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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44096 ***
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text.
+
+Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Page numbers
+enclosed by curly braces (example: {25}) have been incorporated to
+facilitate the use of the General Index.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Frontispiece.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Fig. 1. Bolitophila luminosa. 1_a_. Larva, 1_b_. Pupa.
+
+
+
+
+AN ELEMENTARY
+
+MANUAL
+
+OF
+
+NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY.
+
+BEING
+
+An Introduction to the Study
+
+OF
+
+OUR NATIVE INSECTS.
+
+_WITH 21 COLOURED PLATES._
+
+BY
+
+G. V. HUDSON, F.E.S.,
+
+WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND.
+
+London:
+
+WEST, NEWMAN, & CO., 54, HATTON GARDEN.
+
+1892.
+
+
+
+
+To
+
+THE RIGHT HON. LORD WALSINGHAM,
+
+M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S.,
+
+LATE PRESIDENT OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON,
+
+THIS LITTLE BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
+
+BY THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The object of the present volume is to give a brief account of the Natural
+History of the insects inhabiting New Zealand in a form intelligible to the
+ordinary reader. For this reason every effort has been made to avoid all
+unnecessary technicalities, and to adapt the book as far as possible to the
+requirements of youthful entomologists and collectors.
+
+Several very elaborate systematic lists and descriptions have been
+published from time to time of the insects of New Zealand, amongst which
+may be specially mentioned--Captain Broun's "Manual of New Zealand
+Coleoptera," the illustrated "Catalogue of New Zealand Butterflies," edited
+by Mr. Enys, and Mr. Meyrick's "Monographs" of various groups of the
+Lepidoptera; but as yet no attempt has been made to present the subject in
+a suitable form for beginners.
+
+It is hoped that this book will, to some extent, fill up the blank, and
+help to render what is now one of the most popular natural sciences in
+Europe, equally appreciated in New Zealand.
+
+The author is much indebted to Captain Broun, Mr. R. W. Fereday, Mr. E.
+Meyrick, and others, for assistance in identifying the various species
+mentioned in this work.
+
+  _Wellington, New Zealand, 1891._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.                          PAGE
+
+  GENERAL OBSERVATIONS                   1
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  COLLECTING INSECTS                     9
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE COLEOPTERA                        19
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE HYMENOPTERA                       33
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE DIPTERA                           40
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  THE LEPIDOPTERA                       65
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE NEUROPTERA                        99
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  THE ORTHOPTERA                       103
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  THE HEMIPTERA                        118
+
+  GENERAL INDEX                        123
+
+  EXPLANATION OF PLATES                129
+
+
+
+
+{1}AN
+
+ELEMENTARY MANUAL
+
+OF
+
+NEW ZEALAND ENTOMOLOGY.
+
+
+------
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+General Observations.
+
+In the present chapter I propose to give a brief sketch of the general
+principles of Entomology, including a rudimentary glance at the anatomy and
+classification of insects; after which I think the reader will be in a
+better position to study the habits and life-histories of the individual
+species which follow.
+
+The first requisite is a definition of what constitutes an INSECT.
+
+_An Insect is an articulate animal having the body divided into three
+distinct divisions_, viz., _the_ HEAD (Fig. I. A), _the_ THORAX (B), _and
+the_ ABDOMEN (C). _It is furnished with three pairs of legs, and generally
+has two pairs of wings, and to acquire this structure the creature passes
+through several changes, termed its metamorphoses._ {2}The head exhibits no
+distinct divisions, but bears the following appendages: the eyes, antennæ,
+and organs of the mouth, or trophi.
+
+The eyes are of two kinds, compound and simple. The former (Fig. I. c c)
+are situated on the sides of the head above the mouth, and consist of two
+large hemispheres, composed of a great number of hexagonal divisions, each
+of which is a complete eye in itself. The latter (s s) are usually three in
+number, and are situated on the top of the head between the compound ones.
+They are, however, frequently wanting.
+
+The antennæ (a) are two jointed organs, one of which is placed on each side
+of the head, between the eyes; their functions are at present extremely
+doubtful, but they are invariably found in all insects.
+
+The organs of the mouth consist of the following: the labrum (Fig. II. 3),
+or upper lip, a horny plate, closing the mouth from above; the mandibles (1
+1), or upper jaws, two strong bent hooks, articulated to the head on each
+side of the mouth, and opposed to one another like scissor blades; the
+maxillæ (2 2), or under jaws, resembling the mandibles, but more delicately
+constructed, and furnished with a pair of jointed appendages termed
+maxillary palpi (5 5); and the labium (4), or lower lip, consisting of a
+horny plate somewhat resembling the labrum, but provided with two jointed
+appendages termed the labial palpi (6 6). All these organs are subject to
+great modification in suctorial insects, which I shall notice further on,
+when dealing with the differences between the various orders.
+
+The thorax consists of three primary divisions, viz., the prothorax (Fig.
+I. b), mesothorax (d), and metathorax (k). The upper surfaces of these are
+termed the pronotum, mesonotum, and metanotum respectively, and the under
+the prosternum, mesosternum, and metasternum; other divisions exist in some
+insects, but they are not of a sufficiently {3}general character to be
+noticed here. The six legs are attached to the under surface of the thorax,
+a single pair to each division; they are composed of the following joints:
+coxa (Fig. I. n), trochanter (o), femur (p), tibia (r), and tarsus (s).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. I.--Body of an insect (Hymenoptera), showing the
+principal divisions: A, head; B, thorax; C, abdomen; _a_, antenna; _c_,
+compound eyes; _m_, mandible; _s_, simple eyes; _b_, prothorax; _d_,
+mesothorax; _k_, metathorax; 1W, fore-wing; 2W, hind-wing; _n_, coxa; _o_,
+trochanter; _p_, femur; _r_, tibia; _t_, tarsus; 1 to 9 segments of the
+abdomen.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. II.--Oral and digestive system of _Deinacrida
+megacephala_ (this insect is drawn on Plate XVIII., fig. 2): 1, mandibles;
+2, maxillæ; 3, labrum; 4, labium; 5, maxillary palpi; 6, labial palpi; 8,
+oesophagus; 9, crop; 10, gizzard; 11, pancreas; 12, stomach; 13, biliary
+vessels; 14, ilium; 15, colon; 16, anus.]
+
+{4}The wings are attached to the meso- and metanotum; they consist of two
+membranes traversed by numerous horny ribs (Fig. I. 1W and 2W).
+
+The abdomen is made up of nine segments (C 1 to 9), some of which are not
+infrequently wanting. It contains the organs of nutrition, circulation, and
+generation.
+
+The digestive system, the structure of which is apparent from Fig. II.,
+consists of the following divisions: the throat, or oesophagus (8); the
+crop (9); the gizzard, or proventriculus (10); the pancreas (11 11); the
+stomach, or ventriculus (12); the biliary vessels (13 13 13); the ilium, or
+little gut (14 14); and the colon (15); ending in the anus (16). In the
+suctorial tribes, the crop is modified into a very peculiar organ, termed
+the sucking stomach, which presents itself as a small bag, attached to the
+throat by a thin tube. This bag exhausts the air from the throat, when the
+insect is sucking, thus producing a vacuum therein, and causing a rapid
+ascent of fluid into the stomach.
+
+The heart of insects consists of an elongated tube lying along the back,
+and termed the dorsal vessel. It is composed of a variable number of
+chambers, the blood being driven forward towards the head by its
+contractions. These motions may be easily seen in transparent species.
+
+The breathing organs are distributed throughout the body in the form of
+numerous minute air-tubes, which are supplied with air from a variable
+number of apertures, situated on the sides of the insect, and termed
+spiracles.
+
+The nervous system consists of a chain of ganglia, running down the ventral
+surface of the insect, and analogous to the spinal cord of higher animals.
+The number of ganglia varies greatly among the different tribes.
+
+The metamorphosis of insects, which I have previously mentioned as one of
+their most essential attributes, consists of four distinct stages, _viz._,
+the Egg, Larva, Pupa, and Imago.
+
+{5}The eggs of these animals exhibit a great diversity in shape among the
+different species. They are deposited by the parent with unerring instinct
+on substances suitable for the food of the larvæ, which, in the majority of
+cases, is quite different from that on which she herself subsists.
+
+The larva state immediately succeeds the egg, and is spent almost
+exclusively in feeding, the insect growing at a great rate, and being
+frequently compelled to change its skin.
+
+The pupa is usually completely quiescent, the insect being at this time
+quite incapable of any motion, except, perhaps, a slight twirling of its
+abdomen. Exceptions to this rule occur, however, in two of the orders, in
+which the pupa state does not differ materially from that preceding it.
+
+In the imago, or perfect state, the insect appears under its final form,
+with every organ completely developed.
+
+
+
+
+We will now consider the seven great divisions, or Orders, into which
+insects are divided, the complete knowledge of which is one of the most
+important elements in the entomologist's preliminary education. I trust
+that by a careful perusal of the following definitions, aided by references
+to the Plates, which illustrate numerous members of each order in their
+several states, the reader will be enabled to master the subject without
+much difficulty.
+
+
+ORDER I.--COLEOPTERA.
+
+Wings four; the anterior pair (termed elytra) horny and opaque, the
+posterior membranous, and employed in flight; mouth masticatory. The larva
+a grub with or without legs, but a distinct head always present. The pupa
+inactive, taking no food, the limbs of the future insect enclosed in
+distinct cases, and applied closely to the body. This is the largest of the
+Orders, and consists of all those insects popularly known as Beetles.
+(Plates I. and II.)
+
+
+{6}ORDER II.--HYMENOPTERA.
+
+Wings four, membranous, the posterior pair being the smaller, and connected
+with the anterior during flight by a row of minute hooklets; mouth
+masticatory, the maxillæ and labium being elongated, in many of the
+families, into a long sucking instrument or "tongue." Metamorphosis as in
+the Coleoptera. A large Order, containing the numerous tribes of Sawflies,
+Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Ichneumon-flies. (Plate III.)
+
+
+ORDER III.--DIPTERA.
+
+Wings two; the posterior pair represented by two minute clubbed appendages
+termed poisers; mouth a suctorial tube formed by an elongation of the
+labium, enclosing within it a variable number of setæ answering to the
+mandibles, &c., of biting insects. The larva without legs, a distinct head
+being often absent. The pupa inactive, the limbs of the imago firmly
+attached to the body, but plainly visible. Among the majority of species
+included in this Order the larval skin is not cast away, but envelopes the
+insect in a hard shell; the true pupa is consequently only visible on the
+removal of this covering, when it is found to closely resemble those in
+which no such arrangement occurs. The Order comprises the numerous Gnats
+and two-winged Flies. (Plates IV., V., VI., VII.)
+
+
+ORDER IV.--LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+Wings four, generally covered with scales; the anterior pair slightly
+superior in size; mouth suctorial, the maxillæ forming a spiral tongue,
+which is coiled between the large labial palpi when not in use; other oral
+organs rudimentary. In many instances the whole mouth and alimentary canal
+are more or less obliterated, a considerable number of the species taking
+no food in their {7}final state. The larvæ always possess a distinct head
+and six thoracic legs, and in addition a variable number of prolegs are
+often present on the abdominal segments. Pupa inactive, the limbs of the
+future insect being usually indicated by lines in the integment. This Order
+contains all the varied tribes of Butterflies and Moths. (Plates VIII.,
+IX., X., XI., XII., XIII.)
+
+
+ORDER V.--NEUROPTERA.
+
+Wings four, of equal size, membranous, and traversed with numerous
+branching ribs; the mouth masticatory, and in many instances but slightly
+developed. Larva with a distinct head and three strong thoracic legs;
+chiefly carnivorous. Pupa inactive; the limbs very perceptible and loosely
+applied to the body, but incapable of distinct motion. A small Order,
+comprising the Stoneflies, Lace-wings, Ant-lions, &c. (Plate XIV.)
+
+
+ORDER VI.--ORTHOPTERA.
+
+Wings four, of nearly equal size; the anterior pair often more or less
+leathery, but with distinct veins. The larva and pupa closely resembling
+the imago; the latter with rudimentary wings. In the instances where these
+organs are wanting in the mature insect, the metamorphosis merely consists
+of a series of moultings, and it is consequently a matter of some
+difficulty to determine when the insect is full-grown. This Order is of
+small extent; it includes the Earwigs, Cockroaches, Grasshoppers, Crickets,
+Termites, Dragonflies, Mayflies and Perlidæ; the last four being
+transferred from the Neuroptera of most authors. The minute species of
+Mallophaga and Thysanura will also come under this heading. (Plates XV.,
+XVI., XVII., XVIII., XIX.)
+
+
+{8}ORDER VII.--HEMIPTERA.
+
+Wings four, in some cases wholly membranous, but in a large proportion of
+the families the basal portions of the anterior pair are horny, and form
+protective cases for the other pair when not in use; mouth suctorial,
+consisting of an elongate rostrum, enclosing four fine setæ. The larva and
+pupa resemble the imago, the latter being active, with rudimentary wings.
+In a few instances, a slight divergence from the parent form is shown in
+the preparatory states (Cicadas, &c.). This is a small Order, containing
+the Cicadas or "Singers," Bugs, Plant Lice, and all the suctorial animal
+lice. (Plate XX.)
+
+
+
+
+After the Orders, the divisions to be considered are the Groups, Families,
+Genera and Species.
+
+Groups are large divisions immediately subordinate to the orders, and
+consist of a number of _kindred_ families. They are of great assistance to
+the student in dealing with the very large Orders, such, for instance, as
+the Coleoptera.
+
+Families, again, consist of a number of allied genera, and Genera, in the
+same way, of allied species.
+
+With regard to the Families, I have in the main followed those of Professor
+Westwood in his 'Modern Classification of Insects,' as most recent writers
+appear very much divided in opinion as to the correct limits of these
+divisions. Much diversity also prevails with respect to the proper
+definitions of Genera and even Species, but I have deemed it best to follow
+the authority of the latest catalogues in this matter, as any changes in
+nomenclature are always liable to produce confusion.
+
+
+
+
+{9}CHAPTER II
+
+Collecting Insects.
+
+So many excellent essays have been written on collecting insects that it
+would probably be a most difficult task to supply much fresh information on
+the subject; but as many of my readers may be unable to consult works
+specially devoted thereto, the present chapter will, perhaps, be of some
+value in showing them a few of the most convenient methods of collecting
+insects in New Zealand.
+
+Coleoptera, or Beetles, may be found almost everywhere. Overturning logs
+and stones, peeling off bark, and cutting into the solid wood of trees, all
+produce a great variety of species. A small axe and an iron wrench, shaped
+something like a chisel, but bent round at the upper end, are the best
+instruments for working old trees. The bark should be all stripped off and
+examined, as well as the surface of the log underneath. The same remarks
+apply to stones, which should be searched as well as the places from which
+they were removed. Sacks, if left about the fields for a few weeks, often
+harbour good beetles, and when found they should always be pulled up and
+examined.
+
+An umbrella, held upside down under flowering shrubs in the forest, will
+often be found swarming with beetles after the plants have been sharply
+tapped with a stout {10}walking-stick. The same object may be attained by
+spreading a newspaper, or sheet, under the trees and then shaking them; the
+beetles will fall on to the sheet, and may then be captured. The only
+advantage of the umbrella is that it can be more readily used in awkward
+places, such as on steep hill sides.
+
+The dead bodies of birds and animals also contain peculiar species; they
+may be held over the umbrella and shaken into it, when the inhabitants will
+fall out, and can easily be obtained. Dead fish on the sea beach are often
+very productive. Moss and fungi are unfailing resorts of many of the
+smaller species of Coleoptera, and can be examined in the winter when the
+entomologist is otherwise idle.
+
+Beetles should always be brought home alive. The small round tin boxes sold
+with Bryant and May's wax matches will be found very serviceable for this
+purpose. These boxes are far better for all kinds of collecting than either
+pill- or chip-boxes, as they do not break when knocked about. A separate
+box should always be given to a large or rare species, but most of the
+smaller kinds will travel quite safely in company, especially if a wisp of
+grass or a leaf is put into the box to give them foothold.
+
+Beetles must be killed with boiling water, and left immersed some hours
+before setting. They must be pinned through either the right or left
+elytron, and each collector must always keep to one side, as nothing looks
+worse than to see some of the specimens pinned on the right and others on
+the left side. When pinned the beetles are set on a corked board, the legs,
+&c., being placed in a natural position, and retained until dry by means of
+pins and pieces of paper and card. The smaller species should be mounted
+with transparent gum on a neat piece of card, which can be pinned in the
+store-box or cabinet with the others. The greatest care should be taken to
+set {11}symmetrically, so that the limbs on the right-hand side of an
+insect are in the same position as those on the left.
+
+Hymenoptera may be captured with the ordinary butterfly-net, and are found
+abundantly during the summer. The larger species are pinned through the
+centre of the thorax, and set in the same way as Coleoptera, the smaller
+ones on card with gum. These insects should, if possible, be made to fly
+into the vessel of boiling water, as by this means they generally die with
+their wings expanded, which is a great assistance when setting them. This
+can usually be managed by holding the box containing the specimen
+immediately over the water, and giving it a sharp tap with the finger of
+the other hand.
+
+Diptera are also captured with the net, and pinned in the same way, but
+should be killed with the laurel bottle.
+
+Lepidoptera are the most difficult of all to collect, and are at the same
+time the most attractive to beginners. They may be captured with a net made
+of fine gauze (mosquito net dyed green is the best material); the frame to
+support the net is constructed of a piece of cane bent into a hoop, each of
+the ends being supported in a forked tube shaped like a Y, and the long
+tube, forming the base of the Y, is firmly fitted on to the end of a
+walking-stick. This form of net is light, strong, and easily made; the only
+thing requiring special attention is the Y, but this can be readily made by
+any tinsmith out of two pieces of gas-pipe of different sizes, the larger
+one for the stick, and the smaller one for the ends of the cane to fit
+into. The collector should also be furnished with a number of small tin
+boxes.[1] All this apparatus can easily be packed into an ordinary satchel.
+
+{12}When the entomologist reaches his hunting-ground, he will mount his net
+and place a number of the boxes in his left-hand coat pocket. The foliage
+of all trees and shrubs should be vigorously beaten and the insects
+captured as they fly out. When a moth is taken, the collector will first
+turn the net half way round so as to close the entrance, and then, directly
+the insect ceases fluttering, he should carefully place one of the little
+boxes over it and slip on the lid. The box is then transferred to the
+right-hand pocket. He will soon learn to do this without in any way
+damaging the insect. On arrival at home, the insects should be immediately
+killed in the laurel bottle. This is an ordinary wide-necked bottle with a
+small bag of well-bruised _young_ laurel shoots at the bottom, covered with
+a circular piece of card fitting accurately to the sides of the bottle.
+Laurel shoots can always be obtained about the middle of October, when
+several killing bottles can be prepared. They must always be wiped out
+before using, and kept carefully corked. After a few hours the insects
+should be tilted out of the bottle on to a tablecloth, and pinned exactly
+through the centre of the thorax. The rough surface of the tablecloth
+prevents them from slipping during the operation. About one-third of an
+inch of pin should project below the body of the insect. If a moth or
+butterfly dies with its wings folded upwards over the back, it must be
+carefully picked up between the thumb and index finger of the left hand,
+and the pin inserted with the corresponding fingers of the right hand. When
+all are pinned they should be transferred to a tin box, lined with cork,
+which has been previously well damped with water. While pinning them into
+this box great care must be taken not to allow the wings to come in contact
+with the damp cork. In about twenty-four hours the specimens thus treated
+will be ready for setting. This process is performed by means of corked
+boards of various widths for different sized {13}species. Each board has a
+groove down the centre for the bodies of the insects to rest in, while the
+wings are spread out on either side. They should be carefully moved
+forwards with a fine-pointed needle to the desired position, and retained
+by strips of tracing cloth pinned firmly down at the ends. These strips
+must not be removed until the insects are thoroughly dry and ready to place
+in the store-box or cabinet. In setting Lepidoptera, as with other insects,
+symmetry and a natural position are the main points to be aimed at, special
+care being taken that the antennæ, fore- and hind-legs, and wings, are
+shown in correct positions, the middle pair of legs being of course, in the
+majority of cases, hidden by the wings. It is almost needless to say that
+different sized pins should be used for various insects, but this point
+must be left to the discretion of the collector. Entomological pins of all
+sizes can be obtained from James Gardner, of 29 Oxford Street, London. Gilt
+pins are useful for many species which are liable to form verdigris on the
+pins, and are universally employed by many entomologists, but are probably
+not so strong as the silvered ones.
+
+Many species of moths are only to be found at night. When working at this
+time the collector must suspend a bulls-eye lantern round his neck or
+waist, and can then have both arms free for capturing insects on the wing
+or at blossoms. Honey mixed with a little rum, and applied with a small
+brush to the trunks of trees a few minutes after sunset, will, on some
+evenings, attract large numbers of valuable species, but not infrequently
+it is quite unproductive. This mode of collecting has been termed
+"sugaring" by entomologists, and may be employed during the whole summer.
+The best blossoms for attracting insects in New Zealand are those of the
+white rata,[2] which blooms in the forest from February till April, and
+from which the {14}collector may generally rely on getting a rich harvest.
+The insects can usually be slipped directly from the flowers into the
+killing bottle.
+
+This is much better than netting them, although occasionally one will
+escape during the process. When dead the specimens should be placed in a
+small tin box which has been filled with cotton-wool, packed very lightly.
+In this way a large number of moths may be carried a long distance with
+perfect safety, and the extremely inconvenient process of pinning them in
+the field obviated. If Jahncke's patent boxes are employed it is quite
+unnecessary to kill the moths in the field. They can be boxed directly from
+the blossoms and taken home alive without suffering any injury.
+
+Lepidoptera, and in fact all insects, are attracted by light, and in some
+situations the collector will find that he may frequently obtain good
+species by merely opening his sitting-room window and waiting for the
+insects to arrive. Much of course depends on the situation of the
+collector's residence and the nature of the night, which should be dark and
+warm. I have occasionally tried taking a lamp into the forest to attract
+insects, but have not met with much success. In swampy and flat situations,
+no doubt, attracting by light would be very effective, especially if a
+powerful lamp was employed, in an exposed situation, with a sheet behind
+it, supported between two poles. This method has been followed with great
+success by many English entomologists in the fens, but has not yet been
+tried in the New Zealand swamps, where it would probably be the means of
+bringing many new and interesting species to "light."
+
+With regard to collecting members of the three remaining Orders but little
+need be said. Neuroptera can be treated in the same way as Lepidoptera, but
+they should be set on flat boards. The treatment of the Orthoptera will
+resemble that of the Coleoptera, but the larger species will require {15}to
+be stuffed with cotton-wool before setting. A few of the largest species of
+the Lepidoptera must also be stuffed. For this purpose the specimens should
+be placed on their backs on a piece of clean glass so that none of the
+scales may be rubbed off. After the contents have been removed, a little
+chalk should be introduced into the abdomen with the cotton-wool. Hemiptera
+can be collected and set like Coleoptera, but some of the more delicate
+species, such as the _Cicadæ_, should be killed in the laurel bottle
+instead of in boiling water.
+
+Before concluding the present chapter I should like to say a few words on
+the subject of rearing insects, which the entomologist will soon learn to
+regard as by far the most interesting method of acquiring specimens for his
+collection.
+
+Members of the Coleoptera are probably the most difficult insects to rear
+in captivity. Their larvæ may be kept in ordinary jam-pots covered with
+perforated zinc, and filled with earth or rotten wood. The carnivorous
+species must, of course, be supplied with the animals on which they feed.
+Beetle larvæ are often some years in attaining maturity. Many of the
+Hymenoptera and some of the Diptera are parasitic on the larvæ of the
+Lepidoptera; they are consequently found in rearing these insects, and
+their economy should always be carefully recorded.
+
+Lepidoptera are, perhaps, the most satisfactory insects to rear. Most of
+the larvæ feed on the leaves of different plants, and all that is needed is
+to keep them well supplied with fresh food.
+
+So great a variety of cages have been devised for the rearing of
+caterpillars that it would be quite impossible to describe them here. I
+will therefore only give a short account of those which I have used myself,
+and have found so convenient that I do not hesitate in recommending them to
+those entomologists who wish not only to rear insects but to study their
+habits.
+
+{16}The cages I have been in the habit of using are made of two or three
+thicknesses of cardboard bent round into a cylinder and strongly pasted
+together. They may be of various sizes, from three to four inches in
+diameter up to eight or ten, and constructed so that one will go inside the
+other. The height should exceed the diameter by about one and a half
+inches. The cylinders should be made so as to stand exactly level on a flat
+surface, and they should have two rows of small openings round the sides
+for the admission of air. It is a good plan to have four of these openings
+in each row and place them opposite one another. They should be covered on
+the inside with gauze, stiffened with green or brown paint, as the dark
+colour will enable the observer to see inside more readily. A circular
+piece of glass is fitted into the upper end of the cylinder, and fixed by
+means of paste and paper. The base of the cage consists of two round pieces
+of wood, one about half an inch smaller than the other, the smaller one
+nailed exactly in the centre of the larger piece. These are made so that
+the cardboard cylinder fits _accurately_ on the outside of the smaller
+piece of wood. The whole cage is then neatly covered with white paper
+inside and brown outside. A complete view of the interior can of course be
+obtained by looking in at the top, while the cages can be stowed away one
+within the other when not in use. A stone ink-bottle should be put on the
+floor of each cage and filled with water, into which a sprig of the
+food-plant can be introduced. Care must be taken to plug up the mouth of
+the bottle, so that the larvae may not crawl down the stem of the plant
+into the water and thus meet with an untimely end. This may readily be done
+by means of a cork with a hole bored in it for the stem to pass through, or
+a plug of moss or blotting-paper. Members of almost all the orders can be
+reared in these cages, as jam-pots full of earth may easily be introduced,
+in the place of the stone {17}bottle, when required for species which bury.
