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diff --git a/44096-0.txt b/44096-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3dd9250 --- /dev/null +++ b/44096-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4924 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44096 *** + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they +are listed at the end of the text. + +Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Page numbers +enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to +facilitate the use of the General Index. + + * * * * * + +Frontispiece. + +[Illustration] + +Fig. 1. Bolitophila luminosa. 1_a_. Larva, 1_b_. Pupa. + + + + +AN ELEMENTARY + +MANUAL + +OF + +NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY. + +BEING + +An Introduction to the Study + +OF + +OUR NATIVE INSECTS. + +_WITH 21 COLOURED PLATES._ + +BY + +G. V. HUDSON, F.E.S., + +WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND. + +London: + +WEST, NEWMAN, & CO., 54, HATTON GARDEN. + +1892. + + + + +To + +THE RIGHT HON. LORD WALSINGHAM, + +M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., + +LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, + +THIS LITTLE BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED + +BY THE AUTHOR. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The object of the present volume is to give a brief account of the Natural +History of the insects inhabiting New Zealand in a form intelligible to the +ordinary reader. For this reason every effort has been made to avoid all +unnecessary technicalities, and to adapt the book as far as possible to the +requirements of youthful entomologists and collectors. + +Several very elaborate systematic lists and descriptions have been +published from time to time of the insects of New Zealand, amongst which +may be specially mentioned--Captain Broun's "Manual of New Zealand +Coleoptera," the illustrated "Catalogue of New Zealand Butterflies," edited +by Mr. Enys, and Mr. Meyrick's "Monographs" of various groups of the +Lepidoptera; but as yet no attempt has been made to present the subject in +a suitable form for beginners. + +It is hoped that this book will, to some extent, fill up the blank, and +help to render what is now one of the most popular natural sciences in +Europe, equally appreciated in New Zealand. + +The author is much indebted to Captain Broun, Mr. R. W. Fereday, Mr. E. +Meyrick, and others, for assistance in identifying the various species +mentioned in this work. + + _Wellington, New Zealand, 1891._ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. PAGE + + GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 1 + + CHAPTER II. + + COLLECTING INSECTS 9 + + CHAPTER III. + + THE COLEOPTERA 19 + + CHAPTER IV. + + THE HYMENOPTERA 33 + + CHAPTER V. + + THE DIPTERA 40 + + CHAPTER VI. + + THE LEPIDOPTERA 65 + + CHAPTER VII. + + THE NEUROPTERA 99 + + CHAPTER VIII. + + THE ORTHOPTERA 103 + + CHAPTER IX. + + THE HEMIPTERA 118 + + GENERAL INDEX 123 + + EXPLANATION OF PLATES 129 + + + + +{1}AN + +ELEMENTARY MANUAL + +OF + +NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY. + + +------ + +CHAPTER I + +General Observations. + +In the present chapter I propose to give a brief sketch of the general +principles of Entomology, including a rudimentary glance at the anatomy and +classification of insects; after which I think the reader will be in a +better position to study the habits and life-histories of the individual +species which follow. + +The first requisite is a definition of what constitutes an INSECT. + +_An Insect is an articulate animal having the body divided into three +distinct divisions_, viz., _the_ HEAD (Fig. I. A), _the_ THORAX (B), _and +the_ ABDOMEN (C). _It is furnished with three pairs of legs, and generally +has two pairs of wings, and to acquire this structure the creature passes +through several changes, termed its metamorphoses._ {2}The head exhibits no +distinct divisions, but bears the following appendages: the eyes, antennæ, +and organs of the mouth, or trophi. + +The eyes are of two kinds, compound and simple. The former (Fig. I. c c) +are situated on the sides of the head above the mouth, and consist of two +large hemispheres, composed of a great number of hexagonal divisions, each +of which is a complete eye in itself. The latter (s s) are usually three in +number, and are situated on the top of the head between the compound ones. +They are, however, frequently wanting. + +The antennæ (a) are two jointed organs, one of which is placed on each side +of the head, between the eyes; their functions are at present extremely +doubtful, but they are invariably found in all insects. + +The organs of the mouth consist of the following: the labrum (Fig. II. 3), +or upper lip, a horny plate, closing the mouth from above; the mandibles (1 +1), or upper jaws, two strong bent hooks, articulated to the head on each +side of the mouth, and opposed to one another like scissor blades; the +maxillæ (2 2), or under jaws, resembling the mandibles, but more delicately +constructed, and furnished with a pair of jointed appendages termed +maxillary palpi (5 5); and the labium (4), or lower lip, consisting of a +horny plate somewhat resembling the labrum, but provided with two jointed +appendages termed the labial palpi (6 6). All these organs are subject to +great modification in suctorial insects, which I shall notice further on, +when dealing with the differences between the various orders. + +The thorax consists of three primary divisions, viz., the prothorax (Fig. +I. b), mesothorax (d), and metathorax (k). The upper surfaces of these are +termed the pronotum, mesonotum, and metanotum respectively, and the under +the prosternum, mesosternum, and metasternum; other divisions exist in some +insects, but they are not of a sufficiently {3}general character to be +noticed here. The six legs are attached to the under surface of the thorax, +a single pair to each division; they are composed of the following joints: +coxa (Fig. I. n), trochanter (o), femur (p), tibia (r), and tarsus (s). + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: FIG. I.--Body of an insect (Hymenoptera), showing the +principal divisions: A, head; B, thorax; C, abdomen; _a_, antenna; _c_, +compound eyes; _m_, mandible; _s_, simple eyes; _b_, prothorax; _d_, +mesothorax; _k_, metathorax; 1W, fore-wing; 2W, hind-wing; _n_, coxa; _o_, +trochanter; _p_, femur; _r_, tibia; _t_, tarsus; 1 to 9 segments of the +abdomen.] + +[Illustration: FIG. II.--Oral and digestive system of _Deinacrida +megacephala_ (this insect is drawn on Plate XVIII., fig. 2): 1, mandibles; +2, maxillæ; 3, labrum; 4, labium; 5, maxillary palpi; 6, labial palpi; 8, +oesophagus; 9, crop; 10, gizzard; 11, pancreas; 12, stomach; 13, biliary +vessels; 14, ilium; 15, colon; 16, anus.] + +{4}The wings are attached to the meso- and metanotum; they consist of two +membranes traversed by numerous horny ribs (Fig. I. 1W and 2W). + +The abdomen is made up of nine segments (C 1 to 9), some of which are not +infrequently wanting. It contains the organs of nutrition, circulation, and +generation. + +The digestive system, the structure of which is apparent from Fig. II., +consists of the following divisions: the throat, or oesophagus (8); the +crop (9); the gizzard, or proventriculus (10); the pancreas (11 11); the +stomach, or ventriculus (12); the biliary vessels (13 13 13); the ilium, or +little gut (14 14); and the colon (15); ending in the anus (16). In the +suctorial tribes, the crop is modified into a very peculiar organ, termed +the sucking stomach, which presents itself as a small bag, attached to the +throat by a thin tube. This bag exhausts the air from the throat, when the +insect is sucking, thus producing a vacuum therein, and causing a rapid +ascent of fluid into the stomach. + +The heart of insects consists of an elongated tube lying along the back, +and termed the dorsal vessel. It is composed of a variable number of +chambers, the blood being driven forward towards the head by its +contractions. These motions may be easily seen in transparent species. + +The breathing organs are distributed throughout the body in the form of +numerous minute air-tubes, which are supplied with air from a variable +number of apertures, situated on the sides of the insect, and termed +spiracles. + +The nervous system consists of a chain of ganglia, running down the ventral +surface of the insect, and analogous to the spinal cord of higher animals. +The number of ganglia varies greatly among the different tribes. + +The metamorphosis of insects, which I have previously mentioned as one of +their most essential attributes, consists of four distinct stages, _viz._, +the Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Imago. + +{5}The eggs of these animals exhibit a great diversity in shape among the +different species. They are deposited by the parent with unerring instinct +on substances suitable for the food of the larvæ, which, in the majority of +cases, is quite different from that on which she herself subsists. + +The larva state immediately succeeds the egg, and is spent almost +exclusively in feeding, the insect growing at a great rate, and being +frequently compelled to change its skin. + +The pupa is usually completely quiescent, the insect being at this time +quite incapable of any motion, except, perhaps, a slight twirling of its +abdomen. Exceptions to this rule occur, however, in two of the orders, in +which the pupa state does not differ materially from that preceding it. + +In the imago, or perfect state, the insect appears under its final form, +with every organ completely developed. + + + + +We will now consider the seven great divisions, or Orders, into which +insects are divided, the complete knowledge of which is one of the most +important elements in the entomologist's preliminary education. I trust +that by a careful perusal of the following definitions, aided by references +to the Plates, which illustrate numerous members of each order in their +several states, the reader will be enabled to master the subject without +much difficulty. + + +ORDER I.--COLEOPTERA. + +Wings four; the anterior pair (termed elytra) horny and opaque, the +posterior membranous, and employed in flight; mouth masticatory. The larva +a grub with or without legs, but a distinct head always present. The pupa +inactive, taking no food, the limbs of the future insect enclosed in +distinct cases, and applied closely to the body. This is the largest of the +Orders, and consists of all those insects popularly known as Beetles. +(Plates I. and II.) + + +{6}ORDER II.--HYMENOPTERA. + +Wings four, membranous, the posterior pair being the smaller, and connected +with the anterior during flight by a row of minute hooklets; mouth +masticatory, the maxillæ and labium being elongated, in many of the +families, into a long sucking instrument or "tongue." Metamorphosis as in +the Coleoptera. A large Order, containing the numerous tribes of Sawflies, +Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Ichneumon-flies. (Plate III.) + + +ORDER III.--DIPTERA. + +Wings two; the posterior pair represented by two minute clubbed appendages +termed poisers; mouth a suctorial tube formed by an elongation of the +labium, enclosing within it a variable number of setæ answering to the +mandibles, &c., of biting insects. The larva without legs, a distinct head +being often absent. The pupa inactive, the limbs of the imago firmly +attached to the body, but plainly visible. Among the majority of species +included in this Order the larval skin is not cast away, but envelopes the +insect in a hard shell; the true pupa is consequently only visible on the +removal of this covering, when it is found to closely resemble those in +which no such arrangement occurs. The Order comprises the numerous Gnats +and two-winged Flies. (Plates IV., V., VI., VII.) + + +ORDER IV.--LEPIDOPTERA. + +Wings four, generally covered with scales; the anterior pair slightly +superior in size; mouth suctorial, the maxillæ forming a spiral tongue, +which is coiled between the large labial palpi when not in use; other oral +organs rudimentary. In many instances the whole mouth and alimentary canal +are more or less obliterated, a considerable number of the species taking +no food in their {7}final state. The larvæ always possess a distinct head +and six thoracic legs, and in addition a variable number of prolegs are +often present on the abdominal segments. Pupa inactive, the limbs of the +future insect being usually indicated by lines in the integment. This Order +contains all the varied tribes of Butterflies and Moths. (Plates VIII., +IX., X., XI., XII., XIII.) + + +ORDER V.--NEUROPTERA. + +Wings four, of equal size, membranous, and traversed with numerous +branching ribs; the mouth masticatory, and in many instances but slightly +developed. Larva with a distinct head and three strong thoracic legs; +chiefly carnivorous. Pupa inactive; the limbs very perceptible and loosely +applied to the body, but incapable of distinct motion. A small Order, +comprising the Stoneflies, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, &c. (Plate XIV.) + + +ORDER VI.--ORTHOPTERA. + +Wings four, of nearly equal size; the anterior pair often more or less +leathery, but with distinct veins. The larva and pupa closely resembling +the imago; the latter with rudimentary wings. In the instances where these +organs are wanting in the mature insect, the metamorphosis merely consists +of a series of moultings, and it is consequently a matter of some +difficulty to determine when the insect is full-grown. This Order is of +small extent; it includes the Earwigs, Cockroaches, Grasshoppers, Crickets, +Termites, Dragonflies, Mayflies and Perlidæ; the last four being +transferred from the Neuroptera of most authors. The minute species of +Mallophaga and Thysanura will also come under this heading. (Plates XV., +XVI., XVII., XVIII., XIX.) + + +{8}ORDER VII.--HEMIPTERA. + +Wings four, in some cases wholly membranous, but in a large proportion of +the families the basal portions of the anterior pair are horny, and form +protective cases for the other pair when not in use; mouth suctorial, +consisting of an elongate rostrum, enclosing four fine setæ. The larva and +pupa resemble the imago, the latter being active, with rudimentary wings. +In a few instances, a slight divergence from the parent form is shown in +the preparatory states (Cicadas, &c.). This is a small Order, containing +the Cicadas or "Singers," Bugs, Plant Lice, and all the suctorial animal +lice. (Plate XX.) + + + + +After the Orders, the divisions to be considered are the Groups, Families, +Genera and Species. + +Groups are large divisions immediately subordinate to the orders, and +consist of a number of _kindred_ families. They are of great assistance to +the student in dealing with the very large Orders, such, for instance, as +the Coleoptera. + +Families, again, consist of a number of allied genera, and Genera, in the +same way, of allied species. + +With regard to the Families, I have in the main followed those of Professor +Westwood in his 'Modern Classification of Insects,' as most recent writers +appear very much divided in opinion as to the correct limits of these +divisions. Much diversity also prevails with respect to the proper +definitions of Genera and even Species, but I have deemed it best to follow +the authority of the latest catalogues in this matter, as any changes in +nomenclature are always liable to produce confusion. + + + + +{9}CHAPTER II + +Collecting Insects. + +So many excellent essays have been written on collecting insects that it +would probably be a most difficult task to supply much fresh information on +the subject; but as many of my readers may be unable to consult works +specially devoted thereto, the present chapter will, perhaps, be of some +value in showing them a few of the most convenient methods of collecting +insects in New Zealand. + +Coleoptera, or Beetles, may be found almost everywhere. Overturning logs +and stones, peeling off bark, and cutting into the solid wood of trees, all +produce a great variety of species. A small axe and an iron wrench, shaped +something like a chisel, but bent round at the upper end, are the best +instruments for working old trees. The bark should be all stripped off and +examined, as well as the surface of the log underneath. The same remarks +apply to stones, which should be searched as well as the places from which +they were removed. Sacks, if left about the fields for a few weeks, often +harbour good beetles, and when found they should always be pulled up and +examined. + +An umbrella, held upside down under flowering shrubs in the forest, will +often be found swarming with beetles after the plants have been sharply +tapped with a stout {10}walking-stick. The same object may be attained by +spreading a newspaper, or sheet, under the trees and then shaking them; the +beetles will fall on to the sheet, and may then be captured. The only +advantage of the umbrella is that it can be more readily used in awkward +places, such as on steep hill sides. + +The dead bodies of birds and animals also contain peculiar species; they +may be held over the umbrella and shaken into it, when the inhabitants will +fall out, and can easily be obtained. Dead fish on the sea beach are often +very productive. Moss and fungi are unfailing resorts of many of the +smaller species of Coleoptera, and can be examined in the winter when the +entomologist is otherwise idle. + +Beetles should always be brought home alive. The small round tin boxes sold +with Bryant and May's wax matches will be found very serviceable for this +purpose. These boxes are far better for all kinds of collecting than either +pill- or chip-boxes, as they do not break when knocked about. A separate +box should always be given to a large or rare species, but most of the +smaller kinds will travel quite safely in company, especially if a wisp of +grass or a leaf is put into the box to give them foothold. + +Beetles must be killed with boiling water, and left immersed some hours +before setting. They must be pinned through either the right or left +elytron, and each collector must always keep to one side, as nothing looks +worse than to see some of the specimens pinned on the right and others on +the left side. When pinned the beetles are set on a corked board, the legs, +&c., being placed in a natural position, and retained until dry by means of +pins and pieces of paper and card. The smaller species should be mounted +with transparent gum on a neat piece of card, which can be pinned in the +store-box or cabinet with the others. The greatest care should be taken to +set {11}symmetrically, so that the limbs on the right-hand side of an +insect are in the same position as those on the left. + +Hymenoptera may be captured with the ordinary butterfly-net, and are found +abundantly during the summer. The larger species are pinned through the +centre of the thorax, and set in the same way as Coleoptera, the smaller +ones on card with gum. These insects should, if possible, be made to fly +into the vessel of boiling water, as by this means they generally die with +their wings expanded, which is a great assistance when setting them. This +can usually be managed by holding the box containing the specimen +immediately over the water, and giving it a sharp tap with the finger of +the other hand. + +Diptera are also captured with the net, and pinned in the same way, but +should be killed with the laurel bottle. + +Lepidoptera are the most difficult of all to collect, and are at the same +time the most attractive to beginners. They may be captured with a net made +of fine gauze (mosquito net dyed green is the best material); the frame to +support the net is constructed of a piece of cane bent into a hoop, each of +the ends being supported in a forked tube shaped like a Y, and the long +tube, forming the base of the Y, is firmly fitted on to the end of a +walking-stick. This form of net is light, strong, and easily made; the only +thing requiring special attention is the Y, but this can be readily made by +any tinsmith out of two pieces of gas-pipe of different sizes, the larger +one for the stick, and the smaller one for the ends of the cane to fit +into. The collector should also be furnished with a number of small tin +boxes.[1] All this apparatus can easily be packed into an ordinary satchel. + +{12}When the entomologist reaches his hunting-ground, he will mount his net +and place a number of the boxes in his left-hand coat pocket. The foliage +of all trees and shrubs should be vigorously beaten and the insects +captured as they fly out. When a moth is taken, the collector will first +turn the net half way round so as to close the entrance, and then, directly +the insect ceases fluttering, he should carefully place one of the little +boxes over it and slip on the lid. The box is then transferred to the +right-hand pocket. He will soon learn to do this without in any way +damaging the insect. On arrival at home, the insects should be immediately +killed in the laurel bottle. This is an ordinary wide-necked bottle with a +small bag of well-bruised _young_ laurel shoots at the bottom, covered with +a circular piece of card fitting accurately to the sides of the bottle. +Laurel shoots can always be obtained about the middle of October, when +several killing bottles can be prepared. They must always be wiped out +before using, and kept carefully corked. After a few hours the insects +should be tilted out of the bottle on to a tablecloth, and pinned exactly +through the centre of the thorax. The rough surface of the tablecloth +prevents them from slipping during the operation. About one-third of an +inch of pin should project below the body of the insect. If a moth or +butterfly dies with its wings folded upwards over the back, it must be +carefully picked up between the thumb and index finger of the left hand, +and the pin inserted with the corresponding fingers of the right hand. When +all are pinned they should be transferred to a tin box, lined with cork, +which has been previously well damped with water. While pinning them into +this box great care must be taken not to allow the wings to come in contact +with the damp cork. In about twenty-four hours the specimens thus treated +will be ready for setting. This process is performed by means of corked +boards of various widths for different sized {13}species. Each board has a +groove down the centre for the bodies of the insects to rest in, while the +wings are spread out on either side. They should be carefully moved +forwards with a fine-pointed needle to the desired position, and retained +by strips of tracing cloth pinned firmly down at the ends. These strips +must not be removed until the insects are thoroughly dry and ready to place +in the store-box or cabinet. In setting Lepidoptera, as with other insects, +symmetry and a natural position are the main points to be aimed at, special +care being taken that the antennæ, fore- and hind-legs, and wings, are +shown in correct positions, the middle pair of legs being of course, in the +majority of cases, hidden by the wings. It is almost needless to say that +different sized pins should be used for various insects, but this point +must be left to the discretion of the collector. Entomological pins of all +sizes can be obtained from James Gardner, of 29 Oxford Street, London. Gilt +pins are useful for many species which are liable to form verdigris on the +pins, and are universally employed by many entomologists, but are probably +not so strong as the silvered ones. + +Many species of moths are only to be found at night. When working at this +time the collector must suspend a bulls-eye lantern round his neck or +waist, and can then have both arms free for capturing insects on the wing +or at blossoms. Honey mixed with a little rum, and applied with a small +brush to the trunks of trees a few minutes after sunset, will, on some +evenings, attract large numbers of valuable species, but not infrequently +it is quite unproductive. This mode of collecting has been termed +"sugaring" by entomologists, and may be employed during the whole summer. +The best blossoms for attracting insects in New Zealand are those of the +white rata,[2] which blooms in the forest from February till April, and +from which the {14}collector may generally rely on getting a rich harvest. +The insects can usually be slipped directly from the flowers into the +killing bottle. + +This is much better than netting them, although occasionally one will +escape during the process. When dead the specimens should be placed in a +small tin box which has been filled with cotton-wool, packed very lightly. +In this way a large number of moths may be carried a long distance with +perfect safety, and the extremely inconvenient process of pinning them in +the field obviated. If Jahncke's patent boxes are employed it is quite +unnecessary to kill the moths in the field. They can be boxed directly from +the blossoms and taken home alive without suffering any injury. + +Lepidoptera, and in fact all insects, are attracted by light, and in some +situations the collector will find that he may frequently obtain good +species by merely opening his sitting-room window and waiting for the +insects to arrive. Much of course depends on the situation of the +collector's residence and the nature of the night, which should be dark and +warm. I have occasionally tried taking a lamp into the forest to attract +insects, but have not met with much success. In swampy and flat situations, +no doubt, attracting by light would be very effective, especially if a +powerful lamp was employed, in an exposed situation, with a sheet behind +it, supported between two poles. This method has been followed with great +success by many English entomologists in the fens, but has not yet been +tried in the New Zealand swamps, where it would probably be the means of +bringing many new and interesting species to "light." + +With regard to collecting members of the three remaining Orders but little +need be said. Neuroptera can be treated in the same way as Lepidoptera, but +they should be set on flat boards. The treatment of the Orthoptera will +resemble that of the Coleoptera, but the larger species will require {15}to +be stuffed with cotton-wool before setting. A few of the largest species of +the Lepidoptera must also be stuffed. For this purpose the specimens should +be placed on their backs on a piece of clean glass so that none of the +scales may be rubbed off. After the contents have been removed, a little +chalk should be introduced into the abdomen with the cotton-wool. Hemiptera +can be collected and set like Coleoptera, but some of the more delicate +species, such as the _Cicadæ_, should be killed in the laurel bottle +instead of in boiling water. + +Before concluding the present chapter I should like to say a few words on +the subject of rearing insects, which the entomologist will soon learn to +regard as by far the most interesting method of acquiring specimens for his +collection. + +Members of the Coleoptera are probably the most difficult insects to rear +in captivity. Their larvæ may be kept in ordinary jam-pots covered with +perforated zinc, and filled with earth or rotten wood. The carnivorous +species must, of course, be supplied with the animals on which they feed. +Beetle larvæ are often some years in attaining maturity. Many of the +Hymenoptera and some of the Diptera are parasitic on the larvæ of the +Lepidoptera; they are consequently found in rearing these insects, and +their economy should always be carefully recorded. + +Lepidoptera are, perhaps, the most satisfactory insects to rear. Most of +the larvæ feed on the leaves of different plants, and all that is needed is +to keep them well supplied with fresh food. + +So great a variety of cages have been devised for the rearing of +caterpillars that it would be quite impossible to describe them here. I +will therefore only give a short account of those which I have used myself, +and have found so convenient that I do not hesitate in recommending them to +those entomologists who wish not only to rear insects but to study their +habits. + +{16}The cages I have been in the habit of using are made of two or three +thicknesses of cardboard bent round into a cylinder and strongly pasted +together. They may be of various sizes, from three to four inches in +diameter up to eight or ten, and constructed so that one will go inside the +other. The height should exceed the diameter by about one and a half +inches. The cylinders should be made so as to stand exactly level on a flat +surface, and they