the chestnut trees have begun to blossom, -the poplars have scattered their seeds, and have all the summer to spend -in growing long, supple shoots covered with their dancing, shining -leaves. They look as if they enjoy life! - -The pussy willows push their fuzzy noses out in winter. Some are even -showing in autumn. But the yellow pollen is not seen on these flowers -until the catkins are full grown, and they wait till winter is past. They -dare not risk a frost. - -Among pussy willow trees there is a difference in the catkins. On one -tree they turn yellow when mature; the golden pollen dust rises in a -cloud when the twig is disturbed. These catkins soon fall off. - -On other trees the catkins are greenish, and they stay on after reaching -full size. They are the fertile flowers, which develop into seed pods. -Pollen brought to them by the wind or by visiting insects in search of -nectar, insures the setting of seed in these flowers. Though the gayer -flowers fall, they are quite as necessary to the making of seeds as the -fertile ones. In all the willows and poplars, it requires two trees, -bearing the two kind of flowers, to make the seed. And the wind and -nectar-seeking insects are necessary as pollen-carriers. - -[Illustration: The winter flower buds, the blossoms, the full-grown -winged seeds, and the ribbed leaf of our American elm] - -[Illustration: The majestic, fan-shaped elm blossoms while snow is still -on the fields] - -In marshy land, or by a brook or river, or even just outside the window -at home, there is a tree that turns rosy in March with a multitude of -small red flowers clustered on the sides of its twigs. It is the swamp -maple, the red maple, the river maple, the scarlet maple. Two of these -names tell of the tree's thirst; two name its colour when in blossom, and -also when the leaves change colour in autumn. - -Each flower is a red bell, for the petals are red. One has a red forked -pistil thrust out; another lacks a pistil, but has a cluster of yellow -stamens. One tree may be deep red throughout, having only pistillate -flowers. Another may have only staminate flowers; it will be orange -coloured, by the blending of the colours of the yellow stamens, and the -red petals. Another tree may have flowers of both kinds. Occasionally -flowers will be found that have both stamens and pistils. - -The bees are in the scarlet maples at the first loosening of the bud -scales. There is nectar in those flower bells. The colour and a faint -fragrance tell this secret. From pollen flowers the busy insects carry -the golden dust to the forked pistils that set seeds. - -The wind helps by scattering pollen in the tree tops, and very soon the -flowers are gone. The staminate trees turn green when the opening leaves -lose their vivid red. The pistillate trees hang out red clusters of -winged seeds below the opening leaf clusters. These red trees keep their -name written plainly as long as the seed clusters swing. - -Early in March, the side buds on the elm twigs begin to swell, and soon -clusters of purplish flowers, small but very pretty, come out of the -largest buds, and the tree top has a purplish haze upon it, that means -that spring is coming. The bees come to get nectar from these early -blossoms, but few people speak of the blossoming elms. They do not notice -that elms ever blossom; and are rather incredulous when a spray is shown -them covered with the graceful little tassels. "Who ever _heard_ of elms -having flowers?" - -The truth is that every tree, when it is large enough, bears flowers. Not -every one bears fruit, for some have pollen flowers only, the seeds being -borne on the fertile trees. Elms have perfect flowers, and soon after the -leaves open, the green fruits are seen in clusters, and before May -passes, the seeds, each surrounded by an oval wing, flutter off in the -wind. - - - THE AMERICAN ELM AND ITS KIN - -Beautiful and stately, yet full of grace is the form of a big elm tree -against the grey sky of a cloudy winter day. The tall trunk is crowned -with many main branches, which spread into a widening funnel shape, -subdividing into numberless smaller branches, whose direction is outward -and downward. The numerous twigs have the droop of a weeping willow. The -tree top is wonderful when every limb is bare. - -In summer the same tree is a great fountain of green leaves. The long, -leafy twigs of new wood are flung out to the wind, and the twinkling -blades dazzle the eyes like spray. This is the time that we love the elm -for its shade, and as an ornament to home grounds and parks. Roadside -elms are the favourite nesting trees of the Baltimore oriole, whose -hanging pocket of grasses and yarns swings at the end of a high outer -branch. - -When winter is still in the air, and snow on the landscape, the dark -twigs of these bare elm trees change colour. It is the purple flower -clusters that are flung out from opening buds in late March. It takes -sharp eyes to see the cause of the wine-coloured flush in the tree top. -With the opening of the leafy shoots in April, the trees get an added -colour from the pale green seed discs that replace the flowers. These are -winged, and they soon turn brown, and fly away on the first breeze. This -is the elm's way of sowing seeds. A crop of young elms grows each summer -in fields and gardens near these seed trees. The leaf of the seedling is -exactly after the pattern of the parental tree, but smaller. - -The English elm is less graceful than our American tree. It has more the -stature of the white oak. The head is compact, and the foliage mass -thicker, and longer-lived. The robin red-breast nests close to the sturdy -trunk, shielded by the earliest leaves. - -An old couplet guides the farmer in the old country: - - "When the elm leaf is as big as a mouse's ear, - Then to sow barley never fear." - -The toughness of elm is remembered by all who have "read of the wonderful -one-hoss shay." Nothing but "ellum" was proper stuff for the hubs, you -know. As it is durable in soil, elm is good timber for posts and railroad -ties. By its toughness and flexibility, it is fit for waggon tongues, and -all kinds of agricultural implements. The ancient warrior of England was -likely to carry a longbow made of the tough British elm. - -Slippery elms grow more irregular in form than the American, and are -usually smaller trees. Both kinds grow together in the wooded regions -east of the Rocky Mountains. The difference between them can be easily -detected by a blind person. Twigs, buds, and leaves of slippery elms are -made rough and harsh to the touch by coarse, reddish hairs. - -Boys and many other people like the taste of the glutinous inner bark of -this tree when the sap is running, and the limbs and trunks peel easily. -Many a tree is sacrificed to this appetite. The same delectable -mucilaginous substance quenches the thirst and allays hunger,--so hunters -say, who have eaten it when lost in the woods, and threatened with -starvation. Poultices of it relieve throat troubles, when there is -congestion. It is a home remedy for inflammations and fevers. Dried and -ground, the rich cambium is mixed with milk, and forms a nutritious and -tasty food for invalids. It is a staple on the shelves of apothecary -shops. - -The rock elm might be mistaken for a bur oak were the leaves not decided -proof that it is an elm. The limbs are shaggy, and the twigs winged by -the corky bark. Indeed, another name for the tree is the cork elm. The -framework of this tree is stiff and irregular, a decided contrast to the -graceful drooping top of the American elm, whose symmetry is one of its -best points. - -The wood has its fibres so interlaced that no wood excels it in toughness -and springiness. It is the wheelwright's choice. It makes the finest -bridge timbers, and the best axe handles, and wheel hubs. - -The winged elm is the smallest and daintiest of the elms. The twigs are -broadened by a corky ridge on each side. This gives the tree its name. -The Indian name, Wahoo, is also heard in the South. The leaves are of the -elm type, but unusually small. - -It is seen as a street and lawn tree in cities and towns south of -Virginia, and west to Illinois and Texas. - - - THE MAPLE FAMILY - -If you meet a tree of good size, with slender branches, and small buds -set opposite upon the twigs, you may suspect it of being a maple. The -leaves are needed to assure you. If it is winter time, and the tree -stands on the street, the leaves may all have been raked away. If the -tree grows in the woods, the chances are that there is a leaf carpet over -its roots, and that most of these leaves have fallen from its branches. -You can make sure of this point by picking up a dead leaf, examining the -base of its stalk to see if it fits the leaf scars on the twigs. If the -leaves are simple, that is, if they have a single blade, the evidence -that this is a maple is very strong. There are a few small trees with -simple leaves set opposite on the twigs, but they do not grow as large as -maples. - -Does the leaf have three main divisions, each with a vein which is one of -three large branches of the leaf stalk? Then you may be sure that the -tree is one of the maple family. - -Simple leaves, of three main lobes, set opposite on the twigs, and the -twigs set opposite on the branches,--in these are the plain signature of -the maples. They write their names in these characters, across every -branch throughout the growing season, and on the leafless branches, and -the dead leaves under the tree in winter. Another signature is the -one-sided maple key, which hangs on the trees all summer, and even late -into the winter on some kinds, but is shed in early summer by a few. - -The two early-blooming maples are commonly planted as street and shade -trees all over the Eastern half of the country. It is easy to recognise -these, and to know them apart by the leaf alone. - -The red maple is a spreading, symmetrical tree, of medium size with -slender, erect branches. The leaves are red when they open in spring; so -are the flowers which cluster on the bare twigs in early April, before -the leaves are out. The clustered fruits that dangle in pairs all along -the stems in May are red, and in the autumn the tree changes its green -robe of foliage to scarlet before winter comes. The buds that cluster at -the joints are red as rubies, and the slim twigs glow with the same warm -colour, which is warmer by contrast with the snow. - -All maple leaves are more or less cleft into three main divisions. The -red maple has two shallow clefts, V-shaped, at the top, and the lobes are -pointed and triangular. The margins are irregularly saw-toothed. These -leaves are often downy beneath, and always white-lined when young. In -summer they have pale green linings. As a rule, red maple leaves are -small, averaging less than three inches in the length of their blades. -They are larger on young trees. - -The silver maple is much more easily grown from seed than the red maple, -but it has a far more irregular tree top. The limbs branch low on the -trunk, and these limbs grow very long, giving the tree a loose head of -great height, and great horizontal spread. The small branches curve -downward, and the twigs are held erect. The wind twists and breaks these -great weak limbs, or wrenches them loose from the trunk. It is dangerous -to have these trees near the house, for wind and ice storms are -constantly snapping off branches large enough to break windows, or knock -down chimneys as they fall. - -[Illustration: The flowers of the red maple are concealed in winter in -brown buds] - -[Illustration: Seeds of red maple, in late May, and in early April] - -The flowers of the silver maple show no red. They come out -greenish-yellow on the twigs when the red maple's flowers are glowing on -their red twigs in March, and early April. The leaves are pale green, -white beneath, and set on long flexible stems. They are larger than the -leaves of the red maple, and cleft in a distinctly different way. A -narrow, deep fissure divides the leaf in thirds, and two side clefts -divide the lower lobes in two unequal halves. These fissures reach -two-thirds of the way through the leaf blade, and each lobe is cleft -along its sides, into many irregular bays and capes. These leaves are -always silvery white beneath in summer, and they turn to yellow in the -autumn. - -In late May the pairs of winged keys hang on short stems. Each key is -about two inches long, fuzzy green, until ripe, twice the length of the -smooth keys of the red maple, which are ripening at the same time. - -It is good fun to lie under a maple tree, and watch the seeds as they -fall. If the wind is strong, they shower down like rain. Each key -separates from its mate, and as it lets go its hold on the twig, the wind -catches its thin wing, and sends it whirling round and round. The heavy -seed makes for the earth, while the flat blade above it acts as a -parachute, or a sail, to keep it in the air. - -How far does a silver maple send its seeds in these summer days, when -they are falling? It is easy to answer this question by pacing the -distance from the tree trunk in a straight line to the point where the -farthest key falls. Go in the direction towards which the wind is -blowing, in determining this distance. It will be interesting to run out -another line from the tree trunk to find out how far the seeds are thrown -on the side that is against the wind. - -From the silver maple go to a red maple, and watch the harvest of these -small-winged keys. Do a little measuring here, and find out if their -smaller size and weight enables these seeds to sail further in the same -breeze than those of the silver maple. - -The sugar maple is known also as the rock or hard maple, because its wood -is harder, and therefore slower to grow, than the two quick-growing soft -maples just described. This is the one whose trunk is tapped in spring, -and the sap boiled down in great kettles over an open fire in the woods. -When the water is all evaporated, solid cakes of maple sugar remain. If -you are walking in the woods in winter, and come upon any trees bored -with small auger holes, several near the base of each trunk, you may -suspect that this is a grove of hard maples which the New England farmer -calls his "sugar bush." - -Look at the twigs, and you will see that the plump round buds are set -opposite, and the twigs are opposite on the branch. This is the way with -all maple trees. Are the branches many, and do they shoot upward rather -than outward, and form an oval head? This is the typical habit of young -hard maple trees. As they grow older the heavy lower limbs become -horizontal. They are clean, hardy, vigorous trees, long-lived, -dependable, able to meet the storms, and to suffer the theft of their -rich sap every spring without apparent loss of strength and vitality. - -The leaves come out later than those of the soft maples. They are firm, -and broad, with five pointed lobes between wide fissures that reach -half-way to the stem. Margins of these lobes are wavy, never saw-toothed, -like those of the silver maple. They are dark green above, with paler -linings. In autumn they turn to yellow, orange, and red. - -The flowers open in May, shortly after the leaves appear. They are in -thick, hairy, yellowish clusters. Some are pistillate, some staminate, in -the same cluster. Those with the forked pistils remain and grow into -smooth fruits towards the end of summer. The keys of sugar maples are -short-winged, like those of the red maple, but have stouter, thicker -seeds. They are shed in late autumn and early winter. - -Hard maples are among the best of shade trees, and the glory of their -autumn colouring makes them one of the most to be desired among trees -planted merely for ornament. A street planted to hard maples is well -planted always. But people are impatient for trees to grow up. The slow -growth of the sugar maple is discouraging. It is a good plan to plant the -quick-growing soft maples, and alternate with them the slow-growing -species. For a few years the soft maples are pretty, and with each year's -growth they give more abundant shade. By the time the wind has crippled -their long arms, and made the trees unsightly, the hard maples are coming -on to take their places, and they need the room which is given them by -the removal of their neighbours on to the left and right. - -When I went into the woods of Oregon, I found the vine maple trees, which -seems not to have sufficient backbone to stand upright. These trees start -to grow erect, but their weight soon overcomes their strength, and they -droop, but keep on growing, with their limbs prostrate on the ground. The -wet land in many places was covered with a network of the interfering -branches of these serpentine maple trees. - -The leaf is about the size of the palm of my hand, and almost circular. -The border is cut into many shallow lobes. The seeds are characteristic -keys, smooth, and the wings of each pair are spread almost opposite each -other. - -The Norway maple is a most popular street tree. Its foliage is very -dense, and the tree forms a round, symmetrical head. The broad, -five-lobed leaves are remotely toothed, smooth, thin, and dark green on -both sides. Break a leaf stem, and a milky juice appears. The seeds are -very flat, and have broad, flaring wings. The flowers are yellowish. -Great clusters of them come out with the leaves. The seeds are ripe in -autumn. - -We shall find that the foliage of the Norway maple stands the wear and -tear better than that of many shade trees. The crown of a Norway maple -turns to bright gold in autumn, and most of the leaves are still unmarred -when they fall. - -The box elder is the one native maple which has compound leaves. The leaf -blade is cleft quite to the stem, and the thirds form separate leaflets, -each mounted on its own stalk. These leaves are set opposite on the -twigs, like those of other maples. - -In spring pink fringes like corn silk decorate the branches of certain -box elder trees. Other trees of the same kind hide little green flowers -among the opening leaves. The pink fringes are the pollen-bearing -flowers, which fall when ripe. Staminate trees never bear fruit. All -through the summer the trees which bore the greenish flower are dangling -clusters of pale green seeds, each with the peculiar wing, which proves -it a maple. When the ragged, yellowing foliage falls, these seed clusters -remain on the branches, and all through the winter the wind is plucking -and carrying them away. - -The wood of box elder is very soft. The tree is planted because it grows -so quickly and surely, and its seeds are so easily obtained. But broken -branches give the older trees a crippled, unhappy look, and the ragged -clusters of seeds give them a disheveled appearance all winter. Fortunate -is the man who has planted elms or hard maples along the road, so that he -may take out the decrepit box elders, and have the better trees coming on -to take their places. - -The striped maple is a little tree, which hides in the woods, and only a -few people know the tree, and love it as it deserves. The stripes are on -its smooth green bark, which breaks into a network of furrows as the -stems increase in diameter. These furrows expose a very pale under-bark, -so that at a short distance the trunk seems to be delicately traced with -white lines. - -In its blossoming season the striped maple has a loose, drooping cluster -of yellow, bell-like flowers. The leaves that surround them are broad and -shallowly three-lobed, and saw-toothed all around. The seeds are little -maple keys, smaller than those of the red maple. - -The mountain maple is another little tree quite as modest and retiring as -its striped cousin. It has longer, more taper-pointed leaves. The flower -clusters are much smaller than those of the striped maple, and they stand -erect. The fruits hang late in the winter, on the grey downy twigs, which -are brightened by red buds. - - - THE WILLOW FAMILY - -One of the first tree families whose name we learn is the willow family. -The members are numerous, and the botanists find great difficulty in -distinguishing certain species, which closely resemble each other; but -these troubles we shall leave to the scientist. The point for us to -consider is this: When we see a tree which we know to be a willow, _how_ -do we know it? "It looks like a willow," some one says. But who knows, -and can tell _how_ willows look--how they differ from other trees? - -First, willows have slender, flexible twigs that give the tree tops grace -and lightness. Second, willow leaves are nearly always long and slim to -match the supple twigs. They are always simple, and short-stemmed. The -wood is light and soft, so the trees break easily in storms of wind and -ice. An old willow tree is likely to be crippled, but its scars and -wounds are covered in summer by the arching branches and the abundant -foliage. - -The first trees to blossom in spring are the shrubby pussy willows, a -distinct kind whose catkins are so eager to push out of their scales that -their grey, silky noses are often seen in November. Frequently, they are -out and the scales dropped in February; but the yellow stamens and the -long-tongued pistils do not rise above the grey fur until March, at -least. The most attractive stage of these catkins is the earlier one, -when the flower buds are concealed by the grey silk. - -By cutting pussy willow twigs in the late fall, or any time during the -winter, and putting them into a jar of water, we may see the blossoming, -quite out of season. Sufficient food is stored in the twig to force out -the blossoms, even to the shedding of the pollen. It is a charming thing -in the winter to have a vase of these twigs in full bloom on a window -sill when snow banks are piled high just outside. - -Willows are lovers of wet ground, and we shall see groves of them -scattered along streams and on the margins of ponds and swamps. A few -species thrive in dry soil, and seem to prefer it. Some grow at sea -level, others are found on high mountains. From small shrubs they vary to -mighty trees. There is no climate and no soil that does not have its -native willows. The family is distributed from the Equator to the Arctic -Circle. - -It is very common in many places for farmers to plant a grove of willows -for a windbreak, to protect their houses and barns. This is especially -seen in prairie states and other treeless regions. Willows are -quick-growing trees, and sure to grow. All one needs do is to cut limbs -from a growing tree, chop these limbs into pieces the length of stove -wood, and drive them into the ground. Each one takes root, and grows into -a tree, if the soil is at all moist. - -Another plan is to cut fence posts from the willow grove, and drive them -into the ground. Each of these posts forms the trunk of a willow tree, -which soon has a great head of branches. - -In Holland and other countries, willows are thickly planted to form -hedges and for their roots to hold the soil along the banks of streams -and ditches. The same trees may perform a double service. Willow wood -makes good summer fuel, where a quick, hot fire is desired. The twigs -make the best charcoal used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The long, -flexible twigs of a low-growing willow are used in the manufacture of -wicker chairs, tables, and other furniture. These trees are grown on a -large scale in France and other European countries, and the industry is -being introduced in some parts of America. - -When spring comes on, we may notice a peculiar change in the colour of -the bare willows that line the stream borders. The twigs turn gradually -green, and the long, pointed buds prepare to cast off their single -scales. These are shaped like the long, knitted caps which children wear -in winter time, although there is no tassel at the end. The cap fits -snugly over the long bud, and is fastened in a circle at the joint. The -swelling bud simply pushes it off. - -Under these trees, we shall find a good many fresh twigs. Reaching up to -break one, we find that it snaps off short at the base. It is not brittle -along its whole length. Try a dozen twigs, and off they snap, almost at a -touch. The wind has broken off those that fell to the ground. Some that -fall in the water, float away down stream. They catch on sandbars, and -strike root. Some swing in to the shore, and grow on the banks. - -We have discovered a habit of certain kinds of willow trees. The shedding -of their twigs at the season when they are fullest of life is the tree's -method of colonising new territory. These twigs float away, and blow -away, and those which lodge in wet ground before they dry are almost sure -to grow. The billowy acres of green which cover sandbars and stream -borders are willow trees, children of parents that grow far up stream. - -Along roadsides in this country a large willow is much planted, whose -leaves are pale beneath, so that they look very cheerful and cool in -midsummer. The most striking thing about these willows is that their -twigs are yellow as ducks' feet, and particularly bright in early spring. -The older trees grow very stout, and great branches leave the trunk close -to the ground. This is the golden osier willow, one form of the white -willow of Europe, which does not grow vigorously in this country. - -The weeping willows, whose long, supple branches sweep out and downward, -sometimes yards in length, from the tree top, came originally from -Babylon. Who were they in that far country who "hung their harps on the -willow trees"? A great many weeping willows in the Eastern states are -said to be sprung from the parent tree, which grew on the Island of St. -Helena. What famous prisoner probably sat under the shadows of this -willow tree, and dreamed again of conquering the world? The weeping -willow has the habit of snapping its twigs off, short, at the base. One -of these long withes, cut into bits with one or two buds on each cutting, -will start as many weeping willow trees, if the bits are stuck into wet -sand and kept wet until rooted, and then set out and given plenty of -water until they become established in the ground. - -The black willow is named for the black bark of the old tree. It is the -only one of the narrow-leaved willows whose leaves are uniformly green on -both sides. These leaves are often curved like a sickle. At the base of -each leaf is a pair of heart-shaped, leafy blades, called stipules. Many -trees have stipules that come out with the leaves, and are dropped off, -but these persist, as a rule, all summer. The black willow is one of -those with the twigs that snap. It takes possession of stream borders, -and its offspring may cover miles of new territory in a single season. - -The balsam willow we shall know by the fragrant coating of wax, or -balsam, on its young shoots and buds. Its broad leaves are blunt at the -tip, and look scarcely willow-like, but the tree is known by its buds and -its catkins. To find it we shall have to go into the boggy regions in the -Northern tier of states, where it is numerous, but never more than a -shrubby tree. - -One use is served by no tree as well as a willow. When the sap rises in -spring, the willow branches are in prime condition to make whistles. I -wonder if there is a boy, in town or country, who does not know how to -make a willow whistle that will "go"? Surely not, unless his supply of -uncles and grandfathers is short. You cannot make a willow whistle by -following printed directions. Some skilful person, who has been a boy, -must show you, and one lesson is enough. - - - WHY TREES NEED LEAVES - -Spring or early summer is the best time to study the leaves of trees. -They are clean, and fresh, and new. Every tree is a great mound of green. -The broad-leaved trees seem to be thatched or shingled with overlapping -blades so that no sunlight can get into the darkened room, which is empty -except for the bare branches that support this outer dome of leaves. A -sugar maple, or a linden tree, shows best this outer thatch, which is so -thick that the sun is unable to look through. The bird flying overhead -sees only a solid mass of leaves. The one on its nest in a forked limb -looks up and sees the inside of this leafy tree cover. She is glad for -the twilight that surrounds her, and for the coolness of this shady -place; but more glad that her nest is hidden from sight of hawks that -sail overhead, while she keeps a close watch for sly, thieving red -squirrels that may come to steal her eggs, by climbing up the branches. - -What are the leaves for? Why does the tree put out in spring young shoots -with rows of leaves along their sides? Why does the tree hold these -branches out as far as possible from the trunk, and bend the leaf stems -and the twigs so as to face the leaf blades towards the sun? - -The reason is this: the life of the trees is in the green layer which we -see on the surface of all green shoots, and which we can discover under -the older bark of twigs, which has turned brown. Following the twig back -from its tip, all of the leafy part is green. Behind it the smooth twig -is no longer green, but a thumb nail easily strips off the layer of -brown, and reveals the green under bark. Go a little further back, and -gradually the outer bark thickens, and it is more difficult to get at the -soft under layer. After a while, we shall need a knife to reach it, for -old bark is hard and tough. - -When the bark gets so thick that the sun cannot reach the green layer, -the colour fades out. The living part of the trunk of the tree is the -soft, juicy layer between the bark and wood. Through this portion of the -tree the sap rises from the roots, and finally reaches the leaves. This -sap needs to be changed before it can be useful to the tree as food. - -The leaves are the places where these changes take place. Through little -doorways in the under sides of the leaf air passes in. With it goes -carbonic acid gas, an important food element. The soft green leaf pulp, -which is the green juice of a bruised leaf, has a wonderful work to do. -It cannot do this work unless the sun is shining upon it. On a bright day -every leaf is making starch, and sending it down through the twigs and -branches as food. This starch is contained in the sugary sap that flows -back constantly from the leaves to the farthest root tips. It is made in -the leaves out of the sap brought up from the roots and the carbonic acid -gas which the leaves absorb from the air. - -As long as the leaves do their work, the tree is able to grow, and to -blossom, and to ripen its seeds. When the leaves have done their work the -summer has passed; the tree lets go the leaves, and rests without growing -all winter. - -It is not easy to explain the work of the leaves, nor even to understand -the wonderful work accomplished there all through the summer. When we -eat, our food must go into the stomach to be changed by the processes -called digestion. It is hours before the digested food is poured into the -blood and carried to all parts of the body. The tree takes its food from -the air, and from the soil. Neither the dirty water that rises as sap to -the leaves, nor the gas which enters the leaf doorways from the air, is -useful as food to the growing tree until they have been combined and -changed. The leaves are, then, in a sense, the stomachs of the trees, for -in them the raw foods must be "digested" before they are ready to be -poured into the life blood that flows down through all the live parts of -the tree. Now they are fit to feed the growing cells, which are always -hungry. - - - LEAVES OF ALL SHAPES AND SIZES - -The leaf of the tree is its visiting card. We shall learn to know trees -by their leaves, as easily as if the name were written across the face of -the leaf. Some leaves have a single blade of green, and for this reason -the botanist calls them _simple_ leaves. This blade has a stem that -unites it with the twig. A _compound_ leaf is one whose stem bears more -than one blade. These small blades are called _leaflets_. There are two -types of compound leaves, one feather-like, having a main stem with -leaflets arranged in two rows on opposite sides of this stem. Such a leaf -is feather-like. The other type has a leaf stem with all the leaflets -attached at one end. The horse chestnut is the best example of this type. -The leaves spread from the end of the stalk somewhat as the fingers rise -from the palm of your hand. - -The biggest leaves with single blades to be found in our forests grow on -trees of the magnolia family. The silver-lined leaves of the large-leaved -cucumber tree are over a foot in length, sometimes two and one-half feet, -down South. These great leaves are about one-fourth as wide as long, and -at the base each one broadens and extends backward into two rounded -ear-like lobes. This gives the tree the name, ear-leaved magnolia. The -whole leaf flaps in the wind, like the ear of an elephant, and, of -course, the wind lashes it into strings and soon robs it of its beauty. - -The Northern cucumber tree is another magnolia whose leaves are -tropical-looking. This is the hardiest of the magnolia family, and its -heart-shaped leaves are six to ten inches long. They are not large for a -magnolia of the South, but they look larger because they grow among the -small-leaved trees of the Northern states. - -The tulip tree has a large leaf of peculiar form. It is broad like a -maple leaf at the base, but at the tip it is cut off square as if with a -pair of shears, forming a right angle with its straight sides. Sometimes -the leaf is notched, as if a V-shaped piece were cut out of the square -tip. These leaves are long-stemmed, their blades polished, and they -flutter on the twigs with the lightness of a poplar leaf. Once we have in -mind the form of the leaf of the tulip tree, we shall never forget it, -for it is different from all other leaves. - -The catalpa tree, which lifts its great blossom clusters above the -foliage in late June, is another of the few large-leaved trees of the -North. The single blade is heart-shaped, six to eight inches long, and -more than half as broad. These leaves usually have plain margins, but -sometimes they are wavy and notched near the base so as to produce faint -side lobes. The blades hang on long, stout stems. - -Among the feather-leaved trees, the walnuts and butternuts, the sumachs, -and the ailanthus, furnish examples. A black walnut leaf is often two -feet long, with a dozen or more leaflets on the longest ones. These -leaflets are always set opposite in pairs, with an odd one on the tip of -the leaf stem. Butternut leaves have the same form, but the leaves are -longer. They range from fifteen to thirty inches, and have from ten to -twenty leaflets, but always an odd number. The peculiar gummy feeling of -these hairy leaves, and their pungent butternut odour when bruised, make -it easy to know the tree wherever we meet it, through the long summer. - -The hickories are cousins of the walnuts, but their leaves, though of the -feather form, have larger and fewer leaflets than any walnut tree. A -shagbark hickory leaf has one or two pairs of little leaflets on the -stem, and above them three of larger size. The pignut has the same habit -of clustering its three largest leaves at the tip of the leaf stem, and -tapering off at the base with one or two pairs of decreasing size. - -The largest of all the compound leaves have branched stems to which -leaflets are attached. The main leaf stem's side branches may yet branch -again, forming a twice-branched framework that is set with leaflets, not -large, but so numerous as to make the whole leaf surprisingly large. The -greatest of these twice-compound leaves is borne by that astonishing, -spiny-stemmed Hercules' club. A single leaf is often four feet long, and -nearly a yard wide. There are no leaflets on the main stem; they are on -the side branches. - -How shall we tell a leaf stem from a twig? Leaf stems do not look like -the twigs of the tree. A little practice in looking closely and comparing -these leaf stems and twigs will obviate any confusion of the two. The -leaf has a bud at its base, and it breaks off easily at this joint. - -[Illustration: The sugar maple trees are tapped in February; they bloom -in May after the leaves come out; they ripen their keys in October, when -the foliage turns to red and yellow.] - -[Illustration: Leaves of black willow have frills at their bases. Twigs -of pussy-willows, cut and brought indoors, can be forced into bloom in -midwinter] - -Among the fine, feathery leaves that are so beautiful and light that they -give great beauty to the tree tops are those of the honey locust. These -leaves are of the feather type, the slender stems, with double rows of -tiny leaflets. Very often we find among the single feather forms, leaves -of greater size, which have branched stems. This branching multiplies the -number of leaflets, and gives us, on the same trees, what the botanists -call _once compound_, and _twice compound_ leaves. The simple feather and -the branched feather forms add greatly to the beauty and luxuriance of -the foliage of the honey locust. - -The common black locust of the roadside has single leaf stems with oblong -leaflets set in opposite rows upon it. Ash trees have the same feather -type of leaves, the leaflets usually pointed and oval, and always an odd -one at the tip. They are all larger than leaves of the locusts. - -In the maple family there is a broad, simple blade, about as wide as it -is long. It is a family trait to have three main veins running out from -the end of the leaf stem, into the blade. Each of these veins has side -branches, and they are connected with a network of smaller veins. Between -the tips of these three main veins the leaf is usually notched, so as to -divide it into thirds. In the red maple these notches are shallow V's cut -out, leaving triangular points. In the silver maple the leaves are cut by -deeper clefts, which reach more than half-way to the leaf stalk. The -three lobes are cut with jagged points into an uneven margin. The sugar -maple has its three lobes separated by wide, deep clefts, and its margins -are irregularly wavy. The box elder, which is a maple, is cleft so deeply -that the blade is split into three distinct leaflets, each with its own -short stem. This makes a compound leaf of it. It is the only maple with a -leaf of more than one blade. - -The tree which shows the greatest difference in the form of its leaves is -the sassafras, whose oval leaves grow on the same stem with mittens and -double mittens--a mitten pattern with a thumb on each side. The hawthorns -have small oval leaves with variously cleft borders. There are over a -hundred kinds of hawthorns in our woods, and each kind has a leaf -different from all the rest; yet a single tree will often show leaves -that differ so much from the others in form that we might easily suspect, -if some one brought them to us, that each grew on a different tree from -all the rest. - -Many oak trees have the same habit of leaf variation, so that even a -forester has to examine many leaves with care, and with them the buds and -the acorns, to make sure that he has called the oak by its right name. - -The behaviour of the leaves of a tree depends largely on the length and -flexibility of their stems. If they are long, and slender, and supple, -the tree-top is in a continual flutter when the wind blows. If they are -thick and stiff, they do not catch the breeze as readily, and their -blades lie comparatively still when other trees near by may be twinkling -and trembling. Leaves with deeply cut borders, like some oaks and maples, -flutter much more than leaves like the basswood, whose borders are -unbroken. Oak leaves that are deeply cut will rarely lie down flat. The -curving bays in its borders cause the leaf to curl, so that no matter -what face is presented, the wind gets under and strikes some surface, and -sets the leaf to dancing. - -The flat leaf stems of the trembling aspen, one of the poplar family, are -very flexible, and they are flattened at right angles to the blades of -the leaves. When a breeze comes by, it may strike the edge of the leaf, -but if so, it catches the flat leaf stem broadside. If it comes from any -other direction the leaf trembles, because one of the blades is sure to -receive the force of the wind. So the tree top is in one constant tremor, -even when the breeze is scarcely sufficient to disturb broad-leaved trees -which are near neighbours of the aspens. - -Whatever the form and size and shape of its leaf, the tree depends upon -its foliage mass for all the life it enjoys, and for all the growth it -makes. The soil and the air feed the tree. The leaves and the sun do the -work of digesting the food. In the porous wood and bark are the channels -through which sap mounts upward to the leaves, and another set of -channels which carry the prepared food back, leaving it wherever needed, -along the way from tip of twig to tip of root. Whatever is not needed is -stored away, to be dissolved as needed and carried to the points where -the need is. In spring it is the growing buds that chiefly need this -stored food. Its presence explains the miracle of the bursting of -blossoms and leaves when spring comes. - -One by one the trees of your own yard may be learned by name this summer. -The leaves are your sure guide. Trees stay where they are. Once we -recognise their leaves and call them by name, we may depend upon finding -them still standing the next day we pass them, and their leaves are still -held out as the sign of recognition. Every time we pass yonder red maple -let us glance at its three-pointed leaf, and fix its shape indelibly in -the mind. When we have done this a dozen times, I am sure that we shall -be able to pick out all the red maples in town; and if we journey far -from home we may find and recognise the same kind of trees by the same -sign. More and more as we grow older, we find out that half the pleasure -of travelling is the occasional meeting with old friends, be they people -or trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SUMMER - - - TREES WITH THE LARGEST FLOWERS - -If we set out to find the trees that have the largest flowers, meaning to -count only trees that grow wild in our woods, it will save time to go -straight south into North Carolina, and climb the foot hills of the -Allegheny Mountains. Or it may be that in the fertile valleys that lie -between the low ridges we shall first come upon a magnolia, called the -large-leaved cucumber tree. Anywhere from North Carolina to Florida, and -west to Arkansas, these remarkable trees are likely to be found, in small -groups. In cultivation, they are successfully planted as far north as -Boston. - -Before the tree has attained more than a man's height it is a wonder, on -account of the leaves which measure more than a foot in length, and have -their long, green blades lined with white. In June the flowers -open--great white bowls, made of waxen petals, in a double row, the inner -ones painted purple at their bases, giving the flower a purple centre. - -The wind blows the leaves about, and tears them into rags, unless the -tree is in a sheltered place. The silvery leaf linings, as white as the -blossoms, make it difficult to see that the tree is in bloom, until one -is close enough to see the petals. If the leaves were green on both sides -the great blossoms, as large as a man's head, would be seen afar off. The -tree would look like a giant rose bush. - -From Pennsylvania southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to Arkansas -and Texas, the evergreen magnolia grows on stream borders, and even on -uplands where the soil is not very moist. When this pyramid of shining -green leaves lights all its waxen tapers, it is a sight worth a day's -journey to see. Each stiff twig is bent upward, and there a bud appears -in spring. A few at a time, the flowers open, and the blooming time lasts -till August. - -Each blossom is a deep, creamy cup, made of six wax-like petals, -surrounded by three white sepals. Inside are many stamens, purple at the -base, and a cone of pistils, all grown together. - -The leaves are oblong or oval, often eight inches long, thick, deep -green, and bright as if polished on the upper surface. The lining is dull -green, sometimes covered with rusty down. The paler green and the -brighter polish on the young leaves add much beauty to the tree in -summer. In winter the leaves get grimy and the tree top is sombre, for -most of the foliage has seen much wear and tear. - -In autumn the ends of the twigs hold up green cones, made of many furry -capsules that end in curved horns. Each capsule splits when ripe, and a -scarlet seed, like a berry, hangs out on an elastic thread, and swings -lower and lower, until finally it is carried away. Thus the magnolia sows -its seeds in winter. - -The shining leaves of this magnolia come North at the Christmas season, -and are used to decorate homes and churches. Holly, mistletoe, palm -leaves, and the beautiful Southern smilax are other Christmas greens now -commonly in use. They are all gathered with magnolia and shoots of the -long-leaf pine, in the woods down South. - -The swamp bay is a magnolia that grows as a shrub to New England, keeping -to the swampy lands that skirt the Atlantic coast. Every spring the -fragrant, creamy blossoms are to be bought from street Arabs in New York -and Philadelphia. A single globular flower is surrounded by a whorl of -oval leaves, bright green, but lined with a white, powdery substance that -makes them look silver-lined. The flowers are deliciously fragrant, and -most beautiful when not spread wide open. The seller often takes the -trouble to spring the petals back, to make the blossom seem bigger. The -waxy petals turn brown soon after such handling, and all their natural -beauty departs. - -From Florida westward to Texas this magnolia becomes a slender, tall -evergreen tree. The best flowers of this tree are borne on shoots that -are produced by pruning back the new growth each year. The largest leaves -and flowers are also the handsomest. - -The cucumber tree is the magnolia of the North. It is a fine tree in -Ontario, Canada, and from this region it spreads south, its range -widening like a fan, reaching from Arkansas to the Carolinas, and -Mississippi, and Alabama. The tropical appearance of the tree is due to -the big, heart-shaped leaves. Their tulip-like flowers are as large as -garden tulips, but they make scarcely any show, because they are very -much the same in colour as the yellowish-green new leaves that surround -them. - -The "cucumbers" are the green cones that contain the seeds. They are very -lumpy and irregular in form, but when ripe the cells split open and the -scarlet seed, let down on an elastic thread from each, looks like any -magnolia seed. - -Cucumber wood is soft, yellowish-brown, and close-grained. It is not very -good lumber, though put to many uses. The tree is worth more alive than -dead. It is an admirable shade tree, though not planted as much as it -deserves. - -The tulip tree is a close relative of the magnolias. It is one of the -trees with large flowers, though, like the cucumber tree, the colour of -the flowers makes them rather inconspicuous. In June the upturned twigs -blossom with yellow tulips. The three sepals flare outward, the petals -form the cup. A band of orange decorates the cup, and signals the bees -which come for nectar hidden near the bottom of the flower cup, among the -bases of the many stamens. - -Many people see the gay petals of the tulip tree flowers when they fall -on the sidewalk, and some wonder what these bits of colour are. A few -will say: "There must be a tulip tree near by," and look up to find the -singular squared-leaf blades that belong to no other tree. There is a -whole tree top fluttering with them, and this tremulous motion explains -why the tree is often called the tulip poplar. The yellow wood gives the -name, yellow poplar. Pulp of this wood is used for the manufacture of the -ordinary postal cards. It has many other uses, and is a valuable lumber -tree. For shade and ornament it is one of the best trees to plant. - -The cones of the tulip tree do not set free their seeds, as those of the -magnolias do. Instead of horned capsules, the cone has flat, overlapping -blades, like the wing of a maple seed, and the small, closed seed case is -the base of the blade. A few of these seeds are fully developed. But when -the winter strips the tree of its leaves, the wind shakes the cones, and -the loosened scales gradually fall. The wind catches the flat wings, and -away they sail. Little tulip trees grow up where good seeds fall in -favourable ground. - -One day a neighbour told me that there was a tree in blossom on the side -of the ravine. This was a strange story, for it was the dead of winter. -We went to see this wonderful tree. What do you think it was? A tulip -tree, with the seed cones half stripped of their seeds, and shining like -yellow flowers on the ends of the twigs. It was not strange at all that a -person who did not know the tree, and had never seen its cones in -mid-winter, should make this very mistake. - -The flowering dogwood invites us every spring to break off branches -covered with big, white blossoms, each like a four-pointed star, with a -cluster of small white buds in the centre. The trees are small and -low-branching, their limbs are flat, and they spread outward and slightly -downward. Who can resist cutting a few of the blossoming boughs of this -lovely tree! The best part is that the tree suffers not at all if the -pruning is done with some care. Take a thought for the tree; cut the -branches clean with a knife. Take them off where they are thick, and you -will leave the tree better in shape than when you came. Do not strip it -of flowers. This will cripple it. A few sprays of dogwood, prettily -arranged in a vase, are a delight to the eye. A crowded mass of them is -not at all. - -The four outer wings of white are not the petals of a dogwood blossom. -They are colourless leaves, the full-grown scales of the winter flower -buds. The notch at the tip is made by the falling off of the withered tip -which in winter protected the flowers. The base grew long and broad and -turned gradually white. The bees see these white banners farther, -perhaps, than they can catch the faint perfume. Watch the bee as she -probes the middle flowers for nectar. See the pollen on her hairy body. -From one to another, she is the pollen distributor of these flowers, and -she doesn't know it. - - - TREES MOST SHOWY IN BLOOM - -Sometimes a tree with very small flowers has such a multitude of them -that it attracts more attention and admiration when in blossom than the -trees with the largest flowers. A magnolia blossom as large as a cabbage -head must sacrifice delicacy to size. We must see it at a distance to -overlook its coarseness, and to escape its overpowering perfume. - -An orchard in early May is transformed into fairyland by the opening of -millions of buds. Apple trees have just begun to unfold the new leaves. -They are pale green, and coated with white hairs, so that a silvery cloud -rests on the tree when the white blossoms, warmed with a tinge of pink, -come with a rush that takes one's breath away. - -A single apple blossom has its five flaring petals inside of five green -sepals that are the bud's green overcoat. The stamens are many; the -pistils five in the centre of the flower. The plan of the flower is five. -The green lump below the blossom is the apple, already forming. Inside it -are the five cells of the core, and each has its seeds already forming, -if the five pistils have each caught a grain of pollen for each of the -embryo seeds its chamber of the core contained. - -The delicate colour and rich fragrance of the apple orchard are -enchanting. To the honey bees these two signals call to a feast of -nectar. All unknown to them, they carry pollen on their furry bodies from -flower to flower, and thus enable the pistils to set seed. If the days -are damp and there are frequent showers while the apple trees are in -bloom, the bees are kept at home, and there will be but a small crop of -apples. Fortunately for the bees and for us, the blossoms do not all come -out on the same day. The trees and the bees are hopeful till the last -moment that the sun will shine, and the nectar be gathered, before the -opportunity of the year passes. - -Flowers much like apple blossoms in form cover the twigs of hawthorn -trees. They are usually in many-flowered clusters, set off by the green -leaves. Fragrance, sometimes sickening sweet, draws the bees and other -insects to these trees. Nectar drips from the blossoms of some species. -The thorny branches spread sidewise, holding the blossoms out in wide -platforms. The red fruits, called haws, adorn the trees in late summer. - -Plum and cherry trees are laden with white bloom, and heavy with -fragrance. Some species haven't a leaf when they bloom. And these are -among the showiest of blossoming trees. In these flowers there are single -pistils, and but a single grain of pollen is needed to set seed. The -single seed is the pit, or stone, of this family known as the trees with -stone fruits. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN MIDSUMMER - -In spring the big chestnut tree is late in putting out its leaves. It is -May before the bare limbs are clothed with green. This crown is made of -long, pointed leaves, each short-stemmed, strongly ribbed, with parallel -veins on each side of the midrib, polished and sharp-toothed along its -margin. It is a superb dome of unusually handsome leaves. - -When the flower procession is long past and the grain fields have turned -yellow, and the mower and reaper are humming busily, the chestnut's crown -turns from green to gold, as if to harmonise with the landscape of -midsummer. Each twig ends in a feathery yellow plume, which waves in the -breezes, and sheds its yellow pollen abroad. The fertile flowers are at -the base of the plume. As the yellow pollen flowers fade, the green scaly -ones below them are swelling. They are the young chestnuts. The long -tongue each held out to catch pollen when it was ready for use. Each -flower has three nuts as its full quota to form. Failure to be pollenated -may cause one of the three to fail. The husk will then contain two nuts. - -[Illustration: Leaves and flowers of the ear-leaved cucumber tree are the -largest in the magnolia family] - -[Illustration: The orange-yellow flower cups and squared leaves of the -tulip tree] - -In May the yellow locust trees still stand along the roadsides, or herded -together along the banks of streams, bare and ugly, while the trees -around them are beautifully clothed in their green garments, and adorned -with blossoms. The dead pods still cling to the locust's branches, and -not even the buds are in sight to prove the twigs alive. - -Suddenly the trees wake, push out their hidden buds into shoots which -unfold leaves made of tiny leaflets. The leafy spray is light and -graceful, pale green with a silvery sheen at first. Soon the leaves are -inundated with a flood of white blossoms, fragrant with their nectar, -which hang in clusters from each twig. The bees see the white cloud on -the locust tree, and hurry to the feast. Each curious pea-like flower has -a honey pot in its horned petal. Throughout the summer the locust trees -wave their fern-like leaves, among which the young pods swing, rosy and -green, and velvety soft. The two thorns at the base of each leaf are -there, but they are not conspicuous, unless you grasp a limb; then they -let you know where they are, and what they can do. - -On a summer evening we shall see that the locust has closed its leaves, -folding the opposite leaflets together, and the whole leaf drooping from -its stem. It reminds us of the old-fashioned sensitive plant whose leaves -resembled these, folded its leaflets and drooped whenever it was touched. -Indeed, the locust tree and these plants are near relatives. The locust -leaves are sensitive to the evening air. They close if a rain comes up, -but open when the sun comes out again and the sky clears. - -Locust trees have an insect enemy which bores into the solid wood, and -ruins it for lumber. Even the twigs are swollen and distorted by these -insects, which feed upon the rich sap that should go to feed the tree. It -is impossible to reach this enemy with poison, so the trees are helpless. - -Except for this unfortunate fact, locusts would be a profitable crop to -raise for timber. Locust wood is very hard, durable, and strong. It is -slow to decay when in water, so it is valuable for fence posts, and for -boat building. It is used for hubs and spokes of waggon wheels, and it is -an excellent fuel. The locust timber that reaches market comes from the -mountain slopes, where the locust-borer is thus far unknown. The range of -the tree is all over the Eastern states and west to the Rocky Mountains. -We shall not find them south of the latitude of Tennessee. - -[Illustration: Flowers, fruit, and the three different leaf patterns of -the sassafras tree] - -[Illustration: Waxy flower of the evergreen magnolia, usually eight -inches across when open] - -The catalpa's great heart-shaped leaves, as broad as a man's hat, come -out in May, but the leafy shoots grow a foot or more in length, and it is -well along toward Independence Day before the flower buds show streaks of -white above the foliage mass. The upturned twigs end in a spike of -blossoms, creamy in colour, but speckled within their wide throats with -purple and yellow. The rim of the flower cup is daintily scalloped, and -frilled, and the tree top is even more showy than the horse chestnut a -month earlier. - -There is stateliness, even stiffness, in the figure of a blossoming horse -chestnut--a pyramid of green holding up a thousand pyramids of white. The -catalpa has a round head, and the loose flower clusters are quite -informal in their arrangement. The flowers nod gracefully on their -stems--a thing the horse chestnut flowers are unable to do. - -Why are the dots of colour sprinkled in the throat of the flower? Why are -they arranged in lines that lead to the nectar sac? To guide the bees -which come in swarms in answer to the signals of colour and fragrance the -flowers fling out as lures to them. - -The two stamens are ripe before the pistil. The bee rubs the pollen off -by crowding into the flower. Some of this dust is bound to be rubbed off -on the ripe stigma of an older blossom visited by this bee. Thus, -unconsciously the bee helps the tree to set good seed. Of these we will -study when we come to the tree again in autumn. Only a hint of the seed -vessel is given by looking at the oldest flower in a cluster, and -noticing the green part at the base. - -The linden or basswood holds its arms out so that the broad leaves are -exposed to the sun in slanting strata, or platforms of shade, that strike -downward. The tree's frame is roofed in with them in an almost unbroken -thatch of green. Cattle love to crop this foliage, and to enjoy the dense -shade on a hot day. - -In July the dark green is illuminated by thousands of starry white -blossoms, a few at the end of a slender stem that rises out of a pale -green, leaf-like blade. There is nothing like it borne on any other tree. - -The news that the basswoods are in bloom reaches the hives in good time. -One is able to hear the murmur of bees as far as he can see the flowers, -but the fragrance travels much farther. Basswood honey is higher in price -than other kinds. Is this the reason the bees are so hard at work? Small -as the individual flowers are, they have an unusual supply of nectar, and -the bees revel in the plenty of what will feed them and yield wax. They -make honey while the sun shines, counting the basswoods their best source -of the crude materials for honeymaking. It was so in the days of old. -Greek poets sang of the honey-laden lindens. Honey made from linden trees -in the Lithuanian forests was carried to Rome, where it sold for three -times the price of ordinary honey. - -Bees swarm, and the new colony often takes to the woods and sets up -housekeeping in a hollow tree. This is so likely in the Southern states -to be a linden that "bee tree" is a familiar name of this tree. - - - THE EARLY BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -Robins come to our cherry trees in June, and they hunt for our -strawberries under the green leaves. The blackberries come on, and the -raspberries, and currants. The birds look at them with calculating eyes. -An appetite for berries is inherited in them, learned in the woods, where -wild berries have grown, and ripened for them, from the times long before -there were gardens and cultivated fruits. - -Back in the woods we shall find wild berries ripening, and birds feasting -thankfully upon them. The harvest begins with the June-berries in the -month of June. Serviceberries they are also called, and the tree is known -also as the shadbush. We remember the lovely veil of white blossoms this -tree put on before its leaves came out. In June we might not know the -trees, except that they bear red berries, few on a cluster, and here the -birds are feasting. - -There is no other tree with berries that ripen so early, unless it be the -broad-leaved mulberry. Here, too, the birds will be found in numbers. -Turn back the wide, heart-shaped leaves, and you will find the single -berries of all sizes, some green, some reddening and soft. They are like -blackberries, each made of many tiny berries, grown together. - -The beauty of the mulberry is that its fruit keeps coming on from June -until August. It is a very slow, easy-going tree, in no hurry to have its -harvest over. The birds like the soft, seedy berries, which to our taste -are insipid. - -It is a shrewd thing to plant mulberry trees on the edges of fruit -gardens, and set a row of June-berry trees along the road outside the -cherry orchard. It is the scarcity of wild berries that brings the birds -into our gardens. Many a fruit-grower has saved his crop by planting wild -berry trees for the birds. - -The elders are shrubby trees with large, fern-like leaves. They lift up -flat, white flower clusters, sometimes as large as dinner plates, in -June, and in the middle of summer dark red berries are ripening where the -flowers were. Here is another feast for the birds, and elderberry pies -are the reward of boys and girls who gather the berries, and take them -home to mother. Grandma thinks of elderberry wine, so good for many -ailments, and if the berries are plenty it is easy to gather a bucketful -to make a few pints of this old-fashioned cordial. - -Among the shining green leaves of the wild red cherry tree the little -fruits glow like rubies in the summer. Here is a feast for the birds. We -find these small pin cherries very thin-fleshed, and sour, and the -biggest of them is no larger than a pea. But how the birds love them! The -bird cherry is indeed the bird's tree. In blossom it belongs to the bees, -which come in swarms for nectar. To them, unconscious carriers of pollen -from flower to flower, the birds owe a debt of gratitude. They insure the -setting of seed, and this means a big crop of fruit. - -The wild black cherry is later with its shining clusters of dark red -cherries. They come in September, when the birds' procession has turned -southward. The earliest comers hold high carnival in these trees, devour -quantities of the bitter-sweet fruit, and drop the seeds near and far. -The wind can do little in scattering the seeds of fruit trees. The birds -are the chief agents of distribution. - - - THE SASSAFRAS - -The sassafras is not important as a forest tree, yet I do not know -another to whom so many kinds of people, of all ages, go, asking for -favours this tree alone can give. Even in regions where the tree does not -grow, its name is well known. Sassafras tea has a world-wide reputation -as a cure for "spring fever," otherwise known as "that tired feeling." -Drug store windows are piled high in spring with bits of the corky bark -of the sassafras roots, and the buds in winter taste of the same aromatic -oil, whose flavour rises from a steaming pot of sassafras tea. Many a -bad-tasting medicine is made more palatable by a drop or two of oil of -sassafras. - -The leaves and twigs of young sassafras trees are used in the South to -flavour and thicken gumbo soups. The wood of sassafras is light and -tough. The long limbs are cut and stripped by country boys going fishing, -who know what trees yield the best fishing rods. Sassafras posts last a -long while, for the wood does not rot in contact with soil, or soaked -with water. It makes good boats and barrels for this same reason. - -Children know the sassafras tree. In winter they nibble the dainty green -buds, or dig away the snow at the roots to get a morsel of the aromatic -bark. In summer it is the leaves that are the chief charm of the tree. It -is a fascinating game to look for the "mittens and double mittens," which -seem to be more numerous than the plain oval leaves on this tree. There -is no other tree that has three distinct leaf shapes. The mitten form has -its thumb just right, on one side. It might be used for a mitten pattern. -There are lefts and rights, and mittens of all sizes. The doll-sized ones -are the youngest, and they grow near the tips of the twigs. The double -mittens have a thumb on each side, and the simple oval shape--the hand -part with no thumb at all--is usually harder to find than either of the -others. - -When looking for these strange leaf shapes, there is always a chance of -coming upon a strange inhabitant of the sassafras tree. A great green -caterpillar is lying at ease upon a hammock of silk, which he has spun -for himself. There he lies, and gazes at the startled person who -discovers him. Are those really eyes, or only black spots? They probably -scare away birds which are looking for worms. The effect of the two "eye -spots" is almost as surprising as if two rolling eyeballs glared at the -intruder, and threatened violence if he came near. - -Carry home this fearsome green mummy on the leaf; put him in a cage made -of wire screen, and watch him. He needs no food, for he is asleep. When -he awakes his mummy case will split open, and out of it will emerge a -wonderful butterfly, with banded wings of black and yellow velvet, and -long, tapering points trailing behind, which gives him his name--the -swallow-tailed butterfly. He has a flexible tongue, an inch or more in -length, coiled like a watch spring. With it he will probe the tubes of -flowers, and find the nectar at the base of each. He is hungry now, so -let him go. Turn him loose in a bed of flowers, and you may see just how -he feeds. - -When the mother butterfly laid its tiny green egg on the face of an open -leaf of the sassafras, the tree was probably in blossom. In June, -delicate, starry, greenish-yellow flowers come out in clusters on the -ends of twigs. The butterfly finds nectar in these fragrant and dainty -blossoms. In the autumn birds come and feast upon the blue berries which -look very handsome on their red stems. Indeed, it is quite usual for the -trees to be stripped while the berries are still green, so hungry are the -birds that stop to feed on their long journey to the South. - -In the autumn the sassafras trees change colour from the brilliant green -of summer. All colours of the sunset, purple, red, and golden, blend in -these shining tree tops. A clump of sassafras and sweet gum trees, with -here and there a tupelo and a dogwood, a scarlet oak and a hard maple, -make a picture never to be forgotten. If the roadside trees were on fire, -they would not show any more vivid colouring. It is their glorious -good-bye to the year, before they all let their leaves fall and enter -into the sleep of winter. - - - THE ASH FAMILY - -The trees whose leaves are set opposite upon the twigs are few in the -American woods compared with those whose leaves alternate. The maples -have the opposite arrangement of leaves; so have the dogwoods. These -trees have simple leaves. The horse chestnuts and buckeyes have their -leaves set opposite, and these leaves are compound: five or seven -leaflets rise from the end of the stout leaf stem. The ash family is -another large group of trees, with leaves set opposite on the twigs. -These leaves are compound, but of a different pattern from those of the -horse chestnut. The leaf stem has the leaflets arranged in pairs along -its sides. This is the feather type of compound leaf, seen in the locust -family, and among walnuts and hickories. - -Ash trees are recognised by their opposite compound leaves. There is -another sign: the fruit has a dry seed, pointed and winged like a dart. -There is no other seed exactly like those of the ash. The seed clusters -hang on the bare twigs, far into winter. The twigs are stout, and set in -pairs on the branches. The trees grow large, and their tops are regular -and handsome. The bark is close, broken by shallow fissures into small, -often diamond-shaped plates. - -Our common ash trees are distinguished by colour, as the names indicate. -A few well-marked differences are shown by the species, which are often -found growing together in mixed woods. - -The white ash is a tall, handsome, stately tree, with a trunk like a grey -granite column. The white in its name is from the pale leaf linings, that -illuminate the tree top in summer. The twigs are pale, and the bark is -often as pale grey as that of a white oak. The slender, dart-like seeds -are one to two inches long, with a wing which is twice the length of the -round, tapering seed. They hang in thick clusters, paler green than the -leaves, and often flushed with a rosy tinge in late summer. All winter -the wind harvests the crop of seeds, and plants young white ashes -wherever the darts fall on good ground. - -The black ash is a slender, upright tree, with narrow head and stout -twigs. The plump, leathery buds on the winter twigs are almost black, and -the bark is a very dark grey. The foliage in summer is much darker green -than that of any other ash, so the name is earned by buds, bark, and -leaves. The seeds are flat and short, and the wing is broad and short, -and deeply notched. A black ash leaf has all its leaflets stemless except -the one at the tip. The white ash has a much fleecier foliage than that -of the black, because each leaflet has a stem of its own. - -The wood of the black ash splits readily into thin sheets, each -representing the growth of a single year. The Indians taught the white -men to make baskets out of black ash splints. They cut the tree down, -sawed the log into the lengths required, split the blocks into pieces as -wide as the splints should be. These sticks were bent over a board, and -the strain separated the bands of dense, tough wood into the thin strips -just right for basket weaving. - -The red ash is a small, spreading tree, with a close head, slender -branches, and crowded twigs. Its bark is reddish, closely furrowed, and -scaly. The young twigs are covered with soft hairs. The leaves are a -shiny yellow-green above, often a foot long, made of seven to nine -slender leaflets, whose stems and veins have a silky down, that remains -all summer. - -Red ash seeds are extremely slender and long, and they hang on hairy -stems. - -The green ash has dark, lustrous foliage, the leaf lining green, like its -upper surface. The bark is grey, and closely checked, and the twigs are -smooth and slender. - -This is the ash tree which grows in the regions of scant rainfall; in -Utah, Arizona, and Texas. In the East it is found from Virginia to -Florida. It is one of the beautiful shade trees in the regions where few -trees grow well. East of the Alleghenies it is but one among many ash -trees, and is little noticed; but in the far West, and on the treeless -plains of Nebraska and Dakota, it is a far handsomer tree than its -companions, the willows and the cottonwoods. - -[Illustration: Fruits, leaves and flowers of basswood tree, called also -linden] - -[Illustration: Chestnut trees blossom in July, and the nuts drop after -the first severe frost] - -The blue ash is common on the rich river lands along the principal -tributaries of the Mississippi. Some of the finest specimens grow on the -limestone hills of the Smoky Mountains. It is a tall, graceful, -grey-stemmed ash. We shall know it anywhere as an ash tree by its -opposite twigs and leaves, and by its dart-like fruits. It differs from -all other ash trees in having four-angled twigs. The tree has a kind of -blue dye in its inner bark. Cut out a piece and put it in water, and it -is as if you had added a few grains of indigo. - -The blue ash ranks high as a shade tree, and its wood is quite the equal -of white ash. It is used for vehicles, for flooring, and for tool -handles. It is especially desired for pitchfork handles. - -The native ash of Europe is a large timber tree, whose range extends -through Asia Minor. The wood of this tree had a wonderful reputation for -general usefulness. Its tough, thin inner bark was used to write on -before paper was invented. The wood was used for lances and spears, for -bows, pikes, and shields by the soldiers, during ancient times. Every -tool, vehicle, and implement of the farmer and mechanic were made of this -wood. "Every prudent lord of a manor should employ one acre of ground -with ash to every twenty acres of other land. In as many years it would -be worth more than the land itself." - -The seeds of ash trees were used for fattening pigs. They were also used -as remedies for many diseases. They were called birds' tongues, from -their shape, and every apothecary kept a stock of them. Ash wood makes -the best of fuel, and its ashes, rich in potash, make a splendid -fertiliser, especially in orchards. - -One warning the old English rhyme offers regarding this tree. It is -supposed to attract lightning. Oaks have the same reputation. On the -other hand, tradition holds that a beech tree is never struck by -lightning. There is opportunity, where these trees grow, and where -thunderstorms are frequent, to notice how true are the popular beliefs. - -Have you ever been warned by this old rhyme? - - "Beware of the oak, it draws the stroke; - Avoid the ash, it courts the flash; - Creep under the thorn--it will save you from harm." - - - THE HORSE-CHESTNUT AND THE BUCKEYES - -When an English lad speaks of a chestnut, he means the horse-chestnut, -and the chances are that he does not know anything about the American -trees, whose sweet nuts we gather in the woods at home after the frost -has opened their spiny burs. In America the European tree is planted very -commonly for ornament and shade, and it is always called horse-chestnut -here, except by English cousins who may be visiting us. - -They ask us why we put the word "horse" before this tree's name. For -answer we pull down a twig, snap off a leaf, and show the scar of the -leaf's attachment to the twig. It is somewhat like the print of a horse's -hoof on the ground. Even the horseshoe nails are there, for a thread from -each leaflet goes down through the leaf stem, and its fibres are buried -in the twig. There are five or seven of these nail prints in the scar, -depending upon the number of leaflets. Five is the usual number, but -seven is not at all unusual. - -An old tradition states that the people of Eastern countries feed these -chestnuts to their horses to cure them of cough, shortness of breath, and -other lung disorders. Upon this is based a second claim for using the -word "horse" before this tree's name. The quality of the fruit, however, -is probably the best answer to the question. The coarse, large nuts are -not fit for human food. It is quite common to think that horses can eat -things too rank for our more fastidious taste. Horse sugar is the name of -a small tree whose sweetish twigs are browsed upon by cattle and horses -in wooded pastures. Horse-radish and horse-mint are coarser, more -rank-growing kinds of plants, than their closely related species which -are used for human food. - -We shall know the horse-chestnut in the dead of winter by the large buds, -the large hoof-print leaf scars, and by the pyramidal form of the tree. -The twigs are stout, and they turn upward so that the largest of the -varnished buds are held up like candles. The main branches leave the -trunk with an upward curve, then bend outward and downward, then up again -to hold the buds upright. The tree looks, therefore, like a great complex -candlestick, with many arms and many candles. The twigs are stout, and -they come out opposite each other on the branch. This is a peculiarity of -few trees. It belongs to all of the members of the horse-chestnut family, -which includes the buckeye trees, our native horse-chestnuts. - -In early spring, watch the horse-chestnut tree outside your windows and -along the streets as they begin to swell, and until they finally open. -The tree lights all its candles when the brown, varnished outer bud -scales fall, and the soft, silky inner ones, yellow as a candle flame, -are revealed. On the side twigs the buds are smaller than on the tips. -Out of each small bud comes a bunch of leaves. Out of the big buds come -the flowers. - -In June a big horse-chestnut tree holds up a thousand pyramids of white -blossoms. Below each flower duster is an umbrella-like circle of leaves. -Each blossom of the dense spike has in its throat dashes of yellow and -red. The petals form a ruffled border. The curving stamens are thrust far -out. Bees come in search of pollen and nectar. - -After the flowers pass, green fruits appear, a few in a cluster, and all -covered with spines. Not many of these reach full size. It seems to be -enough for the tree to ripen one or two fruits in a cluster. In the -autumn they turn brown, and the husk splits into three equal parts. Out -of this spreading husk the brown nuts fall. - -Now the boys assail the tree with sticks and stones, and the harvest of -nuts is on. Who does not love them for their beauty alone? The great -white spot is the place where they were attached to the husk. The kernel -is as bitter as gall, and I know of no animal which eats it. If any one -counts them useless, let him see the hoards of them which children -gather, and use in their play. He will change his mind completely. Their -glowing, soft colour is a feast to the eye, and they just fit the hand. - - - THE BUCKEYES - -The Ohio buckeye is a little tree, but it has given its name to the -Buckeye State. There must have been many of them in the virgin forest -that the Ohio pioneer cut down to make room for his crops of corn and -grain. He noticed these trees particularly because of a disagreeable -odour that comes from the bitter sap. The chopping and handling of these -trees intensifies this odour, which is noticeable even when one drives -past a growing tree. - -The name was given by some imaginative person who saw a resemblance -between the smooth brown nuts and the soft brown eyes of a buck. The -white of the eye corresponds to the dash of white on the nut. Deer -abounded in the virgin forests, and no doubt it was one of the first -settlers, a hunter as well as a farmer, who named the tree. - -The flowers and leaves resemble those of the horse-chestnut, but are -smaller, as the tree is. The number of leaflets is five, rarely seven, -and they cluster on the end of a long leaf stem. The flowers appear in -April and May, and are not conspicuous, for they are yellowish-green, and -make little contrast with the new leaves. - -One thing is to be said in favour of this ill-smelling tree. Its wood has -been found to be the best kind for the making of artificial limbs. To -this special use the lumber is chiefly devoted. - -The sweet buckeye lacks the disagreeable odour of the Ohio buckeye, and -its nuts are eaten by cattle. It is a handsome, large tree, with leaves -of five slim leaflets, more or less hairy below, and on the veins above. -The flowers are yellow and showy. Each corolla is drawn out into a tube, -like a honeysuckle's. The husks of the nuts are smooth. This species -grows from Western Pennsylvania along the mountain slopes to Alabama, and -on the prairies westward to Iowa. The nuts are full of starch, and these -are ground into flour, which is used by bookbinders in making their -paste. The reason why this paste is preferred is that destructive insects -do not eat it as they do paste made of wheat flour. - -A red-flowered buckeye tree of small size grows wild from Missouri to -Texas, and east into Tennessee to Northern Alabama. This is not the same -as the red horse-chestnut, which is sometimes seen in cultivation as a -handsome tree, twenty to thirty feet high. - -In the far West, the California buckeye is a wide-topped tree of good -size, with leaves of the true horse-chestnut type, and white or -rose-coloured flowers, in showy clusters, and smooth, pear-shaped nuts. -This is the only one of our native species which grows beyond the Rocky -Mountains. - - - THE LOCUSTS AND OTHER POD-BEARERS - -When you find a tree with flat pods, containing a row of seeds, you may -be sure it is a locust, or one of the family to which locusts belong. It -is a near relative of the peas and beans that grow in the vegetable -garden. This is a great and valuable family to the human race, for it -furnishes some of the most valuable foods upon which the people of all -countries live. Only one family, the grasses, is more important. This -includes not only grasses that are used for making hay, but all the -grains--wheat, barley, rice, oats, and corn, that make the bread of the -world, and forage crops for horses and cattle. The banana and sugar cane -and bamboos are in this wonderful grass family. - -Along the roadsides, along rivers, and in the woods grow the black or -yellow locusts that bloom in June, covering their ugly limbs with a -cataract of white, pea-like blossoms, in large clusters. All summer the -slim, thin pods are velvety and green, with a lovely flush of rose, as -they swing among the feathery, fern-like leaves. In autumn the pods turn -brown, and in winter, when the wind can switch them against the bare -twigs, they split, and one by one, the hard little seeds are shaken out. -They are too heavy to be carried in the wind. So we see little locusts -coming up among the old ones, and on the outer edges of the clump. - -No tree is so discouraged-looking, unkempt, and diseased as a black -locust infested with the borers, and stripped of the foliage that covered -its thin, irregular limbs in the summer time. The buds, even, are hidden, -and the tree looks as if life had left it. But the late spring denies the -rumour by clothing the dead-looking twigs with foliage whose tender -shadings and delicate leaf forms make it one of the most graceful and -lovely of all native trees. - -Unfortunately, we cannot have locusts of this species in this Eastern -country without exposing them to the attacks of insects against which we -cannot defend the trees. The eggs are laid in clefts of the bark, and the -grubs hatch quite out of reach of poisons and other damaging spraying -solutions. They feed on the living substance under the bark, and their -presence is shown by swellings above their burrows. Twigs, limbs, and -trunks are distorted, and gradually the tree loses vitality, and the wood -is made worthless by the honeycombing it receives. Only in the -mountainous parts of its range does the black locust reach its best -growth. No tree has better lumber for posts and other uses requiring -durability in contact with the soil and with water. - -The clammy locust is a pink-flowered species with a sticky substance -exuding from the hairy surface of new shoots. The flowers are lovely but -scentless. The trees are much planted in parks and on lawns as an -ornament, in all temperate climates. - -The honey locust earns its name in the summer time, when the curving -green pods are full of a sweet, gelatinous pulp. Boys would like to get -these honey pods, but the vicious thorns permit no climbing of the trees. -Stoning and other throwing of missiles is a slow and unsatisfactory means -of obtaining the forbidden fruit that hangs so high. By the time they -ripen and fall off the pods are bitter as gall. - -An old-world relative has thick, purple pods, which are sweet and -palatable when ripe. These are brought to this country, and sold on small -fruit stands under the name, St. John's bread. It is said that this was -the food of John the Baptist in the wilderness. - -The Kentucky coffee tree is the coarsest member of the locust family in -our woods. Its pods are thick and short, and the seeds inside are as -large as hazel nuts. In the story of the Revolutionary War, the patriotic -citizens refused to pay duties on imported goods. The seeds of this -locust were used as a substitute for coffee. I have tasted the bitter -outside of one of these nuts, and tried to break one with a hammer, but -unsuccessfully. It is not easy to understand how a beverage made of such -a nut could have been fit to drink. The name of the tree seems to give -colour of truth to the tradition. - -A coffee tree much like our native species grows in China. We may believe -that it is called by another name, for the people use its heavy pods for -soap. Whether green or ripe, I do not know. - -The club-like branches of our coffee tree give it a burly, clumsy -appearance in winter, when nothing conceals them from view. The dangling -pods rattle against the bare, stubby twigs, calling attention to their -lack of grace and symmetry. Even the buds are out of sight, buried under -the thin bark, just above the big leaf scars. All winter the wind strives -with the stubborn pods. When one is torn off, it lies unopened until -melting snow softens it, and the horny seed lies long before it is able -to sprout. - -A thin pod adorns the most delicate of the locust trees. This is the -little red bud, a flat-topped tree, of slender, thornless branches, most -of them horizontal. Early in spring this tree earns its name. Quantities -of rosy magenta, pea-shaped flowers cluster on its slim, angular twigs, -quite covering the smaller branches. It is an unusual colour, and an -unusual time to see pea-blossoms. You cannot forget it, if you have seen -the tree once. - -The leaves that soon follow are as unusual as the flowers. Roundish, -heart-shaped, smooth, and shining as if polished, they flutter on thin, -flexible stems, and the slim pods hang among them. They ripen and turn -from green to rich purple when the leaves change to bright yellow. The -hard little seeds are close together in the pods, so that they are -numerous, though the pods are but two or three inches long. - -I do not know when the red bud is most charming. Certainly its autumn -garment of yellow is beautiful, trimmed with a fringe of purple pods. It -is a royal robe, and so fresh and new-looking when the foliage of so many -larger trees is faded and in tatters. The trees that hide in the shelter -of larger ones can often save their leaves from wear and tear, and this -the red bud does. - -Judas tree is the name by which the red bud of Europe is commonly called. -It is one of a few species to which an ugly tradition has been fastened -by custom. It is said that this is the kind of tree upon which Judas -Iscariot hanged himself. Our little American tree has had to share the -disgrace, for it looks like its European cousin. The name to use is the -true one. - -Nurserymen have imported a large-flowered red bud from China. Its flowers -are not only more showy, but they have a paler, prettier colour--a rosy -pink, and lacking the sad, blue tone of the others. - -It is easy to raise red bud trees, and they are admirable in the border -planting of a garden or lawn. They begin to blossom when quite young, and -they never grow so large as to be out of place among shrubbery. - -The yellow-wood has larger and lovelier blossom clusters than the black -locust, with which it might most easily be confused. In autumn the flower -stems hang full of thin pods, one to three seeds in a pod. No other -locust is so scantily supplied with seeds in a pod. - -In summer the leaflets prove that the tree is not a black locust. They -are larger and fewer, though of the same feathered type. In the seasons -when the tree blooms freely, which is by no means every year, the twigs -are loaded with clusters larger than any black locust produces. In winter -it is the bark that distinguishes the tree. It is grey and smooth, like -that of the beech; not at all like the dark trunk and rough limbs of the -locust. The form of the tree is a regular head of horizontally-spreading -limbs, ending in tapering twigs that droop gracefully. It is one of the -handsomest trees in winter. The locust is one of the weediest and ugliest -of trees when bare. - -To find the yellow-wood in its native haunts, we must go to the mountains -of Eastern Tennessee and North Carolina. It goes farther north and south, -but its range is scant. Better chance of our meeting it in our -neighbour's yard. It is cultivated as a flowering tree by people who -appreciate the finest trees that grow wild in American woods. The -nurserymen call it Virgilia. This is certainly a graceful name, fitted to -a tree that deserves only the best. - -The catalpas are pod-bearers of a different type. Their long pencils are -green, and there is no sign of splitting until autumn. The seeds are not -like those of the flat pods, set in a single row. They are thin as tissue -paper, and packed in overlapping layers about the thin partition that -divides the pod into two compartments. - -The pods hang on after the large, heart-shaped leaves fall. Winter winds -bang them against the twigs, and their two sides separate lengthwise. -Gradually the thin, two-winged seeds escape, and are scattered. The -sowing lasts a long time. - -Willows and poplars have pods of a sort, but like neither locusts nor -catalpas. The seeds are very minute in each family, and carried in -delicate wisps of cottony down. The pods open by splitting down their -walls, along two or four lines, curling back the dry segments, and thus -letting the seeds escape. These trees are early in scattering their -seeds. The true pod-bearers are late about it. - - - WILD APPLE TREES AND THEIR KIN - -Go out into the woods, and you will find wild crab apple trees, bearing -hard, sour little apples, unfit to eat. Four distinct kinds are native to -this country. In Eastern Asia wild apple trees grow in greater variety -than here. Our orchard apple trees are descended from these Oriental wild -apples, which were brought under cultivation long before America was -discovered. Nurserymen in Europe and Japan have for centuries worked with -the wild species to improve them. The Japanese worked to produce finer -flowering trees. European horticulturists desired finer and larger fruit. -American orchards show how well they have succeeded. For over a century -American horticulture has made marked progress. Many valuable kinds of -fruit have originated in this country. Our own wild apples are now -studied with the aim of bringing them into cultivation, just as the -Asiatic species were improved centuries ago. It is a wonderful work, -accomplished by crossing, grafting, budding, by fertilising, and good -tillage,--processes too special to be explained in this book. - -The taming of wild apples, however, is one of the great achievements of -the centuries. Every boy and every girl who enjoys the eating of a fine -apple will wish to know how such glorious fruit, in abundance sufficient -to supply the world's needs, has been produced from such unpromising -beginnings as the gnarled little crab trees scattered through the woods, -and dwarfed by the larger forest trees that overshadowed them. - -"Grafting" or "budding" a little tree insures that the fruit it bears -later on will be of the variety of the tree from which the scions came. -Only once in a long while does a good variety of fruit come on a seedling -tree. Plant the seed of the best apple you ever ate, and then wait a -dozen years or more for this tree to bear fruit. The chances are -ninety-nine to one that the apples turn out to be miserable, sour, or -tasteless nubbins, like the roadside apples, that nobody planted. It is -too expensive to experiment in hope of getting good varieties from seed. - -"Johnny Appleseed" was a funny old fellow who wandered up and down the -Ohio valley states, and planted apple seeds wherever he went. Queer, and -perhaps crazy, he was a kindly soul, who dreamed of the days when -orchards should dot the landscape, and be a part of every farm homestead. -He did what he could to make the wild prairie wilderness blossom and bear -fruit. No doubt many pioneer orchards came from his planting. Seedling -trees, all of them, for he believed firmly that it is _wrong_ to graft a -tree! - -Each year better and bigger apples are shown at fairs, and fruit shows. -The history of apple culture is full of interest. It requires hundreds of -books to tell the story. But any man who has an orchard can tell you how -his trees were made into the varieties he ordered at the nursery. He may -show you how grafting and budding is done, and how a tree may be made -over in a few years to change entirely the kind of apple it bears. He may -show a tree that bears distinct kinds of apples on different limbs, and -show you the scar of the graft from which each new variety has sprung. -When you are old enough, you can grow apple trees from seed, and graft or -bud them to the variety you choose,--greening, russet, northern -spy--taking your scions from a tree whose apples are especially fine. It -is a fascinating game to play, with the soil, and the sun, and the rain -all working with you to help you win. - -Meanwhile, the wild apple, though worthless as a fruit tree, is well -worth knowing. No well-fed orchard tree has charm to compare with this -wild thing when spring transforms its ugly, thorny twigs. - -The rosy blossoms of the wild crab apple come out of a multitude of -coral-red buds which open just after the leaves. The gnarled limbs are -bare and ugly, until late in May. Then the silvery, velvet leaves unfold, -scarcely green at first, because each one wears so thick a garment of -soft, white hairs. Before the leaves have lost this velvet coat, the -flower buds begin to glow, and the tree top is soon blushing with the -blossoms, and the air is full of their spicy fragrance. - -[Illustration: An old apple orchard is a fairy land indeed when blossoms -cover the trees] - -[Illustration: Nothing tastes so good as ripe apples picked right off the -tree!] - -Their charm is the charm of the wild rose. Their arrangement on the -gnarled twigs is irregular. The artist loves the unstudied grace of it. -The great botanist, Linnus, probably saw only pressed specimens, but he -named the tree _coronaria_, which means, "fit for crowns and garlands." - -I remember gathering the little green apples in the fall. Hard, and -almost bitter, when eaten out of hand, they make a jelly that is as -distinct and delightful in its way as the flowers are more admirable than -common apple blossoms. The taste is wild, and almost bitter, but beside -it ordinary apple jelly tastes insipid. Perhaps I am prejudiced, and the -memory of that wild crab-apple jelly too remote to be depended upon. But -many people agree with me. If you are in the woods in October, and come -to a thicket of trees bearing flat, yellow apples, pick as many as you -can carry home. Smell their spicy fragrance, and persuade your mother to -make them into jelly, so that you can form your own opinion of it. - -The Eastern crab apple grows over a large part of the region between the -Atlantic coast, and the dry plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and south -to Northern Alabama and Texas. The prairie crab, a different species, -grows in the Mississippi Valley. A narrow-leaved species grows in the -South, and the Oregon crab is the native wild apple of the woods, from -California north into Alaska. - -Quinces are core fruits, cousins of the apples. So are pears. All of our -orchard pears and quinces are cultivated varieties of species that once -grew wild in Europe or Asia. The Japanese quince in America is a hedge -plant which in spring covers its bare twigs with large, deep -rose-coloured flowers, and bears hard, freckled fruits that smell better -than they taste, in September. We know all these fruits, and have them in -our gardens, but they are foreigners here, though much at home. We have -no native pears or quinces in America. - - - THE CHERRIES - -Do you know the peculiar taste and odour of the pit of a cherry or peach? -Then you will recognise it without difficulty when you meet it in a -bruised leaf or twig of any tree that bears stone fruits, wild or -cultivated. It belongs to the family which includes plums, cherries, -peaches, apricots, and almonds. But one species of native cherry is a -large tree. It is chiefly as fruit trees that the cultivated varieties -are important. A few are grown for their beauty as flowering trees and -shrubs; some for their rich bronze foliage. - -The wild cherry is the one lumber tree in the family. Its wood ranks with -mahogany, though not so expensive as the tree which grows no nearer to us -than lower Florida and Central America. It is made into furniture or used -in the interior finishing of houses, parlour cars, and ocean liners. It -takes a beautiful polish, and has a rich brown colour that improves with -time. It is largely used as veneer on cheaper woods. "Solid cherry" is -likely to be birch, if the article is of modern make. - -This cherry has dark, shiny bark when young, which breaks into shallow -furrows, and curls back like birch bark. The unquestionable sign by which -to know a wild cherry is the bitter, peach-pit taste of the sap. Nibble a -leaf or twig or bit of bark, and you get that unforgettable taste, that -stays on the tongue longer than we like. - -Birds feast in September on the long clusters of dark purple berries. -They are bitter sweet, barely edible, I say. But birds take them -thankfully, and children usually eat them freely. Old-fashioned people -make them into wines or cordials for home remedies. - -The choke cherry is a shrubby tree, with a rank, disagreeable odour added -to the bitter and pungent odour that belongs to the black cherry. The -leaves are twice as wide as the black cherry's. The fruit shares the rank -quality of the leaves and bark. Until dead ripe, the cherries are so -bitter, harsh, and puckery that children, who eat the black cherries -eagerly, cannot be persuaded to taste choke cherries a second time. This -is well-named the "choke" cherry. Only the birds can eat the berries -without choking. They seem not to mind its rankness, for the fruit is all -taken by the time it has turned black-ripe. - -Early in summer the red bird cherry is in fruit, after its crown of white -blossoms has passed. The pit is large, and the flesh thin and sour, and -the whole fruit is discouragingly small. But birds are happy among the -shining leaves until the last cherry is gone. This is quite sufficient -appreciation. The seeds are dropped, and the little trees come up all -through the woods and in the most unexpected places, due to the birds' -scattering of the seeds. - -Garden cherries of the sweet and sour groups have sprung from wild -species that grow in Europe. The red, black, and yellow cherries of -California are the largest, most improved varieties. The garden cherries -of the Eastern states are not nearly so large. - -The native cherry of Japan has been cultivated as a flowering tree, until -it is wonderfully beautiful. In its season of bloom, Japan is a perfect -fairyland. The country is one great garden of pink cherry blossoms. At -this time the people turn out to see the marvellous sight. A national -holiday is dedicated to this tree, which is the symbol of happiness in -the Flower Kingdom. - - - THE PLUMS - -All plum trees are small in stature, and many are thorny by the -sharpening of side twigs, as if the struggle with adverse conditions made -it necessary to carry weapons of defence. I speak now of the wild -species. They grow in thickets, another habit of self-protection. - -The wild red and yellow plums that still grow in thickets along streams -in the great middle country between the East coast and the Rocky -Mountains, furnished an important article of food to the pioneer -families, which led the westward march of civilisation, and founded the -prairie states. Only people who remember those times, and actually took -part in the work of the pioneer, can know how valuable the wild fruits -were, while the young orchards were growing, and no fruit was