+A circular piece of blotting-paper should be placed over the bottom of each
+cage, while larvæ are feeding in them, and renewed when at all soiled. The
+excrement must also be removed when the larvæ are supplied with fresh food.
+As a rule, this is only necessary about twice a week, as the water will
+keep most plants fresh for quite a lengthened period. When it is necessary
+to remove a larva it should always be done with a fine camel-hair brush,
+never with the fingers. Generally, however, it is better to allow the larvæ
+themselves to crawl from the old sprig on to the new one, which they
+usually do in a few hours after the food is changed. The old plants should
+of course then be taken out so as to afford more room for fresh air.
+
+Many female moths may be induced to lay their eggs in captivity, especially
+if put in a box with some of the food-plant of the larva. It is extremely
+instructive and interesting to rear an insect from the egg. When the young
+larvæ first emerge they must be kept in a tumbler with a piece of glass put
+over the top, as they might escape through the ventilators of the cages,
+but they ought to be transferred immediately they are large enough. When
+rearing a lot of caterpillars from a batch of eggs, care should be taken to
+avoid overcrowding.
+
+A collection of insects should always eventually be placed in a neatly
+constructed cabinet. They should be arranged in rows, systematically, with
+the correct names under each species, and the name of the order or group at
+the commencement of each drawer. Numerous modifications in arrangement are
+often needed to meet the requirements of different sized insects, but an
+inspection of any good collection will at once explain the general
+principles. Camphor should be pinned in the corner of each drawer or
+store-box, and the whole collection fumigated with carbolic acid, or equal
+parts of oil of thyme, oil of anise, {18}and spirits of wine, every six
+months. These can be introduced in a watch glass containing a small
+quantity of the chemicals on a pellet of cotton-wool, care being taken not
+to stain the paper at the bottom of the drawer. For the same reason, while
+using carbolic acid, the camphor should be taken out, as otherwise it will
+"sweat." All boxes for the reception of insects must of course be lined
+with cork and paper.
+
+It is most important that an accurate record should be kept of every
+specimen that is placed in the collection. This may be done by attaching to
+the pin underneath each insect a small numbered label, which refers to a
+book containing locality, date of capture and other particulars.
+
+I have found it a good plan to give every species a number, and every
+specimen a letter. Thus, supposing _Vanessa gonerilla_ is numbered "6," the
+first specimen taken would be "6a," the second "6b," and so on, all the
+specimens, perhaps, having different dates and localities. This system is
+very convenient when specimens are sent away to be identified by another
+entomologist, as, provided the collector always retains a single specimen
+of the species which he desires named, it obviates the necessity of having
+his specimens returned, the number showing at once to what species the name
+refers. At least five lines should be allotted to each species in the
+collection journal, and the writing should be small but distinct.
+
+A collection formed in this manner will not only be a constant source of
+pleasure to the collector and those who succeed him, but very probably of
+great value in deciding many important questions in entomological science.
+
+
+
+
+{19}CHAPTER III
+
+The Coleoptera.
+
+The observations on the natural history of the New Zealand beetles, forming
+the subject of the present chapter, are much less numerous than might have
+been expected from the great number of species which have been described.
+The difficulties attendant on rearing these insects are, however, very
+great, and it thus happens that the life-histories here given bear a
+smaller proportion to the number of the Coleoptera than will be found to be
+the case with the majority of the other Orders. I hope, however, that the
+few details I have collected, referring to the following species, may
+induce some of my readers to investigate others for themselves.
+
+
+Group GEODEPHAGA.
+
+Family _Cicindelidæ_.
+
+_Cicindela tuberculata_ (Plate I., fig. 1, 1a larva).
+
+This is a very abundant insect found throughout the country in all dry
+situations. It delights in hot sunshine, and may be constantly observed
+flying from our footsteps with great rapidity as we walk along the roads on
+a hot summer's day.
+
+Its larva (Fig. 1a) is an elongate fleshy grub, the head {20}and first
+segment being horny and much flattened, and the body provided with two
+large dorsal humps, each bearing at its apex a slender curved hook.
+
+The burrows of these insects are very conspicuous, and must have been
+noticed by every one, in garden paths, sandbanks, and other _dry_
+situations; they are sometimes very numerous, and may be best described as
+perfectly round shafts, about one line in diameter, and extending to the
+depth of three or four inches, generally slightly curved at the bottom. The
+sides are perfectly smooth, and the larva may be often discovered near the
+mouth of its burrow, using its dorsal hooks to support it, and thus having
+both legs and jaws free to dispose of the unfortunate insects that fall
+into its snare. These usually consist of flies and small beetles, which
+appear to be urged by curiosity to crawl down these pitfalls, and thus
+bring about their own destruction. By reference to the figure it will be
+seen how admirably the hollowed head and prothorax serve the purpose of a
+shovel to the larva, when forming its shaft. These burrows are first
+observed about the middle of November; the perfect insects coming abroad
+three weeks or a month later, when they may be often seen in the
+neighbourhood of their old domiciles. They are very voracious, devouring
+large quantities of flies, caterpillars, and other insects, some of which
+are much superior to themselves in size. On one occasion I saw a male
+specimen of _Cicindela parryi_ (a species closely allied to but smaller
+than _C. tuberculata_) attack a large Tortrix caterpillar, an inch and a
+half in length. The beetle invariably sprang upon the back of the
+caterpillar and bit it in the neck, being meanwhile flung over and over by
+the larva's vigorous efforts to free itself from so unpleasant an
+assailant. During the fight, which lasted fully twenty minutes, the beetle
+was compelled to retire periodically to gain fresh strength to renew its
+attacks, which were eventually {21}successful, the unfortunate tortrix
+becoming finally completely exhausted. The beetle devoured but a very small
+portion of the caterpillar, and abandoning the remainder went off in search
+of fresh prey. Eight other closely allied species of _Cicindela_ are
+described by Captain Broun in the "Manual of the New Zealand Coleoptera,"
+but they offer no especial peculiarities, and _C. tuberculata_ may be taken
+as a type of the genus.
+
+
+Family CARABIDÆ.
+
+_Pterostichus opulentus_ (Plate I., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+This fine beetle is very common in most wooded situations in the Nelson
+district; it may be at once distinguished from the numerous other closely
+allied species by the beautiful metallic coppery tints that adorn its
+thorax and elytra.
+
+During the day it is usually discovered concealed under logs and stones,
+and when disturbed, rushes into the first crevice to get out of the light.
+At night time, it comes abroad to feed, killing an immense number of flies,
+caterpillars, and other insects, to satisfy its voracious appetite.
+Although of a most ferocious disposition, it is not wanting in maternal
+affection. The female, when about to deposit her eggs, excavates a small
+cavity nearly three inches square, in which they are placed. These she
+broods over until hatched, and probably some little time afterwards, as I
+have found a specimen close to a nest, which contained both eggs and larvæ,
+and the zealous mother furiously bit at anything presented to her. The eggs
+are oval in shape, quite smooth, and yellowish white in colour. The young
+larva is drawn at Plate I., fig. 3a; it is remarkable for its superficial
+resemblance to a small Iulus, and being found in similar situations to that
+animal, its mimicry has probably some useful object. The older larva
+differs chiefly in having the head and thoracic segments proportionately
+{22}smaller. Twenty-one closely allied insects belonging to two genera are
+described by Captain Broun in his Manual, the largest being _Pterostichus
+australasiæ_, which is found in similar localities to the present species,
+but is not so common.
+
+
+Group HYDRADEPHAGA.
+
+Family DYTICIDÆ.
+
+_Colymbetes rufimanus_ (Plate I., fig. 4, 4a larva).
+
+This insect is found plentifully in all still waters during the summer
+months. Its larva is a soft elongate grub, provided with six slender
+thoracic legs, and a pair of powerful mandibles. The posterior extremity of
+the body is furnished with two curious appendages bearing a spiracle at the
+apex of each, which the larva frequently protrudes above the surface of the
+water. The air is taken in through the spiracles, and conveyed to all parts
+of the body by two main air-tubes, one of which springs from each spiracle,
+and branches throughout the insect in every direction. During the spring
+months the larvæ may be found of various sizes in similar situations to the
+imago; they are very voracious, devouring freshwater shrimps, _Ephemera_
+larvæ, and occasionally, when pressed by hunger, they will even destroy
+individuals of their own species for food. These they capture by means of
+their powerful mandibles, retaining a firm hold of the victim until they
+have consumed all the fleshy portions, the rest of the carcase being thrown
+aside, and a fresh search made for more. One individual I kept for some
+time, remained perpetually concealed in a small patch of green weed,
+growing in the middle of its aquarium. In a short time it became surrounded
+with the skeletons of small water shrimps which had been seized by the
+larva as they passed by its hiding place, the unfortunate crustaceans only
+discovering their enemy when it was too late. I have not yet observed the
+pupa of this {23}insect, but it probably does not differ materially from
+those of its European allies. Although so very different in general
+appearance to the preceding insects, this beetle will be found on careful
+examination to agree with them in all important respects, being only what a
+ground beetle might naturally become if forced to lead an aquatic
+existence. Breathing is effected in all the water beetles by the spiracles
+of the abdomen, which alone are developed. The air is taken in between the
+elytra and the body, and owing to the convexity of the former, a supply can
+be retained sufficient to last the insect some twenty or thirty minutes.
+The beetles may be often observed with the extremity of their elytra
+protruded above the surface, renewing their supplies of air. On very hot
+days _C. rufimanus_ may be occasionally seen flying with great rapidity far
+away from its native ponds. When doing so it makes a loud humming noise,
+and is a much more conspicuous object than when in the water.
+
+
+Group CLAVICORNIA.
+
+Family NITIDULIDÆ.
+
+_Epuræa zealandica._
+
+This curious little beetle is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of
+decaying fungi, throughout the year, being most plentiful in the autumn and
+early winter. Its larva is a small cylindrical grub, with the head and legs
+so minute that they are scarcely perceptible, causing it to closely
+resemble the maggots of many dipterous insects, occurring in similar
+localities. It is generally found in the large yellow fungi, so abundant in
+wet situations during the late autumn and winter months. It forms numerous
+galleries through the plant in all directions, and owing to the large
+amount of moisture which is usually present, these galleries are often
+filled with water, so that the insect may {24}be said to be sub-aquatic in
+its habits. I have not yet detected the pupa of this species, although the
+discovery of a large quantity of both larvæ and perfect insects is of
+everyday occurrence with the entomologist in winter.
+
+
+Family ENGIDÆ.
+
+_Dryocora Howittii_ (Plate I., fig. 6, 6a larva).
+
+This quaint-looking little insect occurs occasionally in damp matai logs,
+when in an advanced state of decay. The larva (Fig. 6a) is very flat and
+thin, possessing the usual thoracic legs, which, however, are rather short.
+The last segment of the abdomen is furnished with an anal proleg and a pair
+of small setiform appendages. Its mode of progression is very peculiar,
+resembling that of the Geometer larvæ among the Lepidoptera.
+
+The thoracic legs are first brought to the ground, and the rest of the body
+is then drawn up in an arched position close behind them. The anal proleg
+then supports the insect while the anterior segments are thrust out, and
+the others follow as before. This method is only employed on smooth
+surfaces, the larva crawling along elsewhere in the usual manner.
+
+The perfect beetle is a very sluggish insect, and difficult to find owing
+to its colour, which closely resembles that of the wood in which it lives.
+
+
+Family ENGIDÆ.
+
+_Chætosoma scaritides_ (Plate I., fig. 2).
+
+This insect may be at once recognized by its peculiar shape, no other New
+Zealand beetle resembling it in this respect. Although tolerably common and
+generally distributed, it is very seldom seen abroad, spending almost the
+whole of its life concealed in the burrows of various wood-boring weevils.
+Its larva, which feeds on the grubs {25}of these insects, is of a pinkish
+colour, very fat and sluggish; the head and three anterior segments are
+strong and horny, the legs being rather short. It undergoes its
+transformation into the pupa within the weevil burrows, when the limbs of
+the perfect insect can be seen folded down the breast, the wings and elytra
+being much smaller than in the beetle. Specimens in all stages of existence
+may be readily procured by splitting up old perforated logs which have been
+long tenanted by weevils.
+
+
+Group BRACHELYTRA.
+
+Family STAPHYLINIDÆ.
+
+_Staphylinus oculatus_ (Plate I., fig. 5).
+
+This is the New Zealand representative of _S. olens_ or the "Devil's Coach
+Horse," one of the most familiar of British beetles. It is found
+occasionally in the neighbourhood of slaughter-houses, and may be at once
+distinguished from any of the allied species by a large spot of brilliant
+scarlet situated on each side of its head behind the eyes; this very
+conspicuous feature has given it the specific name of _oculatus_. I am at
+present unacquainted with the transformations of this fine insect, but they
+will probably closely resemble those of the typical species (_S. olens_)
+described in the majority of standard books on European Coleoptera. This
+beetle may be frequently seen flying in the sunshine, when it has a most
+striking appearance, owing to its large size and rapid motion. An
+unpleasant odour is found to arise when it is handled, this being
+noticeable in nearly all the members of the family. These beetles are
+comparatively numerous in New Zealand, the genus _Philonthus_ comprising
+several elongate active insects, of which _P. oeneus_ is one of the
+commonest, and may be found abundantly amongst garden refuse. Others
+frequent the seashore, feeding on decaying seaweed, and {26}may be noticed
+flying in all directions along the coast immediately after sundown. Another
+genus (_Xantholinus_) includes a number of interesting beetles found in old
+weevil burrows, and probably feeding on their inmates.
+
+
+Group LAMELLICORNES.
+
+Family LUCANIDÆ.
+
+_Dorcus punctulatus_ (Plate I., fig. 7).
+
+An abundant species chiefly attached to the red pine tree or rimu, where it
+may be found concealed beneath the scaly bark, in the angles of the trunk
+near the roots. When disturbed, it folds up its legs and antennæ on its
+breast, and, extending its powerful jaws, awaits the approach of the enemy,
+ready to bite anything coming within its reach. These, however, are purely
+defensive measures, the insect being quite harmless when left alone. The
+larva is at present unknown to me. Another species, _D. reticulatus_, is a
+much handsomer insect than the preceding; it may be at once recognized by
+four deep impressions in the thorax, filled in with light-brown scales; the
+margins of the elytra are similarly scaled, as well as four spots on each
+elytron, the remainder of the beetle being dark-brown and shining. It is
+generally found in totara bark, but is much scarcer than the last species.
+One small specimen I possess, remarkable for its brilliant appearance, was
+taken under the bark of a stunted black birch tree, over two thousand feet
+above the sea-level.
+
+
+Family MELOLONTHIDÆ.
+
+_Stethaspis suturalis_ (Plate I., fig. 8, 8a larva).
+
+This conspicuous insect occurs abundantly in all open situations. Its larva
+(Fig. 8a) inhabits the earth, feeding on the roots of various plants, and
+is especially abundant {27}in paddocks, where it occasionally does
+considerable damage to the grass, and threatens ere long to become as great
+a pest as its first cousin, the renowned Cockchaffer of England
+(_Melolontha vulgaris_), whose fearful ravages need no description. It may
+be taken as a typical larva of the family, the rest differing from one
+another in little else than size. When full-grown it is quite as large as
+the illustration, and is nearly always in the position there indicated,
+owing to the size of its posterior segments and the absence of any anal
+proleg, which compel it to lie always on its side. I have not yet succeeded
+in obtaining the pupa of this insect, although larvæ may be frequently
+found enclosed in oval cells, evidently about to undergo their
+transformation. Several of these have been kept in captivity, but they have
+hitherto always died without undergoing any change. I have, however, no
+doubt as to its being the larva of _S. suturalis_, as there are no other
+large Lamellicorns found near Wellington to which it could possibly be
+referred. The perfect beetle appears in great numbers from November to
+March; it is best taken at dusk, when it flies with a loud humming noise,
+about four feet above the ground. If knocked down it always falls amongst
+the herbage, and is not readily perceived until a few minutes later, when
+the humming noise is resumed as the insect again gets under weigh, and the
+would-be captor must not lose time if he wishes to secure it. Occasionally
+individuals are seen disporting themselves on the wing during the day, but
+this must be regarded as a purely exceptional circumstance. Unlike the
+majority of nocturnal Coleoptera, this insect does not appear to be
+attracted by light; in fact I have never obtained any specimens by this
+method, although most other night-flying beetles may be taken in goodly
+numbers at the attracting lamp.
+
+
+{28}Family MELOLONTHIDÆ.
+
+_Pyronota festiva_.
+
+This brilliant little insect is extremely abundant amongst manuka, during
+the early summer. In general appearance it reminds one of a miniature
+specimen of the last species, but is more elongate in form; the green
+thorax and elytra are also much brighter. The latter are bordered with
+flashing crimson, the legs and under surface being reddish-brown, sparsely
+clothed with white hairs. A small Lamellicorn grub, found amongst refuse in
+manuka thickets, is probably the larva of this insect; it is less thickened
+posteriorly than that of _S. suturalis_, but otherwise closely resembles
+it. The perfect insect is diurnal in its habits, flying round flowering
+manuka in countless numbers on a hot day. The descent of thirty or forty of
+these little beetles on to the beating sheet, out of a single bush, is of
+frequent occurrence, and is particularly noticed by the New Zealand
+entomologist accustomed to the meagre supply of specimens offered in the
+majority of instances.
+
+
+Group STERNOXI.
+
+Family ELATERIDÆ.
+
+_Thoramus wakefieldi_ (Plate II., fig. 1, 1b larva, 1a pupa).
+
+This fine beetle may be taken under rimu bark in tolerable abundance, and
+is often observed flying about at dusk during the summer. Its larva
+inhabits rotten wood, usually selecting the red pine, in which it excavates
+numerous flat galleries near the surface of the logs. When disturbed it is
+very sluggish, the head being immediately withdrawn into the large thoracic
+segment and completely concealed. The legs are very minute, and are of but
+little use in walking, the insect being chiefly dependent for locomotion on
+its large anal proleg, which is furnished with numerous horny spines. When
+full-grown this larva closes up one end of {29}its burrow, and thus forms a
+closed cell, in which it is transformed into the pupa shown at Fig. 1a,
+remaining in this condition until the warmer weather calls the insect from
+its retreat. Two closely allied species are _T. perblandus_ and _Metablax
+acutipennis_. The former is occasionally found under the large scales on
+matai trees, and resembles the present insect in general appearance, but is
+much smaller and more elongate in form, its elytra being also ornamented
+with longitudinal rows of yellowish-brown hairs. The latter may be often
+taken on the wing in the hottest sunshine, and is chiefly remarkable for
+its elongate prothorax and pointed elytra; its colour is dark
+reddish-brown, ornamented with a few scattered white hairs. All these
+insects possess the singular habit of leaping into the air when placed on
+their backs, the last-named species exercising this faculty in a most
+marked degree. The movement is effected by the joint between the pro- and
+meso-thorax, the sternum of the former being elongated into a long process,
+fitting into a corresponding cavity in the latter, so that by means of the
+two being suddenly brought together, the insect is thrown high into the air
+with a loud clicking sound, hence the English name of the Skipjack or Click
+Beetles, the scientific name, Elater, doubtless having reference to the
+same habit. The object of this curious arrangement is in all probability
+twofold; the sharp click and rapid movement of the insect deterring many
+enemies from attacking it, whilst the short legs of the beetle, which are
+quite unable to reach the ground when it is thrown on its back, render a
+special contrivance necessary.
+
+
+Group HETEROMERA.
+
+Family TENEBRIONIDÆ.
+
+_Uloma tenebrionides_ (Plate II., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa).
+
+One of our commonest beetles, found in great abundance {30}in all moist
+wood when much decayed, the favourite trees being apparently rimu and
+matai. Its cylindrical larva may be taken in similar situations, and much
+resembles in general appearance the well-known "wire-worm" of England,
+whose destructive habits, however, it does not share. At present, whilst
+bush-clearing is going on, its influence is beneficial, as it devours large
+quantities of useless wood, which is thus rapidly broken up and got rid of.
+The pupa is enclosed in an oval cell, constructed by the larva before
+changing, from which the perfect insect emerges in due course. When first
+exuded its colour is pale red, but this rapidly changes into dark brown
+after the insect has been hardened by exposure to the air. Specimens are
+often met with of every intermediate shade, and are rather liable to
+deceive the beginner, who mistakes them for distinct species. An account of
+a small Dipterous insect infesting this beetle in its preparatory states
+will be found on page 62.
+
+
+Group LONGICORNIA.
+
+Family PRIONIDÆ.
+
+_Prionus reticularis_ (Plate II., fig. 3, 3b larva, 3a pupa).
+
+This is the largest species of beetle found in New Zealand, and is common
+throughout the summer in the neighbourhood of forests. Its larva (Fig. 3b)
+is a large, fat grub, with minute legs; it inhabits rimu and matai, logs,
+often committing great ravages on sound timber although frequently eating
+that which is decayed; posts, rails, and the rafters of houses alike suffer
+from its attacks; the great holes formed by a full-grown larva of this
+insect creating rapid destruction in the largest timbers. It may be
+remarked, in connection with these wood-boring species, that a good thick
+coat of paint put on the timber as soon as it is exposed, and renewed at
+frequent intervals, to a great extent prevents their attacks. The pupa
+(Fig. 3a) {31}is enclosed in one of the burrows formed by the larva, which,
+before changing, blocks up any aperture, so as to rest secure from all
+enemies. The perfect insect emerges in the following summer, when it may be
+often observed flying about at night. It is greatly attracted by light, and
+this propensity frequently leads it on summer evenings to invade ladies'
+drawing-rooms, when its sudden and noisy arrival is apt to cause much
+needless consternation amongst the inmates.
+
+Closely allied to the above is _Ochrocydus huttoni_, which may be at once
+known by its smaller size and plain elytra; it is very much scarcer than
+_P. reticularis_, but may occasionally be cut out of dead manuka trees in
+company with its larva.
+
+
+Group RHYNCOPHORA.
+
+Family CURCULIONIDÆ.
+
+_Oreda notata_ (Plate II., fig. 4, 4a larva).
+
+This weevil is not often noticed in the open, but may be found in great
+abundance in the dead stems of fuchsia, mahoe, and other soft-wooded
+shrubs, whose trunks are frequently noticed pierced with numerous
+cylindrical holes. The larva also inhabits these burrows, devouring large
+quantities of the wood; it is provided with a large head and powerful pair
+of mandibles, but, in common with all other weevil larvæ, does not possess
+legs of any description, the insect being absolutely helpless when removed
+from its home in the wood. The pupa might also be found in similar
+situations, but I have not yet observed it. The perfect insect may be cut
+out of the trees throughout the year, and is occasionally taken amongst
+herbage during the summer.
+
+
+Family CURCULIONIDÆ.
+
+_Psepholax coronatus_ (Plate II., fig. 5 [F], 5a [M]).
+
+This curious species is found abundantly in the stems of {32}dead currant
+trees (_Aristotelia racemosa_), in which it excavates numerous cylindrical
+burrows like the last species, which it closely resembles when in the
+larval state. The sexes are widely different, the elytra of the male being
+furnished with the characteristic coronet of spines, which is entirely
+wanting in the female. Numerous other members of this genus may be taken in
+company with the present insect, and should be carefully examined, as a
+correct determination of the males and females of the several species is
+sadly wanted. Digging beetles out of the wood is good employment for the
+entomologist in winter, when he will find that a day spent in this manner
+will frequently produce as rich a harvest as one in the height of summer.
+
+Before finally leaving the Coleoptera, I should like to direct the
+attention of my readers to the immense number of interesting weevils found
+in New Zealand. Chief among these is the remarkable _Lasiorhynchus
+barbicornis_, a large insect furnished with a gigantic rostrum, which will
+at once distinguish it from any of the rest. Other genera contain numerous
+beetles, which may be found in various kinds of dead timber in company with
+their larvæ, and are worthy of a more minute investigation than has at
+present been given them.
+
+
+
+
+{33}CHAPTER IV
+
+The Hymenoptera.
+
+The Hymenoptera are perhaps the most interesting order of insects, their
+brilliant colours, great activity, and unparalleled instincts rendering
+them alike attractive to the young collector and scientific entomologist.
+They are, however, not very numerous in New Zealand, several of the most
+important families being completely absent; in fact, with the exception of
+the ants, there are no social Hymenoptera native to this country. The
+information I here give in connection with these insects does not
+adequately represent the large amount of interest which can be derived from
+their investigation, and I must therefore refer the reader to those
+admirable works by Sir J. Lubbock on Ants and by Huber on Bees, which
+cannot fail to interest all who read them.
+
+
+Family ANDRENIDÆ.
+
+_Dasycolletes hirtipes_ (?) (Plate III., fig. 1).
+
+This is the true native bee of New Zealand, and may be taken abundantly
+during the whole of the summer. Its nest is constructed in crevices in the
+bark of trees, &c., the insect very frequently selecting the spaces between
+the boards of outhouses, where the loud buzzing noise {34}made by the
+perfect bees when emerging from their retreat at once arrests our
+attention. These nests consist of about ten oval cells, formed of clay, and
+neatly smoothed within. They are all constructed by a single female, which
+also provisions them with honey and pollen, depositing an egg in each. The
+larva, after consuming the food, changes into a pupa, from which the
+perfect insect emerges about January. If the reader will imagine a great
+number of these nests closely packed together, the formation and storing of
+the cells being performed by a number of sterile individuals (workers),
+while the eggs are deposited by a single female (queen), he will have a
+fair idea of the economy of the social bees and wasps, whose wonderful
+instincts attain their maximum in the well-known hive-bee, successfully
+introduced and cultivated in various parts of the country.
+
+Closely allied to this species is _Dasycolletes purpureus_ (?) (Fig. 10),
+which forms its nests in sand-banks, its cylindrical holes having a great
+resemblance to the burrows of _Cincindela tuberculata_, which frequently
+occur in the same situation.