should have two rows of small openings round the sides +for the admission of air. It is a good plan to have four of these openings +in each row and place them opposite one another. They should be covered on +the inside with gauze, stiffened with green or brown paint, as the dark +colour will enable the observer to see inside more readily. A circular +piece of glass is fitted into the upper end of the cylinder, and fixed by +means of paste and paper. The base of the cage consists of two round pieces +of wood, one about half an inch smaller than the other, the smaller one +nailed exactly in the centre of the larger piece. These are made so that +the cardboard cylinder fits _accurately_ on the outside of the smaller +piece of wood. The whole cage is then neatly covered with white paper +inside and brown outside. A complete view of the interior can of course be +obtained by looking in at the top, while the cages can be stowed away one +within the other when not in use. A stone ink-bottle should be put on the +floor of each cage and filled with water, into which a sprig of the +food-plant can be introduced. Care must be taken to plug up the mouth of +the bottle, so that the larvae may not crawl down the stem of the plant +into the water and thus meet with an untimely end. This may readily be done +by means of a cork with a hole bored in it for the stem to pass through, or +a plug of moss or blotting-paper. Members of almost all the orders can be +reared in these cages, as jam-pots full of earth may easily be introduced, +in the place of the stone {17}bottle, when required for species which bury. +A circular piece of blotting-paper should be placed over the bottom of each +cage, while larvæ are feeding in them, and renewed when at all soiled. The +excrement must also be removed when the larvæ are supplied with fresh food. +As a rule, this is only necessary about twice a week, as the water will +keep most plants fresh for quite a lengthened period. When it is necessary +to remove a larva it should always be done with a fine camel-hair brush, +never with the fingers. Generally, however, it is better to allow the larvæ +themselves to crawl from the old sprig on to the new one, which they +usually do in a few hours after the food is changed. The old plants should +of course then be taken out so as to afford more room for fresh air. + +Many female moths may be induced to lay their eggs in captivity, especially +if put in a box with some of the food-plant of the larva. It is extremely +instructive and interesting to rear an insect from the egg. When the young +larvæ first emerge they must be kept in a tumbler with a piece of glass put +over the top, as they might escape through the ventilators of the cages, +but they ought to be transferred immediately they are large enough. When +rearing a lot of caterpillars from a batch of eggs, care should be taken to +avoid overcrowding. + +A collection of insects should always eventually be placed in a neatly +constructed cabinet. They should be arranged in rows, systematically, with +the correct names under each species, and the name of the order or group at +the commencement of each drawer. Numerous modifications in arrangement are +often needed to meet the requirements of different sized insects, but an +inspection of any good collection will at once explain the general +principles. Camphor should be pinned in the corner of each drawer or +store-box, and the whole collection fumigated with carbolic acid, or equal +parts of oil of thyme, oil of anise, {18}and spirits of wine, every six +months. These can be introduced in a watch glass containing a small +quantity of the chemicals on a pellet of cotton-wool, care being taken not +to stain the paper at the bottom of the drawer. For the same reason, while +using carbolic acid, the camphor should be taken out, as otherwise it will +"sweat." All boxes for the reception of insects must of course be lined +with cork and paper. + +It is most important that an accurate record should be kept of every +specimen that is placed in the collection. This may be done by attaching to +the pin underneath each insect a small numbered label, which refers to a +book containing locality, date of capture and other particulars. + +I have found it a good plan to give every species a number, and every +specimen a letter. Thus, supposing _Vanessa gonerilla_ is numbered "6," the +first specimen taken would be "6a," the second "6b," and so on, all the +specimens, perhaps, having different dates and localities. This system is +very convenient when specimens are sent away to be identified by another +entomologist, as, provided the collector always retains a single specimen +of the species which he desires named, it obviates the necessity of having +his specimens returned, the number showing at once to what species the name +refers. At least five lines should be allotted to each species in the +collection journal, and the writing should be small but distinct. + +A collection formed in this manner will not only be a constant source of +pleasure to the collector and those who succeed him, but very probably of +great value in deciding many important questions in entomological science. + + + + +{19}CHAPTER III + +The Coleoptera. + +The observations on the natural history of the New Zealand beetles, forming +the subject of the present chapter, are much less numerous than might have +been expected from the great number of species which have been described. +The difficulties attendant on rearing these insects are, however, very +great, and it thus happens that the life-histories here given bear a +smaller proportion to the number of the Coleoptera than will be found to be +the case with the majority of the other Orders. I hope, however, that the +few details I have collected, referring to the following species, may +induce some of my readers to investigate others for themselves. + + +Group GEODEPHAGA. + +Family _Cicindelidæ_. + +_Cicindela tuberculata_ (Plate I., fig. 1, 1a larva). + +This is a very abundant insect found throughout the country in all dry +situations. It delights in hot sunshine, and may be constantly observed +flying from our footsteps with great rapidity as we walk along the roads on +a hot summer's day. + +Its larva (Fig. 1a) is an elongate fleshy grub, the head {20}and first +segment being horny and much flattened, and the body provided with two +large dorsal humps, each bearing at its apex a slender curved hook. + +The burrows of these insects are very conspicuous, and must have been +noticed by every one, in garden paths, sandbanks, and other _dry_ +situations; they are sometimes very numerous, and may be best described as +perfectly round shafts, about one line in diameter, and extending to the +depth of three or four inches, generally slightly curved at the bottom. The +sides are perfectly smooth, and the larva may be often discovered near the +mouth of its burrow, using its dorsal hooks to support it, and thus having +both legs and jaws free to dispose of the unfortunate insects that fall +into its snare. These usually consist of flies and small beetles, which +appear to be urged by curiosity to crawl down these pitfalls, and thus +bring about their own destruction. By reference to the figure it will be +seen how admirably the hollowed head and prothorax serve the purpose of a +shovel to the larva, when forming its shaft. These burrows are first +observed about the middle of November; the perfect insects coming abroad +three weeks or a month later, when they may be often seen in the +neighbourhood of their old domiciles. They are very voracious, devouring +large quantities of flies, caterpillars, and other insects, some of which +are much superior to themselves in size. On one occasion I saw a male +specimen of _Cicindela parryi_ (a species closely allied to but smaller +than _C. tuberculata_) attack a large Tortrix caterpillar, an inch and a +half in length. The beetle invariably sprang upon the back of the +caterpillar and bit it in the neck, being meanwhile flung over and over by +the larva's vigorous efforts to free itself from so unpleasant an +assailant. During the fight, which lasted fully twenty minutes, the beetle +was compelled to retire periodically to gain fresh strength to renew its +attacks, which were eventually {21}successful, the unfortunate tortrix +becoming finally completely exhausted. The beetle devoured but a very small +portion of the caterpillar, and abandoning the remainder went off in search +of fresh prey. Eight other closely allied species of _Cicindela_ are +described by Captain Broun in the "Manual of the New Zealand Coleoptera," +but they offer no especial peculiarities, and _C. tuberculata_ may be taken +as a type of the genus. + + +Family CARABIDÆ. + +_Pterostichus opulentus_ (Plate I., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +This fine beetle is very common in most wooded situations in the Nelson +district; it may be at once distinguished from the numerous other closely +allied species by the beautiful metallic coppery tints that adorn its +thorax and elytra. + +During the day it is usually discovered concealed under logs and stones, +and when disturbed, rushes into the first crevice to get out of the light. +At night time, it comes abroad to feed, killing an immense number of flies, +caterpillars, and other insects, to satisfy its voracious appetite. +Although of a most ferocious disposition, it is not wanting in maternal +affection. The female, when about to deposit her eggs, excavates a small +cavity nearly three inches square, in which they are placed. These she +broods over until hatched, and probably some little time afterwards, as I +have found a specimen close to a nest, which contained both eggs and larvæ, +and the zealous mother furiously bit at anything presented to her. The eggs +are oval in shape, quite smooth, and yellowish white in colour. The young +larva is drawn at Plate I., fig. 3a; it is remarkable for its superficial +resemblance to a small Iulus, and being found in similar situations to that +animal, its mimicry has probably some useful object. The older larva +differs chiefly in having the head and thoracic segments proportionately +{22}smaller. Twenty-one closely allied insects belonging to two genera are +described by Captain Broun in his Manual, the largest being _Pterostichus +australasiæ_, which is found in similar localities to the present species, +but is not so common. + + +Group HYDRADEPHAGA. + +Family DYTICIDÆ. + +_Colymbetes rufimanus_ (Plate I., fig. 4, 4a larva). + +This insect is found plentifully in all still waters during the summer +months. Its larva is a soft elongate grub, provided with six slender +thoracic legs, and a pair of powerful mandibles. The posterior extremity of +the body is furnished with two curious appendages bearing a spiracle at the +apex of each, which the larva frequently protrudes above the surface of the +water. The air is taken in through the spiracles, and conveyed to all parts +of the body by two main air-tubes, one of which springs from each spiracle, +and branches throughout the insect in every direction. During the spring +months the larvæ may be found of various sizes in similar situations to the +imago; they are very voracious, devouring freshwater shrimps, _Ephemera_ +larvæ, and occasionally, when pressed by hunger, they will even destroy +individuals of their own species for food. These they capture by means of +their powerful mandibles, retaining a firm hold of the victim until they +have consumed all the fleshy portions, the rest of the carcase being thrown +aside, and a fresh search made for more. One individual I kept for some +time, remained perpetually concealed in a small patch of green weed, +growing in the middle of its aquarium. In a short time it became surrounded +with the skeletons of small water shrimps which had been seized by the +larva as they passed by its hiding place, the unfortunate crustaceans only +discovering their enemy when it was too late. I have not yet observed the +pupa of this {23}insect, but it probably does not differ materially from +those of its European allies. Although so very different in general +appearance to the preceding insects, this beetle will be found on careful +examination to agree with them in all important respects, being only what a +ground beetle might naturally become if forced to lead an aquatic +existence. Breathing is effected in all the water beetles by the spiracles +of the abdomen, which alone are developed. The air is taken in between the +elytra and the body, and owing to the convexity of the former, a supply can +be retained sufficient to last the insect some twenty or thirty minutes. +The beetles may be often observed with the extremity of their elytra +protruded above the surface, renewing their supplies of air. On very hot +days _C. rufimanus_ may be occasionally seen flying with great rapidity far +away from its native ponds. When doing so it makes a loud humming noise, +and is a much more conspicuous object than when in the water. + + +Group CLAVICORNIA. + +Family NITIDULIDÆ. + +_Epuræa zealandica._ + +This curious little beetle is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of +decaying fungi, throughout the year, being most plentiful in the autumn and +early winter. Its larva is a small cylindrical grub, with the head and legs +so minute that they are scarcely perceptible, causing it to closely +resemble the maggots of many dipterous insects, occurring in similar +localities. It is generally found in the large yellow fungi, so abundant in +wet situations during the late autumn and winter months. It forms numerous +galleries through the plant in all directions, and owing to the large +amount of moisture which is usually present, these galleries are often +filled with water, so that the insect may {24}be said to be sub-aquatic in +its habits. I have not yet detected the pupa of this species, although the +discovery of a large quantity of both larvæ and perfect insects is of +everyday occurrence with the entomologist in winter. + + +Family ENGIDÆ. + +_Dryocora Howittii_ (Plate I., fig. 6, 6a larva). + +This quaint-looking little insect occurs occasionally in damp matai logs, +when in an advanced state of decay. The larva (Fig. 6a) is very flat and +thin, possessing the usual thoracic legs, which, however, are rather short. +The last segment of the abdomen is furnished with an anal proleg and a pair +of small setiform appendages. Its mode of progression is very peculiar, +resembling that of the Geometer larvæ among the Lepidoptera. + +The thoracic legs are first brought to the ground, and the rest of the body +is then drawn up in an arched position close behind them. The anal proleg +then supports the insect while the anterior segments are thrust out, and +the others follow as before. This method is only employed on smooth +surfaces, the larva crawling along elsewhere in the usual manner. + +The perfect beetle is a very sluggish insect, and difficult to find owing +to its colour, which closely resembles that of the wood in which it lives. + + +Family ENGIDÆ. + +_Chætosoma scaritides_ (Plate I., fig. 2). + +This insect may be at once recognized by its peculiar shape, no other New +Zealand beetle resembling it in this respect. Although tolerably common and +generally distributed, it is very seldom seen abroad, spending almost the +whole of its life concealed in the burrows of various wood-boring weevils. +Its larva, which feeds on the grubs {25}of these insects, is of a pinkish +colour, very fat and sluggish; the head and three anterior segments are +strong and horny, the legs being rather short. It undergoes its +transformation into the pupa within the weevil burrows, when the limbs of +the perfect insect can be seen folded down the breast, the wings and elytra +being much smaller than in the beetle. Specimens in all stages of existence +may be readily procured by splitting up old perforated logs which have been +long tenanted by weevils. + + +Group BRACHELYTRA. + +Family STAPHYLINIDÆ. + +_Staphylinus oculatus_ (Plate I., fig. 5). + +This is the New Zealand representative of _S. olens_ or the "Devil's Coach +Horse," one of the most familiar of British beetles. It is found +occasionally in the neighbourhood of slaughter-houses, and may be at once +distinguished from any of the allied species by a large spot of brilliant +scarlet situated on each side of its head behind the eyes; this very +conspicuous feature has given it the specific name of _oculatus_. I am at +present unacquainted with the transformations of this fine insect, but they +will probably closely resemble those of the typical species (_S. olens_) +described in the majority of standard books on European Coleoptera. This +beetle may be frequently seen flying in the sunshine, when it has a most +striking appearance, owing to its large size and rapid motion. An +unpleasant odour is found to arise when it is handled, this being +noticeable in nearly all the members of the family. These beetles are +comparatively numerous in New Zealand, the genus _Philonthus_ comprising +several elongate active insects, of which _P. oeneus_ is one of the +commonest, and may be found abundantly amongst garden refuse. Others +frequent the seashore, feeding on decaying seaweed, and {26}may be noticed +flying in all directions along the coast immediately after sundown. Another +genus (_Xantholinus_) includes a number of interesting beetles found in old +weevil burrows, and probably feeding on their inmates. + + +Group LAMELLICORNES. + +Family LUCANIDÆ. + +_Dorcus punctulatus_ (Plate I., fig. 7). + +An abundant species chiefly attached to the red pine tree or rimu, where it +may be found concealed beneath the scaly bark, in the angles of the trunk +near the roots. When disturbed, it folds up its legs and antennæ on its +breast, and, extending its powerful jaws, awaits the approach of the enemy, +ready to bite anything coming within its reach. These, however, are purely +defensive measures, the insect being quite harmless when left alone. The +larva is at present unknown to me. Another species, _D. reticulatus_, is a +much handsomer insect than the preceding; it may be at once recognized by +four deep impressions in the thorax, filled in with light-brown scales; the +margins of the elytra are similarly scaled, as well as four spots on each +elytron, the remainder of the beetle being dark-brown and shining. It is +generally found in totara bark, but is much scarcer than the last species. +One small specimen I possess, remarkable for its brilliant appearance, was +taken under the bark of a stunted black birch tree, over two thousand feet +above the sea-level. + + +Family MELOLONTHIDÆ. + +_Stethaspis suturalis_ (Plate I., fig. 8, 8a larva). + +This conspicuous insect occurs abundantly in all open situations. Its larva +(Fig. 8a) inhabits the earth, feeding on the roots of various plants, and +is especially abundant {27}in paddocks, where it occasionally does +considerable damage to the grass, and threatens ere long to become as great +a pest as its first cousin, the renowned Cockchaffer of England +(_Melolontha vulgaris_), whose fearful ravages need no description. It may +be taken as a typical larva of the family, the rest differing from one +another in little else than size. When full-grown it is quite as large as +the illustration, and is nearly always in the position there indicated, +owing to the size of its posterior segments and the absence of any anal +proleg, which compel it to lie always on its side. I have not yet succeeded +in obtaining the pupa of this insect, although larvæ may be frequently +found enclosed in oval cells, evidently about to undergo their +transformation. Several of these have been kept in captivity, but they have +hitherto always died without undergoing any change. I have, however, no +doubt as to its being the larva of _S. suturalis_, as there are no other +large Lamellicorns found near Wellington to which it could possibly be +referred. The perfect beetle appears in great numbers from November to +March; it is best taken at dusk, when it flies with a loud humming noise, +about four feet above the ground. If knocked down it always falls amongst +the herbage, and is not readily perceived until a few minutes later, when +the humming noise is resumed as the insect again gets under weigh, and the +would-be captor must not lose time if he wishes to secure it. Occasionally +individuals are seen disporting themselves on the wing during the day, but +this must be regarded as a purely exceptional circumstance. Unlike the +majority of nocturnal Coleoptera, this insect does not appear to be +attracted by light; in fact I have never obtained any specimens by this +method, although most other night-flying beetles may be taken in goodly +numbers at the attracting lamp. + + +{28}Family MELOLONTHIDÆ. + +_Pyronota festiva_. + +This brilliant little insect is extremely abundant amongst manuka, during +the early summer. In general appearance it reminds one of a miniature +specimen of the last species, but is more elongate in form; the green +thorax and elytra are also much brighter. The latter are bordered with +flashing crimson, the legs and under surface being reddish-brown, sparsely +clothed with white hairs. A small Lamellicorn grub, found amongst refuse in +manuka thickets, is probably the larva of this insect; it is less thickened +posteriorly than that of _S. suturalis_, but otherwise closely resembles +it. The perfect insect is diurnal in its habits, flying round flowering +manuka in countless numbers on a hot day. The descent of thirty or forty of +these little beetles on to the beating sheet, out of a single bush, is of +frequent occurrence, and is particularly noticed by the New Zealand +entomologist accustomed to the meagre supply of specimens offered in the +majority of instances. + + +Group STERNOXI. + +Family ELATERIDÆ. + +_Thoramus wakefieldi_ (Plate II., fig. 1, 1b larva, 1a pupa). + +This fine beetle may be taken under rimu bark in tolerable abundance, and +is often observed flying about at dusk during the summer. Its larva +inhabits rotten wood, usually selecting the red pine, in which it excavates +numerous flat galleries near the surface of the logs. When disturbed it is +very sluggish, the head being immediately withdrawn into the large thoracic +segment and completely concealed. The legs are very minute, and are of but +little use in walking, the insect being chiefly dependent for locomotion on +its large anal proleg, which is furnished with numerous horny spines. When +full-grown this larva closes up one end of {29}its burrow, and thus forms a +closed cell, in which it is transformed into the pupa shown at Fig. 1a, +remaining in this condition until the warmer weather calls the insect from +its retreat. Two closely allied species are _T. perblandus_ and _Metablax +acutipennis_. The former is occasionally found under the large scales on +matai trees, and resembles the present insect in general appearance, but is +much smaller and more elongate in form, its elytra being also ornamented +with longitudinal rows of yellowish-brown hairs. The latter may be often +taken on the wing in the hottest sunshine, and is chiefly remarkable for +its elongate prothorax and pointed elytra; its colour is dark +reddish-brown, ornamented with a few scattered white hairs. All these +insects possess the singular habit of leaping into the air when placed on +their backs, the last-named species exercising this faculty in a most +marked degree. The movement is effected by the joint between the pro- and +meso-thorax, the sternum of the former being elongated into a long process, +fitting into a corresponding cavity in the latter, so that by means of the +two being suddenly brought together, the insect is thrown high into the air +with a loud clicking sound, hence the English name of the Skipjack or Click +Beetles, the scientific name, Elater, doubtless having reference to the +same habit. The object of this curious arrangement is in all probability +twofold; the sharp click and rapid movement of the insect deterring many +enemies from attacking it, whilst the short legs of the beetle, which are +quite unable to reach the ground when it is thrown on its back, render a +special contrivance necessary. + + +Group HETEROMERA. + +Family TENEBRIONIDÆ. + +_Uloma tenebrionides_ (Plate II., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa). + +One of our commonest beetles, found in great abundance {30}in all moist +wood when much decayed, the favourite trees being apparently rimu and +matai. Its cylindrical larva may be taken in similar situations, and much +resembles in general appearance the well-known "wire-worm" of England, +whose destructive habits, however, it does not share. At present, whilst +bush-clearing is going on, its influence is beneficial, as it devours large +quantities of useless wood, which is thus rapidly broken up and got rid of. +The pupa is enclosed in an oval cell, constructed by the larva before +changing, from which the perfect insect emerges in due course. When first +exuded its colour is pale red, but this rapidly changes into dark brown +after the insect has been hardened by exposure to the air. Specimens are +often met with of every intermediate shade, and are rather liable to +deceive the beginner, who mistakes them for distinct species. An account of +a small Dipterous insect infesting this beetle in its preparatory states +will be found on page 62. + + +Group LONGICORNIA. + +Family PRIONIDÆ. + +_Prionus reticularis_ (Plate II., fig. 3, 3b larva, 3a pupa). + +This is the largest species of beetle found in New Zealand, and is common +throughout the summer in the neighbourhood of forests. Its larva (Fig. 3b) +is a large, fat grub, with minute legs; it inhabits rimu and matai, logs, +often committing great ravages on sound timber although frequently eating +that which is decayed; posts, rails, and the rafters of houses alike suffer +from its attacks; the great holes formed by a full-grown larva of this +insect creating rapid destruction in the largest timbers. It may be +remarked, in connection with these wood-boring species, that a good thick +coat of paint put on the timber as soon as it is exposed, and renewed at +frequent intervals, to a great extent prevents their attacks. The pupa +(Fig. 3a) {31}is enclosed in one of the burrows formed by the larva, which, +before changing, blocks up any aperture, so as to rest secure from all +enemies. The perfect insect emerges in the following summer, when it may be +often observed flying about at night. It is greatly attracted by light, and +this propensity frequently leads it on summer evenings to invade ladies' +drawing-rooms, when its sudden and noisy arrival is apt to cause much +needless consternation amongst the inmates. + +Closely allied to the above is _Ochrocydus huttoni_, which may be at once +known by its smaller size and plain elytra; it is very much scarcer than +_P. reticularis_, but may occasionally be cut out of dead manuka trees in +company with its larva. + + +Group RHYNCOPHORA. + +Family CURCULIONIDÆ. + +_Oreda notata_ (Plate II., fig. 4, 4a larva). + +This weevil is not often noticed in the open, but may be found in great +abundance in the dead stems of fuchsia, mahoe, and other soft-wooded +shrubs, whose trunks are frequently noticed pierced with numerous +cylindrical holes. The larva also inhabits these burrows, devouring large +quantities of the wood; it is provided with a large head and powerful pair +of mandibles, but, in common with all other weevil larvæ, does not possess +legs of any description, the insect being absolutely helpless when removed +from its home in the wood. The pupa might also be found in similar +situations, but I have not yet observed it. The perfect insect may be cut +out of the trees throughout the year, and is occasionally taken amongst +herbage during the summer. + + +Family CURCULIONIDÆ. + +_Psepholax coronatus_ (Plate II., fig. 5 [F], 5a [M]). + +This curious species is found abundantly in the stems of {32}dead currant +trees (_Aristotelia racemosa_), in which it excavates numerous cylindrical +burrows like the last species, which it closely resembles when in the +larval state. The sexes are widely different, the elytra of the male being +furnished with the characteristic coronet of spines, which is entirely +wanting in the female. Numerous other members of this genus may be taken in +company with the present insect, and should be carefully examined, as a +correct determination of the males and females of the several species is +sadly wanted. Digging beetles out of the wood is good employment for the +entomologist in winter, when he will find that a day spent in this manner +will frequently produce as rich a harvest as one in the height of summer. + +Before finally leaving the Coleoptera, I should like to direct the +attention of my readers to the immense number of interesting weevils found +in New Zealand. Chief among these is the remarkable _Lasiorhynchus +barbicornis_, a large insect furnished with a gigantic rostrum, which will +at once distinguish it from any of the rest. Other genera contain numerous +beetles, which may be found in various kinds of dead timber in company with +their larvæ, and are worthy of a more minute investigation than has at +present been given them. + + + + +{33}CHAPTER IV + +The Hymenoptera. + +The Hymenoptera are perhaps the most interesting order of insects, their +brilliant colours, great activity, and unparalleled instincts rendering +them alike attractive to the young collector and scientific entomologist. +They are, however, not very numerous in New Zealand, several of the most +important families being completely absent; in fact, with the exception of +the ants, there are no social Hymenoptera native to this country. The +information I here give in connection with these insects does not +adequately represent the large amount of interest which can be derived from +their investigation, and I must therefore refer the reader to those +admirable works by Sir J. Lubbock on Ants and by Huber on Bees, which +cannot fail to interest all who read them. + + +Family ANDRENIDÆ. + +_Dasycolletes hirtipes_ (?) (Plate III., fig. 1). + +This is the true native bee of New Zealand, and may be taken abundantly +during the whole of the summer. Its nest is constructed in crevices in the +bark of trees, &c., the insect very frequently selecting the spaces between +the boards of outhouses, where the loud buzzing noise {34}made by the +perfect bees when emerging from their retreat at once arrests our +attention. These nests consist of about ten oval cells, formed of clay, and +neatly smoothed within. They are all constructed by a single female, which +also provisions them with honey and pollen, depositing an egg in each. The +larva, after consuming the food, changes into a pupa, from which the +perfect insect emerges about January. If the reader will imagine a great +number of these nests closely packed together, the formation and storing of +the cells being performed by a number of sterile individuals (workers), +while the eggs are deposited by a single female (queen), he will have a +fair idea of the economy of the social bees and wasps, whose wonderful +instincts attain their maximum in the well-known hive-bee, successfully +introduced and cultivated in various parts of the country. + +Closely allied to this species is _Dasycolletes purpureus_ (?) (Fig. 10), +which forms its nests in sand-banks, its cylindrical holes having a great +resemblance to the burrows of _Cincindela tuberculata_, which frequently +occur in the same situation. + + +Family SPHEGIDÆ. + +_Pompilus fugax_ (Plate III., fig. 2). + +This is a very abundant insect, and may be observed flying about on any +fine day during the summer, occasionally stopping to examine leaves and +crevices in the bark of trees, where it is looking for the unfortunate +spiders, which constitute the food of its progeny. The larva is a fat +apodal grub, and may be found in the cells constructed by the perfect +insect, which usually selects a large cylindrical hole in a log, previously +drilled out by a weevil. Into this burrow she pushes a large quantity of +spiders, which she has previously captured and paralyzed with her venomous +sting. When her nest is {35}properly provisioned she deposits an egg in it, +closes the hole with a neat plug of clay, and leaves the larva to quietly +consume its half-dead companions. Each female, no doubt, forms a large +number of these cells during the summer. While cutting up old logs for +Coleoptera, the entomologist will not infrequently come across these nests, +when the insects may be found in various stages of development. +Unfortunately, however, the sight which usually meets his eye is a large +number of legs and other fragments of spiders, the _fugax_ having long +since deserted the burrow, and being very probably engaged in forming +others in a neighbouring tree. These insects are very ferocious, and will +attack spiders which considerably exceed them in size. On one occasion I +noticed a very large one at rest in the centre of its web, which was +suddenly noticed by a passing _fugax_, which immediately sprang upon its +back, and, in spite of violent movements on the part of the spider, twisted +her abdomen dexterously round and stung her victim in the centre of the +thorax, between the insertions of the legs. This produced almost +instantaneous paralysis in the spider; but it was apparently too large for +the _fugax_ to carry away to her nest, as I saw the unfortunate creature +hanging helplessly in its web some hours after the occurrence. + + +Family FORMICIDÆ. + +_Formica zealandica_ (Plate III., fig. 3 [M], 3a [F], 3b [N], 3c, cocoon). + +This is one of our commonest ants, and may be noticed under logs and stones +throughout the year. The nest consists of a number of irregular cavities +dug out by the workers either in the ground or in soft rotten wood. Its +size varies considerably, but the societies of this species are not usually +so extensive as those of _Atta antarctica_, {36}an insect I shall have +occasion to refer to presently. The larvæ are minute apodal grubs, which +are dependent entirely on the workers for food. When full grown they spin +an oval cocoon of white silk, in which they are converted into pupæ, and +these the patient neuter ants may be observed carrying away with great +anxiety when disturbed, risking their own lives to preserve their adopted +offspring from destruction. The females, or queens, of which there are +several in each nest, do not appear to participate in these labours, but +are only instrumental in perpetuating the species, and the same remark +applies to the males. A large number of these winged males and females may +be observed in the nests about February, the general emergence taking place +during that month. At this time they leave their native homes and mount to +a great height in the air, and after sporting for some hours they re-alight +on the earth, and in a short space of time cast their wings. The neuters at +this time are said to carry them away to form fresh colonies, but I have +not carried my investigations sufficiently far to verify this in connection +with the New Zealand species. + + +Family FORMICIDÆ. + +_Ponera castanea_ (Plate III., fig. 4 [M], 4a [N], 4b, larva). + +This is a much larger species of ant than the last, but is apparently not +unlike it in habits. I have figured a male (Fig. 4) and worker (4a), the +female not differing from the latter in any great degree, except in being +provided with wings. It will be noticed, however, that the male is very +divergent. The larvæ of this insect are covered with numerous minute +spines, and may be often found in the nests; also the cocoons which they +form when full grown, these latter being of a dark brown colour, and rather +elongate. The winged insects are not frequently seen. They appear only for +a short time in February, the earlier {37}ones being invariably held +captive by the workers until the rest have emerged, when they are all +allowed to fly away and form fresh colonies as in the last species. + + +Family FORMICIDÆ. + +_Atta antarctica_ (Plate III., fig. 5 [M], 5a [F], 5b, larva). + +This is another very abundant species, found occasionally amongst rotten +wood in very large communities. Its larva, which is represented at Fig. 5b, +does not form any cocoon, the pupa being quite naked and defenceless. It is +a beautiful little object when examined with a microscope of moderate +power. The annual migration of the winged males and females of this species +usually takes place on a hot day in the last week of March, at which time I +have observed the air throughout a day's journey absolutely swarming with +these little insects. Many specimens are captured in the spiders' webs, +while the logs, fences, and ground are covered with ants in the proportion +of about ten males to one female. At other seasons of the year the winged +individuals of _Atta antarctica_ are seldom observed. + + +Family CHALCIDIDÆ. + +_Pteromalus_ sp. (?) (Plate III., fig. 9). + +This little insect was reared, in company with thirteen others of the same +species, from a pupa of _Eurigaster marginatus_ which had been procured +from a larva of _Oeceticus omnivorus_, and is consequently a true +hyperparasite.[3] Its curious habits will be better understood by the +reader after perusal of the life-histories of those two insects, which I +have given on pages 60 and 74. The method by which the females of the +Hymenoptera whose larvæ are parasitic on insects inhabiting other insects, +{38}introduce their eggs into their hosts,[4] is not at present known to +entomologists, but it seems at least probable that they are deposited in +the eggs of the parasitic Dipteron before these gain access to the +caterpillar of the moth. + + +Family ICHNEUMONIDÆ. + +_Ichneumon sollicitorius_ (Plate III., fig. 6). + +This is the most abundant of our ichneumon-flies, and may be taken amongst +herbage from August till May. Its larva is parasitic in the caterpillars of +various Noctuæ, having occurred in the following species: _Mamestra +composita_, _M. mutans_, and _M. ustistriga_. The pupa may be frequently +discovered inside that of the moth, and is quite white in its early stages, +but as age advances all the colours of the future insect can be seen +through the thin pellicle which invests it. The perfect insect makes its +escape through a circular hole, which it drills in the upper end of the +unfortunate moth pupa it has destroyed. The sexes of all ichneumon-flies +may be at once recognized by the females possessing an ovipositor[5] +differing considerably in length among the various species, but nearly +always plainly visible. + + +Family ICHNEUMONIDÆ. + +_Ichneumon deceptus_ (Plate III., fig. 7). + +This conspicuous insect is chiefly mentioned on account of a very curious +habit possessed by the females of congregating in large numbers on matai +trees, as many as fifty or sixty specimens being often found huddled +together under a single flake of the bark. The males are occasionally taken +flying in the open, but I have never seen any amongst these large +assemblages of females. Whether the {39}ichneumons are parasitic on some +insect which lives on the matai, or whether they assemble to feast on the +sweet juice occasionally exuded from its bark, it is impossible to say, but +in either case the complete absence of males is a very remarkable +circumstance. + + +Family ICHNEUMONIDÆ. + +_Scolobates varipes_ (Plate III., fig. 8). + +The larva of this little insect is parasitic on the useful larva of +_Syrphus ortas_ whose life-history is recorded on page 57. It is very +common in some instances, and must consequently destroy a considerable +number. It entirely eats the soft portions of the insect, and may +afterwards be found lying snugly within the hard empty shell of the +deceased syrphus pupa, which acts as a cocoon for it while undergoing its +own pupa state. The perfect insect may be often observed amongst herbage, +searching for syrphus larvæ to deposit its eggs in. + + + + +{40}CHAPTER V + +The Diptera. + +The next Order which comes under review is the Diptera, which includes all +the two-winged insects, and constitutes a most extensive Order in respect +to the number of distinct species. When, however, the numbers of +individuals of the same species are considered, it is probable that this +Order includes a greater proportion of the insect-world than all the others +put together. The preponderance of these insects over the rest holds good +with greater force in New Zealand than in many other countries, and this +fact may be almost inferred from the large number of spiders present here, +which are chiefly dependent on Diptera for their support. The important +function of clearing away refuse matter is almost entirely performed by the +members of this Order, as the Necrophagous Coleoptera and other scavengers +which exist in such large numbers in many countries are practically absent +here, and their work consequently devolves upon dipterous insects. + + +Group NEMOCERA. + +Family CULICIDÆ. + +_Culex iracundus_ (Plate IV., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). + +The mosquito is only too familiar to every one from {41}its ceaseless +attacks; it occurs almost everywhere, but is most abundant in marshy +situations. The larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits all stagnant waters, where it may +be found very abundantly throughout the summer, and when disturbed it +plunges about with great agility. Its food consists of the numerous +animalculæ swarming in all still waters during the greater portion of the +year. These are captured by means of two curious anterior appendages, which +are fringed with long hair, and pulled through the water like a fisherman's +net; they are then withdrawn into the mouth and the contents devoured, the +hungry insect again extending them for a fresh supply. These larvæ are +generally seen suspended from the surface of the water by the curious +air-tube which takes its rise from the penultimate segment of the abdomen, +which is of considerable length. Its apex is armed with a row of stiff +bristles, which effectually prevent the water from entering the spiracle +there situated, so that the insect is enabled to respire when hanging from +the surface, independently of any muscular action. It is also worthy of +note that the intestine discharges itself into this tube, an arrangement +which does not exist among the British species. After several moultings the +transformation to the pupa state takes place. At this stage the insect +(Fig. 1b) becomes much thickened anteriorly, this being the region of the +head and thorax of the future gnat; all the limbs are easily detected on a +close examination, as with lepidopterous pupæ. The upper portion is +provided with two short appendages, fulfilling the same function as the +air-tube of the larva, and which constantly support the pupa at the surface +of the water. The terminal fins enable it to dash through the water with +great rapidity when pursued by enemies; at other times it remains perfectly +motionless, suspended from the surface of the water. It should be mentioned +that none of these aquatic pupæ take any nourishment, neither have they any +limbs properly {42}so called. Their locomotion, although in some cases +unquestionably rapid, is entirely effected by violent motions of the +abdomen. I have been careful to point out these peculiarities as these +animals have been regarded by many authors as _active_ pupæ on a level with +those of the Orthoptera and Hemiptera. This opinion, however, is manifestly +erroneous; the pupæ of the nemocerous Diptera are on precisely the same +footing as those of the Lepidoptera, and it would be almost as reasonable +to call one of these _active_, because it wriggles out of its cocoon in the +earth before the emergence of the moth. The perfect mosquito emerges from a +rent in the thoracic shield of the pupa, drawing each pair of legs out +separately, and placing them in front of it on the water; the wings and +abdomen are then extracted and in a few moments it flies away. + +The bites of these insects appear to distress some people much more than +others, probably owing to constitutional differences. I should mention that +the females alone engage in these attacks, the males being quite harmless +and subsisting entirely on honey, which is doubtless the natural food of +both sexes. The male and female mosquito are readily distinguished, the +specimen figured belonging to the latter sex; her companion is chiefly +remarkable for his plumed antennæ and beautiful palpi, which are very long +and gracefully plumed. As many of the harmless insects which will be +investigated are often mistaken for this species, and destroyed +accordingly, I should like to advise my readers that they may at once +distinguish all the venomous species of gnats by their long, lancet-like +proboscis and loud humming noise during flight. + +Closely allied to this insect is _Culex argyropus_, which might be called +the coast mosquito as it is always found near the seashore, its larva +living in brackish pools just above high-water mark. The perfect insect may +be also seen skating along the surface of the water like a {43}gerris[6]; +it may be at once distinguished by its dark colour,. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Corethra antarctica_, n.s.[7] (Plate IV., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). + +An elegant little gnat, frequenting the margins of ponds and ditches during +the spring months. The larva (Fig. 3a) is bright green, ornamented with +numerous yellow spots; it is very sluggish, living in the green slime weed +which floats on the water in such large masses during that season. Not +being very common it is difficult to find, as its colour so closely +resembles that of the weed which it always frequents. The pupa (Fig 3b), is +not very agile, and is nearly always observed suspended from the surface by +its thoracic air-tubes and caudal fins, the abdomen being directed upwards +and thus bringing the two pairs of organs close together. In its +metamorphosis and general appearance this insect forms a convenient link +between the present family and the Culicidæ. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Chironomus zealandicus_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa). + +This is the common midge of New Zealand, and is extremely abundant +throughout the country. Its larva (Fig. 2a) inhabits the soft mud at the +bottom of stagnant ponds and streams, and is very conspicuous, being of a +brilliant crimson colour and thus much resembling the well-known +"Bloodworm" of English anglers, which is the larva of a closely allied +European species (_C. plumosus_). It may be readily kept in an aquarium, +and if supplied with a little soil and green weed will rapidly cover the +{44}walls of its glass prison with numerous tubular galleries. These take +their rise from the mud at the bottom, and, extending upwards to a distance +of three or four inches, afford the larva a convenient retreat from all +enemies. These insects are occasionally seen swimming laboriously through +the water with a peculiar zigzag motion. When out of their burrows they +have considerable difficulty in keeping beneath the surface, and may be +often observed floating helplessly with their exposed portions quite dry; +in fact the whole integment of the insect appears to have a peculiar power +of resisting the water. The pupa (Fig. 2b), is a most beautiful object, its +anterior extremity being obtusely thickened and the limbs of the future +insect quite discernible. On each side of the thorax the gills form a set +of graceful plumes, a much smaller group being also situated at the +extremity of its abdomen. In this state the insect remains almost entirely +concealed in the burrows previously constructed by the larva, its gills +imbibing sufficient air from the surrounding medium, and thus rendering +ascension to the surface unnecessary. The water is periodically circulated +in the tunnels by violent movements on the part of the pupa. About a day +before emergence the insect assumes a peculiar silvery appearance, which is +occasioned by the presence of a large quantity of air between the imago and +its pupa skin. This air has been first imbibed by the gills and afterwards +expelled through the spiracles of the enclosed gnat, thus inflating the +skin of the pupa, and helping to buoy it up during its last and most +important transformation. Leaving its tunnel the insect rises to the +surface, the thorax is lifted above the water which retreats from it on all +sides, the skin cracks open at the back and the insect slowly extricates +itself in a similar manner to the mosquito. In about ten minutes' time the +wings are sufficiently hardened for use and the insect then flies ashore, +but we may occasionally notice, {45}beside their old pupa-skins, drowned +individuals which have failed to effect a successful emergence. The perfect +insect is extremely common in all swampy situations throughout the summer; +it has a great partiality for light, and may be occasionally noticed in +vast numbers round the street lamps on a hot summer's night, especially if +rain is impending. It is a most graceful insect, and will amply repay a +minute examination (Fig. 2). + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Ceratopogon antipodum_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa). + +Very plentiful in the forest throughout the year, often enlivening the +winter sunshine by its merry gambols. The larva (Fig. 4a), is found under +the bark of newly fallen trees, feeding on the sap which exudes in large +quantities from the logs whilst drying. When first discovered it often has +a curiously spangled appearance, owing to the minute beads of moisture +retained by numerous bristles clothing the larva. When about to change, +these insects assemble in large companies of thirty or forty, firmly +affixing their basal segments to the wood, their heads all pointing inwards +and forming a small circle. In some cases, where an unusually large +gathering has occurred, a number arrange themselves into an outer row, +their heads being immediately behind the extremities of the inner group, +the whole thus bearing a rough likeness to the radiations of a star-fish. +The pupa is very short, and is furnished with two clubbed horns on the +thorax for respiration. Its abdominal portions are retained within the old +larval skin, thus keeping it firmly anchored to the log. The perfect insect +emerges from a rent in the thorax of the pupa, groups of exuviæ being of +common occurrence under the bark. The sexes differ considerably, the +individual figured {46}(Fig. 4) being a male; the female is slightly +larger, and much more stoutly built; her antennæ are filiform[8], and the +limbs generally shorter. Both are equally common, but the male is more +often noticed, owing to his greater activity. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Psychoda conspicillata_ (Plate IV., fig. 6). + +A common species, occurring plentifully on window panes during August, and +bearing a great superficial resemblance to a small moth of the Tineina +group, often deceiving the novice in consequence. It is a beautiful object +for the microscope, the figure being a careful drawing of the insect, seen +with a power of about ten diameters. I regret to say that its +transformations are at present unknown. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Mycetophila antarctica_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 5, 5a larva, 5b pupa). + +Tolerably common in the vicinity of forest during the major part of the +year. The larva (Fig. 5a), is a small elongate maggot of a pinkish colour; +it is a social insect, inhabiting rotten pine logs, which it perforates +with numerous cylindrical burrows. These larvæ, entirely confine their +attention to damp wood of a "pappy" consistency, leaving the harder logs +for the wood-boring Coleoptera, which are provided with much stronger jaws. +They consequently do not injure the rafters and boards of houses, or other +valuable timbers. The pupa (Fig. 5b) is very elongate, reposing in one of +the burrows, previously constructed by the larva. It probably breathes by +means of its spiracles, as no special organs of respiration are visible. +The perfect insect appears in a short time, flying sluggishly in the +sunshine, the female possessing an enormous abdomen, which {47}almost +incapacitates her for aerial locomotion; in other respects she resembles +the male, which is the sex figured (Fig. 5). + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Tipula holochlora_ (Plate V., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). + +This beautiful insect is very common in the forest throughout New Zealand. +Its larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits various kinds of decaying wood, frequently +occurring in vegetable refuse at the roots of trees. It is a large, +sluggish-looking grub, and the anterior segments are very retractile. Its +colour appears to vary according to its surroundings, those specimens found +in red pine being of the dull reddish hue characteristic of that wood, +while those taken from pukatea and henau are dark brown larvæ, resembling +the illustration. These insects are very voracious, but their growth is +gradual, each larva probably occupying at least six months to reach +maturity. They mostly feed during the winter, but may be often taken at +other times. The pupa (Fig. 1b) is enclosed in a small oval cell, +previously excavated by the larva, which also constructs a ready means of +escape for the future insect in the form of a small tunnel leading out of +one end of its prison to the open air. Through this the pupa wriggles, +assisted by the spines, which arm the edges of all the segments; the +coronet of hooks at its extremity retaining the insect firmly at the mouth +of its burrow while undergoing its final transformation. After numerous +twistings and contortions on the part of the pupa, a rent is formed in the +thoracic plates, and the imago draws itself out, standing on the log until +its wings are sufficiently hardened for flight. In many old houses numbers +of these exuviæ may be seen projecting from holes in the boards--a relic of +the destruction that has taken place within. These insects naturally +inhabit dead trees, but as they will devour unsound timber in any {48}form +they are very injurious to old wooden buildings. The perfect insect chiefly +frequents forest, where it is difficult to detect owing to its green colour +harmonizing so closely with the leaves. The specimen figured (Fig. 1) is a +male, the female being considerably smaller with a much stouter body and +shorter legs. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Tipula fumipennis_, n.s. (Plate V., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa). + +Another fine species, occurring in similar situations to the last, but not +quite so commonly. The larva (Fig. 2a) may be found throughout the year +under the bark of very rotten henau and pukatea, feeding on the moist +decaying wood. It constructs in this material numerous burrows, which are +lined with a viscous fluid constantly emitted from the mouth. Its movements +in these are very rapid, frequently eluding the most careful searches. When +divested of its slimy covering, it is anything but an offensive-looking +larva, the great air-tubes, which run the whole length of the insect, being +very conspicuous, and many of the other internal organs are easily detected +owing to its partial transparency. The pupa (Fig. 2b) is enclosed in a +small cocoon, having ready access to the air; it is chiefly remarkable for +its very large thoracic horns, which are curiously toothed. The air-tubes +connected with these are distinctly visible in the abdomen of the insect, +where they may be seen branching in all directions. When about to emerge +this pupa works its way to the surface of the log, the head and thorax are +thrust outside, and the perfect insect escapes in the ordinary way. The +illustration (Fig. 2) is taken from a female; the male differs in being +less robust, and in being provided with longer legs. + + +{49}Family TIPULIDÆ. + +The Glow-worm. _Bolitophila luminosa_, Skuse. + +(Frontispiece, fig. 1). + +Every one who has walked in the forest at night has no doubt noticed, in +many damp and precipitous situations, numerous brilliant points of greenish +white light shining out from amongst the dense undergrowth. The animal +which causes this light may be seen at Fig. 1a on the Frontispiece, and is +probably one of the most interesting insects we have in New Zealand. It +inhabits irregular cavities, mostly situated in the banks of streams, where +it hangs suspended in a glutinous web which is stretched across the cavity +and supported by several smaller threads running right and left, and +attached to the sides and ends of the niche. On this the larva invariably +rests, but when disturbed immediately glides back along the main thread and +retreats into a hole which it has provided at the end of it. From the lower +side of this central thread numerous smaller threads hang down, and are +always covered with little globules of water, constituting a conspicuous, +though apparently unimportant, portion of the insect's web. It should be +mentioned that all these threads are constructed by the larva from a sticky +mucus exuded from the mouth. + +The organ which emits the light can easily be seen by referring to Fig. 1a. +It is situated at the posterior extremity of the larva, and is a gelatinous +and semi-transparent structure capable of a great diversity of form. It can +be extended or withdrawn at the will of the larva, which, however, can shut +off the light independently of this latter action. Larvæ cease to shine on +very cold nights, in the daytime, and in a room which is artificially +lighted. They gleam most brilliantly on dark, damp nights, with a light +north-west wind. These larvæ appear to suffer great mortality in a state of +nature, as the {50}young ones will always be found greatly in excess of +those that are approaching maturity. + +When full-grown this insect is transformed into the curious pupa shown at +Fig. 1b. It is furnished with a large process on the back of the thorax +which is attached to the web and holds the pupa suspended in the middle of +the niche previously inhabited by the larva. The light is emitted from the +posterior segment of the pupa, but is much fainter than in the larva, and a +distinct organ is not apparent. It is frequently suppressed for days +together. + +The perfect insect is drawn at Fig. 1. It emits a strong light from the +posterior segment of the abdomen, about half as bright as that emanating +from a full grown larva. It has been recently described by Mr. Skuse, of +Sydney, as _Bolitophila luminosa_. + +During the whole course of my observations[9] on this insect, extending +over five years, I have only succeeded in bringing two specimens to +maturity, and both of these were females. + +The uses of the light and the web to the larva are at present quite unknown +to me, as well as its food, which, however, possibly consists of fungi. It +should also be mentioned that the larvæ are found in the greatest abundance +in mining tunnels, many feet below the surface of the earth, as well as in +caves. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Cloniophora subfasciata_ (Plate V., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +Tolerably common in damp gullies during summer and autumn. The larva (Fig. +3a) inhabits decayed henau logs, {51}drilling deep into the wood, where its +burrows are seldom noticed, as they are filled up with refuse almost as +soon as they are made. The pupa resembles that of _Tipula holochlora_, but +is rather more attenuated in the body, and the thoracic horns are slightly +thicker. It is not enclosed in any cocoon, but lies amongst the powdery +wood, wriggling to the surface when about to emerge. The illustration +represents the male insect, the female having a much stouter body, with +short thick legs; she also differs in her antennæ, which are much less +branched than those of the male. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Rhyphus neozealandicus_ (Plate V., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa). + +A most abundant species occurring in most damp situations throughout the +year. Its larva (Fig. 4a) closely resembles a small worm, being of an +elongate form attenuated at each end. The skin is very hard and of a dull +yellow colour, with black markings. The food of this insect consists of +decaying vegetable matter, which it procures by means of two small +appendages, situated on each side of the mouth, and which it is continually +moving about in search of suitable materials. The pupa is a curious object +(Fig. 4b), the two little respiratory horns having a singular resemblance +to a pair of ears. It is enclosed in a small oval cell about one inch below +the surface of the earth, the insect working its way to the air before +emergence. The perfect _Rhyphus_ may be almost regarded as one of our +domestic insects, and is seldom found in the open country, but frequents +cowhouses and other farm buildings in great numbers, the larvæ feeding on +the manure in these situations. It is often mistaken by ignorant people for +the mosquito and at once destroyed, but quite unfairly, as the species is +in reality perfectly harmless, frequently {52}benefiting mankind by the +removal of considerable quantities of effete matter, which if allowed to +remain could not fail to be injurious. + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Bibio nigrostigma_ (Plate V., fig. 5, 5a larva, 5b pupa). + +This insect is very abundant during the spring months, but rapidly +disappears, and few specimens are noticed after Christmas. Its larva (Fig. +5a) inhabits the woody powder often found under logs, which frequently +consists of the accumulated excrement of wood-boring insects. It is +gregarious in its habits, being found in large companies of fifty or a +hundred individuals. When first disturbed these appear as a wriggling mass, +but very shortly become so still that they can only be distinguished with +the greatest difficulty from morsels of bark. A considerable portion of the +powdered wood is also retained on the body of the insect by a row of short +spines situated in the middle of each segment, which helps to render the +larva still more inconspicuous. In this condition it remains for at least +eight months, during which time growth takes place very slowly. About +September the larvæ separate, each being afterwards transformed into a +small yellowish pupa (5b), whose abdominal extremity is usually retained +within the old skin, thus closely resembling that of the genus +_Ceratopogon_. I have figured this pupa entirely naked, in order to show +its characteristics, some of which are rather remarkable, more completely, +the agglutination of nearly all the anterior portions of the body being +especially noteworthy. The perfect insects may be found everywhere, the +males sucking honey from the flowers and performing many antics in the air, +often clinging hold of one another and whirling about together. The female +seldom flies, but is usually observed crawling about fences or the trunks +of trees. She may be at once recognized by her heavy body {53}which is very +large when distended with eggs. Her general colour is dull red, thus +differing widely from the male insect represented in the illustration (Fig. +5). + + +Family TIPULIDÆ. + +_Simulia australiensis_ (Plate VI., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). + +Every one knows the sandfly, the little black insect that so persistently +perches on our hands and faces and inflicts its painful punctures, which in +many cases are followed by large swellings, often lasting for several days +and causing much irritation. Its larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits clear running +water, climbing about in strong currents by means of a pair of suckers +situated at each end of the body, two being placed on the prothoracic +segment just behind the head and two others close to the anal extremity. +These the insect employs rather curiously, the anterior pair being first +affixed and the others drawn up close behind them, its elongate body +consequently forming a loop. Clinging by the posterior suckers for a moment +the larva then reaches forward, re-affixes the anterior ones, and draws up +the posterior as before. Breathing is performed by two spiracles situated +on the last abdominal segments near the hind pair of suckers. Two large +air-tubes originate from these and run forwards, giving off branches to all +parts of the body; they terminate in a number of air-sacs in the thorax. +The food of this larva consists of animalculæ, which are no doubt obtained +by drawing the two ciliated appendages rapidly through the water several +times in succession, their contents being afterwards gathered up by the +smaller organs and passed into the mouth. When about to assume the pupa +state the insect covers itself with a glutinous envelope, which is firmly +joined to the under side of a leaf, the transformation taking place within +a few days. The pupa can hardly be distinguished from a small moth +chrysalis except for a pair of branching {54}filaments, which arise from +the top of the thorax and serve the purpose of gills (Fig. 1b). Before +emergence the anterior segments are projected nearly out of the cocoon from +which the perfect sandfly makes its escape, and floating to the surface of +the water ascends the stem of an aquatic plant to expand its wings. I +should here remark that as with the mosquitoes, the bloodthirsty +propensities of the present species have no doubt been acquired since the +arrival of man and other warm-blooded animals. + + +Group BRACHOCERA. + +Family TABANIDÆ. + +_Tabanus impar_ (Plate VI., fig. 6). + +I have figured this fine species as a representative of a most important +family of Dipterous insects, but am at present quite unacquainted with its +life-history. It occurs plentifully on the margins of the forest throughout +the summer. + + +Family BOMBYLIDÆ. + +_Comptosia bicolor_ (Plate VI., fig. 2). + +This conspicuous species is very abundant in glades throughout the summer, +flying with great rapidity, and delighting to suck honey from the numerous +shrubs which are in blossom at that time of year. It is a social species, +and is usually found in companies of fifteen or twenty individuals, which +engage in endless dances, two insects often seizing one another on the wing +and then revolving together like a wheel in rapid motion. Their manoeuvres +in avoiding the strong gusty wind, so often prevalent in early summer, are +also interesting; the insects play upon the wing whilst the air is quiet, +but if a breeze springs up they instantly settle on the nearest bush, +rising to renew their sports when it is again calm. These flies are rather +variable in colour, some specimens being dark brown, {55}whilst others are +more or less covered with greyish-white hairs; individuals are also often +met with quite black and shining, their hirsute covering having been +completely rubbed off. The female may be at once recognized by her solid, +fleshy abdomen, that of the male being inflated by two great air-bladders, +which cause that portion of the body to appear semi-transparent when the +insect is held up to the light. The figure (2) is taken from a specimen of +the latter sex. + +Closely allied to the present insect is _Comptosia virida_, n.s. (Fig. 3), +which can be at once distinguished by its brilliant green eyes and pale +grey clothing. The larva of this species is a large white maggot, rather +robust, and possessing a small head. It inhabits the dense moss growing on +the trunks of trees in the forest, feeding on the roots of these plants, +and finally forming an oval cocoon, in which it changes into the pupa shown +at Fig. 3b. The perfect insect appears in a few weeks' time, when it may be +taken in similar situations to _C. bicolor_, but in much fewer numbers. + + +Family ASILIDÆ. + +_Sarapogon viduus_ (Plate VI., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa). + +A voracious insect, frequenting all dry sand-banks and pathways throughout +the summer, and destroying the numerous minute diptera found in those +situations. These unfortunate victims are drilled through the thorax by +their destroyer, which sucks them completely dry with its long beak-like +proboscis. The larva (Fig. 4a) inhabits rotten wood, chiefly feeding upon +the moist, powdery portions. It is usually somewhat sluggish, but when +disturbed hops about with electrical rapidity. The head is very minute, and +the elongate body consists of twenty segments, a number very unusual among +larvæ, the normal number being twelve exclusive of the head. It lives for a +{56}considerable time and is finally transformed into the blunt-looking +pupa, drawn at Fig. 4b, without having previously constructed any cocoon. +From this the perfect insect emerges in a month or six weeks' time, +commencing its work of destruction as soon as its wings are hardened, which +takes place within a few hours. + + +Family STRATIOMIDÆ. + +_Exaireta spiniger_ (Plate VI., fig. 5). + +Abundant during November, when it may be taken in great numbers in the +vicinity of water. The larva is probably aquatic, but I have not yet +observed it, although its habits would, no doubt, be very interesting. The +perfect insects frequent flowers, and are generally very sluggish in their +movements. + + +Family ACROCERIDÆ. + +_Acrocera longirostris_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 4). + +An extraordinary and very rare species, occurring amongst white rata[10] +blossoms in February. At present I have only taken three specimens, _viz._, +two in Wellington and one in Nelson. The transformations of all the +Acroceridæ are as yet unknown. + + +Family SYRPHIDÆ. + +_Syrphus ortas_ (Plate VII., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). + +Very common everywhere from September till May, or even later, when +specimens may be often seen basking in the winter sunshine. The larva (3a) +is a most useful insect to gardeners as it destroys an immense number of +aphides, those noxious little insects that commit such fearful ravages on +many valuable plants (see Hemiptera, page {57}120). In general appearance +this larva resembles a small green slug, with the skin much wrinkled, and +bearing at its extremity a short thick tube, which is probably the +respiratory apparatus, the four lunate holes situated at its apex being no +doubt the spiracles. These insects grow very slowly, occupying several +weeks to attain maturity. Their mode of capturing the aphides is very +curious, and is, briefly, as follows:--The larva lies in the midst of a +number of aphides, and it occasionally happens that some of them crawl over +it. On feeling an aphis touch its back the larva instantly darts out its +long, pointed head and strikes its prey with the apex, which is enveloped +in a quantity of very sticky mucus constantly ejected from the mouth. On +the aphis being thus captured the larva withdraws its head into the hinder +segments of its body and devours all the juicy portions of the aphis, whose +dry skin is afterwards thrown aside. When full-grown it slowly shrinks up +and changes into the pupa shown at Fig. 3b. In this state it is not +protected by any kind of cocoon, but lies amongst the refuse of the +aphides, near the stem of the plant. The fly emerges in a fortnight or +three weeks' time, and is very fond of hovering over and sucking honey from +the flowers, but the females may be often noticed running about plants, +probably in search of a suitable place to oviposit.[11] For an account of +_Scolobates varipes_, a species parasitic on the present insect, I refer to +page 39. + + +Family SYRPHIDÆ. + +_Eristalis cingulatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 2). + +This conspicuous insect occurs occasionally in glades in the forest about +January, but is by no means common. It is very fond of the white rata +flowers, where it may be {58}taken, if anywhere. Its life-history is at +present unknown, but no doubt resembles that of the following insect. + + +Family SYRPHIDÆ. + +_Helophilus trilineatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). + +This fine species occurs abundantly in all damp situations throughout the +summer. Its larva may be found in stagnant pools and is often met with in +the mud at the bottom of ditches. Its posterior segments are enormously +elongated, forming a telescopic breathing apparatus, composed of two tubes, +the smaller of which is capable of being more or less extended at the will +of the larva, which is thus enabled to adjust the length of its breathing +tube, according to the depth of water or mud in which it happens to reside. +This peculiarity has given all these larvæ the name of rat-tailed maggots. +The other segments are very stout, each being furnished with a pair of +minute feet, and the head is also provided with two small appendages which +are supposed to be the outlets through which the exhausted air is +discharged by the larva. When mature this insect leaves the water, forming +a small oval cell in the neighbouring moist earth, in which it lies with +its long tail folded along the breast. The skin then gradually hardens, and +it is finally transformed into the pupa shown at Fig. 1b, the conical pair +of breathing-tubes on the thorax being slowly protruded from two hardly +perceptible warts, whilst the telescopic apparatus shrinks up, its +functions being at an end. A variable time, dependent upon the season, +elapses before the perfect insect makes its appearance, but prior to this +occurring, a large circular plate, forming the thorax of the pupa, is +thrust off, thus assisting the escape of the fly, which immediately ascends +a plant, or other convenient object, to dry and expand its wings (Fig. 1). +In the perfect {59}state it delights to hover in the air, darting away with +great rapidity on the approach of any enemies. It also frequently enters +houses, where its presence is at once betrayed by a peculiarly shrill noise +made while flying. The sexes of this insect differ chiefly in size, the +female (Fig. 1) being about twice as large as her companion. + +Closely allied to this species are _Helophilus ineptus_, and _H. +hochstetteri_. The former is slightly smaller than _H. trilineatus_ and may +be at once distinguished by its tessellated orange-yellow and black +abdomen. It is rather local, but extremely abundant wherever found. The +latter has a superficial resemblance to some of the smaller blowflies +(_Musca_), but may be readily known by its large brownish-red +scutellum.[12] It is the commonest of the genus and may be found in great +numbers throughout the summer amongst veronica and other flowers. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Miltogramma mestor_ (?) (Plate VII, fig. 5). + +A conspicuous species, found occasionally on forest-clad hills round +Wellington. The life-history is at present unknown, but its larva is very +possibly parasitic in some large Lepidoptera. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Nemorea nyctemerianus_ (Plate VII., fig. 6). + +This little fly is seldom met with in the perfect state. Its larva is +parasitic on the caterpillar of _Nyctemera annulata_[13], the eggs being +deposited on the moth larva at an early age. The caterpillar grows and eats +in the ordinary way, until it has assumed the chrysalis state, when the +{60}maggot eats its way out and changes into a dark-brown pupa. In this +condition the parasite is protected by the web which was previously +constructed by the unfortunate caterpillar for its own use. The perfect fly +appears in about six weeks' time, its great agility and large white scales +rendering it very conspicuous. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Eurigaster marginatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 7). + +Another parasitic species, its larva inhabiting the caterpillars of various +noctuæ which it destroys just before they change into the chrysalis state. +The pupa of the parasite lies in a small oval cell constructed in the earth +by its larva. A variable number of these maggots are found associated in +one host, the smaller caterpillars only harbouring a single individual, +while a large larva will frequently contain three or four. This species has +been bred from the following Lepidoptera: _Mamestra composita_, _M. +ustistriga_ and _M. mutans_. It also occurs in the curious _Oeceticus +omnivorus_, being found in the cocoons of that moth in numbers varying from +two to eleven, or even more, and it is especially interesting, as it is in +turn destroyed by a small species of _Pteromalus_ already noticed among the +Hymenoptera (page 37). The perfect insect occurs occasionally on flowers +throughout the summer. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Calliphora quadrimaculata_ (Plate VII., fig. 9). + +This is the large blue-bottle fly of New Zealand and is found everywhere in +great abundance. Its larva feeds on decaying flesh and is of a dirty yellow +colour, measuring, when full-grown, about seven lines in length. The pupa +is buried at a considerable depth in the ground, the {61}larva having +descended before changing. The duration of this, and in fact of all the +stages of the insect, depends entirely upon the temperature, but the +females invariably deposit eggs, even during the hottest weather, and are +never ovo-viviparous like the next species, and several others of the +genus. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Sarcophaga læmica_ (Plate VII., fig. 10). + +Another extremely abundant species having a similar history to the last, +but its powers of development are very much accelerated owing to the larva +being positively born alive. The females hover over meat and other suitable +substances, depositing a number of minute wriggling maggots thereon, not +infrequently to the great disgust of some hungry individual, who perhaps is +making his dinner off a mutton chop which the fly has selected as a home +for her offspring. These larvæ are all produced from distinct ova, which +hatch before being laid, as I have often proved, by removing them from the +insect's abdomen, and watching the young larva emerge from a minute +elliptical white egg, covered with a thin leathery skin. Every one who has +travelled in New Zealand must have noticed that, in the wildest spots, +these insects assemble in large numbers as soon as any meat is uncovered, +thus not only showing their universal distribution throughout the country, +but also that they possess a very keen sense of smell. + +Two British species at least, allied to this genus, have been introduced +into New Zealand, _viz._, _Musca domestica_ and _Musca cæsar_. The former +is probably a world-wide insect, every ship teeming with it, but the latter +is at present rather scarce and is usually found in the neighbourhood of +farm-yards, where the larva feeds on {62}cow-dung. The perfect insect may +be at once known by its brilliant green colour. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Cylindria sigma_ (Plate VII., fig. 14). + +A curious species, occurring occasionally in damp situations in the forest +where it may be noticed leisurely walking over the leaves of various +shrubs. It is very sluggish and may often be captured between the fingers +without the aid of a net. Its life-history is at present unknown, but the +larva probably feeds on fungi. The pretty little insect depicted at Fig. 11 +may be found in similar situations but is not so common. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Phora omnivora_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 15, 15a pupa). + +This minute species may be found in large numbers nearly all the year +round. Its larva is parasitic on a great variety of insects and is also not +infrequently met with among decaying vegetable matter. Its habits are, +therefore, very varied. When parasitic in the Lepidoptera it usually +selects the noctuæ, destroying a great number of many of the commoner +species[14]. The infected caterpillars usually turn into chrysalides some +time before the little maggots emerge, but this is not invariably the case, +the parasite often destroying the larva at a comparatively early stage. The +pupæ are buried in the earth, near the remains of their host, and are light +brown in colour, with the segments much more distinct than is usual (Fig. +15a). From these the perfect flies proceed in about a month's time. The +occurrence of this insect as a parasite in Coleoptera is not common, but I +know of one instance {63}in which a number of these little flies were +produced from a pupa of _Uloma tenebrionides_ (Plate II., Figs. 2, 2a, 2b), +which I was rearing at the time (page 29). In this case it is difficult to +understand how the female contrives to deposit her eggs in a horny beetle +larva which lies safely hidden in its narrow tunnel in the middle of a +large log of wood. Among bees this is a most destructive insect, its larva +being parasitic in their grubs, and thus greatly reducing the population of +the hive, which is finally ruined by the wholesale destruction of its honey +when the flies emerge. Driving the bees into a fresh box would, no doubt, +be frequently beneficial in these cases, but it is to be feared that +bee-keepers will have much difficulty in contending with this insect. Its +sexes are readily distinguished by their size, the female being +considerably the larger. + + +Family MUSCIDÆ. + +_Coelopa littoralis_ (Plate VII., fig. 13). + +Extremely abundant on the sea-beach. Its larva feeds on decaying seaweed, +burying itself in the sand before changing. The perfect insects often +congregate in such vast numbers on some of the rocks that it is necessary +to run past them in order to avoid being positively suffocated by the +countless multitudes which fly up into one's face. This insect must be +regarded as the New Zealand representative of the well-known dungfly of +England (_S. stercoraria_), which many of my readers will recollect has a +similar habit of assembling in great numbers. + + +Family OESTRIDÆ. + +_Oestrus perplexus_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 12). + +This species is mentioned here as it is the only New Zealand exponent of a +very important and well-known {64}family of Dipterous insects. I am at +present quite ignorant as to its life-history which would, no doubt, be +very interesting. The only two specimens I possess were taken at Nelson, +some four years back, so that it appears to be very rare. + +The two remaining groups of the Diptera are of very limited extent. The +_Pupipara_ include a few anomalous species, in which the young are not +deposited until they become pupæ, thus undergoing all their transformations +within the body of the parent, while the _Pulicina_ comprise the well-known +fleas, which are probably identical with the European species. They are +placed by many authors in a distinct order termed the _Aphaniptera_. + + + + +{65}CHAPTER VI + +The Lepidoptera. + +This Order includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths which are the +first insects to arrest attention on account of their beautiful colouring +and conspicuous appearance. Some of the families are fairly numerous in New +Zealand, but the diurnal section is decidedly poorly represented, our total +number of butterflies being limited to fifteen, of which one (_Diadema +nerina_) has unquestionably been introduced from Australia, although it +will doubtless shortly effect a permanent settlement in the Nelson +district, where several specimens have recently been observed. Among the +others only four species can be called at all common, the remaining twelve +only occurring in certain favoured localities. Of the moths there are a +large number, chiefly belonging to the Geometridæ and Micro-Lepidoptera, +many of which are very interesting. Of the life-histories of the latter, +however, I regret to say there is little known at present, the attention of +naturalists having been hitherto chiefly occupied with the larger and more +conspicuous species. + + +Group RHOPALOCERA. + +Family NYMPHALIDÆ. + +_Argyrophenga antipodum_ (Plate VIII., fig. 1 type, 1a var.). + +Passing over the local but conspicuous _Danais plexippus_, {66}about which +so much doubt exists as to its origin in this country, we come to _A. +antipodum_, one of the most curious and interesting butterflies found in +New Zealand. It occurs in great abundance amongst the tussock grass on the +plains in the South Island, but becomes an alpine species further north. I +have taken a very peculiar form (Fig. 1a) on the "Mineral Belt" near +Nelson, but can find no record of its appearance in the North Island at +present. Its larva is as yet unknown, but in all probability it feeds on +tussock grass, a fractured pupa having been found attached to that plant by +Mr. G. F. Mathew in January, 1884. Two other closely allied species are +_Erebia pluto_ and _Erebia butleri_, both strictly alpine insects, +occurring in the South Island at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 +feet. + + +Family NYMPHALIDÆ. + +_Vanessa gonerilla_[15] (Plate VIII., fig. 2, 2a underside, 2b 2c larvæ, 2d +2e pupæ). + +One of our most beautiful butterflies, found abundantly throughout the +country from August till May. The larva feeds on the New Zealand nettle, +where it may be taken in great plenty by careful searching. The caterpillar +joins several of the leaves together and forms a sort of tent, in which it +lives secure from all enemies. While young, these insects are of a uniform +dull brown colour, with two faint lines on each side, but as age advances +they become very variable. The two extreme forms of variation are depicted +at Figs. 2b and 2c, the dark-coloured