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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of China in America, by Stewart Culin
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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-
-Title: China in America
-       A study in the social life of the Chinese in the eastern
-       cities of the United States
-
-Author: Stewart Culin
-
-Release Date: August 8, 2013 [EBook #43421]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ASCII
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINA IN AMERICA ***
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-Produced by Juliet Sutherland, David Garcia and the Online
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-[Illustration: Map of the Province of Kwantung]
-
-
-
-
-
-
-China in America:
-
-  A STUDY IN THE
-  Social Life of the Chinese
-  IN THE
-  Eastern Cities of the United States.
-
-BY STEWART CULIN.
-
-
-READ BEFORE THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
-(SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY), AT THE THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, NEW YORK, 1887.
-
-
-PHILADELPHIA: 1887.
-
-
-
-
-Social Life of the Chinese
-
-IN THE EASTERN CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES
-
-
-The Chinese laborers in America all come from the departments of Kwangchau
-and Shauking, in the province of Kwantung.
-
-They describe themselves as _Punti_ or "natives," as distinguished from
-the tribes called _Hakka_ or "strangers," and divide themselves into
-the people of the _Sam Yup_ ("Three Towns") and those of the _Sz' Yup_
-("Four Towns"), the former from the three districts of Nanhai (1),[1]
-Pw'anyu (2), and Shunteh (3), and the latter from the four districts
-of Sinhwui (4), Sinning (5), Kaiping (6), and Nganping (7). Others from
-the district of Hohshan (8) include themselves with those from the
-_Sz' Yup_, and there are a few from each of the districts of Tungkwan
-(9), Hiangshan (10), Sanshwui (11), and Sinngan (12).
-
-The tract embraced in these districts is little more than 100 miles
-square, but it exhibits much diversity in its natural features, the
-northern and western parts being high and mountainous, while those
-approaching the coast are low and covered with small hills, and the
-entire region is well watered by numerous large rivers and tributary
-streams. Large towns and cities, many of them the seat of important
-manufactures, are found within its limits. The coast is studded with
-numerous small islands and furnished with safe and commodious harbors.
-
-The people of the different districts show distinctive peculiarities,
-both in speech and customs. Those from Nanhai and Pw'anyu, the
-districts within which the city of Canton is situated, partake of the
-manners of its inhabitants, although few here are from the capital
-itself, and their language differs little from the dialect of Canton as
-transcribed by Dr. Williams. The _Sz' Yup_ people, particularly those
-from the maritime district of Sinning, who comprise the greater part,
-are ruder and more adventurous than those from nearer the capital, and
-their speech can only be understood with difficulty by the inhabitants
-of the Provincial City.
-
-The immigrants are much influenced by local traditions and those from
-different sections keep much to themselves. They establish separate
-shops when their numbers warrant it, as well as assembly-rooms and
-guild-halls. The Six Companies in San Francisco, under which nearly all
-of the Chinese in the United States are enrolled, are the guilds formed
-in this manner by the emigrants from different parts of the province.
-
-The ties of kindred, preserved with so much care in China, are recognized
-here, and many of the immigrants claim relationship. People of the
-same village naturally drift together, and as all the inhabitants of a
-Chinese village frequently belong to the same clan and bear the same
-name, it happens that many members of the same family are often found
-associated here, the numbers of any particular family varying much,
-however, in different localities. Some thirty or forty of these clans
-only are represented among the Chinese in our Eastern cities. A Chinese
-storekeeper in Philadelphia has furnished me with the following list
-of the names and numbers of each clan among some four hundred and fifty
-of his acquaintances in that city. It will be observed that the _Li_
-clan outnumbers any other. In New York city, the Chius predominate,
-numbering some five hundred souls.
-
-
-  [Chinese: Au]    _Au_, 4 or 5.
-  [Chinese: Chan]  _Ch'an_, 30.
-  [Chinese: Chau]  _Chau_, 15.
-  [Chinese: Chang] _Cheung_, 20.
-  [Chinese: Cheng] _Ching_, 2 or 3.
-  [Chinese: Chiu]  _Chiu_, 10.
-  [Chinese: Zhong] _Chung_, 30.
-  [Chinese: Feng]  _Fung_, 10.
-  [Chinese: He]    _Ho_, 20.
-  [Chinese: Lam]   _Lam_, 10.
-  [Chinese: Lee]   _Li_, 120.
-  [Chinese: Law]   _Lo_, 2 or 3.
-  [Chinese: Lu]    _Lue_, 10.
-  [Chinese: Ma]    _Ma_, 4 or 5.
-  [Chinese: Mack]  _Mak_, 15.