to be had -for the greater part of the year. - -After the first heavy frost in September the plums were fit to eat. They -became soft, and sweet, and pleasant in flavour. But the skin was thick, -very sour and puckery, so eating plums was not an unmixed joy. - -When a team and part of the family could be spared from the farm work, a -day was taken for "plumming," and a happy and laborious day it was, but -always enjoyed in true holiday spirit. Usually neighbours joined in the -outing, and had a picnic dinner together in the woods. Only the oldest -clothes were worn, for in the plum thickets one must risk the ruin of his -raiment by the angular, thorny branches. Sheets were spread under the -trees where possible, and a severe shaking or beating of the branches -showered the fruit down. All hands were busy at gathering the plums, and -loading the waggons with the harvest. - -Perhaps there was time afterward for the boys to explore the hazel -thickets, and gather a generous bagful of these small, but deliciously -flavoured nuts, still in their husks. Wild grape vines, loaded with the -purple fruit, tempted the frugal wife to strip them, even though the sun -was low. For days after the return home, she was at work putting away for -winter use preserves and jellies and pickles, and good old-fashioned plum -and grape "butter," sweetened with molasses made from sorghum cane. - -Little plum trees, dug in the woods in early spring, were planted in the -home garden. By setting these carefully, and tilling and enriching the -soil around them, larger trees and finer fruit were produced than the -wild plum thicket could show. Some of the good cultivated plums have had -such an origin. - -A half dozen different species of wild plum grow wild in different soils -and regions of the United States. Where two grow in the same territory, -natural hybrids have originated, better than either parent in the quality -of their fruit. Such a cross has given rise to several varieties of -garden plums, of which the Miner group is a fair example. The best -orchard plums for the middle of the country are crosses between native -and Japanese species. The European species, like Damsons and Green Gages, -do well in the Eastern states, and on the Pacific slope. - -The prunes we buy are dried plums. For a century or two France has led -all countries in the prune industry. Now California leads. The kinds of -plums that can be dried are sweet and fleshy. Ordinary juicy plums cannot -be made into prunes. The hot sun of California soon takes all the -moisture out of the plums spread on tables to dry. There is no rain to -fear in the hot summer months. - -Peaches, nectarines, and apricots are stone fruits, closely related to -the plums and peaches. These Old World fruits are grown in the warm parts -of this country. California raises them in quantities. The most -profitable of the stone fruits has woody flesh, and is raised for its -pit, which we eat. This is the sweet almond, a valuable nut. Its related -species, the bitter almond, yields almond oil and hydrocyanic acid, both -important drugs. - - - THE SERVICEBERRIES - -In the same family with apples and plums and cherries is a group of -slender, pretty trees called June berry, serviceberry, and on the East -coast, shadbush. When the shadbush blossoms white, the fishermen know -that it is time to expect the shad, which are taken in nets when they run -up the rivers to spawn. The red berries are ripe in June, and the birds -celebrate the event, and even take them before they begin to redden. -Competition is strong, and the supply never equals the demand. Rarely can -a human berry-picker find a ripe berry, to discover how it tastes. - -The charm of this little tree is that it covers its slim branches so -early with white blossoms. The clusters are soft and feathery, and a warm -flush underlies the white, the ruddy, strap-shaped bracts, two of which -are under each flower. The dainty opening leaves are also ruddy, and -these have opened before the blossoms pass. - -In early April it is worth a long walk or drive through the woods to see -the scattered serviceberry trees standing out from the bare background of -leafless trees, lovely as any tree can ever be, in their robes of white. -Thereafter, they seem to retire from view, engulfed by the foliage -curtain the woodland draws about itself, as spring advances. - - - VALUABLE SAP OF TREES - -In early spring on the New Hampshire hillsides, the sap begins to mount -the trunks of the sugar maple trees, dissolving the sugar stored in the -wood cells during the previous summer. It is time for the making of maple -sugar. Winter is over. Spring work has begun. - -Hundreds of twigs of elder have been cut in short lengths, and the pith -pushed out, to make "spiles." Holes are bored in the trunks of the trees, -and in each hole one of these hollow spiles is driven. These are the -little spouts that drain the sap from the tree into the waiting buckets -that stand or hang below. Drip, drip, drip, the sweet sap flows into the -buckets; and as often as they fill, the farmer makes the rounds of the -trees with barrels on a low sled or "stone boat," emptying the buckets. - -The sap he gathers is poured into the evaporating pans in the sugar -house, and a roaring fire keeps it boiling. As the water goes off in -steam, the remainder becomes maple syrup, which thickens as it boils. -Skimming and straining removes any dirt or chips that fall into the sap. -When it is just thick enough, the syrup is drawn off into cans, and -sealed to be sent to market. A part of it, however, is boiled longer, and -when drawn off, and cooled, it crystalises into the granular yellow maple -sugar. It is cooled in shallow pans that hold a certain amount, and thus -the bricks of maple sugar are formed. Little heart-shaped cakes are made -by filling "patty pans" with this heavy syrup. - -As long as the sap flows in sufficient quantities, the sugar harvest goes -on. If the trees are bored with care, with holes not too close together, -the tree will stand this draining from year to year, and seem not to be -injured by the loss of sap. If the holes are close together, and extend -all around the trunk, the tree will be practically girdled and it will -die from the injury. - -The finest kind of maple sugar is the wax which is made by pouring heavy -syrup on the snow to cool. Quickly it thickens by the cold into stringy -yellow wax, which tastes like other maple sugar, but does not have the -unpleasant gritty feeling, which sets some teeth on edge. Maple wax may -be made at home, by melting the sugar, and pouring it into snow; but the -time and the place to enjoy it most, is in the sugar camp when the hot -syrup is poured from the long-handled ladle onto the nearest snow bank by -the person who is in charge of the boiling. The cold air of the woods -puts a keen edge on the appetite. The warm fire under the boiler takes -off the chill, and the silent woods all around give a charm to the scene -which one does not feel in any other place. - -Hickory sap is sweet. This is sometimes added to that of the maples when -maple trees are scarce. - -The sap of pine trees is a liquid called _resin_. The pine forests of the -South are rich stores of this resin, which we call also pitch. The crude -liquid drained from these trees is heated, and a light liquid called -_turpentine_ is drawn off. The remainder hardens, and is known as -_rosin_. The pine trees are tapped, not as the sugar trees of the North -are, but in a way that is far more injurious to the trees. Resin hardens -into gum when exposed to the air, so it is impossible to draw it out -through small tubes like spiles of elder that drain the maple sap. A -great gash is cut in the side of the trunk of a pine tree, forming a -pocket holding three pints or more. Now a square foot or more of the bark -above the pocket is cut off, and the wood is chipped to a depth of an -inch or more. The bleeding surface of the wood fills the pocket below -with resin, and a man comes around with pails and dipper to empty these -pockets as fast as they fill. The pails are carried to a still, where the -resin is poured into a tank and heated to draw off the limpid turpentine. - -Once a week, from March till November, more bark and wood, above the -scored surface, must be chipped to renew the flow of resin. If this fresh -wounding did not occur, the flow would cease, because the resin thickens -and hardens when exposed to the air. This stops up the pores of the wood. - -Fortunes have been made by the draining of these pine trees of their -rich, pitchy sap. Turpentine and tar and rosin are all products of the -sap of pines, and all are immensely valuable, especially in shipyards, -and in the provisioning of sea-going craft of all sorts. The term, "naval -stores," has been applied to the products of turpentine gathering. Our -forests supply most of these products to other countries. - -The sap of certain tropical trees hardens into rubber. This is one of the -most valuable of tree crops, for there is hardly a household that does -not have rubber articles of a dozen kinds that are daily used. Lacquer -varnish is the juice of certain sumach trees that grow in Japan. Gums of -fir trees have a special use in medicine, and in various arts. - -Sweet gum oozes from trees of that name. This is not noticeable in our -trees of the North, but if we follow the trees southward, the gum flow -increases. In Mexico it is an article of commerce, obtained by wounding -the bark of the trees. It is one of the staple glove perfumes in France. -It is also made into medicines, perfumes, and incense. - -The sap of wild cherry, holly, and buckthorn, of witch hazel and -sassafras all yield medicinal drugs. The flowers of locust, of basswood, -and all the fruit trees furnish nectar out of which bees make honey. The -juicy inner bark of the slippery elm is valuable for food, and as a -medicine. - - - THE USES OF TREES - -Imagine a stranger who has lived all his life in a desert where no trees -grow, coming suddenly into our village, and looking with wonder at the -trees that shade the streets. He knows only the spiny cactuses, and other -plants of the desert. His first question would be, "What are these great -plants that stand so tall?" The name, _tree_, is new to him. It would be -a strange experience to take such an eager and ignorant man and show him -the trees, on the streets, planted in orchards, and growing wild in the -woods outside of the town. His questions set us to thinking. He wants to -know why we plant trees, and how we use those that grow in forests. - -First, we tell him the uses of the living trees. Up and down the streets -they are set for shade, and for their beauty. Rows of evergreens set -close together make a protecting wall of green against the cold winds. -Low clipped hedges of many kinds of trees make living boundaries, much -more beautiful than wooden or wire fences. On lawns and near houses trees -are planted for their beauty and for their shade. Orchards of fruit trees -are planted because they furnish food. Nut orchards are set out for the -same reasons. - -The trees cut down in the woods, and sawed at the mills give us lumber to -build houses to live in, and furniture to make them comfortable, and the -same forest furnishes the fuel that keeps us warm. There is so much to -explain to a person who discovers trees for the first time. It takes a -long time to tell all we know. - -Do we think that we know a great deal about the uses of trees? If so, we -are mistaken. The truth is that trees serve us in ways of which we have -never dreamed. - -We must travel over the world and read a great deal to learn how the -people of other countries make use of trees. The basswood or linden which -nobody cared to use except for fuel in the Middle West might pass for a -useless tree, compared with those whose wood is harder and stronger. But -in older countries people have quite a different opinion of the tree. - -In Russia the tough bark of young lindens is used to make the shoes of -peasants. Ropes, fishing nets, and braided mats are made from the same -tough "bast" fibres, which are very long and tough in this family of -trees. The seeds yield oil that is declared to be quite as good as olive -oil for cooking, and for the table. Perfume is distilled from the -flowers. Cattle browse on the twigs and leaves. The wood is the carver's -delight--soft, white, free from knots and imperfections. It is used for -bureau drawers, carriage bodies, shoe soles, barrel staves and paper -pulp. Its twigs make artist's charcoal pencils. - -Linden trees are planted for shade in many countries, and in Europe they -are often cut into grotesque shapes of animals as they grow. They are -clipped into hedges, as close as box or yew. In America they are usually -allowed to grow naturally, as shade trees. European species are rather -more symmetrical than our native kinds. - -The Indians of the Northwest used the soft inner bark of the tamarack -pine for food. They cut down the trees, strip them of bark, and scraped -out this soft lining layer. With water, they mash it into a pulp, which -they cook and then mould into large cakes. A hole is next dug in the -ground, lined with stones, and a fire is built in it. When the stones are -hot, all ashes are removed, and the cakes, wrapped in green skunk cabbage -leaves, are laid in. A fire of damp moss is built on top, and thus the -cakes are thoroughly, baked. To insure their keeping, they are next -smoked in a close tent for a week or more. This dries and cures them so -that they may be safely packed away for future use. These hard, dry cakes -are afterward broken into pieces and boiled. When the mass softens and -cools, it is ready to eat. The fat of different animals is used for -butter on this strange Alaskan bread. - -[Illustration: Flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry] - -[Illustration: The delicate white flower clusters of the serviceberry -tree] - -Everybody knows that trees bear fruits of many kinds that are useful as -food for men and beasts. Spices, such as nutmegs, mace, cloves, and -allspice, may be added to this list of fruits which we have as human -foods. - -The bark of birches is invaluable to the Indians for the making of their -canoes, baskets, and all kinds of utensils. Huts and teepees are walled -with it. Rope and coarse cloth are made out of the fibre of mulberry -bark, and berry baskets out of the bark of the lodgepole pine. The -fibrous roots of the larch tree furnished tough thread, with which the -Indians sewed canoes of birch, and they made them water-tight with the -gum of the balsam. The brown gum that oozes from wounds of the Western -larch is sweet and starchy. The Indians discovered in it a valuable -article of food. - -One of the latest uses of wood is the making of paper, although the white -hornet showed in its conical paper nest that this could be done. She has -been making wooden paper for hundreds of years, scraping the wood from -the surface of weathern-worn fence boards, and from the dead limbs of -forest trees. Our newspapers are made of ground wood, cooked to a soft -pulp, and rolled out into thin sheets. The high price of paper makes it -worth while to gather up papers, bleach them, convert them into pulp, and -roll them out again into sheets. Spruce wood and poplar are among the -cheap woods which have come into demand at the paper mills. The forests -of these trees, counted of little use for lumber, have become valuable -because the paper mills can use them. - -Look about the room, and a dozen articles, beside the chairs and table, -are products of wood, or in some way owe a debt to trees. The paint that -covers the window sash and frames was mixed with turpentine, which is -obtained from the pitchy sap of pine trees. The shades and curtains are -coloured. Dyes of many kinds are extracted from the various dyewoods, -trees that grow in tropical forests. The newspaper and the books on the -shelves are made of wood pulp. The lacquered box from Japan is a handsome -thing. The lacquer varnish is the sap of a certain Oriental sumach tree. -The perfume of the gloves in the box is made from the fragrant gum of an -Oriental sweet gum tree. The skin out of which the gloves were made was -tanned, not with bark, but with the acorn cups, or galls, of a European -oak. - -The shoes on your feet are made of leather. The hemlock trees that grow -on the hills were stripped of their bark by peelers in early spring. -Black oak and chestnut oak are also stripped in our woods. Carloads of -bark are shipped to the tanneries to be used in the tanning of skins -which changes them into leather. - -That beautiful book upon the table is bound in Russia leather. The acorn -cups of a European oak were used to tan the skins that made this leather -so much more beautiful than that of your shoes. Your gloves are made of -kid skins tanned in Europe. For this particular work the nut-like galls -that grow on certain oak trees are gathered in the woods. - -Tannin is the substance in oak bark which makes it valuable in tanning -leather. A high percentage of tannin is found in oak galls. For this -reason they are gathered in many countries, and are among the most -valuable and high-priced supplies for the establishments that tan skins -for gloves. The most expensive inks and dyes, those that do not fade, but -are practically permanent, are made from selected oak galls. - -Oak apples are a strange fruit, found in more or less abundance on the -leaves of our own oak trees in autumn. You have seen them in summer time, -plump, green balls, sometimes as large as a hen's egg, but globular, -sitting upon a leaf. In autumn the balls take on the colour of the dying -leaves. - -The same tree may have hard little marble-like balls growing on its -twigs. These are of different sizes, and it is not unusual to find a hole -in the side of each. - -All such outgrowths on the leaves and twigs of oaks are called galls, and -they are chiefly caused by winged insects called gall-gnats. An egg is -laid in early spring, in a slit pierced in the twig or leaf. As this egg -hatches, the tissue about it is disturbed in its growth by the presence -of this feeding grub. The soft leaf pulp, or the tender tissues of the -twig that surround it, are exactly what the grub likes to eat. Food and -drink are all about it, and as it feeds, it grows. The leaf swells, and -so surrounds the grub with an abnormal growth. The grub still feeds, and -the swelling becomes larger, until finally, when the insect ceases to -eat, it is housed in the peculiar ball which we know as an oak gall. Each -species of gall-maker is known by its house. - -The oak apples are of several kinds. Some are empty except for a little -shell in the centre, in which the fat grub sleeps. Sometimes the -substance within the "apple" is corky, sometimes spongy. Bullet galls, -which form on twigs like little marbles, are usually solid to the centre, -where the grub lies until the time comes for it to bore its way out to -the surface, and fly away, to lay eggs which will produce other galls. -Usually oak galls, found in winter, contain the sleeping grub, whose -transformation into a winged insect waits until the coming of spring. - -The cork in your ink bottle is the bark of an oak tree. Go to Portugal or -to Northern Africa, and you may see the cork harvest in progress in July -or August. There is no place to go for genuine cork except to a small -evergreen oak that rarely reaches a height over thirty feet. When these -trees are twenty-five years old, a hard, thin layer of bark is stripped -off. This is a valuable tan bark, but it is not in the least corky. The -tree now produces a spongy bark entirely different from the first. It is -not disturbed for eight or ten years. This is stripped off. It is the -poor quality of bark which fishermen use to float their nets with. - -Ten years later the bark is stripped again. It is better in quality than -the first. Each ten years brings the bark stripper again to the tree. In -the fiftieth year, the bark is of the finest quality, and for fifty years -that follow there are five strippings of bark of the highest grade. Then -the quality becomes poorer. The trees are cut down, the bark is sold to -the tanners, and the wood is used for charcoal or for fuel. - -It is a very particular job to get the cork off and leave the under layer -uninjured. The trunk is stripped from the ground to the point where it -branches, and the inner "mother bark" must not be bruised, for no more -cork will grow on any bruised spot. Two circular cuts are made, one at -the top, one at the bottom of the columnar trunk, then two opposite slits -are made dividing the bark of the trunk into two halves. These curved -plates are worked off by inserting a wedged-shaped tool between the bark -and the trunk, and gradually working it further in until the whole curved -plate of cork comes off. These two big sheets are steamed and flattened, -then bound in bundles, and shipped to wholesale dealers in cork. - -The owner of a grove of cork oaks must wait ten years between crops of -the bark, but every year three crops of acorns are borne on these trees. -The pigs of the owner, turned into the grove, fatten on this rich food. -So the little trees are very profitable in two ways. - -In the south of Europe, the handsome, evergreen holm oak grows wild; its -glossy leaves and compact form remind us of our holly trees. It is one of -the most valuable ornamental oaks, but as a fruit tree, it has unusual -value. Its acorns are sweet and rich, and the crop is heavy. Hogs are -fattened upon them. In earlier days they were used as human food, and -even now gipsies gather them to eat. Its acorn cups, bark, and the galls -it bears are of the very best quality. They are used in the most -particular jobs of dyeing and tanning. - -Under ground, the holm oak bears a strange fruit--a fungus called -"truffle" develops on the roots. These truffles are somewhat like -mushrooms in their growth. They are far more delicious to eat, and -expensive to buy than ordinary mushrooms. The best of them are found in -France, and French people are especially fond of them. - -Trees that grow on chalky lands are more likely to produce truffles. At a -dozen years old, they begin to yield, and truffles may be found upon -their roots for about twenty-five years. - -Not every holm oak has truffles on its roots. The finding of these -delicacies is a very interesting and exciting game, and a great deal of a -lottery. There is but one way to find them, and that is by the sense of -smell. The truffle has a rich, strong odour. Dogs and pigs are the only -animals that are able to find it. The truffle-hunter is usually an old -woman, who goes with a trained pig or a trained dog into the oak forest. -She has a basket, and a spading fork, and she keeps a close eye on her -four-footed partner. If the pig, in rooting about under an oak, suddenly -becomes excited, and begins to root furiously, she drives him away, and -digs out the precious ball of fungus he has scented. It is irregular in -form, and looks somewhat like a potato. Meanwhile the pig locates -another, and is again disappointed. The truffle dog is treated in the -same manner. Unless put into a pen, or chained at night, these -truffle-hunters are likely to take to the woods and feast when no one is -by to interfere with their pleasure. - -Truffles are shipped in cans to the United States, but we have not yet -discovered them growing on the roots of our oak trees. Probably we have -not yet looked for them with sufficient care and patience. - - - - - APPENDIX - - - APPENDIX - IDENTIFICATION KEYS TO TREE GROUPS AND FAMILIES - - - A KEY TO NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Leaves few, in sheathed bundles, set spirally on the twig. - THE PINES. - AA. Leaves solitary, set spirally on the twig. - B. Twigs with bracket-like projections for attachment of leaves; - cones hanging down. - C. Leaves flat, blunt, with short stalks. - The Hemlocks. - CC. Leaves angled, sharp, without stalks. - The Spruces. - BB. Twigs smooth; cones standing erect. - The Firs. - - - A KEY TO THE PINES - - - A. Sheaths of leaf-bundles soon shed; wood soft, pale. - SOFT PINES. - B. Needles, 5 in a bundle. - C. Cones, 5 to 8 inches long; Eastern. - White Pine. - CC. Cones, 12 to 18 inches long; Western. - Sugar Pine. - BB. Needles fewer than 5 in a bundle; Western. - Nut Pines. - AA. Sheaths of leaf-bundles not soon shed; wood hard, heavy, dark, - resinous. - HARD PINES. - B. Needles, 3 in a bundle. - C. Length of needles, 8 to 18 inches; cones, 6 to 10 inches. - Longleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 6 to 9 inches; cones, 3 to 5 inches. - Loblolly Pine. - CCC. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Pitch Pine. - BB. Needles, 2 in a bundle; Northern. - C. Length of needles, 4 to 6 inches; cones 2 inches. - Red Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 1 to 3 inches; cones, 2 to 3 inches. - Jersey Pine. - BBB. Needles, 2 or 3 in a bundle; Southern. - C. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Shortleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 8 to 12 inches; cones, 3 to 6 inches. - Cuban Pine. - - - A KEY TO THE SCALE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Seeds borne in a woody cone; twigs flattened, leaves minute. - Arbor Vitae. White Cedar. - AA. Seeds borne in a fleshy, blue berry; leaves scale-like or spiny, or - both. - Juniper. Red Cedar. - - - A KEY TO THE NUT TREES - - - A. Nuts in a husk that opens when ripe. - B. Husk opens in four divisions. - C. Surface of husk, spiny. - D. Nut three-angled, small, two in a husk. - Beech. - DD. Nut rounded, or flattened, 2 or 3 in a husk. - Chestnut. - CC. Surface of husk not spiny. - Hickories. - BB. Husk opens in three divisions. - Horse-chestnuts and Buckeyes. - BBB. Husk opens in two divisions; spiny. - Chinquapin. - A. Nuts in a husk that does not open when ripe. - B. Shape of nut, globular; surface, smooth. - Black Walnut. - BB. Shape of nut, oblong; surface, clammy. - Butternut. - - - A KEY TO THE GROUPS OF OAKS - - - A. Acorns, annual; bark usually pale; leaves with rounded lobes, not - spiny-pointed. - The White Oak Group. - AA. Acorns, biennial; bark usually dark; leaves with spiny-pointed - lobes. - The Black Oak Group. - - - A KEY TO THE WHITE OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves evergreen; Southern tree. - Live Oak. - AA. Leaves not evergreen. - B. Lining of leaves pale, not downy; lobes finger-like. - White Oak. - BB. Lining of leaves pale, downy. - C. Bark of branches corky-ridged; acorn large, in fringed cup. - Bur Oak. - CC. Bark of branches shed in rough flakes; acorns large, on - long stalks. - Swamp White Oak. - CCC. Bark of branches not corky-ridged, nor scaly. - D. Acorn medium-sized; leaf margins cut into squarish lobes. - Post Oak. - DD. Acorn large; leaf margins wavy; bark dark brown. - Chestnut Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE BLACK OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves narrow, willow-like; Southern tree. - Willow Oak. - AA. Leaves oval, with deeply-cleft margins. - B. Acorn cups, shallow, broader than high. - C. Tree pyramidal, twigs with pin-like spurs. - Pin Oak. - CC. Tree spreading; acorns large, in shallow saucers. - Red Oak. - BB. Acorn cups as deep as broad. - C. Leaves thin, smooth, deeply cut; acorn cup drawn in at the - top. - Scarlet Oak. - CC. Leaves leathery, rough, with rusty hairs beneath; acorn - cup not drawn in at the top. - Black Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE ELMS - - - A. Twigs smooth, not hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches not corky-ridged. - American Elm. - BB. Bark of branches corky-ridged. - Winged Elm. Wahoo. - AA. Twigs hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches corky. - Cork Elm. Rock Elm. - BB. Bark of branches not corky; buds coarsely hairy. - Slippery Elm. - - - A KEY TO THE MAPLES - - - A. Leaves simple. - B. Bloom before the leaves open; seeds ripe in May. - C. Flowers red; leaves pale beneath, with three triangular lobes. - Red Maple. - CC. Flowers greenish; leaves pale beneath, deeply cleft, with - long, spiny lobes. - Silver Maple. - BB. Bloom after the leaves open; seeds ripe in autumn. - C. Leaves wider than long; lobes spiny-tipped. - D. Lining of leaves, pale; keys joined at acute angle. - Sugar Maple. - DD. Lining of leaves, not pale; keys joined at wide angle. - Norway Maple. - CC. Leaves circular, lobed; tree prostrate. - Vine Maple. - CCC. Leaves about as wide as long; trees small. - D. Bark striped with white lines; flowers and seeds in - dense, pendant clusters. - Striped Maple. - DD. Bark not striped; flowers and seeds in pendant clusters. - Mountain Maple. - AA. Leaves compound, of 3 to 7 leaflets. - Ash-leaved Maple. Box Elder. - - - A KEY TO THE WILLOWS - - - A. Twigs long, drooping. - Weeping Willow. - AA. Twigs erect. - B. Leaves white beneath. - C. Twigs yellow in spring; leaves narrow. - Golden Osier Willow. - CC. Twigs reddish in spring; leaves broad. - Pussy Willow. - BB. Leaves not white beneath; heart-shaped frill at base of leaf stem. - Black Willow. - - - A KEY TO THE LOCUSTS - - - A. Leaves simple; flowers rosy. - Redbud. - AA. Leaves compound. - B. Trees thorny. - C. Thorns simple, paired, at bases of leaves; pods small, thin. - Black Locust. - CC. Thorns often branched, clustered; pods large, curved. - Honey Locust. - BB. Trees not thorny. - C. Pods thick; limbs clumsy; leaves twice compound. - Kentucky Coffee Tree. - CC. Pods thin, small; limbs not clumsy; leaves once compound. - Yellow-wood. Virgilia. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Acorns, 28. - Ailanthus, 61, 175. - Alligator-wood, 90. - Almond, Bitter, 232. - Sweet, 232. - Apple, 96, 190. - Crab, 224. - Oak, 243. - Wild, 99, 221, 224. - Apricots, 231. - Arbor Vit, 59, 128. - Ash, 58. - Black, 205. - Blue, 206. - Green, 206. - Mountain, 65. - Red, 205, 206. - White, 204. - Ashes, 96, 203. - Aspen, Quaking, 145, 179. - - B - Balm of Gilead, 146. - Bark, 83. - Bark, Birch, 88, 241. - Basswood, 62, 196, 237, 239. - Bay, Swamp, 185. - Beech, 26, 143, 208. - Blue, 63, 89. - Copper, 88. - Cut-leaved, 88. - European, 88. - Weeping, 88. - Beeches, 87, 88. - Bee Tree, 197. - Birch, 60, 76, 96. - Black, 85. - Canoe, 84. - Cherry, 85. - Red, 85. - White, 83. - Yellow, 85. - Birches, Weeping, 97. - Box Elder, 57, 161, 177. - Buckeye, 203. - California, 213. - Ohio, 211. - Red, 213. - Sweet, 212. - Buckthorn, 237. - Budding, 222, 223. - Burning Bush, 139. - Butternut, 18, 175. - - C - Cambium, 153. - Catalpa, 60, 174, 195, 220. - Cedar, Red, 95. - Cedars, 127. - Red, 129. - White, 128. - Cherry, 191. - Choke, 227. - Japanese, 228. - Red, 199. - Wild Black, 68, 216, 237. - Chestnut, 22, 92. - Horse, 74, 195, 203, 208. - Chestnuts, 116, 192. - Chinquapin, 25. - Coffee Tree, Kentucky, 216. - Conifers, 102. - Cottonwood, 146, 147. - Cucumber Tree, Large-leaved, 174, 183. - Northern, 174, 186. - Cypress, Bald, 134. - Knees of, 135. - - D - Dogwood, 65, 75, 91, 188, 203. - - E - Elders, 198. - Elm, 61, 96, 150, 151. - Camperdown, 97. - Cork, 153. - English, 152. - Rock, 153. - Slippery, 152, 237. - Weeping, 97. - Winged, 154. - Evergreens, 59, 101. - Evonymus, 139. - - F - Fir, 59. - Balsam, 106. - Firs, 95. - - G - Galls, Oak, 244. - Grafting, 222, 223. - Gum, Sweet, 59, 90, 203, 237. - - H - Hackberry, 66, 89. - Hawthorn, 99, 178, 191. - Hazel, Witch, 29, 32, 237. - Hemlock, 59, 105. - Hercules' Club, 100, 176. - Hickories, 76, 96. - Hickory, Big Bud, 13. - Big Shellback, 11. - Bitternut, 14. - Shagbark, 9, 13, 86, 143. - Shellback, 9, 13. - Swamp, 15. - White Heart, 13. - Hickory Nuts, 116. - Holly, 66, 136, 237. - European, 138. - Hornbeam, 60, 63, 89. - Hop, 90. - - I - Ironwood, 89, 91. - - J - Judas Tree, 219. - June Berries, 197, 232. - Juniper, 130. - - K - King Nuts, 12. - - L - Lacquer, 242. - Larch, 131. - European, 132. - Western, 133. - Leaf, Compound, 173, 176. - Simple, 173. - Leaflet, 173. - Leaf Pulp, 79, 171. - Linden, 76, 170, 196. - Locust, 237. - Black, 99, 177, 214. - Clammy, 216. - Honey, 95, 98, 176, 216. - Yellow, 99, 177, 192. - Log-rollings, 17. - - M - Magnolia, Evergreen, 184. - Maple, 154. - Mountain, 163. - Norway, 57, 76, 96, 161. - Red, 57, 96, 149, 155, 177. - Scarlet, 75, 149. - Silver, 56, 156, 177. - Striped, 162. - Sugar, 74, 92, 158, 170, 177. - Swamp, 149. - Vine, 150. - Mockernut, 13. - Mulberry, Weeping, 97, 198. - - N - Nannyberry, 64. - Naval Stores, 236. - Nectarines, 231. - - O - Oak, Black, 36, 47, 49, 242. - Bur, 39. - Chestnut, 46, 242. - Cork, 245. - Council, 40. - Holm, 246. - Iron, 44. - Knees of, 42, 44. - Live, 41, 96. - Mossy-cup, 39. - Pin, 53, 95. - Post, 44. - Red, 49, 50. - Scarlet, 51. - Swamp White, 45. - Tanbark, 48. - Turkey, 44. - White, 35, 37, 95. - Willow, 54. - Yellow, 47. - Oaks, 4, 28, 33, 76, 96, 178, 179. - Oilnuts, 18. - Osage Orange, 98. - - P - Paper, 241. - Peaches, 231. - Pecan, 9. - Persimmon, 71. - Pignut, 12, 87. - Pine, 103, 108. - Cuban, 123. - Curly, 119. - Digger, 112. - Georgia, 119. - Hard, 118. - Jersey, 127. - Loblolly, 124. - Longleaf, 119. - North Carolina, 122. - Nut, 114, 117. - Old Field, 124. - Pitch, 118, 125. - Red, 126. - Shortleaf, 121. - Soft, 109. - Sugar, 112. - Swamp, 123. - Tamarack, 240. - White, 109. - Yellow, 112, 119, 122. - Plum, 191. - Wild Red, 229. - Yellow, 229. - Poplar, 76, 144. - Lombardy, 94. - Tulip, 187. - Yellow, 187. - Poplars, 221. - Propolis, 146. - Prunes, 231. - Pulp, Wood, 241. - - Q - Quakenasp, 143. - - R - Redbud, 217. - Resin, 235. - Rosin, 235. - - S - Sassafras, 64, 178, 200, 237. - Seedlings, 222. - Serviceberries, 197, 232. - Shadbush, 232. - Sheepberry, 64. - Spindle-tree, 139. - Spruce, 59, 104. - St. John's Bread, 216. - Sugar Bush, 159. - Maple, 233. - Pine, 112. - Sumach, 66, 175, 242. - Sycamore, 5, 85. - - T - Tamarack, 131. - Tanbark, 47. - Tannin, 243. - Truffle, 247. - Tulip Tree, 76, 174, 187. - Turpentine, 118. - - V - Viburnums, 64. - Virgilia, 220. - - W - Wahoo, 184. - Walnut, Black, 16, 175. - English, 19. - Willow, 63. - Balsam, 169. - Black, 168. - Golden Osier, 167. - Pussy, 148, 164. - Weeping, 97, 168. - White, 167. - Willows, 221. - Winterberry, 138. - Witch Hazel, 29. - - Y - Yellow-wood, 219. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Corrected some palpable typos, and standardized the form of some names - (_e.g._ serviceberry). - ---In the text versions only, represented text font and size variations - (the HTML version preserves the presentation of the original): - ---Text in italics is delimited by _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Trees Every Child Should Know, by -Julia Ellen Rogers - 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} -p.lr, div.lr { display:block; margin-left:0em; margin-right:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:right; } -dt.lr { width:100%; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:1em; text-align:right; } -dl dt.lr a { text-align:left; clear:left; float:left; } - -.fnblock { margin-top:2em; } -.fndef { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; } -.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; } -dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; } -dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; } -.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; } - -dl.biblio dt { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt div { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; } -dl.biblio dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; } -dl.biblio dd { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; } -.clear { clear:both; } -p.book { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; } -p.review { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's Trees Every Child Should Know, by Julia Ellen Rogers - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Trees Every Child Should Know - Easy Tree Studies for All Seasons of the Year - -Author: Julia Ellen Rogers - -Release Date: November 15, 2013 [EBook #44186] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, L. Harrison and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW" width="500" height="834" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p002"> -<img src="images/p002.jpg" alt="The Glory of Autumn Trees" width="500" height="664" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The Glory of Autumn Trees</span></p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1><i>Trees</i> -<br /><span class="smaller">EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW</span></h1> -<p class="center"><span class="small">EASY TREE STUDIES FOR -<br />ALL SEASONS OF THE YEAR</span> -<br /><span class="smaller">BY</span> -<br />JULIA ELLEN ROGERS</p> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Illustrated</span></p> -<div class="img" id="logo"> -<img src="images/logo.jpg" alt="Grosset & Dunlap" width="200" height="154" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="small">NEW YORK</span> -<br />GROSSET & DUNLAP -<br /><span class="small">Publishers</span></p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION -<br />INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY -<br />PUBLISHED OCTOBER, 1909</span></p> -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES -<br />AT -<br />THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.</span></p> -</div> -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt class="small">PAGE</dt> -<dt><a href="#c1"><span class="sc">How to Know the Trees</span></a> 3</dt> -<dt class="center">AUTUMN STUDIES</dt> -<dt class="jl"><span class="sc">The Nut Trees:</span></dt> -<dt><a href="#c2">The Shagbark Hickories</a> 9</dt> -<dt><a href="#c3">The Disappointing Hickories</a> 12</dt> -<dt><a href="#c4">The Black Walnut</a> 16</dt> -<dt><a href="#c5">The Butternut</a> 18</dt> -<dt><a href="#c6">The English Walnut</a> 19</dt> -<dt><a href="#c7">The Chestnut and Chinquapin</a> 22</dt> -<dt><a href="#c8">The Beech</a> 26</dt> -<dt><a href="#c9">The Witch Hazel</a> 29</dt> -<dt><a href="#c10">The Oak Family</a> 33</dt> -<dt class="jl"><span class="sc">The White Oak Group:</span></dt> -<dt><a href="#c11">The White Oak</a> 37</dt> -<dt><a href="#c12">The Bur or Mossy-cup Oak</a> 39</dt> -<dt><a href="#c13">The Live Oak</a> 41</dt> -<dt><a href="#c14">The Post Oak</a> 44</dt> -<dt><a href="#c15">The Swamp White Oak</a> 45</dt> -<dt><a href="#c16">The Chestnut Oak</a> 46</dt> -<dt class="jl"><span class="sc">The Black Oak Group:</span></dt> -<dt><a href="#c17">The Black Oak</a> 47</dt> -<dt><a href="#c18">The Red Oak</a> 50</dt> -<dt><a href="#c19">The Scarlet Oak</a> 51</dt> -<dt><a href="#c20">The Pin Oak</a> 52</dt> -<dt><a href="#c21">The Willow Oak</a> 54</dt> -<dt><a href="#c22">Trees with Winged Seeds</a> 55</dt> -<dt><a href="#c23">Tree Seeds that have Parachutes</a> 62</dt> -<dt><a href="#c24">The Autumn Berries in the Woods</a> 64</dt> -<dt><a href="#c25">The Changing Colour of the Autumn Woods</a> 74</dt> -<dt class="center">WINTER STUDIES</dt> -<dt><a href="#c26">Trees We Know by Their Bark</a> 83</dt> -<dt><a href="#c27">Trees We Know by Their Shapes</a> 93</dt> -<dt><a href="#c28">Trees We Know by Their Thorns</a> 98</dt> -<dt><a href="#c29">The Needle-leaved Evergreens</a> 101</dt> -<dt><a href="#c30">The Five-leaved Soft Pines</a> 108</dt> -<dt><a href="#c31">The White Pine</a> 109</dt> -<dt><a href="#c32">The Great Sugar Pine</a> 112</dt> -<dt><a href="#c33">The Nut Pines</a> 114</dt> -<dt><a href="#c34">The Hard Pines</a> 118</dt> -<dt><a href="#c35">The Southern Pitch Pines</a> 119</dt> -<dt><a href="#c36">The Longleaf Pine</a> 119</dt> -<dt><a href="#c37">The Shortleaf Pine</a> 121</dt> -<dt><a href="#c38">The Cuban Pine</a> 123</dt> -<dt><a href="#c39">The Loblolly Pine</a> 124</dt> -<dt><a href="#c40">The Northern Pitch Pines</a> 125</dt> -<dt><a href="#c41">The Cedars, White and Red</a> 127</dt> -<dt><a href="#c42">Two Conifers Not Evergreen</a> 131</dt> -<dt><a href="#c43">The Larches</a> 131</dt> -<dt><a href="#c44">The Bald Cypress</a> 134</dt> -<dt><a href="#c45">The Hollies</a> 136</dt> -<dt><a href="#c46">The Burning Bush</a> 139</dt> -<dt class="center">SPRING STUDIES</dt> -<dt><a href="#c47">The Awakening of the Trees</a> 143</dt> -<dt><a href="#c48">Trees that Bloom in Early Spring</a> 146</dt> -<dt><a href="#c49">The American Elm and Its Kin</a> 150</dt> -<dt><a href="#c50">The Maple Family</a> 154</dt> -<dt><a href="#c51">The Willow Family</a> 163</dt> -<dt><a href="#c52">Why Trees Need Leaves</a> 169</dt> -<dt><a href="#c53">Leaves of All Shapes and Sizes</a> 173</dt> -<dt class="center">SUMMER STUDIES</dt> -<dt><a href="#c54">Trees with the Largest Flowers</a> 183</dt> -<dt><a href="#c55">Trees Most Showy in Bloom</a> 189</dt> -<dt><a href="#c56">Trees that Bloom in Midsummer</a> 192</dt> -<dt><a href="#c57">The Early Berries in the Woods</a> 197</dt> -<dt><a href="#c58">The Sassafras</a> 200</dt> -<dt><a href="#c59">The Ash Family</a> 203</dt> -<dt><a href="#c60">The Horse-chestnut and the Buckeyes</a> 208</dt> -<dt><a href="#c61">The Buckeyes</a> 211</dt> -<dt><a href="#c62">The Locusts and Other Pod-bearers</a> 214</dt> -<dt><a href="#c63">Wild Apple Trees and Their Kin</a> 221</dt> -<dt><a href="#c64">The Cherries</a> 226</dt> -<dt><a href="#c65">The Plums</a> 229</dt> -<dt><a href="#c66">The Serviceberries</a> 232</dt> -<dt><a href="#c67">Valuable Sap of Trees</a> 233</dt> -<dt><a href="#c68">The Uses of Trees</a> 237</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#c69">Identification Keys to Tree Groups and Families</a> 251</dt> -<dt><a href="#c70">Index</a> 261</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_vii">[vii]</div> -<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt><a href="#p002">The Glory of Autumn Trees</a> <i>Frontispiece</i></dt> -<dt class="small">FACING PAGE</dt> -<dt><a href="#p025">Three Pignuts, Three Shagbarks, and Two Pecans; Flowering Twig of the Shagbark Hickory</a> 16</dt> -<dt><a href="#p026">Black Walnut and Butternut; Twig of Butternut</a> 17</dt> -<dt><a href="#p043">Buds and Flowers of the Beech Tree</a> 32</dt> -<dt><a href="#p044">Catkins of a Hornbeam and a Birch; Catkins and Acorn Flowers of an Oak</a> 33</dt> -<dt><a href="#p061">Leaves, Acorns, and Twigs of the Bur Oak</a> 48</dt> -<dt><a href="#p062">The Horizontal Limbs of the Pin Oak Form a Regular Pyramidal Head</a> 49</dt> -<dt><a href="#p079">Cone Fruits of a Birch, a Pine, a Magnolia, and a Fir</a> 64</dt> -<dt><a href="#p080">Clusters of the Winged Seeds of Hornbeam and White Ash</a> 65</dt> -<dt><a href="#p093">The Flowering Dogwood Covers Its Bare Branches with Blossoms in May</a> 76</dt> -<dt><a href="#p094">Flowering Dogwood, in Flower and Fruit, the Winter Flower Buds, and Alligator Skin Bark</a> 77</dt> -<dt><a href="#p103">We Recognise Birches by their Silky, Tattered Bark</a> 84</dt> -<dt><a href="#p104">The Beech Trunk Is Clothed in Smooth, Pale Grey Bark</a> 85</dt> -<dt><a href="#p107">The Loose, Stripping Bark Gives Its Name to the Shagbark Hickory</a> 86</dt> -<dt><a href="#p108">Bark of Hackberry, Black Birch and Hornbeam</a> 87</dt> -<dt><a href="#p113">Warty, Ridged Bark of the Sweet Gum, the Swinging Seed Balls, and Winged Seeds</a> 90</dt> -<dt><a href="#p114">Bark and Seed Balls of the Sycamore</a> 91</dt> -<dt><a href="#p117">The Lombardy Poplar</a> 92</dt> -<dt><a href="#p118">The Live Oak of the South</a> 93</dt> -<dt><a href="#p123">Fruiting Branch of a Cockspur Thorn</a> 96</dt> -<dt><a href="#p124">Clustered Thorns on Trunk of Honey Locust Tree; Flowers and Foliage of the Black Locust</a> 97</dt> -<dt><a href="#p141">Cones of Hemlock and Norway Spruce</a> 112</dt> -<dt><a href="#p142">Pine Twig with Cones, and Clustered Staminate Flowers</a> 113</dt> -<dt><a href="#p145">Thousands of Little Balsam Firs Supply the Market with Christmas Trees</a> 114</dt> -<dt><a href="#p146">Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Outdoor Study</a> 115</dt> -<dt><a href="#p159">The Spiny-leaved, Red-berried Holly</a> 126</dt> -<dt><a href="#p160">What Would Christmas Be Without Holly Branches and Wreaths for Decoration!</a> 127</dt> -<dt><a href="#p163">“The Grizzly Giant,” a Sequoia Over Three Hundred Feet High</a> 128</dt> -<dt><a href="#p164">Scaly-leaved Evergreens</a> 129</dt> -<dt><a href="#p181">The Opening Buds of the Shagbark Hickory</a> 144</dt> -<dt><a href="#p182">Catkins and Leaves of the Trembling Aspen</a> 145</dt> -<dt><a href="#p187">Flower Buds, Blossoms, Seeds, and Leaf of the American Elm</a> 148</dt> -<dt><a href="#p188">Elm Tree in Bloom</a> 149</dt> -<dt><a href="#p197">Buds and Flowers of the Red Maple</a> 156</dt> -<dt><a href="#p198">Seeds of the Red Maple</a> 157</dt> -<dt><a href="#p219">The Sugar Maple</a> 176</dt> -<dt><a href="#p220">Leaves of the Black Willow; Pussy Willow Twigs</a> 177</dt> -<dt><a href="#p237">Leaves and Flowers of the Ear-leaved Cucumber Tree</a> 192</dt> -<dt><a href="#p238">The Orange-yellow Flower Cups and Squared Leaves of the Tulip Tree</a> 193</dt> -<dt><a href="#p241">Flowers, Fruit, and the Three Different Leaf Patterns of the Sassafras Tree</a> 194</dt> -<dt><a href="#p242">Waxy Flowers of the Evergreen Magnolia</a> 195</dt> -<dt><a href="#p255">Fruits, Leaves, and Flowers of the Basswood Tree</a> 206</dt> -<dt><a href="#p256">The Chestnut Tree</a> 207</dt> -<dt><a href="#p275">An Old Apple Orchard</a> 224</dt> -<dt><a href="#p276">Nothing Tastes as Good as Ripe Apples Picked Right off the Tree!</a> 225</dt> -<dt><a href="#p293">Flowers and Fruit of the Wild Black Cherry</a> 240</dt> -<dt><a href="#p294">The Delicate, White Flower Clusters of the Serviceberry Tree</a> 241</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_3">[3]</div> -<h2 id="c1">HOW TO KNOW THE TREES</h2> -<p>The best time to begin to study the trees is -to-day! The place to begin is right where -you are, provided there is a tree near enough, -for a lesson about trees will be very dull unless -there is a tree to look at, to ask questions of, and -to get answers from. But suppose it is winter -time, and the tree is bare. Then you have a -chance to see the wonderful framework of trunk -and branches, the way the twigs spread apart on -the outer limbs, while the great boughs near -the trunk are almost bare. Each branch is trying -to hold its twigs out into the sunshine, and -each twig is set with buds. When these buds -open, and most of them send out leafy shoots, -the tree will be a shady summerhouse with a -thick, leafy roof that the sun cannot look through. -Among the big branches near the trunk very few -leaves will be found compared with the number -the outer twigs bear.</p> -<p>How can we tell whether the tree is alive or -dead in winter? Break off a twig. Is there a -layer of green just inside the brown bark? This -is the sign that the tree is alive. Dead twigs -<span class="pb" id="Page_4">[4]</span> -are withered, and their buds are not plump and -bright. The green is gone from under the bark -of these twigs.</p> -<p>Under each bud is the scar of last year’s leaf, -and if you look on the ground you are pretty -sure to find a dead leaf whose stem fits exactly -into that scar. If there are a number of these -leaves under the tree, you may feel sure that they -fell from the tree last autumn. Look carefully -among the leaves, and on the branches for the -seeds of this tree. If there is an acorn left on -the tree, you may be sure that you have the tree’s -name!</p> -<p>The name is the thing we wish first to know -when we meet a stranger. If an acorn is found -growing on a tree, that tree has given us its -name, for trees that bear acorns are all oaks. -An acorn is a kind of nut, and there are many -kinds of oaks, each with its own acorn pattern, -unlike that of other oaks. Yet all acorns sit in -their little acorn cups, and we do not confuse them -with nuts of other trees. So we know the family -name of all trees whose fruits are acorns. They -are all oaks, and there are fifty kinds in our -own country, growing wild in American forests. -But if those of all countries are counted, there -are in all more than three hundred kinds.</p> -<p>If, instead of acorns, pods hang on the twigs, -<span class="pb" id="Page_5">[5]</span> -the tree belongs to the locust family, related to -our garden peas and beans. The signs by which -we learn to know trees are not many. The bark -of the white birch is so silky white that everybody -knows that tree. The sycamore sheds its -bark in thin, irregular sheets, leaving patches of -dirty white streaking the trunk and limbs, as if -the tree had been daubed and spattered with -whitewash. This tree is so strikingly different -from others that nearly everybody knows it by -name. Or they call it “buttonwood.” The seed-balls -hang on slender stems, swinging in the -winter wind.</p> -<p>The winter signs to notice are the bark, the -buds, and the leaf scars, the shape of the tree, -and the way it branches. The fruit it bears may -be seen in summer, autumn, or winter. The -flowers come in warm weather, some kinds early, -some later, and the leaves are new in spring, -and most trees shed them in autumn. There is -no time of year when there are not three or -four of the important signs hung out on every -tree to guide those who are trying to find out its -name, and learn the story of its interesting life. -And the finding out of tree names is not dreary -and hard, but a good game to be played out-of-doors.</p> -<h2>TREE STUDIES IN THE AUTUMN</h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_9">[9]</div> -<h3 id="c2">THE SHAGBARK HICKORIES</h3> -<p>The best hickory nut tree that grows wild -in our American forests is the shagbark, -or shellbark. Who says that the pecan is better -than the nut of the little shagbark? Southern -people insist upon this, as the pecan is the pride -of the Southern states. As a compromise we -may place side by side the pecan of the South, -and the little shagbark of the North, and challenge -the world to produce a nut that is worthy -to rank with these two in quality.</p> -<p>The shagbark takes its name from the tree’s -habit of shedding the bark in long, narrow strips -or flakes, that curl away from the point of -attachment, but cling for months, perhaps, giving -the trunk a shaggy appearance, and making very -easy the discovery of these trees in a stretch of -mixed woodland. And how it does cut and slash -the stoutest of overalls to scramble up and down -one of these trees? Only boys and their despairing -mothers can know just how costly a -Saturday afternoon nutting expedition can be, -and why many a boy finds it expedient to come -back with his bag of nuts in the late dusk. -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">[10]</span> -Otherwise he might be mistaken for a tramp, -so tattered are his clothes.</p> -<p>The smooth little nuts are angled and pointed, -and when they are ripe, the thick, corky, green -husks part into four equal divisions, and the nuts -fall out. So much less trouble than walnuts, in -their spongy husks, that never part regularly, -but wait until they are torn off by impatient -boys or squirrels, or until they dry and gradually -crumble away.</p> -<p>The shagbark hickory is a beautiful tree when -covered with its shining foliage in summer. -Each leaf is made of five leaflets on a wiry leaf -stem. The three outer leaflets are larger than -the pair set nearest the base of the stem. The -whole leaf is often more than a foot long, and -sometimes there are seven leaflets on each.</p> -<p>The most wonderful shagbark hickory tree I -ever saw was one I met once at sundown, after -a long walk across country. It stood in a field, -alone, and so near my home that I had noticed it -almost every day through a long winter. I had -gathered a quantity of nuts as they fell in the -frosty autumn days, and it was a race between -me and the squirrels, often, to see who should -get the bigger share. I think they beat me, which -is perfectly right. I remember now how rich -the foliage looked as it slowly turned from green -<span class="pb" id="Page_11">[11]</span> -to golden brown, and fell in a great windrow all -about the shaggy trunk, as the nuts ripened.</p> -<p>All winter I noticed how strong the lithe limbs -were, and how flexible, as the wind twisted them -about in storms, and how much of promise there -was in the great, scaly buds that tipped the twigs.</p> -<p>It was late April when I came by. As I looked -up into that tree top the sunlight was shining -through, and at first I thought I must be dreaming. -Instead of buds, I saw what seemed like -lighted candles, each with a silken frill, like the -recurved petals of an iris, below the tip of flame! -I had never seen a tree thus illuminated, and the -sight was enchanting. The warm spring air had -brought out the hickory buds, with those of other -trees, and while I was looking for flowers on the -ground, the buds above had swollen, cast off the -winter covers, revealing the silky inner wrappings -of the young shoots. The rich downward-curving -“petals” were only the inner scales of the -great buds, grown long and wide, their vivid -orange setting off the compact yellow buds that -still stood erect. These concealed the tender, -velvety leaves that were soon to be revealed with -the falling of the leaf scales. I had never seen -a hickory tree opening its iris-like buds before, -but I have never missed it since.</p> -<p>The big shellbark, or shagbark, hickory is the -<span class="pb" id="Page_12">[12]</span> -sturdy “big brother” of the little shagbark. In -every particular it exaggerates the characteristics -of the favourite among our nut trees. The bark -is more shaggy, the tree grows larger, the nuts -are bigger. Are they <i>better</i>? No. But they -are much the same in flavour, and being so good -and so big, they have the market name of “king -nuts.” The best of them are gathered in the -woods of Missouri and Arkansas. The tree is -found from Pennsylvania westward to Oklahoma, -but the lumber is valuable for the making -of vehicles and tool handles, and so the trees are -now scarce in the states that are oldest.</p> -<p>In winter the big shagbark trees show their -orange-coloured twigs. They are peculiar to this -one hickory. The leaf stems stay on the twigs -after the leaves fall, and give the tree top in -winter a ragged, hairy appearance, that matches -its shaggy trunk.</p> -<h3 id="c3">THE DISAPPOINTING HICKORIES</h3> -<p>The pignut has been given this ugly name -because farmers, in the early days, turned their -pigs into woodland pastures to fatten on the -thin-shelled nuts that dropped from this kind of -hickory tree. They are not bitter, but merely -<span class="pb" id="Page_13">[13]</span> -tasteless, and it is only a “greenhorn” from -town or city who will spend time to gather these -poor hickory nuts, mistaking them for shellbarks. -They are not usually angled, but smoothly -rounded, often pear-shaped, and the husks are -thin. The shagbarks are in husks nearly one-half -inch thick, which split in four divisions, and -fall apart to release the ripe nuts. The husks -of pignuts divide but part way down, and so -the nuts are not freed from them promptly. The -kernels are yellowish white.</p> -<p>A look at the bark of a shagbark hickory, and -then at a pignut fixes in mind one of the chief -differences between these trees. The pignut has -clean, smooth, grey bark, becoming coarser and -rougher with increasing age, but never shedding -its bark in ragged strips as the shagbark begins -to do when the trees are still young. Smoother -foliage and twigs, smaller buds in winter, and a -more regular round head make the pignut a fine -tree to plant on the lawn, where the shagbark -would be out of place, on account of its shaggy, -untidy trunk.</p> -<p>Another handsome hickory tree with nuts that -are very disappointing to the members of a nutting -party is the mockernut, called also the big -bud hickory, and the white heart hickory. The -last name is wrong because the heart wood is -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">[14]</span> -brown, and it is the wood near the bark that -is white. The tree has the largest buds and the -stoutest, clumsiest twigs and branches in the -whole hickory family. The leaves are correspondingly -large, sometimes nearly two feet long, -of seven to nine leaflets, on downy, swollen stalks. -The catkins of the staminate flowers are like -thick, chenille fringes, six inches long, often -longer, hanging in May below the new leaves.</p> -<p>The nuts are large and look most promising -at first. The big, four-parted husk is as thick -as a shagbark’s, but it does not split all the way -down. So the first difficulty is to get the nut out -of the husk. The bony shell is the next. It is -astonishingly thick and hard to crack. Last disappointment -of all, the kernel is at best very small, -and not worth the trouble of getting it out, though -there is no denying that it is better-tasting than -a pignut, and almost as sweet as a little shagbark. -Very often the shell contains a spongy -substance that is tasteless, instead of the kernel -the patient nutter has a right to expect.</p> -<p>Crumple leaflets of this tree in your hand, and -they smell fruity, like an apple. They turn to -yellow and russet in autumn.</p> -<p>The bitternut is a hickory nut whose kernel -no squirrel eats. It is as bitter as gall. Thin-shelled -as a pignut, and usually less than an inch -<span class="pb" id="Page_15">[15]</span> -in length, the nuts are enclosed in thin husks, -that differ from others in having thin ridges that -rise along the four lines where they split at the -time the nuts are ripe. Two of these clefts run -farther down than the other pair. The nut shell -is thin, slightly flattened sometimes, and marked -with dark lines. The kernel is white, and you -will never taste a second one.</p> -<p>The sure sign by which to tell the bitternut -hickory is the tapering, flattened, yellow bud. At -any time of year a few, at least, of these buds -are to be found. They are numerous from midsummer -till May; after that, a few dormant -winter buds remain to tell the tree’s name until -the new buds are showing in the angles between -leaf and twig No other hickory has little, yellow -buds.</p> -<p>In winter the slimness of the twigs, and in -summer the small size of the leaflets make this -the most delicately built of the hickories. The -buds are the smallest to be found on a hickory -tree. Yet it is the quickest to grow, and one -of the handsomest trees in the family. Because -it loves best to grow with its roots in wet soil, -it is called the swamp hickory.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_16">[16]</div> -<h3 id="c4">THE BLACK WALNUT</h3> -<p>No boy or girl who has ever gone nutting “in -brown October’s woods” can forget the fruits of -the black walnut trees that hang like green -oranges, high up on the ends of the branches, -and have to be climbed for and shaken down. -And each fellow on the ground looks out for -his own head, as the shower of nuts comes down. -Oh! the rich, walnut smell of those juicy husks, -as we bruised them on the nearest stone, tore -them off, wiping our damp fingers on the grass, -before cracking the rough-shelled nuts. The -brown stains stayed until they wore off, but the -memory of the sweet kernels lasts longer, and the -pungent odour of those nut husks is in every twig, -bud, and leaf of every walnut tree. Bruise any -young shoot, and by the odour of its sap the -tree’s name may be guessed.</p> -<p>There is another test for a walnut tree, for -those who do not know the odour of the sap. -Cut a twig, and split it. The pith of walnut -trees is not solid, but is in thin plates, separated -by air spaces. This is a sure sign.</p> -<div class="img" id="p025"> -<img src="images/p025.jpg" alt="Three pignuts, with husks, three shagbarks, and two pecans; Flowering twig of the little shagbark hickory" width="487" height="767" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Three pignuts, with husks, three shagbarks, and two pecans; Flowering twig of the little shagbark hickory</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p026"> -<img src="images/p026.jpg" alt="Black walnut and butternut. Twig of butternut, in winter and in spring" width="500" height="789" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Black walnut and butternut. Twig of butternut, in winter and in spring</span></p> -</div> -<p>Walnut trees grow rapidly, and are a valuable -tree crop to plant. Nuts for seed are packed in -gravel, and left outdoors over winter. The stubborn -<span class="pb" id="Page_17">[17]</span> -shells are cracked by Jack Frost in such a -way as not to injure the seed, which is the meat -of the nut. The nuts are planted in spring just -where the trees are to stand, for it is much better -for a walnut tree never to be transplanted.</p> -<p>I have heard my grandfather tell how the early -settlers in Ohio cleared the rich bottom land -along the rivers. The great trees that had -grown, undisturbed, for centuries, were the -“weeds” that had to be cut down and removed, -before the soil could be ploughed and sowed to -oats or wheat. The only way to do this was -to burn the trees, by piling them together and -firing the pile, as soon as it was dry enough to -burn. The “log-rollings” were the neighbourhood -gatherings, when men brought their teams -and log chains, and worked like Trojans, dragging -the logs to the places selected for the giant -bonfires, later on. The women and children had -a grand time, watching the men at work, and -preparing the dinner, which was a feast, and a -great social occasion.</p> -<p>The stump of many a noble black walnut tree, -cut down a century ago, has stood, undecayed, -until recent years. So valuable is its wood that -these stumps have been pulled up with expensive -machinery, for the gnarly-grained roots that are -still sound. Cut into thin sheets, the wood is -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">[18]</span> -used for veneering furniture. Think how many -millions of dollars’ worth of lumber went up in -smoke in those bonfires! Black walnut is scarce -now, and can hardly be bought at any price.</p> -<h3 id="c5">THE BUTTERNUT</h3> -<p>The butternut trees are stripped of their fruit -in October by boys who have visions of long -evenings, such as Whittier describes in “Snow -Bound,” with nuts and apples and cider, by a -roaring fire. Some boys leave the black walnut -trees to others, and fill their bags entirely from -the low, broad butternut trees, that have more -nuts in each cluster, and they are not so hard -to reach. Many will say that they are much -sweeter and richer than black walnuts. Others -do not care for them because they are so oily. -Indeed, they are called “oil-nuts,” and woe to -the youngster who has eaten “all he wanted”!</p> -<p>The butternuts are oblong and pointed at one -end, and sticky to the touch, differing in this -particular from the globular fruits of the black -walnut. The same clammy feeling makes it unpleasant -to touch the leaves of butternut tree. -The resinous sap seems to ooze out through pores -along the hairy leaf veins.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">[19]</div> -<p>In summer time, when the fuzzy, green butternuts -are scarcely larger than olives, and their -shells are so soft that a knitting-needle goes -through without any trouble, the time for making -pickled nuts has come. The gathering of the -clustered green fruit is fun, but as soon as they -are scalded, the “fur” has to be rubbed off of -each, before the nuts, husks and all, are put down -in spiced vinegar, to be used as a relish for serving -with meats the following winter. The “furring” -usually falls to the children, and they get -very tired, for it is a slow and monotonous job, -whether one uses a coarse towel or a brush. -However, it would be unpleasant to eat a furry -nut, no matter how carefully the spicing was -done.</p> -<h3 id="c6">THE ENGLISH WALNUT</h3> -<p>The English walnut trees are grown in -orchards in Southern California. These trees -are quick to grow, and come early into bearing. -When you buy a pound of these thin-shelled nuts -at the corner grocery store, you may well wonder -where they grew. Perhaps little children picked -them up under trees that grow in Italy or in -Greece. Fine, large nuts come from France, but -<span class="pb" id="Page_20">[20]</span> -none of them are raised in England. Many of -the best nuts are raised in California, where more -and more trees of this kind are planted each year. -They grow in the Southern states, but have never -been planted on a large scale as a commercial -nut tree.</p> -<p>The English walnut tree grows in England, -but the nuts never have time to get ripe in that -climate. They are gathered green, and pickled, -husks and all. From English grandmothers we -learned to pickle our own butternuts while the -shells are still soft.</p> -<p>The earliest shipments of the walnuts of -Europe came into this country from England. -Probably merchants in London sent them to -merchants in New York. The dealers did not -ask where these walnuts grew, but told people -who asked that they came from England. This -explains the name by which everybody now calls -them.</p> -<p>Far back in its history, this tree grew wild in -Persia, and on the wooded hillsides of Asia -Minor. The people gathered the nuts for food. -It was the custom of visitors to send presents of -these nuts back to their friends in Europe when -they were travelling in the Orient, and discovered -how very good these unknown nuts tasted. Englishmen -were among these who were loud in -<span class="pb" id="Page_21">[21]</span> -praise of them. “Walnut,” the name they gave -the trees, means “a nut that comes from a foreign -country.” The Greeks had called it “Jove’s -acorn,” for they could not think of any other -name good enough. Kings sent presents of nuts -to each other. Then people began to plant nuts, -instead of eating them all, and gradually all the -warmer countries of Europe found they could -grow these walnuts.</p> -<p>The size and quality of the nuts improved -under cultivation. Now there are many varieties, -all larger, thinner-shelled, and better-flavoured -than the original wild nuts that still grow in the -forests of Asia Minor.</p> -<p>In the centuries when the countries of Europe -were always at war with their neighbours, another -reason for planting walnut trees was discovered. -No wood was so good for gunstocks. -No young man could marry until he had planted -a certain number of walnut trees. This was the -law in some countries in the seventeenth century. -So multitudes of these trees were set out. Besides -gunstocks, walnut wood was much in -fashion for handsome furniture. A walnut forest -was a very profitable crop to raise, for lumber -alone. A tree that bore such nuts, while its -trunk was growing big enough to go to the saw -mill was doubly profitable. The people of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_22">[22]</span> -colder countries were ambitious to share in this -prosperity. But an occasional winter of extra -severity killed the young trees.</p> -<h3 id="c7">THE CHESTNUT AND CHINQUAPIN</h3> -<p>Next to the hickory nuts, we must rank the -chestnuts. Some may give them first place in -the list of American nut trees. In England the -chestnut trees one hears about are never praised -for their nuts. English boys and girls do not -eagerly plan for half-holidays spent in the jolly -sport of chestnutting. Their chestnut trees turn -out to be very familiar to our eyes. They are -the horse chestnuts that we see so often at home. -Their nuts are handsome enough, and quite worth -gathering for use in some games, and just to have -and to handle. But chestnutting! That is one -of the great joys of October in our country, a -thing no boy or girl would miss without bitter -disappointment.</p> -<p>While the leaves turn yellow on the big trees, -children and squirrels have their eyes on the -clustered, spiny balls at the ends of the branches. -“Not yet!” is the sign they read as plain as -printed words. Warm days come and go, and -the tree holds out its sign, even after the leaves -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">[23]</span> -begin to fall. Father and mother say: “Be -patient!” But they do not remember how hard -that is. It is a long time since they were eight -and ten and twelve years old.</p> -<p>Then a cold night comes, and in the early -morning a hoar frost is disappearing as the sun -rises. Four seams can be seen on some chestnut -burs, and the impatient boys throw clubs into -the tree tops. But their fingers are sore with -trying to pry the burs open. The nuts are cheesy -and insipid.</p> -<p>“Just you wait a spell.” This is the -advice of John, the raggedy man, who does -the chores. “You can’t hurry up chestnuts. -When they’re ready, I’ll take you where you can -get a barrel of ’em, and not kill yourself, nor -ruin your hands gettin’ ’em.” He sees the rising -tide of fear before it is expressed in words, and -answers mysteriously: “Nobody knows the place -but me. Let the little fellers an’ the town folks -hunt for nuts under the trees along the road. -They’ll get a quart apiece, mebby, if they work -half a day. The place I’m goin’ to, you can -scoop ’em up in handfuls.”</p> -<p>The trees far back from the high road are -certainly more generous to the few who find them -than are the more accessible, and therefore more -popular trees. Nobody “scoops them up in -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">[24]</span> -handfuls,” literally, for there are the burs, quite -as prickly as before they split their four segments -apart, and let the two or three nuts fall out. -Careful and quick motions are needed to pick up -the pointed nuts among the larger burs. But the -game is most absorbing. If the bags fill slowly, -there is the consoling thought that the shells are -thin, and the nuts are almost solid meats. The -busy picker stops now and then to sample a -few. They certainly are riper and finer tasting -than they were a short week ago.</p> -<p>Unopened or partly opened husks are often -gathered. The nuts will ripen and roll out on -the attic floor, or on the roof of the side porch. -Few parties who go chestnutting content themselves -with the loose nuts they gather. The end -of the day is a scramble to fill the bags or baskets -with hulls not yet fully open. Mittens faced -with leather or made of canvas are a good protection -for the hands.</p> -<p>The saddest news from the woods of the Northeast -is that a disease that baffles the tree doctors -has attacked and killed all the chestnut trees in -the neighbourhood of the city of New York, -and it is marching steadily westward. It has invaded -New Jersey and Pennsylvania. A fungus -attacking the living layer under the bark of a -tree is working where no remedy can reach it. -<span class="pb" id="Page_25">[25]</span> -The tree loses vitality, but only when it is far -gone does the disease break through the bark, -and show itself as small, yellow pimples on the -smooth bark of the branches. Out of these openings -the spores escape,—minute germs of the -disease. The wind scatters them. So do birds, -insects, and squirrels. They lodge in cracks in -the bark of other trees. Only chestnut trees -catch the disease, though the germs fall everywhere. -When it progresses far enough to produce -a mat of fungus that encircles the trunk, -the tree is girdled, its food supply is cut off, and -death results.</p> -<p>The chinquapin is a Southern tree, which -closely resembles the chestnut. It is usually -shrubby and dwarfed in all of its parts. The -nuts are about as large as our little hazel nuts, -and each is alone in a spiny husk that parts into -halves when mature. Five or six of these little -burs are often borne on a single stalk.</p> -<p>In Arkansas the tree reaches medium size, -but in the East it is familiar as a scrubby tree -that sends up suckers from the roots and forms -thickets, like hazel brush. Poor folks in the -South have time to gather these little nuts, which -appear on market day in their season in some -cities and towns. They are sweet, and some -people think they are better than chestnuts.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_26">[26]</div> -<h3 id="c8">THE BEECH</h3> -<p>Least of all the nuts good to eat that grow in -our mixed woods is the fruit of the grey-trunked -beeches. In nutting time the beech tree’s crown -of green is almost as clean and bright as in midsummer. -The silky leaves are little torn by the -wind. They turn to a beautiful pale yellow, and -become thin and papery as the green pulp is -drawn back into the twigs. Few people see the -spiny green burs on the ends of side twigs in -summer, even though the crop of nuts be heavy. -In the autumn the brown spiny husks open. -Their four divisions flare outward, and two triangular -brown nuts are released. Almost unnoticed -they drop on the ground under the tree. -They are so little that the wind helps to scatter -them in the woods around. The shifting leaf -carpet sifts them through, and we shall have to -hunt for them, even under the parent trees.</p> -<p>I need not tell any boy or girl how good and -sweet these beech nuts are, and how well they -repay the trouble of getting the kernels out of -the thin, triangular shells. Yet people gather -them less frequently than they do chestnuts, because -it is slow work, and there is more accomplished -under trees whose nuts are larger.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">[27]</div> -<p>The early settlers fattened their pigs in autumn -by turning them into the woods. Beech trees -made the best possible pasture for this purpose. -The flavour of beech nut bacon is exceptionally -delicate, and has an extra high market value. -Squirrels and all of the smaller furry-coats take -the time and trouble to gather and hoard quantities -of beech nuts among their winter stores.</p> -<p>Fortunate for the beech tree, its nuts will grow -even in the shade. We shall find a fruiting beech -tree surrounded by its children—saplings of all -ages, coming up from seeds of various sowings.</p> -<p>By scratching carefully among the dead leaves -in spring, we shall find, among the gaping burs, -the young trees at the very beginning of their -lives. The nuts have slipped down into the damp -leaf mould, and the melting of snow, and the warm -spring air have started them growing. The triangular -shell clings to the top of the stem, while -the root is getting a foothold. A pair of broad -seed leaves, totally unlike the leaves of the -beech tree, unfold. The spreading of these seed -leaves soon splits the walls of the nut-shell helmet.</p> -<p>Little beech trees at this age are very weak -and helpless, but patient and struggling. Their -pale leaves turn green as the root goes deeper -down, and draws food from the soil. A shoot -bearing true beech leaves rises from the tip, between -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">[28]</span> -the seed leaves. The stem straightens, and -grows tall, the seed leaves wither, and, unless -it has bad luck, or some accident befalls it, -the little tree is a long, leafy whip by the end of -the season, and under each green leaf is a long -bird’s-claw beech bud, just like those on the -parent trees. In these buds are leafy shoots -which will be side branches during the following -summer.</p> -<p>Beech nuts are still one of the main foods of -many wild animals. In the earlier days they had -much greater importance, for nuts were one of -the natural foods upon which the human race -subsisted before the days when men became civilised. -They depended upon foods which Nature -provided, and ate them without cooking. Acorns -served the same important purpose.</p> -<p>We cannot go back to the days when men lived -in caves, and dressed in the skins of wild animals, -and lived upon foods like nuts and berries, and -the flesh of wild beasts. But in camping out we -return as closely as possible to the simple life -of these wild ancestors of ours. It is good to -know what foods the forest offers to hungry -men and beasts. Some day we may be lost in -the woods. We may come to an oak tree, and -attempt to eat its acorns, but find them bitter. It -is well to know that the oaks with finger-pointed -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">[29]</span> -leaves bear acorns that are sweet and good. It -is only the oaks with spiny-lobed leaves whose -acorns are bitter and unfit for food. Beech trees -offer no food to a hungry person, unless he -knows how little the nuts are, and how they -hide by slipping under the leaves when they fall. -To know trees is delightful at any time, and in -any place. To know them when one is lost in -a forest is often the means of saving one’s life. -The forest still feeds the hungry, but only those -who know the trees are able to find these stores -of food when they need them.</p> -<h3 id="c9">THE WITCH HAZEL</h3> -<p>The witch hazel is indeed the witch of the -woods. It turns the year up-side-down, by blossoming -in October, at the same time that it is -ripening its seeds. For this reason every child -who lives in a region where this little tree grows -should know the witch hazel. The better people -know it, the more wonderful they find it. It -has many odd habits and secrets, which it will -reveal only to those who come and ask questions, -and keep their ears and eyes wide open to catch -the answers.</p> -<p>In spring the witch hazel hides under its green -<span class="pb" id="Page_30">[30]</span> -leaves, and attracts no attention from those who -have come out to see the great procession of the -spring flowers, under foot, and over head. It -is simply a part of the undergrowth, a shrubby -little tree. But come in October, to the same -place. The acorns are dropping from the oak, -the foliage ablaze with colour, or faded and falling. -There are no flowers overhead, but a few -belated asters and goldenrods under foot. Squirrels -are busy hiding winter stores, gathered under -the nut trees, and on the wild hawthorns.</p> -<p>A thicket of witch hazel is slowly dropping -its yellowing leaves. You might not have noticed -it at all, had not one of the trees suddenly called -attention to itself by tweaking your ear! It is -such a surprise to feel in the silent woods the -sharp sting of a shot from a silent air gun. You -stand still, listening, and feeling of your ear. -It is a fine frosty October day, and still. As you -listen, another shot strikes the dead leaves at -your feet. Where do they come from? This -question you will probably not be able to answer -at once; but while you are looking in the bushes -from which the missile seemed to come, thinking -to rout some joker from his ambush, you discover -the blossoms of the witch hazel. Each one is -waving four little yellow petals, and among these -delicate blossoms the bullet pods are bunched. -<span class="pb" id="Page_31">[31]</span> -Some of these are yawning wide open, each -showing two empty seed pockets, but you do not -find any seeds.</p> -<p>Cut a bundle of these things, and carry them -home. Put them in a vase of water. The delicate -fragrance of the flowers will go through the -house, and every one will marvel that any tree or -bush can be found in blossom at the very end of -the year. Now the strangest thing will happen. -Above the quiet talk around the evening lamp -sounds the sharp click, as of a bit of metal, or a -bead striking the wall with considerable force. -Every one sits up to listen. A second click, this -time on the glass covering a picture, is located, -and a little black object, smaller than an apple -seed, pointed and tipped with white, is picked -up from the floor. It is this seed which was -thrown against the glass; and it does not require -a Sherlock Holmes to prove that it came out of -one of the witch hazel seed pods. If each person -takes a twig, and keeps an eye upon the pods, -that show a slight opening, more than one of the -pods will be seen when they burst, and throw their -seeds. The warmth of the indoor air springs -the trigger, and the tiny projectiles fly.</p> -<p>How surprised the squirrels must be when the -witch hazel guns are bombarding the dry leaf -carpet of the woods! How much pleasure it -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">[32]</span> -gives you to take your friends to the thicket, and -explain to them the meaning of those scattering -shots the pods are firing each crisp autumn day! -If it is rainy weather the pods will all be closed. -But let the sun come out, and dry them, and the -game begins again.</p> -<p>Can any one wonder that witch hazel trees -grow in companies? Each little tree flings its -seeds in all directions, and for each seed planted -a little tree may come. Twenty feet from the -parent tree the pods are able to throw their seeds.</p> -<p>Extract of witch hazel is obtained by boiling -twigs and leaves of this tree in a still with alcohol. -The Indians taught white men that this plant -contained a drug which had soothing and curative -powers when rubbed upon sprains and -bruises. Whether there is any truth in this notion -or not, the belief is still strong, and people -continue to rub extract of witch hazel on their -bruises, even though many doctors say there is -nothing medicinal in it but the alcohol.</p> -<div class="img" id="p043"> -<img src="images/p043.jpg" alt="The beech tree opens its two kinds of flowers after the long, pointed winter buds have opened, and the lengthening shoot has spread out its leaves." width="500" height="793" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The beech tree opens its two kinds of flowers after the long, pointed winter buds have opened, and the lengthening shoot has spread out its leaves.</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p044"> -<img src="images/p044.jpg" alt="Catkins, staminate and pistillate, of a hornbeam and a birch; catkins and acorn flowers of an oak" width="688" height="414" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Catkins, staminate and pistillate, of a hornbeam and a birch; catkins and acorn flowers of an oak</span></p> -</div> -<p>In England the witch elm corresponds to our -own witch hazel. No one in the mining regions -would dare to sink a shaft for coal unless he had -warrant for doing so from the actions of a -divining rod in the hands of a competent person. -In other regions the digging of a well depends -upon the same thing, and this idea prevails in -<span class="pb" id="Page_33">[33]</span> -many parts of this country. An old fellow who -can “water witch” may be found in most old-fashioned -communities. If you wish to dig a -well, you must call on him to locate the site. He -cuts a y-shaped twig from the witch hazel, trims -it, and is ready for the ceremony. Grasping one -of the two tips in each hand, and holding the -main stem erect, he paces over the ground you -have chosen. In his rigid hands the supple twigs -waver, and finally the wand bends downward. -This, according to popular belief, is the proper -place to find good water, and plenty of it. The -water witch moves away, again holding the stem -erect. He comes back finally, and as he crosses -the spot again, the wand goes down. Now every -one is sure that this is the spot, and the well is -dug. If the seer’s prediction comes true, his -reputation improves, and scoffers concede that -“there may be something in it, after all.” In -regions where the witch hazel does not grow, a -twig of wild plum tree will do.</p> -<h3 id="c10">THE OAK FAMILY</h3> -<p>The fifty kinds of oak trees that are native -to America are about evenly divided on the two -sides of the Rocky Mountains. No Western -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">[34]</span> -oaks are found in the Eastern states, and none -of our Eastern kinds grows wild on the other side -of the mountains. The backbone of the continent -is a bar that neither group has been able -to pass.</p> -<p>To know fifty different kinds of oaks by sight, -so as to call each one by its right name, is not -an easy task; and yet it is not so difficult as it -at first might seem. To begin with, any tree we -meet, which bears acorns, we at once recognise -as an oak. By this one sign, we are able to -set this great family apart from every other tree. -As soon as they are old enough, all oaks bear -acorns. If a tree which we suspect to be an oak -has no acorn to show us, on or under the tree, -a little close looking will usually find some acorn -cups still hanging on, or lying where they fell -upon the ground.</p> -<p>The leaves of oaks are distinctive. In general, -they are all simple, and their outline is oval. -The borders are variously cut by deep or shallow -bays, between sharp points or rounding finger-like -lobes. They are leathery in texture, compared -with leaves of most trees. After a little -practice, we learn to recognise oak leaves, no -matter how variously cut their borders may be.</p> -<p>In spring the flowers of oaks come out with -the leaves. A fringe of catkins at the base of -<span class="pb" id="Page_35">[35]</span> -the new shoot is composed of pollen-bearing -flowers. In the angles of the new leaves farther -up the stem, we shall find the little acorn flowers, -usually in twos. This is the flower arrangement -of all the oaks; staminate and pistillate flowers -on the new shoots, separate and very different -from each other, but always close together, and -always both kinds on each tree. The fringe of -catkins falls as soon as the pollen is shed. Little, -red, forked tongues are thrust out by the pistillate -flowers to catch the golden dust when it is -flying through the air, and thus to set seed. All -through the summer, the little acorns are growing. -We can find them in their tiny cups in the -angles of the leaves.</p> -<p>In the autumn the acorns are ripe, and falling. -Some trees will show acorns of two sizes, half-grown -ones on the new shoots, and full-sized -ones on the bare twigs, just back of the new -shoots.</p> -<p>This peculiarity divides the oak family into -two great groups. One group is composed of -trees which have light-coloured bark, bear a crop -every year, and in winter are bare of fruit. This -is known as the White Oak Group. Its leaves -have rounded margin lobes which do not end in -sharp points, as many of the lobes of oak leaves -do.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">[36]</div> -<p>All of the oaks whose leaves have pointed, -spiny lobes on their margin belong to the Black -Oak Group. The bark of these trees is usually -dark-coloured. The acorns require two years of -growth. For this reason, there are half-grown -acorns on the tree all winter, waiting for the -second summer to bring them to maturity. Every -autumn the acorns which are ripe are found -on the twigs just back of the leafy shoots, -which grew during the past summer. These -acorns have completed their second year of -growth.</p> -<p>When we hear any one speak of annual-fruited -and biennial-fruited oaks, we know that the -White Oak and Black Oak Groups are meant. -If you see an oak tree whose leaves are cut into -sharp pointed lobes, you will find acorns of two -sizes on its twigs. If you look across the fence -and see a pale-barked oak with finger-lobed -leaves, and not a spiny point on their margins, -you will know that acorns of but one -size will be found. Fix these three points -in mind. Then study all the oak trees you -can find.</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Trees of the White Oak Group have:</p> -<p class="t">1. Rounded lobes on their leaf margins.</p> -<p class="t">2. Acorns ripe in a single season.</p> -<p class="t">3. Pale-coloured bark.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_37">[37]</div> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">Trees of the Black Oak Group have:</p> -<p class="t">1. Spiny-pointed lobes on their leaves.</p> -<p class="t">2. Acorns requiring two seasons to ripen.</p> -<p class="t">3. Dark-coloured bark</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c11">THE WHITE OAK</h3> -<p>Those who know trees best agree that there -is no nobler broad-leaved tree in the American -forests than the White Oak. Tree lovers in -England have but one native oak upon which -to spend their loyal devotion, the tree worship -inherited from Druid ancestors, whose temples -were their sacred groves of oaks. The same -feeling is in our blood, and roused at sight of -an aged white oak, with stout, buttressed trunk, -and great horizontal limbs supporting a rounded -dome, much broader than high.</p> -<p>The tree is grey in winter. It stands bare of -leaves, clothed in its pale, scaly bark. This is -the time to study the framework of the dome. -The limbs are twisted and gnarled, and their -branches end in dense thickets of twigs. Each -twig bears the winter buds, and five buds are -clustered at the tip of each.</p> -<p>In spring these buds open, and a leafy shoot -comes out of each. At the base are the yellow, -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">[38]</span> -fringed catkins of the sterile flowers, and above -them, in the angles between leaves and twig, -the fertile flowers thrust out forked tongues for -pollen. These will be acorns next autumn, if -the pollen falls upon them, and thus sets seed.</p> -<p>All summer the leaves are green, with pale -linings, and when summer ends, they turn to -rich shades of purplish red. The sweet acorns -are ripe, and as they fall, thrifty squirrels are -all about, gathering them into their hidden store-houses -for winter use. Plenty of the thin, shallow -cups we shall find, but the kernels are scarce, -unless we come when they are falling in October.</p> -<p>The Indians taught the early colonists in -America to use acorns of this species for food. -They boiled them, like hominy, and found them -not only nourishing, but good to eat.</p> -<p>If you find solitary white oaks growing here -and there in a mixed woods, you may wonder -how they were planted thus. The tree cannot -scatter its own seeds. It depends upon the work -of scampering nut-gatherers, in fur coats, that -put away more acorns than they can eat during -the long winter. An acorn that is left over in -one of the dark pockets along a squirrel’s run-way -sprouts in the spring, and in a few years it -is a sturdy oak sapling. All oaks are dependent -on outside help in planting.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_39">[39]</div> -<p>White oak lumber is very high-priced. The -wood of this tree we rarely see nowadays except -in the most expensive oak furniture. The beautiful -satiny streaks that are the chief ornament of -the grain in polished table tops, are bands of fibres -that radiate from the central pith to the bark. -When oak is “quarter-sawed,” these <i>pith rays</i>, -called “mirrors,” show to best advantage. They -are most numerous in the wood of the white oak.</p> -<h3 id="c12">THE BUR OR MOSSY-CUP OAK</h3> -<p>The largest acorn I know is the fruit of the -bur oak, and it is borne in a mossy cup, indeed. -The cup’s scales are drawn out into long, hairy -points, and those near the rim form a loose -fringe. Once in a while you may find an acorn -almost covered up in its husk. But as a rule, -the nut is a little more than half-covered. Sometimes -these nuts are two inches long, but this -is not usual. They are over an inch long, and -almost as broad, and the meat is white and sweet. -No wonder squirrels harvest the crop, and young -trees spring up wherever an acorn is missed by the -hungry creatures.</p> -<p>The bur oak is a shaggy tree, for it sheds its -bark in big flakes, like the sycamore. The small -<span class="pb" id="Page_40">[40]</span> -branches are stout, and their bark is developed -into corky wings, like the sweet gum. The tree -is irregular in shape, too, its gnarled limbs are -thrown out in any direction, and so the top is -often unsymmetrical. But it is a rugged and -picturesque tree, in spite of all its faults, and it -adds beauty of an unusual kind to parks and -woodlands.</p> -<p>In Sioux City, Iowa, an aged bur oak stands -in Riverside Park. It is called “The Council -Oak,” for it was a venerable tree in the days -when the Indians lived on the banks of the -Missouri River. Under this tree their chieftains -used to meet the white men, and talk over the -questions that interested both. Here treaties -were drawn up and signed that kept peace between -the red and white men.</p> -<p>I promise a great deal of pleasure to any one -who plants a mossy-cup acorn. The seedling -tree is wonderfully vigorous in growth. The -leaves are often a foot long in the first years of -the tree’s life. The blades are thick, lustrous -above, and woolly lined, the finger lobes irregular, -and two opposite, deep sinuses near the -middle of the leaf cut it almost in two!</p> -<p>Before the tree is more than a sapling it -blossoms and bears big acorns in their handsome -mossy cups. There is no stage in the life of -<span class="pb" id="Page_41">[41]</span> -one of these oaks that is not beautiful and interesting.</p> -<p>This tree is found from Nova Scotia to Western -Texas. It forms forests in Winnipeg, and -“oak openings” in Minnesota and Dakota. It -is as much at home in the hot, arid stretches of -the plains of the West and Southwest as in the -raw, damp air of the New England coasts. In -the rich valley of the Ohio River it reached -nearly two hundred feet in height in the virgin -forests.</p> -<p>Unlike many oaks, it may be safely transplanted -while young.</p> -<h3 id="c13">THE LIVE OAK</h3> -<p>The citizen of New Orleans takes his Northern -visitors to Audubon Park, and points with pride -to the giant live oak trees. He does not hesitate, -for he knows that the noble pair called “George -Washington,” and “Martha Washington,” -though crippled now by tornadoes, are more noted -the country over than any monument or building -in this famous old city. In Charleston and other -Southern cities it is the same. Famous old live -oaks adorn the parks and avenues, and the same -trees are planted year by year to take the places -<span class="pb" id="Page_42">[42]</span> -of the veterans when age and storms shall make -an end of their long lives.</p> -<p>These trees wear a crown of green throughout -the year. The leaves last but one year, but they -cling to the twigs and remain green until they -are gradually pushed off by the opening of new -leafy shoots. In spring the new leaves are much -brighter than the darker old ones. Everywhere -the trees are draped with the sage-green ropes -of “Spanish moss,” which is not a moss at all, -but a flowering plant that steals its living by -lodging its roots in crevices in the bark of trees.</p> -<p>The live oak acorns are dainty, dark-brown -nuts, set in hoary, long-stemmed cups. Each -year there is a good crop of acorns, and they are -sweet, and pleasant to the taste. The Indians -depended upon them for food, roasting or boiling -them. They also skimmed the boiling pot to -collect the oil, which the early colonists said was -much like oil of almonds.</p> -<p>The “knees of oak” that early ship-builders -used to brace the sides of vessels, were taken -from live oak trees, where the great boughs -spring out from the short, stout trunks. This -natural joint is better than any bolted union of -two pieces of timber. The scarcity of these trees -makes it impossible now to supply these knees, -but no steel frame serves the purpose quite so -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">[43]</span> -well. The wood is as beautiful as white oak -for the making of handsome furniture, though it -splits more easily, and is harder for the cabinet-maker -to use.</p> -<p>The tree grows throughout the South to Texas; -also in Mexico, and Lower California. Its -Northern limit is Virginia.</p> -<p>A friend who has for a near neighbour the -majestic McDonough Oak, patriarch among the -noble live oaks of the Audubon Park, New -Orleans, writes interestingly of the habits of this -species.</p> -<p>“The live oak sheds its leaves <i>in the spring</i>, -just before the new leaves open. So, for a brief -time the tree stands leafless. In this period, however, -the tree puts out catkins in great abundance, -so that the tree does not appear bare. These -catkins are light brown, and have a soft, velvety -appearance, and a tree has an absolute change of -colour. During this blossom time the splendid -form of the trunk and the great limbs is revealed. -When the new leaves appear, the framework of -branch and bough is concealed by leafage so -dense as to be impenetrable to sun or eye. The -tree is a symmetrical, shining green dome. The -crown of the McDonough oak is over two hundred -feet in diameter.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_44">[44]</div> -<h3 id="c14">THE POST OAK</h3> -<p>The post oak, a small, rugged tree, is noticeable -in winter, because its leaves usually hang on until -the open buds in spring push them off. The -colour of this winter foliage is yellowish brown, -and not at all striking nor beautiful. The bark -is brown and deeply furrowed. The twigs wear -a yellow fuzz. The leaves are coarse, stiff and -rough, four to five inches long, tapering from -three broad, squarish lobes to a narrow base, and -a short leaf stalk. They are lined with brownish -wool, and are dark green and shining above in -summer.</p> -<p>The acorns of the post oak are borne in a -plentiful annual crop. Each is dainty and trim, -in a shallow cup of loose, blunt-pointed scales. -The kernel is sweet. In the days when wild -game roamed the woods, wild turkeys fattened -on these acorns, and some people call the tree -the “turkey oak.”</p> -<p>Another name for this tree is “iron oak,” for -its wood is hard, and heavy, and close-grained. -It makes admirable posts and railroad ties, because -it does not rot in contact with water. It -is used in boat-building, and for barrel staves. -“Knees” of post oak (the angles between trunk -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">[45]</span> -and branch) form most admirable timbers to be -used in the framework of boats.</p> -<h3 id="c15">THE SWAMP WHITE OAK</h3> -<p>The swamp white oak is a rugged and ragged -tree, with drooping branches and crooked twigs, -covered with greyish brown bark which peels in -thin flakes from branches and trunk. This habit -of shedding its bark in irregular plates reminds -us strongly of the sycamore, which carries this -habit to excess. The leaves of this oak are -large, wedge-shaped at the base, wavy-toothed -or lobed, and broadening towards the tips. They -are dark green above, and lined with white down. -The acorns are borne in pairs on long stems. -The oval nut is hairy at its tip, and sits in a -rough cup made of scales, sometimes fringed at -the border. The kernel is sweet and eatable, not -only for beasts, but for man. If one were lost -in the woods, he need not starve nor die of -thirst, if he is near a stream, and can get the -fruit of a swamp white oak, which stands by the -water side. He will do well to make a fire, and -roast the acorns, which will improve their nutty -flavour, and make them more digestible.</p> -<p>This white oak is more beautiful in May than -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">[46]</span> -at any other season of the year. The young -leaves are pale green, and the tree top is illuminated -by the silky hairs that line them. The -whiteness of the down is dimmed as summer -advances. In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, -but never red.</p> -<p>The wood of this oak is not distinguished in -the lumber trade from any other white oak. -The demand for it for the building of houses -and boats, and for agricultural implements and -vehicles, is greater than the supply. It is too -expensive now to be used as it was a few years -ago, for fuel, railroad ties, and fence posts.</p> -<h3 id="c16">THE CHESTNUT OAK</h3> -<p>The chestnut oak has leaves which are much -like those of the chestnut tree. They are larger, -and wider, however, and have rounded lobes at -the ends of the side veins, making a very regular -wavy margin, compared with that of most oak -leaves. The lining is often silky, and always -much paler than the upper surface. This tree -is an exception to the rule that the annual-fruited -oaks have pale bark. This one has bark so dark -in colour that it is often mistaken for one of -the Black Oak Group, although its wavy leaf -<span class="pb" id="Page_47">[47]</span> -margins, and its annual crop of acorns, prove -it to belong to the White Oak Group.</p> -<p>The acorns are very long, and smooth, and -they sit in thin cups lined with down, and covered -with small swollen scales. They are usually -borne alone on short stems. This is one of -the largest and sweetest acorns. The squirrels -pack them among their winter’s stores.</p> -<p>The wood of chestnut oak is hard, and strong, -and durable in contact with the soil. The bark -is especially rich in tannic acid. For this -reason many of the finest trees yield only -tan bark, because the peelers take the bark, -and leave the log to fall a prey to forest -fires.