variety being by far the commoner. +When full-grown, this larva suspends itself by the tail to a small patch of +silk, which it has previously spun on the under side of a leaf. In this +position it remains for about twenty hours, when it begins to twist and +distend the lower portions of its body, thus {67}causing the skin to +eventually break on the back of the thoracic segments, when the soft green +pupa may be seen through the rent. The insect now works the skin upwards by +violent wriggling motions until it is gathered in a crumpled mass round its +tail, the old rent extending on one side almost up to the silken pad to +which it is suspended. Through this rent the tail of the pupa is brought +and firmly anchored in the silk by a few vigorous strokes, the insect +hanging meanwhile to the skin which has not been quite cast off on the +reverse side to the rent. When thus firmly attached to the silken pad, the +pupa shakes itself entirely free, whirling itself round and round until the +old skin is dislodged from the silk and falls to the ground. The two usual +varieties of pupæ are shown at Figs. 2d and 2e, many of them being more or +less ornamented with metallic gold or silver spots. The butterfly emerges +in a fortnight or three weeks, and is common from February till April in +most situations, but the greatest numbers are to be found in the spring +months. These hybernated specimens appear as early as August, and some of +them survive till the end of December or beginning of January, when the +earliest of the new ones are just emerging. In fact it is not infrequent at +this time to take both hybernated and recent specimens together. This +species is a great traveller, and may be often seen flying over the tops of +the trees at a great rate. It shows a singular indifference to shadow, and +is constantly flying out of the sunlight into shady places in the forest, +probably in search of the food-plant of the larvæ. The two other species of +_Vanessa_ are _V. cardui_, a periodical insect only distinguished from the +"Painted Lady Butterfly" of England by the blue centres in three of the +black spots on its hind-wings, and _V. Itea_, a lovely butterfly found in +the northern portions of this island, of which I have at present only taken +three specimens. + + +{68}Family LYCÆNIDÆ. + +_Chrysophanus salustius_ (Plate VIII., fig. 3 [M], 3a [F], 3b larva). + +This is the commonest of our Butterflies, and is found in great abundance +throughout both islands from November till April. It is double brooded, and +is consequently most abundant in the early summer and in the autumn, few of +these merry little insects being seen at midsummer. The most forward +individuals of the second brood usually emerge about the middle of March, +but the butterflies are very irregular in their appearance at this season. +The young larva (Fig. 3b) is much thickened anteriorly, the head being +concealed from above by the large thoracic segments. Its colour is pale +green, with a pair of long, erect bristles on each segment, a large number +of shorter ones being situated on the ventral surface, and behind the head. +After the second moult, a brilliant crimson dorsal line is noticeable, but +beyond this I have no record, as my larvæ unfortunately died just after +completing their third moult. Up to this time they had fed but sparingly on +the dock, eating minute holes in the leaves and clinging to them with great +firmness. It is much to be regretted that their subsequent history could +not be followed, especially as I only succeeded in obtaining the eggs on +this one occasion, although I frequently kept females in captivity with +this object. Three other species of _Chrysophanus_ occur in New Zealand, +viz., _C. feredayi_, common round Nelson, and chiefly distinguished by the +olive-green under-surface of its hind-wings; _C. enysii_, which is +occasionally met with amongst forest, and may be at once known by its broad +black markings and pale yellow colour; and _C. boldenarum_, a little insect +uniting the "Coppers" with the "Blue Butterflies," and found in great +abundance in certain river beds and shingly places. The western side of +Lake {69}Wairarapa is one of the best localities I know of for this curious +little species. + + +Family LYCÆNIDÆ. + +_Lycæna phoebe._ + +This is the common blue butterfly of New Zealand, which may be observed in +great numbers along the roadside on a hot summer's day. Its larva must be +very abundant, but has hitherto escaped attention, owing, probably, to its +small size. The perfect insect is on the wing from October till May. + + +Group HETEROCERA. + +Family SPHINGIDÆ. + +This family is represented in New Zealand by the splendid _Sphinx +convolvuli_, an insect I am at present unacquainted with. + + +Family HEPIALIDÆ. + +_Porina signata_ (Plate IX., fig. 2). + +Common throughout the summer, when it may be taken in great numbers round +lighted windows during any mild evening. The larva is as yet unknown, but +is in all probability subterranean in its habits, and feeds on the roots of +plants. A large _Hepialus_ larva I once discovered under a stone, whilst +looking for Coleoptera, was very likely referable to this insect, but as it +unfortunately died shortly afterwards it is impossible to speak with any +degree of certainty at present. Two closely allied species are _P. +umbraculata_, and _P. cervinata_. The former is rather smaller than _P. +signata_ and of a more uniform brown, with a white stripe in the centre of +each fore-wing, surrounded with darker colouring. The latter is one of the +smallest of the family, its size at once distinguishing it {70}from any of +the rest. In colour it is pale brownish with numerous black and white +markings, varieties occasionally occurring much suffused with the darker +colour. It is rather local, but may be found abundantly in the Manawatu +district. + + +Family HEPIALIDÆ. + +_Hepialus virescens_ (Plate IX., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1c larva, 1b pupa). + +This gigantic insect is seen occasionally in the forest during the early +summer. The larva (1c) tunnels the stems of living trees, feeding entirely +on wood which it bites off with its strong mandibles. The plant most +usually selected by the caterpillar is _Aristotelia racemosa_, called by +the settlers "New Zealand currant," from its large clusters of rich-looking +black berries, which appear in autumn. Other food-plants are numerous, the +black maire (_Olea apetala_) and manuka (_Leptospermum_) being among those +more frequently chosen. + +This larva, for the most part, inhabits the main stem of the tree, its +gallery always having an outlet to the air, which is covered with a curtain +of dull brown silk, spun exactly level with the surrounding bark, and +consequently very inconspicuous. These burrows usually run down towards the +ground, and are mostly two or three inches from the surface of the trunk. +In some instances the larvæ inhabit branches, in which case, if the branch +is of small dimensions, the tunnel is made near the centre. These remarks +only refer to galleries constructed by young larvæ, as the tunnel made by +the insect prior to becoming a pupa is of a very complicated character and +merits a somewhat detailed description. It consists of a spacious, +irregular, but shallow cavity, just under the bark, having a large opening +to the air, which is entirely covered with a thin silken covering, almost +exactly the same shape and size as {71}the numerous scars which occur at +intervals on the trunks of nearly all the trees. Three large tunnels open +into this shallow cavity: one in the centre, which runs right into the +middle of the stem, and one on each side, which run right and left just +under the bark. These are usually very short, but sometimes extend half-way +round the tree, and occasionally even join one another on the opposite +side. The central tunnel has a slightly upward direction for a short +distance inwards, which effectually prevents it from becoming flooded with +water; afterwards it pursues an almost horizontal course until it reaches +the centre of the tree when it appears to suddenly terminate. This, +however, is not the case, for, if the gallery floor is carefully examined a +short distance before its apparent termination, a round trap-door will be +found, compactly constructed of very hard, smooth silk, and corresponding +so closely with the surrounding portion of the tunnel that it almost +escapes detection. When this lid is lifted a long perpendicular shaft is +disclosed which runs down the middle of the tree to a depth of 14 or 16 +inches, and is about six lines in diameter. At the bottom of this the +elongated pupa (Fig. 1b) sleeps quietly and securely in an upright +position, the old larval skin forming a soft support for the terminal +segment of the pupa to rest on. The upper end of this vertical shaft is +lined with silk, which forms a framework on which the trap-door rests when +closed. The lid itself is of a larger size than the orifice which it +covers, and this makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to force +it from the outside, whilst it fits down so closely to the aperture as not +to be readily lifted. The object of this most ingenious contrivance is, in +all probability, to prevent the ingress of insects, large numbers of +spiders, slugs, and various Orthoptera being frequently found in both +central and lateral tunnels, but they are quite unable to pass the +trap-door. The galleries of different individual larvæ are all wonderfully +{72}alike, the only differences observable being in the length of the +perpendicular shaft and the direction of the horizontal burrow, which is +sometimes curved. These variations are usually caused by the presence of +other tunnels in the tree, which the larva invariably avoids, although how +it can ascertain that it is approaching another tunnel before actually +reaching it, is hard to understand. As development progresses in the pupa, +it becomes darker in colour, especially on the wing-cases, which in some +individuals show the future black markings of the moth, as early as two +months before emergence. Others remain quite white and soft, the green +wings suddenly appearing through their cases a fortnight or three weeks +prior to the bursting forth of the imago. Previous to this change the pupa +works its way up the vertical tunnel, lifts the trap-door, which yields to +the slightest pressure from within, and wriggles along the horizontal +burrow until it reaches the air, the last three or four segments only +remaining in the tree. The thoracic shield then ruptures, and the moth +crawls out and expands its wings in the ordinary way, resting on the trunk +of the tree until they are of sufficient strength and hardness for flight. + +The perfect insect, although it must be common, is very rarely seen. It is +best reared from the pupæ, which can be often successfully cut out of their +burrows and kept amongst damp moss until they emerge. It appears to be much +persecuted by birds, as we often observe its large green wings lying about +on the ground.[16] + +The curious "vegetable caterpillar," which is usually referred to this +species, probably belongs to one of the larger subterranean larvæ of the +family. + + +{73}Family BOMBYCIDÆ. + +_Nyctemera annulata_ (Plate IX., fig. 3 [M], 3a larva, 3b pupa). + +This abundant species is usually mistaken for a butterfly by the +uninitiated owing to its diurnal habits and conspicuous colouring. Its +larva feeds on various plants, the most usual being a light green kind of +ivy with yellow flowers, but its original food no doubt consisted of the +"New Zealand groundsel" (_Senecio bellidioides_), on which it may now be +occasionally taken in wild situations. Its general colour is black, with +interrupted dorsal and lateral lines, the ventral surface and connecting +membrane between the segments being slate-coloured. In younger larvæ there +are also several slate-coloured lines extending the whole length of the +insect, and thus dividing the black into squares. Round the middle of each +segment, at its greatest circumference, a variable number of brilliant blue +warts are situated, and out of these dense tufts of long black hair take +their rise. There are, however, no warts along the ventral surface. This +description applies very well as a rule, but the larva is subject to many +slight variations. It remains in this state for nearly three months, or +more, according to the season, and is very common, numbers being found on +the different plants which constitute its food. The pupa (Fig. 3b) is of a +shining black colour, with many longitudinal rows of small yellow blotches +on the abdominal segments; there is also a stripe of the same colour at the +tip of the wing-case. It is enclosed in a slight cocoon, formed of a +mixture of silk and hair, and is attached near the ground to any firm +object. The moth emerges in the course of a month or six weeks. It is very +common, being found profusely in the neighbourhood of its food-plants, and +appears in the greatest numbers during the early morning hours in the +middle of summer. + +{74}For an account of a Dipterous insect, parasitic in the present species, +I refer to page 59. + + +Family PSYCHIDÆ. + +_Oeceticus omnivorus_ (Plate X., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b larva, 1c [M] +pupa). + +This insect is very rarely seen abroad, but can be easily reared from the +larva, which feeds on manuka and other plants throughout the year. When +very young, and in fact immediately after leaving the egg, it constructs a +wide spindle-shaped case, principally composed of silk, with a few small +fragments of leaves, &c., attached to the outside. It has a large aperture +in front, through which the head and anterior portion of the larva are +projected, and a much smaller one at the posterior extremity, which allows +the pellets of excrement to fall out of the case as they are evacuated. The +body of the enclosed caterpillar is of a light straw colour, the head and +three first segments being dark brown, with numerous white markings. The +abdominal segments are considerably thickened near the middle of the +insect, rudimentary prolegs being present on the third, fourth, fifth, and +sixth segments of the abdomen. The anal prolegs are very strong, and are +furnished with numerous sharp hooklets, which retain the larva very firmly +in its case. As it grows it increases the length of its domicile from the +anterior, causing it gradually to assume a more tubular form, tapering +towards the posterior aperture, which is enlarged from time to time. The +outside is covered with numerous fragmentary leaves and twigs of various +sizes, placed longitudinally on the case, and frequently near the anterior +aperture, the materials, owing to their recent selection, are fresh and +green. The interior is lined with soft, smooth silk of a light brown +colour, the thickness of the whole fabric being about the same {75}as that +of an ordinary kid glove, and so strong that it is impossible to tear it, +or indeed to cut it, except with sharp instruments. The size of the case +when the caterpillar is mature varies considerably, ranging from 25 to 30 +lines or more in length, and about three in diameter, the widest portion +being a little behind the anterior aperture (see Fig. 1b). + +During the day the larva closes the entrance and spins a loop of very +strong silk over a twig, the ends being joined to the upper edges of the +case on each side; in this way it hangs suspended, the caterpillar lying +snugly within. I have often known a larva to remain thus for over three +weeks without moving, and afterwards resume feeding as before; this +probably occurs while the inmate is engaged in changing its skin. At night +the larvæ may be seen busily engaged: they project the head and first four +segments of the body beyond the case, and walk about with considerable +rapidity, often lowering themselves by means of silken threads; the only +locomotive organs are, of course, their strong thoracic legs, which appear +to easily fulfil their double function of moving both larva and case. If +disturbed, these insects at once retreat into their cases closing the +anterior aperture with a silken cord which is kept in readiness for the +purpose, and pulled from the inside by the retreating larva. This operation +is most rapidly performed, as the upper edges of the case are flexible, and +thus fold closely together, completely obstructing the entrance. When full +fed, this caterpillar fastens its case to a branch with a loop of strong +silk, which is drawn very tight, preventing the case from swinging when the +plant is moved by the wind, and also rendering the insect's habitation more +inconspicuous, by causing it to resemble a broken twig. The anterior +aperture is completely closed, the loose edges being drawn together and +fastened like a bag. The posterior end of the case is {76}twisted up for +some little distance above the extremity, thus completely closing the +opening there situated. It is lined inside with a layer of very soft silk, +spun loosely over the sides, and partly filling up each end. In the centre +of this the pupa lies with its head towards the lower portion of the case, +the old larval skin being thrust backwards amongst the loose silk above the +chrysalis. In this stage of existence the extraordinary sexual disparities, +which are so characteristic of the family, manifest themselves, the male +and female pupæ being very widely different in all respects. The former is +figured at 1c, the female pupa differing from it in the following +particulars. It is much larger and more cylindrical in shape, the abdomen +occupying nearly the whole of the body, and consisting of nine visible +segments, the terminal one being obtusely conical. The head and thorax are +very rudimentary, more resembling those of the larva than the male, all the +appendages being, however, reduced to hardly visible warts. In colour it is +pitchy black and shining, and its length is about ten lines. This insect +remains in the pupa state during the winter months, viz., from May till +September. When about to emerge, the male chrysalis works its way down to +the lower end of the case, forces open the old aperture there, and projects +the head, thorax, and upper portion of the abdomen, the pupa being secured +from falling by the spines on its posterior segments, which retain a firm +hold in the silk. Its anterior portion then ruptures, and the moth makes +its escape, clinging to the outside of its old habitation, and drying its +wings. It is probable that the female insect does not leave her case, +communication with the male being no doubt effected through one of the +orifices, and the eggs afterwards deposited inside. On one occasion I found +a case full of eggs, containing the shrivelled body of the female and her +old pupa shell, which would seem to confirm the above opinion. The perfect +insects are drawn at {77}Figs. 1 and 1a. The male (1) is extremely active, +dashing about the breeding cage with great rapidity when first emerged, and +rapidly beating his wings to tatters; but the female (1a) closely resembles +a large maggot, all the appendages being completely rudimentary, except the +two-jointed ovipositor at the end of her body; she is incapable of any +motion, except a slight twirling of the abdomen, which takes place while +the eggs are being laid.[17] + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Leucania nullifera_ (Plate XIII., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +This large, though dull-looking insect, is occasionally taken at light +during the summer and autumn months. + +The larva feeds on the spear-grass (_Aciphylla squarrosa_), an abundant +plant on the coast hills near Wellington. It devours the soft +central-growing point, and its presence in a tussock can be at once seen by +a quantity of pale-brown "frass," visible at the bases of the leaves. The +formidable spear-like points with which this plant is armed must afford the +caterpillar considerable protection from enemies. As a rule a single +specimen only is found in each clump of the grass, so that the female +probably deposits her eggs singly. This larva is full-grown about August, +and may be found feeding in the plants during the autumn and winter. + +The pupa state is spent, in an earthen chamber, amongst the roots of the +spear-grass, and the moth emerges during the summer. + +This species occurs at considerable elevations. I have seen it as high as +4,000 feet in the Nelson province, where its food-plant may also be found. + + +{78}Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Leucania atristriga_ (Plate X., fig. 2). + +Abundant among various blossoms during the latter end of summer, being one +of the last of the Noctuæ to disappear in the autumn. + +The larva probably feeds on grasses, but I have not yet met with it. + +The illustration (Fig. 2) is taken from the male insect, the female +differing only in having her abdomen rounded at the tip, a sexual +distinction which holds good throughout the family. + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Erana graminosa_ (Plate X., fig. 5, 5a larva). + +This beautiful insect occurs commonly on the white rata blossoms +(_Metrosideros scandens_) round Wellington during March and April, at which +time it may be readily taken just after dark with a lantern and +killing-bottle. The larva (Fig. 5a) feeds on the mahoe (_Melicytus +ramiflorus_) in the spring and autumn. It remains concealed in crevices in +the bark during the day, not infrequently selecting the deserted burrows of +wood-boring beetles as a secure retreat from its enemies. When full grown +it is olive-green, the colour being lighter on the ventral surface and +between the segments. A row of ill-defined, feathery, black markings +extends down the back and sides and there are also two tolerably +conspicuous ochreish spots on every segment except the last. The head, +legs, and prolegs are reddish-yellow, and the whole insect is more or less +spotted with black. Younger larvæ differ in being of a light +yellowish-green, with very pale yellow dorsal and lateral lines. A row of +black warts, emitting a few bristles, extend round each of the segments, +while the head is pale ochreous with a few black dots. + +When full-grown this larva descends to the ground, and {79}forms a slight +cocoon in the earth round the roots of the tree, where it is transformed +into a very stout, ruddy-brown-coloured pupa, somewhat paler on the +wing-cases. The moth emerges in two or three months' time. Its colouring +renders it so inconspicuous amongst moss that I have frequently lifted a +handful of the latter out of the breeding cage, and only discovered that +the insects had emerged by their falling from the moss on to the table. A +very noticeable peculiarity in this species is the presence of a fringe of +long hairs in a fold on the anterior margin of the fore-wing. This organ +emits a fragrant perfume, and is confined to the male sex (Fig. 5). Only +one or two other instances of this kind are at present known among the New +Zealand moths. + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Mamestra mutans_ (Plate X., fig. 7, 7a larva, 7b pupa). + +This extremely abundant species occurs almost without intermission during +the whole of the year. The sluggish larva (7a) feeds on plantain, and is +best obtained by overturning logs and stones, when it may be discovered +among the grass and other plants growing round their edge. Its head is pale +green, with two broad black stripes, and is clothed with numerous short +bristles; the four succeeding segments are of a ruddy-brown colour, +considerably wrinkled, the remainder being light green, suffused with a +dull, pinkish hue towards the dorsal surface. The markings consist of a +triangular black spot on each side of the second to eighth abdominal +segments, and a cloudy lateral line of the same colour; the legs and +prolegs being pale green, and the whole insect more or less marbled with +black. This description and the figure on Plate X. exhibit the usual +peculiarities of the larva, but in some individuals the markings there +indicated are quite obsolete, and the {80}insect is of an almost uniform +pale-green colour. When mature, this caterpillar sometimes constructs a +slight cocoon amongst moss, on fallen trees, but more often buries itself +in the usual manner, the moth appearing in a few weeks' time. Nearly all +pupæ collected at random in New Zealand will be found to give rise to +either this species or the one which immediately follows (_Mamestra +composita_). The perfect insect is most abundant in the spring and early +summer, but may be found fluttering round lamps on any mild night +throughout the year. The sexes differ considerably: the female is greyish +white, with faint brown markings, while the male is dull reddish-brown, +with the markings considerably darker (Fig. 7). His antennæ are also +slightly pectinated, those of the female being quite simple. + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Mamestra composita_ (Plate X., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +Very common during the spring and autumn in all open situations. + +Its pretty larva (Fig. 3a) feeds on various grasses, and threatens in time +to do considerable damage to pastures. The head and dorsal surface of the +first segment are dark shining green, with one or two obscure white +markings; the rest of the body is ornamented with a number of parallel +brown, white, and orange lines, which render the larva very inconspicuous +when amongst the grass. Sometimes it occurs in great numbers, nearly every +blade of grass having its caterpillar; in fact this was almost the case in +the Wairarapa valley in the summer of 1886, when the larvæ must have +produced a marked effect on the paddocks. When full-grown this caterpillar +changes into a light chestnut-brown pupa, which lies on the surface of the +ground amongst the vegetable refuse. The perfect insect appears in about a +month's time, and if the evening be mild {81}may be seen flying with great +rapidity at dusk; it may also be readily captured at light. The figure (3) +represents the male insect, the female differing only in her simple +antennæ. + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Mamestra ustistriga_ (Plate X., fig. 6 [M]). + +This handsome insect is rather uncertain in its appearance, but is +occasionally taken quite unexpectedly at rest on tree-trunks or palings in +the daytime. Specimens may also be captured while feeding on the white rata +blossoms early in March, where they occasionally occur among the hosts of +other Noctuæ. The larva, which feeds on the honeysuckle, is of a pale brown +colour, with two obscure darker lines on each side, the under-surface being +light slate-colour. The pupa state is spent in the ground, and many fine +specimens may be reared from chrysalids picked up while gardening, &c. The +sexes of this insect differ considerably in colour: the male is of a +pinkish grey with black markings, while the female is of a uniform pale +grey, and considerably smaller. + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Heliothis armigera_ (Plate X., fig. 4, 4a larva). + +This conspicuous insect occurs in great abundance during certain seasons, +but is very irregular in its appearance, it frequently happening that only +two or three specimens are noticed in a whole year. It is generally seen +flying in the daytime, when it delights to suck honey from the flowers of +the Scotch thistle, a plant which much overruns the forest lands when first +cleared. The larva (Fig. 4a) is a very handsome caterpillar, of a dark +brownish black colour, ornamented with yellow subdorsal and lateral lines +and numerous streaks and dots of the same hue. The ventral surface is a +rich yellowish brown, and the subventral line {82}white, the spiracles +being white with black rings; a reddish blotch also adorns each of the +three thoracic segments. It feeds voraciously on geraniums, tomatoes, peas, +and many other garden plants, where it often commits the most serious +ravages. About the end of April it is full-grown, when it descends to the +ground and buries itself two or three inches below the surface. In this +situation it is shortly transformed into a pupa, remaining in that state +until the following summer, when the moth appears. The sexes of this insect +differ considerably, the male having the fore-wings of a ruddy-brown +colour, sometimes inclining to orange, while in the female they are pale +ochreish; both sexes are, however, subject to considerable variation, and +the figure (4) is taken from a rather dark male specimen. + + +Family NOCTUIDÆ. + +_Plusia eriosoma_ (Plate X., fig. 8, 8a larva). + +An abundant species round Nelson, where almost any number may be taken +hovering over flowers on a still summer's evening. In Wellington it occurs +occasionally. The larva (Fig. 8a) is a pseudo-geometer, having twelve legs, +and thus showing a strong affinity with the next family. In colour it is +pale green, darker on the dorsal surface than elsewhere. A white line runs +down each side, and the whole insect is covered with black dots and +bristles. The colouring of different individuals varies in intensity, and a +fainter white line, above the usual one, exists in some specimens. It feeds +on beans, geraniums, and many other imported plants, and is doing much good +in the Nelson gardens by the havoc which it is committing among the Scotch +thistles--weeds equally injurious to the agriculturalist and the gardener, +not only crowding out useful plants, but rapidly exhausting the soil in +which they grow. Formerly this insect must have fed exclusively on the New +Zealand {83}nightshade (_Solanum aviculare_), on which plant it may still +be occasionally found in the forest, where no imported species are +available, but, like many other caterpillars in this country, it is +forsaking the native vegetation for the European. When full-grown, this +larva spins a slight cocoon of white silk, which is generally placed +between two leaves. The pupa is of a shiny black colour, the membrane +between the segments being reddish-brown. The moth emerges in about three +weeks' time. The figure (8) is taken from a female insect, the male being +readily distinguishable by two large tufts of hair situated at the end of +his body and often very conspicuous. In some cases the wings of the female +are considerably lighter than in the illustration, but otherwise the +species does not seem to vary. It is the New Zealand representative of the +English "Silver Y Moth" (_P. gamma_), no doubt familiar to many of my +readers. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Declana floccosa_ (Plate XI., fig. 1, 1a larva). + +I have started the Geometridæ with _Declana_ because it exhibits a great +many more points in common with the Noctuidæ than does the genus +_Acidalia_, which latter is placed at the head of the Geometridæ by some +modern Lepidopterists, chiefly, I believe, on account of neuration, a +character which if taken alone cannot but produce the most unnatural +divisions. The present insect is one of the commonest of the genus, and may +often be observed throughout the whole summer resting on the sheltered +sides of trees and fences, occasional stragglers being met with as late as +the end of May. Its larva is a pseudo-geometer possessing twelve legs (Fig. +1a), and thus almost exactly resembling the caterpillars of the genus +_Catocala_, belonging to the Noctuidæ; the curious filaments on each side +of the insect making this likeness still more complete. It feeds {84}on the +"New Zealand currant" (_A. racemosa_), from which, individuals can be +occasionally beaten during the spring and early summer. They are almost +impossible to find by searching in the ordinary way, from a habit they +possess of clinging firmly to the twigs, which they exactly imitate in +colour. When full-grown this caterpillar constructs a small cocoon just +below the ground, where it is transformed into a robust-looking pupa, from +which the moth emerges in a month or six weeks' time. The sexes of this +species may be readily distinguished, the male (Fig. 1) having the antennæ +slightly pectinated, while those of the female are quite simple, and her +body much more robust. The moth drawn at Fig. 1b has been reared from larvæ +exactly resembling those of the present insect, of which it is consequently +now known to be only an extreme variety. It was formerly ranked as a +distinct species under the name of _Declana junctilinea_. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Chalastra pelurgata_ (Plate XI., fig. 2 [M], 2a [F], 2b larva). + +This delicate species may be taken flying about the forest at night, from +October till March, but is most abundant on the white rata blossoms during +the latter end of summer. + +Its caterpillar feeds sparingly on a delicate fern (_Todea +hymenophyllioides_) which grows in dark glades in the forest, where the sun +seldom or never shines. In colour it is generally dull brown, with a row of +green or pale brown lunate spots on each side; on the ventral surface the +colour is darker, except on the thorax, where it is green, the legs being +also green. There are in addition numerous fine, wavy lines down the back +and sides of the larva, and the dorsal surface of the thoracic segments and +ventral prolegs are bright reddish brown (Fig. 2b). These larvæ are, +however, very variable; in many the "lunate" stripes are much longer, +having a diagonal direction, and {85}thus extending up the sides of the +insect towards its dorsal surface, while others have the ventral surface +dark green, and additional markings of more or less importance. + +When full-grown it spins a loose cocoon of earth and dead leaves, from +which the perfect insect emerges in a month or six weeks' time. The sexes +are widely different, both being figured on the Plate (Fig. 2 [M], 2a [F]). +I have noticed that at least four females occur to every male, which is a +very unusual arrangement, the males being generally much the commoner among +the Lepidoptera. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Ploseria hemipteraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +A curious moth, occurring in some numbers at various blossoms during the +summer evenings, but rather uncertain in its appearance. The larva (Fig. +3a) feeds at night on veronica, where it may be often found with a lantern, +devouring the flowers and leaves. In colour it is light green with two +yellow lines on each side, the dorsal surface being considerably darker, +and almost blue. Specimens are not infrequently met with of a uniform dark +brown, and the two conspicuous lateral lines are then reduced to a single +obscure ochreous band. These caterpillars are very inconspicuous during the +daytime, as they remain quite motionless for hours together, sticking +straight out from the stems of their food-plant, which they closely +resemble. The pupa is unusually robust, and possesses a sharp spine at its +extremity. In colour it is pale olive brown, with a pinkish line on each +side of the abdomen, the wing-cases being more or less suffused with pink. +It is not enclosed in any cocoon, but may be found amongst the dead leaves +round the stems of the veronica. The perfect insect appears in about three +weeks' time. It is liable to be passed over for a faded leaf, the general +outline and colouring of the wings rendering the {86}insect very +inconspicuous, especially amongst foliage. The specimens I have reared all +closely resemble Fig. 3, so that this insect does not appear at all prone +to vary. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Ploseria alectoraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 4; Plate XIII., fig. 7 larva). + +One of our most variable moths, occurring occasionally amongst foliage +during the summer, but most abundant on the white rata blossoms in February +and March. + +The larva feeds on _Pittosporum eugenioides_, where it may be sometimes +found in October and November. It has a most wonderful resemblance to the +buds of the plant, and can only be dislodged by vigorous beating. It is +easily reared in captivity--in fact the female moths may often be induced +to lay their eggs and the insect observed through all its stages. + +The eggs are very flat, oval, and light green in colour, becoming brown at +one end about five days before hatching. + +The young larva is pale green with a dull yellowish head. It has no +markings until after the first moult when a reddish dorsal line appears. As +age advances the larva becomes darker in colour and is ornamented with a +series of diagonal yellow stripes. The spiracles and antennæ are pink and +very conspicuous. The legs and prolegs are very small, and the latter are +bright red in colour; a fleshy process which projects from the last segment +of the larva is similarly coloured. The whole insect is also speckled with +yellow. When full-grown this caterpillar is very robust and measures about +ten lines in length. The pupa is enclosed in a light cocoon formed of three +or four leaves fastened together with silk. It is greenish brown in colour. + +The perfect insect first appears in December. It may be observed during the +whole of the autumn and occasionally in the winter. As the larvæ grow very +slowly I am {87}inclined to think that the females hibernate and lay their +eggs early in the spring (Fig. 4). + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Sestra humeraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 5, 5a larva). + +This abundant species occurs in large numbers round Wellington, amongst +brushwood, whence it may be often dislodged during the daytime, but is most +readily procurable in the evening. The larva (Fig. 5a), feeds on _Pteris +incisa_, a pale green fern, growing in many open spots in the forest to a +height of three or four feet. Its general colour is dull brownish yellow, +slightly darker on the back, and ornamented with a number of wavy yellow +lines on each side. The ventral surface and legs are green and the head is +dark brown; the whole insect being covered with numerous black dots and +bristles. When disturbed these larvæ immediately drop to the ground, and +coiling themselves up like small snakes, become very inconspicuous. + +The pupa is buried in the earth about two inches below the surface, the +insect remaining in this state during the winter months. The moths +generally emerge about October. So far as my experience goes they are not +subject to any notable variations. The specimen drawn at Fig. 6 is regarded +as a variety of this species by Mr. Meyrick, but I myself believe it to be +quite distinct, as among over a dozen _humeraria_ larvæ reared in +captivity, none of the imagines had the slightest resemblance to Fig. 6, +although the caterpillars were all taken within a few yards of the place +where such moths occurred. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Selidosema dejectaria_ (Plate XI., fig. 8 [M], 8a [F], 8b larva). + +An abundant and conspicuous species, occurring throughout the summer, often +noticed at rest on fences and trees {88}during the day and always taken in +great numbers on various blossoms in the evening. + +The caterpillar is extremely variable, the colouring of different +individuals being apparently much influenced by their surroundings; those +specimens, for instance, taken from the pale green foliage of the mahoe +(_M. ramiflorus_) resemble in colour the twigs of that plant, while others +captured feeding on the white rata (_Metrosideros scandens_) are dark +reddish brown. Fig. 8b is drawn from a larva found on the fuchsia, which, +when in its favourite position, viz., sticking straight out from the side +of a branch, is so much like one of the sprouting twigs that it absolutely +defies detection. When full-grown this insect buries itself about two +inches in the earth, where it shortly becomes a dark chestnut-brown pupa, +lighter between the segments. The time required for the development of the +perfect insect depends upon the season, larvæ which undergo their +transformations in the spring developing much more rapidly than those that +feed up in the autumn.[18] + +This insect is extremely variable, having been formerly divided into +several distinct species; the two most usual forms are those shown at Figs. +8 and 8a, but every intermediate variety exists. The sexes are +distinguished by the usual differences in the antennæ. My experience leads +me to believe that the light varieties occur more frequently in the female +than in the male sex, and also that the dark larvæ give rise to dark moths, +and _vice versâ_, although a great many more specimens will have to be +reared before these can be regarded as established facts. + + +{89}Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Selidosema panagrata_ (Plate XI., fig. 7 [M], 7a [F], 7b larva). + +One of our commonest moths, occurring in great numbers in the forest +throughout the whole summer. + +The larvæ (Fig. 7b) are extremely variable, the most usual colouring being +that of the individual figured, but when very young they are all of a +uniform green with a conspicuous white dorsal line; as age advances the +caterpillars become dark olive brown of varying degrees of intensity in +different specimens, some retaining a considerable amount of their original +green colouring, especially those feeding on the kawakawa (_Piper +excelsum_), whose hue consequently harmonizes with that of the plant. These +larvæ often select a forked twig to rest in, where they lie curled round +with the head and tail close together. They are very voracious, and are the +primary cause of the riddled appearance which the leaves of the kawakawa +almost invariably present. Other food-plants are the "currant" (_A. +racemosa_), and the _Myrtus bullata_; those taken from the latter have a +strong pinkish tint, and are consequently very inconspicuous amongst the +young shoots where they generally feed. The burrows of _Hepialus virescens_ +are frequently utilized by the larvæ which feed on the "currant," as +convenient retreats during the winter, a large number being often found in +a single hole. When full-grown they descend to the ground and construct, on +the under-side of fallen leaves, loose cocoons of silk and earth from which +the perfect insects emerge in about a month's time. The autumnal larvæ, +however, either hibernate or remain in the pupa state throughout the +winter. This moth is even more variable than the last species (_S. +dejectaria_), which it occasionally somewhat resembles. The sexes are very +different, the colouring of the male consisting of various {90}shades of +warm brown (Fig. 7), while in the female the prevailing hue is slaty brown +or even grey (Fig. 7a). Many specimens are much suffused with ochre and +reddish-brown, while the stigma near the centre of the fore-wing, although +sometimes almost obsolete, is often very conspicuous and black, white, or +even yellow in colour. It would be of great interest to learn, by rearing a +large number of these insects, whether the many varieties existing in the +larval and perfect states could be traced to differences in food-plant, or +some other external circumstance. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Selidosema productata_ (Plate XII., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b larva). + +Abundant in the forest, where it may be dislodged from ferns and +undergrowth during the day or captured flying about in the evening. Its +larva is rather attenuated, and possesses a large hump on the second +abdominal segment. In colour it is dark reddish brown, mottled with creamy +white and pale green, and is sparsely supplied with a few isolated hairs +(Fig. 1b). It feeds on the white rata (_Metrosideros scandens_), and when +in its usual position--_i.e._, sticking straight out from a +branch--absolutely defies detection. Specimens, however, may be readily +procured with a lantern at night, when they may be found walking about and +eating. The pupa state is spent in the earth, about two inches below the +surface, the moth appearing in three or four weeks' time, this period, +however, being extended in the case of autumnal larvæ, to as many months. +It is extremely variable, scarcely two individuals being found exactly +alike. The colouring, as in the caterpillar, is chiefly protective, +consisting of a delicate tracery of browns and greys, which render the +insect quite invisible when resting on the trunk of a tree, with its pale +yellowish hind-wings concealed, a position it invariably assumes {91}during +the daytime (Fig. 1 male, 1a female). The curious and interesting +"_Tatosomas_," with their enormously elongated bodies, are closely allied +to the present insect; one of them (_Tatosoma agrionata_) being found in +similar situations, although in much more limited numbers; as, however, I +know nothing of their transformations, I am forced reluctantly to pass them +by. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Hydriomena deltoidata_ (Plate XIII., fig. 1, 1a larva). + +One of our commonest moths, appearing in great numbers during January and +February, in all open situations. It is especially abundant on the +fern-hills. + +The larva (Fig. 1a) feeds on the plantain. It is very sluggish, and lives +all through the winter, becoming full-grown in September, when it changes +into a pupa, among the roots of its food-plant. In colour it is a uniform +dark brown. + +The moth is extremely variable, but the figure may be taken as representing +a fairly typical specimen. It is a pretty insect, and may be often seen +resting on fences with its fore-wings folded backwards and forming together +a triangle, whence its name of _deltoidata_. Any unusual-looking specimens +of this species should always be netted, in order to form a thoroughly +representative series, as many of the varieties are very interesting. A +rather uncommon and remarkable-looking form occasionally occurs, in which +the dark central band of the fore-wings is completely divided near the +middle. + + +Family GEOMETRIDÆ. + +_Asthena schistaria_ (Plate XII., fig. 2, 2a larva). + +This delicate little insect may be often taken at rest on fences and +tree-trunks during the day, and is a {92}conspicuous moth when flying in +the evening, owing to its light colour. The larva (Fig. 2a), which feeds on +the manuka (_Leptospermum ericoides_), is very ornamental. Its general +colour is light green, with black dorsal and lateral stripes, and a series +of diagonal markings bordered with crimson; the legs and prolegs are also +crimson, and the segments are divided by brilliant yellow rings, a white +line extending down each side of the larva. It is difficult to find, as it +remains closely concealed amongst the dense manuka foliage, from which it +can only be dislodged by vigorous and continued beating. The caterpillars +allow themselves to fall a short distance, hanging suspended by a silken +thread, which they rapidly ascend when the danger is passed. The pupa is +rather attenuated, dark-brown, and much pointed at its posterior extremity. +It is found buried about an inch in the earth, and the moth appears in a +month's time. This insect varies much in intensity of markings. The males +are generally considerably darker than the females, but are more certainly +distinguished by their attenuated bodies. + +The pearly white _Asthena pulchraria_ occurs in October and April; it is a +most beautiful insect, and may be found amongst the foliage of the kawakawa +(_P. excelsum_), on which its larva will probably be found to feed. + + +Family PYRALIDÆ. + +_Scoparia hemiplaca_ (Plate XII., fig. 4). + +This pretty little moth was reared from a larva found feeding amongst moss +during the winter of 1885, but unfortunately I neglected to make a drawing +until it was too late. Doubtless many of the other Pyrales we meet with in +the New Zealand forest have similar habits, their larvæ probably feeding on +different kinds of mosses. These can always be examined during the winter +months, {93}when the entomologist is usually in want of work, and thus much +information may be obtained regarding this interesting but little-known +family. + + +Family PYRALIDÆ. + +_Scoparia sabulosella_ (Plate XIII., fig. 4, 4a larva). + +This is that extremely abundant, though dull-coloured little insect, that +rises in such multitudes from every field before one's footsteps during the +early summer. + +Its larva (Fig. 4a) feeds on various mosses, forming numerous silken +galleries amongst the roots in which it resides. These caterpillars are +very active, and consequently rather difficult to obtain, as they move +either backwards or forwards in their galleries with equal rapidity. + +They feed during the whole of the autumn and winter, changing into pupæ +about September, from which the moths emerge in a month or six weeks' time. + +The habits of the numerous other species belonging to this genus and the +closely allied genus _Xeroscopa_ (Meyr) probably do not materially differ +from those of the species here described. + + +Family PYRALIDÆ. + +_Crambus flexuosellus_ (Plate XII., fig. 5). + +An extremely abundant insect, occurring in swarms over meadows during the +summer, where it may be captured in the daytime or taken by hundreds at the +attracting lamp in the evening. Its larva is at present unknown, but +probably feeds on the roots of grasses. + +Closely allied is _Crambus tahulalis_, found in similar situations, but +appearing rather later in the season, the earliest specimens being met with +about January, while _C. flexuosellus_ is on the wing throughout the +summer. + + +{94}Family PYRALIDÆ. + +_Siculodes subfasciata_ (Plate XII., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). + +This curious insect may be occasionally taken flying round patches of +_Muhlenbeckia adpressa_, which grows freely amongst brushwood in many parts +of the country. + +Its larva (Fig. 3a), is very stout and sluggish, resembling the caterpillar +of an ordinary Pyrale in general appearance. It feeds in the stems of the +creeper, causing large swellings therein, which readily betray its +presence, and should therefore be cut off and kept until the moth emerges, +as specimens obtained in this way are far superior to any captured in the +open. The pupa is dark brown, and shining; it lies in the centre of one of +the swellings, the larva having previously prepared a safe outlet for the +moth in the form of a small burrow leading to the air, its extreme end +remaining closed by a thin pellicle of the original bark, which effectually +prevents the inmate's resting-place being discovered from the exterior (see +Fig. 3b, the small circle marked * represents the outlet). + +The perfect insect appears about December, flying rapidly in the hottest +sunshine. It varies greatly, both in size and colour, some of the small +males being very much suffused with dark brown, while the females usually +resemble the figure (3), and are often more than twice the size of their +mates. This insect is generally placed in a family called the _Siculidæ_, +but I think without sufficient reason, and have therefore located it among +the Pyralidæ, with which it has unquestionably a great affinity. + + +Family TORTRICIDÆ. + +_Isonomeutis amauropa_ (Plate XIII., fig. 2, 2a larva). + +This odd little moth may be occasionally seen basking in openings in the +forest, and usually flies away {95}with lightning speed when an attempt is +made to capture it. + +The larva lives under the scaly bark of the matai-tree, feeding on the +soft, juicy inner bark and sap. In colour it is light yellowish white, +darker on the back, some specimens becoming quite pink on the dorsal +surface. When full-grown it encloses itself in a tough silken cocoon, +covered on the outside with fragments of wood, from which the moth emerges +in about a fortnight's time. + +The sexes differ considerably in appearance, the male having much broader +wings, and darker in colour than those in the female from which the +illustration (Fig. 2) is taken. + +This insect is probably single-brooded, as the larva may be found feeding +in the trees during the whole of the winter. + + +Family TORTRICIDÆ. + +_Cacoecia excessana_ (Plate XIII., fig. 5, 5a larva). + +This is the commonest species of _Tortricidæ_ in New Zealand, and may be +found almost without interruption during the whole of the year. + +The larva (Fig. 5a) feeds on a great variety of plants, the common manuka +being probably the most usual food for the species when in a state of +nature. It now, however, eats numerous European plants, including +honeysuckle and occasionally the fruit of the apple, but further evidence +is required on the latter subject before we can really consider it as +actually injurious in that direction. + +In colour this caterpillar is light green with a yellow line on each side, +but varies considerably; it feeds between several rolled-up leaves, in +which it is afterwards converted into a pupa whence the moth emerges in +about three weeks' time. + +The perfect insect is also excessively variable and is often more or less +suffused with yellow. It is most abundant in {96}the middle of summer, and +may be taken at light, or in the daytime at rest on fences and trees. + + +Family TORTRICIDÆ. + +_Ctenopseustis obliquana_ (Plate XII., fig. 6). + +This little moth is occasionally noticed at rest on garden fences during +the autumn. Its larva inhabits the interior of the peach, feeding on the +kernel, which appears to exactly meet its requirements, the caterpillar +being full-grown as soon as it has completely devoured the nut. Before +assuming the pupa state this insect provides a ready means of escape for +the future moth by drilling a small hole through the hard shell and pulp of +the peach to the air; it also spins a slight cocoon inside the stone, the +pupa resting in the place formerly occupied by the kernel, in which +position it is often discovered. The only noticeable mischief produced by +this insect is delay in the ripening of the fruit. In fact all the infected +specimens which I have seen were quite hard and green, whilst other fruit +from the same tree had reached complete perfection. + + +Family TINEIDÆ. + +_Endrosis fenestrella_ (Plate XII., fig. 7, 7a larva, 7b pupa). + +This common species may be observed in almost any house in New Zealand, and +is often mistaken for the dreaded "clothes moth" (_Tinea tapezella_), which +it somewhat resembles in general appearance. Its larva (Fig. 7a) is very +destructive, feeding on dried peas, amongst which it creates great havoc, +drilling numerous holes through them and spinning a large number together, +in the centre of which the caterpillar undergoes its change into a pupa +(Fig. 7b), from which the moth emerges in about a fortnight's time. This +insect should be destroyed whenever seen, as there is no doubt that much +loss will be caused by its ravages in the future. It also infests +bee-hives. + + +{97}Family TINEIDÆ. + +_Oecophora scholæa_ (Plate XIII., fig. 6, 6a larva). + +This dull-coloured insect is extremely abundant during the early summer. + +The larva feeds on the roots of various plants, forming numerous white +silken galleries in the earth where it resides. In colour it is dark +chocolate-brown with a yellowish head and white markings. It is very large, +considering the size of the future moth, full-grown specimens often +measuring as much as 10½ lines in length. About the end of September these +caterpillars are transformed into pupæ, and the moths emerge in a month or +six weeks' time. + +The perfect insect may be often disturbed amongst brushwood. It is very +sluggish on the wing and usually drops to the ground, where it is very +inconspicuous. It also has a habit of running into any crevice immediately +on the approach of an enemy. This peculiarity is shared by the other +members of the genus _Oecophora_, of which there are large numbers in New +Zealand. + + +Family TINEIDÆ. + +_Semiocosma platyptera_ (Plate XII., fig. 8, 8a larva, 8b pupa). + +This is one of the largest of the _Tineidæ_ found in New Zealand, measuring +fully fifteen lines across the expanded wings. Its larva (Fig. 8a) is +abundant under the bark of dead henau trees (_Eleocarpus dentatus_), +feeding on the soft inner surface, but leaving the hard wood untouched. In +colour it is pale yellow, the head and prothorax are dark brown and +corneous, and the remaining segments are provided with two horny warts, +from which numerous hairs arise; its legs are all very small, and the +caterpillar is considerably attenuated posteriorly; it is very active, +wriggling about with great violence when disturbed. + +{98}The pupa (Fig. 8b) is enclosed in a compact cocoon, constructed of +minute fragments of wood, firmly woven together with silk, and attached to +the inner surface of the bark, where it may be soon found by careful +searching, and the finest specimens may thus be easily reared in captivity. + +The perfect insect appears about November, and may be often observed at +rest on the trunks of trees; its pale hind-wings are completely concealed +by the dark upper pair, which render its discovery very difficult. The +sexes may be at once distinguished by their size, the males being much +smaller than the female (Fig. 8) and usually lighter in colour. + + + + +{99}CHAPTER