+
+
+Family SPHEGIDÆ.
+
+_Pompilus fugax_ (Plate III., fig. 2).
+
+This is a very abundant insect, and may be observed flying about on any
+fine day during the summer, occasionally stopping to examine leaves and
+crevices in the bark of trees, where it is looking for the unfortunate
+spiders, which constitute the food of its progeny. The larva is a fat
+apodal grub, and may be found in the cells constructed by the perfect
+insect, which usually selects a large cylindrical hole in a log, previously
+drilled out by a weevil. Into this burrow she pushes a large quantity of
+spiders, which she has previously captured and paralyzed with her venomous
+sting. When her nest is {35}properly provisioned she deposits an egg in it,
+closes the hole with a neat plug of clay, and leaves the larva to quietly
+consume its half-dead companions. Each female, no doubt, forms a large
+number of these cells during the summer. While cutting up old logs for
+Coleoptera, the entomologist will not infrequently come across these nests,
+when the insects may be found in various stages of development.
+Unfortunately, however, the sight which usually meets his eye is a large
+number of legs and other fragments of spiders, the _fugax_ having long
+since deserted the burrow, and being very probably engaged in forming
+others in a neighbouring tree. These insects are very ferocious, and will
+attack spiders which considerably exceed them in size. On one occasion I
+noticed a very large one at rest in the centre of its web, which was
+suddenly noticed by a passing _fugax_, which immediately sprang upon its
+back, and, in spite of violent movements on the part of the spider, twisted
+her abdomen dexterously round and stung her victim in the centre of the
+thorax, between the insertions of the legs. This produced almost
+instantaneous paralysis in the spider; but it was apparently too large for
+the _fugax_ to carry away to her nest, as I saw the unfortunate creature
+hanging helplessly in its web some hours after the occurrence.
+
+
+Family FORMICIDÆ.
+
+_Formica zealandica_ (Plate III., fig. 3 [M], 3a [F], 3b [N], 3c, cocoon).
+
+This is one of our commonest ants, and may be noticed under logs and stones
+throughout the year. The nest consists of a number of irregular cavities
+dug out by the workers either in the ground or in soft rotten wood. Its
+size varies considerably, but the societies of this species are not usually
+so extensive as those of _Atta antarctica_, {36}an insect I shall have
+occasion to refer to presently. The larvæ are minute apodal grubs, which
+are dependent entirely on the workers for food. When full grown they spin
+an oval cocoon of white silk, in which they are converted into pupæ, and
+these the patient neuter ants may be observed carrying away with great
+anxiety when disturbed, risking their own lives to preserve their adopted
+offspring from destruction. The females, or queens, of which there are
+several in each nest, do not appear to participate in these labours, but
+are only instrumental in perpetuating the species, and the same remark
+applies to the males. A large number of these winged males and females may
+be observed in the nests about February, the general emergence taking place
+during that month. At this time they leave their native homes and mount to
+a great height in the air, and after sporting for some hours they re-alight
+on the earth, and in a short space of time cast their wings. The neuters at
+this time are said to carry them away to form fresh colonies, but I have
+not carried my investigations sufficiently far to verify this in connection
+with the New Zealand species.
+
+
+Family FORMICIDÆ.
+
+_Ponera castanea_ (Plate III., fig. 4 [M], 4a [N], 4b, larva).
+
+This is a much larger species of ant than the last, but is apparently not
+unlike it in habits. I have figured a male (Fig. 4) and worker (4a), the
+female not differing from the latter in any great degree, except in being
+provided with wings. It will be noticed, however, that the male is very
+divergent. The larvæ of this insect are covered with numerous minute
+spines, and may be often found in the nests; also the cocoons which they
+form when full grown, these latter being of a dark brown colour, and rather
+elongate. The winged insects are not frequently seen. They appear only for
+a short time in February, the earlier {37}ones being invariably held
+captive by the workers until the rest have emerged, when they are all
+allowed to fly away and form fresh colonies as in the last species.
+
+
+Family FORMICIDÆ.
+
+_Atta antarctica_ (Plate III., fig. 5 [M], 5a [F], 5b, larva).
+
+This is another very abundant species, found occasionally amongst rotten
+wood in very large communities. Its larva, which is represented at Fig. 5b,
+does not form any cocoon, the pupa being quite naked and defenceless. It is
+a beautiful little object when examined with a microscope of moderate
+power. The annual migration of the winged males and females of this species
+usually takes place on a hot day in the last week of March, at which time I
+have observed the air throughout a day's journey absolutely swarming with
+these little insects. Many specimens are captured in the spiders' webs,
+while the logs, fences, and ground are covered with ants in the proportion
+of about ten males to one female. At other seasons of the year the winged
+individuals of _Atta antarctica_ are seldom observed.
+
+
+Family CHALCIDIDÆ.
+
+_Pteromalus_ sp. (?) (Plate III., fig. 9).
+
+This little insect was reared, in company with thirteen others of the same
+species, from a pupa of _Eurigaster marginatus_ which had been procured
+from a larva of _Oeceticus omnivorus_, and is consequently a true
+hyperparasite.[3] Its curious habits will be better understood by the
+reader after perusal of the life-histories of those two insects, which I
+have given on pages 60 and 74. The method by which the females of the
+Hymenoptera whose larvæ are parasitic on insects inhabiting other insects,
+{38}introduce their eggs into their hosts,[4] is not at present known to
+entomologists, but it seems at least probable that they are deposited in
+the eggs of the parasitic Dipteron before these gain access to the
+caterpillar of the moth.
+
+
+Family ICHNEUMONIDÆ.
+
+_Ichneumon sollicitorius_ (Plate III., fig. 6).
+
+This is the most abundant of our ichneumon-flies, and may be taken amongst
+herbage from August till May. Its larva is parasitic in the caterpillars of
+various Noctuæ, having occurred in the following species: _Mamestra
+composita_, _M. mutans_, and _M. ustistriga_. The pupa may be frequently
+discovered inside that of the moth, and is quite white in its early stages,
+but as age advances all the colours of the future insect can be seen
+through the thin pellicle which invests it. The perfect insect makes its
+escape through a circular hole, which it drills in the upper end of the
+unfortunate moth pupa it has destroyed. The sexes of all ichneumon-flies
+may be at once recognized by the females possessing an ovipositor[5]
+differing considerably in length among the various species, but nearly
+always plainly visible.
+
+
+Family ICHNEUMONIDÆ.
+
+_Ichneumon deceptus_ (Plate III., fig. 7).
+
+This conspicuous insect is chiefly mentioned on account of a very curious
+habit possessed by the females of congregating in large numbers on matai
+trees, as many as fifty or sixty specimens being often found huddled
+together under a single flake of the bark. The males are occasionally taken
+flying in the open, but I have never seen any amongst these large
+assemblages of females. Whether the {39}ichneumons are parasitic on some
+insect which lives on the matai, or whether they assemble to feast on the
+sweet juice occasionally exuded from its bark, it is impossible to say, but
+in either case the complete absence of males is a very remarkable
+circumstance.
+
+
+Family ICHNEUMONIDÆ.
+
+_Scolobates varipes_ (Plate III., fig. 8).
+
+The larva of this little insect is parasitic on the useful larva of
+_Syrphus ortas_ whose life-history is recorded on page 57. It is very
+common in some instances, and must consequently destroy a considerable
+number. It entirely eats the soft portions of the insect, and may
+afterwards be found lying snugly within the hard empty shell of the
+deceased syrphus pupa, which acts as a cocoon for it while undergoing its
+own pupa state. The perfect insect may be often observed amongst herbage,
+searching for syrphus larvæ to deposit its eggs in.
+
+
+
+
+{40}CHAPTER V
+
+The Diptera.
+
+The next Order which comes under review is the Diptera, which includes all
+the two-winged insects, and constitutes a most extensive Order in respect
+to the number of distinct species. When, however, the numbers of
+individuals of the same species are considered, it is probable that this
+Order includes a greater proportion of the insect-world than all the others
+put together. The preponderance of these insects over the rest holds good
+with greater force in New Zealand than in many other countries, and this
+fact may be almost inferred from the large number of spiders present here,
+which are chiefly dependent on Diptera for their support. The important
+function of clearing away refuse matter is almost entirely performed by the
+members of this Order, as the Necrophagous Coleoptera and other scavengers
+which exist in such large numbers in many countries are practically absent
+here, and their work consequently devolves upon dipterous insects.
+
+
+Group NEMOCERA.
+
+Family CULICIDÆ.
+
+_Culex iracundus_ (Plate IV., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa).
+
+The mosquito is only too familiar to every one from {41}its ceaseless
+attacks; it occurs almost everywhere, but is most abundant in marshy
+situations. The larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits all stagnant waters, where it may
+be found very abundantly throughout the summer, and when disturbed it
+plunges about with great agility. Its food consists of the numerous
+animalculæ swarming in all still waters during the greater portion of the
+year. These are captured by means of two curious anterior appendages, which
+are fringed with long hair, and pulled through the water like a fisherman's
+net; they are then withdrawn into the mouth and the contents devoured, the
+hungry insect again extending them for a fresh supply. These larvæ are
+generally seen suspended from the surface of the water by the curious
+air-tube which takes its rise from the penultimate segment of the abdomen,
+which is of considerable length. Its apex is armed with a row of stiff
+bristles, which effectually prevent the water from entering the spiracle
+there situated, so that the insect is enabled to respire when hanging from
+the surface, independently of any muscular action. It is also worthy of
+note that the intestine discharges itself into this tube, an arrangement
+which does not exist among the British species. After several moultings the
+transformation to the pupa state takes place. At this stage the insect
+(Fig. 1b) becomes much thickened anteriorly, this being the region of the
+head and thorax of the future gnat; all the limbs are easily detected on a
+close examination, as with lepidopterous pupæ. The upper portion is
+provided with two short appendages, fulfilling the same function as the
+air-tube of the larva, and which constantly support the pupa at the surface
+of the water. The terminal fins enable it to dash through the water with
+great rapidity when pursued by enemies; at other times it remains perfectly
+motionless, suspended from the surface of the water. It should be mentioned
+that none of these aquatic pupæ take any nourishment, neither have they any
+limbs properly {42}so called. Their locomotion, although in some cases
+unquestionably rapid, is entirely effected by violent motions of the
+abdomen. I have been careful to point out these peculiarities as these
+animals have been regarded by many authors as _active_ pupæ on a level with
+those of the Orthoptera and Hemiptera. This opinion, however, is manifestly
+erroneous; the pupæ of the nemocerous Diptera are on precisely the same
+footing as those of the Lepidoptera, and it would be almost as reasonable
+to call one of these _active_, because it wriggles out of its cocoon in the
+earth before the emergence of the moth. The perfect mosquito emerges from a
+rent in the thoracic shield of the pupa, drawing each pair of legs out
+separately, and placing them in front of it on the water; the wings and
+abdomen are then extracted and in a few moments it flies away.
+
+The bites of these insects appear to distress some people much more than
+others, probably owing to constitutional differences. I should mention that
+the females alone engage in these attacks, the males being quite harmless
+and subsisting entirely on honey, which is doubtless the natural food of
+both sexes. The male and female mosquito are readily distinguished, the
+specimen figured belonging to the latter sex; her companion is chiefly
+remarkable for his plumed antennæ and beautiful palpi, which are very long
+and gracefully plumed. As many of the harmless insects which will be
+investigated are often mistaken for this species, and destroyed
+accordingly, I should like to advise my readers that they may at once
+distinguish all the venomous species of gnats by their long, lancet-like
+proboscis and loud humming noise during flight.
+
+Closely allied to this insect is _Culex argyropus_, which might be called
+the coast mosquito as it is always found near the seashore, its larva
+living in brackish pools just above high-water mark. The perfect insect may
+be also seen skating along the surface of the water like a {43}gerris[6];
+it may be at once distinguished by its dark colour,.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Corethra antarctica_, n.s.[7] (Plate IV., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa).
+
+An elegant little gnat, frequenting the margins of ponds and ditches during
+the spring months. The larva (Fig. 3a) is bright green, ornamented with
+numerous yellow spots; it is very sluggish, living in the green slime weed
+which floats on the water in such large masses during that season. Not
+being very common it is difficult to find, as its colour so closely
+resembles that of the weed which it always frequents. The pupa (Fig 3b), is
+not very agile, and is nearly always observed suspended from the surface by
+its thoracic air-tubes and caudal fins, the abdomen being directed upwards
+and thus bringing the two pairs of organs close together. In its
+metamorphosis and general appearance this insect forms a convenient link
+between the present family and the Culicidæ.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Chironomus zealandicus_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa).
+
+This is the common midge of New Zealand, and is extremely abundant
+throughout the country. Its larva (Fig. 2a) inhabits the soft mud at the
+bottom of stagnant ponds and streams, and is very conspicuous, being of a
+brilliant crimson colour and thus much resembling the well-known
+"Bloodworm" of English anglers, which is the larva of a closely allied
+European species (_C. plumosus_). It may be readily kept in an aquarium,
+and if supplied with a little soil and green weed will rapidly cover the
+{44}walls of its glass prison with numerous tubular galleries. These take
+their rise from the mud at the bottom, and, extending upwards to a distance
+of three or four inches, afford the larva a convenient retreat from all
+enemies. These insects are occasionally seen swimming laboriously through
+the water with a peculiar zigzag motion. When out of their burrows they
+have considerable difficulty in keeping beneath the surface, and may be
+often observed floating helplessly with their exposed portions quite dry;
+in fact the whole integment of the insect appears to have a peculiar power
+of resisting the water. The pupa (Fig. 2b), is a most beautiful object, its
+anterior extremity being obtusely thickened and the limbs of the future
+insect quite discernible. On each side of the thorax the gills form a set
+of graceful plumes, a much smaller group being also situated at the
+extremity of its abdomen. In this state the insect remains almost entirely
+concealed in the burrows previously constructed by the larva, its gills
+imbibing sufficient air from the surrounding medium, and thus rendering
+ascension to the surface unnecessary. The water is periodically circulated
+in the tunnels by violent movements on the part of the pupa. About a day
+before emergence the insect assumes a peculiar silvery appearance, which is
+occasioned by the presence of a large quantity of air between the imago and
+its pupa skin. This air has been first imbibed by the gills and afterwards
+expelled through the spiracles of the enclosed gnat, thus inflating the
+skin of the pupa, and helping to buoy it up during its last and most
+important transformation. Leaving its tunnel the insect rises to the
+surface, the thorax is lifted above the water which retreats from it on all
+sides, the skin cracks open at the back and the insect slowly extricates
+itself in a similar manner to the mosquito. In about ten minutes' time the
+wings are sufficiently hardened for use and the insect then flies ashore,
+but we may occasionally notice, {45}beside their old pupa-skins, drowned
+individuals which have failed to effect a successful emergence. The perfect
+insect is extremely common in all swampy situations throughout the summer;
+it has a great partiality for light, and may be occasionally noticed in
+vast numbers round the street lamps on a hot summer's night, especially if
+rain is impending. It is a most graceful insect, and will amply repay a
+minute examination (Fig. 2).
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Ceratopogon antipodum_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa).
+
+Very plentiful in the forest throughout the year, often enlivening the
+winter sunshine by its merry gambols. The larva (Fig. 4a), is found under
+the bark of newly fallen trees, feeding on the sap which exudes in large
+quantities from the logs whilst drying. When first discovered it often has
+a curiously spangled appearance, owing to the minute beads of moisture
+retained by numerous bristles clothing the larva. When about to change,
+these insects assemble in large companies of thirty or forty, firmly
+affixing their basal segments to the wood, their heads all pointing inwards
+and forming a small circle. In some cases, where an unusually large
+gathering has occurred, a number arrange themselves into an outer row,
+their heads being immediately behind the extremities of the inner group,
+the whole thus bearing a rough likeness to the radiations of a star-fish.
+The pupa is very short, and is furnished with two clubbed horns on the
+thorax for respiration. Its abdominal portions are retained within the old
+larval skin, thus keeping it firmly anchored to the log. The perfect insect
+emerges from a rent in the thorax of the pupa, groups of exuviæ being of
+common occurrence under the bark. The sexes differ considerably, the
+individual figured {46}(Fig. 4) being a male; the female is slightly
+larger, and much more stoutly built; her antennæ are filiform[8], and the
+limbs generally shorter. Both are equally common, but the male is more
+often noticed, owing to his greater activity.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Psychoda conspicillata_ (Plate IV., fig. 6).
+
+A common species, occurring plentifully on window panes during August, and
+bearing a great superficial resemblance to a small moth of the Tineina
+group, often deceiving the novice in consequence. It is a beautiful object
+for the microscope, the figure being a careful drawing of the insect, seen
+with a power of about ten diameters. I regret to say that its
+transformations are at present unknown.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Mycetophila antarctica_, n.s. (Plate IV., fig. 5, 5a larva, 5b pupa).
+
+Tolerably common in the vicinity of forest during the major part of the
+year. The larva (Fig. 5a), is a small elongate maggot of a pinkish colour;
+it is a social insect, inhabiting rotten pine logs, which it perforates
+with numerous cylindrical burrows. These larvæ, entirely confine their
+attention to damp wood of a "pappy" consistency, leaving the harder logs
+for the wood-boring Coleoptera, which are provided with much stronger jaws.
+They consequently do not injure the rafters and boards of houses, or other
+valuable timbers. The pupa (Fig. 5b) is very elongate, reposing in one of
+the burrows, previously constructed by the larva. It probably breathes by
+means of its spiracles, as no special organs of respiration are visible.
+The perfect insect appears in a short time, flying sluggishly in the
+sunshine, the female possessing an enormous abdomen, which {47}almost
+incapacitates her for aerial locomotion; in other respects she resembles
+the male, which is the sex figured (Fig. 5).
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Tipula holochlora_ (Plate V., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa).
+
+This beautiful insect is very common in the forest throughout New Zealand.
+Its larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits various kinds of decaying wood, frequently
+occurring in vegetable refuse at the roots of trees. It is a large,
+sluggish-looking grub, and the anterior segments are very retractile. Its
+colour appears to vary according to its surroundings, those specimens found
+in red pine being of the dull reddish hue characteristic of that wood,
+while those taken from pukatea and henau are dark brown larvæ, resembling
+the illustration. These insects are very voracious, but their growth is
+gradual, each larva probably occupying at least six months to reach
+maturity. They mostly feed during the winter, but may be often taken at
+other times. The pupa (Fig. 1b) is enclosed in a small oval cell,
+previously excavated by the larva, which also constructs a ready means of
+escape for the future insect in the form of a small tunnel leading out of
+one end of its prison to the open air. Through this the pupa wriggles,
+assisted by the spines, which arm the edges of all the segments; the
+coronet of hooks at its extremity retaining the insect firmly at the mouth
+of its burrow while undergoing its final transformation. After numerous
+twistings and contortions on the part of the pupa, a rent is formed in the
+thoracic plates, and the imago draws itself out, standing on the log until
+its wings are sufficiently hardened for flight. In many old houses numbers
+of these exuviæ may be seen projecting from holes in the boards--a relic of
+the destruction that has taken place within. These insects naturally
+inhabit dead trees, but as they will devour unsound timber in any {48}form
+they are very injurious to old wooden buildings. The perfect insect chiefly
+frequents forest, where it is difficult to detect owing to its green colour
+harmonizing so closely with the leaves. The specimen figured (Fig. 1) is a
+male, the female being considerably smaller with a much stouter body and
+shorter legs.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Tipula fumipennis_, n.s. (Plate V., fig. 2, 2a larva, 2b pupa).
+
+Another fine species, occurring in similar situations to the last, but not
+quite so commonly. The larva (Fig. 2a) may be found throughout the year
+under the bark of very rotten henau and pukatea, feeding on the moist
+decaying wood. It constructs in this material numerous burrows, which are
+lined with a viscous fluid constantly emitted from the mouth. Its movements
+in these are very rapid, frequently eluding the most careful searches. When
+divested of its slimy covering, it is anything but an offensive-looking
+larva, the great air-tubes, which run the whole length of the insect, being
+very conspicuous, and many of the other internal organs are easily detected
+owing to its partial transparency. The pupa (Fig. 2b) is enclosed in a
+small cocoon, having ready access to the air; it is chiefly remarkable for
+its very large thoracic horns, which are curiously toothed. The air-tubes
+connected with these are distinctly visible in the abdomen of the insect,
+where they may be seen branching in all directions. When about to emerge
+this pupa works its way to the surface of the log, the head and thorax are
+thrust outside, and the perfect insect escapes in the ordinary way. The
+illustration (Fig. 2) is taken from a female; the male differs in being
+less robust, and in being provided with longer legs.
+
+
+{49}Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+The Glow-worm. _Bolitophila luminosa_, Skuse.
+
+(Frontispiece, fig. 1).
+
+Every one who has walked in the forest at night has no doubt noticed, in
+many damp and precipitous situations, numerous brilliant points of greenish
+white light shining out from amongst the dense undergrowth. The animal
+which causes this light may be seen at Fig. 1a on the Frontispiece, and is
+probably one of the most interesting insects we have in New Zealand. It
+inhabits irregular cavities, mostly situated in the banks of streams, where
+it hangs suspended in a glutinous web which is stretched across the cavity
+and supported by several smaller threads running right and left, and
+attached to the sides and ends of the niche. On this the larva invariably
+rests, but when disturbed immediately glides back along the main thread and
+retreats into a hole which it has provided at the end of it. From the lower
+side of this central thread numerous smaller threads hang down, and are
+always covered with little globules of water, constituting a conspicuous,
+though apparently unimportant, portion of the insect's web. It should be
+mentioned that all these threads are constructed by the larva from a sticky
+mucus exuded from the mouth.
+
+The organ which emits the light can easily be seen by referring to Fig. 1a.
+It is situated at the posterior extremity of the larva, and is a gelatinous
+and semi-transparent structure capable of a great diversity of form. It can
+be extended or withdrawn at the will of the larva, which, however, can shut
+off the light independently of this latter action. Larvæ cease to shine on
+very cold nights, in the daytime, and in a room which is artificially
+lighted. They gleam most brilliantly on dark, damp nights, with a light
+north-west wind. These larvæ appear to suffer great mortality in a state of
+nature, as the {50}young ones will always be found greatly in excess of
+those that are approaching maturity.
+
+When full-grown this insect is transformed into the curious pupa shown at
+Fig. 1b. It is furnished with a large process on the back of the thorax
+which is attached to the web and holds the pupa suspended in the middle of
+the niche previously inhabited by the larva. The light is emitted from the
+posterior segment of the pupa, but is much fainter than in the larva, and a
+distinct organ is not apparent. It is frequently suppressed for days
+together.
+
+The perfect insect is drawn at Fig. 1. It emits a strong light from the
+posterior segment of the abdomen, about half as bright as that emanating
+from a full grown larva. It has been recently described by Mr. Skuse, of
+Sydney, as _Bolitophila luminosa_.
+
+During the whole course of my observations[9] on this insect, extending
+over five years, I have only succeeded in bringing two specimens to
+maturity, and both of these were females.
+
+The uses of the light and the web to the larva are at present quite unknown
+to me, as well as its food, which, however, possibly consists of fungi. It
+should also be mentioned that the larvæ are found in the greatest abundance
+in mining tunnels, many feet below the surface of the earth, as well as in
+caves.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Cloniophora subfasciata_ (Plate V., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+Tolerably common in damp gullies during summer and autumn. The larva (Fig.
+3a) inhabits decayed henau logs, {51}drilling deep into the wood, where its
+burrows are seldom noticed, as they are filled up with refuse almost as
+soon as they are made. The pupa resembles that of _Tipula holochlora_, but
+is rather more attenuated in the body, and the thoracic horns are slightly
+thicker. It is not enclosed in any cocoon, but lies amongst the powdery
+wood, wriggling to the surface when about to emerge. The illustration
+represents the male insect, the female having a much stouter body, with
+short thick legs; she also differs in her antennæ, which are much less
+branched than those of the male.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Rhyphus neozealandicus_ (Plate V., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa).
+
+A most abundant species occurring in most damp situations throughout the
+year. Its larva (Fig. 4a) closely resembles a small worm, being of an
+elongate form attenuated at each end. The skin is very hard and of a dull
+yellow colour, with black markings. The food of this insect consists of
+decaying vegetable matter, which it procures by means of two small
+appendages, situated on each side of the mouth, and which it is continually
+moving about in search of suitable materials. The pupa is a curious object
+(Fig. 4b), the two little respiratory horns having a singular resemblance
+to a pair of ears. It is enclosed in a small oval cell about one inch below
+the surface of the earth, the insect working its way to the air before
+emergence. The perfect _Rhyphus_ may be almost regarded as one of our
+domestic insects, and is seldom found in the open country, but frequents
+cowhouses and other farm buildings in great numbers, the larvæ feeding on
+the manure in these situations. It is often mistaken by ignorant people for
+the mosquito and at once destroyed, but quite unfairly, as the species is
+in reality perfectly harmless, frequently {52}benefiting mankind by the
+removal of considerable quantities of effete matter, which if allowed to
+remain could not fail to be injurious.
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Bibio nigrostigma_ (Plate V., fig. 5, 5a larva, 5b pupa).
+
+This insect is very abundant during the spring months, but rapidly
+disappears, and few specimens are noticed after Christmas. Its larva (Fig.