</p> -<h3 id="c17">THE BLACK OAK</h3> -<p>The black oak, which gives its name to the -large group of biennial-fruited oaks, is one of -our handsome, sturdy forest trees. It grows -from Maine to Florida, and west to Minnesota, -Kansas, and Eastern Texas. Its bark is very -dark grey or brown, and thick, with rough, -broken ridges and deep furrows. Under this -outer layer is a yellow belt, rich in tannin. This -gives the tree the name “yellow oak,” and since -<span class="pb" id="Page_48">[48]</span> -its bark is valuable in tanning leather, it is some -times called the “tan bark oak.”</p> -<p>The tree is not graceful nor symmetrical, but -there is a picturesqueness and strength about it -that redeems its coarseness and irregularity. -This species would be planted oftener for shade, -were there not so many beautiful oaks to choose -from. In the wild, however, a giant black oak -is a noble feature of the landscape.</p> -<p>In early spring the large downy winter buds -begin to swell, and soon the leaves push rapidly -out. The whole tree top flushes crimson in the -sunshine. The red glow is from the crinkly, -half-awake baby leaves, whose brilliance is softened -by a silky covering of white hairs. In a -day the leaves turn green, and most of their silky -covering is shed.</p> -<p>The bloom of the black oak consists of a fringe -of yellow catkins at the base of each shoot, and -pairs of red-tongued acorn flowers in the angles -of some of the leaves. Back of the new shoot -the half-grown acorns of the previous season -are seen. In autumn the new crop is well along -and the full-grown acorns, which have taken two -seasons to ripen, are ready to be shed. Each -kernel sits in a straight-sided cup of loosely -shingled scales, which form a fringe at the margin. -The kernel is bitter, and yellow, as it is -<span class="pb" id="Page_49">[49]</span> -in most of the species of the Black Oak Group.</p> -<div class="img" id="p061"> -<img src="images/p061.jpg" alt="Leaves, mossy-cup acorns and warty twigs of the bur oak" width="500" height="781" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Leaves, mossy-cup acorns and warty twigs of the bur oak</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p062"> -<img src="images/p062.jpg" alt="The horizontal limbs of the pin oak form a regular pyramidal head" width="500" height="802" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The horizontal limbs of the pin oak form a regular pyramidal head</span></p> -</div> -<p>The large, downy, pointed buds of this oak -will often determine its name for us when we -are confused by the shapes of the leaves. Often -the red oak and the black oak “run together” -in their leaf forms. To determine the tree’s -name we must call in the buds, the acorns, and -their cups, and the general shape of the trees, -and consider all these points together.</p> -<p>Black oak leaves are thick, coarse, and leathery. -Crumple one in your hand, and you cringe at -the harsh scratching noise it makes. They vary -from four to ten inches in length, and from two -to six inches in breadth. The margins are deeply -cut into seven or nine broad, bristly-toothed lobes, -with rounded bays between. The upper surface -is dark green in summer, shining and smooth, or -sometimes hairy. The lining is brownish and -a remnant of the scurfy down is found in the -neighbourhood of the veins. In autumn these -leaves turn brownish-yellow, but rarely show a -tinge of red.</p> -<p>The bark of black oak is stripped and carried -to the tan-yards. Or it furnishes a yellow dye, -used in the printing of calicoes. The wood is -used in house-building, and in the manufacture -of furniture.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_50">[50]</div> -<h3 id="c18">THE RED OAK</h3> -<p>The red oak is the tree most likely to be mistaken -for the black oak. The bark is brown, -with a decided red tinge. The twigs are also -reddish, and the wood is red-brown. The inner -bark has the same tinge instead of the orange-coloured -lining the black oak bark has.</p> -<p>The red oak is a large, stately tree, sometimes -150 feet in height, and far more symmetrical -than the black oak. Its leaves vary greatly in -the depth of their marginal clefts, but in general -they are oval in outline, and their lobes and -sinuses are triangular. These lobes always -point forward, rather than outward, along the -sides of the leaf, and they always end in the -sharp, spiny points that belong to the leaves of -all the trees that fall into the Black Oak Group. -Red oak leaves are thinner than those of black -oak, and not so harsh when crumpled in the -hand. Their linings are pale green and smooth -in summer. Their autumn colour is deep red.</p> -<p>The buds of the red oak are pointed, smooth, -reddish, and about one-fourth of an inch long. -They are much smaller, and lack the down of -the buds of the black oak.</p> -<p>Red oak acorns are the most distinct feature -<span class="pb" id="Page_51">[51]</span> -of this species. They are large, often over an -inch in length, and broad, and they sit in saucers, -instead of cups. These saucers are made of -close scales, and they curl in closely at the top -as if to tighten their hold on the nut, which extends -two-thirds its height above this rim. The -kernel is white, and extremely bitter.</p> -<h3 id="c19">THE SCARLET OAK</h3> -<p>The scarlet oak need not be confused with -either the red or black oaks, for it is a far more -dainty tree than either in its trim trunk, graceful -curving branches, very slim twigs, and deeply -cut leaves. In form, these leaves are oval, but -so much of the “cloth” is cut away by the four -or six deep bays along the sides that a small -amount of green is left to do leaf duty. The -slender lobes are strengthened by the branching -veins, each of which ends in a spiny point. These -almost skeleton leaves are beautifully lustrous -and thin, a trifle paler beneath and sometimes -hairy tufted at the veins. They are rarely six -inches long, and the side lobes sometimes measure -five inches from tip to tip. The leaf stems are -long and flexible, and the whole tree top is as -light and feathery and tremulous in a breeze -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">[52]</span> -as that of a honey locust or a willow. In autumn -the scarlet oak blazes like a torch above the duller -reds and browns of the woods, and keeps its -brilliancy later than any other oak.</p> -<p>The acorn differs from the black oak in being -smaller and daintier, and in having its cup drawn -in tightly at the rim. The scales are smooth and -close-pressed; the kernel white and bitter.</p> -<h3 id="c20">THE PIN OAK</h3> -<p>The pin oak has foliage much like the scarlet -oak, but coarser and not so lustrous. Often a -pin oak tree has leaves that approach the red -oak in form, and these lead to confusion, if -leaves alone are consulted in determining the -name of the tree. There are better signs in -any pin oak that set it apart from its larger-leaved -relative. Consult the acorns. They are -plump little nuts, as broad as long, rarely measuring -one-half inch either way, pale brown, -streaked with black in straight lines, down from -the pointed tips, and they sit in shallow, saucer-like -cups made of close reddish scales. As they -fall, the nuts roll out of the cups, which are -lined with hair. The kernel is white and bitter -and yet, late in winter, it is very common to -<span class="pb" id="Page_53">[53]</span> -find them gnawed open by some hungry little -four-foot, whose winter store threatens to run -short.</p> -<p>The pin oak takes its name from the fact that -its branches are thickly set with short, pin-like -twigs, many of which die but do not fall. These -stubs stay on for several years. This fact alone -will soon enable us to recognise the tree from -a distance. No other species is so close-twigged, -and the symmetrical form of this tree is very -striking in the winter. It is a pyramid with many -small branches thrust out horizontally from the -main shaft. Below the middle of the tree, the -long branches have a downward thrust, and the -lowest ones often sweep the ground. Above the -middle of the tree the branches are horizontal, -and they gradually become shorter, and the tree -ends in a pointed tip. There is no oak that I -know which has so much the pyramidal form -of evergreens like the firs, hemlocks, and spruces.</p> -<p>On the avenues of the city of Washington, we -shall find superb double rows of American trees. -On one which leads to the Navy Yard, I remember -the beautiful pin oaks, uniform in size, -perfect in symmetry, that stood in a double row -along the sides of the avenue. To the crowds -of tourists who visit the capital city every year, -I hope that this will be an object lesson. In -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">[54]</span> -most towns and cities every owner plants the -trees he likes in front of his house, so our streets -and avenues present a mixture of trees of all -ages, sizes, kinds, and conditions. The better -way is for the city to plant the same tree in -double lines, the whole length of a street, as -has of late years been done in Washington. One -needs only to see these trees coming on, each -year adding beauty and dignity to the city, to -realise that such planting may be done easily anywhere -in the country, where trees as beautiful -as the pin oaks grow wild.</p> -<h3 id="c21">THE WILLOW OAK</h3> -<p>A Southern tree with slender twigs and narrow -leaves like those of a willow, surprises us -by bearing acorns! It is the willow oak, a beautiful, -graceful tree for shade and for avenue -planting. The tree naturally chooses wet ground, -but it thrives where the soil is deep and well -drained. I remember a fine large willow oak -in John Bartram’s garden in Philadelphia, and -a young tree in the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. -This little one grows rapidly, but the frost nips -its twigs in the winter. The species grows wild -from New York southward, just back from the -<span class="pb" id="Page_55">[55]</span> -sea coast, to Texas. In swampy land, it is found -from Missouri southward.</p> -<p>Willow oak acorns are downy, yellow-brown, -and set in shallow saucer-shaped cups. The kernel -is orange-yellow, and bitter. Half-grown -acorns are found with the ripe ones on these -trees, and the dark, rough bark agrees with others -of the Black Oak Group. Though the leaves -have rarely a side lobe, but are mostly narrow -and plain-margined, the tip ends in a spine, as -all black oak leaves should.</p> -<h3 id="c22">TREES WITH WINGED SEEDS</h3> -<p>Why do the trees grow in such mixed groves, -when Nature does the planting? Here and there -we find solid groves of beech or oak, but the -forest is, for the most part, a gathering together -of all kinds of trees. A part of the beauty -of any woodland is this variety in the planting. -Under a tall oak we find a hornbeam, and under -this the witch hazel, and under the witch hazel, -a carpet of low woodland plants. We may walk -in a straight line, or follow a woodland path -a mile, and find every tree we meet is different -from all the rest.</p> -<p>Many reasons explain the order in which Nature -<span class="pb" id="Page_56">[56]</span> -plants forests. One of the best of these -is found in the kind of seeds trees bear. We -shall find that trees most widely scattered are -those whose seeds are winged. It is not hard -to find, from May until far past midwinter, trees -bearing light, winged seeds. All through the -summer, the wind is busy sowing the seeds of -the early-fruiting trees. In autumn, and all -through the winter, the sowing of the larger -crop goes on.</p> -<p>Let us begin our study with the maples, -whose winged seeds every child knows. From -the silver maple, whose seeds are dry before the -first of June, there is a procession of ripening -maple seeds that lasts throughout the year. A -high wind shakes off the silver maple’s keys in -showers in late May. Watch those in the tree-tops. -The wind has a better chance up there. -Each key, loosening from its twig, turns round -and round in a dizzy whirl, and sails away still -whirling as it falls, the heavy seed end always -pointed downward. A tree is soon stripped, -and the ground littered under it. But a great -deal larger area than the tree’s shadow has the -seeds scattered over it: the stronger the wind, -the further these seeds go. Before the summer -is over, a crop of little maple trees springs up -from this sowing.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_57">[57]</div> -<p>The red maple’s scarlet seed clusters turn -brown, and the little winged seeds take flight in -June. Lighter and smaller, they are carried -longer distances than the seeds of the silver -maple, and a crop of little red maples follows -this June sowing of the trees.</p> -<p>I remember walking in a corn field in late -June; the corn had been last ploughed a month -before. Among the weeds that had grown up -in this short time was a crop of young red maples, -now six inches high. It was amazing to see -these little trees grow so plentifully in a cultivated -field. I looked for the seed tree, and -there it stood on the edge of the field, the only -maple tree in sight. A few young trees were -growing in the matted grass of the roadside under -the tree, but the great crop was from the -seeds that flew out to the mellow ground between -the corn rows. The disappointed seeds, those -which fell and did not grow, were under the -tree and in the dusty road.</p> -<p>In the autumn the hard maple, which we call -the sugar maple, ripens its winged seeds. So -does the three-leaved box elder (which is a -maple) and the Norway maple, now a very familiar -street tree. The wind takes its time, and -the trees stubbornly hang on to their seeds, so -that these maples are busy all winter with the -<span class="pb" id="Page_58">[58]</span> -sowing. Every day they give up a few, and -many seeds that fall on the snow are picked up, -again and again, by the wind and thus carried -further and further away.</p> -<p>The maple seed, with its curiously one-sided -wing, is the sign by which the maple family is -easily recognised. Other trees have winged -seeds, but none have the peculiar form of this -one.</p> -<p>All summer long we may know the trees that -belong to the ash family by the clusters of pale -green darts that hang among their leaves. These -are the ash seeds. Each one is a pointed seed -case, containing the embryo plant, and out behind -it extends the thin, light, two-edged wing. -There is no one-sidedness to this blade. The seed -is winged, but balanced like a dart. When the -wind loosens one from the wiry stem, it goes -like an arrow, seed downward. If there is a -gale blowing, the seed may be caught up and -borne far away in the upper air, before a lull -lets it take a downward course, and drive its -point into a snowbank, or into the ground. This -little feathered arrow may be long or short, depending -upon whether it belongs to the red ash, -the white ash, or the black; but there is no mistaking -an ash tree for any other, once the form -of an ash seed is fixed in the mind.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_59">[59]</div> -<p>I have said that a maple seed is shaped like -that of no other tree. I must describe here -the seeds of the needle-leaved evergreens, which, -though very much smaller, are somewhat like -maple seeds in form. Go to a pine tree or a -spruce, and get one of the cones that has begun -to spread its scales apart. Shake the cone over -a piece of paper. If nothing comes out from -between the scales, cut or break the cone open -with knife or hatchet. Under each scale will -be found two seeds, each with a thin, one-sided -wing. Spruces, hemlocks, firs, and arbor vitæs, -all have this same type of seed, hid away in the -same fashion, under the protecting scales of their -cones. Do you understand how the wind, blowing -through the tops of evergreens, shakes the -winged seeds from their places, and carries them -far away? Do you understand why the ripe -cones of these trees hang on so stubbornly, and -spread their scales to allow the seeds to escape?</p> -<p>It is a peculiarity of the firs that they hold -their cones erect. It would seem hard for the -wind to get at the seeds, but the fir cones let -their scales fall, and when they loosen, the seeds -are freed.</p> -<p>Out of the balls of the sweet gum tree, which -dangle on the twigs all winter, the wind shakes -little winged seeds, not unlike those of the pines.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_60">[60]</div> -<p>Do you know the catalpa’s long, green pods -that hang all summer on the top of trees? They -are longer than the newest lead pencil, and show -no signs of splitting, until the autumn. Now, -the two halves of the pod spread apart, and -gradually the thin seeds shake out. Each one -is in the centre of a thin, fringed wing, that -looks as if made of tissue paper. The wind -can carry these ghostly seeds for miles. Indeed, -it is strange that they ever come to the ground, -for they seem to have no thickness nor weight -at all.</p> -<p>The birches all bear their seeds in cones, some -long and pencil-like, others quite the shape of -a pine cone. Under each quaintly notched scale -of the cone, a seed is borne; and each heart-shaped -seed has a thin rim, which acts like a -wing, catching the wind as the seed falls. We -shall look far in the woods before we find seeds -daintier in form, or better sailors through the -air, than those of all the birch family.</p> -<p>The hop hornbeam has a hop-like cluster of -seeds, each in an inflated papery bag. When -the leaves drop in the fall, the wind has a chance -to pick off these little paper seed balloons, one -at a time, from the clusters. Take off one of -these little bags, open it, and you will find, set -in the bottom, the shiny, pointed seed. It is -<span class="pb" id="Page_61">[61]</span> -likely to have a long journey, if there be a good -breeze, before its bag is punctured.</p> -<p>Back to early May again, when the elm trees -are green with their fruit clusters, before the -leaves are fully out. Elm trees grow scattered -through the woods, and no wonder: the seeds -have papery rims, and the wind catches these -little falling discs, and scatters them far from -the tree where they were born.</p> -<p>The ailanthus tree, whose long, fern-like leaves -make it look like a tree from the Tropics, is -sowing its seeds all winter, with the help of the -wind. Examine one. In the middle of a slim -blade is the little seed. The blade is twisted -as it ripens, and it sails through the air with -a tilting, uncertain flight. After a look at a -bunch of these seeds, and after throwing a handful -of them out of an upper window, and watching -them as they sail away, we shall understand -how it is that ailanthus trees spring up in most -unexpected places, year after year. And we -shall bless the breeze that plants such trees along -the hot pavements, and in the ugly back alleys of -towns and cities, where few trees are able to -grow at all.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_62">[62]</div> -<h3 id="c23">TREE SEEDS THAT HAVE PARACHUTES</h3> -<p>It is a thrilling moment when the man who -goes up with the balloon lets go at last, and -drops to the ground. Before he drops, an umbrella-like -parachute opens, and by its aid, he -comes to the ground gracefully, slowly, and -alights unhurt. Should anything go wrong with -his parachute he would drop to his death, so every -onlooker is anxious as he comes down, and -breathes a sigh of relief when the wonderful -feat is accomplished.</p> -<p>Seeds with wings sail away on the wind, and -seeds with parachutes descend so slowly and -gracefully that the winds carry them far out of -their courses. The trees most fortunate in scattering -their seeds, and thus colonising new territory, -have peculiar devices.</p> -<p>The seeds of the basswood hang in clusters -attached to a narrow, leaf-like blade. This is -a parachute, by which the whole cluster is able -to sail away on a good breeze. There is no seed -parachute like this among our forest trees. By -this sign alone we may know the basswood trees.</p> -<p>The balls of the sycamore bump against the -<span class="pb" id="Page_63">[63]</span> -branches, and tiny seeds with hairy parachutes -are loosened and scattered. Each is a minute -spike, which might drop to the ground, but for -the umbrella-like parachute made of a brush of -fine hairs. By this, the wind lifts the seed, and -carries it away.</p> -<p>Willow seeds, and those of the poplar, are -almost too small to be seen. Each seed is hid -in a dainty fluff of white cotton, and in this the -seed rides. We may miss seeing these trees -in fruit, unless we look at the down which accumulates -in June on the screens of windows -and doors. The air is full of the fluffy stuff -when the pods open. In a few days this harvest -is over, and we may find the empty pods on the -ground under our neighbour poplars, cottonwoods, -and willows.</p> -<p>The blue beech, or hornbeam, has a parachute -which is leafy, and crinkled so as to look almost -like a little boat. The shiny seed sits in one -end, and when it gets free, it has a fine long sail -through the air before it settles to the earth.</p> -<p>There are wings and parachutes on the seeds -of other trees. When you find them you may -know that the wind is the partner of the tree, -by robbing it of its children. The wind is saving -those children from death, which would have -been their fate, if they fell on the ground under -<span class="pb" id="Page_64">[64]</span> -the shadow of the parent tree. If all the fields -that adjoin the woods were left uncultivated for -a few years they would grow up to forests. We -know the name of the sower, who gathers seeds -in the woods, and plants them; who is busy all -the year at the endless work of the harvest and -the sowing.</p> -<h3 id="c24">THE AUTUMN BERRIES IN THE WOODS</h3> -<p>In the roadside thickets, as the summer -wanes, the berry clusters of the shrubby viburnums -turn red, and soften, and in September -change to a vivid, or a dark blue. They are -very pretty on their coral red stems, and look -like little plums. Indeed, they are not unpleasant -to taste, but it is the birds who delight in -these sweetish, juicy berries, and we are willing -that they should have them all. The names, -sheepberry and nannyberry, are given to these -little trees, because sheep are said to browse on -the foliage and shoots in spring.</p> -<p>The blue berries of the sassafras, also on coral -red stems, are not unlike those of the viburnums -in appearance, but fewer in a cluster. The birds -take them eagerly before they are fully ripe. -To leave them until they ripen would be to lose -them to other birds.</p> -<div class="img" id="p079"> -<img src="images/p079.jpg" alt="Cone fruits of (1) a birch, (2) a pine, (3) a magnolia, and (4) a fir" width="500" height="789" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Cone fruits of (1) a birch, (2) a pine, (3) a magnolia, and (4) a fir</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p080"> -<img src="images/p080.jpg" alt="Clusters of the winged seeds of hornbeam and white ash" width="681" height="431" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Clusters of the winged seeds of hornbeam and white ash</span></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_65">[65]</div> -<p>The dogwood berries are redder than the -whorl of leaves that surround the fruit clusters -in early October. These waxy berries have -taken the place of the central cluster of small -flowers, which were surrounded in spring by the -four large, white bracts.</p> -<p>It is the birds who first accept the invitation -of these little trees. The migrating hosts turn -southward in September, and in October the bird -procession is in full swing. We hear them overhead, -often so high in air that we cannot see -them. Tired of the long flight, they descend for -food and water, and if the neighbourhood has -many fruiting dogwood trees, the joy of the -winged voyagers is correspondingly great. In -a surprisingly short time the hungry birds have -taken the last one.</p> -<p>Far in the winter we shall find red berries -glowing in clusters on the mountain ash trees, -among the evergreen holly leaves, and in conical -spikes on the sumachs. The winter birds ignore -these dry, insipid seeds, until everything else is -gone. Frequently, when winter snows cover up -all other foods, the berries of these two trees -stand between the birds and actual starvation. -So it happens that many a mountain ash is -stripped of its fruit during the early days of -March, and the holly berries which have glowed -<span class="pb" id="Page_66">[66]</span> -red all winter disappear for the same reason. -The sumachs are rarely stripped as closely as -the other two.</p> -<p>In September the hackberry hangs full of its -sugary fruits. It is surprising to find a tree -which looks like an elm, yet bearing soft, purple -berries. But this, we shall learn, is the hackberry’s -way. Under each leaf a long thread grows, -on the end of which is a single, oblong berry, the -size of a pea, but not the same shape. The -fruit hangs on late into the winter, if the birds -will permit such a thing, and it is a grateful -supply of food to birds that winter in the North. -If there were no other reason for planting hackberry -trees, they are worth having as fruit trees -for the refreshment of birds.</p> -<p>The autumn colour of hackberry leaves is yellow. -The purple fruits make little show, until -the leaves fall. The bark of the tree is its chief -peculiarity. On the trunk it is deeply checked -into small, thick, warty plates. The branches -are often ridged and broken into warty excrescences -that stand close together.</p> -<p>The leaves are peculiar. There is no other -tree that has not a main vein, or a rib, which -prolongs the leaf stem straight to the tip. The -hackberry leaf stem divides into three equal -branches at the base. The two side branches are -<span class="pb" id="Page_67">[67]</span> -shorter than the middle one, but their size is -unusual.</p> -<p>It is in autumn, of course, that the hackberry -earns its name, sugarberry. The bark will guide -us to the tree at any season. The leaves fix in -mind another important family trait. The berries -we may safely taste to find out if they are -as sugary as we are led to expect.</p> -<p>Nettle tree is the common name of the European -hackberry. You may have read of the -lotus-eaters, who, tasting the sweet fruit of this -little tree, straightway forgot their native land, -and could not be persuaded to return. The wood -is tough and peculiarly adapted to make the -handles of hayforks, and similar agricultural -implements. Young trees are grown for these -uses. The roots remain alive and send up suckers, -slender but tall. These are cut for walking -sticks, whipstocks, and ramrods for guns. Older -trees furnish wood, as hard as box or holly, and -beautiful as satinwood when polished. This is a -material which the wood-carvers delight to use. -The tree is widely planted for shade, and its -leaves are used as fodder for cattle.</p> -<p>Bad as its reputation is, according to the tradition -that its fruit had power to rob men of -their patriotism, yet this is one of the most useful -little trees. It grows easily, and is contented -<span class="pb" id="Page_68">[68]</span> -on land that is worthless for other purposes.</p> -<p>Besides the hackberry, another big tree in our -woods bears a crop of purple berries in September. -That is the wild black cherry. The bark -of this tree is dark brown and shining, and satiny -smooth on the branches. It breaks on the trunk -into rough, squarish plates, which curl horizontally -at the edges. The plates still retain the -silky outer bark, whose fibres run crosswise, and -whose surface has many slit-like, horizontal -breathing holes.</p> -<p>We are strongly reminded of the birches, especially -the cherry birch, which has dark-coloured -bark, and has its name from its resemblance to -this tree. The thin young bark of the black -cherry curls in a very birch-like fashion. One -difference is very marked. The bark of the -cherry is bitter, with the flavour of the pit of -a peach or cherry. Birch bark is pleasantly -aromatic in flavour.</p> -<p>The fruit of the black cherry is more plentiful -than that of the hackberry. The close-set side -shoots on the new twigs end in fruit clusters -two or three inches long, and often containing -a dozen berries each. The sweet pulp is flavoured -with the bitter taste of cherry pits, a flavour -found in the sap of this tree. Nibble the bark, -<span class="pb" id="Page_69">[69]</span> -or a bit of cherry wood, a leaf, or the tip of -the root, and you get the same Prussic acid -taste.</p> -<p>I do not like wild black cherries, but many -people do. Children and birds seem not to notice -the bitter with the sweet. They eat the berries -as soon as they change colour, with evident enjoyment.</p> -<p>Cherry brandies and cordials are made from -the fruit by people who rely upon old-fashioned -home remedies. These are the people who chew -the bitter opening buds of the wild cherry in -spring, as they drink sassafras tea, believing that -spring is the time to clear the blood, and that -Nature offers free remedies far better than they -can buy in bottles.</p> -<p>We cannot wonder that wild cherry trees -spring up in the woods, in fence corners, and -along roadsides. The birds are feasting in the -trees each autumn, and until the last berry is -taken. They are the sowers of the seed.</p> -<p>Our greatest objection to the wild cherry is -the fact that its shining young leaves are regarded -by the apple tree tent caterpillars as particularly -good. When the white blossom clusters -deck this tree in May, we often see a web of -white silk wrapping together some of the upper -branches. Day by day the web is extended, -<span class="pb" id="Page_70">[70]</span> -and the twigs are stripped of their leaves by the -host of caterpillars which return at night to the -tent, and range more widely in the day time. -When the tent is as large as a peach basket, it -is found empty, for the caterpillars have descended -to the ground, spun their cocoons, and -will soon emerge as winged moths, to lay their -eggs, from which later broods of caterpillars -come. The winged females are very likely to -seek the nearest orchard, and lay their eggs in -bands around apple twigs. Many an otherwise -harmless roadside wild cherry is a deadly menace -to an orchard because it breeds the insects, which, -in a second generation, become a serious pest -among the apple trees.</p> -<p>In the forest the lumberman is glad to find -wild black cherry trees of large size. The lumber -is very valuable for interior finish of houses, -and for furniture. It is hard, and close-grained, -and dark reddish-brown in colour, with a lustre, -when polished, that puts it in the class with mahogany -and rosewood. It is more often used -nowadays as a veneer on cheaper woods. Parlour -cars and steamships, and fine houses are very -often finished in cherry. The small limbs and -other bits of the lumber are utilised for tool -handles and for inlay work. The wood is too -valuable to waste.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_71">[71]</div> -<p>The largest berry that grows on a tree in -the woods of the United States is the persimmon. -We should mistake this berry for an apple, -perhaps, when we see it for the first time—a -little, orange-brown apple, one to two inches in -diameter. But there is no core such as apples -have, though there are from one to a dozen seeds -in each fruit.</p> -<p>The persimmon tree is tall, with a handsome -round head, and zig-zag, twisted branches. It -grows from Rhode Island west to Kansas and -south to Florida and Texas. It is found scattered -in mixed woods, and comes up in fence -rows and in abandoned fields wherever the seeds -have been dropped. Light, sandy soil is this -tree’s preference. Although it is a relative of -the ebony of Ceylon, our persimmon is not an -important lumber tree. Its wood is hard, dark-brown -in colour, and is used for shoe lasts, tool -handles, and various other small articles.</p> -<p>In the South the persimmon ranks among the -choicest of fruit trees. The negro and the -possum await the ripening of the ’simmons with -eager eyes, and the Southerner, born and bred, -confesses an equal interest in this native fruit. -There is a long waiting period between the time -when the persimmons change colour from green -to reddish-yellow and the time when the frost -<span class="pb" id="Page_72">[72]</span> -mellows and sweetens the pulp, and takes away -the harsh, puckery taste which draws the lips -and chokes the throat as if the fruit were a lump -of alum. The Northerner who judges by its -appearance only, dares to taste this fruit before -it is ripe. He cannot be persuaded to try it -again. And he cannot understand the enthusiasm -for persimmons that all people in the South -feel.</p> -<p>A ’simmon tree, when the fruit is ripe, belongs -to the first comer. The negro and the opossum -come into direct competition for the fruit -of this tree. You might think the negro would -kill the opossum, and be rid of his rival. He -knows too much for that. “’Possum an’ ’simmons -come together, and bofe is good fruit.” -Better divide the ’simmons with the ’possum and -his family. Then get the fat ’possum for the -Christmas dinner. There is no ’possum like the -one that is fattened on persimmons, so it pays -to be patient and leave the beast his share of the -fruit.</p> -<p>In a hollow tree, or a woodpile, the opossums -sleep by day, and trail out in companies to climb -the persimmon trees at night to feast. They -hang by their tails on the branches, or prop themselves -in crotches of the limbs within easy reach -of the soft, sugary berries. The fatter they get, -<span class="pb" id="Page_73">[73]</span> -the lazier they are; and as the season advances, -and the fruit falls, the opossums are likely to -satisfy their appetites with the persimmons they -can pick up under the trees. Along about -Thanksgiving day, or Christmas, the day of reckoning -arrives, when the negro hunter comes home -with the opossums which have stolen his persimmons. -The whole score is wiped out by -the opossum feast, which suitably closes the -season.</p> -<p>Persimmons improve, the longer they hang -upon the trees. As late as January or February, -little trees scarcely a dozen feet high, which have -been overlooked in the ’simmon harvest, are -found to be still hung with fruits exceptionally -large and fine. To the hungry and thirsty hunter, -prowling for quail in the underbrush, these unexpected -fruits are a delightful surprise. They -are delicious, sugary lumps, rich in flavour, and -juicy, taking away both hunger and thirst, and -leaving no after-taste that is bitter or puckery, -suggesting their unripe stage.</p> -<p>Japanese persimmon trees, whose fruit is -larger and better in every respect than our native -species, have been successfully introduced into -California and the Southern states. These persimmons -look like great ripe tomatoes as we see -them on the fruit stands, but these, too, must wait -<span class="pb" id="Page_74">[74]</span> -until they are thoroughly ripe before they are -fit to eat.</p> -<h3 id="c25">THE CHANGING COLOUR OF THE AUTUMN WOODS</h3> -<p>All through the autumn, when the wonderful -colours come in the forest leaves, we shall see -the green of these leaves creeping back along -the veins. The horse chestnut leaves tell a very -interesting story. They turn brown first upon -the edges. If we watch a single leaf for a whole -week in September, we may see the green gradually -draw in towards the central stem, and the -brown papery borders widen, just as if something -were squeezing and crowding the pulp of -the leaf, inch by inch, back through the leaf -stem into the twig. The last traces of green -linger along the sides of the veins, and before it -falls, even these leaf channels will be drained -dry.</p> -<p>When the leaves of a sugar maple give up their -pulp there are wonderful changes inside each -leaf. A yellow liquid fills the cells where the -green pulp used to be. Chemical changes in -the mineral substances deposited in the leaf cells -produce wonderful shades of red and yellow, -<span class="pb" id="Page_75">[75]</span> -which glow where once the leaf was solid green. -Iron is one of the minerals brought up in the -soil water, left in the leaf, and changed to produce -the bright red when the leaf mask of green -is taken away.</p> -<p>The scarlet maple remembers its name in the -autumn days. It puts on a cloak more brilliant -perhaps than the sugar maple, which has a good -deal of orange as well as red in its autumn foliage. -The scarlet oak is amazingly brilliant; so -is the sassafras and the sweet gum. The tupelo, -or sour gum, also called the pepperidge, has -foliage that is splashed and streaked with various -shades of red and yellow. Each little leaf is -so brilliantly polished that the tree’s beauty and -colour seem to be doubled by reflection. The -sumachs of the roadside thickets wear foliage -of scarlet, each leaf drooping away from the -fruit pyramid which rises, a deeper crimson, on -the end of each upright shoot. The foliage and -the fruit together make a colour harmony that -is dazzling, indeed.</p> -<p>In contrast with its umbrellas of red leaves -are the scarlet berry clusters of the flowering dogwood. -This tree has the habit of snuggling up -against the trunk of large forest trees and reaching -its white flowery arms out to us in spring. -How wonderful they are, on the edge of the -<span class="pb" id="Page_76">[76]</span> -woods, with the green leaves of the larger trees -making a background for their flowers! In the -autumn the same surprise awaits us, when under -a towering tree with yellow or russet foliage, -the dogwood leaps up like a scarlet flame, against -its dark background, holding straight out its platformed -branches of red leaves, tipped with berries, -like rubies, set on the upturned twigs.</p> -<p>Often the trees are stripped by birds before -the berries are ripe. It is in woods where the -trees are numerous that we shall find the fruit -reaching its perfection of ripeness and colour.</p> -<p>Among the trees that turn to purple in the -autumn we may name the white oak and the -ashes. Many oaks turn from green to russet, -without showing any red or yellow. The lindens -and the tulip trees and the beeches turn yellow; -so do the poplars and willows, the hickories, -and walnuts. Up and down the street you may -see the yellow crowns of the silver and the Norway -maples, and on the lawns the white birches -have also turned to gold. The deepest red is -on the black and red oaks. The brightest red -is on the scarlet oak.</p> -<div class="img" id="p093"> -<img src="images/p093.jpg" alt="The flowering dogwood covers its bare branches with blossoms in May" width="500" height="790" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The flowering dogwood covers its bare branches with blossoms in May</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p094"> -<img src="images/p094.jpg" alt="Flowering dogwood, in flower and fruit, the winter flower buds and alligator-skin bark" width="500" height="789" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Flowering dogwood, in flower and fruit, the winter flower buds and alligator-skin bark</span></p> -</div> -<p>It is not fair to charge Jack Frost with all -the gay colours of the autumn woods. Perhaps -I should say, rather, that he does not deserve -all the credit people give him for painting the -<span class="pb" id="Page_77">[77]</span> -landscape with the sunset glories of the dying -leaves. The cause is the ripening of the leaves -themselves, as I have already explained. Frost -may hasten the process, but if a heavy freeze -comes in September, before the leaves have -coloured, we lose our chance for autumn colouring -that year. The leaves drop as if scalded, -and the trees lose their leaf pulp, which they -had expected to withdraw and save for future -use. A long dry autumn of warm days and -mildly frosty nights produces the finest succession -of colours.</p> -<p>Countries that have a more moist, warm -climate than ours, do not have the vivid autumn -colours that we enjoy. England, and the countries -of Western Europe, are like our West coast -in lacking the colour changes that make October -for us the most glorious month of the year. Our -New England woodlands and the forests of Canada -are matched in brilliancy by the wooded -slopes of the Swiss Alps, and the forests along -the Rhine and the Danube. In our Southern -states there is little or no change that comes -to the foliage towards the end of the year. The -leaves on the trees of Florida are lazy in falling. -They wait until pushed off by the swelling buds -in early spring. Many trees that shed their -leaves promptly each autumn in the Northern -<span class="pb" id="Page_78">[78]</span> -states, gradually become evergreen in the Southern -parts of their range. The longer a tree -carries its leaves, the more battered and worn -they become. A tree with fresh, new leaves -mingling with old ones is not a pleasant object, -at least to Northern eyes. This is the way most -trees in the South look in spring.</p> -<p>If we should travel the world over, and see -the trees of many lands, in spring, in summer, -in autumn, and in winter, I believe we should -all come back to the clean, beautiful mixed woods -of our north temperate zone, and declare that -these woods are the most beautiful in the world. -In the dead of winter, they are budded full of -promise. We learn to love them as well in this -period of rest as we do in the beauty of their -spring flowers, or in the glory of their autumn -colouring, or in the steady growth of summer.</p> -<p>Each leaf is nurse to a bud that is growing -between its base and the twig. Find these little -buds on any tree with broad leaves. A part -of all the food that passes that way stops to -feed this growing bud; and in the late summer -the twig provides for the future welfare of all -its buds. The thrifty tree withdraws the green -pulp from its leaves, before it lets them fall. A -store of starch is put away in the twig, close -to each bud. This is the food supply which will -<span class="pb" id="Page_79">[79]</span> -be used in the spring to enable the bud to open -and spread its young leaves, or its flowers, in -a surprisingly short time.</p> -<p>When the worn-out leaf has been drained of -all of its pulp, the tree lets it go. It has done -its work, and given up its pulp to be stored in -the twig for future use. It seems as if the -tree knows that, with the coming of cooler -weather, growth must stop; that the tender leaves -must die when frost overtakes them. So it is -a frugal habit to save all of the good green leaf -pulp, and to cast off only the dry leaf skin.</p> -<h2>TREE STUDIES IN THE WINTER</h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_83">[83]</div> -<h3 id="c26">TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR BARK</h3> -<p>Hunters and foresters who spend much -of their time in the woods learn to know -trees by name through long acquaintance. In -the dead of winter, the framework of a tree may -be enough to recognise it by. Where trees are -crowded, this sign is not to be depended upon. -The bark is often a guide to the tree’s name. -The forester will tell you that the bud is the surest -sign of all. The bark is one of the best signs.</p> -<p>It is not the easiest thing in the world to learn -to know trees by the bark alone. To the beginner, -so many trees with dark, furrowed bark -look strangely alike, although the trees are not -even related to each other. The foresters began -with trees that have peculiar and easily recognised -bark. So we shall begin here, and hope -that the hard cases will gradually become easier.</p> -<p>Every tree wears a garment of bark from the -ground up to the utmost twigs. The thinnest -bark is on the youngest branches. The thickest -is on the trunk.</p> -<p>Begin with the white birch upon the lawn. -The bark of this tree is made of thin layers; -<span class="pb" id="Page_84">[84]</span> -the outer one shining like white satin. It breaks -and tatters, and peels off around the trunk. -Three-cornered patches of black are found under -each branch, and others on the trunk show where -branches once came out, but were broken or cut -off.</p> -<p>Do you notice narrow, horizontal slits of different -lengths on the birch bark? These are -breathing holes that let the air in to the layer -under the bark. Spongy, porous substance fills -these slits, but allows the air to pass through. -At the lower part of the trunk the satiny outer -bark is shed, leaving dark under layers, rough -and checked into irregular blocks. As the tree -grows older, the trunk becomes rougher and -darker, but the branches always show the kind -of bark that the little tree wore.</p> -<p>In the Northern woods the white bark of the -canoe birch is stripped from the trees in layers -as thick as sole leather. Out of these the Indians -once made their bark canoes. Now the same -material is used for making all manner of trifling -souvenirs to sell to tourists. A square of this -thick bark, cut on the smooth side of a trunk, -may be split into a great number of thin sheets. -This the camper uses to write letters upon, and -it is a beautiful and fitting substitute for note -paper, when one is camping out.</p> -<div class="img" id="p103"> -<img src="images/p103.jpg" alt="We recognize birches by their silky, tattered bark" width="500" height="783" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">We recognize birches by their silky, tattered bark</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p104"> -<img src="images/p104.jpg" alt="The beech trunk is clothed in smooth, pale grey bark" width="500" height="764" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The beech trunk is clothed in smooth, pale grey bark</span></p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_85">[85]</div> -<p>It is a great pity that so many beautiful trees -are girdled and killed to supply the needs of -camping parties. If the bark were stripped but -part way around it would not kill the tree.</p> -<p>The yellow birch has a silvery yellow tint in -the outer bark, which curls back in ragged ribbons -until the tree gets old. The red birch -writes its name in the rusty red colour of its papery -bark, which splits into tatters in true birch -fashion, and flutters the ragged ends from each -branch throughout the year. The black birch -has no tattered ribbons flying, but wears a close, -smooth, black bark, with the narrow slits that -all birches show. As the trunks grow larger -the surface checks into irregular plates, separated -by furrows. It is called the cherry birch, for -the bark is like that of cherry trees.</p> -<p>The sycamore has bark which is different from -that of every other tree. Indeed, it is by the -bark that we recognise this tree. The tall trunk -looks as if it were blotched and streaked and -spattered with whitewash, from the trunk to the -topmost limb. The bark is continually dropping -off in thin, irregular plates, leaving smooth whitish -patches of an under layer exposed. After -sycamore trees grow older, the bark of the lower -portion of the trunk stops shedding. Fine-checked -plates of rusty brown cover this oldest -<span class="pb" id="Page_86">[86]</span> -portion. But even on the oldest and largest -trees, the pale blotches are seen in the branches -and we shall never mistake the name of the -tree.</p> -<p>The shagbark is one of the rugged and shaggy -trees that boys find hard to climb without tearing -their clothes into tatters. The bark gives the -tree its name. Thin, narrow plates, close-woven -and tough as sole leather, seem to be attached -very loosely to the body of the tree, but if you -try to pull off these narrow strips, you find their -hold is very firm. Often they are attached at -the middle, and spring out at both ends.</p> -<p>An old shagbark tree is a picturesque figure, -as it lifts its bare arms up toward the wintry -sky. The trunk is straight, but the branches are -full of angles. Yet, with all their rigidity, these -limbs have an expression of strength, if not of -grace, and the tree’s head is usually symmetrical, -and always full of character.</p> -<p>A young hickory has smooth, close-knit bark like -that on the branches of the older trees. Gradually -the growing trunk becomes furrowed, and -the peculiar splintering and splitting of the bark -is seen only in trees six inches or more in diameter. -By the time the tree is old enough to bear -nuts, it has built itself a formidable fence that -boys must climb over with much hard work and -<span class="pb" id="Page_87">[87]</span> -many a scratch, to get up among the branches -and shake down the nuts.</p> -<div class="img" id="p107"> -<img src="images/p107.jpg" alt="The loose, stripping bark gives its name to the shagbark hickory" width="500" height="784" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The loose, stripping bark gives its name to the shagbark hickory</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p108"> -<img src="images/p108.jpg" alt="Warty bark of hackberry; Silky bark of black birch; Close, sinewy bark of hornbeam" width="669" height="423" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Left: Warty bark of hackberry -<br />Center: Silky bark of black birch -<br />Right: Close, sinewy bark of hornbeam</span></p> -<p>The tasteless pignuts grow on a smooth-barked -hickory tree, very easy to climb, but the -bark of the little shellbark hickory is the guide-post -that leads to the trees where the sweet-flavoured -hickory nuts grow.</p> -<p>The close-knit, grey bark of beech trees hardly -needs to be described. The temptation to cut -initials on beech trunks is more than folks with -pocket-knives can resist. No matter how many -fine trees there are in a beech grove near town, -they are scarred all over with letters and hieroglyphics -as far as hand can reach. The tree -never covers these wounds. Though they do -not cripple it, they mar its beauty painfully.</p> -<p>A little further from the haunts of picnic parties, -we shall come upon beech woods that have -not thus been abused by thoughtless jack-knives. -From the ground, far up into the high tops, a -close, beautiful garment of ashy grey bark -clothes the tree. Saplings of all ages grow up -among the big trees, for beeches grow in colonies. -A soft radiance from these many pale tree trunks -seems to lighten the woods paths, overshadowed -by the dense foliage of the tree tops.</p> -<p>It is said that beech trees die when they come -into contact with civilisation. Fine beech woods -<span class="pb" id="Page_88">[88]</span> -are included in additions to towns; you will see -the great trees die when lawns and gardens are -made about their roots. In the outskirts of Indianapolis -there are noble beech trees, but they -are dying, as the city grows around them.</p> -<p>The copper beeches and the cut-leaved and -weeping beeches have the same close-knit bark -as our native tree, but it is not grey, but dark -brown. These fancy forms are varieties of the -European beech, one of the principal lumber trees -of the Old World.</p> -<p>The bark of this tree played an interesting -part in the early history of the human race. -Long before the European tribes had written -languages, they sent messages from one to another. -These messages between tribes, friendly -or warlike, were written in hieroglyphics, cut into -the smooth surface of beech bark, and messengers -carried them back and forth.</p> -<p>Sheets of beech bark, as well as birch, made -the walls and roofs of the huts in which people -lived. Their boats and various household utensils -were made out of beech wood, which is so -close-grained that vessels made of it hold water -without leaking.</p> -<p>Another American tree with bark like the -beech, but darker grey, grows always, by preference, -with its roots in wet soil. It is a little -<span class="pb" id="Page_89">[89]</span> -tree, with rigid, horizontal twigs, that form a flat -tree top. This is called the blue beech, and its -trunk does often have a bluish cast. It is also -called hornbeam, for its wood is so hard that -it was used in the early days to make the beams -which went across the horns of the oxen. This -is the part of the ox yoke which is the most -subject to wear. Ironwood is another name that -describes the hard wood.</p> -<p>We shall notice that this tree has not a regular -cylindrical trunk like that of a beech. Strong -swellings, that look like muscles, are seen, especially -where the trunk branches into the main -limbs. Have you ever noticed the arms of a -blacksmith, or of an athlete? How the veins -and muscles stand out when the arm is in use! -Just like them are the irregular swellings that -course up the trunk of the hornbeam, and out -into the limbs.</p> -<p>The hackberry is a handsome shade tree, which -might, at first glance, be mistaken for an elm. -The bark is different from that of any other -tree. Once we see a hackberry, and learn its -name, we will never mistake it again. The bark -is light brown or grey, and finely checked by deep -furrows. The ridges between bear strange, -warty outgrowths. Look for these warts among -the small branches. The twigs are smooth, but -<span class="pb" id="Page_90">[90]</span> -back a little way the warty eruptions begin, and -become more prominent as the limbs thicken and -approach the trunk. Sometimes the limbs have -these warts so close together as to form continuous -ridges.</p> -<p>Another tree with warty bark is the sweet -gum. The negroes of the South call the tree -“alligator wood,” because the lower part of the -trunk is broken by furrows and cross-furrows -into horny plates like the skin of an alligator. -From the red-brown trunk up into the grey -branches, there is a change in the character of -the bark. The fissures usually run lengthwise, -and the bark rises in thin ridges on each side -of the fissure. These ridges become thin as -knife blades on the smaller twigs, which also -have a sprinkling of small warts.</p> -<p>A sweet gum is very rugged looking in the -dead of winter, with its warts and ridges breaking -out on each limb. We know it by this sign -alone, but are doubly sure when we see the seed -balls dangling from the twigs. The sycamore, -blotched with white on trunk and limb, also carries -a load of dangling seed balls throughout -the winter. There is no danger of confusing -these two trees, for the bark of each is so distinct.</p> -<div class="img" id="p113"> -<img src="images/p113.jpg" alt="Warty, ridged bark of the sweet gum, the swinging seed balls and winged seeds" width="500" height="806" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Warty, ridged bark of the sweet gum, the swinging seed balls and winged seeds</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p114"> -<img src="images/p114.jpg" alt="Blotched bark of sycamore, and its seed balls that hang all winter" width="500" height="782" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Blotched bark of sycamore, and its seed balls that hang all winter</span></p> -</div> -<p>A little tree with alligator skin bark grows -<span class="pb" id="Page_91">[91]</span> -North and South, and chiefly in the eastern half -of the country. This is the flowering dogwood, -whose grey bark breaks into small squarish plates. -There is no such ruggedness in its trunk as there -is in the sweet gum’s, for it is always a little tree, -and the bark corresponds in its checking to the -tree’s size. When we see this peculiar type of -bark in the winter woods we may look also for -little flattened, box-like flower buds, each enclosed -in four scales. We shall also find the -twigs set opposite, and with these three signs -be sure we know the tree.</p> -<p>A little tree, no larger in girth than the dogwood, -but often taller, has bark that strips and -loosens somewhat as the bark of the shagbark -hickory does. This is the hop hornbeam, one of -the ironwoods. Its bark strips are always thin -and narrow, no matter how old the tree becomes. -It is never as loose upon the trunk as the shagbark’s. -The great buds and stout twigs of the -hickory are entirely different from the slender -spray and the very small buds this ironwood -wears in winter. We may find on these twigs -some remnant of the hop-like seed clusters which -give this little tree its name, hop hornbeam. Inside -its shaggy bark the lumbermen find wood -so hard that it is very difficult to work, and when -made into tools it lasts almost forever.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_92">[92]</div> -<p>When we have learned to know at sight a -dozen trees by their bark alone, we are ready to -go further. A great many trees with furrowed -bark like chestnuts and elms and maples, are -not so distinct as those already learned, and we -must study the tree’s form, its winter buds, the -arrangement of these buds, and the shape of -the leaf scars in connection with the bark, in -order to be sure we know the tree’s name. The -chestnut from which we gathered so many nuts -last fall, and whose furrowed trunk we saw at -every visit, we come to know through this familiarity. -The trunks of other chestnut trees -look like this one, and though we may not know -just how we do it, we have added the chestnut -to the list of trees we recognise by their bark -alone. The sugar maples which we tap in spring -for their sugary sap, have dark, furrowed bark, -not very distinctive. And yet, by going from -tree to tree, emptying the sap pails, we gradually -learn to recognise the bark of the sugar maple, -and add it to our growing list.</p> -<div class="img" id="p117"> -<img src="images/p117.jpg" alt="The Lombardy poplar stands like an exclamation point in the landscape" width="500" height="760" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The Lombardy poplar stands like an exclamation point in the landscape</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p118"> -<img src="images/p118.jpg" alt="The live oak of the South is usually hung with long skeins of the weird, grey Spanish moss" width="667" height="420" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The live oak of the South is usually hung with long skeins of the weird, grey Spanish moss</span></p> -</div> -<p>Trees do not change their clothes, and they -do not move away. Day after day, if we use -our eyes and notice what is going on in the tree -tops, as the seasons follow each other, we come -to know our trees by name; we recognise them -in winter by their bark, and by the framework -<span class="pb" id="Page_93">[93]</span> -of their tops, in summer by leaves and flowers, -in autumn by their changing colour and by their -fruits. It is not hard work for those who love -trees. It is like getting acquainted with other -neighbours whom we are glad to count among -our friends.</p> -<h3 id="c27">TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR SHAPES</h3> -<p>The life of every tree depends upon its success -in holding its leaves out into the sunlight. -The tree which exposes the greatest -amount of leaf surface to the sun makes the -greatest growth. The shape of their tops is a -character in which trees differ widely. We shall -come to know many of them in winter time better -than in summer, by the distinct shapes revealed -when the foliage is gone. In any bare -tree, the purpose of all of the branching and -branching again, is plainly seen. Each twig and -branch reaches out toward the outer surface of -the dome, or pyramid. Here the buds in winter -are waiting to open, when spring comes, into -leafy shoots. These will cover the tree top with -a dome of green greater than the one of the previous -summer. Their work through the growing -season will lengthen every branch and every -<span class="pb" id="Page_94">[94]</span> -root, and add a layer of wood under the bark -of trunks and branches and roots.</p> -<p>The most remarkable tree shape is that of the -Lombardy poplar. The tall trunk is clothed with -many short, close-branched limbs, which do not -spread, as in ordinary tree forms, but grow upright, -so as to lie almost against the main trunk. -The upper branches are overlapped and crowded -by those below them, and so on down the trunk. -The result is a tree shaped like a capital I. In -summer time, the heart-shaped leaves cover the -twigs on the outside of this spire, but the -beauty of the tree top is marred by the dead -branches which have been smothered by the -crowding.</p> -<p>A young Lombardy poplar is handsome as it -stands covered with its twinkling leaves. It -grows rapidly, and is especially striking and effective -in clumps of round-headed trees. It is -like an exclamation point. Architects always -like to have a few of these trees dotted about -the grounds to keep company with tall chimneys -and distant church spires. There is no -shade under trees of this form, though miles of -them are planted along roadsides where they -stand like tin soldiers, all alike. The older trees -look very ragged, for they are unable to shed -their dead limbs, and as old age comes on they -<span class="pb" id="Page_95">[95]</span> -send up suckers from the roots that form a little -forest around the parent tree.</p> -<p>Scattered over fallow fields of worthless -ground, the red cedars are allowed to grow. They -are the evergreen counterparts of the slim Lombardy -poplars. Sometimes the red cedar broadens -into a pyramid, wide at the base, but we are -all familiar with the green exclamation points, -dotted over the hillsides, wherever birds have -dropped the blue berries full of seeds.</p> -<p>The pointed firs with their horizontal branches -becoming longer and longer towards the ground, -are good examples of the pyramid form so common -among evergreens. This is the shape of -the spruces, and the pines, and the hemlocks, until -storms have broken their branches, and taken -away the symmetry of the top. The pin oak -and the honey locust send out horizontal branches -of graduated lengths from the central shaft, imitating -the evergreens in shape.</p> -<p>The evergreen magnolia of the South has a -dome like an old-fashioned beehive, pyramidal, -and regular when it grows in sheltered places. -Such a dome is the hard maple’s in the North.</p> -<p>Some trees branch low, and their short trunks -break into great limbs whose ample spread forms -a dome much broader than its height. The white -oak in the North and its evergreen counterpart, -<span class="pb" id="Page_96">[96]</span> -the live oak of the South, illustrate this noble -form. Somewhat like them, but with its dome -elevated upon a tall trunk, is the American elm -with the fan top. The lines of the elm branches -are all curves from the arching limbs that rise -out of the trunk to the flexible twigs which droop -at the extremities of the branches. The dome -of a white oak is made of angular limbs. Even -the twigs are likely to be crooked. No one would -confuse the elm with an oak.</p> -<p>Round-headed trees are many. Go from the -apple tree in the orchard to the red and Norway -maples along our streets. A great many trees -find this form best adapted to spreading their -leaves out towards the sun. Many oaks and ash -trees, the hickories and birches, and the beeches -have widely spreading limbs forming tops that -are oblong in shape. There are trees so irregular -in habits of growth that we shall never -know them by their forms alone.</p> -<p>The winter is the best time to study tree shapes, -for then the framework is revealed. The trees to -study are those which stand apart from others, -so that they have been able to take their natural -shapes. These we shall find growing on the -streets, and in yards, and parks, and in open -spaces in the woods. Where trees crowd each -other in growing, their branches chafe and clash -<span class="pb" id="Page_97">[97]</span> -in storms, destroying the buds and leaves, and -bruising the tender bark. Such limbs die of -these injuries, and the whole shape of the tree -top is changed by its losses.</p> -<div class="img" id="p123"> -<img src="images/p123.jpg" alt="Fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn" width="500" height="764" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p124"> -<img src="images/p124.jpg" alt="Clustered thorns on trunk of honey locust tree; Flowers and foliage of the black locust" width="670" height="426" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Left: Clustered thorns on trunk of honey locust tree. -<br />Right: Flowers and foliage of the black locust</span></p> -<p>It is hopeless for lower limbs to live in a -dense pine forest. The top branches form so -thick a wall of shade that lower branches die -from lack of sun. It is the same with broad-leaved -trees. In any dense woods, the trees stand -bare as telegraph poles, lifting small heads of -foliage at the top, and competing there with their -neighbour trees for sun and air. It is only when -set apart from other trees that a trunk can keep its -lower branches hale and strong as those at the top.</p> -<p>The weeping habit gives us some strange tree -forms. The Camperdown elm forms a shady -summer-house on many a lawn by arching limbs -which droop to the ground on all sides of the -main trunk. The weeping mulberry has the -same habit. Weeping birches and willows have -such light foliage, and such fine, flexible twigs, -that they look like fountains of green as they -stand among the other trees.</p> -<p>All weeping trees are made by grafting in the -nursery rows. They are not grown from seeds, -and it is not true that they “weep” because of -being planted up-side-down! This preposterous -notion is not uncommon.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_98">[98]</div> -<h3 id="c28">TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR THORNS</h3> -<p>In winter time, the bare limbs of trees reveal -many strange secrets, which the leaves cover up -in summer. Some trees we may know by the -thorns they wear.</p> -<p>The honey locust scarcely conceals in summer -the three-branched thorns, for which it is famous. -These thorns are twigs, but they rarely bear -leaves. Each is sharpened to a needle point, and -highly polished. Sometimes it is single, oftener -with a main thorn and two side branches; sometimes -short, but often reaching over a foot in -length, and growing stronger and more wicked-looking -with age. Sometimes a honey locust -has a crowded group of these thorns growing -out of the trunk and large limbs. Once in a great -while a honey locust is thornless, growing wild. -From such trees a thornless variety has been -developed. It is, therefore, possible to obtain -from nurserymen trees of this variety.</p> -<p>The unbranched spines of the osage orange -trees make it a formidable hedge plant, and no -fences are needed where green barriers of these -trees grow. Each shining leaf has a spike at -its base, stout and sharp as a needle, and strong -as steel.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_99">[99]</div> -<p>Two spines stand guard at the base of each -leaf of the yellow or black locust, and each leaflet -has two little spines of the same type. The -basal spines remain after the leaves fall, so that -in winter we shall find these pairs of sentinels -guarding the leaf scars up and down the ridged -twigs. On the thicker stems the thorns are -larger, and the tree is thus well-armed and able -to do duty as a hedge plant, when thickly planted.</p> -<p>These thorns come off with the bark, hence -they are more properly called prickles. They are -not rooted in the wood of the branch as the -thorns of the honey locust are, but they belong -in the class with rose and raspberry prickles, -which are mere outgrowths of the bark.</p> -<p>The hawthorn trees have single spines, some -long and curved, some short, some branched. All -are rooted in the pith of the twig that bears them; -therefore, they are not prickles, but true thorns.</p> -<p>The wild plum trees have a strange habit of -ending their shoots with thorny tips, as if the -branches needed such defence against browsing -cattle. Certainly these stunted, sharp-pointed -twigs are useful as weapons of defence to the -little trees that grow slowly in poor soil, and are -sufferers from poverty and abuse. Perhaps it -is their hard luck that makes them crabbed and -thorny. Wild apple trees show the same tendency -<span class="pb" id="Page_100">[100]</span> -to have thorny twigs. The same little trees, -transplanted to mellow soil, grow soft and leafy -twigs, and abandon the carrying of weapons.</p> -<p>Hercules’ club is a tree which beats the ailanthus -at its own game. Stems ten feet high and -two inches in diameter at the base sometimes -shoot up in a single season. These clubs of -Hercules are covered with spines as thickly set -as on a gooseberry bush, formidable and vicious, -though only skin deep.</p> -<p>On account of its tropical growth, this tree is -planted for ornament in gardens where there is -room. Its leaves are wonderful. They come -out with a rich, silky, bronze sheen in spring, -and when they reach full size are often four feet -long, and more than half as wide. Each one -is branched and branched again, and ends in a -multitude of small oval leaflets. These giant -leaves sway in the summer winds, giving the tree -the grace of a tree fern. In late summer a -great pyramid of bloom rises above the foliage. -Purplish berries, which succeed the flowers, make -a fine showing in fall and winter, when the leaves -have turned to red and gold.</p> -<p>We dare not touch this spiny tree, but we may -come close and admire its wonderful crown of -umbrella leaves, the biggest by far borne on any -tree outside of the Tropics.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_101">[101]</div> -<h3 id="c29">THE NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS</h3> -<p>In our town and in our neighbourhood most -of the trees drop their leaves before winter -comes, and stand with bare limbs for several -months. Here and there, however, a single tree -stands, wearing the same green leaves it wore -all summer. Everybody knows this tree as an -evergreen. It belongs to a group of trees -strangely different from those around it which -have shed their leaves. Let us see how it differs -from them.</p> -<p>Take the one that is nearest to you, and pull -down one of its leafy, green branches. The -leaves are like green needles, stiff, sharp-pointed, -with waxy resin on the brown twigs, that makes -your fingers sticky. Up in the tree tops strange -oval, brown cones are hanging. Underfoot, a -carpet of dead needles lies thick upon the grass, -and cones, with their overlapping scales spread -much wider than those upon the tree, lie about. -Squirrels have gnawed some of these scales away, -leaving a central spike like a cob from which -the corn has been shelled. Little green cones, -fat and waxy, no larger than your thumb, are -seen near the tips of some branches. You can -see the scales overlapping each other in these, -<span class="pb" id="Page_102">[102]</span> -even though they seem to be grown solidly together.</p> -<p>If we walk through the village or the city in -which we live, and stop under each evergreen tree -we come to, we shall find nearly all alike in -these two points: they have needle-like leaves, -and they have cones. The evergreens with -needle-like leaves, and cones on and under them, -belong to four evergreen tree families, whose -names every one would like to know. These four -evergreen families are named pine, spruce, fir, -and hemlock, and they are planted everywhere. -But few people are very sure they know one from -another. It is perfectly right to call them all evergreens, -or conifers, which means cone-bearers. -These names include all the four families. But -it is common for people to call a spruce, a pine, -or a hemlock, a spruce, when the truth is that -one may very easily know these trees apart.</p> -<p>Let us begin with the first needle-leaved cone-bearing -evergreen we meet. To find out whether -this tree is a pine, a spruce, a fir, or a hemlock, -we must ask the tree some questions. It will -answer them. First: “Are your needles set <i>one</i> -in a place on the twig, or are they in groups, -or bundles, of <i>more than one</i> at a place?” Pull -down a twig and look sharply for the answer. -Suppose there are the leaves in pairs, or in threes, -<span class="pb" id="Page_103">[103]</span> -or in fives, each bundle or group growing out -of a single point on the twig. The answer is: -“Not single, but in bundles, more than one at -a place.” Towards the end of the shoot you -will find a brownish or silvery sheath binding -the leaves into bundles. Further back, this -sheath may be missing, but the number of leaves -in the bundle remains the same for some distance -back from the end of the shoot. The leaves -begin to fall from the bundles farthest from -the tips, and therefore old. If two leaves is the -number in a bundle, there are never more than -two, young and old. If three is the number, -you will find only threes. If five is the number, -then you will rarely find fewer than this in any -bundle.</p> -<p>All the trees with more than one leaf in a -bundle are pines. All of the rest of the needle-leaved -evergreens have a single leaf at a place -upon the twig. They are the spruces, firs, and -hemlocks. Let us go and look for them.</p> -<p>The very next evergreen we come to we must -put the same question to: “Are your leaves -single, or are there more than one in a bundle?” -Suppose “three in a bundle” is the answer; we -recognise the tree as a pine, and pass it by.</p> -<p>Across the street is a tree of different shape, -though an evergreen and a conifer. We see -<span class="pb" id="Page_104">[104]</span> -the long cones hanging from its drooping -branches, especially near the top of the tree. -Cross over and examine a twig; the needles are -short and sharp-pointed, and they are set singly -in spiral lines on the twigs. Every leaf sits on -a little shelf, or bracket, that stands out from the -twig. Pick up a dead twig under the tree. The -leaves are gone, but these little brackets in spiral -rows wind around the twig. They are horny -and sharp, and would tear your fingers if you -drew the twig quickly between them.</p> -<p>Notice that the little brackets are angled at the -top. Pick up a dead leaf and notice the shape -of its base. The leaf itself has angled sides. -Roll it between your thumb and finger. It has -three or four sides, and at least three sharp -angles.</p> -<p>This is a spruce, and the signs by which we -know it are the brackets on the twig, the thick, -sharp, three- or four-angled leaf, and the stout -twigs, to match the stout leaves.</p> -<p>The next needle-leaved evergreen with cones -we meet we may hope will turn out to be a fir -or hemlock, but the chances are that its twigs will -show two, three, or five needles in a bundle. -What shall we call the tree? A pine, of course, -and pass it by. We need ask no further question.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_105">[105]</div> -<p>The next tree has stiff twigs with brackets, and -stout, stiff, angled and pointed leaves. Cones -hang down upon its branches. We recognise a -spruce, and go on.</p> -<p>Over yonder is an evergreen which waves a -featherly spray of very slender twigs. There is -scarcely a breeze stirring, and yet the tree is all -a-tremble, and its drooping branches carry a load -of pretty little brown cones. Turn up a branch, -and you notice that the leaves are all silvery -underneath. They are single on the twigs, so -this is not a pine. They part and lie flat, a row -on each side of the twig. This is very different -from a spruce whose leaves stand out all around -the twigs. These sprays are flat, each like a -feather. The leaves are soft, not stiff. They -are blunt, flat, and each has a tiny stem. The -twigs are like fine wire, they are so slender. The -leaves are mounted on brackets, just as the spruce -leaves are, but the brackets are much smaller, -to match the daintier twigs and leaves.</p> -<p>It is a hemlock tree. The tiny leaf stem is the -thing which sets it apart from all other needle-leaved -evergreens. Take a good look before you -go, at the leaf itself, at the slender twigs, with -their little brackets, at the shining upper surface -of the flat leaf and the silvery lining that makes -this tree so lovely as the wind lifts the flexible -<span class="pb" id="Page_106">[106]</span> -branches. Pick up a handful of dead leaves, -and notice that though dead and brown, they -show the flat surface with a middle ridge on the -under side, prolonged into the short leaf stem. -The pale lining is not so distinct now.</p> -<p>One tree family remains of the needle-leaved, -cone-bearing evergreen. That is the fir, the -Christmas tree, and its close relatives. Not often -do we plant our native fir, because the trees are -not as handsome, nor as useful as pines, spruces, -and hemlocks. We may walk far before we find -an evergreen which does not turn out to be a -pine, a spruce, or a hemlock. However, it is -near Christmas time. The little firs will be -brought into market in sufficient numbers to supply -a Christmas tree to every house. This is -our chance. We will go to market, and look -at these little trees that stand together, with their -limbs trussed like fowls, ready to be baked. This -is for economy of space in shipping.</p> -<p>The clean, pungent odour of balsam comes -from the bleeding stub, and we see tears of the -whitish wax wherever the bark of a twig or -branch is bruised. These are balsam firs. They -have their name from this fragrant, sticky resin -that leaks from their veins.</p> -<p>First, as to the leaves. We find them single -and spirally arranged, as in the spruce, but there -<span class="pb" id="Page_107">[107]</span> -are no brackets on the twigs. Pull off a leaf -and the twig is smooth. The leaves are blunt, -but flattened, and on most of the twigs they -spread, feather-like, on two sides. There are -more of them, however, than on the hemlock -spray. They are white-lined, like the hemlock -leaves, but there are no little leaf stems. The -twigs are stouter than those of the hemlock, resembling -the spruce twigs in size, but they lack -horny little leaf brackets which are so prominent -on spruce twigs.</p> -<p>One reason that spruce trees make poor Christmas -trees is that the leaves fall so soon. Almost -the day after Christmas the floor is scattered -with them. The fir trees keep their leaves for -weeks. This little bracket makes all the difference. -Fir leaves seem to be fastened right into -the twig itself, and made thus more secure.</p> -<p>If it chances that you find a fir old enough -to bear cones, you will see another very distinct -trait of this family. The cones are held erect -on the twigs; the cones of pines, and spruces, and -hemlocks hang down. If you are fortunate -enough to find a fir tree growing, and old enough -to bear its fruit, these upright cones will tell -you the tree’s name before you come near enough -to look at the leaves, and to see if the twigs are -smooth.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_108">[108]</div> -<h3 id="c30">THE FIVE-LEAVED SOFT PINES</h3> -<p>An evergreen with needle-like leaves in -bundles, two to five leaves in a bundle, is a pine. -These bundles are usually bound with a thin, -papery sheath at the base, and set in spiral rows -that wind around the twig. The leaves in the -newest sheaths are nearest the growing tip of -the shoot. Here we shall find the leaves shorter, -some so short that they have not yet got outside -of their sheaths. The silky covering hides -them, as the bud scales on other trees covered the -undeveloped shoot with its flowers and leaves, -wrapped in the winter buds.</p> -<p>The kind of pine depends upon the number -of leaves in a bundle. This is the first thing -to find out when we undertake to determine the -name of a pine tree. All of the vigorous young -shoots have bundles that do not vary in number -of needles. Further back on the limb are leaves -more than a year old. The sheaths are shorter, -or have fallen away entirely. Now the number -of needles in a bundle begins to be uncertain. -We find bundles that have fewer needles than -those on the younger wood. This is because the -older leaves are falling. Finally we reach a -point where the twigs are bare. On white pine -<span class="pb" id="Page_109">[109]</span> -shoots it is easy to find leaves that are five to -seven years old.</p> -<p>“Soft pine” is a lumberman’s term. Carpenters -use it, so do all people who work in wood. -It means that the wood of a certain group of -pines is soft and light, and the sap is not gummy. -Any boy who has cut kindling wood knows what -a joy it is to whittle soft pine. Until a few -years ago, this was the wood out of which boxes -of all sorts were made, and it was the only kindling -wood we had. Now things are changed. -Much box lumber is made of poplar and other -soft woods, which do not split as easily as pine. -This means that soft pine is getting scarce, and -is too valuable to use where cheaper woods will -serve.</p> -<h3 id="c31">THE WHITE PINE</h3> -<p>The white pine has the softest, most hair-like -leaves in the whole pine family. Five needles are -in each bundle, and each is delicate and flexible. -When the wind blows through the top of one -of these five-needled trees, the end shoots nod -like plumes. The tree sends up a straight shaft -sometimes to the height of nearly two hundred -feet, and whorls of branches, five in a place, -form regular platforms extending horizontally -<span class="pb" id="Page_110">[110]</span> -from the trunk. Each of these sets of branches -counts a year of the tree’s life; for the end bud -lengthens the trunk, and at the same time, five -buds that surround it grow out into horizontal -branches. It is easy to count the age of a young -white pine, by beginning at the tip, and counting -downward. We could do it with large trees, -except that the lower branches die, and at length -are lost. The bark heals over the scars left -where they fell, so the count is lost when we -reach the point where the branches stop. The -white pine is slow to shed its dead branches.</p> -<p>In the woods of the Eastern half of the United -States any five-leaved pine that we meet is a white -pine. Before we are near enough to count the -needles in a bundle, we may count five branches at -a whorl around the trunk, and this determines -the name. Beautifully regular pyramids, the -little trees are. In old age these pines lose -symmetry by the loss of limbs, and become very -rugged and picturesque. A white pine tree, -crippled by two or three centuries of struggle -with winds and lightnings, is a noble figure. The -plume-like branches soften its rugged outlines, -and the sombre blue-green of the older leaves is -brightened by the fresher colour of the new ones. -The upper half of the tree is hung with slim -cones whose smooth, thin scales spread wide in -<span class="pb" id="Page_111">[111]</span> -the autumn of their second year to let the winged -seeds go.</p> -<p>In spring the clustering catkins of staminate -flowers look like yellow cones on the ends of the -pale yellow-green shoots. The wind shakes an -abundant supply of golden dust out of these -pollen flowers, then lets the fading catkins fall. -The pistillate flowers are pinkish-purple and almost -hidden, just back of the tips of the upper -twigs. They are cone-shaped, and they part -their scales and stand erect to catch the pollen -as it drifts through the tree tops. The flowers -on each scale require a grain of pollen each, in -order to set seed. When its flowers are fertilised -the cone closes its scales tight, but they stand -erect all summer. In the autumn they are green -and fleshy, and they turn downward. In winter -we shall see among the swaying branches of these -pines, the green, half-grown fruits, and further -back, on wood a year older, the brown, full-grown -cones with their scales spread. These -cones often curve slightly. The largest of them -may be ten inches long, but the average cone is -little over half that length.</p> -<p>The lumbermen have stripped the white pine -from the Eastern forests until there is very little -left. Many states are planting this valuable timber -tree, to restore the forests that wasteful lumbering, -<span class="pb" id="Page_112">[112]</span> -and forest fires have destroyed. Thousands -of young trees grown in nursery rows are -transplanted to beautify home grounds and parks. -We shall find no difficulty in discovering white -pine trees, even though no forest near us has a -specimen left. It is one of the commonest pines -to be planted in cities and villages. It is the -only five-leaved pine that will grow successfully -on this side of the Rocky Mountains.</p> -<h3 id="c32">THE GREAT SUGAR PINE</h3> -<p>All along the coast mountains from Oregon to -Lower California, a five-leaved soft pine grows -whose size makes our Eastern white pine seem -like a dwarf. In that far country of big trees, -it is one of the giants. I had read of these trees -which grow to be over 200 feet in height, with -trunks six to ten feet in diameter at the ground, -but figures do not give much idea of the truth. -I first saw the groves of sugar pines miles ahead -of us, as the stage climbed the foot hills of the -Sierra Nevada mountains. We were on the way -into the wonderful Yosemite Valley. The -scrawny, grey, digger pines, with cones as big -as a man’s head, grew on the lower foot hills. -Next came the great yellow pines, and still higher -<span class="pb" id="Page_113">[113]</span> -up, the grand sugar pines, along the highest level -of the stage road. They stood oftenest in close -ranks so that their tops were small, because of -the crowding. And here they had stood for -centuries. The road was no wider than the broad -stumps of some that had been cut down, and -their prostrate trunks were longer than any log -I have ever seen before. I remember calculating -that the round dining table at home could be set -upon this stump, and all the family seated round -it with no danger of their chairs being too near -the edge. The standing trunks seemed like great -builded columns, too large for real trees to grow. -Their feathery, dark green tips reached nearer -to the sky than any trees in Eastern forests.</p> -<div class="img" id="p141"> -<img src="images/p141.jpg" alt="Hemlock cones are small; those of Norway spruce are four or five inches long" width="682" height="444" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Hemlock cones are small; those of Norway spruce are four or five inches long</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p142"> -<img src="images/p142.jpg" alt="Pine twig with cones, young and old, and clustered staminate flowers" width="500" height="788" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Pine twig with cones, young and old, and clustered staminate flowers</span></p> -</div> -<p>Under these pines old cones were lying. They -were big, to match the trees. Twenty inches the -longest one measured, with scales two inches long, -and plump seeds as big as navy beans. Far -off in the tree top the hanging cones looked -moderate in size. We could just see the green, -half-grown cones nearer the ends of the branches, -for this Western white pine, like our Eastern -species, requires two years to mature its fruit.</p> -<p>“Why call them sugar pines?” I asked the -stage driver. He pointed to some drops of resin-like -substance on the scales of the cone I held in -my lap. “Taste it,” he said. I did, and it was -<span class="pb" id="Page_114">[114]</span> -sweet, with somewhat the flavour of maple sugar. -Crystals of this sugar come from wounds in the -bark, and from the ends of green sticks when -burning. The sap is quite as sweet as that of -maple trees, but one is soon surfeited in eating -the candy-like substance.</p> -<p>The stage driver told me that a lumberman -could cut $5,000 worth of lumber from one of -these sugar pine trees. No wonder they think -that it is a burning shame for the government -to reserve these noble woods of the Yosemite -tract “just to be looked at.” Fortunately for -us, and for the people of the whole country, some -thousands of acres of magnificent forest are -reserved on those Western-mountain slopes, where -they are safe from the lumberman’s axe. If -we cannot go to see them this year, perhaps we -can fifty years hence. They will still be standing, -still growing, these noble remnants of the grandest -forests of any country. Specimens of what -Mr. John Muir calls “the largest, noblest, and -most beautiful of all the seventy or eighty species -of pine trees in the world.”</p> -<div class="img" id="p145"> -<img src="images/p145.jpg" alt="Thousands of little balsam firs supply the market with Christmas trees" width="672" height="426" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Thousands of little balsam firs supply the market with Christmas trees</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p146"> -<img src="images/p146.jpg" alt="In these tall white pine trees Nathaniel Hawthorne built an out-door study, where he wrote undisturbed" width="500" height="791" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">In these tall white pine trees Nathaniel Hawthorne built an out-door study, where he wrote undisturbed</span></p> -</div> -<h3 id="c33">THE NUT PINES</h3> -<p>A group of soft pines, with fewer needles than -five in a bundle, grows on the Western mountain -<span class="pb" id="Page_115">[115]</span> -slopes. Small trees they are, which have to -struggle hard against the winds and storms, and -with the scant moisture of the desert air and -soil for a bare living. They are very interesting -because of the fact that they have nuts, rich, -sweet, and nutritious, under the scales of their -cones, and these nuts are important items in the -food of many Indian tribes of the West.</p> -<p>The first is the four-leaved nut pine that -grows on the barren mountain slopes of Southern -and Lower California. It is a desert tree, rarely -reaching forty feet in height, and this only in -the most favourable situations. The foliage is -pale sage green. No other pine has four leaves -in a bundle. Its nut-like seeds are rich in oil, -starch, and sugar. Without them the Indians of -Lower California would probably starve. In -Riverside County the tree is common at 5,000 -feet above sea level. It has a regular pyramidal -head, when young, becoming low, round-topped -and irregular when very old.</p> -<p>Another piñon, but this one with a bushy, broad -top, and often considerably taller, grows with -the four-leaved pine on the mountains of Lower -California, and northward along the canyons and -mountain slopes of Arizona. The short leaves are -dark green, and there are but two or three in a -bundle. The seeds are plump, and rounded, or -<span class="pb" id="Page_116">[116]</span> -angular. The upper side is brown, the lower -side black, and each has a pale brown wing.</p> -<p>A third nut pine, or piñon, two- or three-leaved, -grows on the eastern foot hills of the outer ranges -of the Rocky Mountains, on both sides of the -system. Forests of it are found on the high -plains of Colorado and Arizona. It sometimes -grows large enough to be used for lumber. The -nuts are half an inch long, and have thin, brittle -shells. They are gathered by Indians and Mexicans, -and may often be bought in the markets -of Colorado and New Mexico.</p> -<p>The one-leaved nut pine seems to belong -with the spruces and firs, and other single-leaved -evergreens, but there are frequently two leaves in -the bundle, and there is a little scaly sheath at -the base. The grey-green leaves often hang on -for ten or twelve years. The winged nuts are -over half an inch long. The wood furnished -fuel and charcoal to the smelters in the mining -regions, and the Indians of Nevada and California -harvest the nut crop.</p> -<p>Every autumn when we are going for chestnuts -and hickory nuts in our Eastern woods, we -may think of the Indian families who leave their -homes in the lowlands, and climb the mountain -slopes to gather their nuts which are their staff -of life. If we should miss our nutting excursion, -<span class="pb" id="Page_117">[117]</span> -it would make no vital difference in our lives -during the coming winter. Our nuts are not a -serious part of the provisions of the household. -But with the Indians, to miss the nut pine harvest, -means to have no bread for the winter that is -coming.</p> -<p>Mr. John Muir, who has often lived among -these stunted upland forests, and seen the Indians -gathering the nuts and using them later as food, -tells us many interesting things. The trees of -the one-leaved nut pine are low, like old apple -trees, and full of cones. The Indians get long -poles, and beat the cones off the trees, then roast -them on hot stones, until the scales open. Then -they shake out the nuts, and gather them in -baskets and bags to carry home. These nuts -are eaten raw or parched on hot stones. These -are the easiest and simplest ways. But the best -and most palatable form in which they are prepared -costs much more time and labour. The -nuts are parched, then ground or pounded into -meal. This is stirred up with water, into a kind -of mush, which is formed into cakes and baked. -This is, in general, the way in which all pine nuts -are made into bread.</p> -<p>The time of the nut harvest is, for the Indians, -the merriest time of the year. If the crop is -heavy, the spirits of the party are light. A -<span class="pb" id="Page_118">[118]</span> -single family, if it is fairly industrious, can -gather fifty or sixty bushels of these rich, -thin-shelled nuts in a single autumn month; and with -this quantity to carry home, can go down the -mountains, tired but happy, knowing that their -bread for the winter, and plenty of it, is assured.</p> -<h3 id="c34">THE HARD PINES</h3> -<p>The hard pines are a group of needle-leaved -evergreens, whose leaf bundles contain two or -three needles, as a rule. The wood is heavy, -usually dark in colour, and saturated with a -resinous, gummy sap. The common name, “pitch -pine,” refers to the resinous wood; it is much -harder to work with than that of soft pines. -The most valuable hard pine forests grow in -the Southern states. These are now the chief -sources of pine lumber in the Eastern half of the -continent. They furnish also quantities of turpentine, -pitch, tar, and oil, products of the resinous -sap which saturates the wood of these trees -while they are growing.</p> -<p>One trait of the pitch pines is that they retain -the leaf sheath. The soft pines shed the sheath -as soon as the leaf bundle has attained its full -length.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_119">[119]</div> -<h3 id="c35">THE SOUTHERN PITCH PINES</h3> -<p>The woodwork and floors of a great many -houses of moderate cost are done to-day in -Southern pine, sometimes called “yellow pine,” -sometimes “curly pine.” The alternating bands -of dark and light yellowish brown, often very -much waved, give the wood an ornamental grain -that is much admired. It is common and most -desirable that this wood should not be stained nor -painted, but given the “natural finish” which -brings out the rich orange colour, and shows at -their full value the wavy bands and intricate -patterns that are the chief beauty of the wood. -The arching timbers that support the roof of a -church are often made of stiff timbers cut from -Southern pines, and dressed only with a coat -of oil, under which time deepens and enriches -the wood’s natural colours.</p> -<h3 id="c36">THE LONGLEAF PINE</h3> -<p>The longleaf pine is one of four hard pines -whose lumber is not distinguished by ordinary -carpenters, but is generally called “yellow pine.” -“Georgia pine” ranks a little higher than the -<span class="pb" id="Page_120">[120]</span> -rest. That is the longleaf, which grows over a -territory much greater than the state of Georgia. -This is the chief source of turpentine, pitch, and -tar, as well as one of the very best lumber trees -of the pitch pine group. The most ornamental -wood is that with the curliest grain, and the -narrowest bands of alternating dark and light -colour. It grows slowly in hard, sandy soils -on the damp coast plains near the Gulf of Mexico.</p> -<p>We shall know this tree from all other pines -by the length of its needles. They are twelve to -eighteen inches long, flexible, dark green, shining, -three in a bundle, enclosed at the base in long, -pale, silvery sheaths. They remain on the tree -but two years, therefore the tree top is bare -except for thick tufts of these drooping leaves on -the ends of the branches. If you have never -seen these trees growing in their natural forest -belt, that ranges from Virginia to Florida, and -west to the Mississippi River, or in small scattered -forest patches in Northern Alabama, Louisiana, -or Texas, you may have seen branches or -small trees shipped north to be used for Christmas -decorations. In the waste land that the lumbermen -have cut over, in the neighbourhood of these -longleaf forests, men go in early December, and -cut the little trees. Saplings two or three feet -high bring good prices in the Northern markets, -<span class="pb" id="Page_121">[121]</span> -where holly branches, ropes of ground pine, -sprigs of mistletoe, and leaves of Southern palms -are sold. A little two-foot longleaf pine, standing -erect, with all its long flexible leaves bending -outward like a fountain of shining green, is handsomer -than any palm of the same size.</p> -<p>The popularity of these pine shoots is growing, -and those who cut them seem not to realise that -they are killing the forests of the future. Trees -grow from seeds which fall in the territory -cleared by the lumbermen. If these little trees -that Nature plants are cut as fast as they show -themselves above the forest floor, how are the -longleaf pine forests to be restored? It is a -great problem, for a great part of the natural -wealth of the South is in these lumber tracts, now -being cleared at a terrific rate of speed, and the -land left practically worthless when stripped.</p> -<p>The cones of the longleaf pine are narrow and -tapering. The scales are thick, and each bears a -small spine. The leaves are the distinguishing -trait, and the tall, slender trunk crowned by a -long open head of short, twisted branches.</p> -<h3 id="c37">THE SHORTLEAF PINE</h3> -<p>The shortleaf pine ranks second only to the -longleaf among the forest pines of the South. -<span class="pb" id="Page_122">[122]</span> -It is the common “yellow pine,” and “North -Carolina pine” that is commonly sold from lumber -yards in the North and Middle West. Its -wood is almost as beautiful in the natural finish. -Its leaves are short in comparison with those of -the longleaf, and scarcely longer than any pines -of the North. They are found in clusters of twos -and threes, and they have the dark blue-green -colour of the white pine, lightened by the silvery -sheaths at the bases of the clusters. The leaves -are soft and flexible, slender, and sharp-pointed. -They vary from three to five inches in length. -The cones are two to three inches long, and half -as broad; the thickened scales have small spines. -It takes two years to bring cones to maturity, -and the old ones hang on several years. In -this they differ from our Northern pitch pine.</p> -<p>Forests of this timber pine are scattered from -Connecticut to Florida, and west to Illinois, Kansas, -and Texas. They are being slaughtered by -lumbermen as fast as those of the longleaf. The -young trees are tapped for turpentine. In the -South and East, these forests are practically gone. -The lumber mills are busy in the great tracts west -of the Mississippi, and below the Arkansas River, -in the forests of shortleaf pine, which until recently -were untouched, and too far from the -markets to be profitably cut.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_123">[123]</div> -<p>The shortleaf pine will reforest the old areas, -and spread over a widening territory, if only it -is given a chance. One hundred years is enough -time to restore a forest,—to grow a crop of these -trees. Young ones spring from the roots of -old trees, a habit not at all common among pines. -Let us hope that before the Southwestern forests -are gone, new ones east of the Mississippi River -will take their places, so that the shortleaf shall -not disappear from the lumber markets as the -white pine of the Northeastern states has done.