VII + +The Neuroptera. + +The Order Neuroptera, as here considered, is a very limited one, consisting +only of the seven small families, which comprise the Lace-wings, Ant-lions, +Caddis-flies, and a few others. It forms a most convenient passage from the +insects undergoing a complete metamorphosis with a quiescent pupa, to those +which are active during the whole of their life, as the larvæ are widely +different from the adults, but the pupæ, although incapable of walking or +eating, approximate very closely in structure to the perfect insects. I +regret that my observations have been at present restricted to three +families only, _i.e._, the _Hemerobiidæ_, _Sialidæ_, and _Phryganidæ_, +which will consequently have to represent the entire series. I understand, +however, from Mr. A. S. Atkinson, that a species of _Myrmeleontidæ_ +(Ant-lion) is not uncommon round Nelson, and doubtless future investigation +will reveal insects belonging to the other families. + + +Family PHRYGANIDÆ. + +_Oxyethira albiceps_ (?) (McLach.) (Plate XIV., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). + +This insect occurs in the neighbourhood of ponds and streams during the +summer. Its larva may be found {100}commonly in the green, slimy weed +floating in large masses on all stagnant waters. Being very small it is +rather difficult to detect, and is best procured by washing a small +quantity of the weed in a saucer of water, when the little insects will be +at once seen walking about at the bottom. On examination with the +microscope the case will first arrest attention, being of a most unique +structure. Its shape is best described as closely resembling that of a +minute pocket-flask, very much flattened at the lower end and almost +transparent. Its surface is slightly corrugated, and the neck of the flask +constructed of a much denser material than the body. It is open at both +ends, the posterior end being perforated by a long shallow slit, which +extends for nearly the whole width of the case, thus admitting a free +circulation of water round the larva, which is also able to turn round and +project its head and anterior segments through the lower aperture, thus +occupying the reverse position to that shown in the illustration (Fig. 3a). +It is, however, prevented from actually leaving the case by its abdomen, +which is too large to be withdrawn from either end. The head and thorax of +the larva are very horny in comparison with those portions permanently +retained in the case, the legs being constructed to fold up into the +smallest possible compass, a cavity existing in each joint for the +reception of the preceding one--a structure which is almost universal among +the caddis-worms. The two organs, situated on the posterior segments, are +doubtless respiratory in their function, a large air-tube taking its rise +from each and ramifying through the body in all directions. When alarmed +these insects retreat into their cases with lightning rapidity, remaining +concealed until the danger is passed. Their food probably consists of the +green weed, although they are perhaps carnivorous, feeding on the rotifers +and other animalculæ, which swarm in the water where they are found. + +{101}With regard to the method employed by the young larva in constructing, +and subsequently enlarging, its case, I can give no positive information, +although it is undoubtedly made of a viscous fluid, secreted by the insect, +which hardens when exposed to the water; this secretion is no doubt +analogous to the silk of caterpillars, which always exists in the form of a +gummy fluid before being spun. + +When about to change, the insect fixes its case down by four ligaments, two +at each end, the extremities of these being firmly fastened to a stone; it +then closes the small aperture, and constructs a curious arch-shaped +partition, of dense material, a short distance from the broad end (Fig. +3b). In about a week's time the larva is transformed into a pupa, having +the limbs, &c., free from the body but incapable of motion. The fixing down +of the case prior to the change may be easily performed from each of the +apertures, which are no doubt left open till the last for this purpose. +Before the final transformation the pupa breaks through the partition at +the broad end of the case and rises to the surface, the imago (Fig. 3) +ascending a blade of grass to dry and expand its wings. The little exuvia +of the pupa may be often noticed floating on the water, and the empty cases +are very conspicuous on the sides of a glass aquarium, where the insects +generally fix them down when in captivity. + + +Family HEMEROBIIDÆ. + +_Stenosmylus incisus_ (Plate XIV., fig. 2). + +This lovely insect is figured as an example of this family, being found +occasionally in the New Zealand forest, but is rather scarce as a rule. I +regret that nothing is at present known of its transformations. + + +{102}Family Sialidæ. + +_Chauliodes diversus_ (Plate XIV., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa). + +During still warm weather, from December till March, this large insect is +frequently observed flying lazily over water at dusk, when it may be +readily captured with the ordinary net. Its larva is aquatic, living under +stones in running streams, where it devours large quantities of Ephemeræ +and other insect larvæ, which are always abundant in those situations. It +is very ferocious and will bite violently when disturbed, being furnished +with a pair of powerful mandibles. The curious filaments on each side are +gills, and it will be noticed that they are situated exactly where the +spiracles of the perfect insect afterwards appear (see Fig. 1a). + +This larva probably lives over a year, its growth proceeding very slowly, +but mature specimens are not infrequently met with quite as large as the +illustration. When full-grown it leaves the water and forms an oval cell in +the mud, usually under a large stone; its gills then gradually shrivel up, +and in ten days or a fortnight it is transformed into the curious pupa, +shown at Fig. 1b, from which the perfect insect proceeds in about six +weeks' time. The sexes of this species may be readily distinguished by +their size, the male being considerably smaller than the female (Fig. 1), +and possessing longer antennæ. + + + + +{103}CHAPTER VIII + +The Orthoptera. + +This Order, although including a comparatively small number of species, +comprises some of the largest and most conspicuous insects inhabiting New +Zealand, many of them reminding one of the denizens of the tropics in their +gigantic size and striking appearance. They may be conveniently divided +into the three following groups:--The _Aquatic group_, or those whose larvæ +inhabit the water, including the Dragonflies, Mayflies, and Perlidæ; the +_Terrestrial group_, including all the typical Orthoptera, Termites, and +Mallophaga; and the _Euplexoptera_, including the Earwigs. We start our +observations with the Aquatic group, as these exhibit the greatest affinity +with the Neuroptera. + + +AQUATIC Group. + +Family LIBELLULIDÆ.[19] + +_Uropetala carovei_ (Plate XV., fig. 1 [M], 1a larva.) + +This magnificent insect occurs in all swampy situations during January and +February, when it may be seen dashing about with amazing rapidity intent on +catching {104}the various flies which constitute its food. Its curious +larva is represented at Fig. 1a, the drawing having been taken from a +singularly perfect exuvia, which I had the good fortune to discover, +clinging to the stem of a fuchsia-tree in a swamp, the rent through which +the perfect insect escaped having almost closed up. In this state it no +doubt feeds on various aquatic animals, which it procures with a prehensile +instrument similar in structure to the "mask" of British dragonfly larvæ, +but much larger. + +The female of this species may be at once recognized by the absence of the +two peculiar leaf-like appendages at the anal extremity, from which the +insect takes its name. Her abdomen is also much stouter. My experience +leads me to believe either that she is very retired in her habits or else +that there are at least six males to one female. + +Closely allied, and much commoner than the above insect, is _Cordulia +Smithii_, found almost everywhere, its rapid and continuous flight +frequently taking it many miles away from any water. The specimen figured +is a male (Plate XV., fig. 2), the female possessing a pair of slender +sickle-shaped hooks, attached to the end of her body. She may occasionally +be seen depositing her eggs in stagnant streams, the abdomen being +violently beaten against the surface of the water during the operation. I +have not yet met with the larva, which probably lives concealed in the mud. +One specimen, taken near Lake Wairarapa, is remarkable in possessing a +cloudy brown patch near the tip of each wing, but it is no doubt only a +variety of the ordinary insect. + + +Family LIBELLULIDÆ. + +_Lestes colensonis_ (Plate XV., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +Extremely abundant in all damp situations from September till May, being +one of the last insects to disappear in the autumn. The larva is found +under stones, &c., in {105}every stream, feeding on various aquatic insects +and crustaceans. When very young the wing-cases are scarcely discernible, +but gradually become more distinct at each moult, until the larva assumes +the form shown in the illustration (Fig. 3a), which is taken from a +specimen about a week before the emergence of the perfect insect. In all +these insects it would be much more convenient to regard the metamorphosis +as consisting of only two stages, viz., larva and imago, as there is really +no condition analogous to the quiescent pupa of other orders. The female is +rather stouter than the male, which is the sex figured, and her abdomen is +of a dull bronze colour, instead of metallic blue. The only other dragonfly +found in my neighbourhood (Wellington) is the pretty little _Telebasis +zealandica_ (Fig. 4), which occurs in similar situations to the last, but +is not quite so common. The male is of a brilliant red colour, the female +being bronzy green, but she may be readily distinguished from the same sex +in _Lestes colensonis_ by her smaller size. The larva of this species is +rather more attenuated than that of the previous insect, and is of course +considerably smaller. + + +Family EPHEMERIDÆ. + +_Ephemera_, n.s., near _Coloburus_[20] (Plate XVI., fig. 4, 4a larva). + +The well-known mayflies are very extensively represented in New Zealand, +hovering in swarms over running water during the summer evenings. + +The larva of the present species (Fig. 4a) occurs abundantly under stones +in rapid streams. It may be immediately distinguished from its numerous +congeners by its large head and conspicuous black eyes. It is carnivorous, +{106}feeding on various small insects, chiefly those belonging to the +present family, but in lack of these it will even devour individuals of its +own species. It is consequently a most difficult insect to rear, and it was +a long time before I succeeded in obtaining a single imago in captivity. +When mature the insect leaves the water, and an apparently perfect imago +escapes through a rent in the thorax in the usual way. In a few hours, +however, a second moult occurs, the wings gaining additional size and +beauty, and the anal setæ becoming very much more elongated than before +(Fig. 4). This second change, which has so perplexed some entomologists, is +merely an _apparent_ departure from the general rule, a careful examination +of the exuviæ of the dragonflies, and pupa shells of many other insects, +revealing a delicate membrane within, which invests the imago, and is cast +off at the same time as the harder external envelope. In the case of the +mayflies, the retention of this internal membrane some two or three hours +longer than usual, will fully explain its apparently unique metamorphosis. + + +Family PERLIDÆ. + +_Stenoperla prasina_ (Plate XVI., fig. 3, 3a larva). + +This is the green gauzy-winged insect which we see flying feebly over +running water, during the twilight, throughout the summer. + +Its larva (Fig. 3a) is aquatic, hiding itself under stones, and devouring +the unfortunate _Ephemeræ_ found in similar situations. Towards the end of +its career the rudimentary wings become very conspicuous, at which time it +is a most interesting object. The curious appendages on each side of the +abdomen are gills, which the larva is constantly vibrating, in order to +obtain a fresh supply of aërated water. When mature, it ascends the stem of +some aquatic plant, the skin becomes dry and brittle, and finally bursting, +allows the perfect insect to escape, {107}and in a few hours its wings are +sufficiently hardened for flight. Several other species occur in New +Zealand, one of the commonest being _Perla cyrene_, a black insect much +resembling _S. prasina_, but considerably smaller; its larva may be +occasionally found, and is at once known by its dark colour. + + +TERRESTRIAL Group. + +Family PSOCIDÆ. + +_Psocus zealandicus_, n.s. (Plate XVI., fig. 2, 2a larva). + +During the hottest days in summer every one must have noticed numbers of +minute active insects assembled on garden fences in groups, ranging from +ten to fifty, immediately dispersing when disturbed. These are individuals +of _Psocus zealandicus_ (Fig. 2), a curious little species, closely allied +to the renowned "Book Tick" (_Atropos pulsatorium_), whose ravages in +museums and libraries need no description. Its larva (2a) may be found in +the same situations as the imago, and often assembles in similar groups. +Its food probably consists of rotten wood and other decaying vegetable +matter, and in its later stages it is provided with wing-cases, thus +differing from the Book Tick (_A. pulsatorium_), which remains apterous +during the whole of its life. + + +Family TERMITIDÆ. + +_Stolotermes ruficeps_ (Plate XVI., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b "soldier," 1c +"worker"). + +The termites, or white ants, which occur in such great numbers in the +tropics, are represented in New Zealand by several small species, the +commonest in this neighbourhood being _Stolotermes ruficeps_. + +This species inhabits rotten logs, excavating extensive burrows, resembling +in a very humble manner the {108}wonderfully elaborate nests constructed by +the African and other species, about which so much has been written, and so +much remains to be discovered. The present insect appears in the perfect +state during January and February. It is seldom noticed flying about, but +may be readily obtained by opening the nests, where a large number are +frequently seen huddled together in the main galleries. At this time the +community consists of three classes of individuals, viz., males, females, +and workers, which last are in all probability nothing more than the larvæ. +After pairing they shed their wings and return to the nest, the female +becoming very much distended with eggs. About March she commences to lay. +This is continued for several months, and during this time the female is +queen of the nest. She resides in a capacious chamber, from which numerous +galleries diverge in all directions, some extending as far as eighteen or +twenty inches, but the most populous portion of the nest is contained +within a radius of six inches from the queen's apartment. The "soldiers" +(Fig. 1b) now appear in considerable numbers. They are chiefly stationed in +the royal chamber, and furiously attack any intruders; but the workers +which stream in and out, carrying the eggs from the queen, they treat with +the greatest gentleness. I have never seen soldiers in a nest containing +winged insects, nor indeed later in the spring than October, when they seem +to have all disappeared. With regard to the nature of these individuals I +am unable to supply any positive information, but it appears probable that +they are abortive males, in the same way that the neuters of the bees and +ants are abortive females. As none of these insects have yet been reared, +many points of great interest remain to be discovered in connection with +their economy, and a rigid investigation of a number of nests kept in +captivity, is the only mode by which we can hope to become fully acquainted +with the habits of this interesting family. + + +{109}Family BLATTIDÆ. + +_Periplaneta fortipes_ (Plate XVII., fig. 5). + +Few people who cut up old wood remain unacquainted with this species for +very long, its insufferable odour immediately betraying its presence +independently of anything else. It is very common under the bark of rimu, +henau, and other large trees, where specimens may be found in all stages of +growth; the mature individuals only differing from the young in the matter +of size and the possession of rudimentary wing-cases. I have never found +the females of this species carrying their eggs, but have, on several +occasions, discovered the closely allied, but smaller, _Periplaneta +undulivitta_ thus engaged under stones on the hills round Nelson. This is a +much more agreeable insect to study than _P. fortipes_, not possessing the +disgusting odour so characteristic of the latter species. + +The only winged _Blattidæ_ found round Wellington are _Blatta conjuncta_, +and _Periplaneta orientalis_. The former (Fig. 6), may be occasionally +noticed under the scaly bark of rimu and matai trees, but a sharp eye and +hand are needed to effect a capture, the insect running with marvellous +rapidity. The latter species I have not yet noticed, but as it is the +ordinary "cockroach" of Europe its habits have already been amply +described. + + +Family MANTIDÆ. + +_Tenodera intermedia_ (Plate XVII., fig. 2). + +A local species confined, I believe, to the South Island, and occurring in +some numbers round Nelson, where my specimens were obtained. It seldom +flies, but crawls stealthily about the trunks of trees, in the hottest +sunshine, capturing and destroying great quantities of insects, its green +colouring and leaf-like form rendering it very inconspicuous {110}to its +victims. The purple spots on the tibiæ of this insect are very noticeable, +and resemble small drums in structure, hence they are regarded by Mr. A. H. +Swinton ("Insect Variety," page 239), as the organs of hearing. These +curious drums may be also found in insects belonging to nearly all the +remaining families of the Orthoptera, but, as we find no auditory organs +occupying a similar situation in any other groups of insects, I think that +Mr. Swinton's explanation of their function must be regarded at present as +a somewhat doubtful one.[21] + + +Family PHASMIDÆ. + +_Acanthoderus horridus_ (Plate XIX.). + +The curious Stick Insects are familiar to most people from their remarkable +similarity to the twigs of trees. + +The present species is one of the largest, the mature insect frequently +attaining a length of five inches. It is best taken at night, when it may +be readily discovered, feeding on the leaves of shrubs, and suddenly +becoming perfectly motionless when the lantern is turned upon it. The +favourite plant for this (and indeed most of the species) is the white +rata, upon which they are often seen in large numbers when the entomologist +is collecting Lepidoptera in autumn. One of the commonest species found in +this way is _Bacillus_ (_hookeri?_) chiefly remarkable for its great sexual +disparities, the male resembling a very slender stick about twenty-eight +lines long, while the female is nearly half as long again (thirty-eight +lines), and much more stoutly built. A more systematic investigation of +this family is needed before we can pretend to correctly determine the +various species, as there is little doubt that in other cases the sexes +will be found quite as divergent. In addition to this {111}the insects are +most variable in colour, and their completely apterous character rendering +the distinction between larva and imago a matter of considerable +difficulty, it is very probable that some of the smaller species may be +only immature specimens of the larger ones. + +Stick insects are easily kept in captivity, and will not be found devoid of +interest. They are great eaters, and grow with considerable rapidity, +frequently casting their skin, a task of no easy accomplishment, which I +once had the pleasure of watching in the case of a specimen of +_Acanthoderus prasinus_ which I had under observation for several months. + +The insect first suspends itself by its hind pair of legs, keeping the +others in the same position as when walking, the head is bent in, and the +antennæ are placed along the breast, the long abdomen hanging over +backwards. The skin then splits along the back of the thorax, and the head +and thorax are gradually pushed out. The front and middle legs are +immediately afterwards extracted, the long femora and tibiæ easily passing +the sharp angles in the exuvia, owing to their complete flexibility. When +these are finally clear, the insect reaches forwards with its fore-legs and +draws the abdomen and hind-legs out of the old skin, which remains attached +to the branch until dislodged by some accident. + +During the spring months great quantities of little stick insects may be +noticed on the parasitic ferns covering the tree stems in the forest; they +are curious little animals, their antics when simulating inanimate twigs +being often most amusing, and if the reader wishes to investigate a +comparatively untouched branch of entomology he cannot do better than keep +a number of these until mature, when he will doubtless contribute much to +our scanty knowledge of this curious family. + + +{112}Family ACHETIDÆ. + +_Acheta fuliginosa_ (Plate XVIII., fig. 1). + +This destructive insect is not indigenous to New Zealand, having been +introduced from Australia into the Nelson district many years ago. Strange +to say it has never been seen in Wellington, where specimens must be +constantly landed amongst produce, &c., but appear to be unable to effect a +settlement, owing, probably, to some peculiarity of the climate which +renders the place unsuitable for them. The larvæ may be first observed +about December, when they are often seen hopping about the vegetation. They +are extremely obnoxious, devouring everything, and frequently entering +houses, where they consume provisions, clothes, and even boots. During the +summer of 1875 the farmers round Nelson were fairly eaten out by this +insect, the cattle absolutely starving for the want of food, but since that +time the pest seems to have gradually diminished, although it is still very +injurious to many garden plants. + +The illustration (Fig. 1) is taken from a female, the male wanting the long +ovipositor. These insects appear in the imago state about March, and +continue in great abundance until the end of summer, the cold weather which +generally sets in about the beginning of May rapidly destroying them. + + +Family GRYLLIDÆ. + +_Deinacrida megacephala_ (Plate XVIII., fig. 2 [M], XVII., fig. 8 [F]). + +This conspicuous species is especially interesting, as it may be regarded +as the type of a very peculiar assemblage of apterous crickets, +pre-eminently characteristic of New Zealand. It is very abundant round +Wellington, and may be occasionally taken under logs, &c., but is best +procured {113}from the hollow stems of various trees, where it is found +inhabiting the deserted galleries of wood-boring species--frequently +enlarging them to suit its own requirements. + +The plant most usually selected by these insects is the mahoe (_Melicytus +ramiflorus_), whose stems may be often seen pierced with large holes. Out +of these the insects emerge at night to feed on the leaves. To extract a +number of specimens, without injury, requires considerable care, and is +best performed with a small axe, which should be first used to cut in about +three-quarters through the trunk, just below one of the holes. Another +notch is then cut about a foot lower down, and the intermediate wood split +off in long pieces, until the tunnel is laid bare. On approaching an insect +the first thing seen are two red threads, which are the antennæ, laid back +as shown at Fig. 8. A deep notch is then cut into the trunk, some nine or +ten inches below this point, and the piece bodily wrenched off. If the +individual thus treated is a male he will cling firmly to the log, +elevating his hind-legs in the air and biting viciously at anything within +reach, but the females, in the majority of cases, endeavour to escape and +hide themselves under the leaves, &c., on the ground. Both sexes when +irritated emit a peculiar grating sound, which may be often heard at night +in the forest, and is produced by the friction of the femur against a small +file situated on each side of the second abdominal segment. They can also +leap a short distance, but not so far as many of the smaller species +(_Libanasa macropathus_, &c.). They are evidently strictly arboreal in +their habits, as they exhibit great skill in walking along branches, and +will climb up a thin stick with wonderful rapidity. + +When in their burrows the posterior legs are extended behind the insect and +push, while the anterior and intermediate ones are thrust forwards, the +claws being firmly inserted, so as to enable the insect to pull itself +along. {114}Travelling along the burrow in this manner, they frequently +evade all efforts to extract them, until they are stopped by arriving at +the end of the gallery. + +The sexes of this species are readily distinguishable, the male (Plate +XVIII., fig. 2) possessing an immense head furnished with a pair of +enormously powerful mandibles. The female (Plate XVII., fig. 8) is a more +attractive insect, her gracefully curved ovipositor and smaller head having +a much more pleasing appearance than the terribly menacing jaws of her +mate. Both sexes are able to give severe bites, but it is extremely +doubtful whether they would prove anything worse than slight mechanical +injuries, as the insect is not likely to be poisonous. I am, however, +unable to speak from experience. + + +Family GRYLLIDÆ. + +_Xiphidium maoricum_ (Plate XVII., fig. 1). + +This pretty insect may be found in great abundance round Nelson during the +autumn, but is rarer in the Wellington Province. Its presence may be at +once detected by the curious chirping heard in various directions shortly +before sunset and lasting till eight or nine o'clock in the evening. This +sound is produced with the wing-cases, which the male insects may be seen +vigorously rubbing together. The females are quite mute, and they may be +also distinguished by possessing a short curved ovipositor at the end of +the body. The peculiarly leaf-like shape of the insect and its bright green +colour render its discovery amongst the herbage a most difficult matter, +even when its whereabouts is indicated by its cry--in fact, were it not for +their music, there is little doubt that very few of these insects would +ever be captured, as they are practically invisible, and are an instance of +protective resemblance carried to great perfection. + +When disturbed these crickets fly about twenty yards {115}and again settle +in a bush or amongst herbage, carefully avoiding alighting on the ground +where they would be readily visible. Their flight is somewhat feeble for +such large insects. Great care must be taken, when capturing specimens for +preservation, not to hold them by their powerful hind-legs, as they will +not infrequently cast one off while endeavouring to escape. + +I have not yet noticed the larva of this species, but should imagine it +would closely resemble a wingless imago. + + +Family LOCUSTIDÆ. + +_Caloptenus marginalis_ (Plate XVII., fig. 4). + +This is the little grasshopper which rises before our footsteps in swarms +on a hot summer's day; it is one of the last insects to leave us in the +autumn, being frequently found in warm situations on fine days in the +middle of winter. Owing to its great abundance this species must inflict +considerable damage on the grass, as it has taken up its quarters like the +English grasshopper in the cultivated fields, where an unlimited supply of +food is always at hand. Formerly, no doubt, it was much less common round +Wellington than at present, owing to the few open spots then existing, none +of these grasshoppers being found in the forest. + +The perfect insect may be recognized by the rudimentary wings which are +present on the thorax, thus causing it to closely resemble the larval form +of many of the winged species, and for which it might readily be mistaken +were its true character unknown. + + +Family LOCUSTIDÆ. + +_Oedipoda