+5a) inhabits the woody powder often found under logs, which frequently
+consists of the accumulated excrement of wood-boring insects. It is
+gregarious in its habits, being found in large companies of fifty or a
+hundred individuals. When first disturbed these appear as a wriggling mass,
+but very shortly become so still that they can only be distinguished with
+the greatest difficulty from morsels of bark. A considerable portion of the
+powdered wood is also retained on the body of the insect by a row of short
+spines situated in the middle of each segment, which helps to render the
+larva still more inconspicuous. In this condition it remains for at least
+eight months, during which time growth takes place very slowly. About
+September the larvæ separate, each being afterwards transformed into a
+small yellowish pupa (5b), whose abdominal extremity is usually retained
+within the old skin, thus closely resembling that of the genus
+_Ceratopogon_. I have figured this pupa entirely naked, in order to show
+its characteristics, some of which are rather remarkable, more completely,
+the agglutination of nearly all the anterior portions of the body being
+especially noteworthy. The perfect insects may be found everywhere, the
+males sucking honey from the flowers and performing many antics in the air,
+often clinging hold of one another and whirling about together. The female
+seldom flies, but is usually observed crawling about fences or the trunks
+of trees. She may be at once recognized by her heavy body {53}which is very
+large when distended with eggs. Her general colour is dull red, thus
+differing widely from the male insect represented in the illustration (Fig.
+5).
+
+
+Family TIPULIDÆ.
+
+_Simulia australiensis_ (Plate VI., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa).
+
+Every one knows the sandfly, the little black insect that so persistently
+perches on our hands and faces and inflicts its painful punctures, which in
+many cases are followed by large swellings, often lasting for several days
+and causing much irritation. Its larva (Fig. 1a) inhabits clear running
+water, climbing about in strong currents by means of a pair of suckers
+situated at each end of the body, two being placed on the prothoracic
+segment just behind the head and two others close to the anal extremity.
+These the insect employs rather curiously, the anterior pair being first
+affixed and the others drawn up close behind them, its elongate body
+consequently forming a loop. Clinging by the posterior suckers for a moment
+the larva then reaches forward, re-affixes the anterior ones, and draws up
+the posterior as before. Breathing is performed by two spiracles situated
+on the last abdominal segments near the hind pair of suckers. Two large
+air-tubes originate from these and run forwards, giving off branches to all
+parts of the body; they terminate in a number of air-sacs in the thorax.
+The food of this larva consists of animalculæ, which are no doubt obtained
+by drawing the two ciliated appendages rapidly through the water several
+times in succession, their contents being afterwards gathered up by the
+smaller organs and passed into the mouth. When about to assume the pupa
+state the insect covers itself with a glutinous envelope, which is firmly
+joined to the under side of a leaf, the transformation taking place within
+a few days. The pupa can hardly be distinguished from a small moth
+chrysalis except for a pair of branching {54}filaments, which arise from
+the top of the thorax and serve the purpose of gills (Fig. 1b). Before
+emergence the anterior segments are projected nearly out of the cocoon from
+which the perfect sandfly makes its escape, and floating to the surface of
+the water ascends the stem of an aquatic plant to expand its wings. I
+should here remark that as with the mosquitoes, the bloodthirsty
+propensities of the present species have no doubt been acquired since the
+arrival of man and other warm-blooded animals.
+
+
+Group BRACHOCERA.
+
+Family TABANIDÆ.
+
+_Tabanus impar_ (Plate VI., fig. 6).
+
+I have figured this fine species as a representative of a most important
+family of Dipterous insects, but am at present quite unacquainted with its
+life-history. It occurs plentifully on the margins of the forest throughout
+the summer.
+
+
+Family BOMBYLIDÆ.
+
+_Comptosia bicolor_ (Plate VI., fig. 2).
+
+This conspicuous species is very abundant in glades throughout the summer,
+flying with great rapidity, and delighting to suck honey from the numerous
+shrubs which are in blossom at that time of year. It is a social species,
+and is usually found in companies of fifteen or twenty individuals, which
+engage in endless dances, two insects often seizing one another on the wing
+and then revolving together like a wheel in rapid motion. Their manoeuvres
+in avoiding the strong gusty wind, so often prevalent in early summer, are
+also interesting; the insects play upon the wing whilst the air is quiet,
+but if a breeze springs up they instantly settle on the nearest bush,
+rising to renew their sports when it is again calm. These flies are rather
+variable in colour, some specimens being dark brown, {55}whilst others are
+more or less covered with greyish-white hairs; individuals are also often
+met with quite black and shining, their hirsute covering having been
+completely rubbed off. The female may be at once recognized by her solid,
+fleshy abdomen, that of the male being inflated by two great air-bladders,
+which cause that portion of the body to appear semi-transparent when the
+insect is held up to the light. The figure (2) is taken from a specimen of
+the latter sex.
+
+Closely allied to the present insect is _Comptosia virida_, n.s. (Fig. 3),
+which can be at once distinguished by its brilliant green eyes and pale
+grey clothing. The larva of this species is a large white maggot, rather
+robust, and possessing a small head. It inhabits the dense moss growing on
+the trunks of trees in the forest, feeding on the roots of these plants,
+and finally forming an oval cocoon, in which it changes into the pupa shown
+at Fig. 3b. The perfect insect appears in a few weeks' time, when it may be
+taken in similar situations to _C. bicolor_, but in much fewer numbers.
+
+
+Family ASILIDÆ.
+
+_Sarapogon viduus_ (Plate VI., fig. 4, 4a larva, 4b pupa).
+
+A voracious insect, frequenting all dry sand-banks and pathways throughout
+the summer, and destroying the numerous minute diptera found in those
+situations. These unfortunate victims are drilled through the thorax by
+their destroyer, which sucks them completely dry with its long beak-like
+proboscis. The larva (Fig. 4a) inhabits rotten wood, chiefly feeding upon
+the moist, powdery portions. It is usually somewhat sluggish, but when
+disturbed hops about with electrical rapidity. The head is very minute, and
+the elongate body consists of twenty segments, a number very unusual among
+larvæ, the normal number being twelve exclusive of the head. It lives for a
+{56}considerable time and is finally transformed into the blunt-looking
+pupa, drawn at Fig. 4b, without having previously constructed any cocoon.
+From this the perfect insect emerges in a month or six weeks' time,
+commencing its work of destruction as soon as its wings are hardened, which
+takes place within a few hours.
+
+
+Family STRATIOMIDÆ.
+
+_Exaireta spiniger_ (Plate VI., fig. 5).
+
+Abundant during November, when it may be taken in great numbers in the
+vicinity of water. The larva is probably aquatic, but I have not yet
+observed it, although its habits would, no doubt, be very interesting. The
+perfect insects frequent flowers, and are generally very sluggish in their
+movements.
+
+
+Family ACROCERIDÆ.
+
+_Acrocera longirostris_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 4).
+
+An extraordinary and very rare species, occurring amongst white rata[10]
+blossoms in February. At present I have only taken three specimens, _viz._,
+two in Wellington and one in Nelson. The transformations of all the
+Acroceridæ are as yet unknown.
+
+
+Family SYRPHIDÆ.
+
+_Syrphus ortas_ (Plate VII., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa).
+
+Very common everywhere from September till May, or even later, when
+specimens may be often seen basking in the winter sunshine. The larva (3a)
+is a most useful insect to gardeners as it destroys an immense number of
+aphides, those noxious little insects that commit such fearful ravages on
+many valuable plants (see Hemiptera, page {57}120). In general appearance
+this larva resembles a small green slug, with the skin much wrinkled, and
+bearing at its extremity a short thick tube, which is probably the
+respiratory apparatus, the four lunate holes situated at its apex being no
+doubt the spiracles. These insects grow very slowly, occupying several
+weeks to attain maturity. Their mode of capturing the aphides is very
+curious, and is, briefly, as follows:--The larva lies in the midst of a
+number of aphides, and it occasionally happens that some of them crawl over
+it. On feeling an aphis touch its back the larva instantly darts out its
+long, pointed head and strikes its prey with the apex, which is enveloped
+in a quantity of very sticky mucus constantly ejected from the mouth. On
+the aphis being thus captured the larva withdraws its head into the hinder
+segments of its body and devours all the juicy portions of the aphis, whose
+dry skin is afterwards thrown aside. When full-grown it slowly shrinks up
+and changes into the pupa shown at Fig. 3b. In this state it is not
+protected by any kind of cocoon, but lies amongst the refuse of the
+aphides, near the stem of the plant. The fly emerges in a fortnight or
+three weeks' time, and is very fond of hovering over and sucking honey from
+the flowers, but the females may be often noticed running about plants,
+probably in search of a suitable place to oviposit.[11] For an account of
+_Scolobates varipes_, a species parasitic on the present insect, I refer to
+page 39.
+
+
+Family SYRPHIDÆ.
+
+_Eristalis cingulatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 2).
+
+This conspicuous insect occurs occasionally in glades in the forest about
+January, but is by no means common. It is very fond of the white rata
+flowers, where it may be {58}taken, if anywhere. Its life-history is at
+present unknown, but no doubt resembles that of the following insect.
+
+
+Family SYRPHIDÆ.
+
+_Helophilus trilineatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa).
+
+This fine species occurs abundantly in all damp situations throughout the
+summer. Its larva may be found in stagnant pools and is often met with in
+the mud at the bottom of ditches. Its posterior segments are enormously
+elongated, forming a telescopic breathing apparatus, composed of two tubes,
+the smaller of which is capable of being more or less extended at the will
+of the larva, which is thus enabled to adjust the length of its breathing
+tube, according to the depth of water or mud in which it happens to reside.
+This peculiarity has given all these larvæ the name of rat-tailed maggots.
+The other segments are very stout, each being furnished with a pair of
+minute feet, and the head is also provided with two small appendages which
+are supposed to be the outlets through which the exhausted air is
+discharged by the larva. When mature this insect leaves the water, forming
+a small oval cell in the neighbouring moist earth, in which it lies with
+its long tail folded along the breast. The skin then gradually hardens, and
+it is finally transformed into the pupa shown at Fig. 1b, the conical pair
+of breathing-tubes on the thorax being slowly protruded from two hardly
+perceptible warts, whilst the telescopic apparatus shrinks up, its
+functions being at an end. A variable time, dependent upon the season,
+elapses before the perfect insect makes its appearance, but prior to this
+occurring, a large circular plate, forming the thorax of the pupa, is
+thrust off, thus assisting the escape of the fly, which immediately ascends
+a plant, or other convenient object, to dry and expand its wings (Fig. 1).
+In the perfect {59}state it delights to hover in the air, darting away with
+great rapidity on the approach of any enemies. It also frequently enters
+houses, where its presence is at once betrayed by a peculiarly shrill noise
+made while flying. The sexes of this insect differ chiefly in size, the
+female (Fig. 1) being about twice as large as her companion.
+
+Closely allied to this species are _Helophilus ineptus_, and _H.
+hochstetteri_. The former is slightly smaller than _H. trilineatus_ and may
+be at once distinguished by its tessellated orange-yellow and black
+abdomen. It is rather local, but extremely abundant wherever found. The
+latter has a superficial resemblance to some of the smaller blowflies
+(_Musca_), but may be readily known by its large brownish-red
+scutellum.[12] It is the commonest of the genus and may be found in great
+numbers throughout the summer amongst veronica and other flowers.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Miltogramma mestor_ (?) (Plate VII, fig. 5).
+
+A conspicuous species, found occasionally on forest-clad hills round
+Wellington. The life-history is at present unknown, but its larva is very
+possibly parasitic in some large Lepidoptera.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Nemorea nyctemerianus_ (Plate VII., fig. 6).
+
+This little fly is seldom met with in the perfect state. Its larva is
+parasitic on the caterpillar of _Nyctemera annulata_[13], the eggs being
+deposited on the moth larva at an early age. The caterpillar grows and eats
+in the ordinary way, until it has assumed the chrysalis state, when the
+{60}maggot eats its way out and changes into a dark-brown pupa. In this
+condition the parasite is protected by the web which was previously
+constructed by the unfortunate caterpillar for its own use. The perfect fly
+appears in about six weeks' time, its great agility and large white scales
+rendering it very conspicuous.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Eurigaster marginatus_ (Plate VII., fig. 7).
+
+Another parasitic species, its larva inhabiting the caterpillars of various
+noctuæ which it destroys just before they change into the chrysalis state.
+The pupa of the parasite lies in a small oval cell constructed in the earth
+by its larva. A variable number of these maggots are found associated in
+one host, the smaller caterpillars only harbouring a single individual,
+while a large larva will frequently contain three or four. This species has
+been bred from the following Lepidoptera: _Mamestra composita_, _M.
+ustistriga_ and _M. mutans_. It also occurs in the curious _Oeceticus
+omnivorus_, being found in the cocoons of that moth in numbers varying from
+two to eleven, or even more, and it is especially interesting, as it is in
+turn destroyed by a small species of _Pteromalus_ already noticed among the
+Hymenoptera (page 37). The perfect insect occurs occasionally on flowers
+throughout the summer.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Calliphora quadrimaculata_ (Plate VII., fig. 9).
+
+This is the large blue-bottle fly of New Zealand and is found everywhere in
+great abundance. Its larva feeds on decaying flesh and is of a dirty yellow
+colour, measuring, when full-grown, about seven lines in length. The pupa
+is buried at a considerable depth in the ground, the {61}larva having
+descended before changing. The duration of this, and in fact of all the
+stages of the insect, depends entirely upon the temperature, but the
+females invariably deposit eggs, even during the hottest weather, and are
+never ovo-viviparous like the next species, and several others of the
+genus.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Sarcophaga læmica_ (Plate VII., fig. 10).
+
+Another extremely abundant species having a similar history to the last,
+but its powers of development are very much accelerated owing to the larva
+being positively born alive. The females hover over meat and other suitable
+substances, depositing a number of minute wriggling maggots thereon, not
+infrequently to the great disgust of some hungry individual, who perhaps is
+making his dinner off a mutton chop which the fly has selected as a home
+for her offspring. These larvæ are all produced from distinct ova, which
+hatch before being laid, as I have often proved, by removing them from the
+insect's abdomen, and watching the young larva emerge from a minute
+elliptical white egg, covered with a thin leathery skin. Every one who has
+travelled in New Zealand must have noticed that, in the wildest spots,
+these insects assemble in large numbers as soon as any meat is uncovered,
+thus not only showing their universal distribution throughout the country,
+but also that they possess a very keen sense of smell.
+
+Two British species at least, allied to this genus, have been introduced
+into New Zealand, _viz._, _Musca domestica_ and _Musca cæsar_. The former
+is probably a world-wide insect, every ship teeming with it, but the latter
+is at present rather scarce and is usually found in the neighbourhood of
+farm-yards, where the larva feeds on {62}cow-dung. The perfect insect may
+be at once known by its brilliant green colour.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Cylindria sigma_ (Plate VII., fig. 14).
+
+A curious species, occurring occasionally in damp situations in the forest
+where it may be noticed leisurely walking over the leaves of various
+shrubs. It is very sluggish and may often be captured between the fingers
+without the aid of a net. Its life-history is at present unknown, but the
+larva probably feeds on fungi. The pretty little insect depicted at Fig. 11
+may be found in similar situations but is not so common.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Phora omnivora_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 15, 15a pupa).
+
+This minute species may be found in large numbers nearly all the year
+round. Its larva is parasitic on a great variety of insects and is also not
+infrequently met with among decaying vegetable matter. Its habits are,
+therefore, very varied. When parasitic in the Lepidoptera it usually
+selects the noctuæ, destroying a great number of many of the commoner
+species[14]. The infected caterpillars usually turn into chrysalides some
+time before the little maggots emerge, but this is not invariably the case,
+the parasite often destroying the larva at a comparatively early stage. The
+pupæ are buried in the earth, near the remains of their host, and are light
+brown in colour, with the segments much more distinct than is usual (Fig.
+15a). From these the perfect flies proceed in about a month's time. The
+occurrence of this insect as a parasite in Coleoptera is not common, but I
+know of one instance {63}in which a number of these little flies were
+produced from a pupa of _Uloma tenebrionides_ (Plate II., Figs. 2, 2a, 2b),
+which I was rearing at the time (page 29). In this case it is difficult to
+understand how the female contrives to deposit her eggs in a horny beetle
+larva which lies safely hidden in its narrow tunnel in the middle of a
+large log of wood. Among bees this is a most destructive insect, its larva
+being parasitic in their grubs, and thus greatly reducing the population of
+the hive, which is finally ruined by the wholesale destruction of its honey
+when the flies emerge. Driving the bees into a fresh box would, no doubt,
+be frequently beneficial in these cases, but it is to be feared that
+bee-keepers will have much difficulty in contending with this insect. Its
+sexes are readily distinguished by their size, the female being
+considerably the larger.
+
+
+Family MUSCIDÆ.
+
+_Coelopa littoralis_ (Plate VII., fig. 13).
+
+Extremely abundant on the sea-beach. Its larva feeds on decaying seaweed,
+burying itself in the sand before changing. The perfect insects often
+congregate in such vast numbers on some of the rocks that it is necessary
+to run past them in order to avoid being positively suffocated by the
+countless multitudes which fly up into one's face. This insect must be
+regarded as the New Zealand representative of the well-known dungfly of
+England (_S. stercoraria_), which many of my readers will recollect has a
+similar habit of assembling in great numbers.
+
+
+Family OESTRIDÆ.
+
+_Oestrus perplexus_, n.s. (Plate VII., fig. 12).
+
+This species is mentioned here as it is the only New Zealand exponent of a
+very important and well-known {64}family of Dipterous insects. I am at
+present quite ignorant as to its life-history which would, no doubt, be
+very interesting. The only two specimens I possess were taken at Nelson,
+some four years back, so that it appears to be very rare.
+
+The two remaining groups of the Diptera are of very limited extent. The
+_Pupipara_ include a few anomalous species, in which the young are not
+deposited until they become pupæ, thus undergoing all their transformations
+within the body of the parent, while the _Pulicina_ comprise the well-known
+fleas, which are probably identical with the European species. They are
+placed by many authors in a distinct order termed the _Aphaniptera_.
+
+
+
+
+{65}CHAPTER VI
+
+The Lepidoptera.
+
+This Order includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths which are the
+first insects to arrest attention on account of their beautiful colouring
+and conspicuous appearance. Some of the families are fairly numerous in New
+Zealand, but the diurnal section is decidedly poorly represented, our total
+number of butterflies being limited to fifteen, of which one (_Diadema
+nerina_) has unquestionably been introduced from Australia, although it
+will doubtless shortly effect a permanent settlement in the Nelson
+district, where several specimens have recently been observed. Among the
+others only four species can be called at all common, the remaining twelve
+only occurring in certain favoured localities. Of the moths there are a
+large number, chiefly belonging to the Geometridæ and Micro-Lepidoptera,
+many of which are very interesting. Of the life-histories of the latter,
+however, I regret to say there is little known at present, the attention of
+naturalists having been hitherto chiefly occupied with the larger and more
+conspicuous species.
+
+
+Group RHOPALOCERA.
+
+Family NYMPHALIDÆ.
+
+_Argyrophenga antipodum_ (Plate VIII., fig. 1 type, 1a var.).
+
+Passing over the local but conspicuous _Danais plexippus_, {66}about which
+so much doubt exists as to its origin in this country, we come to _A.
+antipodum_, one of the most curious and interesting butterflies found in
+New Zealand. It occurs in great abundance amongst the tussock grass on the
+plains in the South Island, but becomes an alpine species further north. I
+have taken a very peculiar form (Fig. 1a) on the "Mineral Belt" near
+Nelson, but can find no record of its appearance in the North Island at
+present. Its larva is as yet unknown, but in all probability it feeds on
+tussock grass, a fractured pupa having been found attached to that plant by
+Mr. G. F. Mathew in January, 1884. Two other closely allied species are
+_Erebia pluto_ and _Erebia butleri_, both strictly alpine insects,
+occurring in the South Island at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 6,000
+feet.
+
+
+Family NYMPHALIDÆ.
+
+_Vanessa gonerilla_[15] (Plate VIII., fig. 2, 2a underside, 2b 2c larvæ, 2d
+2e pupæ).
+
+One of our most beautiful butterflies, found abundantly throughout the
+country from August till May. The larva feeds on the New Zealand nettle,
+where it may be taken in great plenty by careful searching. The caterpillar
+joins several of the leaves together and forms a sort of tent, in which it
+lives secure from all enemies. While young, these insects are of a uniform
+dull brown colour, with two faint lines on each side, but as age advances
+they become very variable. The two extreme forms of variation are depicted
+at Figs. 2b and 2c, the dark-coloured variety being by far the commoner.
+When full-grown, this larva suspends itself by the tail to a small patch of
+silk, which it has previously spun on the under side of a leaf. In this
+position it remains for about twenty hours, when it begins to twist and
+distend the lower portions of its body, thus {67}causing the skin to
+eventually break on the back of the thoracic segments, when the soft green
+pupa may be seen through the rent. The insect now works the skin upwards by
+violent wriggling motions until it is gathered in a crumpled mass round its
+tail, the old rent extending on one side almost up to the silken pad to
+which it is suspended. Through this rent the tail of the pupa is brought
+and firmly anchored in the silk by a few vigorous strokes, the insect
+hanging meanwhile to the skin which has not been quite cast off on the
+reverse side to the rent. When thus firmly attached to the silken pad, the
+pupa shakes itself entirely free, whirling itself round and round until the
+old skin is dislodged from the silk and falls to the ground. The two usual
+varieties of pupæ are shown at Figs. 2d and 2e, many of them being more or
+less ornamented with metallic gold or silver spots. The butterfly emerges
+in a fortnight or three weeks, and is common from February till April in
+most situations, but the greatest numbers are to be found in the spring
+months. These hybernated specimens appear as early as August, and some of
+them survive till the end of December or beginning of January, when the
+earliest of the new ones are just emerging. In fact it is not infrequent at
+this time to take both hybernated and recent specimens together. This
+species is a great traveller, and may be often seen flying over the tops of
+the trees at a great rate. It shows a singular indifference to shadow, and
+is constantly flying out of the sunlight into shady places in the forest,
+probably in search of the food-plant of the larvæ. The two other species of
+_Vanessa_ are _V. cardui_, a periodical insect only distinguished from the
+"Painted Lady Butterfly" of England by the blue centres in three of the
+black spots on its hind-wings, and _V. Itea_, a lovely butterfly found in
+the northern portions of this island, of which I have at present only taken
+three specimens.
+
+
+{68}Family LYCÆNIDÆ.
+
+_Chrysophanus salustius_ (Plate VIII., fig. 3 [M], 3a [F], 3b larva).
+
+This is the commonest of our Butterflies, and is found in great abundance
+throughout both islands from November till April. It is double brooded, and
+is consequently most abundant in the early summer and in the autumn, few of
+these merry little insects being seen at midsummer. The most forward
+individuals of the second brood usually emerge about the middle of March,
+but the butterflies are very irregular in their appearance at this season.
+The young larva (Fig. 3b) is much thickened anteriorly, the head being
+concealed from above by the large thoracic segments. Its colour is pale
+green, with a pair of long, erect bristles on each segment, a large number
+of shorter ones being situated on the ventral surface, and behind the head.
+After the second moult, a brilliant crimson dorsal line is noticeable, but
+beyond this I have no record, as my larvæ unfortunately died just after
+completing their third moult. Up to this time they had fed but sparingly on
+the dock, eating minute holes in the leaves and clinging to them with great
+firmness. It is much to be regretted that their subsequent history could
+not be followed, especially as I only succeeded in obtaining the eggs on
+this one occasion, although I frequently kept females in captivity with
+this object. Three other species of _Chrysophanus_ occur in New Zealand,
+viz., _C. feredayi_, common round Nelson, and chiefly distinguished by the
+olive-green under-surface of its hind-wings; _C. enysii_, which is
+occasionally met with amongst forest, and may be at once known by its broad
+black markings and pale yellow colour; and _C. boldenarum_, a little insect
+uniting the "Coppers" with the "Blue Butterflies," and found in great
+abundance in certain river beds and shingly places. The western side of
+Lake {69}Wairarapa is one of the best localities I know of for this curious
+little species.
+
+
+Family LYCÆNIDÆ.
+
+_Lycæna phoebe._
+
+This is the common blue butterfly of New Zealand, which may be observed in
+great numbers along the roadside on a hot summer's day. Its larva must be
+very abundant, but has hitherto escaped attention, owing, probably, to its
+small size. The perfect insect is on the wing from October till May.
+
+
+Group HETEROCERA.
+
+Family SPHINGIDÆ.
+
+This family is represented in New Zealand by the splendid _Sphinx
+convolvuli_, an insect I am at present unacquainted with.
+
+
+Family HEPIALIDÆ.
+
+_Porina signata_ (Plate IX., fig. 2).
+
+Common throughout the summer, when it may be taken in great numbers round
+lighted windows during any mild evening. The larva is as yet unknown, but
+is in all probability subterranean in its habits, and feeds on the roots of
+plants. A large _Hepialus_ larva I once discovered under a stone, whilst
+looking for Coleoptera, was very likely referable to this insect, but as it
+unfortunately died shortly afterwards it is impossible to speak with any
+degree of certainty at present. Two closely allied species are _P.
+umbraculata_, and _P. cervinata_. The former is rather smaller than _P.
+signata_ and of a more uniform brown, with a white stripe in the centre of
+each fore-wing, surrounded with darker colouring. The latter is one of the
+smallest of the family, its size at once distinguishing it {70}from any of
+the rest. In colour it is pale brownish with numerous black and white
+markings, varieties occasionally occurring much suffused with the darker
+colour. It is rather local, but may be found abundantly in the Manawatu
+district.
+
+
+Family HEPIALIDÆ.
+
+_Hepialus virescens_ (Plate IX., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1c larva, 1b pupa).
+
+This gigantic insect is seen occasionally in the forest during the early
+summer. The larva (1c) tunnels the stems of living trees, feeding entirely
+on wood which it bites off with its strong mandibles. The plant most
+usually selected by the caterpillar is _Aristotelia racemosa_, called by
+the settlers "New Zealand currant," from its large clusters of rich-looking
+black berries, which appear in autumn. Other food-plants are numerous, the
+black maire (_Olea apetala_) and manuka (_Leptospermum_) being among those
+more frequently chosen.
+
+This larva, for the most part, inhabits the main stem of the tree, its
+gallery always having an outlet to the air, which is covered with a curtain
+of dull brown silk, spun exactly level with the surrounding bark, and
+consequently very inconspicuous. These burrows usually run down towards the
+ground, and are mostly two or three inches from the surface of the trunk.