</p> -<h3 id="c38">THE CUBAN PINE</h3> -<p>The Cuban pine or swamp pine of the South, -with stout green leaves eight to twelve inches -long, in twos and threes, is not confused with -the longleaf nor the shortleaf, for its leaves are -intermediate in length between the two. This -beautiful pine grows in forests that skirt swampy -coast land. Its leaves are carried two years, so -the trees have dense, luxuriant crowns of green, -and are more beautiful as a part of the landscape -than any other forest pine of the South. The -wood of the Cuban pine is not distinguished in -the lumber trade, as it is much the same in quality -and appearance as longleaf pine.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_124">[124]</div> -<h3 id="c39">THE LOBLOLLY PINE</h3> -<p>The fourth of the yellow pines of the South -is the loblolly or old field pine, whose lumber -is saturated with pitch. The trees grow in marshy -regions along the coast, and for the most part -occupy land that is sterile and worthless. These -tide water pine forests follow the swamps from -New Jersey around to Texas. In early days this -was the building pine of the South. The virgin -forests are gone, and the new generation is inferior -in quality, because the trees are not allowed -to attain their full growth. Though rich in resin, -there is little flow of turpentine from these trees, -but the wood catches fire easily, and is one of -the best of fuels.</p> -<p>We shall know this pine by its pale green, -twisted leaves, always in bundles of three, six -to ten inches long, enclosed at the base in sheaths -that are not shed. The cones are three to five -inches long, with ridged scales set with prickles. -This tree bears a great crop of cones yearly, -and its seeds are remarkable for their vitality. -So are the seedlings, which grow on land so wet -or so poor that few other trees compete with them. -The first ten years in the life of a seedling pine -is a period of tremendous growth. Fire rarely -<span class="pb" id="Page_125">[125]</span> -sweeps these young forests, for the trees are -well protected by the marshy character of the land -in which they grow. Left for a century or two, -these trees produce masts for the largest vessels, -equal in quality to the finest in the world.</p> -<h3 id="c40">THE NORTHERN PITCH PINES</h3> -<p>We have nothing in the Northeastern states -that compares in importance with the pitch pine -of Southern forests, but we have pitch pines -which everybody knows. The first is the gnarled -and picturesque pitch pine that grows on worthless -land, and thrives in patches along the sea -coast, where other evergreens are unsuccessful. -The rough, rigid branches which spring from -the short trunks of these trees carry a burden of -blackening cones which give them a very untidy -look when the trees are small. When they reach -fifty or seventy-five feet in height, a certain -nobility and picturesqueness of expression challenge -our admiration, and the clusters of cones -are not at all objectionable; indeed they heighten -the tree’s beauty.</p> -<p>The needle-like leaves of pitch pines are always -in threes, rigid, stout, and three to five inches -long, dark yellow-green, the bundles in black -<span class="pb" id="Page_126">[126]</span> -sheaths that are never shed. The cones require -two years to ripen. They are from one to three -inches long, pointed, with sharp backward-pointed -beaks. The wood of this tree is used for fuel, -and locally for lumber, but it does not interest the -lumbermen. The wood is not good enough, and -the trees are too small and scattered. The tree -does a good work by growing on worthless land, -and near the sea coast. Its picturesqueness is -becoming to be more appreciated by landscape -gardeners who are bringing it into cultivation.</p> -<p>The handsomest of our pitch pines is the red -pine, whose dark green leaves are six inches -long, and cluster in twos upon the twigs. The -bark, the wood, and the bud scales are all red. -The cones are from one to three inches long, -with thickened scales which have no spines. The -tree grows into a broad pyramid, branched to the -ground, with stout twigs, and luxuriant foliage. -The symmetry and vigour of growth makes this -red pine a handsomer tree than the ragged, discouraged-looking -pitch pines. It is well for the -landscape that its wood is very disappointing. -So many beautiful groves are allowed to reach -great age, and size, where white pines would -have fallen to a lumberman’s axe.</p> -<p>The home that has a beautiful red pine within -<span class="pb" id="Page_127">[127]</span> -sight of its windows, or a double row of these -trees serving as a wind-break to ward off the -storms of winter, is truly well planted. Without -one or more of these trees, there is a decided -lack. Any nurseryman can furnish handsome -young red pines, so no one need hesitate to plant -this native tree.</p> -<div class="img" id="p159"> -<img src="images/p159.jpg" alt="The spiny-leaved, red-berried holly is a handsome evergreen tree for the lawn" width="500" height="771" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The spiny-leaved, red-berried holly is a handsome evergreen tree for the lawn</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p160"> -<img src="images/p160.jpg" alt="What would Christmas be without holly branches and wreaths for decoration!" width="500" height="773" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">What would Christmas be without holly branches and wreaths for decoration!</span></p> -</div> -<p>The Jersey pine is a twisted, low tree, with -dark, discouraged-looking branches, covered with -grey-green leaves that have a sickly yellowish -tinge when the new shoots appear in spring. The -leaves are always in twos, and they range from -one to three inches long. The small cones are -dark red, oval, with thickened scales spiny-tipped. -These trees cover waste land where there is a -meagre living for any tree. What wonder that -they look stunted? Their chief merit is that they -clothe the desert places, and furnish wood for -fuel and fences, and thus save the great lumber -pines for higher uses.</p> -<h3 id="c41">THE CEDARS, WHITE AND RED</h3> -<p>Beside the needle-leaved evergreens just described, -there are some trees we all know, that -bear cones, and are evergreens, but their leaves -are strangely different from those of pines, spruces, -<span class="pb" id="Page_128">[128]</span> -firs, and hemlocks. One of these is the familiar -arbor vitæ, a conical tree, with flat leaf spray. -Looking closely, one can make out the tiny, scale-like -leaves, arranged in opposite pairs, clasping -the wiry stems, and covering them completely. -These stems are flat, so that one pair of leaves -has a sharp keel on the middle. The next pair -is spread out flat. The keeled pair covers the -edge of the stem. The flat pair covers the -broader surface. These pairs alternate through -the length of the stem, and an aromatic resin -seals them close.</p> -<p>The cones of the arbor vitæ are small, and -they have few scales, compared with the cones -of the needle-leaved evergreens. Each year a -crop is borne, with two seeds under each scale. -Few of us see the little red cone flowers in May, -nor the pellets of yellow on other twigs, which -are the pollen flowers. We watch the hedge -clipper at work, trimming the thick green fronds -that make a solid wall of green. Look carefully -hereafter for the flowers and the ripe cones, in -the proper season for each.</p> -<div class="img" id="p163"> -<img src="images/p163.jpg" alt="This big tree, “The Grizzly Giant,” is over three hundred feet high. It is a sequoia, one of the cone-bearing evergreens" width="500" height="766" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">This big tree, “The Grizzly Giant,” is over three hundred feet high. It is a sequoia, one of the cone-bearing evergreens</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p164"> -<img src="images/p164.jpg" alt="SCALY-LEAVED EVERGREENS: Upper: two branches from the same red cedar tree; Lower: flat sprays of arbor vitæ" width="500" height="782" /> -</div> -<p class="center"><span class="small">SCALY-LEAVED EVERGREENS -<br />Upper: two branches from the same red cedar tree -<br />Lower: flat sprays of arbor vitæ</span></p> -<p>The white cedar grows, a fine, conical evergreen -tree, in the coast states, from Maine to -Mississippi. It loves best the deep swamps, but -grows well in wet, sandy soil farther inland. -Here we see again the flat spray of minute, -<span class="pb" id="Page_129">[129]</span> -pointed, and keeled leaves, but the cones are different. -These are pale grey, and globular; the -few scales are thick and horny, and curiously -sculptured, each with a beak projecting from the -centre.</p> -<p>The foliage mass is a peculiar blue-green, and -the bark, thin, and rusty red, parts into strings -and shreds.</p> -<p>Lumbermen call this tree a cedar. So they -do the arbor vitæ. The wood of each is pale-coloured, -and notable for its durability when -exposed to weather and water. Fence posts of -white cedar, and cedar pails, shingles, and the -like, have a great reputation for durability.</p> -<p>The peculiarity of a red cedar is its fruit. -Instead of a cone, a blue, juicy, sweet berry follows -the blossoming of this tree. The foliage, -too, is erratic. Minute leaves of the scale form, -discovered in the other cedars, are found here on -most twigs. They are still smaller, and the twigs -are much smaller. But on new shoots, and often -on a whole branch, the leaves are needle-like, -one-half to three-quarters of an inch long, and -spreading as the leaves of a spruce. The mass -of the foliage is blue-green; these new ones are -yellow-green. Among the branches hang these -surprising berries!</p> -<p>The truth is that the scales of the cone thicken, -<span class="pb" id="Page_130">[130]</span> -and become soft when ripe. They grow together, -and the berry is, therefore, a cone, but much -changed in its development from the cone on -which the fruits of other evergreen trees are -patterned.</p> -<p>We all know a red cedar tree by its tall, slim -shape. The birds eat the berries, and scatter -the seeds far and wide. The trees come -up in irregular clumps in pastures and fence-rows, -and in rough, uncultivated land. They are -pretty widely distributed in the eastern half of -the United States.</p> -<p>The true name for this tree is juniper. That -is the name by which all its related species are -known. Red cedar is the lumberman’s name for -its wood, and this name, though not right, will -probably stick to it always.</p> -<p>Red cedar chests and closets are believed to -be moth-proof. The aromatic resin in the wood -is supposed to be distasteful to the insects which -are the pests of housekeepers. To put furs and -woollen blankets and clothing into these chests -does not always prevent their being moth-eaten. -This many people have learned by sorrowful experience. -We know the fragrance of this wood -in pencils. Thousands of trees are cut every -year to supply pencil factories. With the scarcity -of these trees, other woods are being substituted. -<span class="pb" id="Page_131">[131]</span> -But who will be quite satisfied, or be persuaded -that cedar pencils are not the best?</p> -<h3 id="c42">TWO CONIFERS NOT EVERGREEN</h3> -<p>Two cone-bearing trees have the astonishing -habit of letting go their leaves in the fall, and -thus setting themselves apart from the evergreens, -to which they are otherwise closely related. -Their cones are like those of pines and -spruces. Their leaves are needle-like, and their -flowers are the cone flowers like the rest. Although -they stand bare in winter time, their -fruits declare their kinships with the evergreen. -Their forms also suggest this kinship, for each -is a spire-like shaft, from which short branches -stand out horizontally like those of the pointed -firs and spruces.</p> -<h3 id="c43">THE LARCHES</h3> -<p>In the Northern states, and Canada, long -stretches of cold marsh land are covered with -solid growths of tamarack, our American larch -tree. In summer the branches are covered with -long, drooping twigs, each set with many blunt -side spurs, from which a tuft of soft, needle-like -<span class="pb" id="Page_132">[132]</span> -leaves forms a green rosette or pompom. The -end twigs have needle leaves scattered their whole -length, after the fashion of the spruces. Purplish -cone flowers, and yellow staminate cones -appear in spring, and in autumn among the leaves -that are turning yellow a crop of cones is ripening. -They stand erect and solitary on the twigs -between the rosettes of leaves.</p> -<p>In winter the long, flexible twigs are bare except -for these cones. The little knobs along the -twigs are the stubs which bore leaves. In the -spring new leaves come out, pale lettuce green, -feathery, transforming the tree top into a thing -of beauty.</p> -<p>This larch tree of ours is more sparsely -branched than the larch of Europe. It looks -ragged and unhappy when planted on our lawns. -It is at its best in the cold North, where it grows -in dense crowds, and the tall trunks are stripped -free from limbs well towards the tops. These -straight shafts are cut for telegraph poles, railroad -ties, and posts. The heavy, resinous wood -lasts a long time in the ground.</p> -<p>The larches planted for shade and ornament are -of the European species, which thrives in any soil. -It has a denser head of branches, and much more -luxuriant crown of foliage than our native species. -It is a beautiful feathery pyramid of green, distinctly -<span class="pb" id="Page_133">[133]</span> -different from other trees. In Europe -large forests are grown on the mountain sides, -and from these the tallest masts for vessels are -obtained. The heavy, resinous wood does not -easily take fire as do the pitch pines. The old -wooden battle ships were faced with larch wood -because of this, and because larch wood is so durable -in contact with water. Indeed it has the reputation -of outlasting oak, and the wood of all -other conifers.</p> -<p>In the woods of the far Northwest, and inland -to Montana, the Western larch is one of the -mighty forest trees. Six feet in diameter, and -200 feet in height are not uncommon dimensions -among these giant larches. These trees are of -slow growth, and they stand with their roots -in water or in wet soil, though on the mountain -side. This is an important lumber tree with -wood that has all the good qualities of its family. -In Europe the tree is planted for forests, and as -an ornamental tree. We cannot grow it in the -Eastern United States. It is worth a journey -across the continent to see it growing, one of -the most magnificent trees in the world.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_134">[134]</div> -<h3 id="c44">THE BALD CYPRESS</h3> -<p>Travellers in the South pass forests of dark -pines, and along the edges of swamps the pines -often give way to solid stretches of trees with -pale grey trunks, and lettuce green foliage, whose -lightness contrasts strangely and beautifully with -the solid bank of dark green that roofs the forests -of pines. A closer look at these strange trees, -which often stand knee-deep in water, is not -so easy. At certain seasons of the year, however, -these swamps are dry enough so that one may -walk dry-shod among them, and so learn to know -the bald cypress of the South, one of the most -beautiful and interesting of native American -trees.</p> -<p>This is the second of the cone-bearing trees -which is not an evergreen. The leaves on the new -shoots are two-ranked, soft and pale sage green in -colour. The stems that bear these plumy leaves -bear also scattered single blades. Among them -are older twigs, tipped with cones, and bearing -branchlets with scale-like leaves scarcely spreading -at the tips. These are much smaller than -the leaves arranged in two ranks, forming -feather-like, leafy branchlets. It is these which -are shed, branchlets, and all, in the autumn, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_135">[135]</span> -fresh in spring renew the feathery grace of the -long, narrow tree top.</p> -<p>The most surprising thing about the bald -cypress is the flaring base of the trunk, and the -root system which seems too large for the tall -but usually narrow top. Knees of cypress rising -out of the water from the main roots, are distinguished -from stumps by their smooth, conical -tops. The base of a great tree often spreads into -wide flying buttresses, each hollowed on the inside, -but serving with the others to support the -hollow-trunked tree. Many a giant of great -age stands thus on stilts whose submerged ends -are the gnarled roots of the tree. From these -rise many smooth, knobbed knees above the surface -of the water in the rainy season. By some -foresters, humps on the roots are supposed to be -necessary to the proper breathing of the roots, -submerged under water so large a part of the -year. The question of what causes these growths, -and of what use they are, is not fully determined.</p> -<p>The cones of the bald cypress are globular, and -about the size of an olive. By them the tree -declares its relationship to the needle-leaved evergreens. -The wood is light and easy to work, but -not noticeably resinous. It is used for buildings, -and for special parts, such as doors, shingles. It -is beautiful when stained, and would be more -<span class="pb" id="Page_136">[136]</span> -valuable for interior finish of houses did it not -keep the record of each bump and dent, as all -soft woods do. Buckets and barrels to contain -liquids are largely made of this wood. In railroad -ties it proves very durable.</p> -<p>The best and strangest fact about this tree is -that though it belongs to the South, and is a -swamp tree by preference, it grows large and -beautiful in the North, and in soil that is only -moderately moist. The parks of Brooklyn have -some noble specimens of this bald cypress of the -South. They stand, tall, handsome shafts, -feathered lightly with their short, drooping side -branches, clothed with pale green leaves. There -is no peculiarity of spreading trunk or knees to -disturb the sod that comes up around the base -of the tree. In the autumn the foliage turns -yellow, and drops with the larch leaves. Through -the winter the globular cones are present to -prove this bald cypress a relative of the evergreens, -which are its neighbours.</p> -<h3 id="c45">THE HOLLIES</h3> -<p>No Christmas is Christmas truly without at -least a few branches of the evergreen holly of -the South, whose leathery, spiny-pointed leaves -<span class="pb" id="Page_137">[137]</span> -are brightened by clusters of red berries. Every -year, hundreds of crates and boxes of these holly -branches are shipped north from the woods of -Alabama, and other Southern states. Many -people make their living by cutting loads of these -branches, and hauling them to the shipping sheds -where they are packed and put onto the railroad. -The business has grown so rapidly within the -past twenty-five years that holly trees are becoming -very scarce. It has never occurred to -those who cut down and strip the trees that it -takes years to grow new ones, and that nobody -is planting for the future.</p> -<p>Holly wood is white, and very close-grained. -It is admirable for tool handles, whipstocks, walking -sticks, and for the blocks on which wood -engravings are made. The living trees are -planted for hedges, and for ornament. The -leaves are evergreen, and the berries add brightness -and warmth to the shrubbery border when -snow covers the ground.</p> -<p>Although it reaches its greatest size, and is -most commonly found in Southern woods, this -little tree follows the coast as far north as Long -Island. I have found it much higher than my -head, growing wild on the sand bar that separates -Great South Bay from the ocean, east of -New York Harbour. Further north, it is occasionally -<span class="pb" id="Page_138">[138]</span> -found, but in stunted sizes, and it is -easily winter-killed.</p> -<p>The holly of Europe, which has brightened the -English Christmas for centuries, has a far more -deeply cleft and spiny leaf than ours. Beside -it, our holly leaves and berries are dull, and dark-coloured. -The whole tree lacks the brightness -of the European species. Hedges of this lustrous-leaved -holly shut in many an English garden, -and their bright berries glow cheerfully -through the grey, sunless, winter days. No wonder -the gardeners frown upon the little thrushes -that feed upon these berries, thus robbing the -garden of one of its chief winter charms.</p> -<p>Three other American hollies are found as -shrubby trees in our Eastern woods, but none of -them is evergreen, and the trees are not numerous -in any locality. We shall oftenest see the species -known as the winterberry, whose abundant red -berries remain untouched by the birds, until late -in the spring. Many of these fruit-laden -branches are gathered in the wild, and sold in -cities for Christmas decorations. Sprays of -these berries are often added to the evergreen -holly branches when their own berries are scarce.</p> -<p>Christmas holly is something we cannot do -without. As the supply grows less, the price will -mount higher. Then will come a time when it -<span class="pb" id="Page_139">[139]</span> -is profitable to raise these trees in quantities, and -holly farming will be practised in favourable -localities in the Southern states. But that time -has not yet come.</p> -<h3 id="c46">THE BURNING BUSH</h3> -<p>A little tree, not at all related to the holly, but -truly a cousin of the bitter-sweet, has a rather -surprising name. In summer it looks like a -wild plum tree, except for its fluted, ash-grey -bark. The flowers have purple petals, and look -somewhat like potato blossoms. They would -never attract your attention as you pass the tree.</p> -<p>In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, and -gradually the purple husks that cover the scarlet -berries split open, and curl back. Watch the -gradual opening of these husks, and notice, from -some little distance, the gradual reddening of -the tree top, as the yellow leaves fall, and more -and more of the scarlet berries are revealed, as -the husks curl and shrink away from them. It is -in this seed and its husk that the resemblance -and relationship of the burning bush and the -bitter-sweet vine is revealed.</p> -<p>The European spindle tree, and a number of -Japanese and Chinese species, are now planted -<span class="pb" id="Page_140">[140]</span> -in American gardens, and called by their genus -name, Evonymus. The red-fruited sorts all come -under the common name, burning bush, and they -do burn with a steady flame when winter has -robbed the gardens of colour. Evergreens form -a beautiful background for these ruddy little -trees.</p> -<h2>TREE STUDIES IN THE SPRING</h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_143">[143]</div> -<h3 id="c47">THE AWAKENING OF THE TREES</h3> -<p>All winter the grey beech trunks look almost -white among the dark trunks of neighbouring -trees. Their branches are dark at the tips, and -the buds are long, slim, and sharp-pointed. Silky, -brown bud scales, in many layers, protect the -young shoots hidden in these buds. In April -these shoots impatiently push aside their wrappings. -The outer scales fall, the inner ones grow -longer, but the growing tip leaves them behind, -and they fall, while the silky-coated, fan-plaited -baby leaves hang limp and helpless on the lengthening -stem.</p> -<p>No tree of the woods is more beautiful than -the beech as its twigs cover themselves with the -tender green of spring. Beech leaves are <i>handsome</i> -when full grown. In the short hours of -their babyhood they are <i>lovely</i>.</p> -<p>The sturdy shagbark hickory is late in waking. -Poplars and beeches are in full leaf when the -big buds of this familiar tree with the shaggy -bark begin to swell, and show the pale, silky -inner scales under the black outer pairs, which -soon fall off.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_144">[144]</div> -<p>The branches are stiff and angular, but the -twigs hold up their big buds, and the trees look -like great candelabra, each holding up a thousand -lighted candles. As the pointed buds push upward, -the protecting scales grow rapidly larger, -and the outer ones turn back like the sepals of -an iris. Wonderful tints of olive and yellow, -violet and rose, blend in their silky covering. -Out of this petal-like frill rises the cluster of -young leaves, small but perfectly formed, and -just as varied and delicate in colouring under -their velvet covering. These complete the flower-like -appearance of the young shoots. The illusion -lasts only until the leaves spread out, and -take on their natural, colour and size. The -scales fall, their duty done, and the flower catkins -come out, under the broad umbrellas of the fresh, -new leaves. The tree is thoroughly awake, and -has begun its long summer’s work.</p> -<div class="img" id="p181"> -<img src="images/p181.jpg" alt="The great winter buds of the shagbark hickory open like flowers in May" width="500" height="782" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The great winter buds of the shagbark hickory open like flowers in May</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p182"> -<img src="images/p182.jpg" alt="Pink and silvery catkins of trembling aspen, and the white, flannel-like leaves, just opened" width="682" height="437" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Pink and silvery catkins of trembling aspen, and the white, flannel-like leaves, just opened</span></p> -</div> -<p>The poplar likes to grow in moist ground, and -in companies of its own kind. Copses of these -trees, especially if they be young ones, are sure -heralds of the coming spring. Their stems and -branches are smooth, and almost as pale as white -birches. They become greenish, especially the -smaller branches and twigs, as the sap rises. -They are alive from root tips to shining buds.</p> -<p>The brown scales loosen in March on the -<span class="pb" id="Page_145">[145]</span> -plumpest buds. The fuzzy grey pussies push -out, and lengthen into soft chenille fringes that -wave gracefully from every twig. They are grey, -with a flush of pink, an exquisite colour harmony, -too lovely to last. Their catkins fall as -soon as their golden pollen dust is ripened and -scattered by the wind. The plain, green fertile -ones on other trees catch the pollen, and set seed -which ripens, in green, berry-like capsules, in -May. The seeds are almost too small to be seen. -Each floats away with the small wisp of down -in which it hides.</p> -<p>The slim buds on the same twigs open while -the trees are still in blossom. The young shoots -come out, and unroll their baby leaves, soft and -white, covered with a silky down, and tinted pink -under the protective hairs. For a short time only -they look like white velvet, and are limp and -helpless. Then the hairy coat is shed; the leaves -become shiny and bright green, and twinkle in -the sunshine. The stems are flexible and long -and flattened. This makes them catch the breeze, -if the blades do not, so the foliage trembles -whenever a breeze goes through the tree top.</p> -<p>Quaking aspen, trembling aspen, and “quakenasp” -are popular names given this tree, whose -foliage has the appearance and the sound of -rippling water. Tradition says the tree is forever -<span class="pb" id="Page_146">[146]</span> -accursed, and trembles as from fear, because -the traitor, Judas, hanged himself on an aspen. -This is a foolish notion. Only gaiety is expressed -by the continual fluttering of the aspen’s leaves.</p> -<p>The buds of cottonwood and Balm of Gilead -trees are sealed with a fragrant wax which softens -as spring loosens the scales and growth begins.</p> -<p>Bees throng these trees, and gather the soft -wax to carry to their hives. They use it to stop -up cracks that would let in the rain. What is -not needed at once they store for future use. -Bee-keepers call it “propolis.” They have -offered the bees something “just as good,” but -they will take no substitute for the genuine. -That is produced only on the buds of trees of -the poplar family, and for a brief season it is -ready for them in spring.</p> -<h3 id="c48">TREES THAT BLOOM IN EARLY SPRING</h3> -<p>In late March, or early in April, before the -leaves have come out on any of the trees along -your street, you may look out of an upper window -and notice that strange-looking tassels are hanging -on the twigs of a poplar or cottonwood tree. -Its buds are large and they shine in the sun, -as if they were wet. A day or two later you -<span class="pb" id="Page_147">[147]</span> -may be walking with your mother or sister, and -she will be startled to see the sidewalk covered -with what look to her like great red caterpillars! -Then you may remember the tree with the tassels -on it, and recognise them, and explain where they -came from.</p> -<p>A single look shows that this worm-like object -is a catkin, and the lovely red is the colour of -the many stamens that contain the pollen dust. -When this is ripe the stamens burst and let it fly -away. Then the tree lets its catkins fall, for -they have done their part.</p> -<p>Green catkins hang on other trees of the same -kind in the neighbourhood. The flowers are -waiting for pollen that will enable them to set -seed. If the wind blows in the right direction -when the pollen is flying about, the green, fertile -flowers will get all they need. These catkins -are not shed as the red ones are. They make -little show among the opening leaves, but little -seed balls take the place of the flowers. By the -end of May the green balls the size of peas turn -yellow, and open. Out of each pod floats tufts -of white down, each bearing away a tiny white -seed. This is the end of the story. Before the -chestnut trees have begun to blossom, the poplars -have scattered their seeds, and have all the -summer to spend in growing long, supple shoots -<span class="pb" id="Page_148">[148]</span> -covered with their dancing, shining leaves. They -look as if they enjoy life!</p> -<p>The pussy willows push their fuzzy noses out -in winter. Some are even showing in autumn. -But the yellow pollen is not seen on these flowers -until the catkins are full grown, and they wait -till winter is past. They dare not risk a frost.</p> -<p>Among pussy willow trees there is a difference -in the catkins. On one tree they turn yellow -when mature; the golden pollen dust rises in a -cloud when the twig is disturbed. These catkins -soon fall off.</p> -<p>On other trees the catkins are greenish, and -they stay on after reaching full size. They are -the fertile flowers, which develop into seed pods. -Pollen brought to them by the wind or by visiting -insects in search of nectar, insures the setting of -seed in these flowers. Though the gayer flowers -fall, they are quite as necessary to the making -of seeds as the fertile ones. In all the willows -and poplars, it requires two trees, bearing the -two kind of flowers, to make the seed. And -the wind and nectar-seeking insects are necessary -as pollen-carriers.</p> -<div class="img" id="p187"> -<img src="images/p187.jpg" alt="The winter flower buds, the blossoms, the full-grown winged seeds, and the ribbed leaf of our American elm" width="500" height="806" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The winter flower buds, the blossoms, the full-grown winged seeds, and the ribbed leaf of our American elm</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p188"> -<img src="images/p188.jpg" alt="The majestic, fan-shaped elm blossoms while snow is still on the fields" width="500" height="783" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The majestic, fan-shaped elm blossoms while snow is still on the fields</span></p> -</div> -<p>In marshy land, or by a brook or river, or -even just outside the window at home, there is -a tree that turns rosy in March with a multitude -of small red flowers clustered on the sides of -<span class="pb" id="Page_149">[149]</span> -its twigs. It is the swamp maple, the red maple, -the river maple, the scarlet maple. Two of these -names tell of the tree’s thirst; two name its -colour when in blossom, and also when the leaves -change colour in autumn.</p> -<p>Each flower is a red bell, for the petals are -red. One has a red forked pistil thrust out; -another lacks a pistil, but has a cluster of yellow -stamens. One tree may be deep red throughout, -having only pistillate flowers. Another may -have only staminate flowers; it will be orange -coloured, by the blending of the colours of the -yellow stamens, and the red petals. Another -tree may have flowers of both kinds. Occasionally -flowers will be found that have both stamens -and pistils.</p> -<p>The bees are in the scarlet maples at the -first loosening of the bud scales. There is nectar -in those flower bells. The colour and a faint -fragrance tell this secret. From pollen flowers -the busy insects carry the golden dust to the -forked pistils that set seeds.</p> -<p>The wind helps by scattering pollen in the -tree tops, and very soon the flowers are gone. -The staminate trees turn green when the opening -leaves lose their vivid red. The pistillate trees -hang out red clusters of winged seeds below the -opening leaf clusters. These red trees keep -<span class="pb" id="Page_150">[150]</span> -their name written plainly as long as the seed -clusters swing.</p> -<p>Early in March, the side buds on the elm twigs -begin to swell, and soon clusters of purplish -flowers, small but very pretty, come out of the -largest buds, and the tree top has a purplish haze -upon it, that means that spring is coming. The -bees come to get nectar from these early blossoms, -but few people speak of the blossoming elms. -They do not notice that elms ever blossom; and -are rather incredulous when a spray is shown -them covered with the graceful little tassels. -“Who ever <i>heard</i> of elms having flowers?”</p> -<p>The truth is that every tree, when it is large -enough, bears flowers. Not every one bears -fruit, for some have pollen flowers only, the seeds -being borne on the fertile trees. Elms have -perfect flowers, and soon after the leaves open, -the green fruits are seen in clusters, and before -May passes, the seeds, each surrounded by an -oval wing, flutter off in the wind.</p> -<h3 id="c49">THE AMERICAN ELM AND ITS KIN</h3> -<p>Beautiful and stately, yet full of grace is the -form of a big elm tree against the grey sky -of a cloudy winter day. The tall trunk is -<span class="pb" id="Page_151">[151]</span> -crowned with many main branches, which spread -into a widening funnel shape, subdividing into -numberless smaller branches, whose direction is -outward and downward. The numerous twigs -have the droop of a weeping willow. The tree -top is wonderful when every limb is bare.</p> -<p>In summer the same tree is a great fountain -of green leaves. The long, leafy twigs of new -wood are flung out to the wind, and the twinkling -blades dazzle the eyes like spray. This is the -time that we love the elm for its shade, and as -an ornament to home grounds and parks. Roadside -elms are the favourite nesting trees of the -Baltimore oriole, whose hanging pocket of grasses -and yarns swings at the end of a high outer -branch.</p> -<p>When winter is still in the air, and snow on -the landscape, the dark twigs of these bare elm -trees change colour. It is the purple flower -clusters that are flung out from opening buds -in late March. It takes sharp eyes to see the -cause of the wine-coloured flush in the tree top. -With the opening of the leafy shoots in April, -the trees get an added colour from the pale green -seed discs that replace the flowers. These are -winged, and they soon turn brown, and fly away -on the first breeze. This is the elm’s way of sowing -seeds. A crop of young elms grows each -<span class="pb" id="Page_152">[152]</span> -summer in fields and gardens near these seed -trees. The leaf of the seedling is exactly after -the pattern of the parental tree, but smaller.</p> -<p>The English elm is less graceful than our -American tree. It has more the stature of the -white oak. The head is compact, and the foliage -mass thicker, and longer-lived. The robin red-breast -nests close to the sturdy trunk, shielded -by the earliest leaves.</p> -<p>An old couplet guides the farmer in the old -country:</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“When the elm leaf is as big as a mouse’s ear,</p> -<p class="t0">Then to sow barley never fear.”</p> -</div> -<p>The toughness of elm is remembered by all -who have “read of the wonderful one-hoss shay.” -Nothing but “ellum” was proper stuff for the -hubs, you know. As it is durable in soil, elm is -good timber for posts and railroad ties. By its -toughness and flexibility, it is fit for waggon -tongues, and all kinds of agricultural implements. -The ancient warrior of England was likely to -carry a longbow made of the tough British elm.</p> -<p>Slippery elms grow more irregular in form -than the American, and are usually smaller trees. -Both kinds grow together in the wooded regions -east of the Rocky Mountains. The difference -between them can be easily detected by a blind -<span class="pb" id="Page_153">[153]</span> -person. Twigs, buds, and leaves of slippery elms -are made rough and harsh to the touch by coarse, -reddish hairs.</p> -<p>Boys and many other people like the taste of -the glutinous inner bark of this tree when the -sap is running, and the limbs and trunks peel -easily. Many a tree is sacrificed to this appetite. -The same delectable mucilaginous substance -quenches the thirst and allays hunger,—so hunters -say, who have eaten it when lost in the woods, -and threatened with starvation. Poultices of it -relieve throat troubles, when there is congestion. -It is a home remedy for inflammations and fevers. -Dried and ground, the rich cambium is mixed -with milk, and forms a nutritious and tasty food -for invalids. It is a staple on the shelves of -apothecary shops.</p> -<p>The rock elm might be mistaken for a bur oak -were the leaves not decided proof that it is an -elm. The limbs are shaggy, and the twigs winged -by the corky bark. Indeed, another name for -the tree is the cork elm. The framework of this -tree is stiff and irregular, a decided contrast to -the graceful drooping top of the American elm, -whose symmetry is one of its best points.</p> -<p>The wood has its fibres so interlaced that no -wood excels it in toughness and springiness. -It is the wheelwright’s choice. It makes the -<span class="pb" id="Page_154">[154]</span> -finest bridge timbers, and the best axe handles, -and wheel hubs.</p> -<p>The winged elm is the smallest and daintiest -of the elms. The twigs are broadened by a corky -ridge on each side. This gives the tree its name. -The Indian name, Wahoo, is also heard in the -South. The leaves are of the elm type, but -unusually small.</p> -<p>It is seen as a street and lawn tree in cities -and towns south of Virginia, and west to Illinois -and Texas.</p> -<h3 id="c50">THE MAPLE FAMILY</h3> -<p>If you meet a tree of good size, with slender -branches, and small buds set opposite upon the -twigs, you may suspect it of being a maple. The -leaves are needed to assure you. If it is winter -time, and the tree stands on the street, the leaves -may all have been raked away. If the tree grows -in the woods, the chances are that there is a -leaf carpet over its roots, and that most of these -leaves have fallen from its branches. You can -make sure of this point by picking up a dead leaf, -examining the base of its stalk to see if it fits -the leaf scars on the twigs. If the leaves are -simple, that is, if they have a single blade, the -evidence that this is a maple is very strong. -<span class="pb" id="Page_155">[155]</span> -There are a few small trees with simple leaves -set opposite on the twigs, but they do not grow -as large as maples.</p> -<p>Does the leaf have three main divisions, each -with a vein which is one of three large branches -of the leaf stalk? Then you may be sure that -the tree is one of the maple family.</p> -<p>Simple leaves, of three main lobes, set opposite -on the twigs, and the twigs set opposite on the -branches,—in these are the plain signature of -the maples. They write their names in these -characters, across every branch throughout the -growing season, and on the leafless branches, and -the dead leaves under the tree in winter. Another -signature is the one-sided maple key, which -hangs on the trees all summer, and even late -into the winter on some kinds, but is shed in -early summer by a few.</p> -<p>The two early-blooming maples are commonly -planted as street and shade trees all over the -Eastern half of the country. It is easy to recognise -these, and to know them apart by the leaf -alone.</p> -<p>The red maple is a spreading, symmetrical -tree, of medium size with slender, erect branches. -The leaves are red when they open in spring; so -are the flowers which cluster on the bare twigs -in early April, before the leaves are out. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_156">[156]</span> -clustered fruits that dangle in pairs all along -the stems in May are red, and in the autumn the -tree changes its green robe of foliage to scarlet -before winter comes. The buds that cluster at -the joints are red as rubies, and the slim twigs -glow with the same warm colour, which is -warmer by contrast with the snow.</p> -<p>All maple leaves are more or less cleft into -three main divisions. The red maple has two -shallow clefts, V-shaped, at the top, and the lobes -are pointed and triangular. The margins are -irregularly saw-toothed. These leaves are often -downy beneath, and always white-lined when -young. In summer they have pale green linings. -As a rule, red maple leaves are small, averaging -less than three inches in the length of their blades. -They are larger on young trees.</p> -<p>The silver maple is much more easily grown -from seed than the red maple, but it has a far -more irregular tree top. The limbs branch low -on the trunk, and these limbs grow very long, giving -the tree a loose head of great height, and great -horizontal spread. The small branches curve -downward, and the twigs are held erect. The -wind twists and breaks these great weak limbs, -or wrenches them loose from the trunk. It is -dangerous to have these trees near the house, for -wind and ice storms are constantly snapping off -<span class="pb" id="Page_157">[157]</span> -branches large enough to break windows, or -knock down chimneys as they fall.</p> -<div class="img" id="p197"> -<img src="images/p197.jpg" alt="The flowers of the red maple are concealed in winter in brown buds" width="679" height="430" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The flowers of the red maple are concealed in winter in brown buds</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p198"> -<img src="images/p198.jpg" alt="Seeds of red maple, in late May, and in early April" width="679" height="428" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Seeds of red maple, in late May, and in early April</span></p> -</div> -<p>The flowers of the silver maple show no red. -They come out greenish-yellow on the twigs when -the red maple’s flowers are glowing on their red -twigs in March, and early April. The leaves -are pale green, white beneath, and set on long -flexible stems. They are larger than the leaves -of the red maple, and cleft in a distinctly different -way. A narrow, deep fissure divides the leaf in -thirds, and two side clefts divide the lower lobes -in two unequal halves. These fissures reach two-thirds -of the way through the leaf blade, and -each lobe is cleft along its sides, into many irregular -bays and capes. These leaves are always -silvery white beneath in summer, and they turn -to yellow in the autumn.</p> -<p>In late May the pairs of winged keys hang -on short stems. Each key is about two inches -long, fuzzy green, until ripe, twice the length of -the smooth keys of the red maple, which are -ripening at the same time.</p> -<p>It is good fun to lie under a maple tree, and -watch the seeds as they fall. If the wind is -strong, they shower down like rain. Each key -separates from its mate, and as it lets go its -hold on the twig, the wind catches its thin wing, -and sends it whirling round and round. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_158">[158]</span> -heavy seed makes for the earth, while the flat -blade above it acts as a parachute, or a sail, -to keep it in the air.</p> -<p>How far does a silver maple send its seeds -in these summer days, when they are falling? -It is easy to answer this question by pacing the -distance from the tree trunk in a straight line -to the point where the farthest key falls. Go -in the direction towards which the wind is blowing, -in determining this distance. It will be interesting -to run out another line from the tree -trunk to find out how far the seeds are thrown -on the side that is against the wind.</p> -<p>From the silver maple go to a red maple, and -watch the harvest of these small-winged keys. -Do a little measuring here, and find out if their -smaller size and weight enables these seeds to -sail further in the same breeze than those of the -silver maple.</p> -<p>The sugar maple is known also as the rock -or hard maple, because its wood is harder, and -therefore slower to grow, than the two quick-growing -soft maples just described. This is the -one whose trunk is tapped in spring, and the sap -boiled down in great kettles over an open fire -in the woods. When the water is all evaporated, -solid cakes of maple sugar remain. If you are -walking in the woods in winter, and come upon -<span class="pb" id="Page_159">[159]</span> -any trees bored with small auger holes, several -near the base of each trunk, you may suspect -that this is a grove of hard maples which the -New England farmer calls his “sugar bush.”</p> -<p>Look at the twigs, and you will see that the -plump round buds are set opposite, and the twigs -are opposite on the branch. This is the way -with all maple trees. Are the branches many, -and do they shoot upward rather than outward, -and form an oval head? This is the typical habit -of young hard maple trees. As they grow older -the heavy lower limbs become horizontal. They -are clean, hardy, vigorous trees, long-lived, dependable, -able to meet the storms, and to suffer -the theft of their rich sap every spring without -apparent loss of strength and vitality.</p> -<p>The leaves come out later than those of the -soft maples. They are firm, and broad, with five -pointed lobes between wide fissures that reach -half-way to the stem. Margins of these lobes -are wavy, never saw-toothed, like those of the -silver maple. They are dark green above, with -paler linings. In autumn they turn to yellow, -orange, and red.</p> -<p>The flowers open in May, shortly after the -leaves appear. They are in thick, hairy, yellowish -clusters. Some are pistillate, some staminate, -in the same cluster. Those with the forked -<span class="pb" id="Page_160">[160]</span> -pistils remain and grow into smooth fruits towards -the end of summer. The keys of sugar -maples are short-winged, like those of the red -maple, but have stouter, thicker seeds. They are -shed in late autumn and early winter.</p> -<p>Hard maples are among the best of shade -trees, and the glory of their autumn colouring -makes them one of the most to be desired among -trees planted merely for ornament. A street -planted to hard maples is well planted always. -But people are impatient for trees to grow up. -The slow growth of the sugar maple is discouraging. -It is a good plan to plant the quick-growing -soft maples, and alternate with them the slow-growing -species. For a few years the soft maples -are pretty, and with each year’s growth they give -more abundant shade. By the time the wind has -crippled their long arms, and made the trees -unsightly, the hard maples are coming on to take -their places, and they need the room which is -given them by the removal of their neighbours -on to the left and right.</p> -<p>When I went into the woods of Oregon, I found -the vine maple trees, which seems not to have -sufficient backbone to stand upright. These trees -start to grow erect, but their weight soon overcomes -their strength, and they droop, but keep -on growing, with their limbs prostrate on the -<span class="pb" id="Page_161">[161]</span> -ground. The wet land in many places was covered -with a network of the interfering branches -of these serpentine maple trees.</p> -<p>The leaf is about the size of the palm of my -hand, and almost circular. The border is cut -into many shallow lobes. The seeds are characteristic -keys, smooth, and the wings of each -pair are spread almost opposite each other.</p> -<p>The Norway maple is a most popular street -tree. Its foliage is very dense, and the tree -forms a round, symmetrical head. The broad, -five-lobed leaves are remotely toothed, smooth, -thin, and dark green on both sides. Break a -leaf stem, and a milky juice appears. The seeds -are very flat, and have broad, flaring wings. The -flowers are yellowish. Great clusters of them -come out with the leaves. The seeds are ripe in -autumn.</p> -<p>We shall find that the foliage of the Norway -maple stands the wear and tear better than that -of many shade trees. The crown of a Norway -maple turns to bright gold in autumn, and most -of the leaves are still unmarred when they -fall.</p> -<p>The box elder is the one native maple which -has compound leaves. The leaf blade is cleft -quite to the stem, and the thirds form separate -leaflets, each mounted on its own stalk. These -<span class="pb" id="Page_162">[162]</span> -leaves are set opposite on the twigs, like those -of other maples.</p> -<p>In spring pink fringes like corn silk decorate -the branches of certain box elder trees. Other -trees of the same kind hide little green flowers -among the opening leaves. The pink fringes are -the pollen-bearing flowers, which fall when ripe. -Staminate trees never bear fruit. All through -the summer the trees which bore the greenish -flower are dangling clusters of pale green seeds, -each with the peculiar wing, which proves it a -maple. When the ragged, yellowing foliage -falls, these seed clusters remain on the branches, -and all through the winter the wind is plucking -and carrying them away.</p> -<p>The wood of box elder is very soft. The tree -is planted because it grows so quickly and surely, -and its seeds are so easily obtained. But broken -branches give the older trees a crippled, unhappy -look, and the ragged clusters of seeds give them -a disheveled appearance all winter. Fortunate -is the man who has planted elms or hard maples -along the road, so that he may take out the decrepit -box elders, and have the better trees coming -on to take their places.</p> -<p>The striped maple is a little tree, which hides -in the woods, and only a few people know the -tree, and love it as it deserves. The stripes are -<span class="pb" id="Page_163">[163]</span> -on its smooth green bark, which breaks into a -network of furrows as the stems increase in -diameter. These furrows expose a very pale -under-bark, so that at a short distance the trunk -seems to be delicately traced with white lines.</p> -<p>In its blossoming season the striped maple has -a loose, drooping cluster of yellow, bell-like flowers. -The leaves that surround them are broad -and shallowly three-lobed, and saw-toothed all -around. The seeds are little maple keys, smaller -than those of the red maple.</p> -<p>The mountain maple is another little tree quite -as modest and retiring as its striped cousin. It -has longer, more taper-pointed leaves. The -flower clusters are much smaller than those of -the striped maple, and they stand erect. The -fruits hang late in the winter, on the grey downy -twigs, which are brightened by red buds.</p> -<h3 id="c51">THE WILLOW FAMILY</h3> -<p>One of the first tree families whose name we -learn is the willow family. The members are -numerous, and the botanists find great difficulty -in distinguishing certain species, which -closely resemble each other; but these troubles -we shall leave to the scientist. The point for -<span class="pb" id="Page_164">[164]</span> -us to consider is this: When we see a tree which -we know to be a willow, <i>how</i> do we know it? -“It looks like a willow,” some one says. But -who knows, and can tell <i>how</i> willows look—how -they differ from other trees?</p> -<p>First, willows have slender, flexible twigs that -give the tree tops grace and lightness. Second, -willow leaves are nearly always long and slim -to match the supple twigs. They are always -simple, and short-stemmed. The wood is light -and soft, so the trees break easily in storms of -wind and ice. An old willow tree is likely to -be crippled, but its scars and wounds are covered -in summer by the arching branches and the -abundant foliage.</p> -<p>The first trees to blossom in spring are the -shrubby pussy willows, a distinct kind whose -catkins are so eager to push out of their scales -that their grey, silky noses are often seen in -November. Frequently, they are out and the -scales dropped in February; but the yellow stamens -and the long-tongued pistils do not rise -above the grey fur until March, at least. The -most attractive stage of these catkins is the earlier -one, when the flower buds are concealed by the -grey silk.</p> -<p>By cutting pussy willow twigs in the late fall, -or any time during the winter, and putting them -<span class="pb" id="Page_165">[165]</span> -into a jar of water, we may see the blossoming, -quite out of season. Sufficient food is stored -in the twig to force out the blossoms, even to the -shedding of the pollen. It is a charming thing -in the winter to have a vase of these twigs in -full bloom on a window sill when snow banks -are piled high just outside.</p> -<p>Willows are lovers of wet ground, and we -shall see groves of them scattered along streams -and on the margins of ponds and swamps. A -few species thrive in dry soil, and seem to prefer -it. Some grow at sea level, others are found -on high mountains. From small shrubs they -vary to mighty trees. There is no climate and -no soil that does not have its native willows. The -family is distributed from the Equator to the -Arctic Circle.</p> -<p>It is very common in many places for farmers -to plant a grove of willows for a windbreak, -to protect their houses and barns. This is especially -seen in prairie states and other treeless -regions. Willows are quick-growing trees, and -sure to grow. All one needs do is to cut limbs -from a growing tree, chop these limbs into pieces -the length of stove wood, and drive them into -the ground. Each one takes root, and grows -into a tree, if the soil is at all moist.</p> -<p>Another plan is to cut fence posts from the -<span class="pb" id="Page_166">[166]</span> -willow grove, and drive them into the ground. -Each of these posts forms the trunk of a willow -tree, which soon has a great head of branches.</p> -<p>In Holland and other countries, willows are -thickly planted to form hedges and for their -roots to hold the soil along the banks of streams -and ditches. The same trees may perform a -double service. Willow wood makes good summer -fuel, where a quick, hot fire is desired. The -twigs make the best charcoal used in the manufacture -of gunpowder. The long, flexible twigs -of a low-growing willow are used in the manufacture -of wicker chairs, tables, and other furniture. -These trees are grown on a large scale -in France and other European countries, and the -industry is being introduced in some parts of -America.</p> -<p>When spring comes on, we may notice a peculiar -change in the colour of the bare willows that -line the stream borders. The twigs turn gradually -green, and the long, pointed buds prepare -to cast off their single scales. These are shaped -like the long, knitted caps which children wear in -winter time, although there is no tassel at the -end. The cap fits snugly over the long bud, -and is fastened in a circle at the joint. The -swelling bud simply pushes it off.</p> -<p>Under these trees, we shall find a good many -<span class="pb" id="Page_167">[167]</span> -fresh twigs. Reaching up to break one, we find -that it snaps off short at the base. It is not -brittle along its whole length. Try a dozen twigs, -and off they snap, almost at a touch. The wind -has broken off those that fell to the ground. -Some that fall in the water, float away down -stream. They catch on sandbars, and strike root. -Some swing in to the shore, and grow on the -banks.</p> -<p>We have discovered a habit of certain kinds -of willow trees. The shedding of their twigs -at the season when they are fullest of life is -the tree’s method of colonising new territory. -These twigs float away, and blow away, and -those which lodge in wet ground before they -dry are almost sure to grow. The billowy acres -of green which cover sandbars and stream borders -are willow trees, children of parents that -grow far up stream.</p> -<p>Along roadsides in this country a large willow -is much planted, whose leaves are pale beneath, -so that they look very cheerful and cool in midsummer. -The most striking thing about these -willows is that their twigs are yellow as ducks’ -feet, and particularly bright in early spring. The -older trees grow very stout, and great branches -leave the trunk close to the ground. This is the -golden osier willow, one form of the white willow -<span class="pb" id="Page_168">[168]</span> -of Europe, which does not grow vigorously -in this country.</p> -<p>The weeping willows, whose long, supple -branches sweep out and downward, sometimes -yards in length, from the tree top, came originally -from Babylon. Who were they in that far -country who “hung their harps on the willow -trees”? A great many weeping willows in the -Eastern states are said to be sprung from the -parent tree, which grew on the Island of St. -Helena. What famous prisoner probably sat -under the shadows of this willow tree, and -dreamed again of conquering the world? The -weeping willow has the habit of snapping its -twigs off, short, at the base. One of these long -withes, cut into bits with one or two buds on -each cutting, will start as many weeping willow -trees, if the bits are stuck into wet sand and -kept wet until rooted, and then set out and given -plenty of water until they become established in -the ground.</p> -<p>The black willow is named for the black bark -of the old tree. It is the only one of the narrow-leaved -willows whose leaves are uniformly green -on both sides. These leaves are often curved -like a sickle. At the base of each leaf is a -pair of heart-shaped, leafy blades, called stipules. -Many trees have stipules that come out with the -<span class="pb" id="Page_169">[169]</span> -leaves, and are dropped off, but these persist, as -a rule, all summer. The black willow is one of -those with the twigs that snap. It takes possession -of stream borders, and its offspring may -cover miles of new territory in a single season.</p> -<p>The balsam willow we shall know by the fragrant -coating of wax, or balsam, on its young -shoots and buds. Its broad leaves are blunt at -the tip, and look scarcely willow-like, but the tree -is known by its buds and its catkins. To find -it we shall have to go into the boggy regions -in the Northern tier of states, where it is numerous, -but never more than a shrubby tree.</p> -<p>One use is served by no tree as well as a -willow. When the sap rises in spring, the willow -branches are in prime condition to make whistles. -I wonder if there is a boy, in town or country, -who does not know how to make a willow whistle -that will “go”? Surely not, unless his supply -of uncles and grandfathers is short. You cannot -make a willow whistle by following printed -directions. Some skilful person, who has been -a boy, must show you, and one lesson is enough.</p> -<h3 id="c52">WHY TREES NEED LEAVES</h3> -<p>Spring or early summer is the best time to -study the leaves of trees. They are clean, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_170">[170]</span> -fresh, and new. Every tree is a great mound -of green. The broad-leaved trees seem to be -thatched or shingled with overlapping blades so -that no sunlight can get into the darkened room, -which is empty except for the bare branches that -support this outer dome of leaves. A sugar -maple, or a linden tree, shows best this outer -thatch, which is so thick that the sun is unable -to look through. The bird flying overhead sees -only a solid mass of leaves. The one on its -nest in a forked limb looks up and sees the inside -of this leafy tree cover. She is glad for -the twilight that surrounds her, and for the -coolness of this shady place; but more glad that -her nest is hidden from sight of hawks that sail -overhead, while she keeps a close watch for sly, -thieving red squirrels that may come to steal -her eggs, by climbing up the branches.</p> -<p>What are the leaves for? Why does the tree -put out in spring young shoots with rows of -leaves along their sides? Why does the tree -hold these branches out as far as possible from -the trunk, and bend the leaf stems and the twigs -so as to face the leaf blades towards the sun?</p> -<p>The reason is this: the life of the trees is -in the green layer which we see on the surface -of all green shoots, and which we can discover -under the older bark of twigs, which has turned -<span class="pb" id="Page_171">[171]</span> -brown. Following the twig back from its tip, -all of the leafy part is green. Behind it the -smooth twig is no longer green, but a thumb -nail easily strips off the layer of brown, and reveals -the green under bark. Go a little further -back, and gradually the outer bark thickens, and -it is more difficult to get at the soft under layer. -After a while, we shall need a knife to reach -it, for old bark is hard and tough.</p> -<p>When the bark gets so thick that the sun -cannot reach the green layer, the colour fades -out. The living part of the trunk of the tree -is the soft, juicy layer between the bark and -wood. Through this portion of the tree the -sap rises from the roots, and finally reaches the -leaves. This sap needs to be changed before -it can be useful to the tree as food.</p> -<p>The leaves are the places where these changes -take place. Through little doorways in the under -sides of the leaf air passes in. With it goes -carbonic acid gas, an important food element. -The soft green leaf pulp, which is the green juice -of a bruised leaf, has a wonderful work to do. -It cannot do this work unless the sun is shining -upon it. On a bright day every leaf is making -starch, and sending it down through the twigs -and branches as food. This starch is contained -in the sugary sap that flows back constantly from -<span class="pb" id="Page_172">[172]</span> -the leaves to the farthest root tips. It is made -in the leaves out of the sap brought up from the -roots and the carbonic acid gas which the leaves -absorb from the air.</p> -<p>As long as the leaves do their work, the tree -is able to grow, and to blossom, and to ripen its -seeds. When the leaves have done their work -the summer has passed; the tree lets go the leaves, -and rests without growing all winter.</p> -<p>It is not easy to explain the work of the leaves, -nor even to understand the wonderful work accomplished -there all through the summer. When -we eat, our food must go into the stomach to -be changed by the processes called digestion. It -is hours before the digested food is poured into -the blood and carried to all parts of the body. -The tree takes its food from the air, and from -the soil. Neither the dirty water that rises as -sap to the leaves, nor the gas which enters the -leaf doorways from the air, is useful as food -to the growing tree until they have been combined -and changed. The leaves are, then, in a -sense, the stomachs of the trees, for in them -the raw foods must be “digested” before they -are ready to be poured into the life blood that -flows down through all the live parts of the tree. -Now they are fit to feed the growing cells, which -are always hungry.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_173">[173]</div> -<h3 id="c53">LEAVES OF ALL SHAPES AND SIZES</h3> -<p>The leaf of the tree is its visiting card. We -shall learn to know trees by their leaves, as easily -as if the name were written across the face of -the leaf. Some leaves have a single blade of -green, and for this reason the botanist calls them -<i>simple</i> leaves. This blade has a stem that unites -it with the twig. A <i>compound</i> leaf is one whose -stem bears more than one blade. These small -blades are called <i>leaflets</i>. There are two types -of compound leaves, one feather-like, having a -main stem with leaflets arranged in two rows on -opposite sides of this stem. Such a leaf is -feather-like. The other type has a leaf stem -with all the leaflets attached at one end. The -horse chestnut is the best example of this type. -The leaves spread from the end of the stalk somewhat -as the fingers rise from the palm of your -hand.</p> -<p>The biggest leaves with single blades to be -found in our forests grow on trees of the magnolia -family. The silver-lined leaves of the -large-leaved cucumber tree are over a foot in -length, sometimes two and one-half feet, down -South. These great leaves are about one-fourth -as wide as long, and at the base each one broadens -<span class="pb" id="Page_174">[174]</span> -and extends backward into two rounded ear-like -lobes. This gives the tree the name, ear-leaved -magnolia. The whole leaf flaps in the -wind, like the ear of an elephant, and, of course, -the wind lashes it into strings and soon robs it of -its beauty.</p> -<p>The Northern cucumber tree is another magnolia -whose leaves are tropical-looking. This -is the hardiest of the magnolia family, and its -heart-shaped leaves are six to ten inches long. -They are not large for a magnolia of the South, -but they look larger because they grow among -the small-leaved trees of the Northern states.</p> -<p>The tulip tree has a large leaf of peculiar form. -It is broad like a maple leaf at the base, but at the -tip it is cut off square as if with a pair of shears, -forming a right angle with its straight sides. -Sometimes the leaf is notched, as if a V-shaped -piece were cut out of the square tip. These -leaves are long-stemmed, their blades polished, -and they flutter on the twigs with the lightness -of a poplar leaf. Once we have in mind the -form of the leaf of the tulip tree, we shall never -forget it, for it is different from all other leaves.</p> -<p>The catalpa tree, which lifts its great blossom -clusters above the foliage in late June, is another -of the few large-leaved trees of the North. The -single blade is heart-shaped, six to eight inches -<span class="pb" id="Page_175">[175]</span> -long, and more than half as broad. These leaves -usually have plain margins, but sometimes they -are wavy and notched near the base so as to -produce faint side lobes. The blades hang on -long, stout stems.</p> -<p>Among the feather-leaved trees, the walnuts -and butternuts, the sumachs, and the ailanthus, -furnish examples. A black walnut leaf is often -two feet long, with a dozen or more leaflets on -the longest ones. These leaflets are always set -opposite in pairs, with an odd one on the tip -of the leaf stem. Butternut leaves have the same -form, but the leaves are longer. They range -from fifteen to thirty inches, and have from ten -to twenty leaflets, but always an odd number. -The peculiar gummy feeling of these hairy leaves, -and their pungent butternut odour when bruised, -make it easy to know the tree wherever we meet -it, through the long summer.</p> -<p>The hickories are cousins of the walnuts, but -their leaves, though of the feather form, have -larger and fewer leaflets than any walnut tree. -A shagbark hickory leaf has one or two pairs -of little leaflets on the stem, and above them -three of larger size. The pignut has the same -habit of clustering its three largest leaves at the -tip of the leaf stem, and tapering off at the base -with one or two pairs of decreasing size.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_176">[176]</div> -<p>The largest of all the compound leaves have -branched stems to which leaflets are attached. -The main leaf stem’s side branches may yet -branch again, forming a twice-branched framework -that is set with leaflets, not large, but so -numerous as to make the whole leaf surprisingly -large. The greatest of these twice-compound -leaves is borne by that astonishing, spiny-stemmed -Hercules’ club. A single leaf is often -four feet long, and nearly a yard wide. There -are no leaflets on the main stem; they are on -the side branches.</p> -<p>How shall we tell a leaf stem from a twig? -Leaf stems do not look like the twigs of the -tree. A little practice in looking closely and -comparing these leaf stems and twigs will obviate -any confusion of the two. The leaf has -a bud at its base, and it breaks off easily at this -joint.</p> -<div class="img" id="p219"> -<img src="images/p219.jpg" alt="The sugar maple trees are tapped in February; they bloom in May after the leaves come out; they ripen their keys in October, when the foliage turns to red and yellow." width="500" height="790" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The sugar maple trees are tapped in February; they bloom in May after the leaves come out; they ripen their keys in October, when the foliage turns to red and yellow.</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p220"> -<img src="images/p220.jpg" alt="Leaves of black willow have frills at their bases. Twigs of pussy-willows, cut and brought indoors, can be forced into bloom in midwinter" width="686" height="425" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Leaves of black willow have frills at their bases. Twigs of pussy-willows, cut and brought indoors, can be forced into bloom in midwinter</span></p> -</div> -<p>Among the fine, feathery leaves that are so -beautiful and light that they give great beauty -to the tree tops are those of the honey locust. -These leaves are of the feather type, the slender -stems, with double rows of tiny leaflets. Very -often we find among the single feather forms, -leaves of greater size, which have branched stems. -This branching multiplies the number of leaflets, -and gives us, on the same trees, what the botanists -<span class="pb" id="Page_177">[177]</span> -call <i>once compound</i>, and <i>twice compound</i> -leaves. The simple feather and the branched -feather forms add greatly to the beauty and -luxuriance of the foliage of the honey locust.</p> -<p>The common black locust of the roadside has -single leaf stems with oblong leaflets set in opposite -rows upon it. Ash trees have the same -feather type of leaves, the leaflets usually pointed -and oval, and always an odd one at the tip. They -are all larger than leaves of the locusts.</p> -<p>In the maple family there is a broad, simple -blade, about as wide as it is long. It is a family -trait to have three main veins running out from -the end of the leaf stem, into the blade. Each -of these veins has side branches, and they are -connected with a network of smaller veins. Between -the tips of these three main veins the leaf -is usually notched, so as to divide it into thirds. -In the red maple these notches are shallow V’s -cut out, leaving triangular points. In the silver -maple the leaves are cut by deeper clefts, which -reach more than half-way to the leaf stalk. The -three lobes are cut with jagged points into an -uneven margin. The sugar maple has its three -lobes separated by wide, deep clefts, and its margins -are irregularly wavy. The box elder, which -is a maple, is cleft so deeply that the blade is -split into three distinct leaflets, each with its own -<span class="pb" id="Page_178">[178]</span> -short stem. This makes a compound leaf of it. -It is the only maple with a leaf of more than -one blade.</p> -<p>The tree which shows the greatest difference -in the form of its leaves is the sassafras, whose -oval leaves grow on the same stem with mittens -and double mittens—a mitten pattern with a -thumb on each side. The hawthorns have small -oval leaves with variously cleft borders. There -are over a hundred kinds of hawthorns in our -woods, and each kind has a leaf different from -all the rest; yet a single tree will often show -leaves that differ so much from the others in -form that we might easily suspect, if some one -brought them to us, that each grew on a different -tree from all the rest.</p> -<p>Many oak trees have the same habit of leaf -variation, so that even a forester has to examine -many leaves with care, and with them the buds -and the acorns, to make sure that he has called the -oak by its right name.</p> -<p>The behaviour of the leaves of a tree depends -largely on the length and flexibility of their stems. -If they are long, and slender, and supple, the tree-top -is in a continual flutter when the wind blows. -If they are thick and stiff, they do not catch -the breeze as readily, and their blades lie comparatively -still when other trees near by may -<span class="pb" id="Page_179">[179]</span> -be twinkling and trembling. Leaves with deeply -cut borders, like some oaks and maples, flutter -much more than leaves like the basswood, whose -borders are unbroken. Oak leaves that are -deeply cut will rarely lie down flat. The curving -bays in its borders cause the leaf to curl, so that -no matter what face is presented, the wind gets -under and strikes some surface, and sets the -leaf to dancing.</p> -<p>The flat leaf stems of the trembling aspen, one -of the poplar family, are very flexible, and they -are flattened at right angles to the blades of the -leaves. When a breeze comes by, it may strike -the edge of the leaf, but if so, it catches the -flat leaf stem broadside. If it comes from any -other direction the leaf trembles, because one of -the blades is sure to receive the force of the -wind. So the tree top is in one constant tremor, -even when the breeze is scarcely sufficient to disturb -broad-leaved trees which are near neighbours -of the aspens.</p> -<p>Whatever the form and size and shape of its -leaf, the tree depends upon its foliage mass for -all the life it enjoys, and for all the growth it -makes. The soil and the air feed the tree. The -leaves and the sun do the work of digesting the -food. In the porous wood and bark are the -channels through which sap mounts upward to -<span class="pb" id="Page_180">[180]</span> -the leaves, and another set of channels which -carry the prepared food back, leaving it wherever -needed, along the way from tip of twig to -tip of root. Whatever is not needed is stored -away, to be dissolved as needed and carried to -the points where the need is. In spring it is -the growing buds that chiefly need this stored -food. Its presence explains the miracle of the -bursting of blossoms and leaves when spring -comes.</p> -<p>One by one the trees of your own yard may -be learned by name this summer. The leaves -are your sure guide. Trees stay where they are. -Once we recognise their leaves and call them -by name, we may depend upon finding them still -standing the next day we pass them, and their -leaves are still held out as the sign of recognition. -Every time we pass yonder red maple let -us glance at its three-pointed leaf, and fix its -shape indelibly in the mind. When we have done -this a dozen times, I am sure that we shall be -able to pick out all the red maples in town; and -if we journey far from home we may find and -recognise the same kind of trees by the same -sign. More and more as we grow older, we -find out that half the pleasure of travelling is the -occasional meeting with old friends, be they people -or trees.</p> -<h2>TREE STUDIES IN THE SUMMER</h2> -<div class="pb" id="Page_183">[183]</div> -<h3 id="c54">TREES WITH THE LARGEST FLOWERS</h3> -<p>If we set out to find the trees that have the -largest flowers, meaning to count only trees -that grow wild in our woods, it will save time -to go straight south into North Carolina, and -climb the foot hills of the Allegheny Mountains. -Or it may be that in the fertile valleys that lie -between the low ridges we shall first come upon -a magnolia, called the large-leaved cucumber tree. -Anywhere from North Carolina to Florida, and -west to Arkansas, these remarkable trees are -likely to be found, in small groups. In cultivation, -they are successfully planted as far north -as Boston.</p> -<p>Before the tree has attained more than a man’s -height it is a wonder, on account of the leaves -which measure more than a foot in length, and -have their long, green blades lined with white. -In June the flowers open—great white bowls, -made of waxen petals, in a double row, the inner -ones painted purple at their bases, giving the -flower a purple centre.</p> -<p>The wind blows the leaves about, and tears -them into rags, unless the tree is in a sheltered -<span class="pb" id="Page_184">[184]</span> -place. The silvery leaf linings, as white as the -blossoms, make it difficult to see that the tree is -in bloom, until one is close enough to see the -petals. If the leaves were green on both sides -the great blossoms, as large as a man’s head, -would be seen afar off. The tree would look like -a giant rose bush.</p> -<p>From Pennsylvania southward to the Gulf of -Mexico, and west to Arkansas and Texas, the -evergreen magnolia grows on stream borders, and -even on uplands where the soil is not very moist. -When this pyramid of shining green leaves lights -all its waxen tapers, it is a sight worth a day’s -journey to see. Each stiff twig is bent upward, -and there a bud appears in spring. A few at -a time, the flowers open, and the blooming time -lasts till August.</p> -<p>Each blossom is a deep, creamy cup, made of -six wax-like petals, surrounded by three white -sepals. Inside are many stamens, purple at the -base, and a cone of pistils, all grown together.</p> -<p>The leaves are oblong or oval, often eight -inches long, thick, deep green, and bright as if -polished on the upper surface. The lining is -dull green, sometimes covered with rusty down. -The paler green and the brighter polish on the -young leaves add much beauty to the tree in -summer. In winter the leaves get grimy and -<span class="pb" id="Page_185">[185]</span> -the tree top is sombre, for most of the foliage -has seen much wear and tear.</p> -<p>In autumn the ends of the twigs hold up green -cones, made of many furry capsules that end -in curved horns. Each capsule splits when ripe, -and a scarlet seed, like a berry, hangs out on an -elastic thread, and swings lower and lower, until -finally it is carried away. Thus the magnolia -sows its seeds in winter.</p> -<p>The shining leaves of this magnolia come North -at the Christmas season, and are used to decorate -homes and churches. Holly, mistletoe, palm -leaves, and the beautiful Southern smilax are -other Christmas greens now commonly in use. -They are all gathered with magnolia and shoots -of the long-leaf pine, in the woods down South.</p> -<p>The swamp bay is a magnolia that grows as -a shrub to New England, keeping to the swampy -lands that skirt the Atlantic coast. Every spring -the fragrant, creamy blossoms are to be bought -from street Arabs in New York and Philadelphia. -A single globular flower is surrounded by a whorl -of oval leaves, bright green, but lined with a -white, powdery substance that makes them look -silver-lined. The flowers are deliciously fragrant, -and most beautiful when not spread wide -open. The seller often takes the trouble to -spring the petals back, to make the blossom seem -<span class="pb" id="Page_186">[186]</span> -bigger. The waxy petals turn brown soon after -such handling, and all their natural beauty departs.</p> -<p>From Florida westward to Texas this magnolia -becomes a slender, tall evergreen tree. The -best flowers of this tree are borne on shoots that -are produced by pruning back the new growth -each year. The largest leaves and flowers are -also the handsomest.</p> -<p>The cucumber tree is the magnolia of the -North. It is a fine tree in Ontario, Canada, and -from this region it spreads south, its range widening -like a fan, reaching from Arkansas to the -Carolinas, and Mississippi, and Alabama. The -tropical appearance of the tree is due to the big, -heart-shaped leaves. Their tulip-like flowers are -as large as garden tulips, but they make scarcely -any show, because they are very much the same -in colour as the yellowish-green new leaves that -surround them.</p> -<p>The “cucumbers” are the green cones that -contain the seeds. They are very lumpy and irregular -in form, but when ripe the cells split -open and the scarlet seed, let down on an elastic -thread from each, looks like any magnolia seed.</p> -<p>Cucumber wood is soft, yellowish-brown, and -close-grained. It is not very good lumber, -though put to many uses. The tree is worth -<span class="pb" id="Page_187">[187]</span> -more alive than dead. It is an admirable shade -tree, though not planted as much as it deserves.</p> -<p>The tulip tree is a close relative of the magnolias. -It is one of the trees with large flowers, -though, like the cucumber tree, the colour of the -flowers makes them rather inconspicuous. In -June the upturned twigs blossom with yellow tulips. -The three sepals flare outward, the petals -form the cup. A band of orange decorates the -cup, and signals the bees which come for nectar -hidden near the bottom of the flower cup, among -the bases of the many stamens.</p> -<p>Many people see the gay petals of the tulip tree -flowers when they fall on the sidewalk, and some -wonder what these bits of colour are. A few -will say: “There must be a tulip tree near by,” -and look up to find the singular squared-leaf -blades that belong to no other tree. There is a -whole tree top fluttering with them, and this -tremulous motion explains why the tree is often -called the tulip poplar. The yellow wood gives -the name, yellow poplar. Pulp of this wood is -used for the manufacture of the ordinary postal -cards. It has many other uses, and is a valuable -lumber tree. For shade and ornament it is one -of the best trees to plant.</p> -<p>The cones of the tulip tree do not set free their -seeds, as those of the magnolias do. Instead of -<span class="pb" id="Page_188">[188]</span> -horned capsules, the cone has flat, overlapping -blades, like the wing of a maple seed, and the -small, closed seed case is the base of the blade. -A few of these seeds are fully developed. But -when the winter strips the tree of its leaves, the -wind shakes the cones, and the loosened scales -gradually fall. The wind catches the flat wings, -and away they sail. Little tulip trees grow up -where good seeds fall in favourable ground.</p> -<p>One day a neighbour told me that there was -a tree in blossom on the side of the ravine. This -was a strange story, for it was the dead of winter. -We went to see this wonderful tree. What do -you think it was? A tulip tree, with the seed -cones half stripped of their seeds, and shining -like yellow flowers on the ends of the twigs. It -was not strange at all that a person who did -not know the tree, and had never seen its cones -in mid-winter, should make this very mistake.</p> -<p>The flowering dogwood invites us every spring -to break off branches covered with big, white -blossoms, each like a four-pointed star, with a -cluster of small white buds in the centre. The -trees are small and low-branching, their limbs -are flat, and they spread outward and slightly -downward. Who can resist cutting a few of -the blossoming boughs of this lovely tree! The -best part is that the tree suffers not at all if -<span class="pb" id="Page_189">[189]</span> -the pruning is done with some care. Take a -thought for the tree; cut the branches clean with -a knife. Take them off where they are thick, -and you will leave the tree better in shape than -when you came. Do not strip it of flowers. -This will cripple it. A few sprays of dogwood, -prettily arranged in a vase, are a delight to the -eye. A crowded mass of them is not at all.</p> -<p>The four outer wings of white are not the -petals of a dogwood blossom. They are colourless -leaves, the full-grown scales of the winter -flower buds. The notch at the tip is made by -the falling off of the withered tip which in winter -protected the flowers. The base grew long -and broad and turned gradually white. The bees -see these white banners farther, perhaps, than -they can catch the faint perfume. Watch the -bee as she probes the middle flowers for nectar. -See the pollen on her hairy body. From one to -another, she is the pollen distributor of these -flowers, and she doesn’t know it.</p> -<h3 id="c55">TREES MOST SHOWY IN BLOOM</h3> -<p>Sometimes a tree with very small flowers has -such a multitude of them that it attracts more attention -and admiration when in blossom than the -<span class="pb" id="Page_190">[190]</span> -trees with the largest flowers. A magnolia blossom -as large as a cabbage head must sacrifice -delicacy to size. We must see it at a distance to -overlook its coarseness, and to escape its overpowering -perfume.</p> -<p>An orchard in early May is transformed into -fairyland by the opening of millions of buds. -Apple trees have just begun to unfold the new -leaves. They are pale green, and coated with -white hairs, so that a silvery cloud rests on the -tree when the white blossoms, warmed with a -tinge of pink, come with a rush that takes one’s -breath away.</p> -<p>A single apple blossom has its five flaring petals -inside of five green sepals that are the bud’s green -overcoat. The stamens are many; the pistils five -in the centre of the flower. The plan of the -flower is five. The green lump below the blossom -is the apple, already forming. Inside it are -the five cells of the core, and each has its seeds -already forming, if the five pistils have each -caught a grain of pollen for each of the embryo -seeds its chamber of the core contained.</p> -<p>The delicate colour and rich fragrance of the -apple orchard are enchanting. To the honey -bees these two signals call to a feast of nectar. -All unknown to them, they carry pollen on their -furry bodies from flower to flower, and thus -<span class="pb" id="Page_191">[191]</span> -enable the pistils to set seed. If the days are -damp and there are frequent showers while the -apple trees are in bloom, the bees are kept at -home, and there will be but a small crop of -apples. Fortunately for the bees and for us, -the blossoms do not all come out on the same day. -The trees and the bees are hopeful till the last -moment that the sun will shine, and the nectar -be gathered, before the opportunity of the year -passes.</p> -<p>Flowers much like apple blossoms in form -cover the twigs of hawthorn trees. They are -usually in many-flowered clusters, set off by the -green leaves. Fragrance, sometimes sickening -sweet, draws the bees and other insects to these -trees. Nectar drips from the blossoms of some -species. The thorny branches spread sidewise, -holding the blossoms out in wide platforms. The -red fruits, called haws, adorn the trees in late -summer.</p> -<p>Plum and cherry trees are laden with white -bloom, and heavy with fragrance. Some species -haven’t a leaf when they bloom. And these are -among the showiest of blossoming trees. In -these flowers there are single pistils, and but a -single grain of pollen is needed to set seed. The -single seed is the pit, or stone, of this family -known as the trees with stone fruits.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_192">[192]</div> -<h3 id="c56">TREES THAT BLOOM IN MIDSUMMER</h3> -<p>In spring the big chestnut tree is late in putting -out its leaves. It is May before the bare -limbs are clothed with green. This crown is -made of long, pointed leaves, each short-stemmed, -strongly ribbed, with parallel veins on each side -of the midrib, polished and sharp-toothed along -its margin. It is a superb dome of unusually -handsome leaves.</p> -<p>When the flower procession is long past and -the grain fields have turned yellow, and the -mower and reaper are humming busily, the chestnut’s -crown turns from green to gold, as if to -harmonise with the landscape of midsummer. -Each twig ends in a feathery yellow plume, which -waves in the breezes, and sheds its yellow pollen -abroad. The fertile flowers are at the base of -the plume. As the yellow pollen flowers fade, -the green scaly ones below them are swelling. -They are the young chestnuts. The long tongue -each held out to catch pollen when it was ready -for use. Each flower has three nuts as its full -quota to form. Failure to be pollenated may -cause one of the three to fail. The husk will -then contain two nuts.</p> -<div class="img" id="p237"> -<img src="images/p237.jpg" alt="Leaves and flowers of the ear-leaved cucumber tree are the largest in the magnolia family" width="675" height="438" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Leaves and flowers of the ear-leaved cucumber tree are the largest in the magnolia family</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p238"> -<img src="images/p238.jpg" alt="The orange-yellow flower cups and squared leaves of the tulip tree" width="499" height="791" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The orange-yellow flower cups and squared leaves of the tulip tree</span></p> -</div> -<p>In May the yellow locust trees still stand along -<span class="pb" id="Page_193">[193]</span> -the roadsides, or herded together along the banks -of streams, bare and ugly, while the trees around -them are beautifully clothed in their green garments, -and adorned with blossoms. The dead -pods still cling to the locust’s branches, and not -even the buds are in sight to prove the twigs alive.</p> -<p>Suddenly the trees wake, push out their hidden -buds into shoots which unfold leaves made of -tiny leaflets. The leafy spray is light and graceful, -pale green with a silvery sheen at first. Soon -the leaves are inundated with a flood of white -blossoms, fragrant with their nectar, which hang -in clusters from each twig. The bees see the -white cloud on the locust tree, and hurry to the -feast. Each curious pea-like flower has a honey -pot in its horned petal. Throughout the summer -the locust trees wave their fern-like leaves, -among which the young pods swing, rosy and -green, and velvety soft. The two thorns at the -base of each leaf are there, but they are not conspicuous, -unless you grasp a limb; then they let -you know where they are, and what they can do.</p> -<p>On a summer evening we shall see that the -locust has closed its leaves, folding the opposite -leaflets together, and the whole leaf drooping -from its stem. It reminds us of the old-fashioned -sensitive plant whose leaves resembled these, -folded its leaflets and drooped whenever it was -<span class="pb" id="Page_194">[194]</span> -touched. Indeed, the locust tree and these plants -are near relatives. The locust leaves are sensitive -to the evening air. They close if a rain -comes up, but open when the sun comes out -again and the sky clears.</p> -<p>Locust trees have an insect enemy which bores -into the solid wood, and ruins it for lumber. -Even the twigs are swollen and distorted by these -insects, which feed upon the rich sap that should -go to feed the tree. It is impossible to reach -this enemy with poison, so the trees are helpless.</p> -<p>Except for this unfortunate fact, locusts would -be a profitable crop to raise for timber. Locust -wood is very hard, durable, and strong. It is -slow to decay when in water, so it is valuable -for fence posts, and for boat building. It is -used for hubs and spokes of waggon wheels, and -it is an excellent fuel. The locust timber that -reaches market comes from the mountain slopes, -where the locust-borer is thus far unknown. The -range of the tree is all over the Eastern states -and west to the Rocky Mountains. We shall not -find them south of the latitude of Tennessee.</p> -<div class="img" id="p241"> -<img src="images/p241.jpg" alt="Flowers, fruit, and the three different leaf patterns of the sassafras tree" width="500" height="779" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Flowers, fruit, and the three different leaf patterns of the sassafras tree</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p242"> -<img src="images/p242.jpg" alt="Waxy flower of the evergreen magnolia, usually eight inches across when open" width="500" height="677" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Waxy flower of the evergreen magnolia, usually eight inches across when open</span></p> -</div> -<p>The catalpa’s great heart-shaped leaves, as -broad as a man’s hat, come out in May, but the -leafy shoots grow a foot or more in length, and -it is well along toward Independence Day before -the flower buds show streaks of white above the -<span class="pb" id="Page_195">[195]</span> -foliage mass. The upturned twigs end in a -spike of blossoms, creamy in colour, but speckled -within their wide throats with purple and yellow. -The rim of the flower cup is daintily scalloped, -and frilled, and the tree top is even more showy -than the horse chestnut a month earlier.</p> -<p>There is stateliness, even stiffness, in the figure -of a blossoming horse chestnut—a pyramid of -green holding up a thousand pyramids of white. -The catalpa has a round head, and the loose -flower clusters are quite informal in their arrangement. -The flowers nod gracefully on their -stems—a thing the horse chestnut flowers are -unable to do.</p> -<p>Why are the dots of colour sprinkled in the -throat of the flower? Why are they arranged -in lines that lead to the nectar sac? To guide -the bees which come in swarms in answer to the -signals of colour and fragrance the flowers fling -out as lures to them.</p> -<p>The two stamens are ripe before the pistil. -The bee rubs the pollen off by crowding into the -flower. Some of this dust is bound to be rubbed -off on the ripe stigma of an older blossom visited -by this bee. Thus, unconsciously the bee helps -the tree to set good seed. Of these we will study -when we come to the tree again in autumn. Only -a hint of the seed vessel is given by looking at -<span class="pb" id="Page_196">[196]</span> -the oldest flower in a cluster, and noticing the -green part at the base.</p> -<p>The linden or basswood holds its arms out -so that the broad leaves are exposed to the sun -in slanting strata, or platforms of shade, that -strike downward. The tree’s frame is roofed -in with them in an almost unbroken thatch of -green. Cattle love to crop this foliage, and to -enjoy the dense shade on a hot day.</p> -<p>In July the dark green is illuminated by thousands -of starry white blossoms, a few at the -end of a slender stem that rises out of a pale -green, leaf-like blade. There is nothing like it -borne on any other tree.</p> -<p>The news that the basswoods are in bloom -reaches the hives in good time. One is able to -hear the murmur of bees as far as he can see -the flowers, but the fragrance travels much -farther. Basswood honey is higher in price than -other kinds. Is this the reason the bees are so -hard at work? Small as the individual flowers -are, they have an unusual supply of nectar, and -the bees revel in the plenty of what will feed -them and yield wax. They make honey while -the sun shines, counting the basswoods their best -source of the crude materials for honeymaking. -It was so in the days of old. Greek poets sang -of the honey-laden lindens. Honey made from -<span class="pb" id="Page_197">[197]</span> -linden trees in the Lithuanian forests was carried -to Rome, where it sold for three times the price -of ordinary honey.</p> -<p>Bees swarm, and the new colony often takes -to the woods and sets up housekeeping in a hollow -tree. This is so likely in the Southern states -to be a linden that “bee tree” is a familiar name -of this tree.</p> -<h3 id="c57">THE EARLY BERRIES IN THE WOODS</h3> -<p>Robins come to our cherry trees in June, -and they hunt for our strawberries under -the green leaves. The blackberries come on, -and the raspberries, and currants. The birds look -at them with calculating eyes. An appetite for -berries is inherited in them, learned in the woods, -where wild berries have grown, and ripened for -them, from the times long before there were -gardens and cultivated fruits.</p> -<p>Back in the woods we shall find wild berries -ripening, and birds feasting thankfully upon -them. The harvest begins with the June-berries -in the month of June. Serviceberries they are -also called, and the tree is known also as the -shadbush. We remember the lovely veil of white -blossoms this tree put on before its leaves came -<span class="pb" id="Page_198">[198]</span> -out. In June we might not know the trees, except -that they bear red berries, few on a cluster, -and here the birds are feasting.</p> -<p>There is no other tree with berries that ripen -so early, unless it be the broad-leaved mulberry. -Here, too, the birds will be found in numbers. -Turn back the wide, heart-shaped leaves, and you -will find the single berries of all sizes, some green, -some reddening and soft. They are like blackberries, -each made of many tiny berries, grown -together.</p> -<p>The beauty of the mulberry is that its fruit -keeps coming on from June until August. It -is a very slow, easy-going tree, in no hurry to -have its harvest over. The birds like the soft, -seedy berries, which to our taste are insipid.</p> -<p>It is a shrewd thing to plant mulberry trees -on the edges of fruit gardens, and set a row of -June-berry trees along the road outside the cherry -orchard. It is the scarcity of wild berries that -brings the birds into our gardens. Many a fruit-grower -has saved his crop by planting wild berry -trees for the birds.</p> -<p>The elders are shrubby trees with large, fern-like -leaves. They lift up flat, white flower clusters, -sometimes as large as dinner plates, in June, -and in the middle of summer dark red berries are -ripening where the flowers were. Here is another -<span class="pb" id="Page_199">[199]</span> -feast for the birds, and elderberry pies are -the reward of boys and girls who gather the berries, -and take them home to mother. Grandma -thinks of elderberry wine, so good for many ailments, -and if the berries are plenty it is easy to -gather a bucketful to make a few pints of this -old-fashioned cordial.</p> -<p>Among the shining green leaves of the wild -red cherry tree the little fruits glow like rubies -in the summer. Here is a feast for the birds. -We find these small pin cherries very thin-fleshed, -and sour, and the biggest of them is no larger -than a pea. But how the birds love them! The -bird cherry is indeed the bird’s tree. In blossom -it belongs to the bees, which come in swarms for -nectar. To them, unconscious carriers of pollen -from flower to flower, the birds owe a debt of -gratitude. They insure the setting of seed, and -this means a big crop of fruit.</p> -<p>The wild black cherry is later with its shining -clusters of dark red cherries. They come in -September, when the birds’ procession has turned -southward. The earliest comers hold high carnival -in these trees, devour quantities of the bitter-sweet -fruit, and drop the seeds near and far. -The wind can do little in scattering the seeds -of fruit trees. The birds are the chief agents -of distribution.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_200">[200]</div> -<h3 id="c58">THE SASSAFRAS</h3> -<p>The sassafras is not important as a forest -tree, yet I do not know another to whom -so many kinds of people, of all ages, go, asking -for favours this tree alone can give. Even in -regions where the tree does not grow, its name -is well known. Sassafras tea has a world-wide -reputation as a cure for “spring fever,” otherwise -known as “that tired feeling.” Drug store -windows are piled high in spring with bits of -the corky bark of the sassafras roots, and the -buds in winter taste of the same aromatic oil, -whose flavour rises from a steaming pot of sassafras -tea. Many a bad-tasting medicine is made -more palatable by a drop or two of oil of sassafras.</p> -<p>The leaves and twigs of young sassafras trees -are used in the South to flavour and thicken -gumbo soups. The wood of sassafras is light -and tough. The long limbs are cut and stripped -by country boys going fishing, who know what -trees yield the best fishing rods. Sassafras posts -last a long while, for the wood does not rot in -contact with soil, or soaked with water. It -makes good boats and barrels for this same reason.