cinerascens_ (Plate XVII., fig. 3). + +This large and conspicuous insect occurs abundantly in all open situations +near Nelson, but is very rare in the {116}Wellington district, becoming, +however, again common further north. + +When disturbed it leaps into the air, spreads its wings, and flies away +with great rapidity for thirty or forty yards, when it alights, and allows +its pursuer to get within a few yards of his prize before again making off. +This habit renders the capture of a good series of this insect a most +arduous matter. The sexes may be readily distinguished by their size, the +female being nearly twice as large as her mate. + +This species is very variable in colour, some individuals being dark green +whilst others are of a uniform drab. + +The food of this insect consists of various domestic grasses, but I do not +think it is at present sufficiently abundant to exercise any harmful +influence on agriculture. By some entomologists, however, it is regarded as +only a variety of the renowned migratory locust (_Locusta migratoria_), and +as such its advent in large numbers might be viewed with serious +apprehension. + +It is also strange that although I have often seen large numbers of this +species in the perfect state I have never observed the larva. I can only +conjecture that the insect breeds in very secluded localities and then +migrates in search of fresh food supplies. + + +Group EUPLEXOPTERA. + +Family FORFICULIDÆ. + +_Forficesila littorea_ (Plate XVII., fig. 7). + +Abundant on the sea beach throughout the year, where it may be readily +captured under stones and seaweed. It is a very bold insect, and when +disturbed will grasp a blade of grass, or other object, very firmly with +its powerful abdominal forceps, and allow itself to be lifted off the +ground and carried away rather than relinquish its hold. + +{117}The food of this species probably consists of seaweed, although it is +possibly carnivorous, and feeds on the small insects and crustaceans, which +are numerous on the beach. Being permanently apterous, mature individuals +can only be recognized by their large size, and the perfect development of +their anal forceps. It is evidently erroneous to regard these as organs +exclusively employed in opening and shutting the wings, as we see that in +the present insect, which does not require them for that purpose, they are +larger than in many of the flying earwigs. They are probably chiefly used +to _intimidate_ intruders. + +This species is strictly marine in its habits and is seldom found more than +a few yards above high-water-mark. The females may be often observed +hatching their eggs. For this purpose they excavate an oval chamber +underneath a log or large stone, and after carefully smoothing it within, +deposit the eggs at the bottom. These eggs are most faithfully guarded by +the mother, which boldly attacks all intruders, and will suffer herself to +be killed rather than leave the spot. She also remains with the young ones +for a considerable time after they are hatched, as we sometimes observe the +females accompanied by a number of larvæ of quite a large size. + + + + +{118}CHAPTER IX + +The Hemiptera. + +The present Order of insects, although of very limited extent, contains +several important species, of which the noisy Cicadas, destructive Aphides, +and numerous Bugs, and Lice, can be cited as familiar examples. The +Hemiptera may be conveniently divided into the two following groups:-- + + The _Homoptera_, comprising all the species in which the anterior wings + are entirely membranous, and-- + + The _Heteroptera_, including those having the basal portion of the + anterior wings thickened, and quite opaque. + +These peculiarities have induced some entomologists, who regard the +structure of the wings of the greatest importance in classifying, to +arrange the insects included in the Homoptera and Heteroptera, into two +distinct Orders; but their uniform character in all other respects renders +this, I think, hardly desirable. + + +Group HOMOPTERA. + +Family CICADIDÆ. + +_Cicada cingulata_[22] (Plate XX., fig. 1, 1a pupa). + +This beautiful insect may be found in great numbers {119}amongst brushwood +during the hot sunny days so common from January till March. Its larva +inhabits the earth earlier in the summer, and its curious pupa can often be +observed crawling up the stems of trees in order to allow the perfect +insect to emerge. After this has taken place the exuviæ still remain firmly +attached to the tree, and are very conspicuous objects; but if it is +desired to remove them great care must be taken not to break off the legs, +which are always very brittle. + +The perfect insects are at once betrayed by their loud singing, which, in +certain localities, becomes quite deafening. This noise is entirely +confined to the males, and proceeds from two large drum-like organs, +situated on the under surface of the abdomen near its base, which, in +conjunction with the curious ovipositor existing in the females constitute +good sexual distinctions throughout the family. The structure of these two +organs having been admirably described by several European authors renders +it quite unnecessary for me to do so here. + +Closely allied to the present insect is _Cicada muta_, the female of which +is depicted on Plate XX., fig. 2. The male is often of a reddish-brown +colour, but the insect is an extremely variable one. It is found in similar +situations to _C. cingulata_, but appears rather earlier in the year. + + +Family CICADIDÆ. + +_Cicada iolanthe_, n.s. (Plate XX., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa). + +This is the first species of Cicada to appear in the spring, and is found +during November and December. Its larva (Fig. 3a) is a curious little +animal, the two hind-legs being very long. I am at present unable to state +with certainty what constitutes its food, but am extremely doubtful whether +it consists of the juices imbibed from the roots of plants, as is generally +supposed. The anterior legs, although probably chiefly constructed for +digging, {120}appear to be also suited for raptorial purposes, which leads +me to believe that the insect may be carnivorous in its habits. The pupa +(Fig. 3b) does not materially differ from that of the last, except in size, +and its empty exuvia is also frequently found attached to the stems of +trees. + +The perfect insect may be at once discovered by the peculiarly shrill note +emitted by the male. + + +Family APHIDÆ. + +This family is extensively represented in New Zealand, but as I have not +yet been able to obtain any information respecting their specific identity +I am compelled to pass them by for the present, hoping that future +investigation will reveal much that is interesting in their habits, and +also help both gardener and agriculturist to protect himself from their +ravages. + + +Family COCCIDIDÆ. + +_Coelostoma zealandicum_ (Plate XX., fig. 4 [M]). + +This species is figured as a representative of this very curious family +chiefly on account of its great similarity to a Dipterous insect, the +rudimentary condition of its posterior wings being most perplexing to the +beginner. Its habits have been amply described by Mr. Maskell, in his work +on the Coccididæ of New Zealand, to which I consequently refer. + + +Group HETEROPTERA. + +Family NOTONECTIDÆ. + +_Corixa zealandica_, n.s. (Plate XX., fig. 5). + +Abundant throughout the summer in all slow-running streams. The larva +closely resembles the imago except that it has no wings. Its food probably +consists of the juices of other insects. The present insect invariably +swims with {121}its back exposed, thus differing considerably from the +English Water-boatman (_Notonecta glauca_), whose keel-like back is kept +beneath the water, while the two long hind-legs are rapidly moved backwards +and forwards like oars. + + +Family SCUTELLERIDÆ. + +_Cermatulus nasalis_ (Plate XX., fig. 6, 6a larva). + +This insect may be beaten out of various trees during the summer, and is +usually taken in some abundance in February amongst white rata blossoms, on +which it may be often observed sucking the honey from the blossoms with its +long rostrum. Its larva, which is represented at Fig. 6a, is found in +similar situations. + + + + +This concludes the series of insects I have selected as representative of +the several orders in New Zealand. The brief sketch of entomology thus +given is of necessity extremely fragmentary, and many important groups and +families are entirely unrepresented. Should, however, this little book +induce some of its readers to investigate insects for themselves, I shall +feel that my efforts have been amply rewarded. + + + +THE END. + + + + +{123}GENERAL INDEX. + + + + PAGE + Abdomen, 4 + Acanthoderus, 110 + " horridus, 110 + " prasinus, 111 + Acroceridæ, 56 + Acrocera, 56 + " longirostris, 56 + Achetidæ, 112 + Acheta, 112 + " fuliginosa, 112 + Andrenidæ, 33 + Antennæ, 2 + Ants, 35 + Ant-lions, 99 + Anus, 4 + Aphides destroyed by Syrphus, 57 + Aphidæ, 120 + Aphaniptera, 64 + Aquatic insects, 22, 40, 100, 103 + Argyrophenga, 65 + " antipodum, 65 + Asilidæ, 55 + Asthena, 91 + " schistaria, 91 + " pulchraria, 92 + Atta antarctica, 37 + Attracting by light, 14 + Atropos, 107 + " pulsatorium, 107 + + Bacillus, 110 + " hookeri, 110 + Beating, 9 + Bee parasites, 63 + Bees, 33 + Beetles, 19 + Beetles under sacks, 9 + " killing, 10 + " pinning, 10 + Bibio, 52 + " nigrostigma, 52 + Blattidæ, 109 + Blatta, 109 + " conjuncta, 109 + "Bloodworm", 43 + Blossoms, 13 + Blue butterfly, 69 + "Blue-bottles", 60 + Bolitophila, 49 + " luminosa, 49 + Bombycidæ, 73 + Bombylidæ, 54 + Book tick, 107 + Boxes, 10 + Brachelytra, 25 + Brachocera, 54 + Breathing organs, 4 + Butterflies, 65 + " setting, 12 + " rearing, 15 + + Cacoecia, 95 + " excessana, 95 + Calliphora, 60 + " quadrimaculata, 60 + Camphor, 17 + Catocala, 83 + Caloptenus, 115 + " marginalis, 115 + Caterpillar cages, 15 + Carabidæ, 21 + Carbolic acid, 17 + Case-bearing larvæ, 74 + Casting skin, 111 + Ceratopogon, 45 + " antipodum, 45 + Cermatulus, 121 + " nasalis, 121 + Chætosoma, 24 + " scaritides, 24 + Chalastra, 84 + " pelurgata, 84 + Chalcididæ, 37 + Chauliodes, 102 + " diversus, 102 + Chironomus, 43 + " zealandicus, 43 + " plumosus, 43 + Chrysophanus, 68 + " salustius, 68 + " boldenarum, 68 + " feredayi, 68 + " enysii, 68 + Cicadidæ, 118 + Cicada, 118 + " cingulata, 118 + " muta, 119 + " iolanthe, 119 + Cicindela, 19 + " tuberculata, 19 + " parryi, 20 + Cicindelidæ, 19 + Clavicornia, 23 + Cloniophora, 50 + " subfasciata, 50 + Clothes moth, 96 + Click beetles, 29 + Cockchaffer, 27 + Cockroaches, 109 + Coccididæ, 120 + Coelopa, 63 + " littoralis, 63 + Coelostoma, 120 + " zealandicum, 120 + Coleoptera, 5, 19 + " rearing, 15 + " collecting, 9 + Collecting insects, 9 + " at night, 13 + Collection, 17 + Collectional journal, 18 + Coloburus, 105 + Colon, 4 + Colymbetes, 22 + " rufimanus, 22 + Comptosia, 54 + " bicolor, 54 + " virida, 55 + Copper butterflies, 68 + Cordulia, 104 + " smithii, 104 + Corethra, 43 + " antarctica, 43 + Corixa, 120 + " zealandica, 120 + Compound eyes, 2 + Coxa, 3 + Crambus, 93 + " flexuosellus, 93 + " tahulalis, 93 + Crickets, 112 + Crop, 4 + Ctenopseustis, 96 + " obliquana, 96 + Culex, 40 + " argyropus, 42 + " iracundus, 40 + Culicidæ, 40 + Curculionidæ, 31 + Cylindria, 62 + " sigma, 62 + + Danais, 65 + " plexippus, 65 + Dasycolletes, 33 + " hirtipes, 33 + " purpureus, 34 + Declana, 83 + " floccosa, 83 + " floccosa _v._ junctilinea 84 + Deinacrida, 112 + " megacephala, 112 + Diadema, 65 + " nerina, 65 + Digestive system, 4 + Diptera, 6, 40 + Dorcus, 26 + " punctulatus, 26 + " reticulatus, 26 + Dorsal vessel, 4 + Dragon-flies, 103 + Dryocora, 24 + " howittii, 24 + Dyticidæ, 22 + + Earwigs, 116 + Eggs of insects, 5 + Elateridæ, 28 + Elytra, 5 + Endrosis, 96 + " fenestrella, 96 + Engidæ, 24 + Entomologist in winter, 10 + Entomological pins, 13 + Ephemeridæ, 105 + Ephemera, 105 + Epuræa, 23 + " zealandica, 23 + Eristalis, 57 + " cingulatus, 57 + Erana, 78 + " graminosa, 78 + Erebia pluto and butleri, 66 + Euplexoptera, 116 + Eurigaster, 60 + " marginatus, 60 + Exaireta, 56 + " spiniger, 56 + External organs, 2 + Eyes, 2 + + Family, 8 + Femur, 3 + Flea, 64 + Forficulidæ, 116 + Forficesila, 116 + " littorea, 116 + Formicidæ, 35 + Formica, 35 + " zealandica, 35 + + Ganglia, 4 + Genus, 8 + Geodephaga, 19 + Geometridæ, 83 + Geometer, 83 + Gerris, 43 + Glow-worm, 49 + Gilt pins, 13 + Gizzard, 4 + Grasshopper, 115 + Gryllidæ, 112 + + Head, 2 + Heart, 4 + Heliothis, 81 + " armigera, 81 + Helophilus, 58 + " trilineatus, 58 + " ineptus, 59 + " hochstetteri, 59 + Hemerobiidæ, 101 + Hemiptera, 8, 118 + Hepialus, 70 + " virescens, 70 + Hepialidæ, 69 + Heterocera, 69 + Heteromera, 29 + Heteroptera, 118 + Homoptera, 118 + Host, 38 + Hydradephaga, 22 + Hydriomena, 91 + " deltoidata, 91 + Hymenoptera, 6, 33 + + Ichneumon, 38 + " deceptus, 38 + " sollicitorius, 38 + Ichneumonidæ, 38 + Ilium, 4 + Imago, 4 + Internal organs, 4 + Insect, definition of, 1 + Isonomeutis, 94 + " amauropa, 94 + + Jaws, 2 + Journal, 18 + + Killing insects, 10, 12 + " bottle, 12 + + Labelling insects, 18 + Labial palpi, 2 + Labium, 2 + Labrum, 2 + Lace-wings, 101 + Lamellicornes, 26 + Larva, 4 + Lasiorhynchus, 32 + " barbicornis, 32 + Laurel bottle, 12 + Lepidoptera, 6, 65 + Lestes colensonis, 104 + Leucania, 78 + " atristriga, 78 + " nullifera, 77 + Libanasa macropathus, 113 + Libellulidæ, 103 + Light, insects at, 14 + Locusta, 116 + " migratoria (?), 116 + Locustidæ, 115 + Longicornia, 30 + Lower lip, 2 + Lucanidæ, 26 + Luminous larva, 49 + Lycænidæ, 68 + Lycæna, 69 + " phoebe, 69 + + Mamestra, 79 + " composita, 80 + " mutans, 79 + " ustistriga, 81 + Mandibles, 2 + Mantidæ, 109 + Maxillae, 2 + Mayflies, 105 + Melampsalta, 118 + Melolonthidæ, 26 + Melolontha, 27 + " vulgaris, 27 + Mesothorax, 2 + Mesonotum, 2 + Mesosternum, 2 + Metamorphosis, 4 + Metablax, 29 + " acutipennis, 29 + Metathorax, 2 + Migrations of ants, 37 + Miltogramma, 59 + " mestor?, 59 + Mosquito, 40 + Moths, 69 + " setting, 12 + Musca, 61 + " cæsar, 61 + " domestica, 61 + Muscidæ, 59 + Mycetophila, 46 + " antarctica, 46 + Myrmeleontidæ, 99 + + Nemocera, 40 + Nemorea, 59 + " nyctemerianus, 59 + Nervous system, 4 + Net, 11 + Neuroptera, 7, 99 + Nitidulidæ, 23 + Noctuidæ, 77 + Notonectidæ, 120 + Notonecta, 121 + " glauca, 121 + Nyctemera, 73 + " annulata, 73 + Nymphalidæ, 65 + + Oeceticus, 74 + " omnivorus, 74 + Oecophora, 97 + " scholæa, 97 + Oedipoda, 115 + " cinerascens, 115 + Oestridæ, 63 + Oestrus, 63 + " perplexus, 63 + Ochrocydus, 31 + " huttoni, 31 + Orders, 5 + Oreda, 31 + " notata, 31 + Orthoptera, 7, 103 + Ovipositor, 38 + Oxyethira, 99 + " albiceps, 99 + + Painted Lady Butterfly, 67 + Palpi, 2 + Parasites, 59 + Periplaneta, 109 + " fortipes, 109 + " orientalis, 109 + " undulivitta, 109 + Perla, 107 + " cyrene, 107 + Perlidæ, 106 + Phasmidæ, 110 + Philonthus, 25 + " oeneus, 25 + Phora, 62 + " omnivora, 62 + Phryganidæ, 99 + Pinning insects, 12 + Pins, 13 + Plant-lice, 118 + Ploseria, 85 + " alectoraria, 86 + " hemipteraria, 85 + Plusia, 82 + " eriosoma, 82 + " gamma, 83 + Pompilus, 34 + " fugax, 34 + " " and spider, 35 + Porina, 69 + " signata, 69 + " cervinata, 69 + " umbraculata, 69 + Ponera, 36 + " castanea, 36 + Prionidæ, 30 + Prionus, 30 + " reticularis, 30 + Pronotum, 2 + Prothorax, 2 + Prosternum, 2 + Proventriculus, 4 + Psepholax, 31 + " coronatus, 31 + Psocidæ, 107 + Psocus, 107 + " zealandicus, 107 + Psychidæ, 74 + Psychoda, 46 + " conspicillata, 46 + Pteromalus, 37 + Pterostichus, 21 + " opulentus, 21 + Pulicina, 64 + Pupa, 4 + Pupipara, 64 + Pyralidæ, 92 + Pyrameis, 66 + Pyronota, 28 + " festiva, 28 + + Queens, 34 + + Rearing Insects, 15 + Rhopalocera, 65 + Rhyncophora, 31 + Rhyphus, 51 + " neozealandicus, 51 + + Sandfly, 53 + Sarcophaga, 61 + " læmica, 61 + Sarapogon, 55 + " viduus, 55 + Scutelleridæ, 121 + Scolobates, 39 + " varipes, 39 + Scoparia, 92 + " hemiplaca, 92 + " sabulosella, 93 + Selidosema, 87 + " dejectaria, 87 + " panagrata, 89 + " productata, 90 + Sestra, 87 + " humeraria, 87 + Setting boards, 12 + " insects, 12 + Semiocosma, 97 + " platyptera, 97 + Sialidæ, 102 + Siculidæ, 94 + Siculodes, 94 + " subfasciata, 94 + Simple eyes, 2 + Simulia, 53 + " australiensis, 53 + Skipjack beetles, 29 + Social bees, 34 + Soldiers, 108 + Sphegidæ, 34 + Sphinx, 69 + " convolvuli, 69 + Sphingidæ, 69 + Staphylinus, 25 + " oculatus, 25 + Stenoperla, 106 + " prasina, 106 + Stenosmylus, 101 + " incisus, 101 + Stick insects, 110 + Sternoxi, 28 + Stethaspis, 26 + " suturalis, 26 + Stolotermes, 107 + " ruficeps, 107 + Stomach, 4 + " sucking, 4 + Stuffing insects, 15 + Stratiomidæ, 56 + Sugaring, 13 + Syrphidæ, 56 + Syrphus, 56 + " ortas, 56 + + Tabanus, 54 + " impar, 54 + Tatosoma, 91 + " agrionata, 91 + Tarsus, 3 + Telebasis, 105 + " zealandica, 105 + Tenebrionidæ, 29 + Tenodera, 109 + " intermedia, 109 + Termitidæ, 107 + Thoramus, 28 + " wakefieldi, 28 + " perblandus, 29 + Thorax, 2 + Throat, 4 + Tinea, 96 + " tapezella, 96 + Tineidæ, 96 + Tipula, 47 + " holochlora, 47 + " fumipennis, 48 + Tipulidæ, 43 + Tortricidæ, 94 + Trap-door, 71 + Trochanter, 3 + + Uloma tenebrionides, 29 + Umbrella, 9 + Uropetala carovei, 103 + + Vanessa cardui, 67 + " gonerilla, 66 + " itea, 67 + Vegetable caterpillar, 73 + Ventriculus, 4 + + Weevils, 32 + White rata, 13 + Wings, 4 + Wireworm, 30 + Wood destroyers, 30 + Workers, 108 + + Xantholinus, 26 + Xiphidium maoricum, 114 + + + + +{129}EXPLANATION OF PLATES. + + +_NOTE.--In all the Plates and references thereto the sign_ [M] _indicates +that the specimen figured belongs to the male sex,_ [F] _to the female sex, +and_ [N] _to the neuter sex._ + +_In the case of enlarged figures the insect's natural size is indicated by +a line._ + + + + PLATE I. + + COLEOPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Cicindela tuberculata. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 2.--Chætosoma scaritides. + " 3.--Pterostichus opulentus. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Colymbetes rufimanus. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 5.--Staphylinus oculatus. + " 6.--Dryocora howittii. + " 6a.--Larva. + " 7.--Dorcus punctulatus. + " 8.--Stethaspis suturalis. + " 8a.--Larva. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE II. + + COLEOPTERA (_concluded_). + + Fig. 1.--Thoramus wakefieldi. + " 1a.--Pupa. + " 1b.--Larva. + " 2.--Uloma tenebrionides. + " 2a.--Larva. + " 2b.--Pupa. + " 3.--Prionus reticularis. + " 3a.--Pupa. + " 3b.--Larva. + " 4.--Oreda notata. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 5.--Psepholax coronatus [F]. + " 5a.-- " " [M]. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE III. + + HYMENOPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Dasycolletes hirtipes. (?) + " 2.--Pompilus fugax. + " 3.--Formica zealandica [M]. + " 3a.-- " " [F]. + " 3b.-- " " [N]. + " 3c.--Cocoon. + " 4.--Ponera castanea [M]. + " 4a.-- " " [N]. + " 4b.--Larva. + " 5.--Atta antarctica [M]. + " 5a.-- " " [F]. + " 5b.--Larva. + " 6.--Ichneumon sollicitorius. + " 7.-- " deceptus. + " 8.--Scolobates varipes. + " 9.--Pteromalus (?), n.s. + " 10.--Dasycolletes purpureus. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE IV. + + DIPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Culex iracundus [F]. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 1b.--Pupa. + " 2.--Chironomus zealandicus, n.s. + " 2a.--Larva. + " 2b.--Pupa. + " 3.--Corethra antarctica, n.s. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 3b.--Pupa. + " 4.--Ceratopogon antipodum, n.s. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 4b.--Pupa. + " 5.--Mycetophila antarctica, n.s. + " 5a.--Larva. + " 5b.--Pupa. + " 6.--Psychoda conspicillata. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE V. + + DIPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Tipula holochlora. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 1b.--Pupa. + " 2.--Tipula fumipennis, n.s. + " 2a.--Larva. + " 2b.--Pupa. + " 3.--Cloniophora subfasciata. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Rhyphus neozealandicus. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 4b.--Pupa. + " 5.--Bibio nigrostigma [M]. + " 5a.--Larva. + " 5b.--Pupa. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE VI. + + DIPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Simulia australiensis. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 1b.--Pupa. + " 2.--Comptosia bicolor. + " 3.--Comptosia virida, n.s. + " 3b.--Pupa. + " 4.--Sarapogon viduus. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 4b.--Pupa. + " 5.--Exaireta spiniger. + " 6.--Tabanus impar. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE VII. + + DIPTERA (_concluded_). + + Fig. 1.--Helophilus trilineatus. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 1b.--Pupa. + " 2.--Eristalis cingulatus. + " 3.--Syrphus ortas. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 3b.--Pupa. + " 4.--Acrocera longirostris, n.s. + " 5.--Miltogramma mestor? + " 6.--Nemorea nyctemerianus, n.s. + " 7.--Eurigaster marginatus. + " 9.--Calliphora quadrimaculata. + " 10.--Sarcophaga læmica. + " 12.--Oestrus perplexus, n.s. + " 13.--Coelopa littoralis. + " 14.--Cylindria sigma. + " 15.--Phora omnivora, n.s. + " 15a.--Pupa. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE VIII. + + LEPIDOPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Argyrophenga antipodum. + " 1a.--Northern form of same insect. + " 2.--Vanessa gonerilla. + " 2a.--Underside. + " 2b, 2c.--Larvæ. + " 2d, 2e.--Pupæ. + " 3.--Chrysophanus salustius [M]. + " 3a.-- " " [F]. + " 3b.--Young larva (magnified). + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE IX. + + LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Hepialus virescens [M]. + " 1a.-- " " [F]. + " 1b.--Pupa. + " 1c.--Larva. + " 2.--Porina signata. + " 3.--Nyctemera annulata [M]. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 3b.--Pupa. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE X. + + LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Oeceticus omnivorus [M]. + " 1a.-- " " [F]. + " 1b.--Larva. + " 1c.--Male pupa. + " 2.--Leucania atristriga [M]. + " 3.--Mamestra composita [M]. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Heliothis armigera [M]. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 5.--Erana graminosa [M]. + " 5a.--Larva. + " 6.--Mamestra ustistriga, [M]. + " 7.-- " mutans [M]. + " 7a.--Larva. + " 7b.--Pupa. + " 8.--Plusia eriosoma [F]. + " 8a.--Larva. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XI. + + LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Declana floccosa [M]. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 1b.--Declana floccosa, _var._ junctilinea [M]. + " 2.--Chalastra pelurgata [M]. + " 2a.-- " " [F]. + " 2b.--Larva. + " 3.--Ploseria hemipteraria. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Ploseria alectoraria. + (Larva at Plate XIII. fig. 7.) + " 5.--Sestra humeraria. + " 5a.--Larva. + " 6.--Sestra humeraria, _var._ (?) + " 7.--Selidosema panagrata [M]. + " 7a.-- " " [F]. + " 7b.--Larva. + " 8.--Selidosema dejectaria [M]. + " 8a.-- " " [F]. + " 8b.--Larva. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XII. + + LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Selidosema productata [M]. + " 1a.-- " " [F]. + " 1b.--Larva. + " 2.--Asthena schistaria. + " 2a.--Larva. + " 3.--Siculodes subfasciata. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 3b.--Section of stem showing enclosed pupa and + aperture (*) through which moth escapes. + " 4.--Scoparia hemiplaca. + " 5.--Crambus flexuosellus. + " 6.--Ctenopseustis obliquana. + " 7.--Endrosis fenestrella. + " 7a.--Larva. + " 7b.--Pupa. + " 8.--Semiocosma platyptera. + " 8a.--Larva. + " 8b.--Pupa. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XIII. + + LEPIDOPTERA (_concluded_). + + Fig. 1.--Hydriomena deltoidata. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 2.--Isonomeutis amauropa. + " 2a.--Larva. + " 3.--Leucania nullifera. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Scoparia sabulosella. + " 4a.--Larva. + " 5.--Cacoecia excessana. + " 5a.--Larva. + " 6.--Oecophora scholæa. + " 6a.--Larva. + " 7.--Larva of Ploseria alectoraria. + (For imago see Plate XI. Fig. 4.) + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XIV. + + NEUROPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Chauliodes diversus. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 1b.--Pupa. + " 2.--Stenosmylus incisus. + " 3.--Oxyethira albiceps. (?) + " 3a.--Larva. + " 3b.--Pupa. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XV. + + ORTHOPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Uropetala carovei [M]. + " 1a.--Larva. + " 2.--Cordulia Smithii [M]. + " 3.--Lestes Colensonis [M]. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Telebasis zealandica + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XVI. + + ORTHOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Stolotermes ruficeps [M]. + " 1a.--Female. + " 1b.--Soldier. + " 1c.--Worker. + " 2.--Psocus zealandicus, n.s. + " 2a.--Larva. + " 3.--Stenoperla prasina. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 4.--Ephemera, n.s. (near Coloburus). + " 4a.--Larva. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XVII. + + ORTHOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Xiphidium maoricum [M]. + " 2.--Tenodera intermedia. + " 3.--Oedipoda cinerascens. + " 4.--Caloptenus marginalis. + " 5.--Periplaneta fortipes. + " 6.--Blatta conjuncta. + " 7.--Forficesila littorea. + " 8.--Deinacrida megacephala [F]. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XVIII. + + ORTHOPTERA (_continued_). + + Fig. 1.--Acheta fuliginosa [F]. + " 2.--Deinacrida megacephala [M]. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XIX. + + ORTHOPTERA (_concluded_). + + Fig. 1.--Acanthoderus horridus. + +[Illustration] + + + PLATE XX. + + HEMIPTERA. + + Fig. 1.--Cicada cingulata [F]. + " 1a.--Pupa. + " 2.--Cicada muta [F]. + " 3.-- " iolanthe, n.s. + " 3a.--Larva. + " 3b.--Pupa. + " 4.--Coelostoma zealandicum [M]. + " 5.--Corixa zealandica. + " 6.--Cermatulus nasalis. + " 6a.--Larva. + +[Illustration] + + + +Notes. + + [1] For Lepidoptera I can strongly recommend "Jahncke's Patent Round + Boxes" with glass lids. They may be obtained from any chemist, or from + Messrs. Sharland & Co., Wholesale Druggists, Wellington. + + [2] Metrosideros scandens. + + [3] Hyperparasite is an animal parasitic in a parasite. + + [4] "Host" is a term applied to any animal harbouring a parasite. + + [5] Ovipositor, a boring instrument employed in depositing the eggs. + + [6] A genus of Hemipterous insects commonly seen skipping over ponds in + England. + + [7] "n.s." is the accepted abbreviation for new species. + + [8] Thread-like. + + [9] For an extended account of these observations see "Transactions of the + New Zealand Institute," vol. xxiii. (1890). + +[10] Metrosideros scandens. + +[11] Or lay eggs. + +[12] Scutellum: A horny plate situated on the mesonotum, usually somewhat + triangular in form. + +[13] For life-history of this insect see page 73. + +[14] Mamestra composita, M. mutans, M. ustistriga, Erana graminosa, &c. + +[15] This genus, as represented in New Zealand, is often called Pyrameis. + +[16] For a more detailed account of the metamorphosis of this insect see + _The Entomologist_, vol. xviii. p. 30. + +[17] For accounts of parasites and hyperparasites of this insect see pages + 60 and 37, also _The Entomologist_, vol. xviii. p. 153. + +[18] On one occasion I enclosed a full-grown caterpillar of this insect in + a pot of earth with a recently formed Noctua pupa, whose internal + portions it immediately devoured, employing the empty shell of the + unfortunate chrysalis as a cocoon. It is impossible to say whether + this horrible proceeding often occurs in a state of nature. + +[19] The _Libellulidæ_, _Ephemeridæ_, _Perlidæ_, _Psocidæ_, and _Termitidæ_ + are usually included in the _Neuroptera_. + +[20] One mutilated [F] specimen of this insect was sent to Mr. McLachlan, + but was too imperfect to describe from. + +[21] For account of the earlier stages of this, or a closely allied insect, + see "Transactions of New Zealand Institute," vol. xvi. p. 114. + +[22] This genus is frequently called Melampsalta. + + * * * * * + + + +Corrections made to printed text + +P. 110: 'similar situation' corrected from 'similiar ...'. + +P. 114: 'to speak from experience' corrected from 'to tpeak ...'. + +Index: 'Chætosoma scaritides' corrected from '... scaratides'. + +Footnote [19]: 'Neuroptera' corrected from 'Neuropteria'. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Elementary Manual of New Zealand +Entomology, by G. V. Hudson + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44096 *** |