+In some instances the larvæ inhabit branches, in which case, if the branch
+is of small dimensions, the tunnel is made near the centre. These remarks
+only refer to galleries constructed by young larvæ, as the tunnel made by
+the insect prior to becoming a pupa is of a very complicated character and
+merits a somewhat detailed description. It consists of a spacious,
+irregular, but shallow cavity, just under the bark, having a large opening
+to the air, which is entirely covered with a thin silken covering, almost
+exactly the same shape and size as {71}the numerous scars which occur at
+intervals on the trunks of nearly all the trees. Three large tunnels open
+into this shallow cavity: one in the centre, which runs right into the
+middle of the stem, and one on each side, which run right and left just
+under the bark. These are usually very short, but sometimes extend half-way
+round the tree, and occasionally even join one another on the opposite
+side. The central tunnel has a slightly upward direction for a short
+distance inwards, which effectually prevents it from becoming flooded with
+water; afterwards it pursues an almost horizontal course until it reaches
+the centre of the tree when it appears to suddenly terminate. This,
+however, is not the case, for, if the gallery floor is carefully examined a
+short distance before its apparent termination, a round trap-door will be
+found, compactly constructed of very hard, smooth silk, and corresponding
+so closely with the surrounding portion of the tunnel that it almost
+escapes detection. When this lid is lifted a long perpendicular shaft is
+disclosed which runs down the middle of the tree to a depth of 14 or 16
+inches, and is about six lines in diameter. At the bottom of this the
+elongated pupa (Fig. 1b) sleeps quietly and securely in an upright
+position, the old larval skin forming a soft support for the terminal
+segment of the pupa to rest on. The upper end of this vertical shaft is
+lined with silk, which forms a framework on which the trap-door rests when
+closed. The lid itself is of a larger size than the orifice which it
+covers, and this makes it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to force
+it from the outside, whilst it fits down so closely to the aperture as not
+to be readily lifted. The object of this most ingenious contrivance is, in
+all probability, to prevent the ingress of insects, large numbers of
+spiders, slugs, and various Orthoptera being frequently found in both
+central and lateral tunnels, but they are quite unable to pass the
+trap-door. The galleries of different individual larvæ are all wonderfully
+{72}alike, the only differences observable being in the length of the
+perpendicular shaft and the direction of the horizontal burrow, which is
+sometimes curved. These variations are usually caused by the presence of
+other tunnels in the tree, which the larva invariably avoids, although how
+it can ascertain that it is approaching another tunnel before actually
+reaching it, is hard to understand. As development progresses in the pupa,
+it becomes darker in colour, especially on the wing-cases, which in some
+individuals show the future black markings of the moth, as early as two
+months before emergence. Others remain quite white and soft, the green
+wings suddenly appearing through their cases a fortnight or three weeks
+prior to the bursting forth of the imago. Previous to this change the pupa
+works its way up the vertical tunnel, lifts the trap-door, which yields to
+the slightest pressure from within, and wriggles along the horizontal
+burrow until it reaches the air, the last three or four segments only
+remaining in the tree. The thoracic shield then ruptures, and the moth
+crawls out and expands its wings in the ordinary way, resting on the trunk
+of the tree until they are of sufficient strength and hardness for flight.
+
+The perfect insect, although it must be common, is very rarely seen. It is
+best reared from the pupæ, which can be often successfully cut out of their
+burrows and kept amongst damp moss until they emerge. It appears to be much
+persecuted by birds, as we often observe its large green wings lying about
+on the ground.[16]
+
+The curious "vegetable caterpillar," which is usually referred to this
+species, probably belongs to one of the larger subterranean larvæ of the
+family.
+
+
+{73}Family BOMBYCIDÆ.
+
+_Nyctemera annulata_ (Plate IX., fig. 3 [M], 3a larva, 3b pupa).
+
+This abundant species is usually mistaken for a butterfly by the
+uninitiated owing to its diurnal habits and conspicuous colouring. Its
+larva feeds on various plants, the most usual being a light green kind of
+ivy with yellow flowers, but its original food no doubt consisted of the
+"New Zealand groundsel" (_Senecio bellidioides_), on which it may now be
+occasionally taken in wild situations. Its general colour is black, with
+interrupted dorsal and lateral lines, the ventral surface and connecting
+membrane between the segments being slate-coloured. In younger larvæ there
+are also several slate-coloured lines extending the whole length of the
+insect, and thus dividing the black into squares. Round the middle of each
+segment, at its greatest circumference, a variable number of brilliant blue
+warts are situated, and out of these dense tufts of long black hair take
+their rise. There are, however, no warts along the ventral surface. This
+description applies very well as a rule, but the larva is subject to many
+slight variations. It remains in this state for nearly three months, or
+more, according to the season, and is very common, numbers being found on
+the different plants which constitute its food. The pupa (Fig. 3b) is of a
+shining black colour, with many longitudinal rows of small yellow blotches
+on the abdominal segments; there is also a stripe of the same colour at the
+tip of the wing-case. It is enclosed in a slight cocoon, formed of a
+mixture of silk and hair, and is attached near the ground to any firm
+object. The moth emerges in the course of a month or six weeks. It is very
+common, being found profusely in the neighbourhood of its food-plants, and
+appears in the greatest numbers during the early morning hours in the
+middle of summer.
+
+{74}For an account of a Dipterous insect, parasitic in the present species,
+I refer to page 59.
+
+
+Family PSYCHIDÆ.
+
+_Oeceticus omnivorus_ (Plate X., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b larva, 1c [M]
+pupa).
+
+This insect is very rarely seen abroad, but can be easily reared from the
+larva, which feeds on manuka and other plants throughout the year. When
+very young, and in fact immediately after leaving the egg, it constructs a
+wide spindle-shaped case, principally composed of silk, with a few small
+fragments of leaves, &c., attached to the outside. It has a large aperture
+in front, through which the head and anterior portion of the larva are
+projected, and a much smaller one at the posterior extremity, which allows
+the pellets of excrement to fall out of the case as they are evacuated. The
+body of the enclosed caterpillar is of a light straw colour, the head and
+three first segments being dark brown, with numerous white markings. The
+abdominal segments are considerably thickened near the middle of the
+insect, rudimentary prolegs being present on the third, fourth, fifth, and
+sixth segments of the abdomen. The anal prolegs are very strong, and are
+furnished with numerous sharp hooklets, which retain the larva very firmly
+in its case. As it grows it increases the length of its domicile from the
+anterior, causing it gradually to assume a more tubular form, tapering
+towards the posterior aperture, which is enlarged from time to time. The
+outside is covered with numerous fragmentary leaves and twigs of various
+sizes, placed longitudinally on the case, and frequently near the anterior
+aperture, the materials, owing to their recent selection, are fresh and
+green. The interior is lined with soft, smooth silk of a light brown
+colour, the thickness of the whole fabric being about the same {75}as that
+of an ordinary kid glove, and so strong that it is impossible to tear it,
+or indeed to cut it, except with sharp instruments. The size of the case
+when the caterpillar is mature varies considerably, ranging from 25 to 30
+lines or more in length, and about three in diameter, the widest portion
+being a little behind the anterior aperture (see Fig. 1b).
+
+During the day the larva closes the entrance and spins a loop of very
+strong silk over a twig, the ends being joined to the upper edges of the
+case on each side; in this way it hangs suspended, the caterpillar lying
+snugly within. I have often known a larva to remain thus for over three
+weeks without moving, and afterwards resume feeding as before; this
+probably occurs while the inmate is engaged in changing its skin. At night
+the larvæ may be seen busily engaged: they project the head and first four
+segments of the body beyond the case, and walk about with considerable
+rapidity, often lowering themselves by means of silken threads; the only
+locomotive organs are, of course, their strong thoracic legs, which appear
+to easily fulfil their double function of moving both larva and case. If
+disturbed, these insects at once retreat into their cases closing the
+anterior aperture with a silken cord which is kept in readiness for the
+purpose, and pulled from the inside by the retreating larva. This operation
+is most rapidly performed, as the upper edges of the case are flexible, and
+thus fold closely together, completely obstructing the entrance. When full
+fed, this caterpillar fastens its case to a branch with a loop of strong
+silk, which is drawn very tight, preventing the case from swinging when the
+plant is moved by the wind, and also rendering the insect's habitation more
+inconspicuous, by causing it to resemble a broken twig. The anterior
+aperture is completely closed, the loose edges being drawn together and
+fastened like a bag. The posterior end of the case is {76}twisted up for
+some little distance above the extremity, thus completely closing the
+opening there situated. It is lined inside with a layer of very soft silk,
+spun loosely over the sides, and partly filling up each end. In the centre
+of this the pupa lies with its head towards the lower portion of the case,
+the old larval skin being thrust backwards amongst the loose silk above the
+chrysalis. In this stage of existence the extraordinary sexual disparities,
+which are so characteristic of the family, manifest themselves, the male
+and female pupæ being very widely different in all respects. The former is
+figured at 1c, the female pupa differing from it in the following
+particulars. It is much larger and more cylindrical in shape, the abdomen
+occupying nearly the whole of the body, and consisting of nine visible
+segments, the terminal one being obtusely conical. The head and thorax are
+very rudimentary, more resembling those of the larva than the male, all the
+appendages being, however, reduced to hardly visible warts. In colour it is
+pitchy black and shining, and its length is about ten lines. This insect
+remains in the pupa state during the winter months, viz., from May till
+September. When about to emerge, the male chrysalis works its way down to
+the lower end of the case, forces open the old aperture there, and projects
+the head, thorax, and upper portion of the abdomen, the pupa being secured
+from falling by the spines on its posterior segments, which retain a firm
+hold in the silk. Its anterior portion then ruptures, and the moth makes
+its escape, clinging to the outside of its old habitation, and drying its
+wings. It is probable that the female insect does not leave her case,
+communication with the male being no doubt effected through one of the
+orifices, and the eggs afterwards deposited inside. On one occasion I found
+a case full of eggs, containing the shrivelled body of the female and her
+old pupa shell, which would seem to confirm the above opinion. The perfect
+insects are drawn at {77}Figs. 1 and 1a. The male (1) is extremely active,
+dashing about the breeding cage with great rapidity when first emerged, and
+rapidly beating his wings to tatters; but the female (1a) closely resembles
+a large maggot, all the appendages being completely rudimentary, except the
+two-jointed ovipositor at the end of her body; she is incapable of any
+motion, except a slight twirling of the abdomen, which takes place while
+the eggs are being laid.[17]
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Leucania nullifera_ (Plate XIII., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+This large, though dull-looking insect, is occasionally taken at light
+during the summer and autumn months.
+
+The larva feeds on the spear-grass (_Aciphylla squarrosa_), an abundant
+plant on the coast hills near Wellington. It devours the soft
+central-growing point, and its presence in a tussock can be at once seen by
+a quantity of pale-brown "frass," visible at the bases of the leaves. The
+formidable spear-like points with which this plant is armed must afford the
+caterpillar considerable protection from enemies. As a rule a single
+specimen only is found in each clump of the grass, so that the female
+probably deposits her eggs singly. This larva is full-grown about August,
+and may be found feeding in the plants during the autumn and winter.
+
+The pupa state is spent, in an earthen chamber, amongst the roots of the
+spear-grass, and the moth emerges during the summer.
+
+This species occurs at considerable elevations. I have seen it as high as
+4,000 feet in the Nelson province, where its food-plant may also be found.
+
+
+{78}Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Leucania atristriga_ (Plate X., fig. 2).
+
+Abundant among various blossoms during the latter end of summer, being one
+of the last of the Noctuæ to disappear in the autumn.
+
+The larva probably feeds on grasses, but I have not yet met with it.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 2) is taken from the male insect, the female
+differing only in having her abdomen rounded at the tip, a sexual
+distinction which holds good throughout the family.
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Erana graminosa_ (Plate X., fig. 5, 5a larva).
+
+This beautiful insect occurs commonly on the white rata blossoms
+(_Metrosideros scandens_) round Wellington during March and April, at which
+time it may be readily taken just after dark with a lantern and
+killing-bottle. The larva (Fig. 5a) feeds on the mahoe (_Melicytus
+ramiflorus_) in the spring and autumn. It remains concealed in crevices in
+the bark during the day, not infrequently selecting the deserted burrows of
+wood-boring beetles as a secure retreat from its enemies. When full grown
+it is olive-green, the colour being lighter on the ventral surface and
+between the segments. A row of ill-defined, feathery, black markings
+extends down the back and sides and there are also two tolerably
+conspicuous ochreish spots on every segment except the last. The head,
+legs, and prolegs are reddish-yellow, and the whole insect is more or less
+spotted with black. Younger larvæ differ in being of a light
+yellowish-green, with very pale yellow dorsal and lateral lines. A row of
+black warts, emitting a few bristles, extend round each of the segments,
+while the head is pale ochreous with a few black dots.
+
+When full-grown this larva descends to the ground, and {79}forms a slight
+cocoon in the earth round the roots of the tree, where it is transformed
+into a very stout, ruddy-brown-coloured pupa, somewhat paler on the
+wing-cases. The moth emerges in two or three months' time. Its colouring
+renders it so inconspicuous amongst moss that I have frequently lifted a
+handful of the latter out of the breeding cage, and only discovered that
+the insects had emerged by their falling from the moss on to the table. A
+very noticeable peculiarity in this species is the presence of a fringe of
+long hairs in a fold on the anterior margin of the fore-wing. This organ
+emits a fragrant perfume, and is confined to the male sex (Fig. 5). Only
+one or two other instances of this kind are at present known among the New
+Zealand moths.
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Mamestra mutans_ (Plate X., fig. 7, 7a larva, 7b pupa).
+
+This extremely abundant species occurs almost without intermission during
+the whole of the year. The sluggish larva (7a) feeds on plantain, and is
+best obtained by overturning logs and stones, when it may be discovered
+among the grass and other plants growing round their edge. Its head is pale
+green, with two broad black stripes, and is clothed with numerous short
+bristles; the four succeeding segments are of a ruddy-brown colour,
+considerably wrinkled, the remainder being light green, suffused with a
+dull, pinkish hue towards the dorsal surface. The markings consist of a
+triangular black spot on each side of the second to eighth abdominal
+segments, and a cloudy lateral line of the same colour; the legs and
+prolegs being pale green, and the whole insect more or less marbled with
+black. This description and the figure on Plate X. exhibit the usual
+peculiarities of the larva, but in some individuals the markings there
+indicated are quite obsolete, and the {80}insect is of an almost uniform
+pale-green colour. When mature, this caterpillar sometimes constructs a
+slight cocoon amongst moss, on fallen trees, but more often buries itself
+in the usual manner, the moth appearing in a few weeks' time. Nearly all
+pupæ collected at random in New Zealand will be found to give rise to
+either this species or the one which immediately follows (_Mamestra
+composita_). The perfect insect is most abundant in the spring and early
+summer, but may be found fluttering round lamps on any mild night
+throughout the year. The sexes differ considerably: the female is greyish
+white, with faint brown markings, while the male is dull reddish-brown,
+with the markings considerably darker (Fig. 7). His antennæ are also
+slightly pectinated, those of the female being quite simple.
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Mamestra composita_ (Plate X., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+Very common during the spring and autumn in all open situations.
+
+Its pretty larva (Fig. 3a) feeds on various grasses, and threatens in time
+to do considerable damage to pastures. The head and dorsal surface of the
+first segment are dark shining green, with one or two obscure white
+markings; the rest of the body is ornamented with a number of parallel
+brown, white, and orange lines, which render the larva very inconspicuous
+when amongst the grass. Sometimes it occurs in great numbers, nearly every
+blade of grass having its caterpillar; in fact this was almost the case in
+the Wairarapa valley in the summer of 1886, when the larvæ must have
+produced a marked effect on the paddocks. When full-grown this caterpillar
+changes into a light chestnut-brown pupa, which lies on the surface of the
+ground amongst the vegetable refuse. The perfect insect appears in about a
+month's time, and if the evening be mild {81}may be seen flying with great
+rapidity at dusk; it may also be readily captured at light. The figure (3)
+represents the male insect, the female differing only in her simple
+antennæ.
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Mamestra ustistriga_ (Plate X., fig. 6 [M]).
+
+This handsome insect is rather uncertain in its appearance, but is
+occasionally taken quite unexpectedly at rest on tree-trunks or palings in
+the daytime. Specimens may also be captured while feeding on the white rata
+blossoms early in March, where they occasionally occur among the hosts of
+other Noctuæ. The larva, which feeds on the honeysuckle, is of a pale brown
+colour, with two obscure darker lines on each side, the under-surface being
+light slate-colour. The pupa state is spent in the ground, and many fine
+specimens may be reared from chrysalids picked up while gardening, &c. The
+sexes of this insect differ considerably in colour: the male is of a
+pinkish grey with black markings, while the female is of a uniform pale
+grey, and considerably smaller.
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Heliothis armigera_ (Plate X., fig. 4, 4a larva).
+
+This conspicuous insect occurs in great abundance during certain seasons,
+but is very irregular in its appearance, it frequently happening that only
+two or three specimens are noticed in a whole year. It is generally seen
+flying in the daytime, when it delights to suck honey from the flowers of
+the Scotch thistle, a plant which much overruns the forest lands when first
+cleared. The larva (Fig. 4a) is a very handsome caterpillar, of a dark
+brownish black colour, ornamented with yellow subdorsal and lateral lines
+and numerous streaks and dots of the same hue. The ventral surface is a
+rich yellowish brown, and the subventral line {82}white, the spiracles
+being white with black rings; a reddish blotch also adorns each of the
+three thoracic segments. It feeds voraciously on geraniums, tomatoes, peas,
+and many other garden plants, where it often commits the most serious
+ravages. About the end of April it is full-grown, when it descends to the
+ground and buries itself two or three inches below the surface. In this
+situation it is shortly transformed into a pupa, remaining in that state
+until the following summer, when the moth appears. The sexes of this insect
+differ considerably, the male having the fore-wings of a ruddy-brown
+colour, sometimes inclining to orange, while in the female they are pale
+ochreish; both sexes are, however, subject to considerable variation, and
+the figure (4) is taken from a rather dark male specimen.
+
+
+Family NOCTUIDÆ.
+
+_Plusia eriosoma_ (Plate X., fig. 8, 8a larva).
+
+An abundant species round Nelson, where almost any number may be taken
+hovering over flowers on a still summer's evening. In Wellington it occurs
+occasionally. The larva (Fig. 8a) is a pseudo-geometer, having twelve legs,
+and thus showing a strong affinity with the next family. In colour it is
+pale green, darker on the dorsal surface than elsewhere. A white line runs
+down each side, and the whole insect is covered with black dots and
+bristles. The colouring of different individuals varies in intensity, and a
+fainter white line, above the usual one, exists in some specimens. It feeds
+on beans, geraniums, and many other imported plants, and is doing much good
+in the Nelson gardens by the havoc which it is committing among the Scotch
+thistles--weeds equally injurious to the agriculturalist and the gardener,
+not only crowding out useful plants, but rapidly exhausting the soil in
+which they grow. Formerly this insect must have fed exclusively on the New
+Zealand {83}nightshade (_Solanum aviculare_), on which plant it may still
+be occasionally found in the forest, where no imported species are
+available, but, like many other caterpillars in this country, it is
+forsaking the native vegetation for the European. When full-grown, this
+larva spins a slight cocoon of white silk, which is generally placed
+between two leaves. The pupa is of a shiny black colour, the membrane
+between the segments being reddish-brown. The moth emerges in about three
+weeks' time. The figure (8) is taken from a female insect, the male being
+readily distinguishable by two large tufts of hair situated at the end of
+his body and often very conspicuous. In some cases the wings of the female
+are considerably lighter than in the illustration, but otherwise the
+species does not seem to vary. It is the New Zealand representative of the
+English "Silver Y Moth" (_P. gamma_), no doubt familiar to many of my
+readers.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Declana floccosa_ (Plate XI., fig. 1, 1a larva).
+
+I have started the Geometridæ with _Declana_ because it exhibits a great
+many more points in common with the Noctuidæ than does the genus
+_Acidalia_, which latter is placed at the head of the Geometridæ by some
+modern Lepidopterists, chiefly, I believe, on account of neuration, a
+character which if taken alone cannot but produce the most unnatural
+divisions. The present insect is one of the commonest of the genus, and may
+often be observed throughout the whole summer resting on the sheltered
+sides of trees and fences, occasional stragglers being met with as late as
+the end of May. Its larva is a pseudo-geometer possessing twelve legs (Fig.
+1a), and thus almost exactly resembling the caterpillars of the genus
+_Catocala_, belonging to the Noctuidæ; the curious filaments on each side
+of the insect making this likeness still more complete. It feeds {84}on the
+"New Zealand currant" (_A. racemosa_), from which, individuals can be
+occasionally beaten during the spring and early summer. They are almost
+impossible to find by searching in the ordinary way, from a habit they
+possess of clinging firmly to the twigs, which they exactly imitate in
+colour. When full-grown this caterpillar constructs a small cocoon just
+below the ground, where it is transformed into a robust-looking pupa, from
+which the moth emerges in a month or six weeks' time. The sexes of this
+species may be readily distinguished, the male (Fig. 1) having the antennæ
+slightly pectinated, while those of the female are quite simple, and her
+body much more robust. The moth drawn at Fig. 1b has been reared from larvæ
+exactly resembling those of the present insect, of which it is consequently
+now known to be only an extreme variety. It was formerly ranked as a
+distinct species under the name of _Declana junctilinea_.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Chalastra pelurgata_ (Plate XI., fig. 2 [M], 2a [F], 2b larva).
+
+This delicate species may be taken flying about the forest at night, from
+October till March, but is most abundant on the white rata blossoms during
+the latter end of summer.
+
+Its caterpillar feeds sparingly on a delicate fern (_Todea
+hymenophyllioides_) which grows in dark glades in the forest, where the sun
+seldom or never shines. In colour it is generally dull brown, with a row of
+green or pale brown lunate spots on each side; on the ventral surface the
+colour is darker, except on the thorax, where it is green, the legs being
+also green. There are in addition numerous fine, wavy lines down the back
+and sides of the larva, and the dorsal surface of the thoracic segments and
+ventral prolegs are bright reddish brown (Fig. 2b). These larvæ are,
+however, very variable; in many the "lunate" stripes are much longer,
+having a diagonal direction, and {85}thus extending up the sides of the
+insect towards its dorsal surface, while others have the ventral surface
+dark green, and additional markings of more or less importance.
+
+When full-grown it spins a loose cocoon of earth and dead leaves, from
+which the perfect insect emerges in a month or six weeks' time. The sexes
+are widely different, both being figured on the Plate (Fig. 2 [M], 2a [F]).
+I have noticed that at least four females occur to every male, which is a
+very unusual arrangement, the males being generally much the commoner among
+the Lepidoptera.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Ploseria hemipteraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+A curious moth, occurring in some numbers at various blossoms during the
+summer evenings, but rather uncertain in its appearance. The larva (Fig.
+3a) feeds at night on veronica, where it may be often found with a lantern,
+devouring the flowers and leaves. In colour it is light green with two
+yellow lines on each side, the dorsal surface being considerably darker,
+and almost blue. Specimens are not infrequently met with of a uniform dark
+brown, and the two conspicuous lateral lines are then reduced to a single
+obscure ochreous band. These caterpillars are very inconspicuous during the
+daytime, as they remain quite motionless for hours together, sticking
+straight out from the stems of their food-plant, which they closely
+resemble. The pupa is unusually robust, and possesses a sharp spine at its
+extremity. In colour it is pale olive brown, with a pinkish line on each
+side of the abdomen, the wing-cases being more or less suffused with pink.
+It is not enclosed in any cocoon, but may be found amongst the dead leaves
+round the stems of the veronica. The perfect insect appears in about three
+weeks' time. It is liable to be passed over for a faded leaf, the general
+outline and colouring of the wings rendering the {86}insect very
+inconspicuous, especially amongst foliage. The specimens I have reared all
+closely resemble Fig. 3, so that this insect does not appear at all prone
+to vary.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Ploseria alectoraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 4; Plate XIII., fig. 7 larva).
+
+One of our most variable moths, occurring occasionally amongst foliage
+during the summer, but most abundant on the white rata blossoms in February
+and March.
+
+The larva feeds on _Pittosporum eugenioides_, where it may be sometimes
+found in October and November. It has a most wonderful resemblance to the
+buds of the plant, and can only be dislodged by vigorous beating. It is
+easily reared in captivity--in fact the female moths may often be induced
+to lay their eggs and the insect observed through all its stages.
+
+The eggs are very flat, oval, and light green in colour, becoming brown at
+one end about five days before hatching.
+
+The young larva is pale green with a dull yellowish head. It has no
+markings until after the first moult when a reddish dorsal line appears. As
+age advances the larva becomes darker in colour and is ornamented with a
+series of diagonal yellow stripes. The spiracles and antennæ are pink and
+very conspicuous. The legs and prolegs are very small, and the latter are
+bright red in colour; a fleshy process which projects from the last segment
+of the larva is similarly coloured. The whole insect is also speckled with
+yellow. When full-grown this caterpillar is very robust and measures about
+ten lines in length. The pupa is enclosed in a light cocoon formed of three
+or four leaves fastened together with silk. It is greenish brown in colour.
+
+The perfect insect first appears in December. It may be observed during the
+whole of the autumn and occasionally in the winter. As the larvæ grow very
+slowly I am {87}inclined to think that the females hibernate and lay their
+eggs early in the spring (Fig. 4).
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Sestra humeraria_ (Plate XI., fig. 5, 5a larva).