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_201">[201]</div> -<p>Children know the sassafras tree. In winter -they nibble the dainty green buds, or dig away -the snow at the roots to get a morsel of the -aromatic bark. In summer it is the leaves that -are the chief charm of the tree. It is a fascinating -game to look for the “mittens and double -mittens,” which seem to be more numerous than -the plain oval leaves on this tree. There is no -other tree that has three distinct leaf shapes. -The mitten form has its thumb just right, on one -side. It might be used for a mitten pattern. -There are lefts and rights, and mittens of all -sizes. The doll-sized ones are the youngest, and -they grow near the tips of the twigs. The double -mittens have a thumb on each side, and the simple -oval shape—the hand part with no thumb at all—is -usually harder to find than either of the -others.</p> -<p>When looking for these strange leaf shapes, -there is always a chance of coming upon a strange -inhabitant of the sassafras tree. A great green -caterpillar is lying at ease upon a hammock of -silk, which he has spun for himself. There he -lies, and gazes at the startled person who discovers -him. Are those really eyes, or only black -spots? They probably scare away birds which -are looking for worms. The effect of the two -“eye spots” is almost as surprising as if two -<span class="pb" id="Page_202">[202]</span> -rolling eyeballs glared at the intruder, and threatened -violence if he came near.</p> -<p>Carry home this fearsome green mummy on -the leaf; put him in a cage made of wire screen, -and watch him. He needs no food, for he is -asleep. When he awakes his mummy case will -split open, and out of it will emerge a wonderful -butterfly, with banded wings of black and yellow -velvet, and long, tapering points trailing behind, -which gives him his name—the swallow-tailed -butterfly. He has a flexible tongue, an inch or -more in length, coiled like a watch spring. With -it he will probe the tubes of flowers, and find -the nectar at the base of each. He is hungry -now, so let him go. Turn him loose in a bed -of flowers, and you may see just how he feeds.</p> -<p>When the mother butterfly laid its tiny green -egg on the face of an open leaf of the sassafras, -the tree was probably in blossom. In June, delicate, -starry, greenish-yellow flowers come out in -clusters on the ends of twigs. The butterfly -finds nectar in these fragrant and dainty blossoms. -In the autumn birds come and feast upon -the blue berries which look very handsome on -their red stems. Indeed, it is quite usual for the -trees to be stripped while the berries are still -green, so hungry are the birds that stop to feed -on their long journey to the South.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_203">[203]</div> -<p>In the autumn the sassafras trees change colour -from the brilliant green of summer. All colours -of the sunset, purple, red, and golden, blend in -these shining tree tops. A clump of sassafras -and sweet gum trees, with here and there a tupelo -and a dogwood, a scarlet oak and a hard -maple, make a picture never to be forgotten. If -the roadside trees were on fire, they would not -show any more vivid colouring. It is their -glorious good-bye to the year, before they all let -their leaves fall and enter into the sleep of winter.</p> -<h3 id="c59">THE ASH FAMILY</h3> -<p>The trees whose leaves are set opposite upon -the twigs are few in the American woods -compared with those whose leaves alternate. The -maples have the opposite arrangement of leaves; -so have the dogwoods. These trees have simple -leaves. The horse chestnuts and buckeyes have -their leaves set opposite, and these leaves are -compound: five or seven leaflets rise from the -end of the stout leaf stem. The ash family is -another large group of trees, with leaves set opposite -on the twigs. These leaves are compound, -but of a different pattern from those of the horse -chestnut. The leaf stem has the leaflets arranged -<span class="pb" id="Page_204">[204]</span> -in pairs along its sides. This is the feather -type of compound leaf, seen in the locust family, -and among walnuts and hickories.</p> -<p>Ash trees are recognised by their opposite compound -leaves. There is another sign: the fruit -has a dry seed, pointed and winged like a dart. -There is no other seed exactly like those of the -ash. The seed clusters hang on the bare twigs, -far into winter. The twigs are stout, and set in -pairs on the branches. The trees grow large, -and their tops are regular and handsome. The -bark is close, broken by shallow fissures into -small, often diamond-shaped plates.</p> -<p>Our common ash trees are distinguished by -colour, as the names indicate. A few well-marked -differences are shown by the species, which are -often found growing together in mixed woods.</p> -<p>The white ash is a tall, handsome, stately tree, -with a trunk like a grey granite column. The -white in its name is from the pale leaf linings, -that illuminate the tree top in summer. The twigs -are pale, and the bark is often as pale grey as -that of a white oak. The slender, dart-like seeds -are one to two inches long, with a wing which -is twice the length of the round, tapering seed. -They hang in thick clusters, paler green than -the leaves, and often flushed with a rosy tinge -in late summer. All winter the wind harvests the -<span class="pb" id="Page_205">[205]</span> -crop of seeds, and plants young white ashes wherever -the darts fall on good ground.</p> -<p>The black ash is a slender, upright tree, with -narrow head and stout twigs. The plump, -leathery buds on the winter twigs are almost -black, and the bark is a very dark grey. The -foliage in summer is much darker green than -that of any other ash, so the name is earned -by buds, bark, and leaves. The seeds are flat -and short, and the wing is broad and short, and -deeply notched. A black ash leaf has all its -leaflets stemless except the one at the tip. The -white ash has a much fleecier foliage than that -of the black, because each leaflet has a stem of -its own.</p> -<p>The wood of the black ash splits readily -into thin sheets, each representing the growth of -a single year. The Indians taught the white -men to make baskets out of black ash splints. -They cut the tree down, sawed the log into the -lengths required, split the blocks into pieces as -wide as the splints should be. These sticks were -bent over a board, and the strain separated the -bands of dense, tough wood into the thin strips -just right for basket weaving.</p> -<p>The red ash is a small, spreading tree, with a -close head, slender branches, and crowded twigs. -Its bark is reddish, closely furrowed, and scaly. -<span class="pb" id="Page_206">[206]</span> -The young twigs are covered with soft hairs. -The leaves are a shiny yellow-green above, often -a foot long, made of seven to nine slender leaflets, -whose stems and veins have a silky down, that -remains all summer.</p> -<p>Red ash seeds are extremely slender and long, -and they hang on hairy stems.</p> -<p>The green ash has dark, lustrous foliage, the -leaf lining green, like its upper surface. The bark -is grey, and closely checked, and the twigs are -smooth and slender.</p> -<p>This is the ash tree which grows in the regions -of scant rainfall; in Utah, Arizona, and Texas. -In the East it is found from Virginia to Florida. -It is one of the beautiful shade trees in the regions -where few trees grow well. East of the Alleghenies -it is but one among many ash trees, and -is little noticed; but in the far West, and on the -treeless plains of Nebraska and Dakota, it is -a far handsomer tree than its companions, the -willows and the cottonwoods.</p> -<div class="img" id="p255"> -<img src="images/p255.jpg" alt="Fruits, leaves and flowers of basswood tree, called also linden" width="500" height="774" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Fruits, leaves and flowers of basswood tree, called also linden</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p256"> -<img src="images/p256.jpg" alt="Chestnut trees blossom in July, and the nuts drop after the first severe frost" width="500" height="792" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Chestnut trees blossom in July, and the nuts drop after the first severe frost</span></p> -</div> -<p>The blue ash is common on the rich river lands -along the principal tributaries of the Mississippi. -Some of the finest specimens grow -on the limestone hills of the Smoky Mountains. -It is a tall, graceful, grey-stemmed ash. We -shall know it anywhere as an ash tree by its -opposite twigs and leaves, and by its dart-like -<span class="pb" id="Page_207">[207]</span> -fruits. It differs from all other ash trees in -having four-angled twigs. The tree has a kind -of blue dye in its inner bark. Cut out a piece -and put it in water, and it is as if you had added -a few grains of indigo.</p> -<p>The blue ash ranks high as a shade tree, and -its wood is quite the equal of white ash. It is -used for vehicles, for flooring, and for tool -handles. It is especially desired for pitchfork -handles.</p> -<p>The native ash of Europe is a large timber -tree, whose range extends through Asia Minor. -The wood of this tree had a wonderful reputation -for general usefulness. Its tough, thin -inner bark was used to write on before paper -was invented. The wood was used for lances -and spears, for bows, pikes, and shields by the -soldiers, during ancient times. Every tool, vehicle, -and implement of the farmer and mechanic -were made of this wood. “Every prudent lord -of a manor should employ one acre of ground -with ash to every twenty acres of other land. -In as many years it would be worth more than -the land itself.”</p> -<p>The seeds of ash trees were used for fattening -pigs. They were also used as remedies for many -diseases. They were called birds’ tongues, from -their shape, and every apothecary kept a stock -<span class="pb" id="Page_208">[208]</span> -of them. Ash wood makes the best of fuel, and -its ashes, rich in potash, make a splendid fertiliser, -especially in orchards.</p> -<p>One warning the old English rhyme offers regarding -this tree. It is supposed to attract -lightning. Oaks have the same reputation. On -the other hand, tradition holds that a beech tree -is never struck by lightning. There is opportunity, -where these trees grow, and where thunderstorms -are frequent, to notice how true are -the popular beliefs.</p> -<p>Have you ever been warned by this old rhyme?</p> -<div class="verse"> -<p class="t0">“Beware of the oak, it draws the stroke;</p> -<p class="t0">Avoid the ash, it courts the flash;</p> -<p class="t0">Creep under the thorn—it will save you from harm.”</p> -</div> -<h3 id="c60">THE HORSE-CHESTNUT AND THE BUCKEYES</h3> -<p>When an English lad speaks of a chestnut, -he means the horse-chestnut, and the chances are -that he does not know anything about the American -trees, whose sweet nuts we gather in the -woods at home after the frost has opened their -spiny burs. In America the European tree is -planted very commonly for ornament and shade, -and it is always called horse-chestnut here, except -by English cousins who may be visiting us.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_209">[209]</div> -<p>They ask us why we put the word “horse” -before this tree’s name. For answer we pull -down a twig, snap off a leaf, and show the scar of -the leaf’s attachment to the twig. It is somewhat -like the print of a horse’s hoof on the -ground. Even the horseshoe nails are there, for -a thread from each leaflet goes down through -the leaf stem, and its fibres are buried in the -twig. There are five or seven of these nail prints -in the scar, depending upon the number of leaflets. -Five is the usual number, but seven is not -at all unusual.</p> -<p>An old tradition states that the people of Eastern -countries feed these chestnuts to their horses -to cure them of cough, shortness of breath, and -other lung disorders. Upon this is based a second -claim for using the word “horse” before this -tree’s name. The quality of the fruit, however, -is probably the best answer to the question. The -coarse, large nuts are not fit for human food. -It is quite common to think that horses can eat -things too rank for our more fastidious taste. -Horse sugar is the name of a small tree whose -sweetish twigs are browsed upon by cattle and -horses in wooded pastures. Horse-radish and -horse-mint are coarser, more rank-growing kinds -of plants, than their closely related species which -are used for human food.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_210">[210]</div> -<p>We shall know the horse-chestnut in the dead -of winter by the large buds, the large hoof-print -leaf scars, and by the pyramidal form of the -tree. The twigs are stout, and they turn upward -so that the largest of the varnished buds are held -up like candles. The main branches leave the -trunk with an upward curve, then bend outward -and downward, then up again to hold the buds -upright. The tree looks, therefore, like a great -complex candlestick, with many arms and many -candles. The twigs are stout, and they come out -opposite each other on the branch. This is a -peculiarity of few trees. It belongs to all of -the members of the horse-chestnut family, which -includes the buckeye trees, our native horse-chestnuts.</p> -<p>In early spring, watch the horse-chestnut tree -outside your windows and along the streets as -they begin to swell, and until they finally open. -The tree lights all its candles when the brown, -varnished outer bud scales fall, and the soft, silky -inner ones, yellow as a candle flame, are revealed. -On the side twigs the buds are smaller than on -the tips. Out of each small bud comes a bunch -of leaves. Out of the big buds come the flowers.</p> -<p>In June a big horse-chestnut tree holds up a -thousand pyramids of white blossoms. Below -each flower duster is an umbrella-like circle of -<span class="pb" id="Page_211">[211]</span> -leaves. Each blossom of the dense spike has in -its throat dashes of yellow and red. The petals -form a ruffled border. The curving stamens are -thrust far out. Bees come in search of pollen -and nectar.</p> -<p>After the flowers pass, green fruits appear, a -few in a cluster, and all covered with spines. -Not many of these reach full size. It seems to -be enough for the tree to ripen one or two fruits -in a cluster. In the autumn they turn brown, -and the husk splits into three equal parts. Out -of this spreading husk the brown nuts fall.</p> -<p>Now the boys assail the tree with sticks and -stones, and the harvest of nuts is on. Who does -not love them for their beauty alone? The great -white spot is the place where they were attached -to the husk. The kernel is as bitter as gall, and -I know of no animal which eats it. If any one -counts them useless, let him see the hoards of -them which children gather, and use in their play. -He will change his mind completely. Their -glowing, soft colour is a feast to the eye, and -they just fit the hand.</p> -<h3 id="c61">THE BUCKEYES</h3> -<p>The Ohio buckeye is a little tree, but it has -given its name to the Buckeye State. There must -<span class="pb" id="Page_212">[212]</span> -have been many of them in the virgin forest that -the Ohio pioneer cut down to make room for his -crops of corn and grain. He noticed these trees -particularly because of a disagreeable odour that -comes from the bitter sap. The chopping and -handling of these trees intensifies this odour, -which is noticeable even when one drives past a -growing tree.</p> -<p>The name was given by some imaginative person -who saw a resemblance between the smooth -brown nuts and the soft brown eyes of a buck. -The white of the eye corresponds to the dash of -white on the nut. Deer abounded in the virgin -forests, and no doubt it was one of the first -settlers, a hunter as well as a farmer, who named -the tree.</p> -<p>The flowers and leaves resemble those of the -horse-chestnut, but are smaller, as the tree is. -The number of leaflets is five, rarely seven, and -they cluster on the end of a long leaf stem. The -flowers appear in April and May, and are not -conspicuous, for they are yellowish-green, and -make little contrast with the new leaves.</p> -<p>One thing is to be said in favour of this ill-smelling -tree. Its wood has been found to be -the best kind for the making of artificial limbs. -To this special use the lumber is chiefly devoted.</p> -<p>The sweet buckeye lacks the disagreeable odour -<span class="pb" id="Page_213">[213]</span> -of the Ohio buckeye, and its nuts are eaten by -cattle. It is a handsome, large tree, with leaves -of five slim leaflets, more or less hairy below, -and on the veins above. The flowers are yellow -and showy. Each corolla is drawn out into a -tube, like a honeysuckle’s. The husks of the -nuts are smooth. This species grows from Western -Pennsylvania along the mountain slopes to -Alabama, and on the prairies westward to Iowa. -The nuts are full of starch, and these are ground -into flour, which is used by bookbinders in making -their paste. The reason why this paste is -preferred is that destructive insects do not eat -it as they do paste made of wheat flour.</p> -<p>A red-flowered buckeye tree of small size grows -wild from Missouri to Texas, and east into Tennessee -to Northern Alabama. This is not the -same as the red horse-chestnut, which is sometimes -seen in cultivation as a handsome tree, -twenty to thirty feet high.</p> -<p>In the far West, the California buckeye is a -wide-topped tree of good size, with leaves of the -true horse-chestnut type, and white or rose-coloured -flowers, in showy clusters, and smooth, -pear-shaped nuts. This is the only one of our -native species which grows beyond the Rocky -Mountains.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_214">[214]</div> -<h3 id="c62">THE LOCUSTS AND OTHER POD-BEARERS</h3> -<p>When you find a tree with flat pods, containing -a row of seeds, you may be sure it is a locust, -or one of the family to which locusts belong. -It is a near relative of the peas and beans that -grow in the vegetable garden. This is a great -and valuable family to the human race, for it -furnishes some of the most valuable foods upon -which the people of all countries live. Only one -family, the grasses, is more important. This includes -not only grasses that are used for making -hay, but all the grains—wheat, barley, rice, oats, -and corn, that make the bread of the world, and -forage crops for horses and cattle. The banana -and sugar cane and bamboos are in this wonderful -grass family.</p> -<p>Along the roadsides, along rivers, and in the -woods grow the black or yellow locusts that -bloom in June, covering their ugly limbs with a -cataract of white, pea-like blossoms, in large clusters. -All summer the slim, thin pods are velvety -and green, with a lovely flush of rose, as they -swing among the feathery, fern-like leaves. In -autumn the pods turn brown, and in winter, when -the wind can switch them against the bare twigs, -<span class="pb" id="Page_215">[215]</span> -they split, and one by one, the hard little seeds -are shaken out. They are too heavy to be carried -in the wind. So we see little locusts coming -up among the old ones, and on the outer edges -of the clump.</p> -<p>No tree is so discouraged-looking, unkempt, -and diseased as a black locust infested with the -borers, and stripped of the foliage that covered -its thin, irregular limbs in the summer time. The -buds, even, are hidden, and the tree looks as if -life had left it. But the late spring denies the -rumour by clothing the dead-looking twigs with -foliage whose tender shadings and delicate leaf -forms make it one of the most graceful and lovely -of all native trees.</p> -<p>Unfortunately, we cannot have locusts of this -species in this Eastern country without exposing -them to the attacks of insects against which we -cannot defend the trees. The eggs are laid in -clefts of the bark, and the grubs hatch quite out -of reach of poisons and other damaging spraying -solutions. They feed on the living substance -under the bark, and their presence is shown by -swellings above their burrows. Twigs, limbs, -and trunks are distorted, and gradually the tree -loses vitality, and the wood is made worthless -by the honeycombing it receives. Only in the -mountainous parts of its range does the black -<span class="pb" id="Page_216">[216]</span> -locust reach its best growth. No tree has better -lumber for posts and other uses requiring durability -in contact with the soil and with water.</p> -<p>The clammy locust is a pink-flowered species -with a sticky substance exuding from the hairy -surface of new shoots. The flowers are lovely -but scentless. The trees are much planted in -parks and on lawns as an ornament, in all temperate -climates.</p> -<p>The honey locust earns its name in the summer -time, when the curving green pods are full of -a sweet, gelatinous pulp. Boys would like to -get these honey pods, but the vicious thorns permit -no climbing of the trees. Stoning and other -throwing of missiles is a slow and unsatisfactory -means of obtaining the forbidden fruit that hangs -so high. By the time they ripen and fall off -the pods are bitter as gall.</p> -<p>An old-world relative has thick, purple pods, -which are sweet and palatable when ripe. These -are brought to this country, and sold on small -fruit stands under the name, St. John’s bread. It -is said that this was the food of John the Baptist -in the wilderness.</p> -<p>The Kentucky coffee tree is the coarsest member -of the locust family in our woods. Its pods -are thick and short, and the seeds inside are as -large as hazel nuts. In the story of the Revolutionary -<span class="pb" id="Page_217">[217]</span> -War, the patriotic citizens refused to pay -duties on imported goods. The seeds of this -locust were used as a substitute for coffee. I -have tasted the bitter outside of one of these nuts, -and tried to break one with a hammer, but unsuccessfully. -It is not easy to understand how -a beverage made of such a nut could have been -fit to drink. The name of the tree seems to -give colour of truth to the tradition.</p> -<p>A coffee tree much like our native species -grows in China. We may believe that it is called -by another name, for the people use its heavy -pods for soap. Whether green or ripe, I do not -know.</p> -<p>The club-like branches of our coffee tree give -it a burly, clumsy appearance in winter, when -nothing conceals them from view. The dangling -pods rattle against the bare, stubby twigs, calling -attention to their lack of grace and symmetry. -Even the buds are out of sight, buried under the -thin bark, just above the big leaf scars. All -winter the wind strives with the stubborn pods. -When one is torn off, it lies unopened until melting -snow softens it, and the horny seed lies long -before it is able to sprout.</p> -<p>A thin pod adorns the most delicate of the -locust trees. This is the little red bud, a flat-topped -tree, of slender, thornless branches, most -<span class="pb" id="Page_218">[218]</span> -of them horizontal. Early in spring this tree -earns its name. Quantities of rosy magenta, pea-shaped -flowers cluster on its slim, angular twigs, -quite covering the smaller branches. It is an -unusual colour, and an unusual time to see pea-blossoms. -You cannot forget it, if you have seen -the tree once.</p> -<p>The leaves that soon follow are as unusual -as the flowers. Roundish, heart-shaped, smooth, -and shining as if polished, they flutter on thin, -flexible stems, and the slim pods hang among -them. They ripen and turn from green to rich -purple when the leaves change to bright yellow. -The hard little seeds are close together in the -pods, so that they are numerous, though the pods -are but two or three inches long.</p> -<p>I do not know when the red bud is most charming. -Certainly its autumn garment of yellow is -beautiful, trimmed with a fringe of purple pods. -It is a royal robe, and so fresh and new-looking -when the foliage of so many larger trees is faded -and in tatters. The trees that hide in the shelter -of larger ones can often save their leaves -from wear and tear, and this the red bud -does.</p> -<p>Judas tree is the name by which the red bud -of Europe is commonly called. It is one of a -few species to which an ugly tradition has been -<span class="pb" id="Page_219">[219]</span> -fastened by custom. It is said that this is the -kind of tree upon which Judas Iscariot hanged -himself. Our little American tree has had to -share the disgrace, for it looks like its European -cousin. The name to use is the true one.</p> -<p>Nurserymen have imported a large-flowered -red bud from China. Its flowers are not only -more showy, but they have a paler, prettier colour—a -rosy pink, and lacking the sad, blue tone of -the others.</p> -<p>It is easy to raise red bud trees, and they are -admirable in the border planting of a garden or -lawn. They begin to blossom when quite young, -and they never grow so large as to be out of -place among shrubbery.</p> -<p>The yellow-wood has larger and lovelier blossom -clusters than the black locust, with which it -might most easily be confused. In autumn the -flower stems hang full of thin pods, one to three -seeds in a pod. No other locust is so scantily -supplied with seeds in a pod.</p> -<p>In summer the leaflets prove that the tree is -not a black locust. They are larger and fewer, -though of the same feathered type. In the seasons -when the tree blooms freely, which is by -no means every year, the twigs are loaded with -clusters larger than any black locust produces. -In winter it is the bark that distinguishes the -<span class="pb" id="Page_220">[220]</span> -tree. It is grey and smooth, like that of the -beech; not at all like the dark trunk and rough -limbs of the locust. The form of the tree is -a regular head of horizontally-spreading limbs, -ending in tapering twigs that droop gracefully. -It is one of the handsomest trees in winter. The -locust is one of the weediest and ugliest of trees -when bare.</p> -<p>To find the yellow-wood in its native haunts, -we must go to the mountains of Eastern Tennessee -and North Carolina. It goes farther -north and south, but its range is scant. Better -chance of our meeting it in our neighbour’s yard. -It is cultivated as a flowering tree by people who -appreciate the finest trees that grow wild in American -woods. The nurserymen call it Virgilia. -This is certainly a graceful name, fitted to a tree -that deserves only the best.</p> -<p>The catalpas are pod-bearers of a different type. -Their long pencils are green, and there is no sign -of splitting until autumn. The seeds are not like -those of the flat pods, set in a single row. They -are thin as tissue paper, and packed in overlapping -layers about the thin partition that divides the -pod into two compartments.</p> -<p>The pods hang on after the large, heart-shaped -leaves fall. Winter winds bang them against the -twigs, and their two sides separate lengthwise. -<span class="pb" id="Page_221">[221]</span> -Gradually the thin, two-winged seeds escape, and -are scattered. The sowing lasts a long time.</p> -<p>Willows and poplars have pods of a sort, but -like neither locusts nor catalpas. The seeds are -very minute in each family, and carried in delicate -wisps of cottony down. The pods open -by splitting down their walls, along two or four -lines, curling back the dry segments, and thus -letting the seeds escape. These trees are early in -scattering their seeds. The true pod-bearers are -late about it.</p> -<h3 id="c63">WILD APPLE TREES AND THEIR KIN</h3> -<p>Go out into the woods, and you will find wild -crab apple trees, bearing hard, sour little apples, -unfit to eat. Four distinct kinds are native to this -country. In Eastern Asia wild apple trees grow -in greater variety than here. Our orchard apple -trees are descended from these Oriental wild -apples, which were brought under cultivation -long before America was discovered. Nurserymen -in Europe and Japan have for centuries -worked with the wild species to improve them. -The Japanese worked to produce finer flowering -trees. European horticulturists desired finer and -larger fruit. American orchards show how well -<span class="pb" id="Page_222">[222]</span> -they have succeeded. For over a century American -horticulture has made marked progress. -Many valuable kinds of fruit have originated in -this country. Our own wild apples are now -studied with the aim of bringing them into cultivation, -just as the Asiatic species were improved -centuries ago. It is a wonderful work, accomplished -by crossing, grafting, budding, by fertilising, -and good tillage,—processes too special -to be explained in this book.</p> -<p>The taming of wild apples, however, is one -of the great achievements of the centuries. -Every boy and every girl who enjoys the eating -of a fine apple will wish to know how such -glorious fruit, in abundance sufficient to supply -the world’s needs, has been produced from such -unpromising beginnings as the gnarled little crab -trees scattered through the woods, and dwarfed -by the larger forest trees that overshadowed them.</p> -<p>“Grafting” or “budding” a little tree insures -that the fruit it bears later on will be of the -variety of the tree from which the scions came. -Only once in a long while does a good variety -of fruit come on a seedling tree. Plant the seed -of the best apple you ever ate, and then wait a -dozen years or more for this tree to bear fruit. -The chances are ninety-nine to one that the apples -turn out to be miserable, sour, or tasteless nubbins, -<span class="pb" id="Page_223">[223]</span> -like the roadside apples, that nobody planted. -It is too expensive to experiment in hope of getting -good varieties from seed.</p> -<p>“Johnny Appleseed” was a funny old fellow -who wandered up and down the Ohio valley -states, and planted apple seeds wherever he went. -Queer, and perhaps crazy, he was a kindly soul, -who dreamed of the days when orchards should -dot the landscape, and be a part of every farm -homestead. He did what he could to make the -wild prairie wilderness blossom and bear fruit. -No doubt many pioneer orchards came from his -planting. Seedling trees, all of them, for he believed -firmly that it is <i>wrong</i> to graft a tree!</p> -<p>Each year better and bigger apples are shown -at fairs, and fruit shows. The history of apple -culture is full of interest. It requires hundreds -of books to tell the story. But any man who has -an orchard can tell you how his trees were made -into the varieties he ordered at the nursery. He -may show you how grafting and budding is done, -and how a tree may be made over in a few years -to change entirely the kind of apple it bears. -He may show a tree that bears distinct kinds of -apples on different limbs, and show you the -scar of the graft from which each new variety -has sprung. When you are old enough, you can -grow apple trees from seed, and graft or bud -<span class="pb" id="Page_224">[224]</span> -them to the variety you choose,—greening, russet, -northern spy—taking your scions from a tree -whose apples are especially fine. It is a fascinating -game to play, with the soil, and the sun, -and the rain all working with you to help you -win.</p> -<p>Meanwhile, the wild apple, though worthless as -a fruit tree, is well worth knowing. No well-fed -orchard tree has charm to compare with this -wild thing when spring transforms its ugly, -thorny twigs.</p> -<p>The rosy blossoms of the wild crab apple come -out of a multitude of coral-red buds which open -just after the leaves. The gnarled limbs are -bare and ugly, until late in May. Then the -silvery, velvet leaves unfold, scarcely green at -first, because each one wears so thick a garment -of soft, white hairs. Before the leaves have lost -this velvet coat, the flower buds begin to glow, -and the tree top is soon blushing with the blossoms, -and the air is full of their spicy fragrance.</p> -<div class="img" id="p275"> -<img src="images/p275.jpg" alt="An old apple orchard is a fairy land indeed when blossoms cover the trees" width="678" height="429" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">An old apple orchard is a fairy land indeed when blossoms cover the trees</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p276"> -<img src="images/p276.jpg" alt="Nothing tastes so good as ripe apples picked right off the tree!" width="686" height="436" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Nothing tastes so good as ripe apples picked right off the tree!</span></p> -</div> -<p>Their charm is the charm of the wild rose. -Their arrangement on the gnarled twigs is irregular. -The artist loves the unstudied grace of it. -The great botanist, Linnæus, probably saw only -pressed specimens, but he named the tree <i>coronaria</i>, -which means, “fit for crowns and garlands.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_225">[225]</div> -<p>I remember gathering the little green apples -in the fall. Hard, and almost bitter, when eaten -out of hand, they make a jelly that is as distinct -and delightful in its way as the flowers are more -admirable than common apple blossoms. The -taste is wild, and almost bitter, but beside it -ordinary apple jelly tastes insipid. Perhaps I -am prejudiced, and the memory of that wild crab-apple -jelly too remote to be depended upon. But -many people agree with me. If you are in the -woods in October, and come to a thicket of trees -bearing flat, yellow apples, pick as many as you -can carry home. Smell their spicy fragrance, -and persuade your mother to make them into -jelly, so that you can form your own opinion -of it.</p> -<p>The Eastern crab apple grows over a large part -of the region between the Atlantic coast, and the -dry plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and -south to Northern Alabama and Texas. The -prairie crab, a different species, grows in the -Mississippi Valley. A narrow-leaved species -grows in the South, and the Oregon crab is -the native wild apple of the woods, from California -north into Alaska.</p> -<p>Quinces are core fruits, cousins of the apples. -So are pears. All of our orchard pears and -quinces are cultivated varieties of species that -<span class="pb" id="Page_226">[226]</span> -once grew wild in Europe or Asia. The Japanese -quince in America is a hedge plant which in -spring covers its bare twigs with large, deep rose-coloured -flowers, and bears hard, freckled fruits -that smell better than they taste, in September. -We know all these fruits, and have them in our -gardens, but they are foreigners here, though -much at home. We have no native pears or -quinces in America.</p> -<h3 id="c64">THE CHERRIES</h3> -<p>Do you know the peculiar taste and odour -of the pit of a cherry or peach? Then you will -recognise it without difficulty when you meet it -in a bruised leaf or twig of any tree that bears -stone fruits, wild or cultivated. It belongs to -the family which includes plums, cherries, peaches, -apricots, and almonds. But one species of native -cherry is a large tree. It is chiefly as fruit trees -that the cultivated varieties are important. A -few are grown for their beauty as flowering -trees and shrubs; some for their rich bronze -foliage.</p> -<p>The wild cherry is the one lumber tree in the -family. Its wood ranks with mahogany, though -not so expensive as the tree which grows no -nearer to us than lower Florida and Central -<span class="pb" id="Page_227">[227]</span> -America. It is made into furniture or used in -the interior finishing of houses, parlour cars, and -ocean liners. It takes a beautiful polish, and has -a rich brown colour that improves with time. -It is largely used as veneer on cheaper woods. -“Solid cherry” is likely to be birch, if the -article is of modern make.</p> -<p>This cherry has dark, shiny bark when young, -which breaks into shallow furrows, and curls -back like birch bark. The unquestionable sign -by which to know a wild cherry is the bitter, -peach-pit taste of the sap. Nibble a leaf or -twig or bit of bark, and you get that unforgettable -taste, that stays on the tongue longer than -we like.</p> -<p>Birds feast in September on the long clusters -of dark purple berries. They are bitter sweet, -barely edible, I say. But birds take them thankfully, -and children usually eat them freely. Old-fashioned -people make them into wines or cordials -for home remedies.</p> -<p>The choke cherry is a shrubby tree, with a -rank, disagreeable odour added to the bitter and -pungent odour that belongs to the black cherry. -The leaves are twice as wide as the black cherry’s. -The fruit shares the rank quality of the leaves -and bark. Until dead ripe, the cherries are so -bitter, harsh, and puckery that children, who eat -<span class="pb" id="Page_228">[228]</span> -the black cherries eagerly, cannot be persuaded -to taste choke cherries a second time. This is -well-named the “choke” cherry. Only the birds -can eat the berries without choking. They seem -not to mind its rankness, for the fruit is all -taken by the time it has turned black-ripe.</p> -<p>Early in summer the red bird cherry is in -fruit, after its crown of white blossoms has -passed. The pit is large, and the flesh thin and -sour, and the whole fruit is discouragingly small. -But birds are happy among the shining leaves -until the last cherry is gone. This is quite -sufficient appreciation. The seeds are dropped, -and the little trees come up all through the woods -and in the most unexpected places, due to the -birds’ scattering of the seeds.</p> -<p>Garden cherries of the sweet and sour groups -have sprung from wild species that grow in -Europe. The red, black, and yellow cherries -of California are the largest, most improved -varieties. The garden cherries of the Eastern -states are not nearly so large.</p> -<p>The native cherry of Japan has been cultivated -as a flowering tree, until it is wonderfully -beautiful. In its season of bloom, Japan is a -perfect fairyland. The country is one great -garden of pink cherry blossoms. At this time -the people turn out to see the marvellous sight. -<span class="pb" id="Page_229">[229]</span> -A national holiday is dedicated to this tree, which -is the symbol of happiness in the Flower Kingdom.</p> -<h3 id="c65">THE PLUMS</h3> -<p>All plum trees are small in stature, and many -are thorny by the sharpening of side twigs, as -if the struggle with adverse conditions made it -necessary to carry weapons of defence. I speak -now of the wild species. They grow in thickets, -another habit of self-protection.</p> -<p>The wild red and yellow plums that still -grow in thickets along streams in the great middle -country between the East coast and the Rocky -Mountains, furnished an important article of food -to the pioneer families, which led the westward -march of civilisation, and founded the prairie -states. Only people who remember those times, -and actually took part in the work of the pioneer, -can know how valuable the wild fruits were, -while the young orchards were growing, and no -fruit was to be had for the greater part of the -year.</p> -<p>After the first heavy frost in September the -plums were fit to eat. They became soft, and -sweet, and pleasant in flavour. But the skin was -thick, very sour and puckery, so eating plums -was not an unmixed joy.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_230">[230]</div> -<p>When a team and part of the family could be -spared from the farm work, a day was taken -for “plumming,” and a happy and laborious -day it was, but always enjoyed in true holiday -spirit. Usually neighbours joined in the outing, -and had a picnic dinner together in the woods. -Only the oldest clothes were worn, for in the plum -thickets one must risk the ruin of his raiment -by the angular, thorny branches. Sheets were -spread under the trees where possible, and a -severe shaking or beating of the branches showered -the fruit down. All hands were busy at -gathering the plums, and loading the waggons -with the harvest.</p> -<p>Perhaps there was time afterward for the boys -to explore the hazel thickets, and gather a generous -bagful of these small, but deliciously flavoured -nuts, still in their husks. Wild grape vines, -loaded with the purple fruit, tempted the frugal -wife to strip them, even though the sun was low. -For days after the return home, she was at work -putting away for winter use preserves and jellies -and pickles, and good old-fashioned plum and -grape “butter,” sweetened with molasses made -from sorghum cane.</p> -<p>Little plum trees, dug in the woods in early -spring, were planted in the home garden. By -setting these carefully, and tilling and enriching -<span class="pb" id="Page_231">[231]</span> -the soil around them, larger trees and finer fruit -were produced than the wild plum thicket could -show. Some of the good cultivated plums have -had such an origin.</p> -<p>A half dozen different species of wild plum -grow wild in different soils and regions of the -United States. Where two grow in the same -territory, natural hybrids have originated, better -than either parent in the quality of their fruit. -Such a cross has given rise to several varieties -of garden plums, of which the Miner group is a -fair example. The best orchard plums for the -middle of the country are crosses between native -and Japanese species. The European species, -like Damsons and Green Gages, do well in the -Eastern states, and on the Pacific slope.</p> -<p>The prunes we buy are dried plums. For a -century or two France has led all countries in -the prune industry. Now California leads. The -kinds of plums that can be dried are sweet and -fleshy. Ordinary juicy plums cannot be made -into prunes. The hot sun of California soon -takes all the moisture out of the plums spread -on tables to dry. There is no rain to fear in -the hot summer months.</p> -<p>Peaches, nectarines, and apricots are stone -fruits, closely related to the plums and peaches. -These Old World fruits are grown in the warm -<span class="pb" id="Page_232">[232]</span> -parts of this country. California raises them in -quantities. The most profitable of the stone -fruits has woody flesh, and is raised for its pit, -which we eat. This is the sweet almond, a -valuable nut. Its related species, the bitter -almond, yields almond oil and hydrocyanic acid, -both important drugs.</p> -<h3 id="c66">THE SERVICEBERRIES</h3> -<p>In the same family with apples and plums and -cherries is a group of slender, pretty trees called -June berry, serviceberry, and on the East coast, -shadbush. When the shadbush blossoms white, -the fishermen know that it is time to expect the -shad, which are taken in nets when they run up -the rivers to spawn. The red berries are ripe -in June, and the birds celebrate the event, and -even take them before they begin to redden. -Competition is strong, and the supply never equals -the demand. Rarely can a human berry-picker -find a ripe berry, to discover how it tastes.</p> -<p>The charm of this little tree is that it covers its -slim branches so early with white blossoms. -The clusters are soft and feathery, and a warm -flush underlies the white, the ruddy, strap-shaped -bracts, two of which are under each flower. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_233">[233]</span> -dainty opening leaves are also ruddy, and these -have opened before the blossoms pass.</p> -<p>In early April it is worth a long walk or drive -through the woods to see the scattered serviceberry -trees standing out from the bare background -of leafless trees, lovely as any tree can ever be, -in their robes of white. Thereafter, they seem -to retire from view, engulfed by the foliage curtain -the woodland draws about itself, as spring -advances.</p> -<h3 id="c67">VALUABLE SAP OF TREES</h3> -<p>In early spring on the New Hampshire hillsides, -the sap begins to mount the trunks of -the sugar maple trees, dissolving the sugar stored -in the wood cells during the previous summer. -It is time for the making of maple sugar. Winter -is over. Spring work has begun.</p> -<p>Hundreds of twigs of elder have been cut in -short lengths, and the pith pushed out, to make -“spiles.” Holes are bored in the trunks of the -trees, and in each hole one of these hollow spiles -is driven. These are the little spouts that drain -the sap from the tree into the waiting buckets that -stand or hang below. Drip, drip, drip, the sweet -sap flows into the buckets; and as often as they -fill, the farmer makes the rounds of the trees -<span class="pb" id="Page_234">[234]</span> -with barrels on a low sled or “stone boat,” -emptying the buckets.</p> -<p>The sap he gathers is poured into the evaporating -pans in the sugar house, and a roaring fire -keeps it boiling. As the water goes off in steam, -the remainder becomes maple syrup, which -thickens as it boils. Skimming and straining -removes any dirt or chips that fall into the sap. -When it is just thick enough, the syrup is drawn -off into cans, and sealed to be sent to market. -A part of it, however, is boiled longer, and when -drawn off, and cooled, it crystalises into the -granular yellow maple sugar. It is cooled in -shallow pans that hold a certain amount, and -thus the bricks of maple sugar are formed. Little -heart-shaped cakes are made by filling “patty -pans” with this heavy syrup.</p> -<p>As long as the sap flows in sufficient quantities, -the sugar harvest goes on. If the trees are -bored with care, with holes not too close together, -the tree will stand this draining from year to -year, and seem not to be injured by the loss of -sap. If the holes are close together, and extend -all around the trunk, the tree will be practically -girdled and it will die from the injury.</p> -<p>The finest kind of maple sugar is the wax -which is made by pouring heavy syrup on the -snow to cool. Quickly it thickens by the cold -<span class="pb" id="Page_235">[235]</span> -into stringy yellow wax, which tastes like other -maple sugar, but does not have the unpleasant -gritty feeling, which sets some teeth on edge. -Maple wax may be made at home, by melting -the sugar, and pouring it into snow; but the -time and the place to enjoy it most, is in the -sugar camp when the hot syrup is poured from -the long-handled ladle onto the nearest snow -bank by the person who is in charge of the -boiling. The cold air of the woods puts a keen -edge on the appetite. The warm fire under the -boiler takes off the chill, and the silent woods -all around give a charm to the scene which one -does not feel in any other place.</p> -<p>Hickory sap is sweet. This is sometimes added -to that of the maples when maple trees are -scarce.</p> -<p>The sap of pine trees is a liquid called <i>resin</i>. -The pine forests of the South are rich stores -of this resin, which we call also pitch. The crude -liquid drained from these trees is heated, and a -light liquid called <i>turpentine</i> is drawn off. The -remainder hardens, and is known as <i>rosin</i>. The -pine trees are tapped, not as the sugar trees of the -North are, but in a way that is far more injurious -to the trees. Resin hardens into gum when exposed -to the air, so it is impossible to draw it -out through small tubes like spiles of elder that -<span class="pb" id="Page_236">[236]</span> -drain the maple sap. A great gash is cut in -the side of the trunk of a pine tree, forming a -pocket holding three pints or more. Now a -square foot or more of the bark above the pocket -is cut off, and the wood is chipped to a depth -of an inch or more. The bleeding surface of the -wood fills the pocket below with resin, and a -man comes around with pails and dipper to empty -these pockets as fast as they fill. The pails are -carried to a still, where the resin is poured into -a tank and heated to draw off the limpid turpentine.</p> -<p>Once a week, from March till November, more -bark and wood, above the scored surface, must -be chipped to renew the flow of resin. If this -fresh wounding did not occur, the flow would -cease, because the resin thickens and hardens -when exposed to the air. This stops up the pores -of the wood.</p> -<p>Fortunes have been made by the draining of -these pine trees of their rich, pitchy sap. Turpentine -and tar and rosin are all products of the -sap of pines, and all are immensely valuable, -especially in shipyards, and in the provisioning -of sea-going craft of all sorts. The term, “naval -stores,” has been applied to the products of turpentine -gathering. Our forests supply most of -these products to other countries.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_237">[237]</div> -<p>The sap of certain tropical trees hardens into -rubber. This is one of the most valuable of tree -crops, for there is hardly a household that does -not have rubber articles of a dozen kinds that -are daily used. Lacquer varnish is the juice of -certain sumach trees that grow in Japan. Gums -of fir trees have a special use in medicine, and in -various arts.</p> -<p>Sweet gum oozes from trees of that name. -This is not noticeable in our trees of the North, -but if we follow the trees southward, the gum -flow increases. In Mexico it is an article of -commerce, obtained by wounding the bark of -the trees. It is one of the staple glove perfumes -in France. It is also made into medicines, perfumes, -and incense.</p> -<p>The sap of wild cherry, holly, and buckthorn, -of witch hazel and sassafras all yield medicinal -drugs. The flowers of locust, of basswood, and -all the fruit trees furnish nectar out of which -bees make honey. The juicy inner bark of the -slippery elm is valuable for food, and as a medicine.</p> -<h3 id="c68">THE USES OF TREES</h3> -<p>Imagine a stranger who has lived all his life -in a desert where no trees grow, coming suddenly -<span class="pb" id="Page_238">[238]</span> -into our village, and looking with wonder at -the trees that shade the streets. He knows only -the spiny cactuses, and other plants of the desert. -His first question would be, “What are these -great plants that stand so tall?” The name, <i>tree</i>, -is new to him. It would be a strange experience -to take such an eager and ignorant man and -show him the trees, on the streets, planted in -orchards, and growing wild in the woods outside -of the town. His questions set us to thinking. -He wants to know why we plant trees, and how -we use those that grow in forests.</p> -<p>First, we tell him the uses of the living trees. -Up and down the streets they are set for shade, -and for their beauty. Rows of evergreens set -close together make a protecting wall of green -against the cold winds. Low clipped hedges of -many kinds of trees make living boundaries, much -more beautiful than wooden or wire fences. On -lawns and near houses trees are planted for -their beauty and for their shade. Orchards of -fruit trees are planted because they furnish food. -Nut orchards are set out for the same reasons.</p> -<p>The trees cut down in the woods, and sawed -at the mills give us lumber to build houses to live -in, and furniture to make them comfortable, -and the same forest furnishes the fuel that keeps -us warm. There is so much to explain to a -<span class="pb" id="Page_239">[239]</span> -person who discovers trees for the first time. It -takes a long time to tell all we know.</p> -<p>Do we think that we know a great deal about -the uses of trees? If so, we are mistaken. The -truth is that trees serve us in ways of which we -have never dreamed.</p> -<p>We must travel over the world and read a -great deal to learn how the people of other -countries make use of trees. The basswood or -linden which nobody cared to use except for fuel -in the Middle West might pass for a useless tree, -compared with those whose wood is harder and -stronger. But in older countries people have -quite a different opinion of the tree.</p> -<p>In Russia the tough bark of young lindens is -used to make the shoes of peasants. Ropes, -fishing nets, and braided mats are made from the -same tough “bast” fibres, which are very long -and tough in this family of trees. The seeds -yield oil that is declared to be quite as good as -olive oil for cooking, and for the table. Perfume -is distilled from the flowers. Cattle browse on -the twigs and leaves. The wood is the carver’s -delight—soft, white, free from knots and imperfections. -It is used for bureau drawers, carriage -bodies, shoe soles, barrel staves and paper pulp. -Its twigs make artist’s charcoal pencils.</p> -<p>Linden trees are planted for shade in many -<span class="pb" id="Page_240">[240]</span> -countries, and in Europe they are often cut into -grotesque shapes of animals as they grow. They -are clipped into hedges, as close as box or yew. -In America they are usually allowed to grow -naturally, as shade trees. European species are -rather more symmetrical than our native kinds.</p> -<p>The Indians of the Northwest used the soft -inner bark of the tamarack pine for food. They -cut down the trees, strip them of bark, and -scraped out this soft lining layer. With water, -they mash it into a pulp, which they cook and -then mould into large cakes. A hole is next -dug in the ground, lined with stones, and a fire -is built in it. When the stones are hot, all ashes -are removed, and the cakes, wrapped in green -skunk cabbage leaves, are laid in. A fire of -damp moss is built on top, and thus the cakes are -thoroughly, baked. To insure their keeping, they -are next smoked in a close tent for a week or -more. This dries and cures them so that they -may be safely packed away for future use. -These hard, dry cakes are afterward broken into -pieces and boiled. When the mass softens and -cools, it is ready to eat. The fat of different -animals is used for butter on this strange Alaskan -bread.</p> -<div class="img" id="p293"> -<img src="images/p293.jpg" alt="Flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry" width="500" height="801" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">Flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry</span></p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="p294"> -<img src="images/p294.jpg" alt="The delicate white flower clusters of the serviceberry tree" width="500" height="767" /> -<p class="center"><span class="small">The delicate white flower clusters of the serviceberry tree</span></p> -</div> -<p>Everybody knows that trees bear fruits of -many kinds that are useful as food for men and -<span class="pb" id="Page_241">[241]</span> -beasts. Spices, such as nutmegs, mace, cloves, -and allspice, may be added to this list of fruits -which we have as human foods.</p> -<p>The bark of birches is invaluable to the Indians -for the making of their canoes, baskets, and all -kinds of utensils. Huts and teepees are walled -with it. Rope and coarse cloth are made out of -the fibre of mulberry bark, and berry baskets out -of the bark of the lodgepole pine. The fibrous -roots of the larch tree furnished tough thread, -with which the Indians sewed canoes of birch, -and they made them water-tight with the gum -of the balsam. The brown gum that oozes from -wounds of the Western larch is sweet and -starchy. The Indians discovered in it a valuable -article of food.</p> -<p>One of the latest uses of wood is the making -of paper, although the white hornet showed in -its conical paper nest that this could be done. -She has been making wooden paper for hundreds -of years, scraping the wood from the surface of -weathern-worn fence boards, and from the dead -limbs of forest trees. Our newspapers are made -of ground wood, cooked to a soft pulp, and -rolled out into thin sheets. The high price of -paper makes it worth while to gather up papers, -bleach them, convert them into pulp, and -roll them out again into sheets. Spruce wood -<span class="pb" id="Page_242">[242]</span> -and poplar are among the cheap woods which -have come into demand at the paper mills. The -forests of these trees, counted of little use for -lumber, have become valuable because the paper -mills can use them.</p> -<p>Look about the room, and a dozen articles, -beside the chairs and table, are products of wood, -or in some way owe a debt to trees. The paint -that covers the window sash and frames was -mixed with turpentine, which is obtained from the -pitchy sap of pine trees. The shades and curtains -are coloured. Dyes of many kinds are extracted -from the various dyewoods, trees that -grow in tropical forests. The newspaper and -the books on the shelves are made of wood pulp. -The lacquered box from Japan is a handsome -thing. The lacquer varnish is the sap of a -certain Oriental sumach tree. The perfume of -the gloves in the box is made from the fragrant -gum of an Oriental sweet gum tree. The skin -out of which the gloves were made was tanned, -not with bark, but with the acorn cups, or galls, -of a European oak.</p> -<p>The shoes on your feet are made of leather. -The hemlock trees that grow on the hills were -stripped of their bark by peelers in early spring. -Black oak and chestnut oak are also stripped in -our woods. Carloads of bark are shipped to the -<span class="pb" id="Page_243">[243]</span> -tanneries to be used in the tanning of skins which -changes them into leather.</p> -<p>That beautiful book upon the table is bound -in Russia leather. The acorn cups of a European -oak were used to tan the skins that made -this leather so much more beautiful than that -of your shoes. Your gloves are made of kid -skins tanned in Europe. For this particular -work the nut-like galls that grow on certain oak -trees are gathered in the woods.</p> -<p>Tannin is the substance in oak bark which -makes it valuable in tanning leather. A high percentage -of tannin is found in oak galls. For this -reason they are gathered in many countries, and -are among the most valuable and high-priced -supplies for the establishments that tan skins for -gloves. The most expensive inks and dyes, those -that do not fade, but are practically permanent, -are made from selected oak galls.</p> -<p>Oak apples are a strange fruit, found in more -or less abundance on the leaves of our own oak -trees in autumn. You have seen them in summer -time, plump, green balls, sometimes as large as -a hen’s egg, but globular, sitting upon a leaf. -In autumn the balls take on the colour of the -dying leaves.</p> -<p>The same tree may have hard little marble-like -balls growing on its twigs. These are of -<span class="pb" id="Page_244">[244]</span> -different sizes, and it is not unusual to find a hole -in the side of each.</p> -<p>All such outgrowths on the leaves and twigs -of oaks are called galls, and they are chiefly -caused by winged insects called gall-gnats. An -egg is laid in early spring, in a slit pierced in the -twig or leaf. As this egg hatches, the tissue -about it is disturbed in its growth by the presence -of this feeding grub. The soft leaf pulp, or the -tender tissues of the twig that surround it, are -exactly what the grub likes to eat. Food and -drink are all about it, and as it feeds, it grows. -The leaf swells, and so surrounds the grub with -an abnormal growth. The grub still feeds, and -the swelling becomes larger, until finally, when -the insect ceases to eat, it is housed in the peculiar -ball which we know as an oak gall. Each species -of gall-maker is known by its house.</p> -<p>The oak apples are of several kinds. Some -are empty except for a little shell in the centre, -in which the fat grub sleeps. Sometimes the -substance within the “apple” is corky, sometimes -spongy. Bullet galls, which form on twigs like -little marbles, are usually solid to the centre, -where the grub lies until the time comes for it to -bore its way out to the surface, and fly away, to -lay eggs which will produce other galls. Usually -oak galls, found in winter, contain the sleeping -<span class="pb" id="Page_245">[245]</span> -grub, whose transformation into a winged insect -waits until the coming of spring.</p> -<p>The cork in your ink bottle is the bark of -an oak tree. Go to Portugal or to Northern -Africa, and you may see the cork harvest in -progress in July or August. There is no place -to go for genuine cork except to a small evergreen -oak that rarely reaches a height over thirty -feet. When these trees are twenty-five years old, -a hard, thin layer of bark is stripped off. This -is a valuable tan bark, but it is not in the least -corky. The tree now produces a spongy bark -entirely different from the first. It is not disturbed -for eight or ten years. This is stripped -off. It is the poor quality of bark which fishermen -use to float their nets with.</p> -<p>Ten years later the bark is stripped again. -It is better in quality than the first. Each ten -years brings the bark stripper again to the tree. -In the fiftieth year, the bark is of the finest -quality, and for fifty years that follow there are -five strippings of bark of the highest grade. -Then the quality becomes poorer. The trees are -cut down, the bark is sold to the tanners, and -the wood is used for charcoal or for fuel.</p> -<p>It is a very particular job to get the cork off -and leave the under layer uninjured. The trunk -is stripped from the ground to the point where -<span class="pb" id="Page_246">[246]</span> -it branches, and the inner “mother bark” must -not be bruised, for no more cork will grow on -any bruised spot. Two circular cuts are made, -one at the top, one at the bottom of the columnar -trunk, then two opposite slits are made dividing -the bark of the trunk into two halves. These -curved plates are worked off by inserting a -wedged-shaped tool between the bark and the -trunk, and gradually working it further in until -the whole curved plate of cork comes off. These -two big sheets are steamed and flattened, then -bound in bundles, and shipped to wholesale -dealers in cork.</p> -<p>The owner of a grove of cork oaks must wait -ten years between crops of the bark, but every -year three crops of acorns are borne on these -trees. The pigs of the owner, turned into the -grove, fatten on this rich food. So the little -trees are very profitable in two ways.</p> -<p>In the south of Europe, the handsome, evergreen -holm oak grows wild; its glossy leaves and -compact form remind us of our holly trees. It -is one of the most valuable ornamental oaks, -but as a fruit tree, it has unusual value. Its -acorns are sweet and rich, and the crop is heavy. -Hogs are fattened upon them. In earlier days -they were used as human food, and even now -gipsies gather them to eat. Its acorn cups, bark, -<span class="pb" id="Page_247">[247]</span> -and the galls it bears are of the very best quality. -They are used in the most particular jobs of -dyeing and tanning.</p> -<p>Under ground, the holm oak bears a strange -fruit—a fungus called “truffle” develops on the -roots. These truffles are somewhat like mushrooms -in their growth. They are far more delicious -to eat, and expensive to buy than ordinary -mushrooms. The best of them are found in -France, and French people are especially fond -of them.</p> -<p>Trees that grow on chalky lands are more -likely to produce truffles. At a dozen years old, -they begin to yield, and truffles may be found -upon their roots for about twenty-five years.</p> -<p>Not every holm oak has truffles on its roots. -The finding of these delicacies is a very interesting -and exciting game, and a great deal of a lottery. -There is but one way to find them, and that is by -the sense of smell. The truffle has a rich, strong -odour. Dogs and pigs are the only animals that -are able to find it. The truffle-hunter is usually -an old woman, who goes with a trained pig or a -trained dog into the oak forest. She has a basket, -and a spading fork, and she keeps a close eye on -her four-footed partner. If the pig, in rooting -about under an oak, suddenly becomes excited, and -begins to root furiously, she drives him away, and -<span class="pb" id="Page_248">[248]</span> -digs out the precious ball of fungus he has -scented. It is irregular in form, and looks somewhat -like a potato. Meanwhile the pig locates -another, and is again disappointed. The truffle -dog is treated in the same manner. Unless put -into a pen, or chained at night, these truffle-hunters -are likely to take to the woods and feast -when no one is by to interfere with their pleasure.</p> -<p>Truffles are shipped in cans to the United -States, but we have not yet discovered them growing -on the roots of our oak trees. Probably we -have not yet looked for them with sufficient care -and patience.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_249">[249]</div> -<h2>APPENDIX</h2> -<h3 id="c69">APPENDIX -<br />IDENTIFICATION KEYS TO TREE GROUPS AND FAMILIES</h3> -<h4>A KEY TO NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Leaves few, in sheathed bundles, set spirally on the twig.</dt> -<dd>THE PINES.</dd> -<dt>AA. Leaves solitary, set spirally on the twig.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Twigs with bracket-like projections for attachment of leaves; cones hanging down.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Leaves flat, blunt, with short stalks.</dt> -<dd>The Hemlocks.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Leaves angled, sharp, without stalks.</dt> -<dd>The Spruces.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Twigs smooth; cones standing erect.</dt> -<dd>The Firs.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE PINES</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Sheaths of leaf-bundles soon shed; wood soft, pale.</dt> -<dd>SOFT PINES.</dd> -<dt class="t2">B. Needles, 5 in a bundle.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Cones, 5 to 8 inches long; Eastern.</dt> -<dd>White Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Cones, 12 to 18 inches long; Western.</dt> -<dd>Sugar Pine.</dd> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_252">[252]</dt> -<dt class="t2">BB. Needles fewer than 5 in a bundle; Western.</dt> -<dd>Nut Pines.</dd> -<dt>AA. Sheaths of leaf-bundles not soon shed; wood hard, heavy, dark, resinous.</dt> -<dd>HARD PINES.</dd> -<dt class="t2">B. Needles, 3 in a bundle.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Length of needles, 8 to 18 inches; cones, 6 to 10 inches.</dt> -<dd>Longleaf Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Length of needles, 6 to 9 inches; cones, 3 to 5 inches.</dt> -<dd>Loblolly Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CCC. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches.</dt> -<dd>Pitch Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Needles, 2 in a bundle; Northern.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Length of needles, 4 to 6 inches; cones 2 inches.</dt> -<dd>Red Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Length of needles, 1 to 3 inches; cones, 2 to 3 inches.</dt> -<dd>Jersey Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BBB. Needles, 2 or 3 in a bundle; Southern.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches.</dt> -<dd>Shortleaf Pine.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Length of needles, 8 to 12 inches; cones, 3 to 6 inches.</dt> -<dd>Cuban Pine.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE SCALE-LEAVED EVERGREENS</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Seeds borne in a woody cone; twigs flattened, leaves minute.</dt> -<dd>Arbor Vitae. White Cedar.</dd> -<dt>AA. Seeds borne in a fleshy, blue berry; leaves scale-like or spiny, or both.</dt> -<dd>Juniper. Red Cedar.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_253">[253]</div> -<h4>A KEY TO THE NUT TREES</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Nuts in a husk that opens when ripe.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Husk opens in four divisions.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Surface of husk, spiny.</dt> -<dt class="t6">D. Nut three-angled, small, two in a husk.</dt> -<dd>Beech.</dd> -<dt class="t6">DD. Nut rounded, or flattened, 2 or 3 in a husk.</dt> -<dd>Chestnut.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Surface of husk not spiny.</dt> -<dd>Hickories.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Husk opens in three divisions.</dt> -<dd>Horse-chestnuts and Buckeyes.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BBB. Husk opens in two divisions; spiny.</dt> -<dd>Chinquapin.</dd> -<dt>A. Nuts in a husk that does not open when ripe.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Shape of nut, globular; surface, smooth.</dt> -<dd>Black Walnut.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Shape of nut, oblong; surface, clammy.</dt> -<dd>Butternut.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE GROUPS OF OAKS</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Acorns, annual; bark usually pale; leaves with rounded lobes, not spiny-pointed.</dt> -<dd>The White Oak Group.</dd> -<dt>AA. Acorns, biennial; bark usually dark; leaves with spiny-pointed lobes.</dt> -<dd>The Black Oak Group.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE WHITE OAK GROUP</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Leaves evergreen; Southern tree.</dt> -<dd>Live Oak.</dd> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_254">[254]</dt> -<dt>AA. Leaves not evergreen.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Lining of leaves pale, not downy; lobes finger-like.</dt> -<dd>White Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Lining of leaves pale, downy.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Bark of branches corky-ridged; acorn large, in fringed cup.</dt> -<dd>Bur Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Bark of branches shed in rough flakes; acorns large, on long stalks.</dt> -<dd>Swamp White Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CCC. Bark of branches not corky-ridged, nor scaly.</dt> -<dt class="t6">D. Acorn medium-sized; leaf margins cut into squarish lobes.</dt> -<dd>Post Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t6">DD. Acorn large; leaf margins wavy; bark dark brown.</dt> -<dd>Chestnut Oak.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE BLACK OAK GROUP</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Leaves narrow, willow-like; Southern tree.</dt> -<dd>Willow Oak.</dd> -<dt>AA. Leaves oval, with deeply-cleft margins.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Acorn cups, shallow, broader than high.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Tree pyramidal, twigs with pin-like spurs.</dt> -<dd>Pin Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Tree spreading; acorns large, in shallow saucers.</dt> -<dd>Red Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Acorn cups as deep as broad.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Leaves thin, smooth, deeply cut; acorn cup drawn in at the top.</dt> -<dd>Scarlet Oak.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Leaves leathery, rough, with rusty hairs beneath; acorn cup not drawn in at the top.</dt> -<dd>Black Oak.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_255">[255]</div> -<h4>A KEY TO THE ELMS</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Twigs smooth, not hairy-coated.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Bark of branches not corky-ridged.</dt> -<dd>American Elm.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Bark of branches corky-ridged.</dt> -<dd>Winged Elm. Wahoo.</dd> -<dt>AA. Twigs hairy-coated.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Bark of branches corky.</dt> -<dd>Cork Elm. Rock Elm.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Bark of branches not corky; buds coarsely hairy.</dt> -<dd>Slippery Elm.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE MAPLES</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Leaves simple.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Bloom before the leaves open; seeds ripe in May.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Flowers red; leaves pale beneath, with three triangular lobes.</dt> -<dd>Red Maple.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Flowers greenish; leaves pale beneath, deeply cleft, with long, spiny lobes.</dt> -<dd>Silver Maple.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Bloom after the leaves open; seeds ripe in autumn.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Leaves wider than long; lobes spiny-tipped.</dt> -<dt class="t6">D. Lining of leaves, pale; keys joined at acute angle.</dt> -<dd>Sugar Maple.</dd> -<dt class="t6">DD. Lining of leaves, not pale; keys joined at wide angle.</dt> -<dd>Norway Maple.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Leaves circular, lobed; tree prostrate.</dt> -<dd>Vine Maple.</dd> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_256">[256]</dt> -<dt class="t4">CCC. Leaves about as wide as long; trees small.</dt> -<dt class="t6">D. Bark striped with white lines; flowers and seeds in dense, pendant clusters.</dt> -<dd>Striped Maple.</dd> -<dt class="t6">DD. Bark not striped; flowers and seeds in pendant clusters.</dt> -<dd>Mountain Maple.</dd> -<dt>AA. Leaves compound, of 3 to 7 leaflets.</dt> -<dd>Ash-leaved Maple. Box Elder.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE WILLOWS</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Twigs long, drooping.</dt> -<dd>Weeping Willow.</dd> -<dt>AA. Twigs erect.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Leaves white beneath.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Twigs yellow in spring; leaves narrow.</dt> -<dd>Golden Osier Willow.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Twigs reddish in spring; leaves broad.</dt> -<dd>Pussy Willow.</dd> -<dt class="t2">BB. Leaves not white beneath; heart-shaped frill at base of leaf stem.</dt> -<dd>Black Willow.</dd></dl> -<h4>A KEY TO THE LOCUSTS</h4> -<dl class="key"><dt>A. Leaves simple; flowers rosy.</dt> -<dd>Redbud.</dd> -<dt>AA. Leaves compound.</dt> -<dt class="t2">B. Trees thorny.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Thorns simple, paired, at bases of leaves; pods small, thin.</dt> -<dd>Black Locust.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Thorns often branched, clustered; pods large, curved.</dt> -<dd>Honey Locust.</dd> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_257">[257]</dt> -<dt class="t2">BB. Trees not thorny.</dt> -<dt class="t4">C. Pods thick; limbs clumsy; leaves twice compound.</dt> -<dd>Kentucky Coffee Tree.</dd> -<dt class="t4">CC. Pods thin, small; limbs not clumsy; leaves once compound.</dt> -<dd>Yellow-wood. Virgilia.</dd></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_261">[261]</div> -<h2 id="c70">INDEX</h2> -<p class="center"><b><a href="#xA">A</a> · -<a href="#xB">B</a> · -<a href="#xC">C</a> · -<a href="#xD">D</a> · -<a href="#xE">E</a> · -<a href="#xF">F</a> · -<a href="#xG">G</a> · -<a href="#xH">H</a> · -<a href="#xI">I</a> · -<a href="#xJ">J</a> · -<a href="#xK">K</a> · -<a href="#xL">L</a> · -<a href="#xM">M</a> · -<a href="#xN">N</a> · -<a href="#xO">O</a> · -<a href="#xP">P</a> · -<a href="#xQ">Q</a> · -<a href="#xR">R</a> · -<a href="#xS">S</a> · -<a href="#xT">T</a> · -U · -<a href="#xV">V</a> · -<a href="#xW">W</a> · -X · -<a href="#xY">Y</a> · -Z</b></p> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xA"><b>A</b></dt> -<dt>Acorns, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</dt> -<dt>Ailanthus, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</dt> -<dt>Alligator-wood, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</dt> -<dt>Almond, Bitter, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</dt> -<dd>Sweet, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</dd> -<dt>Apple, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</dt> -<dd>Crab, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</dd> -<dd>Oak, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</dd> -<dd>Wild, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</dd> -<dt>Apricots, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</dt> -<dt>Arbor Vitæ, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</dt> -<dt>Ash, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</dt> -<dd>Black, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</dd> -<dd>Blue, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</dd> -<dd>Green, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</dd> -<dd>Mountain, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</dd> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</dd> -<dd>White, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</dd> -<dt>Ashes, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</dt> -<dt>Aspen, Quaking, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xB"><b>B</b></dt> -<dt>Balm of Gilead, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</dt> -<dt>Bark, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</dt> -<dt>Bark, Birch, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</dt> -<dt>Basswood, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</dt> -<dt>Bay, Swamp, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</dt> -<dt>Beech, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</dt> -<dd>Blue, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</dd> -<dd>Copper, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</dd> -<dd>Cut-leaved, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</dd> -<dd>European, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</dd> -<dd>Weeping, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</dd> -<dt>Beeches, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</dt> -<dt>Bee Tree, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</dt> -<dt>Birch, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</dt> -<dd>Black, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</dd> -<dd>Canoe, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</dd> -<dd>Cherry, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</dd> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</dd> -<dd>White, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</dd> -<dd>Yellow, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</dd> -<dt>Birches, Weeping, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</dt> -<dt>Box Elder, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</dt> -<dt>Buckeye, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</dt> -<dd>California, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</dd> -<dd>Ohio, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</dd> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</dd> -<dd>Sweet, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</dd> -<dt>Buckthorn, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dt> -<dt>Budding, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</dt> -<dt>Burning Bush, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</dt> -<dt>Butternut, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xC"><b>C</b></dt> -<dt>Cambium, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</dt> -<dt>Catalpa, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</dt> -<dt>Cedar, Red, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</dt> -<dt>Cedars, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</dt> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</dd> -<dd>White, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</dd> -<dt>Cherry, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</dt> -<dd>Choke, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</dd> -<dd>Japanese, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</dd> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</dd> -<dd>Wild Black, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dd> -<dt>Chestnut, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</dt> -<dd>Horse, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</dd> -<dt>Chestnuts, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</dt> -<dt>Chinquapin, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</dt> -<dt>Coffee Tree, Kentucky, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</dt> -<dt>Conifers, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</dt> -<dt>Cottonwood, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</dt> -<dt>Cucumber Tree, Large-leaved, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</dt> -<dd>Northern, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</dd> -<dt>Cypress, Bald, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</dt> -<dd>Knees of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xD"><b>D</b></dt> -<dt>Dogwood, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_262">[262]</div> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xE"><b>E</b></dt> -<dt>Elders, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</dt> -<dt>Elm, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</dt> -<dd>Camperdown, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</dd> -<dd>Cork, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</dd> -<dd>English, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</dd> -<dd>Rock, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</dd> -<dd>Slippery, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dd> -<dd>Weeping, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</dd> -<dd>Winged, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</dd> -<dt>Evergreens, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</dt> -<dt>Evonymus, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xF"><b>F</b></dt> -<dt>Fir, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</dt> -<dd>Balsam, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</dd> -<dt>Firs, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xG"><b>G</b></dt> -<dt>Galls, Oak, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</dt> -<dt>Grafting, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</dt> -<dt>Gum, Sweet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xH"><b>H</b></dt> -<dt>Hackberry, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</dt> -<dt>Hawthorn, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</dt> -<dt>Hazel, Witch, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dt> -<dt>Hemlock, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</dt> -<dt>Hercules’ Club, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</dt> -<dt>Hickories, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</dt> -<dt>Hickory, Big Bud, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</dt> -<dd>Big Shellback, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</dd> -<dd>Bitternut, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</dd> -<dd>Shagbark, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</dd> -<dd>Shellback, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</dd> -<dd>Swamp, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</dd> -<dd>White Heart, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</dd> -<dt>Hickory Nuts, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</dt> -<dt>Holly, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dt> -<dd>European, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</dd> -<dt>Hornbeam, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</dt> -<dd>Hop, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</dd> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xI"><b>I</b></dt> -<dt>Ironwood, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xJ"><b>J</b></dt> -<dt>Judas Tree, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</dt> -<dt>June Berries, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</dt> -<dt>Juniper, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xK"><b>K</b></dt> -<dt>King Nuts, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xL"><b>L</b></dt> -<dt>Lacquer, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</dt> -<dt>Larch, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</dt> -<dd>European, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</dd> -<dd>Western, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</dd> -<dt>Leaf, Compound, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</dt> -<dd>Simple, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</dd> -<dt>Leaflet, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</dt> -<dt>Leaf Pulp, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</dt> -<dt>Linden, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</dt> -<dt>Locust, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dt> -<dd>Black, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</dd> -<dd>Clammy, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</dd> -<dd>Honey, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</dd> -<dd>Yellow, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</dd> -<dt>Log-rollings, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xM"><b>M</b></dt> -<dt>Magnolia, Evergreen, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</dt> -<dt>Maple, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</dt> -<dd>Mountain, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</dd> -<dd>Norway, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</dd> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</dd> -<dd>Scarlet, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</dd> -<dd>Silver, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</dd> -<dd>Striped, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</dd> -<dd>Sugar, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</dd> -<dd>Swamp, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</dd> -<dd>Vine, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</dd> -<dt>Mockernut, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</dt> -<dt>Mulberry, Weeping, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xN"><b>N</b></dt> -<dt>Nannyberry, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</dt> -<dt>Naval Stores, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</dt> -<dt>Nectarines, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xO"><b>O</b></dt> -<dt>Oak, Black, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</dt> -<dd>Bur, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</dd> -<dd>Chestnut, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</dd> -<dd>Cork, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</dd> -<dd>Council, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</dd> -<dd>Holm, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</dd> -<dd>Iron, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</dd> -<dd>Knees of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</dd> -<dd>Live, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</dd> -<dd>Mossy-cup, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</dd> -<dd>Pin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</dd> -<dd>Post, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</dd> -<dt class="pb" id="Page_263">[263]</dt> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</dd> -<dd>Scarlet, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</dd> -<dd>Swamp White, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</dd> -<dd>Tanbark, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</dd> -<dd>Turkey, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</dd> -<dd>White, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</dd> -<dd>Willow, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</dd> -<dd>Yellow, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</dd> -<dt>Oaks, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</dt> -<dt>Oilnuts, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</dt> -<dt>Osage Orange, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xP"><b>P</b></dt> -<dt>Paper, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</dt> -<dt>Peaches, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</dt> -<dt>Pecan, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</dt> -<dt>Persimmon, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</dt> -<dt>Pignut, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</dt> -<dt>Pine, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</dt> -<dd>Cuban, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</dd> -<dd>Curly, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</dd> -<dd>Digger, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</dd> -<dd>Georgia, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</dd> -<dd>Hard, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</dd> -<dd>Jersey, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</dd> -<dd>Loblolly, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</dd> -<dd>Longleaf, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</dd> -<dd>North Carolina, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</dd> -<dd>Nut, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</dd> -<dd>Old Field, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</dd> -<dd>Pitch, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</dd> -<dd>Red, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</dd> -<dd>Shortleaf, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</dd> -<dd>Soft, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</dd> -<dd>Sugar, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</dd> -<dd>Swamp, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</dd> -<dd>Tamarack, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</dd> -<dd>White, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</dd> -<dd>Yellow, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</dd> -<dt>Plum, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</dt> -<dd>Wild Red, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</dd> -<dd>Yellow, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</dd> -<dt>Poplar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</dt> -<dd>Lombardy, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</dd> -<dd>Tulip, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</dd> -<dd>Yellow, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</dd> -<dt>Poplars, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</dt> -<dt>Propolis, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</dt> -<dt>Prunes, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</dt> -<dt>Pulp, Wood, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xQ"><b>Q</b></dt> -<dt>Quakenasp, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xR"><b>R</b></dt> -<dt>Redbud, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</dt> -<dt>Resin, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</dt> -<dt>Rosin, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xS"><b>S</b></dt> -<dt>Sassafras, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</dt> -<dt>Seedlings, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</dt> -<dt>Serviceberries, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</dt> -<dt>Shadbush, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</dt> -<dt>Sheepberry, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</dt> -<dt>Spindle-tree, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</dt> -<dt>Spruce, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</dt> -<dt>St. John’s Bread, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</dt> -<dt>Sugar Bush, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</dt> -<dd>Maple, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</dd> -<dd>Pine, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</dd> -<dt>Sumach, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</dt> -<dt>Sycamore, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xT"><b>T</b></dt> -<dt>Tamarack, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</dt> -<dt>Tanbark, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</dt> -<dt>Tannin, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</dt> -<dt>Truffle, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</dt> -<dt>Tulip Tree, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</dt> -<dt>Turpentine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xV"><b>V</b></dt> -<dt>Viburnums, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</dt> -<dt>Virgilia, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xW"><b>W</b></dt> -<dt>Wahoo, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</dt> -<dt>Walnut, Black, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</dt> -<dd>English, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</dd> -<dt>Willow, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</dt> -<dd>Balsam, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</dd> -<dd>Black, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</dd> -<dd>Golden Osier, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</dd> -<dd>Pussy, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</dd> -<dd>Weeping, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</dd> -<dd>White, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</dd> -<dt>Willows, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</dt> -<dt>Winterberry, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</dt> -<dt>Witch Hazel, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<dl class="index"> -<dt class="center" id="xY"><b>Y</b></dt> -<dt>Yellow-wood, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</dt> -</dl> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul> -<li>Corrected some palpable typos, and standardized the form of some names (<i>e.g.</i> serviceberry).</li> -<li>In the text versions only, represented text font and size variations (the HTML version preserves the presentation of the original):</li> -<li>Text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li></ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Trees Every Child Should Know, by -Julia Ellen Rogers - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW *** - -***** This file should be named 44186-h.htm or 44186-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/4/1/8/44186/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, L. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Trees Every Child Should Know - Easy Tree Studies for All Seasons of the Year - -Author: Julia Ellen Rogers - -Release Date: November 15, 2013 [EBook #44186] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TREES EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, L. Harrison and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at -http://www.pgdpcanada.net - - - - - - -[Illustration: The Glory of Autumn Trees] - - - - - _Trees_ - EVERY CHILD SHOULD KNOW - - - EASY TREE STUDIES FOR - ALL SEASONS OF THE YEAR - BY - JULIA ELLEN ROGERS - - Illustrated - -[Illustration: Grosset & Dunlap] - - NEW YORK - GROSSET & DUNLAP - Publishers - - - - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED, INCLUDING THAT OF TRANSLATION - INTO FOREIGN LANGUAGES, INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN - - COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY - PUBLISHED OCTOBER, 1909 - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES - AT - THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y. - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - How to Know the Trees 3 - - AUTUMN STUDIES - The Nut Trees: - The Shagbark Hickories 9 - The Disappointing Hickories 12 - The Black Walnut 16 - The Butternut 18 - The English Walnut 19 - The Chestnut and Chinquapin 22 - The Beech 26 - The Witch Hazel 29 - The Oak Family 33 - The White Oak Group: - The White Oak 37 - The Bur or Mossy-cup Oak 39 - The Live Oak 41 - The Post Oak 44 - The Swamp White Oak 45 - The Chestnut Oak 46 - The Black Oak Group: - The Black Oak 47 - The Red Oak 50 - The Scarlet Oak 51 - The Pin Oak 52 - The Willow Oak 54 - Trees with Winged Seeds 55 - Tree Seeds that have Parachutes 62 - The Autumn Berries in the Woods 64 - The Changing Colour of the Autumn Woods 74 - - WINTER STUDIES - Trees We Know by Their Bark 83 - Trees We Know by Their Shapes 93 - Trees We Know by Their Thorns 98 - The Needle-leaved Evergreens 101 - The Five-leaved Soft Pines 108 - The White Pine 109 - The Great Sugar Pine 112 - The Nut Pines 114 - The Hard Pines 118 - The Southern Pitch Pines 119 - The Longleaf Pine 119 - The Shortleaf Pine 121 - The Cuban Pine 123 - The Loblolly Pine 124 - The Northern Pitch Pines 125 - The Cedars, White and Red 127 - Two Conifers Not Evergreen 131 - The Larches 131 - The Bald Cypress 134 - The Hollies 136 - The Burning Bush 139 - - SPRING STUDIES - The Awakening of the Trees 143 - Trees that Bloom in Early Spring 146 - The American Elm and Its Kin 150 - The Maple Family 154 - The Willow Family 163 - Why Trees Need Leaves 169 - Leaves of All Shapes and Sizes 173 - - SUMMER STUDIES - Trees with the Largest Flowers 183 - Trees Most Showy in Bloom 189 - Trees that Bloom in Midsummer 192 - The Early Berries in the Woods 197 - The Sassafras 200 - The Ash Family 203 - The Horse-chestnut and the Buckeyes 208 - The Buckeyes 211 - The Locusts and Other Pod-bearers 214 - Wild Apple Trees and Their Kin 221 - The Cherries 226 - The Plums 229 - The Serviceberries 232 - Valuable Sap of Trees 233 - The Uses of Trees 237 - - - Identification Keys to Tree Groups and Families 251 - Index 261 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - The Glory of Autumn Trees _Frontispiece_ - FACING PAGE - Three Pignuts, Three Shagbarks, and Two Pecans; Flowering Twig of - the Shagbark Hickory 16 - Black Walnut and Butternut; Twig of Butternut 17 - Buds and Flowers of the Beech Tree 32 - Catkins of a Hornbeam and a Birch; Catkins and Acorn Flowers of an - Oak 33 - Leaves, Acorns, and Twigs of the Bur Oak 48 - The Horizontal Limbs of the Pin Oak Form a Regular Pyramidal Head 49 - Cone Fruits of a Birch, a Pine, a Magnolia, and a Fir 64 - Clusters of the Winged Seeds of Hornbeam and White Ash 65 - The Flowering Dogwood Covers Its Bare Branches with Blossoms in May 76 - Flowering Dogwood, in Flower and Fruit, the Winter Flower Buds, and - Alligator Skin Bark 77 - We Recognise Birches by their Silky, Tattered Bark 84 - The Beech Trunk Is Clothed in Smooth, Pale Grey Bark 85 - The Loose, Stripping Bark Gives Its Name to the Shagbark Hickory 86 - Bark of Hackberry, Black Birch and Hornbeam 87 - Warty, Ridged Bark of the Sweet Gum, the Swinging Seed Balls, and - Winged Seeds 90 - Bark and Seed Balls of the Sycamore 91 - The Lombardy Poplar 92 - The Live Oak of the South 93 - Fruiting Branch of a Cockspur Thorn 96 - Clustered Thorns on Trunk of Honey Locust Tree; Flowers and Foliage - of the Black Locust 97 - Cones of Hemlock and Norway Spruce 112 - Pine Twig with Cones, and Clustered Staminate Flowers 113 - Thousands of Little Balsam Firs Supply the Market with Christmas - Trees 114 - Nathaniel Hawthorne's Outdoor Study 115 - The Spiny-leaved, Red-berried Holly 126 - What Would Christmas Be Without Holly Branches and Wreaths for - Decoration! 127 - "The Grizzly Giant," a Sequoia Over Three Hundred Feet High 128 - Scaly-leaved Evergreens 129 - The Opening Buds of the Shagbark Hickory 144 - Catkins and Leaves of the Trembling Aspen 145 - Flower Buds, Blossoms, Seeds, and Leaf of the American Elm 148 - Elm Tree in Bloom 149 - Buds and Flowers of the Red Maple 156 - Seeds of the Red Maple 157 - The Sugar Maple 176 - Leaves of the Black Willow; Pussy Willow Twigs 177 - Leaves and Flowers of the Ear-leaved Cucumber Tree 192 - The Orange-yellow Flower Cups and Squared Leaves of the Tulip Tree 193 - Flowers, Fruit, and the Three Different Leaf Patterns of the - Sassafras Tree 194 - Waxy Flowers of the Evergreen Magnolia 195 - Fruits, Leaves, and Flowers of the Basswood Tree 206 - The Chestnut Tree 207 - An Old Apple Orchard 224 - Nothing Tastes as Good as Ripe Apples Picked Right off the Tree! 225 - Flowers and Fruit of the Wild Black Cherry 240 - The Delicate, White Flower Clusters of the Serviceberry Tree 241 - - - - - HOW TO KNOW THE TREES - - -The best time to begin to study the trees is to-day! The place to begin -is right where you are, provided there is a tree near enough, for a -lesson about trees will be very dull unless there is a tree to look at, -to ask questions of, and to get answers from. But suppose it is winter -time, and the tree is bare. Then you have a chance to see the wonderful -framework of trunk and branches, the way the twigs spread apart on the -outer limbs, while the great boughs near the trunk are almost bare. Each -branch is trying to hold its twigs out into the sunshine, and each twig -is set with buds. When these buds open, and most of them send out leafy -shoots, the tree will be a shady summerhouse with a thick, leafy roof -that the sun cannot look through. Among the big branches near the trunk -very few leaves will be found compared with the number the outer twigs -bear. - -How can we tell whether the tree is alive or dead in winter? Break off a -twig. Is there a layer of green just inside the brown bark? This is the -sign that the tree is alive. Dead twigs are withered, and their buds are -not plump and bright. The green is gone from under the bark of these -twigs. - -Under each bud is the scar of last year's leaf, and if you look on the -ground you are pretty sure to find a dead leaf whose stem fits exactly -into that scar. If there are a number of these leaves under the tree, you -may feel sure that they fell from the tree last autumn. Look carefully -among the leaves, and on the branches for the seeds of this tree. If -there is an acorn left on the tree, you may be sure that you have the -tree's name! - -The name is the thing we wish first to know when we meet a stranger. If -an acorn is found growing on a tree, that tree has given us its name, for -trees that bear acorns are all oaks. An acorn is a kind of nut, and there -are many kinds of oaks, each with its own acorn pattern, unlike that of -other oaks. Yet all acorns sit in their little acorn cups, and we do not -confuse them with nuts of other trees. So we know the family name of all -trees whose fruits are acorns. They are all oaks, and there are fifty -kinds in our own country, growing wild in American forests. But if those -of all countries are counted, there are in all more than three hundred -kinds. - -If, instead of acorns, pods hang on the twigs, the tree belongs to the -locust family, related to our garden peas and beans. The signs by which -we learn to know trees are not many. The bark of the white birch is so -silky white that everybody knows that tree. The sycamore sheds its bark -in thin, irregular sheets, leaving patches of dirty white streaking the -trunk and limbs, as if the tree had been daubed and spattered with -whitewash. This tree is so strikingly different from others that nearly -everybody knows it by name. Or they call it "buttonwood." The seed-balls -hang on slender stems, swinging in the winter wind. - -The winter signs to notice are the bark, the buds, and the leaf scars, -the shape of the tree, and the way it branches. The fruit it bears may be -seen in summer, autumn, or winter. The flowers come in warm weather, some -kinds early, some later, and the leaves are new in spring, and most trees -shed them in autumn. There is no time of year when there are not three or -four of the important signs hung out on every tree to guide those who are -trying to find out its name, and learn the story of its interesting life. -And the finding out of tree names is not dreary and hard, but a good game -to be played out-of-doors. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE AUTUMN - - - THE SHAGBARK HICKORIES - -The best hickory nut tree that grows wild in our American forests is the -shagbark, or shellbark. Who says that the pecan is better than the nut of -the little shagbark? Southern people insist upon this, as the pecan is -the pride of the Southern states. As a compromise we may place side by -side the pecan of the South, and the little shagbark of the North, and -challenge the world to produce a nut that is worthy to rank with these -two in quality. - -The shagbark takes its name from the tree's habit of shedding the bark in -long, narrow strips or flakes, that curl away from the point of -attachment, but cling for months, perhaps, giving the trunk a shaggy -appearance, and making very easy the discovery of these trees in a -stretch of mixed woodland. And how it does cut and slash the stoutest of -overalls to scramble up and down one of these trees? Only boys and their -despairing mothers can know just how costly a Saturday afternoon nutting -expedition can be, and why many a boy finds it expedient to come back -with his bag of nuts in the late dusk. Otherwise he might be mistaken for -a tramp, so tattered are his clothes. - -The smooth little nuts are angled and pointed, and when they are ripe, -the thick, corky, green husks part into four equal divisions, and the -nuts fall out. So much less trouble than walnuts, in their spongy husks, -that never part regularly, but wait until they are torn off by impatient -boys or squirrels, or until they dry and gradually crumble away. - -The shagbark hickory is a beautiful tree when covered with its shining -foliage in summer. Each leaf is made of five leaflets on a wiry leaf -stem. The three outer leaflets are larger than the pair set nearest the -base of the stem. The whole leaf is often more than a foot long, and -sometimes there are seven leaflets on each. - -The most wonderful shagbark hickory tree I ever saw was one I met once at -sundown, after a long walk across country. It stood in a field, alone, -and so near my home that I had noticed it almost every day through a long -winter. I had gathered a quantity of nuts as they fell in the frosty -autumn days, and it was a race between me and the squirrels, often, to -see who should get the bigger share. I think they beat me, which is -perfectly right. I remember now how rich the foliage looked as it slowly -turned from green to golden brown, and fell in a great windrow all about -the shaggy trunk, as the nuts ripened. - -All winter I noticed how strong the lithe limbs were, and how flexible, -as the wind twisted them about in storms, and how much of promise there -was in the great, scaly buds that tipped the twigs. - -It was late April when I came by. As I looked up into that tree top the -sunlight was shining through, and at first I thought I must be dreaming. -Instead of buds, I saw what seemed like lighted candles, each with a -silken frill, like the recurved petals of an iris, below the tip of -flame! I had never seen a tree thus illuminated, and the sight was -enchanting. The warm spring air had brought out the hickory buds, with -those of other trees, and while I was looking for flowers on the ground, -the buds above had swollen, cast off the winter covers, revealing the -silky inner wrappings of the young shoots. The rich downward-curving -"petals" were only the inner scales of the great buds, grown long and -wide, their vivid orange setting off the compact yellow buds that still -stood erect. These concealed the tender, velvety leaves that were soon to -be revealed with the falling of the leaf scales. I had never seen a -hickory tree opening its iris-like buds before, but I have never missed -it since. - -The big shellbark, or shagbark, hickory is the sturdy "big brother" of -the little shagbark. In every particular it exaggerates the -characteristics of the favourite among our nut trees. The bark is more -shaggy, the tree grows larger, the nuts are bigger. Are they _better_? -No. But they are much the same in flavour, and being so good and so big, -they have the market name of "king nuts." The best of them are gathered -in the woods of Missouri and Arkansas. The tree is found from -Pennsylvania westward to Oklahoma, but the lumber is valuable for the -making of vehicles and tool handles, and so the trees are now scarce in -the states that are oldest. - -In winter the big shagbark trees show their orange-coloured twigs. They -are peculiar to this one hickory. The leaf stems stay on the twigs after -the leaves fall, and give the tree top in winter a ragged, hairy -appearance, that matches its shaggy trunk. - - - THE DISAPPOINTING HICKORIES - -The pignut has been given this ugly name because farmers, in the early -days, turned their pigs into woodland pastures to fatten on the -thin-shelled nuts that dropped from this kind of hickory tree. They are -not bitter, but merely tasteless, and it is only a "greenhorn" from town -or city who will spend time to gather these poor hickory nuts, mistaking -them for shellbarks. They are not usually angled, but smoothly rounded, -often pear-shaped, and the husks are thin. The shagbarks are in husks -nearly one-half inch thick, which split in four divisions, and fall apart -to release the ripe nuts. The husks of pignuts divide but part way down, -and so the nuts are not freed from them promptly. The kernels are -yellowish white. - -A look at the bark of a shagbark hickory, and then at a pignut fixes in -mind one of the chief differences between these trees. The pignut has -clean, smooth, grey bark, becoming coarser and rougher with increasing -age, but never shedding its bark in ragged strips as the shagbark begins -to do when the trees are still young. Smoother foliage and twigs, smaller -buds in winter, and a more regular round head make the pignut a fine tree -to plant on the lawn, where the shagbark would be out of place, on -account of its shaggy, untidy trunk. - -Another handsome hickory tree with nuts that are very disappointing to -the members of a nutting party is the mockernut, called also the big bud -hickory, and the white heart hickory. The last name is wrong because the -heart wood is brown, and it is the wood near the bark that is white. The -tree has the largest buds and the stoutest, clumsiest twigs and branches -in the whole hickory family. The leaves are correspondingly large, -sometimes nearly two feet long, of seven to nine leaflets, on downy, -swollen stalks. The catkins of the staminate flowers are like thick, -chenille fringes, six inches long, often longer, hanging in May below the -new leaves. - -The nuts are large and look most promising at first. The big, four-parted -husk is as thick as a shagbark's, but it does not split all the way down. -So the first difficulty is to get the nut out of the husk. The bony shell -is the next. It is astonishingly thick and hard to crack. Last -disappointment of all, the kernel is at best very small, and not worth -the trouble of getting it out, though there is no denying that it is -better-tasting than a pignut, and almost as sweet as a little shagbark. -Very often the shell contains a spongy substance that is tasteless, -instead of the kernel the patient nutter has a right to expect. - -Crumple leaflets of this tree in your hand, and they smell fruity, like -an apple. They turn to yellow and russet in autumn. - -The bitternut is a hickory nut whose kernel no squirrel eats. It is as -bitter as gall. Thin-shelled as a pignut, and usually less than an inch -in length, the nuts are enclosed in thin husks, that differ from others -in having thin ridges that rise along the four lines where they split at -the time the nuts are ripe. Two of these clefts run farther down than the -other pair. The nut shell is thin, slightly flattened sometimes, and -marked with dark lines. The kernel is white, and you will never taste a -second one. - -The sure sign by which to tell the bitternut hickory is the tapering, -flattened, yellow bud. At any time of year a few, at least, of these buds -are to be found. They are numerous from midsummer till May; after that, a -few dormant winter buds remain to tell the tree's name until the new buds -are showing in the angles between leaf and twig No other hickory has -little, yellow buds. - -In winter the slimness of the twigs, and in summer the small size of the -leaflets make this the most delicately built of the hickories. The buds -are the smallest to be found on a hickory tree. Yet it is the quickest to -grow, and one of the handsomest trees in the family. Because it loves -best to grow with its roots in wet soil, it is called the swamp hickory. - - - THE BLACK WALNUT - -No boy or girl who has ever gone nutting "in brown October's woods" can -forget the fruits of the black walnut trees that hang like green oranges, -high up on the ends of the branches, and have to be climbed for and -shaken down. And each fellow on the ground looks out for his own head, as -the shower of nuts comes down. Oh! the rich, walnut smell of those juicy -husks, as we bruised them on the nearest stone, tore them off, wiping our -damp fingers on the grass, before cracking the rough-shelled nuts. The -brown stains stayed until they wore off, but the memory of the sweet -kernels lasts longer, and the pungent odour of those nut husks is in -every twig, bud, and leaf of every walnut tree. Bruise any young shoot, -and by the odour of its sap the tree's name may be guessed. - -There is another test for a walnut tree, for those who do not know the -odour of the sap. Cut a twig, and split it. The pith of walnut trees is -not solid, but is in thin plates, separated by air spaces. This is a sure -sign. - -[Illustration: Three pignuts, with husks, three shagbarks, and two -pecans; Flowering twig of the little shagbark hickory] - -[Illustration: Black walnut and butternut. Twig of butternut, in winter -and in spring] - -Walnut trees grow rapidly, and are a valuable tree crop to plant. Nuts -for seed are packed in gravel, and left outdoors over winter. The -stubborn shells are cracked by Jack Frost in such a way as not to injure -the seed, which is the meat of the nut. The nuts are planted in spring -just where the trees are to stand, for it is much better for a walnut -tree never to be transplanted. - -I have heard my grandfather tell how the early settlers in Ohio cleared -the rich bottom land along the rivers. The great trees that had grown, -undisturbed, for centuries, were the "weeds" that had to be cut down and -removed, before the soil could be ploughed and sowed to oats or wheat. -The only way to do this was to burn the trees, by piling them together -and firing the pile, as soon as it was dry enough to burn. The -"log-rollings" were the neighbourhood gatherings, when men brought their -teams and log chains, and worked like Trojans, dragging the logs to the -places selected for the giant bonfires, later on. The women and children -had a grand time, watching the men at work, and preparing the dinner, -which was a feast, and a great social occasion. - -The stump of many a noble black walnut tree, cut down a century ago, has -stood, undecayed, until recent years. So valuable is its wood that these -stumps have been pulled up with expensive machinery, for the -gnarly-grained roots that are still sound. Cut into thin sheets, the wood -is used for veneering furniture. Think how many millions of dollars' -worth of lumber went up in smoke in those bonfires! Black walnut is -scarce now, and can hardly be bought at any price. - - - THE BUTTERNUT - -The butternut trees are stripped of their fruit in October by boys who -have visions of long evenings, such as Whittier describes in "Snow -Bound," with nuts and apples and cider, by a roaring fire. Some boys -leave the black walnut trees to others, and fill their bags entirely from -the low, broad butternut trees, that have more nuts in each cluster, and -they are not so hard to reach. Many will say that they are much sweeter -and richer than black walnuts. Others do not care for them because they -are so oily. Indeed, they are called "oil-nuts," and woe to the youngster -who has eaten "all he wanted"! - -The butternuts are oblong and pointed at one end, and sticky to the -touch, differing in this particular from the globular fruits of the black -walnut. The same clammy feeling makes it unpleasant to touch the leaves -of butternut tree. The resinous sap seems to ooze out through pores along -the hairy leaf veins. - -In summer time, when the fuzzy, green butternuts are scarcely larger than -olives, and their shells are so soft that a knitting-needle goes through -without any trouble, the time for making pickled nuts has come. The -gathering of the clustered green fruit is fun, but as soon as they are -scalded, the "fur" has to be rubbed off of each, before the nuts, husks -and all, are put down in spiced vinegar, to be used as a relish for -serving with meats the following winter. The "furring" usually falls to -the children, and they get very tired, for it is a slow and monotonous -job, whether one uses a coarse towel or a brush. However, it would be -unpleasant to eat a furry nut, no matter how carefully the spicing was -done. - - - THE ENGLISH WALNUT - -The English walnut trees are grown in orchards in Southern California. -These trees are quick to grow, and come early into bearing. When you buy -a pound of these thin-shelled nuts at the corner grocery store, you may -well wonder where they grew. Perhaps little children picked them up under -trees that grow in Italy or in Greece. Fine, large nuts come from France, -but none of them are raised in England. Many of the best nuts are raised -in California, where more and more trees of this kind are planted each -year. They grow in the Southern states, but have never been planted on a -large scale as a commercial nut tree. - -The English walnut tree grows in England, but the nuts never have time to -get ripe in that climate. They are gathered green, and pickled, husks and -all. From English grandmothers we learned to pickle our own butternuts -while the shells are still soft. - -The earliest shipments of the walnuts of Europe came into this country -from England. Probably merchants in London sent them to merchants in New -York. The dealers did not ask where these walnuts grew, but told people -who asked that they came from England. This explains the name by which -everybody now calls them. - -Far back in its history, this tree grew wild in Persia, and on the wooded -hillsides of Asia Minor. The people gathered the nuts for food. It was -the custom of visitors to send presents of these nuts back to their -friends in Europe when they were travelling in the Orient, and discovered -how very good these unknown nuts tasted. Englishmen were among these who -were loud in praise of them. "Walnut," the name they gave the trees, -means "a nut that comes from a foreign country." The Greeks had called it -"Jove's acorn," for they could not think of any other name good enough. -Kings sent presents of nuts to each other. Then people began to plant -nuts, instead of eating them all, and gradually all the warmer countries -of Europe found they could grow these walnuts. - -The size and quality of the nuts improved under cultivation. Now there -are many varieties, all larger, thinner-shelled, and better-flavoured -than the original wild nuts that still grow in the forests of Asia Minor. - -In the centuries when the countries of Europe were always at war with -their neighbours, another reason for planting walnut trees was -discovered. No wood was so good for gunstocks. No young man could marry -until he had planted a certain number of walnut trees. This was the law -in some countries in the seventeenth century. So multitudes of these -trees were set out. Besides gunstocks, walnut wood was much in fashion -for handsome furniture. A walnut forest was a very profitable crop to -raise, for lumber alone. A tree that bore such nuts, while its trunk was -growing big enough to go to the saw mill was doubly profitable. The -people of the colder countries were ambitious to share in this -prosperity. But an occasional winter of extra severity killed the young -trees. - - - THE CHESTNUT AND CHINQUAPIN - -Next to the hickory nuts, we must rank the chestnuts. Some may give them -first place in the list of American nut trees. In England the chestnut -trees one hears about are never praised for their nuts. English boys and -girls do not eagerly plan for half-holidays spent in the jolly sport of -chestnutting. Their chestnut trees turn out to be very familiar to our -eyes. They are the horse chestnuts that we see so often at home. Their -nuts are handsome enough, and quite worth gathering for use in some -games, and just to have and to handle. But chestnutting! That is one of -the great joys of October in our country, a thing no boy or girl would -miss without bitter disappointment. - -While the leaves turn yellow on the big trees, children and squirrels -have their eyes on the clustered, spiny balls at the ends of the -branches. "Not yet!" is the sign they read as plain as printed words. -Warm days come and go, and the tree holds out its sign, even after the -leaves begin to fall. Father and mother say: "Be patient!" But they do -not remember how hard that is. It is a long time since they were eight -and ten and twelve years old. - -Then a cold night comes, and in the early morning a hoar frost is -disappearing as the sun rises. Four seams can be seen on some chestnut -burs, and the impatient boys throw clubs into the tree tops. But their -fingers are sore with trying to pry the burs open. The nuts are cheesy -and insipid. - -"Just you wait a spell." This is the advice of John, the raggedy man, who -does the chores. "You can't hurry up chestnuts. When they're ready, I'll -take you where you can get a barrel of 'em, and not kill yourself, nor -ruin your hands gettin' 'em." He sees the rising tide of fear before it -is expressed in words, and answers mysteriously: "Nobody knows the place -but me. Let the little fellers an' the town folks hunt for nuts under the -trees along the road. They'll get a quart apiece, mebby, if they work -half a day. The place I'm goin' to, you can scoop 'em up in handfuls." - -The trees far back from the high road are certainly more generous to the -few who find them than are the more accessible, and therefore more -popular trees. Nobody "scoops them up in handfuls," literally, for there -are the burs, quite as prickly as before they split their four segments -apart, and let the two or three nuts fall out. Careful and quick motions -are needed to pick up the pointed nuts among the larger burs. But the -game is most absorbing. If the bags fill slowly, there is the consoling -thought that the shells are thin, and the nuts are almost solid meats. -The busy picker stops now and then to sample a few. They certainly are -riper and finer tasting than they were a short week ago. - -Unopened or partly opened husks are often gathered. The nuts will ripen -and roll out on the attic floor, or on the roof of the side porch. Few -parties who go chestnutting content themselves with the loose nuts they -gather. The end of the day is a scramble to fill the bags or baskets with -hulls not yet fully open. Mittens faced with leather or made of canvas -are a good protection for the hands. - -The saddest news from the woods of the Northeast is that a disease that -baffles the tree doctors has attacked and killed all the chestnut trees -in the neighbourhood of the city of New York, and it is marching steadily -westward. It has invaded New Jersey and Pennsylvania. A fungus attacking -the living layer under the bark of a tree is working where no remedy can -reach it. The tree loses vitality, but only when it is far gone does the -disease break through the bark, and show itself as small, yellow pimples -on the smooth bark of the branches. Out of these openings the spores -escape,--minute germs of the disease. The wind scatters them. So do -birds, insects, and squirrels. They lodge in cracks in the bark of other -trees. Only chestnut trees catch the disease, though the germs fall -everywhere. When it progresses far enough to produce a mat of fungus that -encircles the trunk, the tree is girdled, its food supply is cut off, and -death results. - -The chinquapin is a Southern tree, which closely resembles the chestnut. -It is usually shrubby and dwarfed in all of its parts. The nuts are about -as large as our little hazel nuts, and each is alone in a spiny husk that -parts into halves when mature. Five or six of these little burs are often -borne on a single stalk. - -In Arkansas the tree reaches medium size, but in the East it is familiar -as a scrubby tree that sends up suckers from the roots and forms -thickets, like hazel brush. Poor folks in the South have time to gather -these little nuts, which appear on market day in their season in some -cities and towns. They are sweet, and some people think they are better -than chestnuts. - - - THE BEECH - -Least of all the nuts good to eat that grow in our mixed woods is the -fruit of the grey-trunked beeches. In nutting time the beech tree's crown -of green is almost as clean and bright as in midsummer. The silky leaves -are little torn by the wind. They turn to a beautiful pale yellow, and -become thin and papery as the green pulp is drawn back into the twigs. -Few people see the spiny green burs on the ends of side twigs in summer, -even though the crop of nuts be heavy. In the autumn the brown spiny -husks open. Their four divisions flare outward, and two triangular brown -nuts are released. Almost unnoticed they drop on the ground under the -tree. They are so little that the wind helps to scatter them in the woods -around. The shifting leaf carpet sifts them through, and we shall have to -hunt for them, even under the parent trees. - -I need not tell any boy or girl how good and sweet these beech nuts are, -and how well they repay the trouble of getting the kernels out of the -thin, triangular shells. Yet people gather them less frequently than they -do chestnuts, because it is slow work, and there is more accomplished -under trees whose nuts are larger. - -The early settlers fattened their pigs in autumn by turning them into the -woods. Beech trees made the best possible pasture for this purpose. The -flavour of beech nut bacon is exceptionally delicate, and has an extra -high market value. Squirrels and all of the smaller furry-coats take the -time and trouble to gather and hoard quantities of beech nuts among their -winter stores. - -Fortunate for the beech tree, its nuts will grow even in the shade. We -shall find a fruiting beech tree surrounded by its children--saplings of -all ages, coming up from seeds of various sowings. - -By scratching carefully among the dead leaves in spring, we shall find, -among the gaping burs, the young trees at the very beginning of their -lives. The nuts have slipped down into the damp leaf mould, and the -melting of snow, and the warm spring air have started them growing. The -triangular shell clings to the top of the stem, while the root is getting -a foothold. A pair of broad seed leaves, totally unlike the leaves of the -beech tree, unfold. The spreading of these seed leaves soon splits the -walls of the nut-shell helmet. - -Little beech trees at this age are very weak and helpless, but patient -and struggling. Their pale leaves turn green as the root goes deeper -down, and draws food from the soil. A shoot bearing true beech leaves -rises from the tip, between the seed leaves. The stem straightens, and -grows tall, the seed leaves wither, and, unless it has bad luck, or some -accident befalls it, the little tree is a long, leafy whip by the end of -the season, and under each green leaf is a long bird's-claw beech bud, -just like those on the parent trees. In these buds are leafy shoots which -will be side branches during the following summer. - -Beech nuts are still one of the main foods of many wild animals. In the -earlier days they had much greater importance, for nuts were one of the -natural foods upon which the human race subsisted before the days when -men became civilised. They depended upon foods which Nature provided, and -ate them without cooking. Acorns served the same important purpose. - -We cannot go back to the days when men lived in caves, and dressed in the -skins of wild animals, and lived upon foods like nuts and berries, and -the flesh of wild beasts. But in camping out we return as closely as -possible to the simple life of these wild ancestors of ours. It is good -to know what foods the forest offers to hungry men and beasts. Some day -we may be lost in the woods. We may come to an oak tree, and attempt to -eat its acorns, but find them bitter. It is well to know that the oaks -with finger-pointed leaves bear acorns that are sweet and good. It is -only the oaks with spiny-lobed leaves whose acorns are bitter and unfit -for food. Beech trees offer no food to a hungry person, unless he knows -how little the nuts are, and how they hide by slipping under the leaves -when they fall. To know trees is delightful at any time, and in any -place. To know them when one is lost in a forest is often the means of -saving one's life. The forest still feeds the hungry, but only those who -know the trees are able to find these stores of food when they need them. - - - THE WITCH HAZEL - -The witch hazel is indeed the witch of the woods. It turns the year -up-side-down, by blossoming in October, at the same time that it is -ripening its seeds. For this reason every child who lives in a region -where this little tree grows should know the witch hazel. The better -people know it, the more wonderful they find it. It has many odd habits -and secrets, which it will reveal only to those who come and ask -questions, and keep their ears and eyes wide open to catch the answers. - -In spring the witch hazel hides under its green leaves, and attracts no -attention from those who have come out to see the great procession of the -spring flowers, under foot, and over head. It is simply a part of the -undergrowth, a shrubby little tree. But come in October, to the same -place. The acorns are dropping from the oak, the foliage ablaze with -colour, or faded and falling. There are no flowers overhead, but a few -belated asters and goldenrods under foot. Squirrels are busy hiding -winter stores, gathered under the nut trees, and on the wild hawthorns. - -A thicket of witch hazel is slowly dropping its yellowing leaves. You -might not have noticed it at all, had not one of the trees suddenly -called attention to itself by tweaking your ear! It is such a surprise to -feel in the silent woods the sharp sting of a shot from a silent air gun. -You stand still, listening, and feeling of your ear. It is a fine frosty -October day, and still. As you listen, another shot strikes the dead -leaves at your feet. Where do they come from? This question you will -probably not be able to answer at once; but while you are looking in the -bushes from which the missile seemed to come, thinking to rout some joker -from his ambush, you discover the blossoms of the witch hazel. Each one -is waving four little yellow petals, and among these delicate blossoms -the bullet pods are bunched. Some of these are yawning wide open, each -showing two empty seed pockets, but you do not find any seeds. - -Cut a bundle of these things, and carry them home. Put them in a vase of -water. The delicate fragrance of the flowers will go through the house, -and every one will marvel that any tree or bush can be found in blossom -at the very end of the year. Now the strangest thing will happen. Above -the quiet talk around the evening lamp sounds the sharp click, as of a -bit of metal, or a bead striking the wall with considerable force. Every -one sits up to listen. A second click, this time on the glass covering a -picture, is located, and a little black object, smaller than an apple -seed, pointed and tipped with white, is picked up from the floor. It is -this seed which was thrown against the glass; and it does not require a -Sherlock Holmes to prove that it came out of one of the witch hazel seed -pods. If each person takes a twig, and keeps an eye upon the pods, that -show a slight opening, more than one of the pods will be seen when they -burst, and throw their seeds. The warmth of the indoor air springs the -trigger, and the tiny projectiles fly. - -How surprised the squirrels must be when the witch hazel guns are -bombarding the dry leaf carpet of the woods! How much pleasure it gives -you to take your friends to the thicket, and explain to them the meaning -of those scattering shots the pods are firing each crisp autumn day! If -it is rainy weather the pods will all be closed. But let the sun come -out, and dry them, and the game begins again. - -Can any one wonder that witch hazel trees grow in companies? Each little -tree flings its seeds in all directions, and for each seed planted a -little tree may come. Twenty feet from the parent tree the pods are able -to throw their seeds. - -Extract of witch hazel is obtained by boiling twigs and leaves of this -tree in a still with alcohol. The Indians taught white men that this -plant contained a drug which had soothing and curative powers when rubbed -upon sprains and bruises. Whether there is any truth in this notion or -not, the belief is still strong, and people continue to rub extract of -witch hazel on their bruises, even though many doctors say there is -nothing medicinal in it but the alcohol. - -[Illustration: The beech tree opens its two kinds of flowers after the -long, pointed winter buds have opened, and the lengthening shoot has -spread out its leaves.] - -[Illustration: Catkins, staminate and pistillate, of a hornbeam and a -birch; catkins and acorn flowers of an oak] - -In England the witch elm corresponds to our own witch hazel. No one in -the mining regions would dare to sink a shaft for coal unless he had -warrant for doing so from the actions of a divining rod in the hands of a -competent person. In other regions the digging of a well depends upon the -same thing, and this idea prevails in many parts of this country. An old -fellow who can "water witch" may be found in most old-fashioned -communities. If you wish to dig a well, you must call on him to locate -the site. He cuts a y-shaped twig from the witch hazel, trims it, and is -ready for the ceremony. Grasping one of the two tips in each hand, and -holding the main stem erect, he paces over the ground you have chosen. In -his rigid hands the supple twigs waver, and finally the wand bends -downward. This, according to popular belief, is the proper place to find -good water, and plenty of it. The water witch moves away, again holding -the stem erect. He comes back finally, and as he crosses the spot again, -the wand goes down. Now every one is sure that this is the spot, and the -well is dug. If the seer's prediction comes true, his reputation -improves, and scoffers concede that "there may be something in it, after -all." In regions where the witch hazel does not grow, a twig of wild plum -tree will do. - - - THE OAK FAMILY - -The fifty kinds of oak trees that are native to America are about evenly -divided on the two sides of the Rocky Mountains. No Western oaks are -found in the Eastern states, and none of our Eastern kinds grows wild on -the other side of the mountains. The backbone of the continent is a bar -that neither group has been able to pass. - -To know fifty different kinds of oaks by sight, so as to call each one by -its right name, is not an easy task; and yet it is not so difficult as it -at first might seem. To begin with, any tree we meet, which bears acorns, -we at once recognise as an oak. By this one sign, we are able to set this -great family apart from every other tree. As soon as they are old enough, -all oaks bear acorns. If a tree which we suspect to be an oak has no -acorn to show us, on or under the tree, a little close looking will -usually find some acorn cups still hanging on, or lying where they fell -upon the ground. - -The leaves of oaks are distinctive. In general, they are all simple, and -their outline is oval. The borders are variously cut by deep or shallow -bays, between sharp points or rounding finger-like lobes. They are -leathery in texture, compared with leaves of most trees. After a little -practice, we learn to recognise oak leaves, no matter how variously cut -their borders may be. - -In spring the flowers of oaks come out with the leaves. A fringe of -catkins at the base of the new shoot is composed of pollen-bearing -flowers. In the angles of the new leaves farther up the stem, we shall -find the little acorn flowers, usually in twos. This is the flower -arrangement of all the oaks; staminate and pistillate flowers on the new -shoots, separate and very different from each other, but always close -together, and always both kinds on each tree. The fringe of catkins falls -as soon as the pollen is shed. Little, red, forked tongues are thrust out -by the pistillate flowers to catch the golden dust when it is flying -through the air, and thus to set seed. All through the summer, the little -acorns are growing. We can find them in their tiny cups in the angles of -the leaves. - -In the autumn the acorns are ripe, and falling. Some trees will show -acorns of two sizes, half-grown ones on the new shoots, and full-sized -ones on the bare twigs, just back of the new shoots. - -This peculiarity divides the oak family into two great groups. One group -is composed of trees which have light-coloured bark, bear a crop every -year, and in winter are bare of fruit. This is known as the White Oak -Group. Its leaves have rounded margin lobes which do not end in sharp -points, as many of the lobes of oak leaves do. - -All of the oaks whose leaves have pointed, spiny lobes on their margin -belong to the Black Oak Group. The bark of these trees is usually -dark-coloured. The acorns require two years of growth. For this reason, -there are half-grown acorns on the tree all winter, waiting for the -second summer to bring them to maturity. Every autumn the acorns which -are ripe are found on the twigs just back of the leafy shoots, which grew -during the past summer. These acorns have completed their second year of -growth. - -When we hear any one speak of annual-fruited and biennial-fruited oaks, -we know that the White Oak and Black Oak Groups are meant. If you see an -oak tree whose leaves are cut into sharp pointed lobes, you will find -acorns of two sizes on its twigs. If you look across the fence and see a -pale-barked oak with finger-lobed leaves, and not a spiny point on their -margins, you will know that acorns of but one size will be found. Fix -these three points in mind. Then study all the oak trees you can find. - - Trees of the White Oak Group have: - 1. Rounded lobes on their leaf margins. - 2. Acorns ripe in a single season. - 3. Pale-coloured bark. - - Trees of the Black Oak Group have: - 1. Spiny-pointed lobes on their leaves. - 2. Acorns requiring two seasons to ripen. - 3. Dark-coloured bark - - - THE WHITE OAK - -Those who know trees best agree that there is no nobler broad-leaved tree -in the American forests than the White Oak. Tree lovers in England have -but one native oak upon which to spend their loyal devotion, the tree -worship inherited from Druid ancestors, whose temples were their sacred -groves of oaks. The same feeling is in our blood, and roused at sight of -an aged white oak, with stout, buttressed trunk, and great horizontal -limbs supporting a rounded dome, much broader than high. - -The tree is grey in winter. It stands bare of leaves, clothed in its -pale, scaly bark. This is the time to study the framework of the dome. -The limbs are twisted and gnarled, and their branches end in dense -thickets of twigs. Each twig bears the winter buds, and five buds are -clustered at the tip of each. - -In spring these buds open, and a leafy shoot comes out of each. At the -base are the yellow, fringed catkins of the sterile flowers, and above -them, in the angles between leaves and twig, the fertile flowers thrust -out forked tongues for pollen. These will be acorns next autumn, if the -pollen falls upon them, and thus sets seed. - -All summer the leaves are green, with pale linings, and when summer ends, -they turn to rich shades of purplish red. The sweet acorns are ripe, and -as they fall, thrifty squirrels are all about, gathering them into their -hidden store-houses for winter use. Plenty of the thin, shallow cups we -shall find, but the kernels are scarce, unless we come when they are -falling in October. - -The Indians taught the early colonists in America to use acorns of this -species for food. They boiled them, like hominy, and found them not only -nourishing, but good to eat. - -If you find solitary white oaks growing here and there in a mixed woods, -you may wonder how they were planted thus. The tree cannot scatter its -own seeds. It depends upon the work of scampering nut-gatherers, in fur -coats, that put away more acorns than they can eat during the long -winter. An acorn that is left over in one of the dark pockets along a -squirrel's run-way sprouts in the spring, and in a few years it is a -sturdy oak sapling. All oaks are dependent on outside help in planting. - -White oak lumber is very high-priced. The wood of this tree we rarely see -nowadays except in the most expensive oak furniture. The beautiful satiny -streaks that are the chief ornament of the grain in polished table tops, -are bands of fibres that radiate from the central pith to the bark. When -oak is "quarter-sawed," these _pith rays_, called "mirrors," show to best -advantage. They are most numerous in the wood of the white oak. - - - THE BUR OR MOSSY-CUP OAK - -The largest acorn I know is the fruit of the bur oak, and it is borne in -a mossy cup, indeed. The cup's scales are drawn out into long, hairy -points, and those near the rim form a loose fringe. Once in a while you -may find an acorn almost covered up in its husk. But as a rule, the nut -is a little more than half-covered. Sometimes these nuts are two inches -long, but this is not usual. They are over an inch long, and almost as -broad, and the meat is white and sweet. No wonder squirrels harvest the -crop, and young trees spring up wherever an acorn is missed by the hungry -creatures. - -The bur oak is a shaggy tree, for it sheds its bark in big flakes, like -the sycamore. The small branches are stout, and their bark is developed -into corky wings, like the sweet gum. The tree is irregular in shape, -too, its gnarled limbs are thrown out in any direction, and so the top is -often unsymmetrical. But it is a rugged and picturesque tree, in spite of -all its faults, and it adds beauty of an unusual kind to parks and -woodlands. - -In Sioux City, Iowa, an aged bur oak stands in Riverside Park. It is -called "The Council Oak," for it was a venerable tree in the days when -the Indians lived on the banks of the Missouri River. Under this tree -their chieftains used to meet the white men, and talk over the questions -that interested both. Here treaties were drawn up and signed that kept -peace between the red and white men. - -I promise a great deal of pleasure to any one who plants a mossy-cup -acorn. The seedling tree is wonderfully vigorous in growth. The leaves -are often a foot long in the first years of the tree's life. The blades -are thick, lustrous above, and woolly lined, the finger lobes irregular, -and two opposite, deep sinuses near the middle of the leaf cut it almost -in two! - -Before the tree is more than a sapling it blossoms and bears big acorns -in their handsome mossy cups. There is no stage in the life of one of -these oaks that is not beautiful and interesting. - -This tree is found from Nova Scotia to Western Texas. It forms forests in -Winnipeg, and "oak openings" in Minnesota and Dakota. It is as much at -home in the hot, arid stretches of the plains of the West and Southwest -as in the raw, damp air of the New England coasts. In the rich valley of -the Ohio River it reached nearly two hundred feet in height in the virgin -forests. - -Unlike many oaks, it may be safely transplanted while young. - - - THE LIVE OAK - -The citizen of New Orleans takes his Northern visitors to Audubon Park, -and points with pride to the giant live oak trees. He does not hesitate, -for he knows that the noble pair called "George Washington," and "Martha -Washington," though crippled now by tornadoes, are more noted the country -over than any monument or building in this famous old city. In Charleston -and other Southern cities it is the same. Famous old live oaks adorn the -parks and avenues, and the same trees are planted year by year to take -the places of the veterans when age and storms shall make an end of their -long lives. - -These trees wear a crown of green throughout the year. The leaves last -but one year, but they cling to the twigs and remain green until they are -gradually pushed off by the opening of new leafy shoots. In spring the -new leaves are much brighter than the darker old ones. Everywhere the -trees are draped with the sage-green ropes of "Spanish moss," which is -not a moss at all, but a flowering plant that steals its living by -lodging its roots in crevices in the bark of trees. - -The live oak acorns are dainty, dark-brown nuts, set in hoary, -long-stemmed cups. Each year there is a good crop of acorns, and they are -sweet, and pleasant to the taste. The Indians depended upon them for -food, roasting or boiling them. They also skimmed the boiling pot to -collect the oil, which the early colonists said was much like oil of -almonds. - -The "knees of oak" that early ship-builders used to brace the sides of -vessels, were taken from live oak trees, where the great boughs spring -out from the short, stout trunks. This natural joint is better than any -bolted union of two pieces of timber. The scarcity of these trees makes -it impossible now to supply these knees, but no steel frame serves the -purpose quite so well. The wood is as beautiful as white oak for the -making of handsome furniture, though it splits more easily, and is harder -for the cabinet-maker to use. - -The tree grows throughout the South to Texas; also in Mexico, and Lower -California. Its Northern limit is Virginia. - -A friend who has for a near neighbour the majestic McDonough Oak, -patriarch among the noble live oaks of the Audubon Park, New Orleans, -writes interestingly of the habits of this species. - -"The live oak sheds its leaves _in the spring_, just before the new -leaves open. So, for a brief time the tree stands leafless. In this -period, however, the tree puts out catkins in great abundance, so that -the tree does not appear bare. These catkins are light brown, and have a -soft, velvety appearance, and a tree has an absolute change of colour. -During this blossom time the splendid form of the trunk and the great -limbs is revealed. When the new leaves appear, the framework of branch -and bough is concealed by leafage so dense as to be impenetrable to sun -or eye. The tree is a symmetrical, shining green dome. The crown of the -McDonough oak is over two hundred feet in diameter." - - - THE POST OAK - -The post oak, a small, rugged tree, is noticeable in winter, because its -leaves usually hang on until the open buds in spring push them off. The -colour of this winter foliage is yellowish brown, and not at all striking -nor beautiful. The bark is brown and deeply furrowed. The twigs wear a -yellow fuzz. The leaves are coarse, stiff and rough, four to five inches -long, tapering from three broad, squarish lobes to a narrow base, and a -short leaf stalk. They are lined with brownish wool, and are dark green -and shining above in summer. - -The acorns of the post oak are borne in a plentiful annual crop. Each is -dainty and trim, in a shallow cup of loose, blunt-pointed scales. The -kernel is sweet. In the days when wild game roamed the woods, wild -turkeys fattened on these acorns, and some people call the tree the -"turkey oak." - -Another name for this tree is "iron oak," for its wood is hard, and -heavy, and close-grained. It makes admirable posts and railroad ties, -because it does not rot in contact with water. It is used in -boat-building, and for barrel staves. "Knees" of post oak (the angles -between trunk and branch) form most admirable timbers to be used in the -framework of boats. - - - THE SWAMP WHITE OAK - -The swamp white oak is a rugged and ragged tree, with drooping branches -and crooked twigs, covered with greyish brown bark which peels in thin -flakes from branches and trunk. This habit of shedding its bark in -irregular plates reminds us strongly of the sycamore, which carries this -habit to excess. The leaves of this oak are large, wedge-shaped at the -base, wavy-toothed or lobed, and broadening towards the tips. They are -dark green above, and lined with white down. The acorns are borne in -pairs on long stems. The oval nut is hairy at its tip, and sits in a -rough cup made of scales, sometimes fringed at the border. The kernel is -sweet and eatable, not only for beasts, but for man. If one were lost in -the woods, he need not starve nor die of thirst, if he is near a stream, -and can get the fruit of a swamp white oak, which stands by the water -side. He will do well to make a fire, and roast the acorns, which will -improve their nutty flavour, and make them more digestible. - -This white oak is more beautiful in May than at any other season of the -year. The young leaves are pale green, and the tree top is illuminated by -the silky hairs that line them. The whiteness of the down is dimmed as -summer advances. In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, but never red. - -The wood of this oak is not distinguished in the lumber trade from any -other white oak. The demand for it for the building of houses and boats, -and for agricultural implements and vehicles, is greater than the supply. -It is too expensive now to be used as it was a few years ago, for fuel, -railroad ties, and fence posts. - - - THE CHESTNUT OAK - -The chestnut oak has leaves which are much like those of the chestnut -tree. They are larger, and wider, however, and have rounded lobes at the -ends of the side veins, making a very regular wavy margin, compared with -that of most oak leaves. The lining is often silky, and always much paler -than the upper surface. This tree is an exception to the rule that the -annual-fruited oaks have pale bark. This one has bark so dark in colour -that it is often mistaken for one of the Black Oak Group, although its -wavy leaf margins, and its annual crop of acorns, prove it to belong to -the White Oak Group. - -The acorns are very long, and smooth, and they sit in thin cups lined -with down, and covered with small swollen scales. They are usually borne -alone on short stems. This is one of the largest and sweetest acorns. The -squirrels pack them among their winter's stores. - -The wood of chestnut oak is hard, and strong, and durable in contact with -the soil. The bark is especially rich in tannic acid. For this reason -many of the finest trees yield only tan bark, because the peelers take -the bark, and leave the log to fall a prey to forest fires. - - - THE BLACK OAK - -The black oak, which gives its name to the large group of -biennial-fruited oaks, is one of our handsome, sturdy forest trees. It -grows from Maine to Florida, and west to Minnesota, Kansas, and Eastern -Texas. Its bark is very dark grey or brown, and thick, with rough, broken -ridges and deep furrows. Under this outer layer is a yellow belt, rich in -tannin. This gives the tree the name "yellow oak," and since its bark is -valuable in tanning leather, it is some times called the "tan bark oak." - -The tree is not graceful nor symmetrical, but there is a picturesqueness -and strength about it that redeems its coarseness and irregularity. This -species would be planted oftener for shade, were there not so many -beautiful oaks to choose from. In the wild, however, a giant black oak is -a noble feature of the landscape. - -In early spring the large downy winter buds begin to swell, and soon the -leaves push rapidly out. The whole tree top flushes crimson in the -sunshine. The red glow is from the crinkly, half-awake baby leaves, whose -brilliance is softened by a silky covering of white hairs. In a day the -leaves turn green, and most of their silky covering is shed. - -The bloom of the black oak consists of a fringe of yellow catkins at the -base of each shoot, and pairs of red-tongued acorn flowers in the angles -of some of the leaves. Back of the new shoot the half-grown acorns of the -previous season are seen. In autumn the new crop is well along and the -full-grown acorns, which have taken two seasons to ripen, are ready to be -shed. Each kernel sits in a straight-sided cup of loosely shingled -scales, which form a fringe at the margin. The kernel is bitter, and -yellow, as it is in most of the species of the Black Oak Group. - -[Illustration: Leaves, mossy-cup acorns and warty twigs of the bur oak] - -[Illustration: The horizontal limbs of the pin oak form a regular -pyramidal head] - -The large, downy, pointed buds of this oak will often determine its name -for us when we are confused by the shapes of the leaves. Often the red -oak and the black oak "run together" in their leaf forms. To determine -the tree's name we must call in the buds, the acorns, and their cups, and -the general shape of the trees, and consider all these points together. - -Black oak leaves are thick, coarse, and leathery. Crumple one in your -hand, and you cringe at the harsh scratching noise it makes. They vary -from four to ten inches in length, and from two to six inches in breadth. -The margins are deeply cut into seven or nine broad, bristly-toothed -lobes, with rounded bays between. The upper surface is dark green in -summer, shining and smooth, or sometimes hairy. The lining is brownish -and a remnant of the scurfy down is found in the neighbourhood of the -veins. In autumn these leaves turn brownish-yellow, but rarely show a -tinge of red. - -The bark of black oak is stripped and carried to the tan-yards. Or it -furnishes a yellow dye, used in the printing of calicoes. The wood is -used in house-building, and in the manufacture of furniture. - - - THE RED OAK - -The red oak is the tree most likely to be mistaken for the black oak. The -bark is brown, with a decided red tinge. The twigs are also reddish, and -the wood is red-brown. The inner bark has the same tinge instead of the -orange-coloured lining the black oak bark has. - -The red oak is a large, stately tree, sometimes 150 feet in height, and -far more symmetrical than the black oak. Its leaves vary greatly in the -depth of their marginal clefts, but in general they are oval in outline, -and their lobes and sinuses are triangular. These lobes always point -forward, rather than outward, along the sides of the leaf, and they -always end in the sharp, spiny points that belong to the leaves of all -the trees that fall into the Black Oak Group. Red oak leaves are thinner -than those of black oak, and not so harsh when crumpled in the hand. -Their linings are pale green and smooth in summer. Their autumn colour is -deep red. - -The buds of the red oak are pointed, smooth, reddish, and about -one-fourth of an inch long. They are much smaller, and lack the down of -the buds of the black oak. - -Red oak acorns are the most distinct feature of this species. They are -large, often over an inch in length, and broad, and they sit in saucers, -instead of cups. These saucers are made of close scales, and they curl in -closely at the top as if to tighten their hold on the nut, which extends -two-thirds its height above this rim. The kernel is white, and extremely -bitter. - - - THE SCARLET OAK - -The scarlet oak need not be confused with either the red or black oaks, -for it is a far more dainty tree than either in its trim trunk, graceful -curving branches, very slim twigs, and deeply cut leaves. In form, these -leaves are oval, but so much of the "cloth" is cut away by the four or -six deep bays along the sides that a small amount of green is left to do -leaf duty. The slender lobes are strengthened by the branching veins, -each of which ends in a spiny point. These almost skeleton leaves are -beautifully lustrous and thin, a trifle paler beneath and sometimes hairy -tufted at the veins. They are rarely six inches long, and the side lobes -sometimes measure five inches from tip to tip. The leaf stems are long -and flexible, and the whole tree top is as light and feathery and -tremulous in a breeze as that of a honey locust or a willow. In autumn -the scarlet oak blazes like a torch above the duller reds and browns of -the woods, and keeps its brilliancy later than any other oak. - -The acorn differs from the black oak in being smaller and daintier, and -in having its cup drawn in tightly at the rim. The scales are smooth and -close-pressed; the kernel white and bitter. - - - THE PIN OAK - -The pin oak has foliage much like the scarlet oak, but coarser and not so -lustrous. Often a pin oak tree has leaves that approach the red oak in -form, and these lead to confusion, if leaves alone are consulted in -determining the name of the tree. There are better signs in any pin oak -that set it apart from its larger-leaved relative. Consult the acorns. -They are plump little nuts, as broad as long, rarely measuring one-half -inch either way, pale brown, streaked with black in straight lines, down -from the pointed tips, and they sit in shallow, saucer-like cups made of -close reddish scales. As they fall, the nuts roll out of the cups, which -are lined with hair. The kernel is white and bitter and yet, late in -winter, it is very common to find them gnawed open by some hungry little -four-foot, whose winter store threatens to run short. - -The pin oak takes its name from the fact that its branches are thickly -set with short, pin-like twigs, many of which die but do not fall. These -stubs stay on for several years. This fact alone will soon enable us to -recognise the tree from a distance. No other species is so close-twigged, -and the symmetrical form of this tree is very striking in the winter. It -is a pyramid with many small branches thrust out horizontally from the -main shaft. Below the middle of the tree, the long branches have a -downward thrust, and the lowest ones often sweep the ground. Above the -middle of the tree the branches are horizontal, and they gradually become -shorter, and the tree ends in a pointed tip. There is no oak that I know -which has so much the pyramidal form of evergreens like the firs, -hemlocks, and spruces. - -On the avenues of the city of Washington, we shall find superb double -rows of American trees. On one which leads to the Navy Yard, I remember -the beautiful pin oaks, uniform in size, perfect in symmetry, that stood -in a double row along the sides of the avenue. To the crowds of tourists -who visit the capital city every year, I hope that this will be an object -lesson. In most towns and cities every owner plants the trees he likes in -front of his house, so our streets and avenues present a mixture of trees -of all ages, sizes, kinds, and conditions. The better way is for the city -to plant the same tree in double lines, the whole length of a street, as -has of late years been done in Washington. One needs only to see these -trees coming on, each year adding beauty and dignity to the city, to -realise that such planting may be done easily anywhere in the country, -where trees as beautiful as the pin oaks grow wild. - - - THE WILLOW OAK - -A Southern tree with slender twigs and narrow leaves like those of a -willow, surprises us by bearing acorns! It is the willow oak, a -beautiful, graceful tree for shade and for avenue planting. The tree -naturally chooses wet ground, but it thrives where the soil is deep and -well drained. I remember a fine large willow oak in John Bartram's garden -in Philadelphia, and a young tree in the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. This -little one grows rapidly, but the frost nips its twigs in the winter. The -species grows wild from New York southward, just back from the sea coast, -to Texas. In swampy land, it is found from Missouri southward. - -Willow oak acorns are downy, yellow-brown, and set in shallow -saucer-shaped cups. The kernel is orange-yellow, and bitter. Half-grown -acorns are found with the ripe ones on these trees, and the dark, rough -bark agrees with others of the Black Oak Group. Though the leaves have -rarely a side lobe, but are mostly narrow and plain-margined, the tip -ends in a spine, as all black oak leaves should. - - - TREES WITH WINGED SEEDS - -Why do the trees grow in such mixed groves, when Nature does the -planting? Here and there we find solid groves of beech or oak, but the -forest is, for the most part, a gathering together of all kinds of trees. -A part of the beauty of any woodland is this variety in the planting. -Under a tall oak we find a hornbeam, and under this the witch hazel, and -under the witch hazel, a carpet of low woodland plants. We may walk in a -straight line, or follow a woodland path a mile, and find every tree we -meet is different from all the rest. - -Many reasons explain the order in which Nature plants forests. One of the -best of these is found in the kind of seeds trees bear. We shall find -that trees most widely scattered are those whose seeds are winged. It is -not hard to find, from May until far past midwinter, trees bearing light, -winged seeds. All through the summer, the wind is busy sowing the seeds -of the early-fruiting trees. In autumn, and all through the winter, the -sowing of the larger crop goes on. - -Let us begin our study with the maples, whose winged seeds every child -knows. From the silver maple, whose seeds are dry before the first of -June, there is a procession of ripening maple seeds that lasts throughout -the year. A high wind shakes off the silver maple's keys in showers in -late May. Watch those in the tree-tops. The wind has a better chance up -there. Each key, loosening from its twig, turns round and round in a -dizzy whirl, and sails away still whirling as it falls, the heavy seed -end always pointed downward. A tree is soon stripped, and the ground -littered under it. But a great deal larger area than the tree's shadow -has the seeds scattered over it: the stronger the wind, the further these -seeds go. Before the summer is over, a crop of little maple trees springs -up from this sowing. - -The red maple's scarlet seed clusters turn brown, and the little winged -seeds take flight in June. Lighter and smaller, they are carried longer -distances than the seeds of the silver maple, and a crop of little red -maples follows this June sowing of the trees. - -I remember walking in a corn field in late June; the corn had been last -ploughed a month before. Among the weeds that had grown up in this short -time was a crop of young red maples, now six inches high. It was amazing -to see these little trees grow so plentifully in a cultivated field. I -looked for the seed tree, and there it stood on the edge of the field, -the only maple tree in sight. A few young trees were growing in the -matted grass of the roadside under the tree, but the great crop was from -the seeds that flew out to the mellow ground between the corn rows. The -disappointed seeds, those which fell and did not grow, were under the -tree and in the dusty road. - -In the autumn the hard maple, which we call the sugar maple, ripens its -winged seeds. So does the three-leaved box elder (which is a maple) and -the Norway maple, now a very familiar street tree. The wind takes its -time, and the trees stubbornly hang on to their seeds, so that these -maples are busy all winter with the sowing. Every day they give up a few, -and many seeds that fall on the snow are picked up, again and again, by -the wind and thus carried further and further away. - -The maple seed, with its curiously one-sided wing, is the sign by which -the maple family is easily recognised. Other trees have winged seeds, but -none have the peculiar form of this one. - -All summer long we may know the trees that belong to the ash family by -the clusters of pale green darts that hang among their leaves. These are -the ash seeds. Each one is a pointed seed case, containing the embryo -plant, and out behind it extends the thin, light, two-edged wing. There -is no one-sidedness to this blade. The seed is winged, but balanced like -a dart. When the wind loosens one from the wiry stem, it goes like an -arrow, seed downward. If there is a gale blowing, the seed may be caught -up and borne far away in the upper air, before a lull lets it take a -downward course, and drive its point into a snowbank, or into the ground. -This little feathered arrow may be long or short, depending upon whether -it belongs to the red ash, the white ash, or the black; but there is no -mistaking an ash tree for any other, once the form of an ash seed is -fixed in the mind. - -I have said that a maple seed is shaped like that of no other tree. I -must describe here the seeds of the needle-leaved evergreens, which, -though very much smaller, are somewhat like maple seeds in form. Go to a -pine tree or a spruce, and get one of the cones that has begun to spread -its scales apart. Shake the cone over a piece of paper. If nothing comes -out from between the scales, cut or break the cone open with knife or -hatchet. Under each scale will be found two seeds, each with a thin, -one-sided wing. Spruces, hemlocks, firs, and arbor vitaes, all have this -same type of seed, hid away in the same fashion, under the protecting -scales of their cones. Do you understand how the wind, blowing through -the tops of evergreens, shakes the winged seeds from their places, and -carries them far away? Do you understand why the ripe cones of these -trees hang on so stubbornly, and spread their scales to allow the seeds -to escape? - -It is a peculiarity of the firs that they hold their cones erect. It -would seem hard for the wind to get at the seeds, but the fir cones let -their scales fall, and when they loosen, the seeds are freed. - -Out of the balls of the sweet gum tree, which dangle on the twigs all -winter, the wind shakes little winged seeds, not unlike those of the -pines. - -Do you know the catalpa's long, green pods that hang all summer on the -top of trees? They are longer than the newest lead pencil, and show no -signs of splitting, until the autumn. Now, the two halves of the pod -spread apart, and gradually the thin seeds shake out. Each one is in the -centre of a thin, fringed wing, that looks as if made of tissue paper. -The wind can carry these ghostly seeds for miles. Indeed, it is strange -that they ever come to the ground, for they seem to have no thickness nor -weight at all. - -The birches all bear their seeds in cones, some long and pencil-like, -others quite the shape of a pine cone. Under each quaintly notched scale -of the cone, a seed is borne; and each heart-shaped seed has a thin rim, -which acts like a wing, catching the wind as the seed falls. We shall -look far in the woods before we find seeds daintier in form, or better -sailors through the air, than those of all the birch family. - -The hop hornbeam has a hop-like cluster of seeds, each in an inflated -papery bag. When the leaves drop in the fall, the wind has a chance to -pick off these little paper seed balloons, one at a time, from the -clusters. Take off one of these little bags, open it, and you will find, -set in the bottom, the shiny, pointed seed. It is likely to have a long -journey, if there be a good breeze, before its bag is punctured. - -Back to early May again, when the elm trees are green with their fruit -clusters, before the leaves are fully out. Elm trees grow scattered -through the woods, and no wonder: the seeds have papery rims, and the -wind catches these little falling discs, and scatters them far from the -tree where they were born. - -The ailanthus tree, whose long, fern-like leaves make it look like a tree -from the Tropics, is sowing its seeds all winter, with the help of the -wind. Examine one. In the middle of a slim blade is the little seed. The -blade is twisted as it ripens, and it sails through the air with a -tilting, uncertain flight. After a look at a bunch of these seeds, and -after throwing a handful of them out of an upper window, and watching -them as they sail away, we shall understand how it is that ailanthus -trees spring up in most unexpected places, year after year. And we shall -bless the breeze that plants such trees along the hot pavements, and in -the ugly back alleys of towns and cities, where few trees are able to -grow at all. - - - TREE SEEDS THAT HAVE PARACHUTES - -It is a thrilling moment when the man who goes up with the balloon lets -go at last, and drops to the ground. Before he drops, an umbrella-like -parachute opens, and by its aid, he comes to the ground gracefully, -slowly, and alights unhurt. Should anything go wrong with his parachute -he would drop to his death, so every onlooker is anxious as he comes -down, and breathes a sigh of relief when the wonderful feat is -accomplished. - -Seeds with wings sail away on the wind, and seeds with parachutes descend -so slowly and gracefully that the winds carry them far out of their -courses. The trees most fortunate in scattering their seeds, and thus -colonising new territory, have peculiar devices. - -The seeds of the basswood hang in clusters attached to a narrow, -leaf-like blade. This is a parachute, by which the whole cluster is able -to sail away on a good breeze. There is no seed parachute like this among -our forest trees. By this sign alone we may know the basswood trees. - -The balls of the sycamore bump against the branches, and tiny seeds with -hairy parachutes are loosened and scattered. Each is a minute spike, -which might drop to the ground, but for the umbrella-like parachute made -of a brush of fine hairs. By this, the wind lifts the seed, and carries -it away. - -Willow seeds, and those of the poplar, are almost too small to be seen. -Each seed is hid in a dainty fluff of white cotton, and in this the seed -rides. We may miss seeing these trees in fruit, unless we look at the -down which accumulates in June on the screens of windows and doors. The -air is full of the fluffy stuff when the pods open. In a few days this -harvest is over, and we may find the empty pods on the ground under our -neighbour poplars, cottonwoods, and willows. - -The blue beech, or hornbeam, has a parachute which is leafy, and crinkled -so as to look almost like a little boat. The shiny seed sits in one end, -and when it gets free, it has a fine long sail through the air before it -settles to the earth. - -There are wings and parachutes on the seeds of other trees. When you find -them you may know that the wind is the partner of the tree, by robbing it -of its children. The wind is saving those children from death, which -would have been their fate, if they fell on the ground under the shadow -of the parent tree. If all the fields that adjoin the woods were left -uncultivated for a few years they would grow up to forests. We know the -name of the sower, who gathers seeds in the woods, and plants them; who -is busy all the year at the endless work of the harvest and the sowing. - - - THE AUTUMN BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -In the roadside thickets, as the summer wanes, the berry clusters of the -shrubby viburnums turn red, and soften, and in September change to a -vivid, or a dark blue. They are very pretty on their coral red stems, and -look like little plums. Indeed, they are not unpleasant to taste, but it -is the birds who delight in these sweetish, juicy berries, and we are -willing that they should have them all. The names, sheepberry and -nannyberry, are given to these little trees, because sheep are said to -browse on the foliage and shoots in spring. - -The blue berries of the sassafras, also on coral red stems, are not -unlike those of the viburnums in appearance, but fewer in a cluster. The -birds take them eagerly before they are fully ripe. To leave them until -they ripen would be to lose them to other birds. - -[Illustration: Cone fruits of (1) a birch, (2) a pine, (3) a magnolia, -and (4) a fir] - -[Illustration: Clusters of the winged seeds of hornbeam and white ash] - -The dogwood berries are redder than the whorl of leaves that surround the -fruit clusters in early October. These waxy berries have taken the place -of the central cluster of small flowers, which were surrounded in spring -by the four large, white bracts. - -It is the birds who first accept the invitation of these little trees. -The migrating hosts turn southward in September, and in October the bird -procession is in full swing. We hear them overhead, often so high in air -that we cannot see them. Tired of the long flight, they descend for food -and water, and if the neighbourhood has many fruiting dogwood trees, the -joy of the winged voyagers is correspondingly great. In a surprisingly -short time the hungry birds have taken the last one. - -Far in the winter we shall find red berries glowing in clusters on the -mountain ash trees, among the evergreen holly leaves, and in conical -spikes on the sumachs. The winter birds ignore these dry, insipid seeds, -until everything else is gone. Frequently, when winter snows cover up all -other foods, the berries of these two trees stand between the birds and -actual starvation. So it happens that many a mountain ash is stripped of -its fruit during the early days of March, and the holly berries which -have glowed red all winter disappear for the same reason. The sumachs are -rarely stripped as closely as the other two. - -In September the hackberry hangs full of its sugary fruits. It is -surprising to find a tree which looks like an elm, yet bearing soft, -purple berries. But this, we shall learn, is the hackberry's way. Under -each leaf a long thread grows, on the end of which is a single, oblong -berry, the size of a pea, but not the same shape. The fruit hangs on late -into the winter, if the birds will permit such a thing, and it is a -grateful supply of food to birds that winter in the North. If there were -no other reason for planting hackberry trees, they are worth having as -fruit trees for the refreshment of birds. - -The autumn colour of hackberry leaves is yellow. The purple fruits make -little show, until the leaves fall. The bark of the tree is its chief -peculiarity. On the trunk it is deeply checked into small, thick, warty -plates. The branches are often ridged and broken into warty excrescences -that stand close together. - -The leaves are peculiar. There is no other tree that has not a main vein, -or a rib, which prolongs the leaf stem straight to the tip. The hackberry -leaf stem divides into three equal branches at the base. The two side -branches are shorter than the middle one, but their size is unusual. - -It is in autumn, of course, that the hackberry earns its name, -sugarberry. The bark will guide us to the tree at any season. The leaves -fix in mind another important family trait. The berries we may safely -taste to find out if they are as sugary as we are led to expect. - -Nettle tree is the common name of the European hackberry. You may have -read of the lotus-eaters, who, tasting the sweet fruit of this little -tree, straightway forgot their native land, and could not be persuaded to -return. The wood is tough and peculiarly adapted to make the handles of -hayforks, and similar agricultural implements. Young trees are grown for -these uses. The roots remain alive and send up suckers, slender but tall. -These are cut for walking sticks, whipstocks, and ramrods for guns. Older -trees furnish wood, as hard as box or holly, and beautiful as satinwood -when polished. This is a material which the wood-carvers delight to use. -The tree is widely planted for shade, and its leaves are used as fodder -for cattle. - -Bad as its reputation is, according to the tradition that its fruit had -power to rob men of their patriotism, yet this is one of the most useful -little trees. It grows easily, and is contented on land that is worthless -for other purposes. - -Besides the hackberry, another big tree in our woods bears a crop of -purple berries in September. That is the wild black cherry. The bark of -this tree is dark brown and shining, and satiny smooth on the branches. -It breaks on the trunk into rough, squarish plates, which curl -horizontally at the edges. The plates still retain the silky outer bark, -whose fibres run crosswise, and whose surface has many slit-like, -horizontal breathing holes. - -We are strongly reminded of the birches, especially the cherry birch, -which has dark-coloured bark, and has its name from its resemblance to -this tree. The thin young bark of the black cherry curls in a very -birch-like fashion. One difference is very marked. The bark of the cherry -is bitter, with the flavour of the pit of a peach or cherry. Birch bark -is pleasantly aromatic in flavour. - -The fruit of the black cherry is more plentiful than that of the -hackberry. The close-set side shoots on the new twigs end in fruit -clusters two or three inches long, and often containing a dozen berries -each. The sweet pulp is flavoured with the bitter taste of cherry pits, a -flavour found in the sap of this tree. Nibble the bark, or a bit of -cherry wood, a leaf, or the tip of the root, and you get the same Prussic -acid taste. - -I do not like wild black cherries, but many people do. Children and birds -seem not to notice the bitter with the sweet. They eat the berries as -soon as they change colour, with evident enjoyment. - -Cherry brandies and cordials are made from the fruit by people who rely -upon old-fashioned home remedies. These are the people who chew the -bitter opening buds of the wild cherry in spring, as they drink sassafras -tea, believing that spring is the time to clear the blood, and that -Nature offers free remedies far better than they can buy in bottles. - -We cannot wonder that wild cherry trees spring up in the woods, in fence -corners, and along roadsides. The birds are feasting in the trees each -autumn, and until the last berry is taken. They are the sowers of the -seed. - -Our greatest objection to the wild cherry is the fact that its shining -young leaves are regarded by the apple tree tent caterpillars as -particularly good. When the white blossom clusters deck this tree in May, -we often see a web of white silk wrapping together some of the upper -branches. Day by day the web is extended, and the twigs are stripped of -their leaves by the host of caterpillars which return at night to the -tent, and range more widely in the day time. When the tent is as large as -a peach basket, it is found empty, for the caterpillars have descended to -the ground, spun their cocoons, and will soon emerge as winged moths, to -lay their eggs, from which later broods of caterpillars come. The winged -females are very likely to seek the nearest orchard, and lay their eggs -in bands around apple twigs. Many an otherwise harmless roadside wild -cherry is a deadly menace to an orchard because it breeds the insects, -which, in a second generation, become a serious pest among the apple -trees. - -In the forest the lumberman is glad to find wild black cherry trees of -large size. The lumber is very valuable for interior finish of houses, -and for furniture. It is hard, and close-grained, and dark reddish-brown -in colour, with a lustre, when polished, that puts it in the class with -mahogany and rosewood. It is more often used nowadays as a veneer on -cheaper woods. Parlour cars and steamships, and fine houses are very -often finished in cherry. The small limbs and other bits of the lumber -are utilised for tool handles and for inlay work. The wood is too -valuable to waste. - -The largest berry that grows on a tree in the woods of the United States -is the persimmon. We should mistake this berry for an apple, perhaps, -when we see it for the first time--a little, orange-brown apple, one to -two inches in diameter. But there is no core such as apples have, though -there are from one to a dozen seeds in each fruit. - -The persimmon tree is tall, with a handsome round head, and zig-zag, -twisted branches. It grows from Rhode Island west to Kansas and south to -Florida and Texas. It is found scattered in mixed woods, and comes up in -fence rows and in abandoned fields wherever the seeds have been dropped. -Light, sandy soil is this tree's preference. Although it is a relative of -the ebony of Ceylon, our persimmon is not an important lumber tree. Its -wood is hard, dark-brown in colour, and is used for shoe lasts, tool -handles, and various other small articles. - -In the South the persimmon ranks among the choicest of fruit trees. The -negro and the possum await the ripening of the 'simmons with eager eyes, -and the Southerner, born and bred, confesses an equal interest in this -native fruit. There is a long waiting period between the time when the -persimmons change colour from green to reddish-yellow and the time when -the frost mellows and sweetens the pulp, and takes away the harsh, -puckery taste which draws the lips and chokes the throat as if the fruit -were a lump of alum. The Northerner who judges by its appearance only, -dares to taste this fruit before it is ripe. He cannot be persuaded to -try it again. And he cannot understand the enthusiasm for persimmons that -all people in the South feel. - -A 'simmon tree, when the fruit is ripe, belongs to the first comer. The -negro and the opossum come into direct competition for the fruit of this -tree. You might think the negro would kill the opossum, and be rid of his -rival. He knows too much for that. "'Possum an' 'simmons come together, -and bofe is good fruit." Better divide the 'simmons with the 'possum and -his family. Then get the fat 'possum for the Christmas dinner. There is -no 'possum like the one that is fattened on persimmons, so it pays to be -patient and leave the beast his share of the fruit. - -In a hollow tree, or a woodpile, the opossums sleep by day, and trail out -in companies to climb the persimmon trees at night to feast. They hang by -their tails on the branches, or prop themselves in crotches of the limbs -within easy reach of the soft, sugary berries. The fatter they get, the -lazier they are; and as the season advances, and the fruit falls, the -opossums are likely to satisfy their appetites with the persimmons they -can pick up under the trees. Along about Thanksgiving day, or Christmas, -the day of reckoning arrives, when the negro hunter comes home with the -opossums which have stolen his persimmons. The whole score is wiped out -by the opossum feast, which suitably closes the season. - -Persimmons improve, the longer they hang upon the trees. As late as -January or February, little trees scarcely a dozen feet high, which have -been overlooked in the 'simmon harvest, are found to be still hung with -fruits exceptionally large and fine. To the hungry and thirsty hunter, -prowling for quail in the underbrush, these unexpected fruits are a -delightful surprise. They are delicious, sugary lumps, rich in flavour, -and juicy, taking away both hunger and thirst, and leaving no after-taste -that is bitter or puckery, suggesting their unripe stage. - -Japanese persimmon trees, whose fruit is larger and better in every -respect than our native species, have been successfully introduced into -California and the Southern states. These persimmons look like great ripe -tomatoes as we see them on the fruit stands, but these, too, must wait -until they are thoroughly ripe before they are fit to eat. - - - THE CHANGING COLOUR OF THE AUTUMN WOODS - -All through the autumn, when the wonderful colours come in the forest -leaves, we shall see the green of these leaves creeping back along the -veins. The horse chestnut leaves tell a very interesting story. They turn -brown first upon the edges. If we watch a single leaf for a whole week in -September, we may see the green gradually draw in towards the central -stem, and the brown papery borders widen, just as if something were -squeezing and crowding the pulp of the leaf, inch by inch, back through -the leaf stem into the twig. The last traces of green linger along the -sides of the veins, and before it falls, even these leaf channels will be -drained dry. - -When the leaves of a sugar maple give up their pulp there are wonderful -changes inside each leaf. A yellow liquid fills the cells where the green -pulp used to be. Chemical changes in the mineral substances deposited in -the leaf cells produce wonderful shades of red and yellow, which glow -where once the leaf was solid green. Iron is one of the minerals brought -up in the soil water, left in the leaf, and changed to produce the bright -red when the leaf mask of green is taken away. - -The scarlet maple remembers its name in the autumn days. It puts on a -cloak more brilliant perhaps than the sugar maple, which has a good deal -of orange as well as red in its autumn foliage. The scarlet oak is -amazingly brilliant; so is the sassafras and the sweet gum. The tupelo, -or sour gum, also called the pepperidge, has foliage that is splashed and -streaked with various shades of red and yellow. Each little leaf is so -brilliantly polished that the tree's beauty and colour seem to be doubled -by reflection. The sumachs of the roadside thickets wear foliage of -scarlet, each leaf drooping away from the fruit pyramid which rises, a -deeper crimson, on the end of each upright shoot. The foliage and the -fruit together make a colour harmony that is dazzling, indeed. - -In contrast with its umbrellas of red leaves are the scarlet berry -clusters of the flowering dogwood. This tree has the habit of snuggling -up against the trunk of large forest trees and reaching its white flowery -arms out to us in spring. How wonderful they are, on the edge of the -woods, with the green leaves of the larger trees making a background for -their flowers! In the autumn the same surprise awaits us, when under a -towering tree with yellow or russet foliage, the dogwood leaps up like a -scarlet flame, against its dark background, holding straight out its -platformed branches of red leaves, tipped with berries, like rubies, set -on the upturned twigs. - -Often the trees are stripped by birds before the berries are ripe. It is -in woods where the trees are numerous that we shall find the fruit -reaching its perfection of ripeness and colour. - -Among the trees that turn to purple in the autumn we may name the white -oak and the ashes. Many oaks turn from green to russet, without showing -any red or yellow. The lindens and the tulip trees and the beeches turn -yellow; so do the poplars and willows, the hickories, and walnuts. Up and -down the street you may see the yellow crowns of the silver and the -Norway maples, and on the lawns the white birches have also turned to -gold. The deepest red is on the black and red oaks. The brightest red is -on the scarlet oak. - -[Illustration: The flowering dogwood covers its bare branches with -blossoms in May] - -[Illustration: Flowering dogwood, in flower and fruit, the winter flower -buds and alligator-skin bark] - -It is not fair to charge Jack Frost with all the gay colours of the -autumn woods. Perhaps I should say, rather, that he does not deserve all -the credit people give him for painting the landscape with the sunset -glories of the dying leaves. The cause is the ripening of the leaves -themselves, as I have already explained. Frost may hasten the process, -but if a heavy freeze comes in September, before the leaves have -coloured, we lose our chance for autumn colouring that year. The leaves -drop as if scalded, and the trees lose their leaf pulp, which they had -expected to withdraw and save for future use. A long dry autumn of warm -days and mildly frosty nights produces the finest succession of colours. - -Countries that have a more moist, warm climate than ours, do not have the -vivid autumn colours that we enjoy. England, and the countries of Western -Europe, are like our West coast in lacking the colour changes that make -October for us the most glorious month of the year. Our New England -woodlands and the forests of Canada are matched in brilliancy by the -wooded slopes of the Swiss Alps, and the forests along the Rhine and the -Danube. In our Southern states there is little or no change that comes to -the foliage towards the end of the year. The leaves on the trees of -Florida are lazy in falling. They wait until pushed off by the swelling -buds in early spring. Many trees that shed their leaves promptly each -autumn in the Northern states, gradually become evergreen in the Southern -parts of their range. The longer a tree carries its leaves, the more -battered and worn they become. A tree with fresh, new leaves mingling -with old ones is not a pleasant object, at least to Northern eyes. This -is the way most trees in the South look in spring. - -If we should travel the world over, and see the trees of many lands, in -spring, in summer, in autumn, and in winter, I believe we should all come -back to the clean, beautiful mixed woods of our north temperate zone, and -declare that these woods are the most beautiful in the world. In the dead -of winter, they are budded full of promise. We learn to love them as well -in this period of rest as we do in the beauty of their spring flowers, or -in the glory of their autumn colouring, or in the steady growth of -summer. - -Each leaf is nurse to a bud that is growing between its base and the -twig. Find these little buds on any tree with broad leaves. A part of all -the food that passes that way stops to feed this growing bud; and in the -late summer the twig provides for the future welfare of all its buds. The -thrifty tree withdraws the green pulp from its leaves, before it lets -them fall. A store of starch is put away in the twig, close to each bud. -This is the food supply which will be used in the spring to enable the -bud to open and spread its young leaves, or its flowers, in a -surprisingly short time. - -When the worn-out leaf has been drained of all of its pulp, the tree lets -it go. It has done its work, and given up its pulp to be stored in the -twig for future use. It seems as if the tree knows that, with the coming -of cooler weather, growth must stop; that the tender leaves must die when -frost overtakes them. So it is a frugal habit to save all of the good -green leaf pulp, and to cast off only the dry leaf skin. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE WINTER - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR BARK - -Hunters and foresters who spend much of their time in the woods learn to -know trees by name through long acquaintance. In the dead of winter, the -framework of a tree may be enough to recognise it by. Where trees are -crowded, this sign is not to be depended upon. The bark is often a guide -to the tree's name. The forester will tell you that the bud is the surest -sign of all. The bark is one of the best signs. - -It is not the easiest thing in the world to learn to know trees by the -bark alone. To the beginner, so many trees with dark, furrowed bark look -strangely alike, although the trees are not even related to each other. -The foresters began with trees that have peculiar and easily recognised -bark. So we shall begin here, and hope that the hard cases will gradually -become easier. - -Every tree wears a garment of bark from the ground up to the utmost -twigs. The thinnest bark is on the youngest branches. The thickest is on -the trunk. - -Begin with the white birch upon the lawn. The bark of this tree is made -of thin layers; the outer one shining like white satin. It breaks and -tatters, and peels off around the trunk. Three-cornered patches of black -are found under each branch, and others on the trunk show where branches -once came out, but were broken or cut off. - -Do you notice narrow, horizontal slits of different lengths on the birch -bark? These are breathing holes that let the air in to the layer under -the bark. Spongy, porous substance fills these slits, but allows the air -to pass through. At the lower part of the trunk the satiny outer bark is -shed, leaving dark under layers, rough and checked into irregular blocks. -As the tree grows older, the trunk becomes rougher and darker, but the -branches always show the kind of bark that the little tree wore. - -In the Northern woods the white bark of the canoe birch is stripped from -the trees in layers as thick as sole leather. Out of these the Indians -once made their bark canoes. Now the same material is used for making all -manner of trifling souvenirs to sell to tourists. A square of this thick -bark, cut on the smooth side of a trunk, may be split into a great number -of thin sheets. This the camper uses to write letters upon, and it is a -beautiful and fitting substitute for note paper, when one is camping out. - -[Illustration: We recognize birches by their silky, tattered bark] - -[Illustration: The beech trunk is clothed in smooth, pale grey bark] - -It is a great pity that so many beautiful trees are girdled and killed to -supply the needs of camping parties. If the bark were stripped but part -way around it would not kill the tree. - -The yellow birch has a silvery yellow tint in the outer bark, which curls -back in ragged ribbons until the tree gets old. The red birch writes its -name in the rusty red colour of its papery bark, which splits into -tatters in true birch fashion, and flutters the ragged ends from each -branch throughout the year. The black birch has no tattered ribbons -flying, but wears a close, smooth, black bark, with the narrow slits that -all birches show. As the trunks grow larger the surface checks into -irregular plates, separated by furrows. It is called the cherry birch, -for the bark is like that of cherry trees. - -The sycamore has bark which is different from that of every other tree. -Indeed, it is by the bark that we recognise this tree. The tall trunk -looks as if it were blotched and streaked and spattered with whitewash, -from the trunk to the topmost limb. The bark is continually dropping off -in thin, irregular plates, leaving smooth whitish patches of an under -layer exposed. After sycamore trees grow older, the bark of the lower -portion of the trunk stops shedding. Fine-checked plates of rusty brown -cover this oldest portion. But even on the oldest and largest trees, the -pale blotches are seen in the branches and we shall never mistake the -name of the tree. - -The shagbark is one of the rugged and shaggy trees that boys find hard to -climb without tearing their clothes into tatters. The bark gives the tree -its name. Thin, narrow plates, close-woven and tough as sole leather, -seem to be attached very loosely to the body of the tree, but if you try -to pull off these narrow strips, you find their hold is very firm. Often -they are attached at the middle, and spring out at both ends. - -An old shagbark tree is a picturesque figure, as it lifts its bare arms -up toward the wintry sky. The trunk is straight, but the branches are -full of angles. Yet, with all their rigidity, these limbs have an -expression of strength, if not of grace, and the tree's head is usually -symmetrical, and always full of character. - -A young hickory has smooth, close-knit bark like that on the branches of -the older trees. Gradually the growing trunk becomes furrowed, and the -peculiar splintering and splitting of the bark is seen only in trees six -inches or more in diameter. By the time the tree is old enough to bear -nuts, it has built itself a formidable fence that boys must climb over -with much hard work and many a scratch, to get up among the branches and -shake down the nuts. - -[Illustration: The loose, stripping bark gives its name to the shagbark -hickory] - -[Illustration: Warty bark of hackberry; Silky bark of black birch; Close, -sinewy bark of hornbeam] - -The tasteless pignuts grow on a smooth-barked hickory tree, very easy to -climb, but the bark of the little shellbark hickory is the guide-post -that leads to the trees where the sweet-flavoured hickory nuts grow. - -The close-knit, grey bark of beech trees hardly needs to be described. -The temptation to cut initials on beech trunks is more than folks with -pocket-knives can resist. No matter how many fine trees there are in a -beech grove near town, they are scarred all over with letters and -hieroglyphics as far as hand can reach. The tree never covers these -wounds. Though they do not cripple it, they mar its beauty painfully. - -A little further from the haunts of picnic parties, we shall come upon -beech woods that have not thus been abused by thoughtless jack-knives. -From the ground, far up into the high tops, a close, beautiful garment of -ashy grey bark clothes the tree. Saplings of all ages grow up among the -big trees, for beeches grow in colonies. A soft radiance from these many -pale tree trunks seems to lighten the woods paths, overshadowed by the -dense foliage of the tree tops. - -It is said that beech trees die when they come into contact with -civilisation. Fine beech woods are included in additions to towns; you -will see the great trees die when lawns and gardens are made about their -roots. In the outskirts of Indianapolis there are noble beech trees, but -they are dying, as the city grows around them. - -The copper beeches and the cut-leaved and weeping beeches have the same -close-knit bark as our native tree, but it is not grey, but dark brown. -These fancy forms are varieties of the European beech, one of the -principal lumber trees of the Old World. - -The bark of this tree played an interesting part in the early history of -the human race. Long before the European tribes had written languages, -they sent messages from one to another. These messages between tribes, -friendly or warlike, were written in hieroglyphics, cut into the smooth -surface of beech bark, and messengers carried them back and forth. - -Sheets of beech bark, as well as birch, made the walls and roofs of the -huts in which people lived. Their boats and various household utensils -were made out of beech wood, which is so close-grained that vessels made -of it hold water without leaking. - -Another American tree with bark like the beech, but darker grey, grows -always, by preference, with its roots in wet soil. It is a little tree, -with rigid, horizontal twigs, that form a flat tree top. This is called -the blue beech, and its trunk does often have a bluish cast. It is also -called hornbeam, for its wood is so hard that it was used in the early -days to make the beams which went across the horns of the oxen. This is -the part of the ox yoke which is the most subject to wear. Ironwood is -another name that describes the hard wood. - -We shall notice that this tree has not a regular cylindrical trunk like -that of a beech. Strong swellings, that look like muscles, are seen, -especially where the trunk branches into the main limbs. Have you ever -noticed the arms of a blacksmith, or of an athlete? How the veins and -muscles stand out when the arm is in use! Just like them are the -irregular swellings that course up the trunk of the hornbeam, and out -into the limbs. - -The hackberry is a handsome shade tree, which might, at first glance, be -mistaken for an elm. The bark is different from that of any other tree. -Once we see a hackberry, and learn its name, we will never mistake it -again. The bark is light brown or grey, and finely checked by deep -furrows. The ridges between bear strange, warty outgrowths. Look for -these warts among the small branches. The twigs are smooth, but back a -little way the warty eruptions begin, and become more prominent as the -limbs thicken and approach the trunk. Sometimes the limbs have these -warts so close together as to form continuous ridges. - -Another tree with warty bark is the sweet gum. The negroes of the South -call the tree "alligator wood," because the lower part of the trunk is -broken by furrows and cross-furrows into horny plates like the skin of an -alligator. From the red-brown trunk up into the grey branches, there is a -change in the character of the bark. The fissures usually run lengthwise, -and the bark rises in thin ridges on each side of the fissure. These -ridges become thin as knife blades on the smaller twigs, which also have -a sprinkling of small warts. - -A sweet gum is very rugged looking in the dead of winter, with its warts -and ridges breaking out on each limb. We know it by this sign alone, but -are doubly sure when we see the seed balls dangling from the twigs. The -sycamore, blotched with white on trunk and limb, also carries a load of -dangling seed balls throughout the winter. There is no danger of -confusing these two trees, for the bark of each is so distinct. - -[Illustration: Warty, ridged bark of the sweet gum, the swinging seed -balls and winged seeds] - -[Illustration: Blotched bark of sycamore, and its seed balls that hang -all winter] - -A little tree with alligator skin bark grows North and South, and chiefly -in the eastern half of the country. This is the flowering dogwood, whose -grey bark breaks into small squarish plates. There is no such ruggedness -in its trunk as there is in the sweet gum's, for it is always a little -tree, and the bark corresponds in its checking to the tree's size. When -we see this peculiar type of bark in the winter woods we may look also -for little flattened, box-like flower buds, each enclosed in four scales. -We shall also find the twigs set opposite, and with these three signs be -sure we know the tree. - -A little tree, no larger in girth than the dogwood, but often taller, has -bark that strips and loosens somewhat as the bark of the shagbark hickory -does. This is the hop hornbeam, one of the ironwoods. Its bark strips are -always thin and narrow, no matter how old the tree becomes. It is never -as loose upon the trunk as the shagbark's. The great buds and stout twigs -of the hickory are entirely different from the slender spray and the very -small buds this ironwood wears in winter. We may find on these twigs some -remnant of the hop-like seed clusters which give this little tree its -name, hop hornbeam. Inside its shaggy bark the lumbermen find wood so -hard that it is very difficult to work, and when made into tools it lasts -almost forever. - -When we have learned to know at sight a dozen trees by their bark alone, -we are ready to go further. A great many trees with furrowed bark like -chestnuts and elms and maples, are not so distinct as those already -learned, and we must study the tree's form, its winter buds, the -arrangement of these buds, and the shape of the leaf scars in connection -with the bark, in order to be sure we know the tree's name. The chestnut -from which we gathered so many nuts last fall, and whose furrowed trunk -we saw at every visit, we come to know through this familiarity. The -trunks of other chestnut trees look like this one, and though we may not -know just how we do it, we have added the chestnut to the list of trees -we recognise by their bark alone. The sugar maples which we tap in spring -for their sugary sap, have dark, furrowed bark, not very distinctive. And -yet, by going from tree to tree, emptying the sap pails, we gradually -learn to recognise the bark of the sugar maple, and add it to our growing -list. - -[Illustration: The Lombardy poplar stands like an exclamation point in -the landscape] - -[Illustration: The live oak of the South is usually hung with long skeins -of the weird, grey Spanish moss] - -Trees do not change their clothes, and they do not move away. Day after -day, if we use our eyes and notice what is going on in the tree tops, as -the seasons follow each other, we come to know our trees by name; we -recognise them in winter by their bark, and by the framework of their -tops, in summer by leaves and flowers, in autumn by their changing colour -and by their fruits. It is not hard work for those who love trees. It is -like getting acquainted with other neighbours whom we are glad to count -among our friends. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR SHAPES - -The life of every tree depends upon its success in holding its leaves out -into the sunlight. The tree which exposes the greatest amount of leaf -surface to the sun makes the greatest growth. The shape of their tops is -a character in which trees differ widely. We shall come to know many of -them in winter time better than in summer, by the distinct shapes -revealed when the foliage is gone. In any bare tree, the purpose of all -of the branching and branching again, is plainly seen. Each twig and -branch reaches out toward the outer surface of the dome, or pyramid. Here -the buds in winter are waiting to open, when spring comes, into leafy -shoots. These will cover the tree top with a dome of green greater than -the one of the previous summer. Their work through the growing season -will lengthen every branch and every root, and add a layer of wood under -the bark of trunks and branches and roots. - -The most remarkable tree shape is that of the Lombardy poplar. The tall -trunk is clothed with many short, close-branched limbs, which do not -spread, as in ordinary tree forms, but grow upright, so as to lie almost -against the main trunk. The upper branches are overlapped and crowded by -those below them, and so on down the trunk. The result is a tree shaped -like a capital I. In summer time, the heart-shaped leaves cover the twigs -on the outside of this spire, but the beauty of the tree top is marred by -the dead branches which have been smothered by the crowding. - -A young Lombardy poplar is handsome as it stands covered with its -twinkling leaves. It grows rapidly, and is especially striking and -effective in clumps of round-headed trees. It is like an exclamation -point. Architects always like to have a few of these trees dotted about -the grounds to keep company with tall chimneys and distant church spires. -There is no shade under trees of this form, though miles of them are -planted along roadsides where they stand like tin soldiers, all alike. -The older trees look very ragged, for they are unable to shed their dead -limbs, and as old age comes on they send up suckers from the roots that -form a little forest around the parent tree. - -Scattered over fallow fields of worthless ground, the red cedars are -allowed to grow. They are the evergreen counterparts of the slim Lombardy -poplars. Sometimes the red cedar broadens into a pyramid, wide at the -base, but we are all familiar with the green exclamation points, dotted -over the hillsides, wherever birds have dropped the blue berries full of -seeds. - -The pointed firs with their horizontal branches becoming longer and -longer towards the ground, are good examples of the pyramid form so -common among evergreens. This is the shape of the spruces, and the pines, -and the hemlocks, until storms have broken their branches, and taken away -the symmetry of the top. The pin oak and the honey locust send out -horizontal branches of graduated lengths from the central shaft, -imitating the evergreens in shape. - -The evergreen magnolia of the South has a dome like an old-fashioned -beehive, pyramidal, and regular when it grows in sheltered places. Such a -dome is the hard maple's in the North. - -Some trees branch low, and their short trunks break into great limbs -whose ample spread forms a dome much broader than its height. The white -oak in the North and its evergreen counterpart, the live oak of the -South, illustrate this noble form. Somewhat like them, but with its dome -elevated upon a tall trunk, is the American elm with the fan top. The -lines of the elm branches are all curves from the arching limbs that rise -out of the trunk to the flexible twigs which droop at the extremities of -the branches. The dome of a white oak is made of angular limbs. Even the -twigs are likely to be crooked. No one would confuse the elm with an oak. - -Round-headed trees are many. Go from the apple tree in the orchard to the -red and Norway maples along our streets. A great many trees find this -form best adapted to spreading their leaves out towards the sun. Many -oaks and ash trees, the hickories and birches, and the beeches have -widely spreading limbs forming tops that are oblong in shape. There are -trees so irregular in habits of growth that we shall never know them by -their forms alone. - -The winter is the best time to study tree shapes, for then the framework -is revealed. The trees to study are those which stand apart from others, -so that they have been able to take their natural shapes. These we shall -find growing on the streets, and in yards, and parks, and in open spaces -in the woods. Where trees crowd each other in growing, their branches -chafe and clash in storms, destroying the buds and leaves, and bruising -the tender bark. Such limbs die of these injuries, and the whole shape of -the tree top is changed by its losses. - -[Illustration: Fruiting branch of the cockspur thorn] - -[Illustration: Clustered thorns on trunk of honey locust tree; Flowers -and foliage of the black locust] - -It is hopeless for lower limbs to live in a dense pine forest. The top -branches form so thick a wall of shade that lower branches die from lack -of sun. It is the same with broad-leaved trees. In any dense woods, the -trees stand bare as telegraph poles, lifting small heads of foliage at -the top, and competing there with their neighbour trees for sun and air. -It is only when set apart from other trees that a trunk can keep its -lower branches hale and strong as those at the top. - -The weeping habit gives us some strange tree forms. The Camperdown elm -forms a shady summer-house on many a lawn by arching limbs which droop to -the ground on all sides of the main trunk. The weeping mulberry has the -same habit. Weeping birches and willows have such light foliage, and such -fine, flexible twigs, that they look like fountains of green as they -stand among the other trees. - -All weeping trees are made by grafting in the nursery rows. They are not -grown from seeds, and it is not true that they "weep" because of being -planted up-side-down! This preposterous notion is not uncommon. - - - TREES WE KNOW BY THEIR THORNS - -In winter time, the bare limbs of trees reveal many strange secrets, -which the leaves cover up in summer. Some trees we may know by the thorns -they wear. - -The honey locust scarcely conceals in summer the three-branched thorns, -for which it is famous. These thorns are twigs, but they rarely bear -leaves. Each is sharpened to a needle point, and highly polished. -Sometimes it is single, oftener with a main thorn and two side branches; -sometimes short, but often reaching over a foot in length, and growing -stronger and more wicked-looking with age. Sometimes a honey locust has a -crowded group of these thorns growing out of the trunk and large limbs. -Once in a great while a honey locust is thornless, growing wild. From -such trees a thornless variety has been developed. It is, therefore, -possible to obtain from nurserymen trees of this variety. - -The unbranched spines of the osage orange trees make it a formidable -hedge plant, and no fences are needed where green barriers of these trees -grow. Each shining leaf has a spike at its base, stout and sharp as a -needle, and strong as steel. - -Two spines stand guard at the base of each leaf of the yellow or black -locust, and each leaflet has two little spines of the same type. The -basal spines remain after the leaves fall, so that in winter we shall -find these pairs of sentinels guarding the leaf scars up and down the -ridged twigs. On the thicker stems the thorns are larger, and the tree is -thus well-armed and able to do duty as a hedge plant, when thickly -planted. - -These thorns come off with the bark, hence they are more properly called -prickles. They are not rooted in the wood of the branch as the thorns of -the honey locust are, but they belong in the class with rose and -raspberry prickles, which are mere outgrowths of the bark. - -The hawthorn trees have single spines, some long and curved, some short, -some branched. All are rooted in the pith of the twig that bears them; -therefore, they are not prickles, but true thorns. - -The wild plum trees have a strange habit of ending their shoots with -thorny tips, as if the branches needed such defence against browsing -cattle. Certainly these stunted, sharp-pointed twigs are useful as -weapons of defence to the little trees that grow slowly in poor soil, and -are sufferers from poverty and abuse. Perhaps it is their hard luck that -makes them crabbed and thorny. Wild apple trees show the same tendency to -have thorny twigs. The same little trees, transplanted to mellow soil, -grow soft and leafy twigs, and abandon the carrying of weapons. - -Hercules' club is a tree which beats the ailanthus at its own game. Stems -ten feet high and two inches in diameter at the base sometimes shoot up -in a single season. These clubs of Hercules are covered with spines as -thickly set as on a gooseberry bush, formidable and vicious, though only -skin deep. - -On account of its tropical growth, this tree is planted for ornament in -gardens where there is room. Its leaves are wonderful. They come out with -a rich, silky, bronze sheen in spring, and when they reach full size are -often four feet long, and more than half as wide. Each one is branched -and branched again, and ends in a multitude of small oval leaflets. These -giant leaves sway in the summer winds, giving the tree the grace of a -tree fern. In late summer a great pyramid of bloom rises above the -foliage. Purplish berries, which succeed the flowers, make a fine showing -in fall and winter, when the leaves have turned to red and gold. - -We dare not touch this spiny tree, but we may come close and admire its -wonderful crown of umbrella leaves, the biggest by far borne on any tree -outside of the Tropics. - - - THE NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - -In our town and in our neighbourhood most of the trees drop their leaves -before winter comes, and stand with bare limbs for several months. Here -and there, however, a single tree stands, wearing the same green leaves -it wore all summer. Everybody knows this tree as an evergreen. It belongs -to a group of trees strangely different from those around it which have -shed their leaves. Let us see how it differs from them. - -Take the one that is nearest to you, and pull down one of its leafy, -green branches. The leaves are like green needles, stiff, sharp-pointed, -with waxy resin on the brown twigs, that makes your fingers sticky. Up in -the tree tops strange oval, brown cones are hanging. Underfoot, a carpet -of dead needles lies thick upon the grass, and cones, with their -overlapping scales spread much wider than those upon the tree, lie about. -Squirrels have gnawed some of these scales away, leaving a central spike -like a cob from which the corn has been shelled. Little green cones, fat -and waxy, no larger than your thumb, are seen near the tips of some -branches. You can see the scales overlapping each other in these, even -though they seem to be grown solidly together. - -If we walk through the village or the city in which we live, and stop -under each evergreen tree we come to, we shall find nearly all alike in -these two points: they have needle-like leaves, and they have cones. The -evergreens with needle-like leaves, and cones on and under them, belong -to four evergreen tree families, whose names every one would like to -know. These four evergreen families are named pine, spruce, fir, and -hemlock, and they are planted everywhere. But few people are very sure -they know one from another. It is perfectly right to call them all -evergreens, or conifers, which means cone-bearers. These names include -all the four families. But it is common for people to call a spruce, a -pine, or a hemlock, a spruce, when the truth is that one may very easily -know these trees apart. - -Let us begin with the first needle-leaved cone-bearing evergreen we meet. -To find out whether this tree is a pine, a spruce, a fir, or a hemlock, -we must ask the tree some questions. It will answer them. First: "Are -your needles set _one_ in a place on the twig, or are they in groups, or -bundles, of _more than one_ at a place?" Pull down a twig and look -sharply for the answer. Suppose there are the leaves in pairs, or in -threes, or in fives, each bundle or group growing out of a single point -on the twig. The answer is: "Not single, but in bundles, more than one at -a place." Towards the end of the shoot you will find a brownish or -silvery sheath binding the leaves into bundles. Further back, this sheath -may be missing, but the number of leaves in the bundle remains the same -for some distance back from the end of the shoot. The leaves begin to -fall from the bundles farthest from the tips, and therefore old. If two -leaves is the number in a bundle, there are never more than two, young -and old. If three is the number, you will find only threes. If five is -the number, then you will rarely find fewer than this in any bundle. - -All the trees with more than one leaf in a bundle are pines. All of the -rest of the needle-leaved evergreens have a single leaf at a place upon -the twig. They are the spruces, firs, and hemlocks. Let us go and look -for them. - -The very next evergreen we come to we must put the same question to: "Are -your leaves single, or are there more than one in a bundle?" Suppose -"three in a bundle" is the answer; we recognise the tree as a pine, and -pass it by. - -Across the street is a tree of different shape, though an evergreen and a -conifer. We see the long cones hanging from its drooping branches, -especially near the top of the tree. Cross over and examine a twig; the -needles are short and sharp-pointed, and they are set singly in spiral -lines on the twigs. Every leaf sits on a little shelf, or bracket, that -stands out from the twig. Pick up a dead twig under the tree. The leaves -are gone, but these little brackets in spiral rows wind around the twig. -They are horny and sharp, and would tear your fingers if you drew the -twig quickly between them. - -Notice that the little brackets are angled at the top. Pick up a dead -leaf and notice the shape of its base. The leaf itself has angled sides. -Roll it between your thumb and finger. It has three or four sides, and at -least three sharp angles. - -This is a spruce, and the signs by which we know it are the brackets on -the twig, the thick, sharp, three- or four-angled leaf, and the stout -twigs, to match the stout leaves. - -The next needle-leaved evergreen with cones we meet we may hope will turn -out to be a fir or hemlock, but the chances are that its twigs will show -two, three, or five needles in a bundle. What shall we call the tree? A -pine, of course, and pass it by. We need ask no further question. - -The next tree has stiff twigs with brackets, and stout, stiff, angled and -pointed leaves. Cones hang down upon its branches. We recognise a spruce, -and go on. - -Over yonder is an evergreen which waves a featherly spray of very slender -twigs. There is scarcely a breeze stirring, and yet the tree is all -a-tremble, and its drooping branches carry a load of pretty little brown -cones. Turn up a branch, and you notice that the leaves are all silvery -underneath. They are single on the twigs, so this is not a pine. They -part and lie flat, a row on each side of the twig. This is very different -from a spruce whose leaves stand out all around the twigs. These sprays -are flat, each like a feather. The leaves are soft, not stiff. They are -blunt, flat, and each has a tiny stem. The twigs are like fine wire, they -are so slender. The leaves are mounted on brackets, just as the spruce -leaves are, but the brackets are much smaller, to match the daintier -twigs and leaves. - -It is a hemlock tree. The tiny leaf stem is the thing which sets it apart -from all other needle-leaved evergreens. Take a good look before you go, -at the leaf itself, at the slender twigs, with their little brackets, at -the shining upper surface of the flat leaf and the silvery lining that -makes this tree so lovely as the wind lifts the flexible branches. Pick -up a handful of dead leaves, and notice that though dead and brown, they -show the flat surface with a middle ridge on the under side, prolonged -into the short leaf stem. The pale lining is not so distinct now. - -One tree family remains of the needle-leaved, cone-bearing evergreen. -That is the fir, the Christmas tree, and its close relatives. Not often -do we plant our native fir, because the trees are not as handsome, nor as -useful as pines, spruces, and hemlocks. We may walk far before we find an -evergreen which does not turn out to be a pine, a spruce, or a hemlock. -However, it is near Christmas time. The little firs will be brought into -market in sufficient numbers to supply a Christmas tree to every house. -This is our chance. We will go to market, and look at these little trees -that stand together, with their limbs trussed like fowls, ready to be -baked. This is for economy of space in shipping. - -The clean, pungent odour of balsam comes from the bleeding stub, and we -see tears of the whitish wax wherever the bark of a twig or branch is -bruised. These are balsam firs. They have their name from this fragrant, -sticky resin that leaks from their veins. - -First, as to the leaves. We find them single and spirally arranged, as in -the spruce, but there are no brackets on the twigs. Pull off a leaf and -the twig is smooth. The leaves are blunt, but flattened, and on most of -the twigs they spread, feather-like, on two sides. There are more of -them, however, than on the hemlock spray. They are white-lined, like the -hemlock leaves, but there are no little leaf stems. The twigs are stouter -than those of the hemlock, resembling the spruce twigs in size, but they -lack horny little leaf brackets which are so prominent on spruce twigs. - -One reason that spruce trees make poor Christmas trees is that the leaves -fall so soon. Almost the day after Christmas the floor is scattered with -them. The fir trees keep their leaves for weeks. This little bracket -makes all the difference. Fir leaves seem to be fastened right into the -twig itself, and made thus more secure. - -If it chances that you find a fir old enough to bear cones, you will see -another very distinct trait of this family. The cones are held erect on -the twigs; the cones of pines, and spruces, and hemlocks hang down. If -you are fortunate enough to find a fir tree growing, and old enough to -bear its fruit, these upright cones will tell you the tree's name before -you come near enough to look at the leaves, and to see if the twigs are -smooth. - - - THE FIVE-LEAVED SOFT PINES - -An evergreen with needle-like leaves in bundles, two to five leaves in a -bundle, is a pine. These bundles are usually bound with a thin, papery -sheath at the base, and set in spiral rows that wind around the twig. The -leaves in the newest sheaths are nearest the growing tip of the shoot. -Here we shall find the leaves shorter, some so short that they have not -yet got outside of their sheaths. The silky covering hides them, as the -bud scales on other trees covered the undeveloped shoot with its flowers -and leaves, wrapped in the winter buds. - -The kind of pine depends upon the number of leaves in a bundle. This is -the first thing to find out when we undertake to determine the name of a -pine tree. All of the vigorous young shoots have bundles that do not vary -in number of needles. Further back on the limb are leaves more than a -year old. The sheaths are shorter, or have fallen away entirely. Now the -number of needles in a bundle begins to be uncertain. We find bundles -that have fewer needles than those on the younger wood. This is because -the older leaves are falling. Finally we reach a point where the twigs -are bare. On white pine shoots it is easy to find leaves that are five to -seven years old. - -"Soft pine" is a lumberman's term. Carpenters use it, so do all people -who work in wood. It means that the wood of a certain group of pines is -soft and light, and the sap is not gummy. Any boy who has cut kindling -wood knows what a joy it is to whittle soft pine. Until a few years ago, -this was the wood out of which boxes of all sorts were made, and it was -the only kindling wood we had. Now things are changed. Much box lumber is -made of poplar and other soft woods, which do not split as easily as -pine. This means that soft pine is getting scarce, and is too valuable to -use where cheaper woods will serve. - - - THE WHITE PINE - -The white pine has the softest, most hair-like leaves in the whole pine -family. Five needles are in each bundle, and each is delicate and -flexible. When the wind blows through the top of one of these -five-needled trees, the end shoots nod like plumes. The tree sends up a -straight shaft sometimes to the height of nearly two hundred feet, and -whorls of branches, five in a place, form regular platforms extending -horizontally from the trunk. Each of these sets of branches counts a year -of the tree's life; for the end bud lengthens the trunk, and at the same -time, five buds that surround it grow out into horizontal branches. It is -easy to count the age of a young white pine, by beginning at the tip, and -counting downward. We could do it with large trees, except that the lower -branches die, and at length are lost. The bark heals over the scars left -where they fell, so the count is lost when we reach the point where the -branches stop. The white pine is slow to shed its dead branches. - -In the woods of the Eastern half of the United States any five-leaved -pine that we meet is a white pine. Before we are near enough to count the -needles in a bundle, we may count five branches at a whorl around the -trunk, and this determines the name. Beautifully regular pyramids, the -little trees are. In old age these pines lose symmetry by the loss of -limbs, and become very rugged and picturesque. A white pine tree, -crippled by two or three centuries of struggle with winds and lightnings, -is a noble figure. The plume-like branches soften its rugged outlines, -and the sombre blue-green of the older leaves is brightened by the -fresher colour of the new ones. The upper half of the tree is hung with -slim cones whose smooth, thin scales spread wide in the autumn of their -second year to let the winged seeds go. - -In spring the clustering catkins of staminate flowers look like yellow -cones on the ends of the pale yellow-green shoots. The wind shakes an -abundant supply of golden dust out of these pollen flowers, then lets the -fading catkins fall. The pistillate flowers are pinkish-purple and almost -hidden, just back of the tips of the upper twigs. They are cone-shaped, -and they part their scales and stand erect to catch the pollen as it -drifts through the tree tops. The flowers on each scale require a grain -of pollen each, in order to set seed. When its flowers are fertilised the -cone closes its scales tight, but they stand erect all summer. In the -autumn they are green and fleshy, and they turn downward. In winter we -shall see among the swaying branches of these pines, the green, -half-grown fruits, and further back, on wood a year older, the brown, -full-grown cones with their scales spread. These cones often curve -slightly. The largest of them may be ten inches long, but the average -cone is little over half that length. - -The lumbermen have stripped the white pine from the Eastern forests until -there is very little left. Many states are planting this valuable timber -tree, to restore the forests that wasteful lumbering, and forest fires -have destroyed. Thousands of young trees grown in nursery rows are -transplanted to beautify home grounds and parks. We shall find no -difficulty in discovering white pine trees, even though no forest near us -has a specimen left. It is one of the commonest pines to be planted in -cities and villages. It is the only five-leaved pine that will grow -successfully on this side of the Rocky Mountains. - - - THE GREAT SUGAR PINE - -All along the coast mountains from Oregon to Lower California, a -five-leaved soft pine grows whose size makes our Eastern white pine seem -like a dwarf. In that far country of big trees, it is one of the giants. -I had read of these trees which grow to be over 200 feet in height, with -trunks six to ten feet in diameter at the ground, but figures do not give -much idea of the truth. I first saw the groves of sugar pines miles ahead -of us, as the stage climbed the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada -mountains. We were on the way into the wonderful Yosemite Valley. The -scrawny, grey, digger pines, with cones as big as a man's head, grew on -the lower foot hills. Next came the great yellow pines, and still higher -up, the grand sugar pines, along the highest level of the stage road. -They stood oftenest in close ranks so that their tops were small, because -of the crowding. And here they had stood for centuries. The road was no -wider than the broad stumps of some that had been cut down, and their -prostrate trunks were longer than any log I have ever seen before. I -remember calculating that the round dining table at home could be set -upon this stump, and all the family seated round it with no danger of -their chairs being too near the edge. The standing trunks seemed like -great builded columns, too large for real trees to grow. Their feathery, -dark green tips reached nearer to the sky than any trees in Eastern -forests. - -[Illustration: Hemlock cones are small; those of Norway spruce are four -or five inches long] - -[Illustration: Pine twig with cones, young and old, and clustered -staminate flowers] - -Under these pines old cones were lying. They were big, to match the -trees. Twenty inches the longest one measured, with scales two inches -long, and plump seeds as big as navy beans. Far off in the tree top the -hanging cones looked moderate in size. We could just see the green, -half-grown cones nearer the ends of the branches, for this Western white -pine, like our Eastern species, requires two years to mature its fruit. - -"Why call them sugar pines?" I asked the stage driver. He pointed to some -drops of resin-like substance on the scales of the cone I held in my lap. -"Taste it," he said. I did, and it was sweet, with somewhat the flavour -of maple sugar. Crystals of this sugar come from wounds in the bark, and -from the ends of green sticks when burning. The sap is quite as sweet as -that of maple trees, but one is soon surfeited in eating the candy-like -substance. - -The stage driver told me that a lumberman could cut $5,000 worth of -lumber from one of these sugar pine trees. No wonder they think that it -is a burning shame for the government to reserve these noble woods of the -Yosemite tract "just to be looked at." Fortunately for us, and for the -people of the whole country, some thousands of acres of magnificent -forest are reserved on those Western-mountain slopes, where they are safe -from the lumberman's axe. If we cannot go to see them this year, perhaps -we can fifty years hence. They will still be standing, still growing, -these noble remnants of the grandest forests of any country. Specimens of -what Mr. John Muir calls "the largest, noblest, and most beautiful of all -the seventy or eighty species of pine trees in the world." - -[Illustration: Thousands of little balsam firs supply the market with -Christmas trees] - -[Illustration: In these tall white pine trees Nathaniel Hawthorne built -an out-door study, where he wrote undisturbed] - - - THE NUT PINES - -A group of soft pines, with fewer needles than five in a bundle, grows on -the Western mountain slopes. Small trees they are, which have to struggle -hard against the winds and storms, and with the scant moisture of the -desert air and soil for a bare living. They are very interesting because -of the fact that they have nuts, rich, sweet, and nutritious, under the -scales of their cones, and these nuts are important items in the food of -many Indian tribes of the West. - -The first is the four-leaved nut pine that grows on the barren mountain -slopes of Southern and Lower California. It is a desert tree, rarely -reaching forty feet in height, and this only in the most favourable -situations. The foliage is pale sage green. No other pine has four leaves -in a bundle. Its nut-like seeds are rich in oil, starch, and sugar. -Without them the Indians of Lower California would probably starve. In -Riverside County the tree is common at 5,000 feet above sea level. It has -a regular pyramidal head, when young, becoming low, round-topped and -irregular when very old. - -Another pinon, but this one with a bushy, broad top, and often -considerably taller, grows with the four-leaved pine on the mountains of -Lower California, and northward along the canyons and mountain slopes of -Arizona. The short leaves are dark green, and there are but two or three -in a bundle. The seeds are plump, and rounded, or angular. The upper side -is brown, the lower side black, and each has a pale brown wing. - -A third nut pine, or pinon, two- or three-leaved, grows on the eastern -foot hills of the outer ranges of the Rocky Mountains, on both sides of -the system. Forests of it are found on the high plains of Colorado and -Arizona. It sometimes grows large enough to be used for lumber. The nuts -are half an inch long, and have thin, brittle shells. They are gathered -by Indians and Mexicans, and may often be bought in the markets of -Colorado and New Mexico. - -The one-leaved nut pine seems to belong with the spruces and firs, and -other single-leaved evergreens, but there are frequently two leaves in -the bundle, and there is a little scaly sheath at the base. The -grey-green leaves often hang on for ten or twelve years. The winged nuts -are over half an inch long. The wood furnished fuel and charcoal to the -smelters in the mining regions, and the Indians of Nevada and California -harvest the nut crop. - -Every autumn when we are going for chestnuts and hickory nuts in our -Eastern woods, we may think of the Indian families who leave their homes -in the lowlands, and climb the mountain slopes to gather their nuts which -are their staff of life. If we should miss our nutting excursion, it -would make no vital difference in our lives during the coming winter. Our -nuts are not a serious part of the provisions of the household. But with -the Indians, to miss the nut pine harvest, means to have no bread for the -winter that is coming. - -Mr. John Muir, who has often lived among these stunted upland forests, -and seen the Indians gathering the nuts and using them later as food, -tells us many interesting things. The trees of the one-leaved nut pine -are low, like old apple trees, and full of cones. The Indians get long -poles, and beat the cones off the trees, then roast them on hot stones, -until the scales open. Then they shake out the nuts, and gather them in -baskets and bags to carry home. These nuts are eaten raw or parched on -hot stones. These are the easiest and simplest ways. But the best and -most palatable form in which they are prepared costs much more time and -labour. The nuts are parched, then ground or pounded into meal. This is -stirred up with water, into a kind of mush, which is formed into cakes -and baked. This is, in general, the way in which all pine nuts are made -into bread. - -The time of the nut harvest is, for the Indians, the merriest time of the -year. If the crop is heavy, the spirits of the party are light. A single -family, if it is fairly industrious, can gather fifty or sixty bushels of -these rich, thin-shelled nuts in a single autumn month; and with this -quantity to carry home, can go down the mountains, tired but happy, -knowing that their bread for the winter, and plenty of it, is assured. - - - THE HARD PINES - -The hard pines are a group of needle-leaved evergreens, whose leaf -bundles contain two or three needles, as a rule. The wood is heavy, -usually dark in colour, and saturated with a resinous, gummy sap. The -common name, "pitch pine," refers to the resinous wood; it is much harder -to work with than that of soft pines. The most valuable hard pine forests -grow in the Southern states. These are now the chief sources of pine -lumber in the Eastern half of the continent. They furnish also quantities -of turpentine, pitch, tar, and oil, products of the resinous sap which -saturates the wood of these trees while they are growing. - -One trait of the pitch pines is that they retain the leaf sheath. The -soft pines shed the sheath as soon as the leaf bundle has attained its -full length. - - - THE SOUTHERN PITCH PINES - -The woodwork and floors of a great many houses of moderate cost are done -to-day in Southern pine, sometimes called "yellow pine," sometimes "curly -pine." The alternating bands of dark and light yellowish brown, often -very much waved, give the wood an ornamental grain that is much admired. -It is common and most desirable that this wood should not be stained nor -painted, but given the "natural finish" which brings out the rich orange -colour, and shows at their full value the wavy bands and intricate -patterns that are the chief beauty of the wood. The arching timbers that -support the roof of a church are often made of stiff timbers cut from -Southern pines, and dressed only with a coat of oil, under which time -deepens and enriches the wood's natural colours. - - - THE LONGLEAF PINE - -The longleaf pine is one of four hard pines whose lumber is not -distinguished by ordinary carpenters, but is generally called "yellow -pine." "Georgia pine" ranks a little higher than the rest. That is the -longleaf, which grows over a territory much greater than the state of -Georgia. This is the chief source of turpentine, pitch, and tar, as well -as one of the very best lumber trees of the pitch pine group. The most -ornamental wood is that with the curliest grain, and the narrowest bands -of alternating dark and light colour. It grows slowly in hard, sandy -soils on the damp coast plains near the Gulf of Mexico. - -We shall know this tree from all other pines by the length of its -needles. They are twelve to eighteen inches long, flexible, dark green, -shining, three in a bundle, enclosed at the base in long, pale, silvery -sheaths. They remain on the tree but two years, therefore the tree top is -bare except for thick tufts of these drooping leaves on the ends of the -branches. If you have never seen these trees growing in their natural -forest belt, that ranges from Virginia to Florida, and west to the -Mississippi River, or in small scattered forest patches in Northern -Alabama, Louisiana, or Texas, you may have seen branches or small trees -shipped north to be used for Christmas decorations. In the waste land -that the lumbermen have cut over, in the neighbourhood of these longleaf -forests, men go in early December, and cut the little trees. Saplings two -or three feet high bring good prices in the Northern markets, where holly -branches, ropes of ground pine, sprigs of mistletoe, and leaves of -Southern palms are sold. A little two-foot longleaf pine, standing erect, -with all its long flexible leaves bending outward like a fountain of -shining green, is handsomer than any palm of the same size. - -The popularity of these pine shoots is growing, and those who cut them -seem not to realise that they are killing the forests of the future. -Trees grow from seeds which fall in the territory cleared by the -lumbermen. If these little trees that Nature plants are cut as fast as -they show themselves above the forest floor, how are the longleaf pine -forests to be restored? It is a great problem, for a great part of the -natural wealth of the South is in these lumber tracts, now being cleared -at a terrific rate of speed, and the land left practically worthless when -stripped. - -The cones of the longleaf pine are narrow and tapering. The scales are -thick, and each bears a small spine. The leaves are the distinguishing -trait, and the tall, slender trunk crowned by a long open head of short, -twisted branches. - - - THE SHORTLEAF PINE - -The shortleaf pine ranks second only to the longleaf among the forest -pines of the South. It is the common "yellow pine," and "North Carolina -pine" that is commonly sold from lumber yards in the North and Middle -West. Its wood is almost as beautiful in the natural finish. Its leaves -are short in comparison with those of the longleaf, and scarcely longer -than any pines of the North. They are found in clusters of twos and -threes, and they have the dark blue-green colour of the white pine, -lightened by the silvery sheaths at the bases of the clusters. The leaves -are soft and flexible, slender, and sharp-pointed. They vary from three -to five inches in length. The cones are two to three inches long, and -half as broad; the thickened scales have small spines. It takes two years -to bring cones to maturity, and the old ones hang on several years. In -this they differ from our Northern pitch pine. - -Forests of this timber pine are scattered from Connecticut to Florida, -and west to Illinois, Kansas, and Texas. They are being slaughtered by -lumbermen as fast as those of the longleaf. The young trees are tapped -for turpentine. In the South and East, these forests are practically -gone. The lumber mills are busy in the great tracts west of the -Mississippi, and below the Arkansas River, in the forests of shortleaf -pine, which until recently were untouched, and too far from the markets -to be profitably cut. - -The shortleaf pine will reforest the old areas, and spread over a -widening territory, if only it is given a chance. One hundred years is -enough time to restore a forest,--to grow a crop of these trees. Young -ones spring from the roots of old trees, a habit not at all common among -pines. Let us hope that before the Southwestern forests are gone, new -ones east of the Mississippi River will take their places, so that the -shortleaf shall not disappear from the lumber markets as the white pine -of the Northeastern states has done. - - - THE CUBAN PINE - -The Cuban pine or swamp pine of the South, with stout green leaves eight -to twelve inches long, in twos and threes, is not confused with the -longleaf nor the shortleaf, for its leaves are intermediate in length -between the two. This beautiful pine grows in forests that skirt swampy -coast land. Its leaves are carried two years, so the trees have dense, -luxuriant crowns of green, and are more beautiful as a part of the -landscape than any other forest pine of the South. The wood of the Cuban -pine is not distinguished in the lumber trade, as it is much the same in -quality and appearance as longleaf pine. - - - THE LOBLOLLY PINE - -The fourth of the yellow pines of the South is the loblolly or old field -pine, whose lumber is saturated with pitch. The trees grow in marshy -regions along the coast, and for the most part occupy land that is -sterile and worthless. These tide water pine forests follow the swamps -from New Jersey around to Texas. In early days this was the building pine -of the South. The virgin forests are gone, and the new generation is -inferior in quality, because the trees are not allowed to attain their -full growth. Though rich in resin, there is little flow of turpentine -from these trees, but the wood catches fire easily, and is one of the -best of fuels. - -We shall know this pine by its pale green, twisted leaves, always in -bundles of three, six to ten inches long, enclosed at the base in sheaths -that are not shed. The cones are three to five inches long, with ridged -scales set with prickles. This tree bears a great crop of cones yearly, -and its seeds are remarkable for their vitality. So are the seedlings, -which grow on land so wet or so poor that few other trees compete with -them. The first ten years in the life of a seedling pine is a period of -tremendous growth. Fire rarely sweeps these young forests, for the trees -are well protected by the marshy character of the land in which they -grow. Left for a century or two, these trees produce masts for the -largest vessels, equal in quality to the finest in the world. - - - THE NORTHERN PITCH PINES - -We have nothing in the Northeastern states that compares in importance -with the pitch pine of Southern forests, but we have pitch pines which -everybody knows. The first is the gnarled and picturesque pitch pine that -grows on worthless land, and thrives in patches along the sea coast, -where other evergreens are unsuccessful. The rough, rigid branches which -spring from the short trunks of these trees carry a burden of blackening -cones which give them a very untidy look when the trees are small. When -they reach fifty or seventy-five feet in height, a certain nobility and -picturesqueness of expression challenge our admiration, and the clusters -of cones are not at all objectionable; indeed they heighten the tree's -beauty. - -The needle-like leaves of pitch pines are always in threes, rigid, stout, -and three to five inches long, dark yellow-green, the bundles in black -sheaths that are never shed. The cones require two years to ripen. They -are from one to three inches long, pointed, with sharp backward-pointed -beaks. The wood of this tree is used for fuel, and locally for lumber, -but it does not interest the lumbermen. The wood is not good enough, and -the trees are too small and scattered. The tree does a good work by -growing on worthless land, and near the sea coast. Its picturesqueness is -becoming to be more appreciated by landscape gardeners who are bringing -it into cultivation. - -The handsomest of our pitch pines is the red pine, whose dark green -leaves are six inches long, and cluster in twos upon the twigs. The bark, -the wood, and the bud scales are all red. The cones are from one to three -inches long, with thickened scales which have no spines. The tree grows -into a broad pyramid, branched to the ground, with stout twigs, and -luxuriant foliage. The symmetry and vigour of growth makes this red pine -a handsomer tree than the ragged, discouraged-looking pitch pines. It is -well for the landscape that its wood is very disappointing. So many -beautiful groves are allowed to reach great age, and size, where white -pines would have fallen to a lumberman's axe. - -The home that has a beautiful red pine within sight of its windows, or a -double row of these trees serving as a wind-break to ward off the storms -of winter, is truly well planted. Without one or more of these trees, -there is a decided lack. Any nurseryman can furnish handsome young red -pines, so no one need hesitate to plant this native tree. - -[Illustration: The spiny-leaved, red-berried holly is a handsome -evergreen tree for the lawn] - -[Illustration: What would Christmas be without holly branches and wreaths -for decoration!] - -The Jersey pine is a twisted, low tree, with dark, discouraged-looking -branches, covered with grey-green leaves that have a sickly yellowish -tinge when the new shoots appear in spring. The leaves are always in -twos, and they range from one to three inches long. The small cones are -dark red, oval, with thickened scales spiny-tipped. These trees cover -waste land where there is a meagre living for any tree. What wonder that -they look stunted? Their chief merit is that they clothe the desert -places, and furnish wood for fuel and fences, and thus save the great -lumber pines for higher uses. - - - THE CEDARS, WHITE AND RED - -Beside the needle-leaved evergreens just described, there are some trees -we all know, that bear cones, and are evergreens, but their leaves are -strangely different from those of pines, spruces, firs, and hemlocks. One -of these is the familiar arbor vitae, a conical tree, with flat leaf -spray. Looking closely, one can make out the tiny, scale-like leaves, -arranged in opposite pairs, clasping the wiry stems, and covering them -completely. These stems are flat, so that one pair of leaves has a sharp -keel on the middle. The next pair is spread out flat. The keeled pair -covers the edge of the stem. The flat pair covers the broader surface. -These pairs alternate through the length of the stem, and an aromatic -resin seals them close. - -The cones of the arbor vitae are small, and they have few scales, compared -with the cones of the needle-leaved evergreens. Each year a crop is -borne, with two seeds under each scale. Few of us see the little red cone -flowers in May, nor the pellets of yellow on other twigs, which are the -pollen flowers. We watch the hedge clipper at work, trimming the thick -green fronds that make a solid wall of green. Look carefully hereafter -for the flowers and the ripe cones, in the proper season for each. - -[Illustration: This big tree, "The Grizzly Giant," is over three hundred -feet high. It is a sequoia, one of the cone-bearing evergreens] - -[Illustration: SCALY-LEAVED EVERGREENS: Upper: two branches from the same -red cedar tree; Lower: flat sprays of arbor vitae] - -The white cedar grows, a fine, conical evergreen tree, in the coast -states, from Maine to Mississippi. It loves best the deep swamps, but -grows well in wet, sandy soil farther inland. Here we see again the flat -spray of minute, pointed, and keeled leaves, but the cones are different. -These are pale grey, and globular; the few scales are thick and horny, -and curiously sculptured, each with a beak projecting from the centre. - -The foliage mass is a peculiar blue-green, and the bark, thin, and rusty -red, parts into strings and shreds. - -Lumbermen call this tree a cedar. So they do the arbor vitae. The wood of -each is pale-coloured, and notable for its durability when exposed to -weather and water. Fence posts of white cedar, and cedar pails, shingles, -and the like, have a great reputation for durability. - -The peculiarity of a red cedar is its fruit. Instead of a cone, a blue, -juicy, sweet berry follows the blossoming of this tree. The foliage, too, -is erratic. Minute leaves of the scale form, discovered in the other -cedars, are found here on most twigs. They are still smaller, and the -twigs are much smaller. But on new shoots, and often on a whole branch, -the leaves are needle-like, one-half to three-quarters of an inch long, -and spreading as the leaves of a spruce. The mass of the foliage is -blue-green; these new ones are yellow-green. Among the branches hang -these surprising berries! - -The truth is that the scales of the cone thicken, and become soft when -ripe. They grow together, and the berry is, therefore, a cone, but much -changed in its development from the cone on which the fruits of other -evergreen trees are patterned. - -We all know a red cedar tree by its tall, slim shape. The birds eat the -berries, and scatter the seeds far and wide. The trees come up in -irregular clumps in pastures and fence-rows, and in rough, uncultivated -land. They are pretty widely distributed in the eastern half of the -United States. - -The true name for this tree is juniper. That is the name by which all its -related species are known. Red cedar is the lumberman's name for its -wood, and this name, though not right, will probably stick to it always. - -Red cedar chests and closets are believed to be moth-proof. The aromatic -resin in the wood is supposed to be distasteful to the insects which are -the pests of housekeepers. To put furs and woollen blankets and clothing -into these chests does not always prevent their being moth-eaten. This -many people have learned by sorrowful experience. We know the fragrance -of this wood in pencils. Thousands of trees are cut every year to supply -pencil factories. With the scarcity of these trees, other woods are being -substituted. But who will be quite satisfied, or be persuaded that cedar -pencils are not the best? - - - TWO CONIFERS NOT EVERGREEN - -Two cone-bearing trees have the astonishing habit of letting go their -leaves in the fall, and thus setting themselves apart from the -evergreens, to which they are otherwise closely related. Their cones are -like those of pines and spruces. Their leaves are needle-like, and their -flowers are the cone flowers like the rest. Although they stand bare in -winter time, their fruits declare their kinships with the evergreen. -Their forms also suggest this kinship, for each is a spire-like shaft, -from which short branches stand out horizontally like those of the -pointed firs and spruces. - - - THE LARCHES - -In the Northern states, and Canada, long stretches of cold marsh land are -covered with solid growths of tamarack, our American larch tree. In -summer the branches are covered with long, drooping twigs, each set with -many blunt side spurs, from which a tuft of soft, needle-like leaves -forms a green rosette or pompom. The end twigs have needle leaves -scattered their whole length, after the fashion of the spruces. Purplish -cone flowers, and yellow staminate cones appear in spring, and in autumn -among the leaves that are turning yellow a crop of cones is ripening. -They stand erect and solitary on the twigs between the rosettes of -leaves. - -In winter the long, flexible twigs are bare except for these cones. The -little knobs along the twigs are the stubs which bore leaves. In the -spring new leaves come out, pale lettuce green, feathery, transforming -the tree top into a thing of beauty. - -This larch tree of ours is more sparsely branched than the larch of -Europe. It looks ragged and unhappy when planted on our lawns. It is at -its best in the cold North, where it grows in dense crowds, and the tall -trunks are stripped free from limbs well towards the tops. These straight -shafts are cut for telegraph poles, railroad ties, and posts. The heavy, -resinous wood lasts a long time in the ground. - -The larches planted for shade and ornament are of the European species, -which thrives in any soil. It has a denser head of branches, and much -more luxuriant crown of foliage than our native species. It is a -beautiful feathery pyramid of green, distinctly different from other -trees. In Europe large forests are grown on the mountain sides, and from -these the tallest masts for vessels are obtained. The heavy, resinous -wood does not easily take fire as do the pitch pines. The old wooden -battle ships were faced with larch wood because of this, and because -larch wood is so durable in contact with water. Indeed it has the -reputation of outlasting oak, and the wood of all other conifers. - -In the woods of the far Northwest, and inland to Montana, the Western -larch is one of the mighty forest trees. Six feet in diameter, and 200 -feet in height are not uncommon dimensions among these giant larches. -These trees are of slow growth, and they stand with their roots in water -or in wet soil, though on the mountain side. This is an important lumber -tree with wood that has all the good qualities of its family. In Europe -the tree is planted for forests, and as an ornamental tree. We cannot -grow it in the Eastern United States. It is worth a journey across the -continent to see it growing, one of the most magnificent trees in the -world. - - - THE BALD CYPRESS - -Travellers in the South pass forests of dark pines, and along the edges -of swamps the pines often give way to solid stretches of trees with pale -grey trunks, and lettuce green foliage, whose lightness contrasts -strangely and beautifully with the solid bank of dark green that roofs -the forests of pines. A closer look at these strange trees, which often -stand knee-deep in water, is not so easy. At certain seasons of the year, -however, these swamps are dry enough so that one may walk dry-shod among -them, and so learn to know the bald cypress of the South, one of the most -beautiful and interesting of native American trees. - -This is the second of the cone-bearing trees which is not an evergreen. -The leaves on the new shoots are two-ranked, soft and pale sage green in -colour. The stems that bear these plumy leaves bear also scattered single -blades. Among them are older twigs, tipped with cones, and bearing -branchlets with scale-like leaves scarcely spreading at the tips. These -are much smaller than the leaves arranged in two ranks, forming -feather-like, leafy branchlets. It is these which are shed, branchlets, -and all, in the autumn, and fresh in spring renew the feathery grace of -the long, narrow tree top. - -The most surprising thing about the bald cypress is the flaring base of -the trunk, and the root system which seems too large for the tall but -usually narrow top. Knees of cypress rising out of the water from the -main roots, are distinguished from stumps by their smooth, conical tops. -The base of a great tree often spreads into wide flying buttresses, each -hollowed on the inside, but serving with the others to support the -hollow-trunked tree. Many a giant of great age stands thus on stilts -whose submerged ends are the gnarled roots of the tree. From these rise -many smooth, knobbed knees above the surface of the water in the rainy -season. By some foresters, humps on the roots are supposed to be -necessary to the proper breathing of the roots, submerged under water so -large a part of the year. The question of what causes these growths, and -of what use they are, is not fully determined. - -The cones of the bald cypress are globular, and about the size of an -olive. By them the tree declares its relationship to the needle-leaved -evergreens. The wood is light and easy to work, but not noticeably -resinous. It is used for buildings, and for special parts, such as doors, -shingles. It is beautiful when stained, and would be more valuable for -interior finish of houses did it not keep the record of each bump and -dent, as all soft woods do. Buckets and barrels to contain liquids are -largely made of this wood. In railroad ties it proves very durable. - -The best and strangest fact about this tree is that though it belongs to -the South, and is a swamp tree by preference, it grows large and -beautiful in the North, and in soil that is only moderately moist. The -parks of Brooklyn have some noble specimens of this bald cypress of the -South. They stand, tall, handsome shafts, feathered lightly with their -short, drooping side branches, clothed with pale green leaves. There is -no peculiarity of spreading trunk or knees to disturb the sod that comes -up around the base of the tree. In the autumn the foliage turns yellow, -and drops with the larch leaves. Through the winter the globular cones -are present to prove this bald cypress a relative of the evergreens, -which are its neighbours. - - - THE HOLLIES - -No Christmas is Christmas truly without at least a few branches of the -evergreen holly of the South, whose leathery, spiny-pointed leaves are -brightened by clusters of red berries. Every year, hundreds of crates and -boxes of these holly branches are shipped north from the woods of -Alabama, and other Southern states. Many people make their living by -cutting loads of these branches, and hauling them to the shipping sheds -where they are packed and put onto the railroad. The business has grown -so rapidly within the past twenty-five years that holly trees are -becoming very scarce. It has never occurred to those who cut down and -strip the trees that it takes years to grow new ones, and that nobody is -planting for the future. - -Holly wood is white, and very close-grained. It is admirable for tool -handles, whipstocks, walking sticks, and for the blocks on which wood -engravings are made. The living trees are planted for hedges, and for -ornament. The leaves are evergreen, and the berries add brightness and -warmth to the shrubbery border when snow covers the ground. - -Although it reaches its greatest size, and is most commonly found in -Southern woods, this little tree follows the coast as far north as Long -Island. I have found it much higher than my head, growing wild on the -sand bar that separates Great South Bay from the ocean, east of New York -Harbour. Further north, it is occasionally found, but in stunted sizes, -and it is easily winter-killed. - -The holly of Europe, which has brightened the English Christmas for -centuries, has a far more deeply cleft and spiny leaf than ours. Beside -it, our holly leaves and berries are dull, and dark-coloured. The whole -tree lacks the brightness of the European species. Hedges of this -lustrous-leaved holly shut in many an English garden, and their bright -berries glow cheerfully through the grey, sunless, winter days. No wonder -the gardeners frown upon the little thrushes that feed upon these -berries, thus robbing the garden of one of its chief winter charms. - -Three other American hollies are found as shrubby trees in our Eastern -woods, but none of them is evergreen, and the trees are not numerous in -any locality. We shall oftenest see the species known as the winterberry, -whose abundant red berries remain untouched by the birds, until late in -the spring. Many of these fruit-laden branches are gathered in the wild, -and sold in cities for Christmas decorations. Sprays of these berries are -often added to the evergreen holly branches when their own berries are -scarce. - -Christmas holly is something we cannot do without. As the supply grows -less, the price will mount higher. Then will come a time when it is -profitable to raise these trees in quantities, and holly farming will be -practised in favourable localities in the Southern states. But that time -has not yet come. - - - THE BURNING BUSH - -A little tree, not at all related to the holly, but truly a cousin of the -bitter-sweet, has a rather surprising name. In summer it looks like a -wild plum tree, except for its fluted, ash-grey bark. The flowers have -purple petals, and look somewhat like potato blossoms. They would never -attract your attention as you pass the tree. - -In the autumn the leaves turn yellow, and gradually the purple husks that -cover the scarlet berries split open, and curl back. Watch the gradual -opening of these husks, and notice, from some little distance, the -gradual reddening of the tree top, as the yellow leaves fall, and more -and more of the scarlet berries are revealed, as the husks curl and -shrink away from them. It is in this seed and its husk that the -resemblance and relationship of the burning bush and the bitter-sweet -vine is revealed. - -The European spindle tree, and a number of Japanese and Chinese species, -are now planted in American gardens, and called by their genus name, -Evonymus. The red-fruited sorts all come under the common name, burning -bush, and they do burn with a steady flame when winter has robbed the -gardens of colour. Evergreens form a beautiful background for these ruddy -little trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SPRING - - - THE AWAKENING OF THE TREES - -All winter the grey beech trunks look almost white among the dark trunks -of neighbouring trees. Their branches are dark at the tips, and the buds -are long, slim, and sharp-pointed. Silky, brown bud scales, in many -layers, protect the young shoots hidden in these buds. In April these -shoots impatiently push aside their wrappings. The outer scales fall, the -inner ones grow longer, but the growing tip leaves them behind, and they -fall, while the silky-coated, fan-plaited baby leaves hang limp and -helpless on the lengthening stem. - -No tree of the woods is more beautiful than the beech as its twigs cover -themselves with the tender green of spring. Beech leaves are _handsome_ -when full grown. In the short hours of their babyhood they are _lovely_. - -The sturdy shagbark hickory is late in waking. Poplars and beeches are in -full leaf when the big buds of this familiar tree with the shaggy bark -begin to swell, and show the pale, silky inner scales under the black -outer pairs, which soon fall off. - -The branches are stiff and angular, but the twigs hold up their big buds, -and the trees look like great candelabra, each holding up a thousand -lighted candles. As the pointed buds push upward, the protecting scales -grow rapidly larger, and the outer ones turn back like the sepals of an -iris. Wonderful tints of olive and yellow, violet and rose, blend in -their silky covering. Out of this petal-like frill rises the cluster of -young leaves, small but perfectly formed, and just as varied and delicate -in colouring under their velvet covering. These complete the flower-like -appearance of the young shoots. The illusion lasts only until the leaves -spread out, and take on their natural, colour and size. The scales fall, -their duty done, and the flower catkins come out, under the broad -umbrellas of the fresh, new leaves. The tree is thoroughly awake, and has -begun its long summer's work. - -[Illustration: The great winter buds of the shagbark hickory open like -flowers in May] - -[Illustration: Pink and silvery catkins of trembling aspen, and the -white, flannel-like leaves, just opened] - -The poplar likes to grow in moist ground, and in companies of its own -kind. Copses of these trees, especially if they be young ones, are sure -heralds of the coming spring. Their stems and branches are smooth, and -almost as pale as white birches. They become greenish, especially the -smaller branches and twigs, as the sap rises. They are alive from root -tips to shining buds. - -The brown scales loosen in March on the plumpest buds. The fuzzy grey -pussies push out, and lengthen into soft chenille fringes that wave -gracefully from every twig. They are grey, with a flush of pink, an -exquisite colour harmony, too lovely to last. Their catkins fall as soon -as their golden pollen dust is ripened and scattered by the wind. The -plain, green fertile ones on other trees catch the pollen, and set seed -which ripens, in green, berry-like capsules, in May. The seeds are almost -too small to be seen. Each floats away with the small wisp of down in -which it hides. - -The slim buds on the same twigs open while the trees are still in -blossom. The young shoots come out, and unroll their baby leaves, soft -and white, covered with a silky down, and tinted pink under the -protective hairs. For a short time only they look like white velvet, and -are limp and helpless. Then the hairy coat is shed; the leaves become -shiny and bright green, and twinkle in the sunshine. The stems are -flexible and long and flattened. This makes them catch the breeze, if the -blades do not, so the foliage trembles whenever a breeze goes through the -tree top. - -Quaking aspen, trembling aspen, and "quakenasp" are popular names given -this tree, whose foliage has the appearance and the sound of rippling -water. Tradition says the tree is forever accursed, and trembles as from -fear, because the traitor, Judas, hanged himself on an aspen. This is a -foolish notion. Only gaiety is expressed by the continual fluttering of -the aspen's leaves. - -The buds of cottonwood and Balm of Gilead trees are sealed with a -fragrant wax which softens as spring loosens the scales and growth -begins. - -Bees throng these trees, and gather the soft wax to carry to their hives. -They use it to stop up cracks that would let in the rain. What is not -needed at once they store for future use. Bee-keepers call it "propolis." -They have offered the bees something "just as good," but they will take -no substitute for the genuine. That is produced only on the buds of trees -of the poplar family, and for a brief season it is ready for them in -spring. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN EARLY SPRING - -In late March, or early in April, before the leaves have come out on any -of the trees along your street, you may look out of an upper window and -notice that strange-looking tassels are hanging on the twigs of a poplar -or cottonwood tree. Its buds are large and they shine in the sun, as if -they were wet. A day or two later you may be walking with your mother or -sister, and she will be startled to see the sidewalk covered with what -look to her like great red caterpillars! Then you may remember the tree -with the tassels on it, and recognise them, and explain where they came -from. - -A single look shows that this worm-like object is a catkin, and the -lovely red is the colour of the many stamens that contain the pollen -dust. When this is ripe the stamens burst and let it fly away. Then the -tree lets its catkins fall, for they have done their part. - -Green catkins hang on other trees of the same kind in the neighbourhood. -The flowers are waiting for pollen that will enable them to set seed. If -the wind blows in the right direction when the pollen is flying about, -the green, fertile flowers will get all they need. These catkins are not -shed as the red ones are. They make little show among the opening leaves, -but little seed balls take the place of the flowers. By the end of May -the green balls the size of peas turn yellow, and open. Out of each pod -floats tufts of white down, each bearing away a tiny white seed. This is -the end of the story. Before the chestnut trees have begun to blossom, -the poplars have scattered their seeds, and have all the summer to spend -in growing long, supple shoots covered with their dancing, shining -leaves. They look as if they enjoy life! - -The pussy willows push their fuzzy noses out in winter. Some are even -showing in autumn. But the yellow pollen is not seen on these flowers -until the catkins are full grown, and they wait till winter is past. They -dare not risk a frost. - -Among pussy willow trees there is a difference in the catkins. On one -tree they turn yellow when mature; the golden pollen dust rises in a -cloud when the twig is disturbed. These catkins soon fall off. - -On other trees the catkins are greenish, and they stay on after reaching -full size. They are the fertile flowers, which develop into seed pods. -Pollen brought to them by the wind or by visiting insects in search of -nectar, insures the setting of seed in these flowers. Though the gayer -flowers fall, they are quite as necessary to the making of seeds as the -fertile ones. In all the willows and poplars, it requires two trees, -bearing the two kind of flowers, to make the seed. And the wind and -nectar-seeking insects are necessary as pollen-carriers. - -[Illustration: The winter flower buds, the blossoms, the full-grown -winged seeds, and the ribbed leaf of our American elm] - -[Illustration: The majestic, fan-shaped elm blossoms while snow is still -on the fields] - -In marshy land, or by a brook or river, or even just outside the window -at home, there is a tree that turns rosy in March with a multitude of -small red flowers clustered on the sides of its twigs. It is the swamp -maple, the red maple, the river maple, the scarlet maple. Two of these -names tell of the tree's thirst; two name its colour when in blossom, and -also when the leaves change colour in autumn. - -Each flower is a red bell, for the petals are red. One has a red forked -pistil thrust out; another lacks a pistil, but has a cluster of yellow -stamens. One tree may be deep red throughout, having only pistillate -flowers. Another may have only staminate flowers; it will be orange -coloured, by the blending of the colours of the yellow stamens, and the -red petals. Another tree may have flowers of both kinds. Occasionally -flowers will be found that have both stamens and pistils. - -The bees are in the scarlet maples at the first loosening of the bud -scales. There is nectar in those flower bells. The colour and a faint -fragrance tell this secret. From pollen flowers the busy insects carry -the golden dust to the forked pistils that set seeds. - -The wind helps by scattering pollen in the tree tops, and very soon the -flowers are gone. The staminate trees turn green when the opening leaves -lose their vivid red. The pistillate trees hang out red clusters of -winged seeds below the opening leaf clusters. These red trees keep their -name written plainly as long as the seed clusters swing. - -Early in March, the side buds on the elm twigs begin to swell, and soon -clusters of purplish flowers, small but very pretty, come out of the -largest buds, and the tree top has a purplish haze upon it, that means -that spring is coming. The bees come to get nectar from these early -blossoms, but few people speak of the blossoming elms. They do not notice -that elms ever blossom; and are rather incredulous when a spray is shown -them covered with the graceful little tassels. "Who ever _heard_ of elms -having flowers?" - -The truth is that every tree, when it is large enough, bears flowers. Not -every one bears fruit, for some have pollen flowers only, the seeds being -borne on the fertile trees. Elms have perfect flowers, and soon after the -leaves open, the green fruits are seen in clusters, and before May -passes, the seeds, each surrounded by an oval wing, flutter off in the -wind. - - - THE AMERICAN ELM AND ITS KIN - -Beautiful and stately, yet full of grace is the form of a big elm tree -against the grey sky of a cloudy winter day. The tall trunk is crowned -with many main branches, which spread into a widening funnel shape, -subdividing into numberless smaller branches, whose direction is outward -and downward. The numerous twigs have the droop of a weeping willow. The -tree top is wonderful when every limb is bare. - -In summer the same tree is a great fountain of green leaves. The long, -leafy twigs of new wood are flung out to the wind, and the twinkling -blades dazzle the eyes like spray. This is the time that we love the elm -for its shade, and as an ornament to home grounds and parks. Roadside -elms are the favourite nesting trees of the Baltimore oriole, whose -hanging pocket of grasses and yarns swings at the end of a high outer -branch. - -When winter is still in the air, and snow on the landscape, the dark -twigs of these bare elm trees change colour. It is the purple flower -clusters that are flung out from opening buds in late March. It takes -sharp eyes to see the cause of the wine-coloured flush in the tree top. -With the opening of the leafy shoots in April, the trees get an added -colour from the pale green seed discs that replace the flowers. These are -winged, and they soon turn brown, and fly away on the first breeze. This -is the elm's way of sowing seeds. A crop of young elms grows each summer -in fields and gardens near these seed trees. The leaf of the seedling is -exactly after the pattern of the parental tree, but smaller. - -The English elm is less graceful than our American tree. It has more the -stature of the white oak. The head is compact, and the foliage mass -thicker, and longer-lived. The robin red-breast nests close to the sturdy -trunk, shielded by the earliest leaves. - -An old couplet guides the farmer in the old country: - - "When the elm leaf is as big as a mouse's ear, - Then to sow barley never fear." - -The toughness of elm is remembered by all who have "read of the wonderful -one-hoss shay." Nothing but "ellum" was proper stuff for the hubs, you -know. As it is durable in soil, elm is good timber for posts and railroad -ties. By its toughness and flexibility, it is fit for waggon tongues, and -all kinds of agricultural implements. The ancient warrior of England was -likely to carry a longbow made of the tough British elm. - -Slippery elms grow more irregular in form than the American, and are -usually smaller trees. Both kinds grow together in the wooded regions -east of the Rocky Mountains. The difference between them can be easily -detected by a blind person. Twigs, buds, and leaves of slippery elms are -made rough and harsh to the touch by coarse, reddish hairs. - -Boys and many other people like the taste of the glutinous inner bark of -this tree when the sap is running, and the limbs and trunks peel easily. -Many a tree is sacrificed to this appetite. The same delectable -mucilaginous substance quenches the thirst and allays hunger,--so hunters -say, who have eaten it when lost in the woods, and threatened with -starvation. Poultices of it relieve throat troubles, when there is -congestion. It is a home remedy for inflammations and fevers. Dried and -ground, the rich cambium is mixed with milk, and forms a nutritious and -tasty food for invalids. It is a staple on the shelves of apothecary -shops. - -The rock elm might be mistaken for a bur oak were the leaves not decided -proof that it is an elm. The limbs are shaggy, and the twigs winged by -the corky bark. Indeed, another name for the tree is the cork elm. The -framework of this tree is stiff and irregular, a decided contrast to the -graceful drooping top of the American elm, whose symmetry is one of its -best points. - -The wood has its fibres so interlaced that no wood excels it in toughness -and springiness. It is the wheelwright's choice. It makes the finest -bridge timbers, and the best axe handles, and wheel hubs. - -The winged elm is the smallest and daintiest of the elms. The twigs are -broadened by a corky ridge on each side. This gives the tree its name. -The Indian name, Wahoo, is also heard in the South. The leaves are of the -elm type, but unusually small. - -It is seen as a street and lawn tree in cities and towns south of -Virginia, and west to Illinois and Texas. - - - THE MAPLE FAMILY - -If you meet a tree of good size, with slender branches, and small buds -set opposite upon the twigs, you may suspect it of being a maple. The -leaves are needed to assure you. If it is winter time, and the tree -stands on the street, the leaves may all have been raked away. If the -tree grows in the woods, the chances are that there is a leaf carpet over -its roots, and that most of these leaves have fallen from its branches. -You can make sure of this point by picking up a dead leaf, examining the -base of its stalk to see if it fits the leaf scars on the twigs. If the -leaves are simple, that is, if they have a single blade, the evidence -that this is a maple is very strong. There are a few small trees with -simple leaves set opposite on the twigs, but they do not grow as large as -maples. - -Does the leaf have three main divisions, each with a vein which is one of -three large branches of the leaf stalk? Then you may be sure that the -tree is one of the maple family. - -Simple leaves, of three main lobes, set opposite on the twigs, and the -twigs set opposite on the branches,--in these are the plain signature of -the maples. They write their names in these characters, across every -branch throughout the growing season, and on the leafless branches, and -the dead leaves under the tree in winter. Another signature is the -one-sided maple key, which hangs on the trees all summer, and even late -into the winter on some kinds, but is shed in early summer by a few. - -The two early-blooming maples are commonly planted as street and shade -trees all over the Eastern half of the country. It is easy to recognise -these, and to know them apart by the leaf alone. - -The red maple is a spreading, symmetrical tree, of medium size with -slender, erect branches. The leaves are red when they open in spring; so -are the flowers which cluster on the bare twigs in early April, before -the leaves are out. The clustered fruits that dangle in pairs all along -the stems in May are red, and in the autumn the tree changes its green -robe of foliage to scarlet before winter comes. The buds that cluster at -the joints are red as rubies, and the slim twigs glow with the same warm -colour, which is warmer by contrast with the snow. - -All maple leaves are more or less cleft into three main divisions. The -red maple has two shallow clefts, V-shaped, at the top, and the lobes are -pointed and triangular. The margins are irregularly saw-toothed. These -leaves are often downy beneath, and always white-lined when young. In -summer they have pale green linings. As a rule, red maple leaves are -small, averaging less than three inches in the length of their blades. -They are larger on young trees. - -The silver maple is much more easily grown from seed than the red maple, -but it has a far more irregular tree top. The limbs branch low on the -trunk, and these limbs grow very long, giving the tree a loose head of -great height, and great horizontal spread. The small branches curve -downward, and the twigs are held erect. The wind twists and breaks these -great weak limbs, or wrenches them loose from the trunk. It is dangerous -to have these trees near the house, for wind and ice storms are -constantly snapping off branches large enough to break windows, or knock -down chimneys as they fall. - -[Illustration: The flowers of the red maple are concealed in winter in -brown buds] - -[Illustration: Seeds of red maple, in late May, and in early April] - -The flowers of the silver maple show no red. They come out -greenish-yellow on the twigs when the red maple's flowers are glowing on -their red twigs in March, and early April. The leaves are pale green, -white beneath, and set on long flexible stems. They are larger than the -leaves of the red maple, and cleft in a distinctly different way. A -narrow, deep fissure divides the leaf in thirds, and two side clefts -divide the lower lobes in two unequal halves. These fissures reach -two-thirds of the way through the leaf blade, and each lobe is cleft -along its sides, into many irregular bays and capes. These leaves are -always silvery white beneath in summer, and they turn to yellow in the -autumn. - -In late May the pairs of winged keys hang on short stems. Each key is -about two inches long, fuzzy green, until ripe, twice the length of the -smooth keys of the red maple, which are ripening at the same time. - -It is good fun to lie under a maple tree, and watch the seeds as they -fall. If the wind is strong, they shower down like rain. Each key -separates from its mate, and as it lets go its hold on the twig, the wind -catches its thin wing, and sends it whirling round and round. The heavy -seed makes for the earth, while the flat blade above it acts as a -parachute, or a sail, to keep it in the air. - -How far does a silver maple send its seeds in these summer days, when -they are falling? It is easy to answer this question by pacing the -distance from the tree trunk in a straight line to the point where the -farthest key falls. Go in the direction towards which the wind is -blowing, in determining this distance. It will be interesting to run out -another line from the tree trunk to find out how far the seeds are thrown -on the side that is against the wind. - -From the silver maple go to a red maple, and watch the harvest of these -small-winged keys. Do a little measuring here, and find out if their -smaller size and weight enables these seeds to sail further in the same -breeze than those of the silver maple. - -The sugar maple is known also as the rock or hard maple, because its wood -is harder, and therefore slower to grow, than the two quick-growing soft -maples just described. This is the one whose trunk is tapped in spring, -and the sap boiled down in great kettles over an open fire in the woods. -When the water is all evaporated, solid cakes of maple sugar remain. If -you are walking in the woods in winter, and come upon any trees bored -with small auger holes, several near the base of each trunk, you may -suspect that this is a grove of hard maples which the New England farmer -calls his "sugar bush." - -Look at the twigs, and you will see that the plump round buds are set -opposite, and the twigs are opposite on the branch. This is the way with -all maple trees. Are the branches many, and do they shoot upward rather -than outward, and form an oval head? This is the typical habit of young -hard maple trees. As they grow older the heavy lower limbs become -horizontal. They are clean, hardy, vigorous trees, long-lived, -dependable, able to meet the storms, and to suffer the theft of their -rich sap every spring without apparent loss of strength and vitality. - -The leaves come out later than those of the soft maples. They are firm, -and broad, with five pointed lobes between wide fissures that reach -half-way to the stem. Margins of these lobes are wavy, never saw-toothed, -like those of the silver maple. They are dark green above, with paler -linings. In autumn they turn to yellow, orange, and red. - -The flowers open in May, shortly after the leaves appear. They are in -thick, hairy, yellowish clusters. Some are pistillate, some staminate, in -the same cluster. Those with the forked pistils remain and grow into -smooth fruits towards the end of summer. The keys of sugar maples are -short-winged, like those of the red maple, but have stouter, thicker -seeds. They are shed in late autumn and early winter. - -Hard maples are among the best of shade trees, and the glory of their -autumn colouring makes them one of the most to be desired among trees -planted merely for ornament. A street planted to hard maples is well -planted always. But people are impatient for trees to grow up. The slow -growth of the sugar maple is discouraging. It is a good plan to plant the -quick-growing soft maples, and alternate with them the slow-growing -species. For a few years the soft maples are pretty, and with each year's -growth they give more abundant shade. By the time the wind has crippled -their long arms, and made the trees unsightly, the hard maples are coming -on to take their places, and they need the room which is given them by -the removal of their neighbours on to the left and right. - -When I went into the woods of Oregon, I found the vine maple trees, which -seems not to have sufficient backbone to stand upright. These trees start -to grow erect, but their weight soon overcomes their strength, and they -droop, but keep on growing, with their limbs prostrate on the ground. The -wet land in many places was covered with a network of the interfering -branches of these serpentine maple trees. - -The leaf is about the size of the palm of my hand, and almost circular. -The border is cut into many shallow lobes. The seeds are characteristic -keys, smooth, and the wings of each pair are spread almost opposite each -other. - -The Norway maple is a most popular street tree. Its foliage is very -dense, and the tree forms a round, symmetrical head. The broad, -five-lobed leaves are remotely toothed, smooth, thin, and dark green on -both sides. Break a leaf stem, and a milky juice appears. The seeds are -very flat, and have broad, flaring wings. The flowers are yellowish. -Great clusters of them come out with the leaves. The seeds are ripe in -autumn. - -We shall find that the foliage of the Norway maple stands the wear and -tear better than that of many shade trees. The crown of a Norway maple -turns to bright gold in autumn, and most of the leaves are still unmarred -when they fall. - -The box elder is the one native maple which has compound leaves. The leaf -blade is cleft quite to the stem, and the thirds form separate leaflets, -each mounted on its own stalk. These leaves are set opposite on the -twigs, like those of other maples. - -In spring pink fringes like corn silk decorate the branches of certain -box elder trees. Other trees of the same kind hide little green flowers -among the opening leaves. The pink fringes are the pollen-bearing -flowers, which fall when ripe. Staminate trees never bear fruit. All -through the summer the trees which bore the greenish flower are dangling -clusters of pale green seeds, each with the peculiar wing, which proves -it a maple. When the ragged, yellowing foliage falls, these seed clusters -remain on the branches, and all through the winter the wind is plucking -and carrying them away. - -The wood of box elder is very soft. The tree is planted because it grows -so quickly and surely, and its seeds are so easily obtained. But broken -branches give the older trees a crippled, unhappy look, and the ragged -clusters of seeds give them a disheveled appearance all winter. Fortunate -is the man who has planted elms or hard maples along the road, so that he -may take out the decrepit box elders, and have the better trees coming on -to take their places. - -The striped maple is a little tree, which hides in the woods, and only a -few people know the tree, and love it as it deserves. The stripes are on -its smooth green bark, which breaks into a network of furrows as the -stems increase in diameter. These furrows expose a very pale under-bark, -so that at a short distance the trunk seems to be delicately traced with -white lines. - -In its blossoming season the striped maple has a loose, drooping cluster -of yellow, bell-like flowers. The leaves that surround them are broad and -shallowly three-lobed, and saw-toothed all around. The seeds are little -maple keys, smaller than those of the red maple. - -The mountain maple is another little tree quite as modest and retiring as -its striped cousin. It has longer, more taper-pointed leaves. The flower -clusters are much smaller than those of the striped maple, and they stand -erect. The fruits hang late in the winter, on the grey downy twigs, which -are brightened by red buds. - - - THE WILLOW FAMILY - -One of the first tree families whose name we learn is the willow family. -The members are numerous, and the botanists find great difficulty in -distinguishing certain species, which closely resemble each other; but -these troubles we shall leave to the scientist. The point for us to -consider is this: When we see a tree which we know to be a willow, _how_ -do we know it? "It looks like a willow," some one says. But who knows, -and can tell _how_ willows look--how they differ from other trees? - -First, willows have slender, flexible twigs that give the tree tops grace -and lightness. Second, willow leaves are nearly always long and slim to -match the supple twigs. They are always simple, and short-stemmed. The -wood is light and soft, so the trees break easily in storms of wind and -ice. An old willow tree is likely to be crippled, but its scars and -wounds are covered in summer by the arching branches and the abundant -foliage. - -The first trees to blossom in spring are the shrubby pussy willows, a -distinct kind whose catkins are so eager to push out of their scales that -their grey, silky noses are often seen in November. Frequently, they are -out and the scales dropped in February; but the yellow stamens and the -long-tongued pistils do not rise above the grey fur until March, at -least. The most attractive stage of these catkins is the earlier one, -when the flower buds are concealed by the grey silk. - -By cutting pussy willow twigs in the late fall, or any time during the -winter, and putting them into a jar of water, we may see the blossoming, -quite out of season. Sufficient food is stored in the twig to force out -the blossoms, even to the shedding of the pollen. It is a charming thing -in the winter to have a vase of these twigs in full bloom on a window -sill when snow banks are piled high just outside. - -Willows are lovers of wet ground, and we shall see groves of them -scattered along streams and on the margins of ponds and swamps. A few -species thrive in dry soil, and seem to prefer it. Some grow at sea -level, others are found on high mountains. From small shrubs they vary to -mighty trees. There is no climate and no soil that does not have its -native willows. The family is distributed from the Equator to the Arctic -Circle. - -It is very common in many places for farmers to plant a grove of willows -for a windbreak, to protect their houses and barns. This is especially -seen in prairie states and other treeless regions. Willows are -quick-growing trees, and sure to grow. All one needs do is to cut limbs -from a growing tree, chop these limbs into pieces the length of stove -wood, and drive them into the ground. Each one takes root, and grows into -a tree, if the soil is at all moist. - -Another plan is to cut fence posts from the willow grove, and drive them -into the ground. Each of these posts forms the trunk of a willow tree, -which soon has a great head of branches. - -In Holland and other countries, willows are thickly planted to form -hedges and for their roots to hold the soil along the banks of streams -and ditches. The same trees may perform a double service. Willow wood -makes good summer fuel, where a quick, hot fire is desired. The twigs -make the best charcoal used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The long, -flexible twigs of a low-growing willow are used in the manufacture of -wicker chairs, tables, and other furniture. These trees are grown on a -large scale in France and other European countries, and the industry is -being introduced in some parts of America. - -When spring comes on, we may notice a peculiar change in the colour of -the bare willows that line the stream borders. The twigs turn gradually -green, and the long, pointed buds prepare to cast off their single -scales. These are shaped like the long, knitted caps which children wear -in winter time, although there is no tassel at the end. The cap fits -snugly over the long bud, and is fastened in a circle at the joint. The -swelling bud simply pushes it off. - -Under these trees, we shall find a good many fresh twigs. Reaching up to -break one, we find that it snaps off short at the base. It is not brittle -along its whole length. Try a dozen twigs, and off they snap, almost at a -touch. The wind has broken off those that fell to the ground. Some that -fall in the water, float away down stream. They catch on sandbars, and -strike root. Some swing in to the shore, and grow on the banks. - -We have discovered a habit of certain kinds of willow trees. The shedding -of their twigs at the season when they are fullest of life is the tree's -method of colonising new territory. These twigs float away, and blow -away, and those which lodge in wet ground before they dry are almost sure -to grow. The billowy acres of green which cover sandbars and stream -borders are willow trees, children of parents that grow far up stream. - -Along roadsides in this country a large willow is much planted, whose -leaves are pale beneath, so that they look very cheerful and cool in -midsummer. The most striking thing about these willows is that their -twigs are yellow as ducks' feet, and particularly bright in early spring. -The older trees grow very stout, and great branches leave the trunk close -to the ground. This is the golden osier willow, one form of the white -willow of Europe, which does not grow vigorously in this country. - -The weeping willows, whose long, supple branches sweep out and downward, -sometimes yards in length, from the tree top, came originally from -Babylon. Who were they in that far country who "hung their harps on the -willow trees"? A great many weeping willows in the Eastern states are -said to be sprung from the parent tree, which grew on the Island of St. -Helena. What famous prisoner probably sat under the shadows of this -willow tree, and dreamed again of conquering the world? The weeping -willow has the habit of snapping its twigs off, short, at the base. One -of these long withes, cut into bits with one or two buds on each cutting, -will start as many weeping willow trees, if the bits are stuck into wet -sand and kept wet until rooted, and then set out and given plenty of -water until they become established in the ground. - -The black willow is named for the black bark of the old tree. It is the -only one of the narrow-leaved willows whose leaves are uniformly green on -both sides. These leaves are often curved like a sickle. At the base of -each leaf is a pair of heart-shaped, leafy blades, called stipules. Many -trees have stipules that come out with the leaves, and are dropped off, -but these persist, as a rule, all summer. The black willow is one of -those with the twigs that snap. It takes possession of stream borders, -and its offspring may cover miles of new territory in a single season. - -The balsam willow we shall know by the fragrant coating of wax, or -balsam, on its young shoots and buds. Its broad leaves are blunt at the -tip, and look scarcely willow-like, but the tree is known by its buds and -its catkins. To find it we shall have to go into the boggy regions in the -Northern tier of states, where it is numerous, but never more than a -shrubby tree. - -One use is served by no tree as well as a willow. When the sap rises in -spring, the willow branches are in prime condition to make whistles. I -wonder if there is a boy, in town or country, who does not know how to -make a willow whistle that will "go"? Surely not, unless his supply of -uncles and grandfathers is short. You cannot make a willow whistle by -following printed directions. Some skilful person, who has been a boy, -must show you, and one lesson is enough. - - - WHY TREES NEED LEAVES - -Spring or early summer is the best time to study the leaves of trees. -They are clean, and fresh, and new. Every tree is a great mound of green. -The broad-leaved trees seem to be thatched or shingled with overlapping -blades so that no sunlight can get into the darkened room, which is empty -except for the bare branches that support this outer dome of leaves. A -sugar maple, or a linden tree, shows best this outer thatch, which is so -thick that the sun is unable to look through. The bird flying overhead -sees only a solid mass of leaves. The one on its nest in a forked limb -looks up and sees the inside of this leafy tree cover. She is glad for -the twilight that surrounds her, and for the coolness of this shady -place; but more glad that her nest is hidden from sight of hawks that -sail overhead, while she keeps a close watch for sly, thieving red -squirrels that may come to steal her eggs, by climbing up the branches. - -What are the leaves for? Why does the tree put out in spring young shoots -with rows of leaves along their sides? Why does the tree hold these -branches out as far as possible from the trunk, and bend the leaf stems -and the twigs so as to face the leaf blades towards the sun? - -The reason is this: the life of the trees is in the green layer which we -see on the surface of all green shoots, and which we can discover under -the older bark of twigs, which has turned brown. Following the twig back -from its tip, all of the leafy part is green. Behind it the smooth twig -is no longer green, but a thumb nail easily strips off the layer of -brown, and reveals the green under bark. Go a little further back, and -gradually the outer bark thickens, and it is more difficult to get at the -soft under layer. After a while, we shall need a knife to reach it, for -old bark is hard and tough. - -When the bark gets so thick that the sun cannot reach the green layer, -the colour fades out. The living part of the trunk of the tree is the -soft, juicy layer between the bark and wood. Through this portion of the -tree the sap rises from the roots, and finally reaches the leaves. This -sap needs to be changed before it can be useful to the tree as food. - -The leaves are the places where these changes take place. Through little -doorways in the under sides of the leaf air passes in. With it goes -carbonic acid gas, an important food element. The soft green leaf pulp, -which is the green juice of a bruised leaf, has a wonderful work to do. -It cannot do this work unless the sun is shining upon it. On a bright day -every leaf is making starch, and sending it down through the twigs and -branches as food. This starch is contained in the sugary sap that flows -back constantly from the leaves to the farthest root tips. It is made in -the leaves out of the sap brought up from the roots and the carbonic acid -gas which the leaves absorb from the air. - -As long as the leaves do their work, the tree is able to grow, and to -blossom, and to ripen its seeds. When the leaves have done their work the -summer has passed; the tree lets go the leaves, and rests without growing -all winter. - -It is not easy to explain the work of the leaves, nor even to understand -the wonderful work accomplished there all through the summer. When we -eat, our food must go into the stomach to be changed by the processes -called digestion. It is hours before the digested food is poured into the -blood and carried to all parts of the body. The tree takes its food from -the air, and from the soil. Neither the dirty water that rises as sap to -the leaves, nor the gas which enters the leaf doorways from the air, is -useful as food to the growing tree until they have been combined and -changed. The leaves are, then, in a sense, the stomachs of the trees, for -in them the raw foods must be "digested" before they are ready to be -poured into the life blood that flows down through all the live parts of -the tree. Now they are fit to feed the growing cells, which are always -hungry. - - - LEAVES OF ALL SHAPES AND SIZES - -The leaf of the tree is its visiting card. We shall learn to know trees -by their leaves, as easily as if the name were written across the face of -the leaf. Some leaves have a single blade of green, and for this reason -the botanist calls them _simple_ leaves. This blade has a stem that -unites it with the twig. A _compound_ leaf is one whose stem bears more -than one blade. These small blades are called _leaflets_. There are two -types of compound leaves, one feather-like, having a main stem with -leaflets arranged in two rows on opposite sides of this stem. Such a leaf -is feather-like. The other type has a leaf stem with all the leaflets -attached at one end. The horse chestnut is the best example of this type. -The leaves spread from the end of the stalk somewhat as the fingers rise -from the palm of your hand. - -The biggest leaves with single blades to be found in our forests grow on -trees of the magnolia family. The silver-lined leaves of the large-leaved -cucumber tree are over a foot in length, sometimes two and one-half feet, -down South. These great leaves are about one-fourth as wide as long, and -at the base each one broadens and extends backward into two rounded -ear-like lobes. This gives the tree the name, ear-leaved magnolia. The -whole leaf flaps in the wind, like the ear of an elephant, and, of -course, the wind lashes it into strings and soon robs it of its beauty. - -The Northern cucumber tree is another magnolia whose leaves are -tropical-looking. This is the hardiest of the magnolia family, and its -heart-shaped leaves are six to ten inches long. They are not large for a -magnolia of the South, but they look larger because they grow among the -small-leaved trees of the Northern states. - -The tulip tree has a large leaf of peculiar form. It is broad like a -maple leaf at the base, but at the tip it is cut off square as if with a -pair of shears, forming a right angle with its straight sides. Sometimes -the leaf is notched, as if a V-shaped piece were cut out of the square -tip. These leaves are long-stemmed, their blades polished, and they -flutter on the twigs with the lightness of a poplar leaf. Once we have in -mind the form of the leaf of the tulip tree, we shall never forget it, -for it is different from all other leaves. - -The catalpa tree, which lifts its great blossom clusters above the -foliage in late June, is another of the few large-leaved trees of the -North. The single blade is heart-shaped, six to eight inches long, and -more than half as broad. These leaves usually have plain margins, but -sometimes they are wavy and notched near the base so as to produce faint -side lobes. The blades hang on long, stout stems. - -Among the feather-leaved trees, the walnuts and butternuts, the sumachs, -and the ailanthus, furnish examples. A black walnut leaf is often two -feet long, with a dozen or more leaflets on the longest ones. These -leaflets are always set opposite in pairs, with an odd one on the tip of -the leaf stem. Butternut leaves have the same form, but the leaves are -longer. They range from fifteen to thirty inches, and have from ten to -twenty leaflets, but always an odd number. The peculiar gummy feeling of -these hairy leaves, and their pungent butternut odour when bruised, make -it easy to know the tree wherever we meet it, through the long summer. - -The hickories are cousins of the walnuts, but their leaves, though of the -feather form, have larger and fewer leaflets than any walnut tree. A -shagbark hickory leaf has one or two pairs of little leaflets on the -stem, and above them three of larger size. The pignut has the same habit -of clustering its three largest leaves at the tip of the leaf stem, and -tapering off at the base with one or two pairs of decreasing size. - -The largest of all the compound leaves have branched stems to which -leaflets are attached. The main leaf stem's side branches may yet branch -again, forming a twice-branched framework that is set with leaflets, not -large, but so numerous as to make the whole leaf surprisingly large. The -greatest of these twice-compound leaves is borne by that astonishing, -spiny-stemmed Hercules' club. A single leaf is often four feet long, and -nearly a yard wide. There are no leaflets on the main stem; they are on -the side branches. - -How shall we tell a leaf stem from a twig? Leaf stems do not look like -the twigs of the tree. A little practice in looking closely and comparing -these leaf stems and twigs will obviate any confusion of the two. The -leaf has a bud at its base, and it breaks off easily at this joint. - -[Illustration: The sugar maple trees are tapped in February; they bloom -in May after the leaves come out; they ripen their keys in October, when -the foliage turns to red and yellow.] - -[Illustration: Leaves of black willow have frills at their bases. Twigs -of pussy-willows, cut and brought indoors, can be forced into bloom in -midwinter] - -Among the fine, feathery leaves that are so beautiful and light that they -give great beauty to the tree tops are those of the honey locust. These -leaves are of the feather type, the slender stems, with double rows of -tiny leaflets. Very often we find among the single feather forms, leaves -of greater size, which have branched stems. This branching multiplies the -number of leaflets, and gives us, on the same trees, what the botanists -call _once compound_, and _twice compound_ leaves. The simple feather and -the branched feather forms add greatly to the beauty and luxuriance of -the foliage of the honey locust. - -The common black locust of the roadside has single leaf stems with oblong -leaflets set in opposite rows upon it. Ash trees have the same feather -type of leaves, the leaflets usually pointed and oval, and always an odd -one at the tip. They are all larger than leaves of the locusts. - -In the maple family there is a broad, simple blade, about as wide as it -is long. It is a family trait to have three main veins running out from -the end of the leaf stem, into the blade. Each of these veins has side -branches, and they are connected with a network of smaller veins. Between -the tips of these three main veins the leaf is usually notched, so as to -divide it into thirds. In the red maple these notches are shallow V's cut -out, leaving triangular points. In the silver maple the leaves are cut by -deeper clefts, which reach more than half-way to the leaf stalk. The -three lobes are cut with jagged points into an uneven margin. The sugar -maple has its three lobes separated by wide, deep clefts, and its margins -are irregularly wavy. The box elder, which is a maple, is cleft so deeply -that the blade is split into three distinct leaflets, each with its own -short stem. This makes a compound leaf of it. It is the only maple with a -leaf of more than one blade. - -The tree which shows the greatest difference in the form of its leaves is -the sassafras, whose oval leaves grow on the same stem with mittens and -double mittens--a mitten pattern with a thumb on each side. The hawthorns -have small oval leaves with variously cleft borders. There are over a -hundred kinds of hawthorns in our woods, and each kind has a leaf -different from all the rest; yet a single tree will often show leaves -that differ so much from the others in form that we might easily suspect, -if some one brought them to us, that each grew on a different tree from -all the rest. - -Many oak trees have the same habit of leaf variation, so that even a -forester has to examine many leaves with care, and with them the buds and -the acorns, to make sure that he has called the oak by its right name. - -The behaviour of the leaves of a tree depends largely on the length and -flexibility of their stems. If they are long, and slender, and supple, -the tree-top is in a continual flutter when the wind blows. If they are -thick and stiff, they do not catch the breeze as readily, and their -blades lie comparatively still when other trees near by may be twinkling -and trembling. Leaves with deeply cut borders, like some oaks and maples, -flutter much more than leaves like the basswood, whose borders are -unbroken. Oak leaves that are deeply cut will rarely lie down flat. The -curving bays in its borders cause the leaf to curl, so that no matter -what face is presented, the wind gets under and strikes some surface, and -sets the leaf to dancing. - -The flat leaf stems of the trembling aspen, one of the poplar family, are -very flexible, and they are flattened at right angles to the blades of -the leaves. When a breeze comes by, it may strike the edge of the leaf, -but if so, it catches the flat leaf stem broadside. If it comes from any -other direction the leaf trembles, because one of the blades is sure to -receive the force of the wind. So the tree top is in one constant tremor, -even when the breeze is scarcely sufficient to disturb broad-leaved trees -which are near neighbours of the aspens. - -Whatever the form and size and shape of its leaf, the tree depends upon -its foliage mass for all the life it enjoys, and for all the growth it -makes. The soil and the air feed the tree. The leaves and the sun do the -work of digesting the food. In the porous wood and bark are the channels -through which sap mounts upward to the leaves, and another set of -channels which carry the prepared food back, leaving it wherever needed, -along the way from tip of twig to tip of root. Whatever is not needed is -stored away, to be dissolved as needed and carried to the points where -the need is. In spring it is the growing buds that chiefly need this -stored food. Its presence explains the miracle of the bursting of -blossoms and leaves when spring comes. - -One by one the trees of your own yard may be learned by name this summer. -The leaves are your sure guide. Trees stay where they are. Once we -recognise their leaves and call them by name, we may depend upon finding -them still standing the next day we pass them, and their leaves are still -held out as the sign of recognition. Every time we pass yonder red maple -let us glance at its three-pointed leaf, and fix its shape indelibly in -the mind. When we have done this a dozen times, I am sure that we shall -be able to pick out all the red maples in town; and if we journey far -from home we may find and recognise the same kind of trees by the same -sign. More and more as we grow older, we find out that half the pleasure -of travelling is the occasional meeting with old friends, be they people -or trees. - - - - - TREE STUDIES IN THE SUMMER - - - TREES WITH THE LARGEST FLOWERS - -If we set out to find the trees that have the largest flowers, meaning to -count only trees that grow wild in our woods, it will save time to go -straight south into North Carolina, and climb the foot hills of the -Allegheny Mountains. Or it may be that in the fertile valleys that lie -between the low ridges we shall first come upon a magnolia, called the -large-leaved cucumber tree. Anywhere from North Carolina to Florida, and -west to Arkansas, these remarkable trees are likely to be found, in small -groups. In cultivation, they are successfully planted as far north as -Boston. - -Before the tree has attained more than a man's height it is a wonder, on -account of the leaves which measure more than a foot in length, and have -their long, green blades lined with white. In June the flowers -open--great white bowls, made of waxen petals, in a double row, the inner -ones painted purple at their bases, giving the flower a purple centre. - -The wind blows the leaves about, and tears them into rags, unless the -tree is in a sheltered place. The silvery leaf linings, as white as the -blossoms, make it difficult to see that the tree is in bloom, until one -is close enough to see the petals. If the leaves were green on both sides -the great blossoms, as large as a man's head, would be seen afar off. The -tree would look like a giant rose bush. - -From Pennsylvania southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to Arkansas -and Texas, the evergreen magnolia grows on stream borders, and even on -uplands where the soil is not very moist. When this pyramid of shining -green leaves lights all its waxen tapers, it is a sight worth a day's -journey to see. Each stiff twig is bent upward, and there a bud appears -in spring. A few at a time, the flowers open, and the blooming time lasts -till August. - -Each blossom is a deep, creamy cup, made of six wax-like petals, -surrounded by three white sepals. Inside are many stamens, purple at the -base, and a cone of pistils, all grown together. - -The leaves are oblong or oval, often eight inches long, thick, deep -green, and bright as if polished on the upper surface. The lining is dull -green, sometimes covered with rusty down. The paler green and the -brighter polish on the young leaves add much beauty to the tree in -summer. In winter the leaves get grimy and the tree top is sombre, for -most of the foliage has seen much wear and tear. - -In autumn the ends of the twigs hold up green cones, made of many furry -capsules that end in curved horns. Each capsule splits when ripe, and a -scarlet seed, like a berry, hangs out on an elastic thread, and swings -lower and lower, until finally it is carried away. Thus the magnolia sows -its seeds in winter. - -The shining leaves of this magnolia come North at the Christmas season, -and are used to decorate homes and churches. Holly, mistletoe, palm -leaves, and the beautiful Southern smilax are other Christmas greens now -commonly in use. They are all gathered with magnolia and shoots of the -long-leaf pine, in the woods down South. - -The swamp bay is a magnolia that grows as a shrub to New England, keeping -to the swampy lands that skirt the Atlantic coast. Every spring the -fragrant, creamy blossoms are to be bought from street Arabs in New York -and Philadelphia. A single globular flower is surrounded by a whorl of -oval leaves, bright green, but lined with a white, powdery substance that -makes them look silver-lined. The flowers are deliciously fragrant, and -most beautiful when not spread wide open. The seller often takes the -trouble to spring the petals back, to make the blossom seem bigger. The -waxy petals turn brown soon after such handling, and all their natural -beauty departs. - -From Florida westward to Texas this magnolia becomes a slender, tall -evergreen tree. The best flowers of this tree are borne on shoots that -are produced by pruning back the new growth each year. The largest leaves -and flowers are also the handsomest. - -The cucumber tree is the magnolia of the North. It is a fine tree in -Ontario, Canada, and from this region it spreads south, its range -widening like a fan, reaching from Arkansas to the Carolinas, and -Mississippi, and Alabama. The tropical appearance of the tree is due to -the big, heart-shaped leaves. Their tulip-like flowers are as large as -garden tulips, but they make scarcely any show, because they are very -much the same in colour as the yellowish-green new leaves that surround -them. - -The "cucumbers" are the green cones that contain the seeds. They are very -lumpy and irregular in form, but when ripe the cells split open and the -scarlet seed, let down on an elastic thread from each, looks like any -magnolia seed. - -Cucumber wood is soft, yellowish-brown, and close-grained. It is not very -good lumber, though put to many uses. The tree is worth more alive than -dead. It is an admirable shade tree, though not planted as much as it -deserves. - -The tulip tree is a close relative of the magnolias. It is one of the -trees with large flowers, though, like the cucumber tree, the colour of -the flowers makes them rather inconspicuous. In June the upturned twigs -blossom with yellow tulips. The three sepals flare outward, the petals -form the cup. A band of orange decorates the cup, and signals the bees -which come for nectar hidden near the bottom of the flower cup, among the -bases of the many stamens. - -Many people see the gay petals of the tulip tree flowers when they fall -on the sidewalk, and some wonder what these bits of colour are. A few -will say: "There must be a tulip tree near by," and look up to find the -singular squared-leaf blades that belong to no other tree. There is a -whole tree top fluttering with them, and this tremulous motion explains -why the tree is often called the tulip poplar. The yellow wood gives the -name, yellow poplar. Pulp of this wood is used for the manufacture of the -ordinary postal cards. It has many other uses, and is a valuable lumber -tree. For shade and ornament it is one of the best trees to plant. - -The cones of the tulip tree do not set free their seeds, as those of the -magnolias do. Instead of horned capsules, the cone has flat, overlapping -blades, like the wing of a maple seed, and the small, closed seed case is -the base of the blade. A few of these seeds are fully developed. But when -the winter strips the tree of its leaves, the wind shakes the cones, and -the loosened scales gradually fall. The wind catches the flat wings, and -away they sail. Little tulip trees grow up where good seeds fall in -favourable ground. - -One day a neighbour told me that there was a tree in blossom on the side -of the ravine. This was a strange story, for it was the dead of winter. -We went to see this wonderful tree. What do you think it was? A tulip -tree, with the seed cones half stripped of their seeds, and shining like -yellow flowers on the ends of the twigs. It was not strange at all that a -person who did not know the tree, and had never seen its cones in -mid-winter, should make this very mistake. - -The flowering dogwood invites us every spring to break off branches -covered with big, white blossoms, each like a four-pointed star, with a -cluster of small white buds in the centre. The trees are small and -low-branching, their limbs are flat, and they spread outward and slightly -downward. Who can resist cutting a few of the blossoming boughs of this -lovely tree! The best part is that the tree suffers not at all if the -pruning is done with some care. Take a thought for the tree; cut the -branches clean with a knife. Take them off where they are thick, and you -will leave the tree better in shape than when you came. Do not strip it -of flowers. This will cripple it. A few sprays of dogwood, prettily -arranged in a vase, are a delight to the eye. A crowded mass of them is -not at all. - -The four outer wings of white are not the petals of a dogwood blossom. -They are colourless leaves, the full-grown scales of the winter flower -buds. The notch at the tip is made by the falling off of the withered tip -which in winter protected the flowers. The base grew long and broad and -turned gradually white. The bees see these white banners farther, -perhaps, than they can catch the faint perfume. Watch the bee as she -probes the middle flowers for nectar. See the pollen on her hairy body. -From one to another, she is the pollen distributor of these flowers, and -she doesn't know it. - - - TREES MOST SHOWY IN BLOOM - -Sometimes a tree with very small flowers has such a multitude of them -that it attracts more attention and admiration when in blossom than the -trees with the largest flowers. A magnolia blossom as large as a cabbage -head must sacrifice delicacy to size. We must see it at a distance to -overlook its coarseness, and to escape its overpowering perfume. - -An orchard in early May is transformed into fairyland by the opening of -millions of buds. Apple trees have just begun to unfold the new leaves. -They are pale green, and coated with white hairs, so that a silvery cloud -rests on the tree when the white blossoms, warmed with a tinge of pink, -come with a rush that takes one's breath away. - -A single apple blossom has its five flaring petals inside of five green -sepals that are the bud's green overcoat. The stamens are many; the -pistils five in the centre of the flower. The plan of the flower is five. -The green lump below the blossom is the apple, already forming. Inside it -are the five cells of the core, and each has its seeds already forming, -if the five pistils have each caught a grain of pollen for each of the -embryo seeds its chamber of the core contained. - -The delicate colour and rich fragrance of the apple orchard are -enchanting. To the honey bees these two signals call to a feast of -nectar. All unknown to them, they carry pollen on their furry bodies from -flower to flower, and thus enable the pistils to set seed. If the days -are damp and there are frequent showers while the apple trees are in -bloom, the bees are kept at home, and there will be but a small crop of -apples. Fortunately for the bees and for us, the blossoms do not all come -out on the same day. The trees and the bees are hopeful till the last -moment that the sun will shine, and the nectar be gathered, before the -opportunity of the year passes. - -Flowers much like apple blossoms in form cover the twigs of hawthorn -trees. They are usually in many-flowered clusters, set off by the green -leaves. Fragrance, sometimes sickening sweet, draws the bees and other -insects to these trees. Nectar drips from the blossoms of some species. -The thorny branches spread sidewise, holding the blossoms out in wide -platforms. The red fruits, called haws, adorn the trees in late summer. - -Plum and cherry trees are laden with white bloom, and heavy with -fragrance. Some species haven't a leaf when they bloom. And these are -among the showiest of blossoming trees. In these flowers there are single -pistils, and but a single grain of pollen is needed to set seed. The -single seed is the pit, or stone, of this family known as the trees with -stone fruits. - - - TREES THAT BLOOM IN MIDSUMMER - -In spring the big chestnut tree is late in putting out its leaves. It is -May before the bare limbs are clothed with green. This crown is made of -long, pointed leaves, each short-stemmed, strongly ribbed, with parallel -veins on each side of the midrib, polished and sharp-toothed along its -margin. It is a superb dome of unusually handsome leaves. - -When the flower procession is long past and the grain fields have turned -yellow, and the mower and reaper are humming busily, the chestnut's crown -turns from green to gold, as if to harmonise with the landscape of -midsummer. Each twig ends in a feathery yellow plume, which waves in the -breezes, and sheds its yellow pollen abroad. The fertile flowers are at -the base of the plume. As the yellow pollen flowers fade, the green scaly -ones below them are swelling. They are the young chestnuts. The long -tongue each held out to catch pollen when it was ready for use. Each -flower has three nuts as its full quota to form. Failure to be pollenated -may cause one of the three to fail. The husk will then contain two nuts. - -[Illustration: Leaves and flowers of the ear-leaved cucumber tree are the -largest in the magnolia family] - -[Illustration: The orange-yellow flower cups and squared leaves of the -tulip tree] - -In May the yellow locust trees still stand along the roadsides, or herded -together along the banks of streams, bare and ugly, while the trees -around them are beautifully clothed in their green garments, and adorned -with blossoms. The dead pods still cling to the locust's branches, and -not even the buds are in sight to prove the twigs alive. - -Suddenly the trees wake, push out their hidden buds into shoots which -unfold leaves made of tiny leaflets. The leafy spray is light and -graceful, pale green with a silvery sheen at first. Soon the leaves are -inundated with a flood of white blossoms, fragrant with their nectar, -which hang in clusters from each twig. The bees see the white cloud on -the locust tree, and hurry to the feast. Each curious pea-like flower has -a honey pot in its horned petal. Throughout the summer the locust trees -wave their fern-like leaves, among which the young pods swing, rosy and -green, and velvety soft. The two thorns at the base of each leaf are -there, but they are not conspicuous, unless you grasp a limb; then they -let you know where they are, and what they can do. - -On a summer evening we shall see that the locust has closed its leaves, -folding the opposite leaflets together, and the whole leaf drooping from -its stem. It reminds us of the old-fashioned sensitive plant whose leaves -resembled these, folded its leaflets and drooped whenever it was touched. -Indeed, the locust tree and these plants are near relatives. The locust -leaves are sensitive to the evening air. They close if a rain comes up, -but open when the sun comes out again and the sky clears. - -Locust trees have an insect enemy which bores into the solid wood, and -ruins it for lumber. Even the twigs are swollen and distorted by these -insects, which feed upon the rich sap that should go to feed the tree. It -is impossible to reach this enemy with poison, so the trees are helpless. - -Except for this unfortunate fact, locusts would be a profitable crop to -raise for timber. Locust wood is very hard, durable, and strong. It is -slow to decay when in water, so it is valuable for fence posts, and for -boat building. It is used for hubs and spokes of waggon wheels, and it is -an excellent fuel. The locust timber that reaches market comes from the -mountain slopes, where the locust-borer is thus far unknown. The range of -the tree is all over the Eastern states and west to the Rocky Mountains. -We shall not find them south of the latitude of Tennessee. - -[Illustration: Flowers, fruit, and the three different leaf patterns of -the sassafras tree] - -[Illustration: Waxy flower of the evergreen magnolia, usually eight -inches across when open] - -The catalpa's great heart-shaped leaves, as broad as a man's hat, come -out in May, but the leafy shoots grow a foot or more in length, and it is -well along toward Independence Day before the flower buds show streaks of -white above the foliage mass. The upturned twigs end in a spike of -blossoms, creamy in colour, but speckled within their wide throats with -purple and yellow. The rim of the flower cup is daintily scalloped, and -frilled, and the tree top is even more showy than the horse chestnut a -month earlier. - -There is stateliness, even stiffness, in the figure of a blossoming horse -chestnut--a pyramid of green holding up a thousand pyramids of white. The -catalpa has a round head, and the loose flower clusters are quite -informal in their arrangement. The flowers nod gracefully on their -stems--a thing the horse chestnut flowers are unable to do. - -Why are the dots of colour sprinkled in the throat of the flower? Why are -they arranged in lines that lead to the nectar sac? To guide the bees -which come in swarms in answer to the signals of colour and fragrance the -flowers fling out as lures to them. - -The two stamens are ripe before the pistil. The bee rubs the pollen off -by crowding into the flower. Some of this dust is bound to be rubbed off -on the ripe stigma of an older blossom visited by this bee. Thus, -unconsciously the bee helps the tree to set good seed. Of these we will -study when we come to the tree again in autumn. Only a hint of the seed -vessel is given by looking at the oldest flower in a cluster, and -noticing the green part at the base. - -The linden or basswood holds its arms out so that the broad leaves are -exposed to the sun in slanting strata, or platforms of shade, that strike -downward. The tree's frame is roofed in with them in an almost unbroken -thatch of green. Cattle love to crop this foliage, and to enjoy the dense -shade on a hot day. - -In July the dark green is illuminated by thousands of starry white -blossoms, a few at the end of a slender stem that rises out of a pale -green, leaf-like blade. There is nothing like it borne on any other tree. - -The news that the basswoods are in bloom reaches the hives in good time. -One is able to hear the murmur of bees as far as he can see the flowers, -but the fragrance travels much farther. Basswood honey is higher in price -than other kinds. Is this the reason the bees are so hard at work? Small -as the individual flowers are, they have an unusual supply of nectar, and -the bees revel in the plenty of what will feed them and yield wax. They -make honey while the sun shines, counting the basswoods their best source -of the crude materials for honeymaking. It was so in the days of old. -Greek poets sang of the honey-laden lindens. Honey made from linden trees -in the Lithuanian forests was carried to Rome, where it sold for three -times the price of ordinary honey. - -Bees swarm, and the new colony often takes to the woods and sets up -housekeeping in a hollow tree. This is so likely in the Southern states -to be a linden that "bee tree" is a familiar name of this tree. - - - THE EARLY BERRIES IN THE WOODS - -Robins come to our cherry trees in June, and they hunt for our -strawberries under the green leaves. The blackberries come on, and the -raspberries, and currants. The birds look at them with calculating eyes. -An appetite for berries is inherited in them, learned in the woods, where -wild berries have grown, and ripened for them, from the times long before -there were gardens and cultivated fruits. - -Back in the woods we shall find wild berries ripening, and birds feasting -thankfully upon them. The harvest begins with the June-berries in the -month of June. Serviceberries they are also called, and the tree is known -also as the shadbush. We remember the lovely veil of white blossoms this -tree put on before its leaves came out. In June we might not know the -trees, except that they bear red berries, few on a cluster, and here the -birds are feasting. - -There is no other tree with berries that ripen so early, unless it be the -broad-leaved mulberry. Here, too, the birds will be found in numbers. -Turn back the wide, heart-shaped leaves, and you will find the single -berries of all sizes, some green, some reddening and soft. They are like -blackberries, each made of many tiny berries, grown together. - -The beauty of the mulberry is that its fruit keeps coming on from June -until August. It is a very slow, easy-going tree, in no hurry to have its -harvest over. The birds like the soft, seedy berries, which to our taste -are insipid. - -It is a shrewd thing to plant mulberry trees on the edges of fruit -gardens, and set a row of June-berry trees along the road outside the -cherry orchard. It is the scarcity of wild berries that brings the birds -into our gardens. Many a fruit-grower has saved his crop by planting wild -berry trees for the birds. - -The elders are shrubby trees with large, fern-like leaves. They lift up -flat, white flower clusters, sometimes as large as dinner plates, in -June, and in the middle of summer dark red berries are ripening where the -flowers were. Here is another feast for the birds, and elderberry pies -are the reward of boys and girls who gather the berries, and take them -home to mother. Grandma thinks of elderberry wine, so good for many -ailments, and if the berries are plenty it is easy to gather a bucketful -to make a few pints of this old-fashioned cordial. - -Among the shining green leaves of the wild red cherry tree the little -fruits glow like rubies in the summer. Here is a feast for the birds. We -find these small pin cherries very thin-fleshed, and sour, and the -biggest of them is no larger than a pea. But how the birds love them! The -bird cherry is indeed the bird's tree. In blossom it belongs to the bees, -which come in swarms for nectar. To them, unconscious carriers of pollen -from flower to flower, the birds owe a debt of gratitude. They insure the -setting of seed, and this means a big crop of fruit. - -The wild black cherry is later with its shining clusters of dark red -cherries. They come in September, when the birds' procession has turned -southward. The earliest comers hold high carnival in these trees, devour -quantities of the bitter-sweet fruit, and drop the seeds near and far. -The wind can do little in scattering the seeds of fruit trees. The birds -are the chief agents of distribution. - - - THE SASSAFRAS - -The sassafras is not important as a forest tree, yet I do not know -another to whom so many kinds of people, of all ages, go, asking for -favours this tree alone can give. Even in regions where the tree does not -grow, its name is well known. Sassafras tea has a world-wide reputation -as a cure for "spring fever," otherwise known as "that tired feeling." -Drug store windows are piled high in spring with bits of the corky bark -of the sassafras roots, and the buds in winter taste of the same aromatic -oil, whose flavour rises from a steaming pot of sassafras tea. Many a -bad-tasting medicine is made more palatable by a drop or two of oil of -sassafras. - -The leaves and twigs of young sassafras trees are used in the South to -flavour and thicken gumbo soups. The wood of sassafras is light and -tough. The long limbs are cut and stripped by country boys going fishing, -who know what trees yield the best fishing rods. Sassafras posts last a -long while, for the wood does not rot in contact with soil, or soaked -with water. It makes good boats and barrels for this same reason. - -Children know the sassafras tree. In winter they nibble the dainty green -buds, or dig away the snow at the roots to get a morsel of the aromatic -bark. In summer it is the leaves that are the chief charm of the tree. It -is a fascinating game to look for the "mittens and double mittens," which -seem to be more numerous than the plain oval leaves on this tree. There -is no other tree that has three distinct leaf shapes. The mitten form has -its thumb just right, on one side. It might be used for a mitten pattern. -There are lefts and rights, and mittens of all sizes. The doll-sized ones -are the youngest, and they grow near the tips of the twigs. The double -mittens have a thumb on each side, and the simple oval shape--the hand -part with no thumb at all--is usually harder to find than either of the -others. - -When looking for these strange leaf shapes, there is always a chance of -coming upon a strange inhabitant of the sassafras tree. A great green -caterpillar is lying at ease upon a hammock of silk, which he has spun -for himself. There he lies, and gazes at the startled person who -discovers him. Are those really eyes, or only black spots? They probably -scare away birds which are looking for worms. The effect of the two "eye -spots" is almost as surprising as if two rolling eyeballs glared at the -intruder, and threatened violence if he came near. - -Carry home this fearsome green mummy on the leaf; put him in a cage made -of wire screen, and watch him. He needs no food, for he is asleep. When -he awakes his mummy case will split open, and out of it will emerge a -wonderful butterfly, with banded wings of black and yellow velvet, and -long, tapering points trailing behind, which gives him his name--the -swallow-tailed butterfly. He has a flexible tongue, an inch or more in -length, coiled like a watch spring. With it he will probe the tubes of -flowers, and find the nectar at the base of each. He is hungry now, so -let him go. Turn him loose in a bed of flowers, and you may see just how -he feeds. - -When the mother butterfly laid its tiny green egg on the face of an open -leaf of the sassafras, the tree was probably in blossom. In June, -delicate, starry, greenish-yellow flowers come out in clusters on the -ends of twigs. The butterfly finds nectar in these fragrant and dainty -blossoms. In the autumn birds come and feast upon the blue berries which -look very handsome on their red stems. Indeed, it is quite usual for the -trees to be stripped while the berries are still green, so hungry are the -birds that stop to feed on their long journey to the South. - -In the autumn the sassafras trees change colour from the brilliant green -of summer. All colours of the sunset, purple, red, and golden, blend in -these shining tree tops. A clump of sassafras and sweet gum trees, with -here and there a tupelo and a dogwood, a scarlet oak and a hard maple, -make a picture never to be forgotten. If the roadside trees were on fire, -they would not show any more vivid colouring. It is their glorious -good-bye to the year, before they all let their leaves fall and enter -into the sleep of winter. - - - THE ASH FAMILY - -The trees whose leaves are set opposite upon the twigs are few in the -American woods compared with those whose leaves alternate. The maples -have the opposite arrangement of leaves; so have the dogwoods. These -trees have simple leaves. The horse chestnuts and buckeyes have their -leaves set opposite, and these leaves are compound: five or seven -leaflets rise from the end of the stout leaf stem. The ash family is -another large group of trees, with leaves set opposite on the twigs. -These leaves are compound, but of a different pattern from those of the -horse chestnut. The leaf stem has the leaflets arranged in pairs along -its sides. This is the feather type of compound leaf, seen in the locust -family, and among walnuts and hickories. - -Ash trees are recognised by their opposite compound leaves. There is -another sign: the fruit has a dry seed, pointed and winged like a dart. -There is no other seed exactly like those of the ash. The seed clusters -hang on the bare twigs, far into winter. The twigs are stout, and set in -pairs on the branches. The trees grow large, and their tops are regular -and handsome. The bark is close, broken by shallow fissures into small, -often diamond-shaped plates. - -Our common ash trees are distinguished by colour, as the names indicate. -A few well-marked differences are shown by the species, which are often -found growing together in mixed woods. - -The white ash is a tall, handsome, stately tree, with a trunk like a grey -granite column. The white in its name is from the pale leaf linings, that -illuminate the tree top in summer. The twigs are pale, and the bark is -often as pale grey as that of a white oak. The slender, dart-like seeds -are one to two inches long, with a wing which is twice the length of the -round, tapering seed. They hang in thick clusters, paler green than the -leaves, and often flushed with a rosy tinge in late summer. All winter -the wind harvests the crop of seeds, and plants young white ashes -wherever the darts fall on good ground. - -The black ash is a slender, upright tree, with narrow head and stout -twigs. The plump, leathery buds on the winter twigs are almost black, and -the bark is a very dark grey. The foliage in summer is much darker green -than that of any other ash, so the name is earned by buds, bark, and -leaves. The seeds are flat and short, and the wing is broad and short, -and deeply notched. A black ash leaf has all its leaflets stemless except -the one at the tip. The white ash has a much fleecier foliage than that -of the black, because each leaflet has a stem of its own. - -The wood of the black ash splits readily into thin sheets, each -representing the growth of a single year. The Indians taught the white -men to make baskets out of black ash splints. They cut the tree down, -sawed the log into the lengths required, split the blocks into pieces as -wide as the splints should be. These sticks were bent over a board, and -the strain separated the bands of dense, tough wood into the thin strips -just right for basket weaving. - -The red ash is a small, spreading tree, with a close head, slender -branches, and crowded twigs. Its bark is reddish, closely furrowed, and -scaly. The young twigs are covered with soft hairs. The leaves are a -shiny yellow-green above, often a foot long, made of seven to nine -slender leaflets, whose stems and veins have a silky down, that remains -all summer. - -Red ash seeds are extremely slender and long, and they hang on hairy -stems. - -The green ash has dark, lustrous foliage, the leaf lining green, like its -upper surface. The bark is grey, and closely checked, and the twigs are -smooth and slender. - -This is the ash tree which grows in the regions of scant rainfall; in -Utah, Arizona, and Texas. In the East it is found from Virginia to -Florida. It is one of the beautiful shade trees in the regions where few -trees grow well. East of the Alleghenies it is but one among many ash -trees, and is little noticed; but in the far West, and on the treeless -plains of Nebraska and Dakota, it is a far handsomer tree than its -companions, the willows and the cottonwoods. - -[Illustration: Fruits, leaves and flowers of basswood tree, called also -linden] - -[Illustration: Chestnut trees blossom in July, and the nuts drop after -the first severe frost] - -The blue ash is common on the rich river lands along the principal -tributaries of the Mississippi. Some of the finest specimens grow on the -limestone hills of the Smoky Mountains. It is a tall, graceful, -grey-stemmed ash. We shall know it anywhere as an ash tree by its -opposite twigs and leaves, and by its dart-like fruits. It differs from -all other ash trees in having four-angled twigs. The tree has a kind of -blue dye in its inner bark. Cut out a piece and put it in water, and it -is as if you had added a few grains of indigo. - -The blue ash ranks high as a shade tree, and its wood is quite the equal -of white ash. It is used for vehicles, for flooring, and for tool -handles. It is especially desired for pitchfork handles. - -The native ash of Europe is a large timber tree, whose range extends -through Asia Minor. The wood of this tree had a wonderful reputation for -general usefulness. Its tough, thin inner bark was used to write on -before paper was invented. The wood was used for lances and spears, for -bows, pikes, and shields by the soldiers, during ancient times. Every -tool, vehicle, and implement of the farmer and mechanic were made of this -wood. "Every prudent lord of a manor should employ one acre of ground -with ash to every twenty acres of other land. In as many years it would -be worth more than the land itself." - -The seeds of ash trees were used for fattening pigs. They were also used -as remedies for many diseases. They were called birds' tongues, from -their shape, and every apothecary kept a stock of them. Ash wood makes -the best of fuel, and its ashes, rich in potash, make a splendid -fertiliser, especially in orchards. - -One warning the old English rhyme offers regarding this tree. It is -supposed to attract lightning. Oaks have the same reputation. On the -other hand, tradition holds that a beech tree is never struck by -lightning. There is opportunity, where these trees grow, and where -thunderstorms are frequent, to notice how true are the popular beliefs. - -Have you ever been warned by this old rhyme? - - "Beware of the oak, it draws the stroke; - Avoid the ash, it courts the flash; - Creep under the thorn--it will save you from harm." - - - THE HORSE-CHESTNUT AND THE BUCKEYES - -When an English lad speaks of a chestnut, he means the horse-chestnut, -and the chances are that he does not know anything about the American -trees, whose sweet nuts we gather in the woods at home after the frost -has opened their spiny burs. In America the European tree is planted very -commonly for ornament and shade, and it is always called horse-chestnut -here, except by English cousins who may be visiting us. - -They ask us why we put the word "horse" before this tree's name. For -answer we pull down a twig, snap off a leaf, and show the scar of the -leaf's attachment to the twig. It is somewhat like the print of a horse's -hoof on the ground. Even the horseshoe nails are there, for a thread from -each leaflet goes down through the leaf stem, and its fibres are buried -in the twig. There are five or seven of these nail prints in the scar, -depending upon the number of leaflets. Five is the usual number, but -seven is not at all unusual. - -An old tradition states that the people of Eastern countries feed these -chestnuts to their horses to cure them of cough, shortness of breath, and -other lung disorders. Upon this is based a second claim for using the -word "horse" before this tree's name. The quality of the fruit, however, -is probably the best answer to the question. The coarse, large nuts are -not fit for human food. It is quite common to think that horses can eat -things too rank for our more fastidious taste. Horse sugar is the name of -a small tree whose sweetish twigs are browsed upon by cattle and horses -in wooded pastures. Horse-radish and horse-mint are coarser, more -rank-growing kinds of plants, than their closely related species which -are used for human food. - -We shall know the horse-chestnut in the dead of winter by the large buds, -the large hoof-print leaf scars, and by the pyramidal form of the tree. -The twigs are stout, and they turn upward so that the largest of the -varnished buds are held up like candles. The main branches leave the -trunk with an upward curve, then bend outward and downward, then up again -to hold the buds upright. The tree looks, therefore, like a great complex -candlestick, with many arms and many candles. The twigs are stout, and -they come out opposite each other on the branch. This is a peculiarity of -few trees. It belongs to all of the members of the horse-chestnut family, -which includes the buckeye trees, our native horse-chestnuts. - -In early spring, watch the horse-chestnut tree outside your windows and -along the streets as they begin to swell, and until they finally open. -The tree lights all its candles when the brown, varnished outer bud -scales fall, and the soft, silky inner ones, yellow as a candle flame, -are revealed. On the side twigs the buds are smaller than on the tips. -Out of each small bud comes a bunch of leaves. Out of the big buds come -the flowers. - -In June a big horse-chestnut tree holds up a thousand pyramids of white -blossoms. Below each flower duster is an umbrella-like circle of leaves. -Each blossom of the dense spike has in its throat dashes of yellow and -red. The petals form a ruffled border. The curving stamens are thrust far -out. Bees come in search of pollen and nectar. - -After the flowers pass, green fruits appear, a few in a cluster, and all -covered with spines. Not many of these reach full size. It seems to be -enough for the tree to ripen one or two fruits in a cluster. In the -autumn they turn brown, and the husk splits into three equal parts. Out -of this spreading husk the brown nuts fall. - -Now the boys assail the tree with sticks and stones, and the harvest of -nuts is on. Who does not love them for their beauty alone? The great -white spot is the place where they were attached to the husk. The kernel -is as bitter as gall, and I know of no animal which eats it. If any one -counts them useless, let him see the hoards of them which children -gather, and use in their play. He will change his mind completely. Their -glowing, soft colour is a feast to the eye, and they just fit the hand. - - - THE BUCKEYES - -The Ohio buckeye is a little tree, but it has given its name to the -Buckeye State. There must have been many of them in the virgin forest -that the Ohio pioneer cut down to make room for his crops of corn and -grain. He noticed these trees particularly because of a disagreeable -odour that comes from the bitter sap. The chopping and handling of these -trees intensifies this odour, which is noticeable even when one drives -past a growing tree. - -The name was given by some imaginative person who saw a resemblance -between the smooth brown nuts and the soft brown eyes of a buck. The -white of the eye corresponds to the dash of white on the nut. Deer -abounded in the virgin forests, and no doubt it was one of the first -settlers, a hunter as well as a farmer, who named the tree. - -The flowers and leaves resemble those of the horse-chestnut, but are -smaller, as the tree is. The number of leaflets is five, rarely seven, -and they cluster on the end of a long leaf stem. The flowers appear in -April and May, and are not conspicuous, for they are yellowish-green, and -make little contrast with the new leaves. - -One thing is to be said in favour of this ill-smelling tree. Its wood has -been found to be the best kind for the making of artificial limbs. To -this special use the lumber is chiefly devoted. - -The sweet buckeye lacks the disagreeable odour of the Ohio buckeye, and -its nuts are eaten by cattle. It is a handsome, large tree, with leaves -of five slim leaflets, more or less hairy below, and on the veins above. -The flowers are yellow and showy. Each corolla is drawn out into a tube, -like a honeysuckle's. The husks of the nuts are smooth. This species -grows from Western Pennsylvania along the mountain slopes to Alabama, and -on the prairies westward to Iowa. The nuts are full of starch, and these -are ground into flour, which is used by bookbinders in making their -paste. The reason why this paste is preferred is that destructive insects -do not eat it as they do paste made of wheat flour. - -A red-flowered buckeye tree of small size grows wild from Missouri to -Texas, and east into Tennessee to Northern Alabama. This is not the same -as the red horse-chestnut, which is sometimes seen in cultivation as a -handsome tree, twenty to thirty feet high. - -In the far West, the California buckeye is a wide-topped tree of good -size, with leaves of the true horse-chestnut type, and white or -rose-coloured flowers, in showy clusters, and smooth, pear-shaped nuts. -This is the only one of our native species which grows beyond the Rocky -Mountains. - - - THE LOCUSTS AND OTHER POD-BEARERS - -When you find a tree with flat pods, containing a row of seeds, you may -be sure it is a locust, or one of the family to which locusts belong. It -is a near relative of the peas and beans that grow in the vegetable -garden. This is a great and valuable family to the human race, for it -furnishes some of the most valuable foods upon which the people of all -countries live. Only one family, the grasses, is more important. This -includes not only grasses that are used for making hay, but all the -grains--wheat, barley, rice, oats, and corn, that make the bread of the -world, and forage crops for horses and cattle. The banana and sugar cane -and bamboos are in this wonderful grass family. - -Along the roadsides, along rivers, and in the woods grow the black or -yellow locusts that bloom in June, covering their ugly limbs with a -cataract of white, pea-like blossoms, in large clusters. All summer the -slim, thin pods are velvety and green, with a lovely flush of rose, as -they swing among the feathery, fern-like leaves. In autumn the pods turn -brown, and in winter, when the wind can switch them against the bare -twigs, they split, and one by one, the hard little seeds are shaken out. -They are too heavy to be carried in the wind. So we see little locusts -coming up among the old ones, and on the outer edges of the clump. - -No tree is so discouraged-looking, unkempt, and diseased as a black -locust infested with the borers, and stripped of the foliage that covered -its thin, irregular limbs in the summer time. The buds, even, are hidden, -and the tree looks as if life had left it. But the late spring denies the -rumour by clothing the dead-looking twigs with foliage whose tender -shadings and delicate leaf forms make it one of the most graceful and -lovely of all native trees. - -Unfortunately, we cannot have locusts of this species in this Eastern -country without exposing them to the attacks of insects against which we -cannot defend the trees. The eggs are laid in clefts of the bark, and the -grubs hatch quite out of reach of poisons and other damaging spraying -solutions. They feed on the living substance under the bark, and their -presence is shown by swellings above their burrows. Twigs, limbs, and -trunks are distorted, and gradually the tree loses vitality, and the wood -is made worthless by the honeycombing it receives. Only in the -mountainous parts of its range does the black locust reach its best -growth. No tree has better lumber for posts and other uses requiring -durability in contact with the soil and with water. - -The clammy locust is a pink-flowered species with a sticky substance -exuding from the hairy surface of new shoots. The flowers are lovely but -scentless. The trees are much planted in parks and on lawns as an -ornament, in all temperate climates. - -The honey locust earns its name in the summer time, when the curving -green pods are full of a sweet, gelatinous pulp. Boys would like to get -these honey pods, but the vicious thorns permit no climbing of the trees. -Stoning and other throwing of missiles is a slow and unsatisfactory means -of obtaining the forbidden fruit that hangs so high. By the time they -ripen and fall off the pods are bitter as gall. - -An old-world relative has thick, purple pods, which are sweet and -palatable when ripe. These are brought to this country, and sold on small -fruit stands under the name, St. John's bread. It is said that this was -the food of John the Baptist in the wilderness. - -The Kentucky coffee tree is the coarsest member of the locust family in -our woods. Its pods are thick and short, and the seeds inside are as -large as hazel nuts. In the story of the Revolutionary War, the patriotic -citizens refused to pay duties on imported goods. The seeds of this -locust were used as a substitute for coffee. I have tasted the bitter -outside of one of these nuts, and tried to break one with a hammer, but -unsuccessfully. It is not easy to understand how a beverage made of such -a nut could have been fit to drink. The name of the tree seems to give -colour of truth to the tradition. - -A coffee tree much like our native species grows in China. We may believe -that it is called by another name, for the people use its heavy pods for -soap. Whether green or ripe, I do not know. - -The club-like branches of our coffee tree give it a burly, clumsy -appearance in winter, when nothing conceals them from view. The dangling -pods rattle against the bare, stubby twigs, calling attention to their -lack of grace and symmetry. Even the buds are out of sight, buried under -the thin bark, just above the big leaf scars. All winter the wind strives -with the stubborn pods. When one is torn off, it lies unopened until -melting snow softens it, and the horny seed lies long before it is able -to sprout. - -A thin pod adorns the most delicate of the locust trees. This is the -little red bud, a flat-topped tree, of slender, thornless branches, most -of them horizontal. Early in spring this tree earns its name. Quantities -of rosy magenta, pea-shaped flowers cluster on its slim, angular twigs, -quite covering the smaller branches. It is an unusual colour, and an -unusual time to see pea-blossoms. You cannot forget it, if you have seen -the tree once. - -The leaves that soon follow are as unusual as the flowers. Roundish, -heart-shaped, smooth, and shining as if polished, they flutter on thin, -flexible stems, and the slim pods hang among them. They ripen and turn -from green to rich purple when the leaves change to bright yellow. The -hard little seeds are close together in the pods, so that they are -numerous, though the pods are but two or three inches long. - -I do not know when the red bud is most charming. Certainly its autumn -garment of yellow is beautiful, trimmed with a fringe of purple pods. It -is a royal robe, and so fresh and new-looking when the foliage of so many -larger trees is faded and in tatters. The trees that hide in the shelter -of larger ones can often save their leaves from wear and tear, and this -the red bud does. - -Judas tree is the name by which the red bud of Europe is commonly called. -It is one of a few species to which an ugly tradition has been fastened -by custom. It is said that this is the kind of tree upon which Judas -Iscariot hanged himself. Our little American tree has had to share the -disgrace, for it looks like its European cousin. The name to use is the -true one. - -Nurserymen have imported a large-flowered red bud from China. Its flowers -are not only more showy, but they have a paler, prettier colour--a rosy -pink, and lacking the sad, blue tone of the others. - -It is easy to raise red bud trees, and they are admirable in the border -planting of a garden or lawn. They begin to blossom when quite young, and -they never grow so large as to be out of place among shrubbery. - -The yellow-wood has larger and lovelier blossom clusters than the black -locust, with which it might most easily be confused. In autumn the flower -stems hang full of thin pods, one to three seeds in a pod. No other -locust is so scantily supplied with seeds in a pod. - -In summer the leaflets prove that the tree is not a black locust. They -are larger and fewer, though of the same feathered type. In the seasons -when the tree blooms freely, which is by no means every year, the twigs -are loaded with clusters larger than any black locust produces. In winter -it is the bark that distinguishes the tree. It is grey and smooth, like -that of the beech; not at all like the dark trunk and rough limbs of the -locust. The form of the tree is a regular head of horizontally-spreading -limbs, ending in tapering twigs that droop gracefully. It is one of the -handsomest trees in winter. The locust is one of the weediest and ugliest -of trees when bare. - -To find the yellow-wood in its native haunts, we must go to the mountains -of Eastern Tennessee and North Carolina. It goes farther north and south, -but its range is scant. Better chance of our meeting it in our -neighbour's yard. It is cultivated as a flowering tree by people who -appreciate the finest trees that grow wild in American woods. The -nurserymen call it Virgilia. This is certainly a graceful name, fitted to -a tree that deserves only the best. - -The catalpas are pod-bearers of a different type. Their long pencils are -green, and there is no sign of splitting until autumn. The seeds are not -like those of the flat pods, set in a single row. They are thin as tissue -paper, and packed in overlapping layers about the thin partition that -divides the pod into two compartments. - -The pods hang on after the large, heart-shaped leaves fall. Winter winds -bang them against the twigs, and their two sides separate lengthwise. -Gradually the thin, two-winged seeds escape, and are scattered. The -sowing lasts a long time. - -Willows and poplars have pods of a sort, but like neither locusts nor -catalpas. The seeds are very minute in each family, and carried in -delicate wisps of cottony down. The pods open by splitting down their -walls, along two or four lines, curling back the dry segments, and thus -letting the seeds escape. These trees are early in scattering their -seeds. The true pod-bearers are late about it. - - - WILD APPLE TREES AND THEIR KIN - -Go out into the woods, and you will find wild crab apple trees, bearing -hard, sour little apples, unfit to eat. Four distinct kinds are native to -this country. In Eastern Asia wild apple trees grow in greater variety -than here. Our orchard apple trees are descended from these Oriental wild -apples, which were brought under cultivation long before America was -discovered. Nurserymen in Europe and Japan have for centuries worked with -the wild species to improve them. The Japanese worked to produce finer -flowering trees. European horticulturists desired finer and larger fruit. -American orchards show how well they have succeeded. For over a century -American horticulture has made marked progress. Many valuable kinds of -fruit have originated in this country. Our own wild apples are now -studied with the aim of bringing them into cultivation, just as the -Asiatic species were improved centuries ago. It is a wonderful work, -accomplished by crossing, grafting, budding, by fertilising, and good -tillage,--processes too special to be explained in this book. - -The taming of wild apples, however, is one of the great achievements of -the centuries. Every boy and every girl who enjoys the eating of a fine -apple will wish to know how such glorious fruit, in abundance sufficient -to supply the world's needs, has been produced from such unpromising -beginnings as the gnarled little crab trees scattered through the woods, -and dwarfed by the larger forest trees that overshadowed them. - -"Grafting" or "budding" a little tree insures that the fruit it bears -later on will be of the variety of the tree from which the scions came. -Only once in a long while does a good variety of fruit come on a seedling -tree. Plant the seed of the best apple you ever ate, and then wait a -dozen years or more for this tree to bear fruit. The chances are -ninety-nine to one that the apples turn out to be miserable, sour, or -tasteless nubbins, like the roadside apples, that nobody planted. It is -too expensive to experiment in hope of getting good varieties from seed. - -"Johnny Appleseed" was a funny old fellow who wandered up and down the -Ohio valley states, and planted apple seeds wherever he went. Queer, and -perhaps crazy, he was a kindly soul, who dreamed of the days when -orchards should dot the landscape, and be a part of every farm homestead. -He did what he could to make the wild prairie wilderness blossom and bear -fruit. No doubt many pioneer orchards came from his planting. Seedling -trees, all of them, for he believed firmly that it is _wrong_ to graft a -tree! - -Each year better and bigger apples are shown at fairs, and fruit shows. -The history of apple culture is full of interest. It requires hundreds of -books to tell the story. But any man who has an orchard can tell you how -his trees were made into the varieties he ordered at the nursery. He may -show you how grafting and budding is done, and how a tree may be made -over in a few years to change entirely the kind of apple it bears. He may -show a tree that bears distinct kinds of apples on different limbs, and -show you the scar of the graft from which each new variety has sprung. -When you are old enough, you can grow apple trees from seed, and graft or -bud them to the variety you choose,--greening, russet, northern -spy--taking your scions from a tree whose apples are especially fine. It -is a fascinating game to play, with the soil, and the sun, and the rain -all working with you to help you win. - -Meanwhile, the wild apple, though worthless as a fruit tree, is well -worth knowing. No well-fed orchard tree has charm to compare with this -wild thing when spring transforms its ugly, thorny twigs. - -The rosy blossoms of the wild crab apple come out of a multitude of -coral-red buds which open just after the leaves. The gnarled limbs are -bare and ugly, until late in May. Then the silvery, velvet leaves unfold, -scarcely green at first, because each one wears so thick a garment of -soft, white hairs. Before the leaves have lost this velvet coat, the -flower buds begin to glow, and the tree top is soon blushing with the -blossoms, and the air is full of their spicy fragrance. - -[Illustration: An old apple orchard is a fairy land indeed when blossoms -cover the trees] - -[Illustration: Nothing tastes so good as ripe apples picked right off the -tree!] - -Their charm is the charm of the wild rose. Their arrangement on the -gnarled twigs is irregular. The artist loves the unstudied grace of it. -The great botanist, Linnaeus, probably saw only pressed specimens, but he -named the tree _coronaria_, which means, "fit for crowns and garlands." - -I remember gathering the little green apples in the fall. Hard, and -almost bitter, when eaten out of hand, they make a jelly that is as -distinct and delightful in its way as the flowers are more admirable than -common apple blossoms. The taste is wild, and almost bitter, but beside -it ordinary apple jelly tastes insipid. Perhaps I am prejudiced, and the -memory of that wild crab-apple jelly too remote to be depended upon. But -many people agree with me. If you are in the woods in October, and come -to a thicket of trees bearing flat, yellow apples, pick as many as you -can carry home. Smell their spicy fragrance, and persuade your mother to -make them into jelly, so that you can form your own opinion of it. - -The Eastern crab apple grows over a large part of the region between the -Atlantic coast, and the dry plains east of the Rocky Mountains, and south -to Northern Alabama and Texas. The prairie crab, a different species, -grows in the Mississippi Valley. A narrow-leaved species grows in the -South, and the Oregon crab is the native wild apple of the woods, from -California north into Alaska. - -Quinces are core fruits, cousins of the apples. So are pears. All of our -orchard pears and quinces are cultivated varieties of species that once -grew wild in Europe or Asia. The Japanese quince in America is a hedge -plant which in spring covers its bare twigs with large, deep -rose-coloured flowers, and bears hard, freckled fruits that smell better -than they taste, in September. We know all these fruits, and have them in -our gardens, but they are foreigners here, though much at home. We have -no native pears or quinces in America. - - - THE CHERRIES - -Do you know the peculiar taste and odour of the pit of a cherry or peach? -Then you will recognise it without difficulty when you meet it in a -bruised leaf or twig of any tree that bears stone fruits, wild or -cultivated. It belongs to the family which includes plums, cherries, -peaches, apricots, and almonds. But one species of native cherry is a -large tree. It is chiefly as fruit trees that the cultivated varieties -are important. A few are grown for their beauty as flowering trees and -shrubs; some for their rich bronze foliage. - -The wild cherry is the one lumber tree in the family. Its wood ranks with -mahogany, though not so expensive as the tree which grows no nearer to us -than lower Florida and Central America. It is made into furniture or used -in the interior finishing of houses, parlour cars, and ocean liners. It -takes a beautiful polish, and has a rich brown colour that improves with -time. It is largely used as veneer on cheaper woods. "Solid cherry" is -likely to be birch, if the article is of modern make. - -This cherry has dark, shiny bark when young, which breaks into shallow -furrows, and curls back like birch bark. The unquestionable sign by which -to know a wild cherry is the bitter, peach-pit taste of the sap. Nibble a -leaf or twig or bit of bark, and you get that unforgettable taste, that -stays on the tongue longer than we like. - -Birds feast in September on the long clusters of dark purple berries. -They are bitter sweet, barely edible, I say. But birds take them -thankfully, and children usually eat them freely. Old-fashioned people -make them into wines or cordials for home remedies. - -The choke cherry is a shrubby tree, with a rank, disagreeable odour added -to the bitter and pungent odour that belongs to the black cherry. The -leaves are twice as wide as the black cherry's. The fruit shares the rank -quality of the leaves and bark. Until dead ripe, the cherries are so -bitter, harsh, and puckery that children, who eat the black cherries -eagerly, cannot be persuaded to taste choke cherries a second time. This -is well-named the "choke" cherry. Only the birds can eat the berries -without choking. They seem not to mind its rankness, for the fruit is all -taken by the time it has turned black-ripe. - -Early in summer the red bird cherry is in fruit, after its crown of white -blossoms has passed. The pit is large, and the flesh thin and sour, and -the whole fruit is discouragingly small. But birds are happy among the -shining leaves until the last cherry is gone. This is quite sufficient -appreciation. The seeds are dropped, and the little trees come up all -through the woods and in the most unexpected places, due to the birds' -scattering of the seeds. - -Garden cherries of the sweet and sour groups have sprung from wild -species that grow in Europe. The red, black, and yellow cherries of -California are the largest, most improved varieties. The garden cherries -of the Eastern states are not nearly so large. - -The native cherry of Japan has been cultivated as a flowering tree, until -it is wonderfully beautiful. In its season of bloom, Japan is a perfect -fairyland. The country is one great garden of pink cherry blossoms. At -this time the people turn out to see the marvellous sight. A national -holiday is dedicated to this tree, which is the symbol of happiness in -the Flower Kingdom. - - - THE PLUMS - -All plum trees are small in stature, and many are thorny by the -sharpening of side twigs, as if the struggle with adverse conditions made -it necessary to carry weapons of defence. I speak now of the wild -species. They grow in thickets, another habit of self-protection. - -The wild red and yellow plums that still grow in thickets along streams -in the great middle country between the East coast and the Rocky -Mountains, furnished an important article of food to the pioneer -families, which led the westward march of civilisation, and founded the -prairie states. Only people who remember those times, and actually took -part in the work of the pioneer, can know how valuable the wild fruits -were, while the young orchards were growing, and no fruit was to be had -for the greater part of the year. - -After the first heavy frost in September the plums were fit to eat. They -became soft, and sweet, and pleasant in flavour. But the skin was thick, -very sour and puckery, so eating plums was not an unmixed joy. - -When a team and part of the family could be spared from the farm work, a -day was taken for "plumming," and a happy and laborious day it was, but -always enjoyed in true holiday spirit. Usually neighbours joined in the -outing, and had a picnic dinner together in the woods. Only the oldest -clothes were worn, for in the plum thickets one must risk the ruin of his -raiment by the angular, thorny branches. Sheets were spread under the -trees where possible, and a severe shaking or beating of the branches -showered the fruit down. All hands were busy at gathering the plums, and -loading the waggons with the harvest. - -Perhaps there was time afterward for the boys to explore the hazel -thickets, and gather a generous bagful of these small, but deliciously -flavoured nuts, still in their husks. Wild grape vines, loaded with the -purple fruit, tempted the frugal wife to strip them, even though the sun -was low. For days after the return home, she was at work putting away for -winter use preserves and jellies and pickles, and good old-fashioned plum -and grape "butter," sweetened with molasses made from sorghum cane. - -Little plum trees, dug in the woods in early spring, were planted in the -home garden. By setting these carefully, and tilling and enriching the -soil around them, larger trees and finer fruit were produced than the -wild plum thicket could show. Some of the good cultivated plums have had -such an origin. - -A half dozen different species of wild plum grow wild in different soils -and regions of the United States. Where two grow in the same territory, -natural hybrids have originated, better than either parent in the quality -of their fruit. Such a cross has given rise to several varieties of -garden plums, of which the Miner group is a fair example. The best -orchard plums for the middle of the country are crosses between native -and Japanese species. The European species, like Damsons and Green Gages, -do well in the Eastern states, and on the Pacific slope. - -The prunes we buy are dried plums. For a century or two France has led -all countries in the prune industry. Now California leads. The kinds of -plums that can be dried are sweet and fleshy. Ordinary juicy plums cannot -be made into prunes. The hot sun of California soon takes all the -moisture out of the plums spread on tables to dry. There is no rain to -fear in the hot summer months. - -Peaches, nectarines, and apricots are stone fruits, closely related to -the plums and peaches. These Old World fruits are grown in the warm parts -of this country. California raises them in quantities. The most -profitable of the stone fruits has woody flesh, and is raised for its -pit, which we eat. This is the sweet almond, a valuable nut. Its related -species, the bitter almond, yields almond oil and hydrocyanic acid, both -important drugs. - - - THE SERVICEBERRIES - -In the same family with apples and plums and cherries is a group of -slender, pretty trees called June berry, serviceberry, and on the East -coast, shadbush. When the shadbush blossoms white, the fishermen know -that it is time to expect the shad, which are taken in nets when they run -up the rivers to spawn. The red berries are ripe in June, and the birds -celebrate the event, and even take them before they begin to redden. -Competition is strong, and the supply never equals the demand. Rarely can -a human berry-picker find a ripe berry, to discover how it tastes. - -The charm of this little tree is that it covers its slim branches so -early with white blossoms. The clusters are soft and feathery, and a warm -flush underlies the white, the ruddy, strap-shaped bracts, two of which -are under each flower. The dainty opening leaves are also ruddy, and -these have opened before the blossoms pass. - -In early April it is worth a long walk or drive through the woods to see -the scattered serviceberry trees standing out from the bare background of -leafless trees, lovely as any tree can ever be, in their robes of white. -Thereafter, they seem to retire from view, engulfed by the foliage -curtain the woodland draws about itself, as spring advances. - - - VALUABLE SAP OF TREES - -In early spring on the New Hampshire hillsides, the sap begins to mount -the trunks of the sugar maple trees, dissolving the sugar stored in the -wood cells during the previous summer. It is time for the making of maple -sugar. Winter is over. Spring work has begun. - -Hundreds of twigs of elder have been cut in short lengths, and the pith -pushed out, to make "spiles." Holes are bored in the trunks of the trees, -and in each hole one of these hollow spiles is driven. These are the -little spouts that drain the sap from the tree into the waiting buckets -that stand or hang below. Drip, drip, drip, the sweet sap flows into the -buckets; and as often as they fill, the farmer makes the rounds of the -trees with barrels on a low sled or "stone boat," emptying the buckets. - -The sap he gathers is poured into the evaporating pans in the sugar -house, and a roaring fire keeps it boiling. As the water goes off in -steam, the remainder becomes maple syrup, which thickens as it boils. -Skimming and straining removes any dirt or chips that fall into the sap. -When it is just thick enough, the syrup is drawn off into cans, and -sealed to be sent to market. A part of it, however, is boiled longer, and -when drawn off, and cooled, it crystalises into the granular yellow maple -sugar. It is cooled in shallow pans that hold a certain amount, and thus -the bricks of maple sugar are formed. Little heart-shaped cakes are made -by filling "patty pans" with this heavy syrup. - -As long as the sap flows in sufficient quantities, the sugar harvest goes -on. If the trees are bored with care, with holes not too close together, -the tree will stand this draining from year to year, and seem not to be -injured by the loss of sap. If the holes are close together, and extend -all around the trunk, the tree will be practically girdled and it will -die from the injury. - -The finest kind of maple sugar is the wax which is made by pouring heavy -syrup on the snow to cool. Quickly it thickens by the cold into stringy -yellow wax, which tastes like other maple sugar, but does not have the -unpleasant gritty feeling, which sets some teeth on edge. Maple wax may -be made at home, by melting the sugar, and pouring it into snow; but the -time and the place to enjoy it most, is in the sugar camp when the hot -syrup is poured from the long-handled ladle onto the nearest snow bank by -the person who is in charge of the boiling. The cold air of the woods -puts a keen edge on the appetite. The warm fire under the boiler takes -off the chill, and the silent woods all around give a charm to the scene -which one does not feel in any other place. - -Hickory sap is sweet. This is sometimes added to that of the maples when -maple trees are scarce. - -The sap of pine trees is a liquid called _resin_. The pine forests of the -South are rich stores of this resin, which we call also pitch. The crude -liquid drained from these trees is heated, and a light liquid called -_turpentine_ is drawn off. The remainder hardens, and is known as -_rosin_. The pine trees are tapped, not as the sugar trees of the North -are, but in a way that is far more injurious to the trees. Resin hardens -into gum when exposed to the air, so it is impossible to draw it out -through small tubes like spiles of elder that drain the maple sap. A -great gash is cut in the side of the trunk of a pine tree, forming a -pocket holding three pints or more. Now a square foot or more of the bark -above the pocket is cut off, and the wood is chipped to a depth of an -inch or more. The bleeding surface of the wood fills the pocket below -with resin, and a man comes around with pails and dipper to empty these -pockets as fast as they fill. The pails are carried to a still, where the -resin is poured into a tank and heated to draw off the limpid turpentine. - -Once a week, from March till November, more bark and wood, above the -scored surface, must be chipped to renew the flow of resin. If this fresh -wounding did not occur, the flow would cease, because the resin thickens -and hardens when exposed to the air. This stops up the pores of the wood. - -Fortunes have been made by the draining of these pine trees of their -rich, pitchy sap. Turpentine and tar and rosin are all products of the -sap of pines, and all are immensely valuable, especially in shipyards, -and in the provisioning of sea-going craft of all sorts. The term, "naval -stores," has been applied to the products of turpentine gathering. Our -forests supply most of these products to other countries. - -The sap of certain tropical trees hardens into rubber. This is one of the -most valuable of tree crops, for there is hardly a household that does -not have rubber articles of a dozen kinds that are daily used. Lacquer -varnish is the juice of certain sumach trees that grow in Japan. Gums of -fir trees have a special use in medicine, and in various arts. - -Sweet gum oozes from trees of that name. This is not noticeable in our -trees of the North, but if we follow the trees southward, the gum flow -increases. In Mexico it is an article of commerce, obtained by wounding -the bark of the trees. It is one of the staple glove perfumes in France. -It is also made into medicines, perfumes, and incense. - -The sap of wild cherry, holly, and buckthorn, of witch hazel and -sassafras all yield medicinal drugs. The flowers of locust, of basswood, -and all the fruit trees furnish nectar out of which bees make honey. The -juicy inner bark of the slippery elm is valuable for food, and as a -medicine. - - - THE USES OF TREES - -Imagine a stranger who has lived all his life in a desert where no trees -grow, coming suddenly into our village, and looking with wonder at the -trees that shade the streets. He knows only the spiny cactuses, and other -plants of the desert. His first question would be, "What are these great -plants that stand so tall?" The name, _tree_, is new to him. It would be -a strange experience to take such an eager and ignorant man and show him -the trees, on the streets, planted in orchards, and growing wild in the -woods outside of the town. His questions set us to thinking. He wants to -know why we plant trees, and how we use those that grow in forests. - -First, we tell him the uses of the living trees. Up and down the streets -they are set for shade, and for their beauty. Rows of evergreens set -close together make a protecting wall of green against the cold winds. -Low clipped hedges of many kinds of trees make living boundaries, much -more beautiful than wooden or wire fences. On lawns and near houses trees -are planted for their beauty and for their shade. Orchards of fruit trees -are planted because they furnish food. Nut orchards are set out for the -same reasons. - -The trees cut down in the woods, and sawed at the mills give us lumber to -build houses to live in, and furniture to make them comfortable, and the -same forest furnishes the fuel that keeps us warm. There is so much to -explain to a person who discovers trees for the first time. It takes a -long time to tell all we know. - -Do we think that we know a great deal about the uses of trees? If so, we -are mistaken. The truth is that trees serve us in ways of which we have -never dreamed. - -We must travel over the world and read a great deal to learn how the -people of other countries make use of trees. The basswood or linden which -nobody cared to use except for fuel in the Middle West might pass for a -useless tree, compared with those whose wood is harder and stronger. But -in older countries people have quite a different opinion of the tree. - -In Russia the tough bark of young lindens is used to make the shoes of -peasants. Ropes, fishing nets, and braided mats are made from the same -tough "bast" fibres, which are very long and tough in this family of -trees. The seeds yield oil that is declared to be quite as good as olive -oil for cooking, and for the table. Perfume is distilled from the -flowers. Cattle browse on the twigs and leaves. The wood is the carver's -delight--soft, white, free from knots and imperfections. It is used for -bureau drawers, carriage bodies, shoe soles, barrel staves and paper -pulp. Its twigs make artist's charcoal pencils. - -Linden trees are planted for shade in many countries, and in Europe they -are often cut into grotesque shapes of animals as they grow. They are -clipped into hedges, as close as box or yew. In America they are usually -allowed to grow naturally, as shade trees. European species are rather -more symmetrical than our native kinds. - -The Indians of the Northwest used the soft inner bark of the tamarack -pine for food. They cut down the trees, strip them of bark, and scraped -out this soft lining layer. With water, they mash it into a pulp, which -they cook and then mould into large cakes. A hole is next dug in the -ground, lined with stones, and a fire is built in it. When the stones are -hot, all ashes are removed, and the cakes, wrapped in green skunk cabbage -leaves, are laid in. A fire of damp moss is built on top, and thus the -cakes are thoroughly, baked. To insure their keeping, they are next -smoked in a close tent for a week or more. This dries and cures them so -that they may be safely packed away for future use. These hard, dry cakes -are afterward broken into pieces and boiled. When the mass softens and -cools, it is ready to eat. The fat of different animals is used for -butter on this strange Alaskan bread. - -[Illustration: Flowers and fruit of the wild black cherry] - -[Illustration: The delicate white flower clusters of the serviceberry -tree] - -Everybody knows that trees bear fruits of many kinds that are useful as -food for men and beasts. Spices, such as nutmegs, mace, cloves, and -allspice, may be added to this list of fruits which we have as human -foods. - -The bark of birches is invaluable to the Indians for the making of their -canoes, baskets, and all kinds of utensils. Huts and teepees are walled -with it. Rope and coarse cloth are made out of the fibre of mulberry -bark, and berry baskets out of the bark of the lodgepole pine. The -fibrous roots of the larch tree furnished tough thread, with which the -Indians sewed canoes of birch, and they made them water-tight with the -gum of the balsam. The brown gum that oozes from wounds of the Western -larch is sweet and starchy. The Indians discovered in it a valuable -article of food. - -One of the latest uses of wood is the making of paper, although the white -hornet showed in its conical paper nest that this could be done. She has -been making wooden paper for hundreds of years, scraping the wood from -the surface of weathern-worn fence boards, and from the dead limbs of -forest trees. Our newspapers are made of ground wood, cooked to a soft -pulp, and rolled out into thin sheets. The high price of paper makes it -worth while to gather up papers, bleach them, convert them into pulp, and -roll them out again into sheets. Spruce wood and poplar are among the -cheap woods which have come into demand at the paper mills. The forests -of these trees, counted of little use for lumber, have become valuable -because the paper mills can use them. - -Look about the room, and a dozen articles, beside the chairs and table, -are products of wood, or in some way owe a debt to trees. The paint that -covers the window sash and frames was mixed with turpentine, which is -obtained from the pitchy sap of pine trees. The shades and curtains are -coloured. Dyes of many kinds are extracted from the various dyewoods, -trees that grow in tropical forests. The newspaper and the books on the -shelves are made of wood pulp. The lacquered box from Japan is a handsome -thing. The lacquer varnish is the sap of a certain Oriental sumach tree. -The perfume of the gloves in the box is made from the fragrant gum of an -Oriental sweet gum tree. The skin out of which the gloves were made was -tanned, not with bark, but with the acorn cups, or galls, of a European -oak. - -The shoes on your feet are made of leather. The hemlock trees that grow -on the hills were stripped of their bark by peelers in early spring. -Black oak and chestnut oak are also stripped in our woods. Carloads of -bark are shipped to the tanneries to be used in the tanning of skins -which changes them into leather. - -That beautiful book upon the table is bound in Russia leather. The acorn -cups of a European oak were used to tan the skins that made this leather -so much more beautiful than that of your shoes. Your gloves are made of -kid skins tanned in Europe. For this particular work the nut-like galls -that grow on certain oak trees are gathered in the woods. - -Tannin is the substance in oak bark which makes it valuable in tanning -leather. A high percentage of tannin is found in oak galls. For this -reason they are gathered in many countries, and are among the most -valuable and high-priced supplies for the establishments that tan skins -for gloves. The most expensive inks and dyes, those that do not fade, but -are practically permanent, are made from selected oak galls. - -Oak apples are a strange fruit, found in more or less abundance on the -leaves of our own oak trees in autumn. You have seen them in summer time, -plump, green balls, sometimes as large as a hen's egg, but globular, -sitting upon a leaf. In autumn the balls take on the colour of the dying -leaves. - -The same tree may have hard little marble-like balls growing on its -twigs. These are of different sizes, and it is not unusual to find a hole -in the side of each. - -All such outgrowths on the leaves and twigs of oaks are called galls, and -they are chiefly caused by winged insects called gall-gnats. An egg is -laid in early spring, in a slit pierced in the twig or leaf. As this egg -hatches, the tissue about it is disturbed in its growth by the presence -of this feeding grub. The soft leaf pulp, or the tender tissues of the -twig that surround it, are exactly what the grub likes to eat. Food and -drink are all about it, and as it feeds, it grows. The leaf swells, and -so surrounds the grub with an abnormal growth. The grub still feeds, and -the swelling becomes larger, until finally, when the insect ceases to -eat, it is housed in the peculiar ball which we know as an oak gall. Each -species of gall-maker is known by its house. - -The oak apples are of several kinds. Some are empty except for a little -shell in the centre, in which the fat grub sleeps. Sometimes the -substance within the "apple" is corky, sometimes spongy. Bullet galls, -which form on twigs like little marbles, are usually solid to the centre, -where the grub lies until the time comes for it to bore its way out to -the surface, and fly away, to lay eggs which will produce other galls. -Usually oak galls, found in winter, contain the sleeping grub, whose -transformation into a winged insect waits until the coming of spring. - -The cork in your ink bottle is the bark of an oak tree. Go to Portugal or -to Northern Africa, and you may see the cork harvest in progress in July -or August. There is no place to go for genuine cork except to a small -evergreen oak that rarely reaches a height over thirty feet. When these -trees are twenty-five years old, a hard, thin layer of bark is stripped -off. This is a valuable tan bark, but it is not in the least corky. The -tree now produces a spongy bark entirely different from the first. It is -not disturbed for eight or ten years. This is stripped off. It is the -poor quality of bark which fishermen use to float their nets with. - -Ten years later the bark is stripped again. It is better in quality than -the first. Each ten years brings the bark stripper again to the tree. In -the fiftieth year, the bark is of the finest quality, and for fifty years -that follow there are five strippings of bark of the highest grade. Then -the quality becomes poorer. The trees are cut down, the bark is sold to -the tanners, and the wood is used for charcoal or for fuel. - -It is a very particular job to get the cork off and leave the under layer -uninjured. The trunk is stripped from the ground to the point where it -branches, and the inner "mother bark" must not be bruised, for no more -cork will grow on any bruised spot. Two circular cuts are made, one at -the top, one at the bottom of the columnar trunk, then two opposite slits -are made dividing the bark of the trunk into two halves. These curved -plates are worked off by inserting a wedged-shaped tool between the bark -and the trunk, and gradually working it further in until the whole curved -plate of cork comes off. These two big sheets are steamed and flattened, -then bound in bundles, and shipped to wholesale dealers in cork. - -The owner of a grove of cork oaks must wait ten years between crops of -the bark, but every year three crops of acorns are borne on these trees. -The pigs of the owner, turned into the grove, fatten on this rich food. -So the little trees are very profitable in two ways. - -In the south of Europe, the handsome, evergreen holm oak grows wild; its -glossy leaves and compact form remind us of our holly trees. It is one of -the most valuable ornamental oaks, but as a fruit tree, it has unusual -value. Its acorns are sweet and rich, and the crop is heavy. Hogs are -fattened upon them. In earlier days they were used as human food, and -even now gipsies gather them to eat. Its acorn cups, bark, and the galls -it bears are of the very best quality. They are used in the most -particular jobs of dyeing and tanning. - -Under ground, the holm oak bears a strange fruit--a fungus called -"truffle" develops on the roots. These truffles are somewhat like -mushrooms in their growth. They are far more delicious to eat, and -expensive to buy than ordinary mushrooms. The best of them are found in -France, and French people are especially fond of them. - -Trees that grow on chalky lands are more likely to produce truffles. At a -dozen years old, they begin to yield, and truffles may be found upon -their roots for about twenty-five years. - -Not every holm oak has truffles on its roots. The finding of these -delicacies is a very interesting and exciting game, and a great deal of a -lottery. There is but one way to find them, and that is by the sense of -smell. The truffle has a rich, strong odour. Dogs and pigs are the only -animals that are able to find it. The truffle-hunter is usually an old -woman, who goes with a trained pig or a trained dog into the oak forest. -She has a basket, and a spading fork, and she keeps a close eye on her -four-footed partner. If the pig, in rooting about under an oak, suddenly -becomes excited, and begins to root furiously, she drives him away, and -digs out the precious ball of fungus he has scented. It is irregular in -form, and looks somewhat like a potato. Meanwhile the pig locates -another, and is again disappointed. The truffle dog is treated in the -same manner. Unless put into a pen, or chained at night, these -truffle-hunters are likely to take to the woods and feast when no one is -by to interfere with their pleasure. - -Truffles are shipped in cans to the United States, but we have not yet -discovered them growing on the roots of our oak trees. Probably we have -not yet looked for them with sufficient care and patience. - - - - - APPENDIX - - - APPENDIX - IDENTIFICATION KEYS TO TREE GROUPS AND FAMILIES - - - A KEY TO NEEDLE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Leaves few, in sheathed bundles, set spirally on the twig. - THE PINES. - AA. Leaves solitary, set spirally on the twig. - B. Twigs with bracket-like projections for attachment of leaves; - cones hanging down. - C. Leaves flat, blunt, with short stalks. - The Hemlocks. - CC. Leaves angled, sharp, without stalks. - The Spruces. - BB. Twigs smooth; cones standing erect. - The Firs. - - - A KEY TO THE PINES - - - A. Sheaths of leaf-bundles soon shed; wood soft, pale. - SOFT PINES. - B. Needles, 5 in a bundle. - C. Cones, 5 to 8 inches long; Eastern. - White Pine. - CC. Cones, 12 to 18 inches long; Western. - Sugar Pine. - BB. Needles fewer than 5 in a bundle; Western. - Nut Pines. - AA. Sheaths of leaf-bundles not soon shed; wood hard, heavy, dark, - resinous. - HARD PINES. - B. Needles, 3 in a bundle. - C. Length of needles, 8 to 18 inches; cones, 6 to 10 inches. - Longleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 6 to 9 inches; cones, 3 to 5 inches. - Loblolly Pine. - CCC. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Pitch Pine. - BB. Needles, 2 in a bundle; Northern. - C. Length of needles, 4 to 6 inches; cones 2 inches. - Red Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 1 to 3 inches; cones, 2 to 3 inches. - Jersey Pine. - BBB. Needles, 2 or 3 in a bundle; Southern. - C. Length of needles, 3 to 5 inches; cones, 1 to 3 inches. - Shortleaf Pine. - CC. Length of needles, 8 to 12 inches; cones, 3 to 6 inches. - Cuban Pine. - - - A KEY TO THE SCALE-LEAVED EVERGREENS - - - A. Seeds borne in a woody cone; twigs flattened, leaves minute. - Arbor Vitae. White Cedar. - AA. Seeds borne in a fleshy, blue berry; leaves scale-like or spiny, or - both. - Juniper. Red Cedar. - - - A KEY TO THE NUT TREES - - - A. Nuts in a husk that opens when ripe. - B. Husk opens in four divisions. - C. Surface of husk, spiny. - D. Nut three-angled, small, two in a husk. - Beech. - DD. Nut rounded, or flattened, 2 or 3 in a husk. - Chestnut. - CC. Surface of husk not spiny. - Hickories. - BB. Husk opens in three divisions. - Horse-chestnuts and Buckeyes. - BBB. Husk opens in two divisions; spiny. - Chinquapin. - A. Nuts in a husk that does not open when ripe. - B. Shape of nut, globular; surface, smooth. - Black Walnut. - BB. Shape of nut, oblong; surface, clammy. - Butternut. - - - A KEY TO THE GROUPS OF OAKS - - - A. Acorns, annual; bark usually pale; leaves with rounded lobes, not - spiny-pointed. - The White Oak Group. - AA. Acorns, biennial; bark usually dark; leaves with spiny-pointed - lobes. - The Black Oak Group. - - - A KEY TO THE WHITE OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves evergreen; Southern tree. - Live Oak. - AA. Leaves not evergreen. - B. Lining of leaves pale, not downy; lobes finger-like. - White Oak. - BB. Lining of leaves pale, downy. - C. Bark of branches corky-ridged; acorn large, in fringed cup. - Bur Oak. - CC. Bark of branches shed in rough flakes; acorns large, on - long stalks. - Swamp White Oak. - CCC. Bark of branches not corky-ridged, nor scaly. - D. Acorn medium-sized; leaf margins cut into squarish lobes. - Post Oak. - DD. Acorn large; leaf margins wavy; bark dark brown. - Chestnut Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE BLACK OAK GROUP - - - A. Leaves narrow, willow-like; Southern tree. - Willow Oak. - AA. Leaves oval, with deeply-cleft margins. - B. Acorn cups, shallow, broader than high. - C. Tree pyramidal, twigs with pin-like spurs. - Pin Oak. - CC. Tree spreading; acorns large, in shallow saucers. - Red Oak. - BB. Acorn cups as deep as broad. - C. Leaves thin, smooth, deeply cut; acorn cup drawn in at the - top. - Scarlet Oak. - CC. Leaves leathery, rough, with rusty hairs beneath; acorn - cup not drawn in at the top. - Black Oak. - - - A KEY TO THE ELMS - - - A. Twigs smooth, not hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches not corky-ridged. - American Elm. - BB. Bark of branches corky-ridged. - Winged Elm. Wahoo. - AA. Twigs hairy-coated. - B. Bark of branches corky. - Cork Elm. Rock Elm. - BB. Bark of branches not corky; buds coarsely hairy. - Slippery Elm. - - - A KEY TO THE MAPLES - - - A. Leaves simple. - B. Bloom before the leaves open; seeds ripe in May. - C. Flowers red; leaves pale beneath, with three triangular lobes. - Red Maple. - CC. Flowers greenish; leaves pale beneath, deeply cleft, with - long, spiny lobes. - Silver Maple. - BB. Bloom after the leaves open; seeds ripe in autumn. - C. Leaves wider than long; lobes spiny-tipped. - D. Lining of leaves, pale; keys joined at acute angle. - Sugar Maple. - DD. Lining of leaves, not pale; keys joined at wide angle. - Norway Maple. - CC. Leaves circular, lobed; tree prostrate. - Vine Maple. - CCC. Leaves about as wide as long; trees small. - D. Bark striped with white lines; flowers and seeds in - dense, pendant clusters. - Striped Maple. - DD. Bark not striped; flowers and seeds in pendant clusters. - Mountain Maple. - AA. Leaves compound, of 3 to 7 leaflets. - Ash-leaved Maple. Box Elder. - - - A KEY TO THE WILLOWS - - - A. Twigs long, drooping. - Weeping Willow. - AA. Twigs erect. - B. Leaves white beneath. - C. Twigs yellow in spring; leaves narrow. - Golden Osier Willow. - CC. Twigs reddish in spring; leaves broad. - Pussy Willow. - BB. Leaves not white beneath; heart-shaped frill at base of leaf stem. - Black Willow. - - - A KEY TO THE LOCUSTS - - - A. Leaves simple; flowers rosy. - Redbud. - AA. Leaves compound. - B. Trees thorny. - C. Thorns simple, paired, at bases of leaves; pods small, thin. - Black Locust. - CC. Thorns often branched, clustered; pods large, curved. - Honey Locust. - BB. Trees not thorny. - C. Pods thick; limbs clumsy; leaves twice compound. - Kentucky Coffee Tree. - CC. Pods thin, small; limbs not clumsy; leaves once compound. - Yellow-wood. Virgilia. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - Acorns, 28. - Ailanthus, 61, 175. - Alligator-wood, 90. - Almond, Bitter, 232. - Sweet, 232. - Apple, 96, 190. - Crab, 224. - Oak, 243. - Wild, 99, 221, 224. - Apricots, 231. - Arbor Vitae, 59, 128. - Ash, 58. - Black, 205. - Blue, 206. - Green, 206. - Mountain, 65. - Red, 205, 206. - White, 204. - Ashes, 96, 203. - Aspen, Quaking, 145, 179. - - B - Balm of Gilead, 146. - Bark, 83. - Bark, Birch, 88, 241. - Basswood, 62, 196, 237, 239. - Bay, Swamp, 185. - Beech, 26, 143, 208. - Blue, 63, 89. - Copper, 88. - Cut-leaved, 88. - European, 88. - Weeping, 88. - Beeches, 87, 88. - Bee Tree, 197. - Birch, 60, 76, 96. - Black, 85. - Canoe, 84. - Cherry, 85. - Red, 85. - White, 83. - Yellow, 85. - Birches, Weeping, 97. - Box Elder, 57, 161, 177. - Buckeye, 203. - California, 213. - Ohio, 211. - Red, 213. - Sweet, 212. - Buckthorn, 237. - Budding, 222, 223. - Burning Bush, 139. - Butternut, 18, 175. - - C - Cambium, 153. - Catalpa, 60, 174, 195, 220. - Cedar, Red, 95. - Cedars, 127. - Red, 129. - White, 128. - Cherry, 191. - Choke, 227. - Japanese, 228. - Red, 199. - Wild Black, 68, 216, 237. - Chestnut, 22, 92. - Horse, 74, 195, 203, 208. - Chestnuts, 116, 192. - Chinquapin, 25. - Coffee Tree, Kentucky, 216. - Conifers, 102. - Cottonwood, 146, 147. - Cucumber Tree, Large-leaved, 174, 183. - Northern, 174, 186. - Cypress, Bald, 134. - Knees of, 135. - - D - Dogwood, 65, 75, 91, 188, 203. - - E - Elders, 198. - Elm, 61, 96, 150, 151. - Camperdown, 97. - Cork, 153. - English, 152. - Rock, 153. - Slippery, 152, 237. - Weeping, 97. - Winged, 154. - Evergreens, 59, 101. - Evonymus, 139. - - F - Fir, 59. - Balsam, 106. - Firs, 95. - - G - Galls, Oak, 244. - Grafting, 222, 223. - Gum, Sweet, 59, 90, 203, 237. - - H - Hackberry, 66, 89. - Hawthorn, 99, 178, 191. - Hazel, Witch, 29, 32, 237. - Hemlock, 59, 105. - Hercules' Club, 100, 176. - Hickories, 76, 96. - Hickory, Big Bud, 13. - Big Shellback, 11. - Bitternut, 14. - Shagbark, 9, 13, 86, 143. - Shellback, 9, 13. - Swamp, 15. - White Heart, 13. - Hickory Nuts, 116. - Holly, 66, 136, 237. - European, 138. - Hornbeam, 60, 63, 89. - Hop, 90. - - I - Ironwood, 89, 91. - - J - Judas Tree, 219. - June Berries, 197, 232. - Juniper, 130. - - K - King Nuts, 12. - - L - Lacquer, 242. - Larch, 131. - European, 132. - Western, 133. - Leaf, Compound, 173, 176. - Simple, 173. - Leaflet, 173. - Leaf Pulp, 79, 171. - Linden, 76, 170, 196. - Locust, 237. - Black, 99, 177, 214. - Clammy, 216. - Honey, 95, 98, 176, 216. - Yellow, 99, 177, 192. - Log-rollings, 17. - - M - Magnolia, Evergreen, 184. - Maple, 154. - Mountain, 163. - Norway, 57, 76, 96, 161. - Red, 57, 96, 149, 155, 177. - Scarlet, 75, 149. - Silver, 56, 156, 177. - Striped, 162. - Sugar, 74, 92, 158, 170, 177. - Swamp, 149. - Vine, 150. - Mockernut, 13. - Mulberry, Weeping, 97, 198. - - N - Nannyberry, 64. - Naval Stores, 236. - Nectarines, 231. - - O - Oak, Black, 36, 47, 49, 242. - Bur, 39. - Chestnut, 46, 242. - Cork, 245. - Council, 40. - Holm, 246. - Iron, 44. - Knees of, 42, 44. - Live, 41, 96. - Mossy-cup, 39. - Pin, 53, 95. - Post, 44. - Red, 49, 50. - Scarlet, 51. - Swamp White, 45. - Tanbark, 48. - Turkey, 44. - White, 35, 37, 95. - Willow, 54. - Yellow, 47. - Oaks, 4, 28, 33, 76, 96, 178, 179. - Oilnuts, 18. - Osage Orange, 98. - - P - Paper, 241. - Peaches, 231. - Pecan, 9. - Persimmon, 71. - Pignut, 12, 87. - Pine, 103, 108. - Cuban, 123. - Curly, 119. - Digger, 112. - Georgia, 119. - Hard, 118. - Jersey, 127. - Loblolly, 124. - Longleaf, 119. - North Carolina, 122. - Nut, 114, 117. - Old Field, 124. - Pitch, 118, 125. - Red, 126. - Shortleaf, 121. - Soft, 109. - Sugar, 112. - Swamp, 123. - Tamarack, 240. - White, 109. - Yellow, 112, 119, 122. - Plum, 191. - Wild Red, 229. - Yellow, 229. - Poplar, 76, 144. - Lombardy, 94. - Tulip, 187. - Yellow, 187. - Poplars, 221. - Propolis, 146. - Prunes, 231. - Pulp, Wood, 241. - - Q - Quakenasp, 143. - - R - Redbud, 217. - Resin, 235. - Rosin, 235. - - S - Sassafras, 64, 178, 200, 237. - Seedlings, 222. - Serviceberries, 197, 232. - Shadbush, 232. - Sheepberry, 64. - Spindle-tree, 139. - Spruce, 59, 104. - St. John's Bread, 216. - Sugar Bush, 159. - Maple, 233. - Pine, 112. - Sumach, 66, 175, 242. - Sycamore, 5, 85. - - T - Tamarack, 131. - Tanbark, 47. - Tannin, 243. - Truffle, 247. - Tulip Tree, 76, 174, 187. - Turpentine, 118. - - V - Viburnums, 64. - Virgilia, 220. - - W - Wahoo, 184. - Walnut, Black, 16, 175. - English, 19. - Willow, 63. - Balsam, 169. - Black, 168. - Golden Osier, 167. - Pussy, 148, 164. - Weeping, 97, 168. - White, 167. - Willows, 221. - Winterberry, 138. - Witch Hazel, 29. - - Y - Yellow-wood, 219. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Corrected some palpable typos, and standardized the form of some names - (_e.g._ serviceberry). - ---In the text versions only, represented text font and size variations - (the HTML version preserves the presentation of the original): - ---Text in italics is delimited by _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Trees Every Child Should Know, by -Julia Ellen Rogers - 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