+
+This abundant species occurs in large numbers round Wellington, amongst
+brushwood, whence it may be often dislodged during the daytime, but is most
+readily procurable in the evening. The larva (Fig. 5a), feeds on _Pteris
+incisa_, a pale green fern, growing in many open spots in the forest to a
+height of three or four feet. Its general colour is dull brownish yellow,
+slightly darker on the back, and ornamented with a number of wavy yellow
+lines on each side. The ventral surface and legs are green and the head is
+dark brown; the whole insect being covered with numerous black dots and
+bristles. When disturbed these larvæ immediately drop to the ground, and
+coiling themselves up like small snakes, become very inconspicuous.
+
+The pupa is buried in the earth about two inches below the surface, the
+insect remaining in this state during the winter months. The moths
+generally emerge about October. So far as my experience goes they are not
+subject to any notable variations. The specimen drawn at Fig. 6 is regarded
+as a variety of this species by Mr. Meyrick, but I myself believe it to be
+quite distinct, as among over a dozen _humeraria_ larvæ reared in
+captivity, none of the imagines had the slightest resemblance to Fig. 6,
+although the caterpillars were all taken within a few yards of the place
+where such moths occurred.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Selidosema dejectaria_ (Plate XI., fig. 8 [M], 8a [F], 8b larva).
+
+An abundant and conspicuous species, occurring throughout the summer, often
+noticed at rest on fences and trees {88}during the day and always taken in
+great numbers on various blossoms in the evening.
+
+The caterpillar is extremely variable, the colouring of different
+individuals being apparently much influenced by their surroundings; those
+specimens, for instance, taken from the pale green foliage of the mahoe
+(_M. ramiflorus_) resemble in colour the twigs of that plant, while others
+captured feeding on the white rata (_Metrosideros scandens_) are dark
+reddish brown. Fig. 8b is drawn from a larva found on the fuchsia, which,
+when in its favourite position, viz., sticking straight out from the side
+of a branch, is so much like one of the sprouting twigs that it absolutely
+defies detection. When full-grown this insect buries itself about two
+inches in the earth, where it shortly becomes a dark chestnut-brown pupa,
+lighter between the segments. The time required for the development of the
+perfect insect depends upon the season, larvæ which undergo their
+transformations in the spring developing much more rapidly than those that
+feed up in the autumn.[18]
+
+This insect is extremely variable, having been formerly divided into
+several distinct species; the two most usual forms are those shown at Figs.
+8 and 8a, but every intermediate variety exists. The sexes are
+distinguished by the usual differences in the antennæ. My experience leads
+me to believe that the light varieties occur more frequently in the female
+than in the male sex, and also that the dark larvæ give rise to dark moths,
+and _vice versâ_, although a great many more specimens will have to be
+reared before these can be regarded as established facts.
+
+
+{89}Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Selidosema panagrata_ (Plate XI., fig. 7 [M], 7a [F], 7b larva).
+
+One of our commonest moths, occurring in great numbers in the forest
+throughout the whole summer.
+
+The larvæ (Fig. 7b) are extremely variable, the most usual colouring being
+that of the individual figured, but when very young they are all of a
+uniform green with a conspicuous white dorsal line; as age advances the
+caterpillars become dark olive brown of varying degrees of intensity in
+different specimens, some retaining a considerable amount of their original
+green colouring, especially those feeding on the kawakawa (_Piper
+excelsum_), whose hue consequently harmonizes with that of the plant. These
+larvæ often select a forked twig to rest in, where they lie curled round
+with the head and tail close together. They are very voracious, and are the
+primary cause of the riddled appearance which the leaves of the kawakawa
+almost invariably present. Other food-plants are the "currant" (_A.
+racemosa_), and the _Myrtus bullata_; those taken from the latter have a
+strong pinkish tint, and are consequently very inconspicuous amongst the
+young shoots where they generally feed. The burrows of _Hepialus virescens_
+are frequently utilized by the larvæ which feed on the "currant," as
+convenient retreats during the winter, a large number being often found in
+a single hole. When full-grown they descend to the ground and construct, on
+the under-side of fallen leaves, loose cocoons of silk and earth from which
+the perfect insects emerge in about a month's time. The autumnal larvæ,
+however, either hibernate or remain in the pupa state throughout the
+winter. This moth is even more variable than the last species (_S.
+dejectaria_), which it occasionally somewhat resembles. The sexes are very
+different, the colouring of the male consisting of various {90}shades of
+warm brown (Fig. 7), while in the female the prevailing hue is slaty brown
+or even grey (Fig. 7a). Many specimens are much suffused with ochre and
+reddish-brown, while the stigma near the centre of the fore-wing, although
+sometimes almost obsolete, is often very conspicuous and black, white, or
+even yellow in colour. It would be of great interest to learn, by rearing a
+large number of these insects, whether the many varieties existing in the
+larval and perfect states could be traced to differences in food-plant, or
+some other external circumstance.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Selidosema productata_ (Plate XII., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b larva).
+
+Abundant in the forest, where it may be dislodged from ferns and
+undergrowth during the day or captured flying about in the evening. Its
+larva is rather attenuated, and possesses a large hump on the second
+abdominal segment. In colour it is dark reddish brown, mottled with creamy
+white and pale green, and is sparsely supplied with a few isolated hairs
+(Fig. 1b). It feeds on the white rata (_Metrosideros scandens_), and when
+in its usual position--_i.e._, sticking straight out from a
+branch--absolutely defies detection. Specimens, however, may be readily
+procured with a lantern at night, when they may be found walking about and
+eating. The pupa state is spent in the earth, about two inches below the
+surface, the moth appearing in three or four weeks' time, this period,
+however, being extended in the case of autumnal larvæ, to as many months.
+It is extremely variable, scarcely two individuals being found exactly
+alike. The colouring, as in the caterpillar, is chiefly protective,
+consisting of a delicate tracery of browns and greys, which render the
+insect quite invisible when resting on the trunk of a tree, with its pale
+yellowish hind-wings concealed, a position it invariably assumes {91}during
+the daytime (Fig. 1 male, 1a female). The curious and interesting
+"_Tatosomas_," with their enormously elongated bodies, are closely allied
+to the present insect; one of them (_Tatosoma agrionata_) being found in
+similar situations, although in much more limited numbers; as, however, I
+know nothing of their transformations, I am forced reluctantly to pass them
+by.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Hydriomena deltoidata_ (Plate XIII., fig. 1, 1a larva).
+
+One of our commonest moths, appearing in great numbers during January and
+February, in all open situations. It is especially abundant on the
+fern-hills.
+
+The larva (Fig. 1a) feeds on the plantain. It is very sluggish, and lives
+all through the winter, becoming full-grown in September, when it changes
+into a pupa, among the roots of its food-plant. In colour it is a uniform
+dark brown.
+
+The moth is extremely variable, but the figure may be taken as representing
+a fairly typical specimen. It is a pretty insect, and may be often seen
+resting on fences with its fore-wings folded backwards and forming together
+a triangle, whence its name of _deltoidata_. Any unusual-looking specimens
+of this species should always be netted, in order to form a thoroughly
+representative series, as many of the varieties are very interesting. A
+rather uncommon and remarkable-looking form occasionally occurs, in which
+the dark central band of the fore-wings is completely divided near the
+middle.
+
+
+Family GEOMETRIDÆ.
+
+_Asthena schistaria_ (Plate XII., fig. 2, 2a larva).
+
+This delicate little insect may be often taken at rest on fences and
+tree-trunks during the day, and is a {92}conspicuous moth when flying in
+the evening, owing to its light colour. The larva (Fig. 2a), which feeds on
+the manuka (_Leptospermum ericoides_), is very ornamental. Its general
+colour is light green, with black dorsal and lateral stripes, and a series
+of diagonal markings bordered with crimson; the legs and prolegs are also
+crimson, and the segments are divided by brilliant yellow rings, a white
+line extending down each side of the larva. It is difficult to find, as it
+remains closely concealed amongst the dense manuka foliage, from which it
+can only be dislodged by vigorous and continued beating. The caterpillars
+allow themselves to fall a short distance, hanging suspended by a silken
+thread, which they rapidly ascend when the danger is passed. The pupa is
+rather attenuated, dark-brown, and much pointed at its posterior extremity.
+It is found buried about an inch in the earth, and the moth appears in a
+month's time. This insect varies much in intensity of markings. The males
+are generally considerably darker than the females, but are more certainly
+distinguished by their attenuated bodies.
+
+The pearly white _Asthena pulchraria_ occurs in October and April; it is a
+most beautiful insect, and may be found amongst the foliage of the kawakawa
+(_P. excelsum_), on which its larva will probably be found to feed.
+
+
+Family PYRALIDÆ.
+
+_Scoparia hemiplaca_ (Plate XII., fig. 4).
+
+This pretty little moth was reared from a larva found feeding amongst moss
+during the winter of 1885, but unfortunately I neglected to make a drawing
+until it was too late. Doubtless many of the other Pyrales we meet with in
+the New Zealand forest have similar habits, their larvæ probably feeding on
+different kinds of mosses. These can always be examined during the winter
+months, {93}when the entomologist is usually in want of work, and thus much
+information may be obtained regarding this interesting but little-known
+family.
+
+
+Family PYRALIDÆ.
+
+_Scoparia sabulosella_ (Plate XIII., fig. 4, 4a larva).
+
+This is that extremely abundant, though dull-coloured little insect, that
+rises in such multitudes from every field before one's footsteps during the
+early summer.
+
+Its larva (Fig. 4a) feeds on various mosses, forming numerous silken
+galleries amongst the roots in which it resides. These caterpillars are
+very active, and consequently rather difficult to obtain, as they move
+either backwards or forwards in their galleries with equal rapidity.
+
+They feed during the whole of the autumn and winter, changing into pupæ
+about September, from which the moths emerge in a month or six weeks' time.
+
+The habits of the numerous other species belonging to this genus and the
+closely allied genus _Xeroscopa_ (Meyr) probably do not materially differ
+from those of the species here described.
+
+
+Family PYRALIDÆ.
+
+_Crambus flexuosellus_ (Plate XII., fig. 5).
+
+An extremely abundant insect, occurring in swarms over meadows during the
+summer, where it may be captured in the daytime or taken by hundreds at the
+attracting lamp in the evening. Its larva is at present unknown, but
+probably feeds on the roots of grasses.
+
+Closely allied is _Crambus tahulalis_, found in similar situations, but
+appearing rather later in the season, the earliest specimens being met with
+about January, while _C. flexuosellus_ is on the wing throughout the
+summer.
+
+
+{94}Family PYRALIDÆ.
+
+_Siculodes subfasciata_ (Plate XII., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa).
+
+This curious insect may be occasionally taken flying round patches of
+_Muhlenbeckia adpressa_, which grows freely amongst brushwood in many parts
+of the country.
+
+Its larva (Fig. 3a), is very stout and sluggish, resembling the caterpillar
+of an ordinary Pyrale in general appearance. It feeds in the stems of the
+creeper, causing large swellings therein, which readily betray its
+presence, and should therefore be cut off and kept until the moth emerges,
+as specimens obtained in this way are far superior to any captured in the
+open. The pupa is dark brown, and shining; it lies in the centre of one of
+the swellings, the larva having previously prepared a safe outlet for the
+moth in the form of a small burrow leading to the air, its extreme end
+remaining closed by a thin pellicle of the original bark, which effectually
+prevents the inmate's resting-place being discovered from the exterior (see
+Fig. 3b, the small circle marked * represents the outlet).
+
+The perfect insect appears about December, flying rapidly in the hottest
+sunshine. It varies greatly, both in size and colour, some of the small
+males being very much suffused with dark brown, while the females usually
+resemble the figure (3), and are often more than twice the size of their
+mates. This insect is generally placed in a family called the _Siculidæ_,
+but I think without sufficient reason, and have therefore located it among
+the Pyralidæ, with which it has unquestionably a great affinity.
+
+
+Family TORTRICIDÆ.
+
+_Isonomeutis amauropa_ (Plate XIII., fig. 2, 2a larva).
+
+This odd little moth may be occasionally seen basking in openings in the
+forest, and usually flies away {95}with lightning speed when an attempt is
+made to capture it.
+
+The larva lives under the scaly bark of the matai-tree, feeding on the
+soft, juicy inner bark and sap. In colour it is light yellowish white,
+darker on the back, some specimens becoming quite pink on the dorsal
+surface. When full-grown it encloses itself in a tough silken cocoon,
+covered on the outside with fragments of wood, from which the moth emerges
+in about a fortnight's time.
+
+The sexes differ considerably in appearance, the male having much broader
+wings, and darker in colour than those in the female from which the
+illustration (Fig. 2) is taken.
+
+This insect is probably single-brooded, as the larva may be found feeding
+in the trees during the whole of the winter.
+
+
+Family TORTRICIDÆ.
+
+_Cacoecia excessana_ (Plate XIII., fig. 5, 5a larva).
+
+This is the commonest species of _Tortricidæ_ in New Zealand, and may be
+found almost without interruption during the whole of the year.
+
+The larva (Fig. 5a) feeds on a great variety of plants, the common manuka
+being probably the most usual food for the species when in a state of
+nature. It now, however, eats numerous European plants, including
+honeysuckle and occasionally the fruit of the apple, but further evidence
+is required on the latter subject before we can really consider it as
+actually injurious in that direction.
+
+In colour this caterpillar is light green with a yellow line on each side,
+but varies considerably; it feeds between several rolled-up leaves, in
+which it is afterwards converted into a pupa whence the moth emerges in
+about three weeks' time.
+
+The perfect insect is also excessively variable and is often more or less
+suffused with yellow. It is most abundant in {96}the middle of summer, and
+may be taken at light, or in the daytime at rest on fences and trees.
+
+
+Family TORTRICIDÆ.
+
+_Ctenopseustis obliquana_ (Plate XII., fig. 6).
+
+This little moth is occasionally noticed at rest on garden fences during
+the autumn. Its larva inhabits the interior of the peach, feeding on the
+kernel, which appears to exactly meet its requirements, the caterpillar
+being full-grown as soon as it has completely devoured the nut. Before
+assuming the pupa state this insect provides a ready means of escape for
+the future moth by drilling a small hole through the hard shell and pulp of
+the peach to the air; it also spins a slight cocoon inside the stone, the
+pupa resting in the place formerly occupied by the kernel, in which
+position it is often discovered. The only noticeable mischief produced by
+this insect is delay in the ripening of the fruit. In fact all the infected
+specimens which I have seen were quite hard and green, whilst other fruit
+from the same tree had reached complete perfection.
+
+
+Family TINEIDÆ.
+
+_Endrosis fenestrella_ (Plate XII., fig. 7, 7a larva, 7b pupa).
+
+This common species may be observed in almost any house in New Zealand, and
+is often mistaken for the dreaded "clothes moth" (_Tinea tapezella_), which
+it somewhat resembles in general appearance. Its larva (Fig. 7a) is very
+destructive, feeding on dried peas, amongst which it creates great havoc,
+drilling numerous holes through them and spinning a large number together,
+in the centre of which the caterpillar undergoes its change into a pupa
+(Fig. 7b), from which the moth emerges in about a fortnight's time. This
+insect should be destroyed whenever seen, as there is no doubt that much
+loss will be caused by its ravages in the future. It also infests
+bee-hives.
+
+
+{97}Family TINEIDÆ.
+
+_Oecophora scholæa_ (Plate XIII., fig. 6, 6a larva).
+
+This dull-coloured insect is extremely abundant during the early summer.
+
+The larva feeds on the roots of various plants, forming numerous white
+silken galleries in the earth where it resides. In colour it is dark
+chocolate-brown with a yellowish head and white markings. It is very large,
+considering the size of the future moth, full-grown specimens often
+measuring as much as 10½ lines in length. About the end of September these
+caterpillars are transformed into pupæ, and the moths emerge in a month or
+six weeks' time.
+
+The perfect insect may be often disturbed amongst brushwood. It is very
+sluggish on the wing and usually drops to the ground, where it is very
+inconspicuous. It also has a habit of running into any crevice immediately
+on the approach of an enemy. This peculiarity is shared by the other
+members of the genus _Oecophora_, of which there are large numbers in New
+Zealand.
+
+
+Family TINEIDÆ.
+
+_Semiocosma platyptera_ (Plate XII., fig. 8, 8a larva, 8b pupa).
+
+This is one of the largest of the _Tineidæ_ found in New Zealand, measuring
+fully fifteen lines across the expanded wings. Its larva (Fig. 8a) is
+abundant under the bark of dead henau trees (_Eleocarpus dentatus_),
+feeding on the soft inner surface, but leaving the hard wood untouched. In
+colour it is pale yellow, the head and prothorax are dark brown and
+corneous, and the remaining segments are provided with two horny warts,
+from which numerous hairs arise; its legs are all very small, and the
+caterpillar is considerably attenuated posteriorly; it is very active,
+wriggling about with great violence when disturbed.
+
+{98}The pupa (Fig. 8b) is enclosed in a compact cocoon, constructed of
+minute fragments of wood, firmly woven together with silk, and attached to
+the inner surface of the bark, where it may be soon found by careful
+searching, and the finest specimens may thus be easily reared in captivity.
+
+The perfect insect appears about November, and may be often observed at
+rest on the trunks of trees; its pale hind-wings are completely concealed
+by the dark upper pair, which render its discovery very difficult. The
+sexes may be at once distinguished by their size, the males being much
+smaller than the female (Fig. 8) and usually lighter in colour.
+
+
+
+
+{99}CHAPTER VII
+
+The Neuroptera.
+
+The Order Neuroptera, as here considered, is a very limited one, consisting
+only of the seven small families, which comprise the Lace-wings, Ant-lions,
+Caddis-flies, and a few others. It forms a most convenient passage from the
+insects undergoing a complete metamorphosis with a quiescent pupa, to those
+which are active during the whole of their life, as the larvæ are widely
+different from the adults, but the pupæ, although incapable of walking or
+eating, approximate very closely in structure to the perfect insects. I
+regret that my observations have been at present restricted to three
+families only, _i.e._, the _Hemerobiidæ_, _Sialidæ_, and _Phryganidæ_,
+which will consequently have to represent the entire series. I understand,
+however, from Mr. A. S. Atkinson, that a species of _Myrmeleontidæ_
+(Ant-lion) is not uncommon round Nelson, and doubtless future investigation
+will reveal insects belonging to the other families.
+
+
+Family PHRYGANIDÆ.
+
+_Oxyethira albiceps_ (?) (McLach.) (Plate XIV., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa).
+
+This insect occurs in the neighbourhood of ponds and streams during the
+summer. Its larva may be found {100}commonly in the green, slimy weed
+floating in large masses on all stagnant waters. Being very small it is
+rather difficult to detect, and is best procured by washing a small
+quantity of the weed in a saucer of water, when the little insects will be
+at once seen walking about at the bottom. On examination with the
+microscope the case will first arrest attention, being of a most unique
+structure. Its shape is best described as closely resembling that of a
+minute pocket-flask, very much flattened at the lower end and almost
+transparent. Its surface is slightly corrugated, and the neck of the flask
+constructed of a much denser material than the body. It is open at both
+ends, the posterior end being perforated by a long shallow slit, which
+extends for nearly the whole width of the case, thus admitting a free
+circulation of water round the larva, which is also able to turn round and
+project its head and anterior segments through the lower aperture, thus
+occupying the reverse position to that shown in the illustration (Fig. 3a).
+It is, however, prevented from actually leaving the case by its abdomen,
+which is too large to be withdrawn from either end. The head and thorax of
+the larva are very horny in comparison with those portions permanently
+retained in the case, the legs being constructed to fold up into the
+smallest possible compass, a cavity existing in each joint for the
+reception of the preceding one--a structure which is almost universal among
+the caddis-worms. The two organs, situated on the posterior segments, are
+doubtless respiratory in their function, a large air-tube taking its rise
+from each and ramifying through the body in all directions. When alarmed
+these insects retreat into their cases with lightning rapidity, remaining
+concealed until the danger is passed. Their food probably consists of the
+green weed, although they are perhaps carnivorous, feeding on the rotifers
+and other animalculæ, which swarm in the water where they are found.
+
+{101}With regard to the method employed by the young larva in constructing,
+and subsequently enlarging, its case, I can give no positive information,
+although it is undoubtedly made of a viscous fluid, secreted by the insect,
+which hardens when exposed to the water; this secretion is no doubt
+analogous to the silk of caterpillars, which always exists in the form of a
+gummy fluid before being spun.
+
+When about to change, the insect fixes its case down by four ligaments, two
+at each end, the extremities of these being firmly fastened to a stone; it
+then closes the small aperture, and constructs a curious arch-shaped
+partition, of dense material, a short distance from the broad end (Fig.
+3b). In about a week's time the larva is transformed into a pupa, having
+the limbs, &c., free from the body but incapable of motion. The fixing down
+of the case prior to the change may be easily performed from each of the
+apertures, which are no doubt left open till the last for this purpose.
+Before the final transformation the pupa breaks through the partition at
+the broad end of the case and rises to the surface, the imago (Fig. 3)
+ascending a blade of grass to dry and expand its wings. The little exuvia
+of the pupa may be often noticed floating on the water, and the empty cases
+are very conspicuous on the sides of a glass aquarium, where the insects
+generally fix them down when in captivity.
+
+
+Family HEMEROBIIDÆ.
+
+_Stenosmylus incisus_ (Plate XIV., fig. 2).
+
+This lovely insect is figured as an example of this family, being found
+occasionally in the New Zealand forest, but is rather scarce as a rule. I
+regret that nothing is at present known of its transformations.
+
+
+{102}Family Sialidæ.
+
+_Chauliodes diversus_ (Plate XIV., fig. 1, 1a larva, 1b pupa).
+
+During still warm weather, from December till March, this large insect is
+frequently observed flying lazily over water at dusk, when it may be
+readily captured with the ordinary net. Its larva is aquatic, living under
+stones in running streams, where it devours large quantities of Ephemeræ
+and other insect larvæ, which are always abundant in those situations. It
+is very ferocious and will bite violently when disturbed, being furnished
+with a pair of powerful mandibles. The curious filaments on each side are
+gills, and it will be noticed that they are situated exactly where the
+spiracles of the perfect insect afterwards appear (see Fig. 1a).
+
+This larva probably lives over a year, its growth proceeding very slowly,
+but mature specimens are not infrequently met with quite as large as the
+illustration. When full-grown it leaves the water and forms an oval cell in
+the mud, usually under a large stone; its gills then gradually shrivel up,
+and in ten days or a fortnight it is transformed into the curious pupa,
+shown at Fig. 1b, from which the perfect insect proceeds in about six
+weeks' time. The sexes of this species may be readily distinguished by
+their size, the male being considerably smaller than the female (Fig. 1),
+and possessing longer antennæ.
+
+
+
+
+{103}CHAPTER VIII
+
+The Orthoptera.
+
+This Order, although including a comparatively small number of species,
+comprises some of the largest and most conspicuous insects inhabiting New
+Zealand, many of them reminding one of the denizens of the tropics in their
+gigantic size and striking appearance. They may be conveniently divided
+into the three following groups:--The _Aquatic group_, or those whose larvæ
+inhabit the water, including the Dragonflies, Mayflies, and Perlidæ; the
+_Terrestrial group_, including all the typical Orthoptera, Termites, and
+Mallophaga; and the _Euplexoptera_, including the Earwigs. We start our
+observations with the Aquatic group, as these exhibit the greatest affinity
+with the Neuroptera.
+
+
+AQUATIC Group.
+
+Family LIBELLULIDÆ.[19]
+
+_Uropetala carovei_ (Plate XV., fig. 1 [M], 1a larva.)
+
+This magnificent insect occurs in all swampy situations during January and
+February, when it may be seen dashing about with amazing rapidity intent on
+catching {104}the various flies which constitute its food. Its curious
+larva is represented at Fig. 1a, the drawing having been taken from a
+singularly perfect exuvia, which I had the good fortune to discover,
+clinging to the stem of a fuchsia-tree in a swamp, the rent through which
+the perfect insect escaped having almost closed up. In this state it no
+doubt feeds on various aquatic animals, which it procures with a prehensile
+instrument similar in structure to the "mask" of British dragonfly larvæ,
+but much larger.
+
+The female of this species may be at once recognized by the absence of the
+two peculiar leaf-like appendages at the anal extremity, from which the
+insect takes its name. Her abdomen is also much stouter. My experience
+leads me to believe either that she is very retired in her habits or else
+that there are at least six males to one female.
+
+Closely allied, and much commoner than the above insect, is _Cordulia
+Smithii_, found almost everywhere, its rapid and continuous flight
+frequently taking it many miles away from any water. The specimen figured
+is a male (Plate XV., fig. 2), the female possessing a pair of slender
+sickle-shaped hooks, attached to the end of her body. She may occasionally
+be seen depositing her eggs in stagnant streams, the abdomen being
+violently beaten against the surface of the water during the operation. I
+have not yet met with the larva, which probably lives concealed in the mud.
+One specimen, taken near Lake Wairarapa, is remarkable in possessing a
+cloudy brown patch near the tip of each wing, but it is no doubt only a
+variety of the ordinary insect.
+
+
+Family LIBELLULIDÆ.
+
+_Lestes colensonis_ (Plate XV., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+Extremely abundant in all damp situations from September till May, being
+one of the last insects to disappear in the autumn. The larva is found
+under stones, &c., in {105}every stream, feeding on various aquatic insects
+and crustaceans. When very young the wing-cases are scarcely discernible,
+but gradually become more distinct at each moult, until the larva assumes
+the form shown in the illustration (Fig. 3a), which is taken from a
+specimen about a week before the emergence of the perfect insect. In all
+these insects it would be much more convenient to regard the metamorphosis
+as consisting of only two stages, viz., larva and imago, as there is really
+no condition analogous to the quiescent pupa of other orders. The female is
+rather stouter than the male, which is the sex figured, and her abdomen is
+of a dull bronze colour, instead of metallic blue. The only other dragonfly
+found in my neighbourhood (Wellington) is the pretty little _Telebasis
+zealandica_ (Fig. 4), which occurs in similar situations to the last, but
+is not quite so common. The male is of a brilliant red colour, the female
+being bronzy green, but she may be readily distinguished from the same sex
+in _Lestes colensonis_ by her smaller size. The larva of this species is
+rather more attenuated than that of the previous insect, and is of course
+considerably smaller.
+
+
+Family EPHEMERIDÆ.
+
+_Ephemera_, n.s., near _Coloburus_[20] (Plate XVI., fig. 4, 4a larva).
+
+The well-known mayflies are very extensively represented in New Zealand,
+hovering in swarms over running water during the summer evenings.
+
+The larva of the present species (Fig. 4a) occurs abundantly under stones
+in rapid streams. It may be immediately distinguished from its numerous
+congeners by its large head and conspicuous black eyes. It is carnivorous,
+{106}feeding on various small insects, chiefly those belonging to the
+present family, but in lack of these it will even devour individuals of its
+own species. It is consequently a most difficult insect to rear, and it was
+a long time before I succeeded in obtaining a single imago in captivity.
+When mature the insect leaves the water, and an apparently perfect imago
+escapes through a rent in the thorax in the usual way. In a few hours,
+however, a second moult occurs, the wings gaining additional size and
+beauty, and the anal setæ becoming very much more elongated than before
+(Fig. 4). This second change, which has so perplexed some entomologists, is
+merely an _apparent_ departure from the general rule, a careful examination
+of the exuviæ of the dragonflies, and pupa shells of many other insects,
+revealing a delicate membrane within, which invests the imago, and is cast
+off at the same time as the harder external envelope. In the case of the
+mayflies, the retention of this internal membrane some two or three hours
+longer than usual, will fully explain its apparently unique metamorphosis.
+
+
+Family PERLIDÆ.
+
+_Stenoperla prasina_ (Plate XVI., fig. 3, 3a larva).
+
+This is the green gauzy-winged insect which we see flying feebly over
+running water, during the twilight, throughout the summer.
+
+Its larva (Fig. 3a) is aquatic, hiding itself under stones, and devouring
+the unfortunate _Ephemeræ_ found in similar situations. Towards the end of
+its career the rudimentary wings become very conspicuous, at which time it
+is a most interesting object. The curious appendages on each side of the
+abdomen are gills, which the larva is constantly vibrating, in order to
+obtain a fresh supply of aërated water. When mature, it ascends the stem of
+some aquatic plant, the skin becomes dry and brittle, and finally bursting,
+allows the perfect insect to escape, {107}and in a few hours its wings are
+sufficiently hardened for flight. Several other species occur in New
+Zealand, one of the commonest being _Perla cyrene_, a black insect much
+resembling _S. prasina_, but considerably smaller; its larva may be
+occasionally found, and is at once known by its dark colour.
+
+
+TERRESTRIAL Group.
+
+Family PSOCIDÆ.
+
+_Psocus zealandicus_, n.s. (Plate XVI., fig. 2, 2a larva).
+
+During the hottest days in summer every one must have noticed numbers of
+minute active insects assembled on garden fences in groups, ranging from
+ten to fifty, immediately dispersing when disturbed. These are individuals
+of _Psocus zealandicus_ (Fig. 2), a curious little species, closely allied
+to the renowned "Book Tick" (_Atropos pulsatorium_), whose ravages in
+museums and libraries need no description. Its larva (2a) may be found in
+the same situations as the imago, and often assembles in similar groups.
+Its food probably consists of rotten wood and other decaying vegetable
+matter, and in its later stages it is provided with wing-cases, thus
+differing from the Book Tick (_A. pulsatorium_), which remains apterous
+during the whole of its life.
+
+
+Family TERMITIDÆ.
+
+_Stolotermes ruficeps_ (Plate XVI., fig. 1 [M], 1a [F], 1b "soldier," 1c
+"worker").
+
+The termites, or white ants, which occur in such great numbers in the
+tropics, are represented in New Zealand by several small species, the
+commonest in this neighbourhood being _Stolotermes ruficeps_.
+
+This species inhabits rotten logs, excavating extensive burrows, resembling
+in a very humble manner the {108}wonderfully elaborate nests constructed by
+the African and other species, about which so much has been written, and so
+much remains to be discovered. The present insect appears in the perfect
+state during January and February. It is seldom noticed flying about, but
+may be readily obtained by opening the nests, where a large number are
+frequently seen huddled together in the main galleries. At this time the
+community consists of three classes of individuals, viz., males, females,
+and workers, which last are in all probability nothing more than the larvæ.
+After pairing they shed their wings and return to the nest, the female
+becoming very much distended with eggs. About March she commences to lay.
+This is continued for several months, and during this time the female is
+queen of the nest. She resides in a capacious chamber, from which numerous
+galleries diverge in all directions, some extending as far as eighteen or
+twenty inches, but the most populous portion of the nest is contained
+within a radius of six inches from the queen's apartment. The "soldiers"
+(Fig. 1b) now appear in considerable numbers. They are chiefly stationed in
+the royal chamber, and furiously attack any intruders; but the workers
+which stream in and out, carrying the eggs from the queen, they treat with
+the greatest gentleness. I have never seen soldiers in a nest containing
+winged insects, nor indeed later in the spring than October, when they seem
+to have all disappeared. With regard to the nature of these individuals I
+am unable to supply any positive information, but it appears probable that
+they are abortive males, in the same way that the neuters of the bees and
+ants are abortive females. As none of these insects have yet been reared,
+many points of great interest remain to be discovered in connection with
+their economy, and a rigid investigation of a number of nests kept in
+captivity, is the only mode by which we can hope to become fully acquainted
+with the habits of this interesting family.
+
+
+{109}Family BLATTIDÆ.
+
+_Periplaneta fortipes_ (Plate XVII., fig. 5).
+
+Few people who cut up old wood remain unacquainted with this species for
+very long, its insufferable odour immediately betraying its presence
+independently of anything else. It is very common under the bark of rimu,
+henau, and other large trees, where specimens may be found in all stages of
+growth; the mature individuals only differing from the young in the matter
+of size and the possession of rudimentary wing-cases. I have never found
+the females of this species carrying their eggs, but have, on several
+occasions, discovered the closely allied, but smaller, _Periplaneta
+undulivitta_ thus engaged under stones on the hills round Nelson. This is a
+much more agreeable insect to study than _P. fortipes_, not possessing the
+disgusting odour so characteristic of the latter species.
+
+The only winged _Blattidæ_ found round Wellington are _Blatta conjuncta_,
+and _Periplaneta orientalis_. The former (Fig. 6), may be occasionally
+noticed under the scaly bark of rimu and matai trees, but a sharp eye and
+hand are needed to effect a capture, the insect running with marvellous
+rapidity. The latter species I have not yet noticed, but as it is the
+ordinary "cockroach" of Europe its habits have already been amply
+described.
+
+
+Family MANTIDÆ.
+
+_Tenodera intermedia_ (Plate XVII., fig. 2).
+
+A local species confined, I believe, to the South Island, and occurring in
+some numbers round Nelson, where my specimens were obtained. It seldom
+flies, but crawls stealthily about the trunks of trees, in the hottest
+sunshine, capturing and destroying great quantities of insects, its green
+colouring and leaf-like form rendering it very inconspicuous {110}to its
+victims. The purple spots on the tibiæ of this insect are very noticeable,
+and resemble small drums in structure, hence they are regarded by Mr. A. H.
+Swinton ("Insect Variety," page 239), as the organs of hearing. These
+curious drums may be also found in insects belonging to nearly all the
+remaining families of the Orthoptera, but, as we find no auditory organs
+occupying a similar situation in any other groups of insects, I think that
+Mr. Swinton's explanation of their function must be regarded at present as
+a somewhat doubtful one.[21]
+
+
+Family PHASMIDÆ.
+
+_Acanthoderus horridus_ (Plate XIX.).
+
+The curious Stick Insects are familiar to most people from their remarkable
+similarity to the twigs of trees.
+
+The present species is one of the largest, the mature insect frequently
+attaining a length of five inches. It is best taken at night, when it may
+be readily discovered, feeding on the leaves of shrubs, and suddenly
+becoming perfectly motionless when the lantern is turned upon it. The
+favourite plant for this (and indeed most of the species) is the white
+rata, upon which they are often seen in large numbers when the entomologist
+is collecting Lepidoptera in autumn. One of the commonest species found in
+this way is _Bacillus_ (_hookeri?_) chiefly remarkable for its great sexual
+disparities, the male resembling a very slender stick about twenty-eight
+lines long, while the female is nearly half as long again (thirty-eight
+lines), and much more stoutly built. A more systematic investigation of
+this family is needed before we can pretend to correctly determine the
+various species, as there is little doubt that in other cases the sexes
+will be found quite as divergent. In addition to this {111}the insects are
+most variable in colour, and their completely apterous character rendering
+the distinction between larva and imago a matter of considerable
+difficulty, it is very probable that some of the smaller species may be
+only immature specimens of the larger ones.
+
+Stick insects are easily kept in captivity, and will not be found devoid of
+interest. They are great eaters, and grow with considerable rapidity,
+frequently casting their skin, a task of no easy accomplishment, which I
+once had the pleasure of watching in the case of a specimen of
+_Acanthoderus prasinus_ which I had under observation for several months.
+
+The insect first suspends itself by its hind pair of legs, keeping the
+others in the same position as when walking, the head is bent in, and the
+antennæ are placed along the breast, the long abdomen hanging over
+backwards. The skin then splits along the back of the thorax, and the head
+and thorax are gradually pushed out. The front and middle legs are
+immediately afterwards extracted, the long femora and tibiæ easily passing
+the sharp angles in the exuvia, owing to their complete flexibility. When
+these are finally clear, the insect reaches forwards with its fore-legs and
+draws the abdomen and hind-legs out of the old skin, which remains attached
+to the branch until dislodged by some accident.
+
+During the spring months great quantities of little stick insects may be
+noticed on the parasitic ferns covering the tree stems in the forest; they
+are curious little animals, their antics when simulating inanimate twigs
+being often most amusing, and if the reader wishes to investigate a
+comparatively untouched branch of entomology he cannot do better than keep
+a number of these until mature, when he will doubtless contribute much to
+our scanty knowledge of this curious family.
+
+
+{112}Family ACHETIDÆ.
+
+_Acheta fuliginosa_ (Plate XVIII., fig. 1).
+
+This destructive insect is not indigenous to New Zealand, having been
+introduced from Australia into the Nelson district many years ago. Strange
+to say it has never been seen in Wellington, where specimens must be
+constantly landed amongst produce, &c., but appear to be unable to effect a
+settlement, owing, probably, to some peculiarity of the climate which
+renders the place unsuitable for them. The larvæ may be first observed
+about December, when they are often seen hopping about the vegetation. They
+are extremely obnoxious, devouring everything, and frequently entering
+houses, where they consume provisions, clothes, and even boots. During the
+summer of 1875 the farmers round Nelson were fairly eaten out by this
+insect, the cattle absolutely starving for the want of food, but since that
+time the pest seems to have gradually diminished, although it is still very
+injurious to many garden plants.
+
+The illustration (Fig. 1) is taken from a female, the male wanting the long
+ovipositor. These insects appear in the imago state about March, and
+continue in great abundance until the end of summer, the cold weather which
+generally sets in about the beginning of May rapidly destroying them.
+
+
+Family GRYLLIDÆ.
+
+_Deinacrida megacephala_ (Plate XVIII., fig. 2 [M], XVII., fig. 8 [F]).
+
+This conspicuous species is especially interesting, as it may be regarded
+as the type of a very peculiar assemblage of apterous crickets,
+pre-eminently characteristic of New Zealand. It is very abundant round
+Wellington, and may be occasionally taken under logs, &c., but is best
+procured {113}from the hollow stems of various trees, where it is found
+inhabiting the deserted galleries of wood-boring species--frequently
+enlarging them to suit its own requirements.
+
+The plant most usually selected by these insects is the mahoe (_Melicytus
+ramiflorus_), whose stems may be often seen pierced with large holes. Out
+of these the insects emerge at night to feed on the leaves. To extract a
+number of specimens, without injury, requires considerable care, and is
+best performed with a small axe, which should be first used to cut in about
+three-quarters through the trunk, just below one of the holes. Another
+notch is then cut about a foot lower down, and the intermediate wood split
+off in long pieces, until the tunnel is laid bare. On approaching an insect
+the first thing seen are two red threads, which are the antennæ, laid back
+as shown at Fig. 8. A deep notch is then cut into the trunk, some nine or
+ten inches below this point, and the piece bodily wrenched off. If the
+individual thus treated is a male he will cling firmly to the log,
+elevating his hind-legs in the air and biting viciously at anything within
+reach, but the females, in the majority of cases, endeavour to escape and
+hide themselves under the leaves, &c., on the ground. Both sexes when
+irritated emit a peculiar grating sound, which may be often heard at night
+in the forest, and is produced by the friction of the femur against a small
+file situated on each side of the second abdominal segment. They can also
+leap a short distance, but not so far as many of the smaller species
+(_Libanasa macropathus_, &c.). They are evidently strictly arboreal in
+their habits, as they exhibit great skill in walking along branches, and
+will climb up a thin stick with wonderful rapidity.
+
+When in their burrows the posterior legs are extended behind the insect and
+push, while the anterior and intermediate ones are thrust forwards, the
+claws being firmly inserted, so as to enable the insect to pull itself
+along. {114}Travelling along the burrow in this manner, they frequently
+evade all efforts to extract them, until they are stopped by arriving at
+the end of the gallery.
+
+The sexes of this species are readily distinguishable, the male (Plate
+XVIII., fig. 2) possessing an immense head furnished with a pair of
+enormously powerful mandibles. The female (Plate XVII., fig. 8) is a more
+attractive insect, her gracefully curved ovipositor and smaller head having
+a much more pleasing appearance than the terribly menacing jaws of her
+mate. Both sexes are able to give severe bites, but it is extremely
+doubtful whether they would prove anything worse than slight mechanical
+injuries, as the insect is not likely to be poisonous. I am, however,
+unable to speak from experience.
+
+
+Family GRYLLIDÆ.
+
+_Xiphidium maoricum_ (Plate XVII., fig. 1).
+
+This pretty insect may be found in great abundance round Nelson during the
+autumn, but is rarer in the Wellington Province. Its presence may be at
+once detected by the curious chirping heard in various directions shortly
+before sunset and lasting till eight or nine o'clock in the evening. This
+sound is produced with the wing-cases, which the male insects may be seen
+vigorously rubbing together. The females are quite mute, and they may be
+also distinguished by possessing a short curved ovipositor at the end of
+the body. The peculiarly leaf-like shape of the insect and its bright green
+colour render its discovery amongst the herbage a most difficult matter,
+even when its whereabouts is indicated by its cry--in fact, were it not for
+their music, there is little doubt that very few of these insects would
+ever be captured, as they are practically invisible, and are an instance of
+protective resemblance carried to great perfection.
+
+When disturbed these crickets fly about twenty yards {115}and again settle
+in a bush or amongst herbage, carefully avoiding alighting on the ground
+where they would be readily visible. Their flight is somewhat feeble for
+such large insects. Great care must be taken, when capturing specimens for
+preservation, not to hold them by their powerful hind-legs, as they will
+not infrequently cast one off while endeavouring to escape.
+
+I have not yet noticed the larva of this species, but should imagine it
+would closely resemble a wingless imago.
+
+
+Family LOCUSTIDÆ.
+
+_Caloptenus marginalis_ (Plate XVII., fig. 4).
+
+This is the little grasshopper which rises before our footsteps in swarms
+on a hot summer's day; it is one of the last insects to leave us in the
+autumn, being frequently found in warm situations on fine days in the
+middle of winter. Owing to its great abundance this species must inflict
+considerable damage on the grass, as it has taken up its quarters like the
+English grasshopper in the cultivated fields, where an unlimited supply of
+food is always at hand. Formerly, no doubt, it was much less common round
+Wellington than at present, owing to the few open spots then existing, none
+of these grasshoppers being found in the forest.
+
+The perfect insect may be recognized by the rudimentary wings which are
+present on the thorax, thus causing it to closely resemble the larval form
+of many of the winged species, and for which it might readily be mistaken
+were its true character unknown.
+
+
+Family LOCUSTIDÆ.
+
+_Oedipoda cinerascens_ (Plate XVII., fig. 3).
+
+This large and conspicuous insect occurs abundantly in all open situations
+near Nelson, but is very rare in the {116}Wellington district, becoming,
+however, again common further north.
+
+When disturbed it leaps into the air, spreads its wings, and flies away
+with great rapidity for thirty or forty yards, when it alights, and allows
+its pursuer to get within a few yards of his prize before again making off.
+This habit renders the capture of a good series of this insect a most
+arduous matter. The sexes may be readily distinguished by their size, the
+female being nearly twice as large as her mate.
+
+This species is very variable in colour, some individuals being dark green
+whilst others are of a uniform drab.
+
+The food of this insect consists of various domestic grasses, but I do not
+think it is at present sufficiently abundant to exercise any harmful
+influence on agriculture. By some entomologists, however, it is regarded as
+only a variety of the renowned migratory locust (_Locusta migratoria_), and
+as such its advent in large numbers might be viewed with serious
+apprehension.
+
+It is also strange that although I have often seen large numbers of this
+species in the perfect state I have never observed the larva. I can only
+conjecture that the insect breeds in very secluded localities and then
+migrates in search of fresh food supplies.
+
+
+Group EUPLEXOPTERA.
+
+Family FORFICULIDÆ.
+
+_Forficesila littorea_ (Plate XVII., fig. 7).
+
+Abundant on the sea beach throughout the year, where it may be readily
+captured under stones and seaweed. It is a very bold insect, and when
+disturbed will grasp a blade of grass, or other object, very firmly with
+its powerful abdominal forceps, and allow itself to be lifted off the
+ground and carried away rather than relinquish its hold.
+
+{117}The food of this species probably consists of seaweed, although it is
+possibly carnivorous, and feeds on the small insects and crustaceans, which
+are numerous on the beach. Being permanently apterous, mature individuals
+can only be recognized by their large size, and the perfect development of
+their anal forceps. It is evidently erroneous to regard these as organs
+exclusively employed in opening and shutting the wings, as we see that in
+the present insect, which does not require them for that purpose, they are
+larger than in many of the flying earwigs. They are probably chiefly used
+to _intimidate_ intruders.
+
+This species is strictly marine in its habits and is seldom found more than
+a few yards above high-water-mark. The females may be often observed
+hatching their eggs. For this purpose they excavate an oval chamber
+underneath a log or large stone, and after carefully smoothing it within,
+deposit the eggs at the bottom. These eggs are most faithfully guarded by
+the mother, which boldly attacks all intruders, and will suffer herself to
+be killed rather than leave the spot. She also remains with the young ones
+for a considerable time after they are hatched, as we sometimes observe the
+females accompanied by a number of larvæ of quite a large size.
+
+
+
+
+{118}CHAPTER IX
+
+The Hemiptera.
+
+The present Order of insects, although of very limited extent, contains
+several important species, of which the noisy Cicadas, destructive Aphides,
+and numerous Bugs, and Lice, can be cited as familiar examples. The
+Hemiptera may be conveniently divided into the two following groups:--
+
+  The _Homoptera_, comprising all the species in which the anterior wings
+  are entirely membranous, and--
+
+  The _Heteroptera_, including those having the basal portion of the
+  anterior wings thickened, and quite opaque.
+
+These peculiarities have induced some entomologists, who regard the
+structure of the wings of the greatest importance in classifying, to
+arrange the insects included in the Homoptera and Heteroptera, into two
+distinct Orders; but their uniform character in all other respects renders
+this, I think, hardly desirable.
+
+
+Group HOMOPTERA.
+
+Family CICADIDÆ.
+
+_Cicada cingulata_[22] (Plate XX., fig. 1, 1a pupa).
+
+This beautiful insect may be found in great numbers {119}amongst brushwood
+during the hot sunny days so common from January till March. Its larva
+inhabits the earth earlier in the summer, and its curious pupa can often be
+observed crawling up the stems of trees in order to allow the perfect
+insect to emerge. After this has taken place the exuviæ still remain firmly
+attached to the tree, and are very conspicuous objects; but if it is
+desired to remove them great care must be taken not to break off the legs,
+which are always very brittle.
+
+The perfect insects are at once betrayed by their loud singing, which, in
+certain localities, becomes quite deafening. This noise is entirely
+confined to the males, and proceeds from two large drum-like organs,
+situated on the under surface of the abdomen near its base, which, in
+conjunction with the curious ovipositor existing in the females constitute
+good sexual distinctions throughout the family. The structure of these two
+organs having been admirably described by several European authors renders
+it quite unnecessary for me to do so here.
+
+Closely allied to the present insect is _Cicada muta_, the female of which
+is depicted on Plate XX., fig. 2. The male is often of a reddish-brown
+colour, but the insect is an extremely variable one. It is found in similar
+situations to _C. cingulata_, but appears rather earlier in the year.
+
+
+Family CICADIDÆ.
+
+_Cicada iolanthe_, n.s. (Plate XX., fig. 3, 3a larva, 3b pupa).
+
+This is the first species of Cicada to appear in the spring, and is found
+during November and December. Its larva (Fig. 3a) is a curious little
+animal, the two hind-legs being very long. I am at present unable to state
+with certainty what constitutes its food, but am extremely doubtful whether
+it consists of the juices imbibed from the roots of plants, as is generally
+supposed. The anterior legs, although probably chiefly constructed for
+digging, {120}appear to be also suited for raptorial purposes, which leads
+me to believe that the insect may be carnivorous in its habits. The pupa
+(Fig. 3b) does not materially differ from that of the last, except in size,
+and its empty exuvia is also frequently found attached to the stems of
+trees.
+
+The perfect insect may be at once discovered by the peculiarly shrill note
+emitted by the male.
+
+
+Family APHIDÆ.
+
+This family is extensively represented in New Zealand, but as I have not
+yet been able to obtain any information respecting their specific identity
+I am compelled to pass them by for the present, hoping that future
+investigation will reveal much that is interesting in their habits, and
+also help both gardener and agriculturist to protect himself from their
+ravages.
+
+
+Family COCCIDIDÆ.
+
+_Coelostoma zealandicum_ (Plate XX., fig. 4 [M]).
+
+This species is figured as a representative of this very curious family
+chiefly on account of its great similarity to a Dipterous insect, the
+rudimentary condition of its posterior wings being most perplexing to the
+beginner. Its habits have been amply described by Mr. Maskell, in his work
+on the Coccididæ of New Zealand, to which I consequently refer.
+
+
+Group HETEROPTERA.
+
+Family NOTONECTIDÆ.
+
+_Corixa zealandica_, n.s. (Plate XX., fig. 5).
+
+Abundant throughout the summer in all slow-running streams. The larva
+closely resembles the imago except that it has no wings. Its food probably
+consists of the juices of other insects. The present insect invariably
+swims with {121}its back exposed, thus differing considerably from the
+English Water-boatman (_Notonecta glauca_), whose keel-like back is kept
+beneath the water, while the two long hind-legs are rapidly moved backwards
+and forwards like oars.
+
+
+Family SCUTELLERIDÆ.
+
+_Cermatulus nasalis_ (Plate XX., fig. 6, 6a larva).
+
+This insect may be beaten out of various trees during the summer, and is
+usually taken in some abundance in February amongst white rata blossoms, on
+which it may be often observed sucking the honey from the blossoms with its
+long rostrum. Its larva, which is represented at Fig. 6a, is found in
+similar situations.
+
+
+
+
+This concludes the series of insects I have selected as representative of
+the several orders in New Zealand. The brief sketch of entomology thus
+given is of necessity extremely fragmentary, and many important groups and
+families are entirely unrepresented. Should, however, this little book
+induce some of its readers to investigate insects for themselves, I shall
+feel that my efforts have been amply rewarded.
+
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+{123}GENERAL INDEX.
+
+
+
+                                      PAGE
+  Abdomen,                               4
+  Acanthoderus,                        110
+    "  horridus,                       110
+    "  prasinus,                       111
+  Acroceridæ,                           56
+  Acrocera,                             56
+    "  longirostris,                    56
+  Achetidæ,                            112
+  Acheta,                              112
+    "  fuliginosa,                     112
+  Andrenidæ,                            33
+  Antennæ,                               2
+  Ants,                                 35
+  Ant-lions,                            99
+  Anus,                                  4
+  Aphides destroyed by Syrphus,         57
+  Aphidæ,                              120
+  Aphaniptera,                          64
+  Aquatic insects,        22, 40, 100, 103
+  Argyrophenga,                         65
+    "  antipodum,                       65
+  Asilidæ,                              55
+  Asthena,                              91
+    "  schistaria,                      91
+    "  pulchraria,                      92
+  Atta antarctica,                      37
+  Attracting by light,                  14
+  Atropos,                             107
+    "  pulsatorium,                    107
+
+  Bacillus,                            110
+    "  hookeri,                        110
+  Beating,                               9
+  Bee parasites,                        63
+  Bees,                                 33
+  Beetles,                              19
+  Beetles under sacks,                   9
+    "  killing,                         10
+    "  pinning,                         10
+  Bibio,                                52
+    "  nigrostigma,                     52
+  Blattidæ,                            109
+  Blatta,                              109
+    "  conjuncta,                      109
+  "Bloodworm",                          43
+  Blossoms,                             13
+  Blue butterfly,                       69
+  "Blue-bottles",                       60
+  Bolitophila,                          49
+    "  luminosa,                        49
+  Bombycidæ,                            73
+  Bombylidæ,                            54
+  Book tick,                           107
+  Boxes,                                10
+  Brachelytra,                          25
+  Brachocera,                           54
+  Breathing organs,                      4
+  Butterflies,                          65
+    "  setting,                         12
+    "  rearing,                         15
+
+  Cacoecia,                             95
+    "  excessana,                       95
+  Calliphora,                           60
+    "  quadrimaculata,                  60
+  Camphor,                              17
+  Catocala,                             83
+  Caloptenus,                          115
+    "  marginalis,                     115
+  Caterpillar cages,                    15
+  Carabidæ,                             21
+  Carbolic acid,                        17
+  Case-bearing larvæ,                   74
+  Casting skin,                        111
+  Ceratopogon,                          45
+    "  antipodum,                       45
+  Cermatulus,                          121
+    "  nasalis,                        121
+  Chætosoma,                            24
+    "  scaritides,                      24
+  Chalastra,                            84
+    "  pelurgata,                       84
+  Chalcididæ,                           37
+  Chauliodes,                          102
+    "  diversus,                       102
+  Chironomus,                           43
+    "  zealandicus,                     43
+    "  plumosus,                        43
+  Chrysophanus,                         68
+    "  salustius,                       68
+    "  boldenarum,                      68
+    "  feredayi,                        68
+    "  enysii,                          68
+  Cicadidæ,                            118
+  Cicada,                              118
+    "  cingulata,                      118
+    "  muta,                           119
+    "  iolanthe,                       119
+  Cicindela,                            19
+    "  tuberculata,                     19
+    "  parryi,                          20
+  Cicindelidæ,                          19
+  Clavicornia,                          23
+  Cloniophora,                          50
+    "  subfasciata,                     50
+  Clothes moth,                         96
+  Click beetles,                        29
+  Cockchaffer,                          27
+  Cockroaches,                         109
+  Coccididæ,                           120
+  Coelopa,                              63
+    "  littoralis,                      63
+  Coelostoma,                          120
+    "  zealandicum,                    120
+  Coleoptera,                        5, 19
+    "  rearing,                         15
+    "  collecting,                       9
+  Collecting insects,                    9
+    "  at night,                        13
+  Collection,                           17
+  Collectional journal,                 18
+  Coloburus,                           105
+  Colon,                                 4
+  Colymbetes,                           22
+    "  rufimanus,                       22
+  Comptosia,                            54
+    "  bicolor,                         54
+    "  virida,                          55
+  Copper butterflies,                   68
+  Cordulia,                            104
+    "  smithii,                        104
+  Corethra,                             43
+    "  antarctica,                      43
+  Corixa,                              120
+    "  zealandica,                     120
+  Compound eyes,                         2
+  Coxa,                                  3
+  Crambus,                              93
+    "  flexuosellus,                    93
+    "  tahulalis,                       93
+  Crickets,                            112
+  Crop,                                  4
+  Ctenopseustis,                        96
+    "  obliquana,                       96
+  Culex,                                40
+    "  argyropus,                       42
+    "  iracundus,                       40
+  Culicidæ,                             40
+  Curculionidæ,                         31
+  Cylindria,                            62
+    "  sigma,                           62
+
+  Danais,                               65
+    "  plexippus,                       65
+  Dasycolletes,                         33
+    "  hirtipes,                        33
+    "  purpureus,                       34
+  Declana,                              83
+    "  floccosa,                        83
+    "  floccosa _v._ junctilinea        84
+  Deinacrida,                          112
+    "  megacephala,                    112
+  Diadema,                              65
+    "  nerina,                          65
+  Digestive system,                      4
+  Diptera,                           6, 40
+  Dorcus,                               26
+    "  punctulatus,                     26
+    "  reticulatus,                     26
+  Dorsal vessel,                         4
+  Dragon-flies,                        103
+  Dryocora,                             24
+    "  howittii,                        24
+  Dyticidæ,                             22
+
+  Earwigs,                             116
+  Eggs of insects,                       5
+  Elateridæ,                            28
+  Elytra,                                5
+  Endrosis,                             96
+    "  fenestrella,                     96
+  Engidæ,                               24
+  Entomologist in winter,               10
+  Entomological pins,                   13
+  Ephemeridæ,                          105
+  Ephemera,                            105
+  Epuræa,                               23
+    "  zealandica,                      23
+  Eristalis,                            57
+    "  cingulatus,                      57
+  Erana,                                78
+    "  graminosa,                       78
+  Erebia pluto and butleri,             66
+  Euplexoptera,                        116
+  Eurigaster,                           60
+    "  marginatus,                      60
+  Exaireta,                             56
+    "  spiniger,                        56
+  External organs,                       2
+  Eyes,                                  2
+
+  Family,                                8
+  Femur,                                 3
+  Flea,                                 64
+  Forficulidæ,                         116
+  Forficesila,                         116
+    "  littorea,                       116
+  Formicidæ,                            35
+  Formica,                              35
+    "  zealandica,                      35
+
+  Ganglia,                               4
+  Genus,                                 8
+  Geodephaga,                           19
+  Geometridæ,                           83
+  Geometer,                             83
+  Gerris,                               43
+  Glow-worm,                            49
+  Gilt pins,                            13
+  Gizzard,                               4
+  Grasshopper,                         115
+  Gryllidæ,                            112
+
+  Head,                                  2
+  Heart,                                 4
+  Heliothis,                            81
+    "  armigera,                        81
+  Helophilus,                           58
+    "  trilineatus,                     58
+    "  ineptus,                         59
+    "  hochstetteri,                    59
+  Hemerobiidæ,                         101
+  Hemiptera,                        8, 118
+  Hepialus,                             70
+    "  virescens,                       70
+  Hepialidæ,                            69
+  Heterocera,                           69
+  Heteromera,                           29
+  Heteroptera,                         118
+  Homoptera,                           118
+  Host,                                 38
+  Hydradephaga,                         22
+  Hydriomena,                           91
+    "  deltoidata,                      91
+  Hymenoptera,                       6, 33
+
+  Ichneumon,                            38
+    "  deceptus,                        38
+    "  sollicitorius,                   38
+  Ichneumonidæ,                         38
+  Ilium,                                 4
+  Imago,                                 4
+  Internal organs,                       4
+  Insect, definition of,                 1
+  Isonomeutis,                          94
+    "  amauropa,                        94
+
+  Jaws,                                  2
+  Journal,                              18
+
+  Killing insects,                  10, 12
+    "  bottle,                          12
+
+  Labelling insects,                    18
+  Labial palpi,                          2
+  Labium,                                2
+  Labrum,                                2
+  Lace-wings,                          101
+  Lamellicornes,                        26
+  Larva,                                 4
+  Lasiorhynchus,                        32
+    "  barbicornis,                     32
+  Laurel bottle,                        12
+  Lepidoptera,                       6, 65
+  Lestes colensonis,                   104
+  Leucania,                             78
+    "  atristriga,                      78
+    "  nullifera,                       77
+  Libanasa macropathus,                113
+  Libellulidæ,                         103
+  Light, insects at,                    14
+  Locusta,                             116
+    "  migratoria (?),                 116
+  Locustidæ,                           115
+  Longicornia,                          30
+  Lower lip,                             2
+  Lucanidæ,                             26
+  Luminous larva,                       49
+  Lycænidæ,                             68
+  Lycæna,                               69
+    "  phoebe,                          69
+
+  Mamestra,                             79
+    "  composita,                       80
+    "  mutans,                          79
+    "  ustistriga,                      81
+  Mandibles,                             2
+  Mantidæ,                             109
+  Maxillae,                              2
+  Mayflies,                            105
+  Melampsalta,                         118
+  Melolonthidæ,                         26
+  Melolontha,                           27
+    "  vulgaris,                        27
+  Mesothorax,                            2
+  Mesonotum,                             2
+  Mesosternum,                           2
+  Metamorphosis,                         4
+  Metablax,                             29
+    "  acutipennis,                     29
+  Metathorax,                            2
+  Migrations of ants,                   37
+  Miltogramma,                          59
+    "  mestor?,                         59
+  Mosquito,                             40
+  Moths,                                69
+    "  setting,                         12
+  Musca,                                61
+    "  cæsar,                           61
+    "  domestica,                       61
+  Muscidæ,                              59
+  Mycetophila,                          46
+    "  antarctica,                      46
+  Myrmeleontidæ,                        99
+
+  Nemocera,                             40
+  Nemorea,                              59
+    "  nyctemerianus,                   59
+  Nervous system,                        4
+  Net,                                  11
+  Neuroptera,                        7, 99
+  Nitidulidæ,                           23
+  Noctuidæ,                             77
+  Notonectidæ,                         120
+  Notonecta,                           121
+    "  glauca,                         121
+  Nyctemera,                            73
+    "  annulata,                        73
+  Nymphalidæ,                           65
+
+  Oeceticus,                            74
+    "  omnivorus,                       74
+  Oecophora,                            97
+    "  scholæa,                         97
+  Oedipoda,                            115
+    "  cinerascens,                    115
+  Oestridæ,                             63
+  Oestrus,                              63
+    "  perplexus,                       63
+  Ochrocydus,                           31
+    "  huttoni,                         31
+  Orders,                                5
+  Oreda,                                31
+    "  notata,                          31
+  Orthoptera,                       7, 103
+  Ovipositor,                           38
+  Oxyethira,                            99
+    "  albiceps,                        99
+
+  Painted Lady Butterfly,               67
+  Palpi,                                 2
+  Parasites,                            59
+  Periplaneta,                         109
+    "  fortipes,                       109
+    "  orientalis,                     109
+    "  undulivitta,                    109
+  Perla,                               107
+    "  cyrene,                         107
+  Perlidæ,                             106
+  Phasmidæ,                            110
+  Philonthus,                           25
+    "  oeneus,                          25
+  Phora,                                62
+    "  omnivora,                        62
+  Phryganidæ,                           99
+  Pinning insects,                      12
+  Pins,                                 13
+  Plant-lice,                          118
+  Ploseria,                             85
+    "  alectoraria,                     86
+    "  hemipteraria,                    85
+  Plusia,                               82
+    "  eriosoma,                        82
+    "  gamma,                           83
+  Pompilus,                             34
+    "  fugax,                           34
+    "    "   and spider,                35
+  Porina,                               69
+    "  signata,                         69
+    "  cervinata,                       69
+    "  umbraculata,                     69
+  Ponera,                               36
+    "  castanea,                        36
+  Prionidæ,                             30
+  Prionus,                              30
+    "  reticularis,                     30
+  Pronotum,                              2
+  Prothorax,                             2
+  Prosternum,                            2
+  Proventriculus,                        4
+  Psepholax,                            31
+    "  coronatus,                       31
+  Psocidæ,                             107
+  Psocus,                              107
+    "  zealandicus,                    107
+  Psychidæ,                             74
+  Psychoda,                             46
+    "  conspicillata,                   46
+  Pteromalus,                           37
+  Pterostichus,                         21
+    "  opulentus,                       21
+  Pulicina,                             64
+  Pupa,                                  4
+  Pupipara,                             64
+  Pyralidæ,                             92
+  Pyrameis,                             66
+  Pyronota,                             28
+    "  festiva,                         28
+
+  Queens,                               34
+
+  Rearing Insects,                      15
+  Rhopalocera,                          65
+  Rhyncophora,                          31
+  Rhyphus,                              51
+    "  neozealandicus,                  51
+
+  Sandfly,                              53
+  Sarcophaga,                           61
+    "  læmica,                          61
+  Sarapogon,                            55
+    "  viduus,                          55
+  Scutelleridæ,                        121
+  Scolobates,                           39
+    "  varipes,                         39
+  Scoparia,                             92
+    "  hemiplaca,                       92
+    "  sabulosella,                     93
+  Selidosema,                           87
+    "  dejectaria,                      87
+    "  panagrata,                       89
+    "  productata,                      90
+  Sestra,                               87
+    "  humeraria,                       87
+  Setting boards,                       12
+    "  insects,                         12
+  Semiocosma,                           97
+    "  platyptera,                      97
+  Sialidæ,                             102
+  Siculidæ,                             94
+  Siculodes,                            94
+    "  subfasciata,                     94
+  Simple eyes,                           2
+  Simulia,                              53
+    "  australiensis,                   53
+  Skipjack beetles,                     29
+  Social bees,                          34
+  Soldiers,                            108
+  Sphegidæ,                             34
+  Sphinx,                               69
+    "  convolvuli,                      69
+  Sphingidæ,                            69
+  Staphylinus,                          25
+    "  oculatus,                        25
+  Stenoperla,                          106
+    "  prasina,                        106
+  Stenosmylus,                         101
+    "  incisus,                        101
+  Stick insects,                       110
+  Sternoxi,                             28
+  Stethaspis,                           26
+    "  suturalis,                       26
+  Stolotermes,                         107
+    "  ruficeps,                       107
+  Stomach,                               4
+    "  sucking,                          4
+  Stuffing insects,                     15
+  Stratiomidæ,                          56
+  Sugaring,                             13
+  Syrphidæ,                             56
+  Syrphus,                              56
+    "  ortas,                           56
+
+  Tabanus,                              54
+    "  impar,                           54
+  Tatosoma,                             91
+    "  agrionata,                       91
+  Tarsus,                                3
+  Telebasis,                           105
+    "  zealandica,                     105
+  Tenebrionidæ,                         29
+  Tenodera,                            109
+    "  intermedia,                     109
+  Termitidæ,                           107
+  Thoramus,                             28
+    "  wakefieldi,                      28
+    "  perblandus,                      29
+  Thorax,                                2
+  Throat,                                4
+  Tinea,                                96
+    "  tapezella,                       96
+  Tineidæ,                              96
+  Tipula,                               47
+    "  holochlora,                      47
+    "  fumipennis,                      48
+  Tipulidæ,                             43
+  Tortricidæ,                           94
+  Trap-door,                            71
+  Trochanter,                            3
+
+  Uloma tenebrionides,                  29
+  Umbrella,                              9
+  Uropetala carovei,                   103
+
+  Vanessa cardui,                       67
+    "  gonerilla,                       66
+    "  itea,                            67
+  Vegetable caterpillar,                73
+  Ventriculus,                           4
+
+  Weevils,                              32
+  White rata,                           13
+  Wings,                                 4
+  Wireworm,                             30
+  Wood destroyers,                      30
+  Workers,                             108
+
+  Xantholinus,                          26
+  Xiphidium maoricum,                  114
+
+
+
+
+{129}EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
+
+
+_NOTE.--In all the Plates and references thereto the sign_ [M] _indicates
+that the specimen figured belongs to the male sex,_ [F] _to the female sex,
+and_ [N] _to the neuter sex._
+
+_In the case of enlarged figures the insect's natural size is indicated by
+a line._
+
+
+
+  PLATE I.
+
+  COLEOPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Cicindela tuberculata.
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   2.--Chætosoma scaritides.
+   "   3.--Pterostichus opulentus.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Colymbetes rufimanus.
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   5.--Staphylinus oculatus.
+   "   6.--Dryocora howittii.
+   "   6a.--Larva.
+   "   7.--Dorcus punctulatus.
+   "   8.--Stethaspis suturalis.
+   "   8a.--Larva.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE II.
+
+  COLEOPTERA (_concluded_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Thoramus wakefieldi.
+   "   1a.--Pupa.
+   "   1b.--Larva.
+   "   2.--Uloma tenebrionides.
+   "   2a.--Larva.
+   "   2b.--Pupa.
+   "   3.--Prionus reticularis.
+   "   3a.--Pupa.
+   "   3b.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Oreda notata.
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   5.--Psepholax coronatus [F].
+   "   5a.--   "          "    [M].
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE III.
+
+  HYMENOPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Dasycolletes hirtipes. (?)
+   "   2.--Pompilus fugax.
+   "   3.--Formica zealandica [M].
+   "   3a.--  "        "      [F].
+   "   3b.--  "        "      [N].
+   "   3c.--Cocoon.
+   "   4.--Ponera castanea [M].
+   "   4a.--  "      "     [N].
+   "   4b.--Larva.
+   "   5.--Atta antarctica [M].
+   "   5a.-- "      "      [F].
+   "   5b.--Larva.
+   "   6.--Ichneumon sollicitorius.
+   "   7.--    "     deceptus.
+   "   8.--Scolobates varipes.
+   "   9.--Pteromalus (?), n.s.
+   "   10.--Dasycolletes purpureus.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE IV.
+
+  DIPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Culex iracundus [F].
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   1b.--Pupa.
+   "   2.--Chironomus zealandicus, n.s.
+   "   2a.--Larva.
+   "   2b.--Pupa.
+   "   3.--Corethra antarctica, n.s.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   3b.--Pupa.
+   "   4.--Ceratopogon antipodum, n.s.
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   4b.--Pupa.
+   "   5.--Mycetophila antarctica, n.s.
+   "   5a.--Larva.
+   "   5b.--Pupa.
+   "   6.--Psychoda conspicillata.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE V.
+
+  DIPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Tipula holochlora.
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   1b.--Pupa.
+   "   2.--Tipula fumipennis, n.s.
+   "   2a.--Larva.
+   "   2b.--Pupa.
+   "   3.--Cloniophora subfasciata.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Rhyphus neozealandicus.
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   4b.--Pupa.
+   "   5.--Bibio nigrostigma [M].
+   "   5a.--Larva.
+   "   5b.--Pupa.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE VI.
+
+  DIPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Simulia australiensis.
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   1b.--Pupa.
+   "   2.--Comptosia bicolor.
+   "   3.--Comptosia virida, n.s.
+   "   3b.--Pupa.
+   "   4.--Sarapogon viduus.
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   4b.--Pupa.
+   "   5.--Exaireta spiniger.
+   "   6.--Tabanus impar.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE VII.
+
+  DIPTERA (_concluded_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Helophilus trilineatus.
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   1b.--Pupa.
+   "   2.--Eristalis cingulatus.
+   "   3.--Syrphus ortas.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   3b.--Pupa.
+   "   4.--Acrocera longirostris, n.s.
+   "   5.--Miltogramma mestor?
+   "   6.--Nemorea nyctemerianus, n.s.
+   "   7.--Eurigaster marginatus.
+   "   9.--Calliphora quadrimaculata.
+   "  10.--Sarcophaga læmica.
+   "  12.--Oestrus perplexus, n.s.
+   "  13.--Coelopa littoralis.
+   "  14.--Cylindria sigma.
+   "  15.--Phora omnivora, n.s.
+   "  15a.--Pupa.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE VIII.
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Argyrophenga antipodum.
+   "   1a.--Northern form of same insect.
+   "   2.--Vanessa gonerilla.
+   "   2a.--Underside.
+   "   2b, 2c.--Larvæ.
+   "   2d, 2e.--Pupæ.
+   "   3.--Chrysophanus salustius [M].
+   "   3a.--     "          "     [F].
+   "   3b.--Young larva (magnified).
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE IX.
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Hepialus virescens [M].
+   "   1a.--  "         "     [F].
+   "   1b.--Pupa.
+   "   1c.--Larva.
+   "   2.--Porina signata.
+   "   3.--Nyctemera annulata [M].
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   3b.--Pupa.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE X.
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Oeceticus omnivorus [M].
+   "   1a.--  "        "       [F].
+   "   1b.--Larva.
+   "   1c.--Male pupa.
+   "   2.--Leucania atristriga [M].
+   "   3.--Mamestra composita [M].
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Heliothis armigera [M].
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   5.--Erana graminosa [M].
+   "   5a.--Larva.
+   "   6.--Mamestra ustistriga, [M].
+   "   7.--   "     mutans [M].
+   "   7a.--Larva.
+   "   7b.--Pupa.
+   "   8.--Plusia eriosoma [F].
+   "   8a.--Larva.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XI.
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Declana floccosa [M].
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   1b.--Declana floccosa, _var._ junctilinea [M].
+   "   2.--Chalastra pelurgata [M].
+   "   2a.--   "        "      [F].
+   "   2b.--Larva.
+   "   3.--Ploseria hemipteraria.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Ploseria alectoraria.
+           (Larva at Plate XIII. fig. 7.)
+   "   5.--Sestra humeraria.
+   "   5a.--Larva.
+   "   6.--Sestra humeraria, _var._ (?)
+   "   7.--Selidosema panagrata [M].
+   "   7a.--    "       "       [F].
+   "   7b.--Larva.
+   "   8.--Selidosema dejectaria [M].
+   "   8a.--    "         "      [F].
+   "   8b.--Larva.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XII.
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Selidosema productata [M].
+   "   1a.--    "         "      [F].
+   "   1b.--Larva.
+   "   2.--Asthena schistaria.
+   "   2a.--Larva.
+   "   3.--Siculodes subfasciata.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   3b.--Section of stem showing enclosed pupa and
+            aperture (*) through which moth escapes.
+   "   4.--Scoparia hemiplaca.
+   "   5.--Crambus flexuosellus.
+   "   6.--Ctenopseustis obliquana.
+   "   7.--Endrosis fenestrella.
+   "   7a.--Larva.
+   "   7b.--Pupa.
+   "   8.--Semiocosma platyptera.
+   "   8a.--Larva.
+   "   8b.--Pupa.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XIII.
+
+  LEPIDOPTERA (_concluded_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Hydriomena deltoidata.
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   2.--Isonomeutis amauropa.
+   "   2a.--Larva.
+   "   3.--Leucania nullifera.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Scoparia sabulosella.
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+   "   5.--Cacoecia excessana.
+   "   5a.--Larva.
+   "   6.--Oecophora scholæa.
+   "   6a.--Larva.
+   "   7.--Larva of Ploseria alectoraria.
+        (For imago see Plate XI. Fig. 4.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XIV.
+
+  NEUROPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Chauliodes diversus.
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   1b.--Pupa.
+   "   2.--Stenosmylus incisus.
+   "   3.--Oxyethira albiceps. (?)
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   3b.--Pupa.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XV.
+
+  ORTHOPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Uropetala carovei [M].
+   "   1a.--Larva.
+   "   2.--Cordulia Smithii [M].
+   "   3.--Lestes Colensonis [M].
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Telebasis zealandica
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XVI.
+
+  ORTHOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Stolotermes ruficeps [M].
+   "   1a.--Female.
+   "   1b.--Soldier.
+   "   1c.--Worker.
+   "   2.--Psocus zealandicus, n.s.
+   "   2a.--Larva.
+   "   3.--Stenoperla prasina.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   4.--Ephemera, n.s. (near Coloburus).
+   "   4a.--Larva.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XVII.
+
+  ORTHOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Xiphidium maoricum [M].
+   "   2.--Tenodera intermedia.
+   "   3.--Oedipoda cinerascens.
+   "   4.--Caloptenus marginalis.
+   "   5.--Periplaneta fortipes.
+   "   6.--Blatta conjuncta.
+   "   7.--Forficesila littorea.
+   "   8.--Deinacrida megacephala [F].
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XVIII.
+
+  ORTHOPTERA (_continued_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Acheta fuliginosa [F].
+   "   2.--Deinacrida megacephala [M].
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XIX.
+
+  ORTHOPTERA (_concluded_).
+
+  Fig. 1.--Acanthoderus horridus.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+  PLATE XX.
+
+  HEMIPTERA.
+
+  Fig. 1.--Cicada cingulata [F].
+   "   1a.--Pupa.
+   "   2.--Cicada muta [F].
+   "   3.--  "    iolanthe, n.s.
+   "   3a.--Larva.
+   "   3b.--Pupa.
+   "   4.--Coelostoma zealandicum [M].
+   "   5.--Corixa zealandica.
+   "   6.--Cermatulus nasalis.
+   "   6a.--Larva.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+Notes.
+
+ [1] For Lepidoptera I can strongly recommend "Jahncke's Patent Round
+     Boxes" with glass lids. They may be obtained from any chemist, or from
+     Messrs. Sharland & Co., Wholesale Druggists, Wellington.
+
+ [2] Metrosideros scandens.
+
+ [3] Hyperparasite is an animal parasitic in a parasite.
+
+ [4] "Host" is a term applied to any animal harbouring a parasite.
+
+ [5] Ovipositor, a boring instrument employed in depositing the eggs.
+
+ [6] A genus of Hemipterous insects commonly seen skipping over ponds in
+     England.
+
+ [7] "n.s." is the accepted abbreviation for new species.
+
+ [8] Thread-like.
+
+ [9] For an extended account of these observations see "Transactions of the
+     New Zealand Institute," vol. xxiii. (1890).
+
+[10] Metrosideros scandens.
+
+[11] Or lay eggs.
+
+[12] Scutellum: A horny plate situated on the mesonotum, usually somewhat
+     triangular in form.
+
+[13] For life-history of this insect see page 73.
+
+[14] Mamestra composita, M. mutans, M. ustistriga, Erana graminosa, &c.
+
+[15] This genus, as represented in New Zealand, is often called Pyrameis.
+
+[16] For a more detailed account of the metamorphosis of this insect see
+     _The Entomologist_, vol. xviii. p. 30.
+
+[17] For accounts of parasites and hyperparasites of this insect see pages
+     60 and 37, also _The Entomologist_, vol. xviii. p. 153.
+
+[18] On one occasion I enclosed a full-grown caterpillar of this insect in
+     a pot of earth with a recently formed Noctua pupa, whose internal
+     portions it immediately devoured, employing the empty shell of the
+     unfortunate chrysalis as a cocoon. It is impossible to say whether
+     this horrible proceeding often occurs in a state of nature.
+
+[19] The _Libellulidæ_, _Ephemeridæ_, _Perlidæ_, _Psocidæ_, and _Termitidæ_
+     are usually included in the _Neuroptera_.
+
+[20] One mutilated [F] specimen of this insect was sent to Mr. McLachlan,
+     but was too imperfect to describe from.
+
+[21] For account of the earlier stages of this, or a closely allied insect,
+     see "Transactions of New Zealand Institute," vol. xvi. p. 114.
+
+[22] This genus is frequently called Melampsalta.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+Corrections made to printed text
+
+P. 110: 'similar situation' corrected from 'similiar ...'.
+
+P. 114: 'to speak from experience' corrected from 'to tpeak ...'.
+
+Index: 'Chætosoma scaritides' corrected from '... scaratides'.
+
+Footnote [19]: 'Neuroptera' corrected from 'Neuropteria'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Elementary Manual of New Zealand
+Entomology, by G. V. Hudson
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44096 ***