-  [Chinese: Mei]   _Mui_, 80.
-  [Chinese: Ng]    _'Ng_, 4 or 5.
-  [Chinese: Eng]   _'Ng_, 4 or 5.
-  [Chinese: Tan]   _T'am_, 6.
-  [Chinese: Dang]  _Tang_, 6.
-  [Chinese: Hu]    _U_, 4 or 5.
-  [Chinese: Yee]   _Ue_, 10.
-  [Chinese: Wang]  _Wong_, 10.
-  [Chinese: Wong]  _Wong_, 20.
-  [Chinese: Ngan]  _Yan_, 1 or 2.
-  [Chinese: Yang]  _Yeung_, 4 or 5.
-  [Chinese: Yik]   _Yik_, 1 or 2.
-
-
-The members of a clan unite when necessary for mutual defense or to
-redress a wrong done to one of their number; the ties and obligations of
-the clan, however, are much stronger among the Sinning people than those
-of the northern districts. Very slight disagreements between individuals
-among them are frequently taken up by their respective families and made
-the subjects of long and bitter quarrels--meetings are held, large sums
-of money subscribed, and feuds perpetuated that may have been carried
-on for ages at home.
-
-The immigrants are nearly all agriculturists, with a small sprinkling
-of artisans and shopkeepers, some of whom have served an apprenticeship
-in Canton or Hong Kong after leaving their native villages. They are
-nearly all single men, who left their homes at an early age before the
-usual time among them for contracting marriages.[2] Some have wives and
-children in China, and many of the more successful go home to marry and
-then return again to America; but wives and children are never brought
-with them, and there are few native women among them, except in San
-Francisco and the cities of the western coast.
-
-The first considerable emigration of Chinese to America occurred at the
-time of the discovery of gold in California in 1849. Many then sought
-their fortunes there, and the stream of emigration, once started, was
-much increased by the disturbed condition of the southern provinces
-during the next decade. The Triad Society, a secret order opposed to
-the present Manchu dynasty, seized upon the time when the government was
-engaged in combating the Tai Ping rebellion in the north and raised an
-insurrection. This was subdued, but with much bloodshed, and thousands
-of the rebels sought refuge in America, with many others who were ruined
-by the outbreak.
-
-The first appearance of the Chinese in any numbers in our Eastern cities
-dates from about the year 1870. Before that time an occasional Chinaman
-found his way here as cook or steward on some incoming vessel, and a
-little colony of such waifs had already established itself in the city
-of New York.
-
-Upon the completion of the Union Pacific Railway, thousands of Chinese
-were thrown out of employment. In the absence of women in the mining
-camps they found a remunerative occupation in the laundry business, and
-before 1869 they had obtained almost a monopoly of that occupation in the
-West. Shortly before this time, a Mr. Thomas engaged fifty San Francisco
-Chinese to work in his laundry at Belleville, New Jersey. They quickly
-discovered, upon their arrival, the field presented by the neighboring
-cities for their work, and the news spread rapidly to California and
-even to China itself.[3] Thousands of Chinese came to the East, until at
-present there is scarcely a town throughout the whole extent of country
-where one or more may not be found, while in the large cities colonies
-have been formed, in which much of their primitive life has been
-re-established, and an opportunity presented for the observation and study
-of these interesting people at our very doors.
-
-Little capital is required to start a laundry, one hundred dollars being
-usually sufficient, and several men frequently associate themselves
-together and share the profits between them. The owners should each
-clear from twenty-five to seventy dollars per month, while the hired
-laborers are paid from twenty-five to thirty dollars per month, with
-their board and lodging. They rise at daybreak and work until their
-task is finished, often until far into the night. Two meals a day are
-provided for them, one at about nine in the morning and another between
-four and five in the afternoon. These consist of rice, fish and pork,
-and certain vegetables, and are abundant and palatable. One of the men
-in the laundry acts as cook, an avocation for which all the immigrants
-seem to show much aptitude. Sunday and Monday are generally observed as
-holidays, work being resumed on Monday night. The Chinese New Year is
-the season for a holiday lasting for nearly a week, and at this time,
-as upon the occasion of several other principal Chinese festivals,
-employers are expected to provide a special dinner for their laborers.
-
-The occupation of the laundrymen, both as owner and employee, is a
-profitable one, but their incessant toil, with their aptitude for
-combination and freedom from many of the expenses which the family
-relation entails upon all other classes, may be regarded as the secrets
-of this success.
-
-The store is the centre around which life in a Chinese colony revolves.
-As soon as several men have collected in a town or city, one of them will
-send to the nearest place of supply and purchase such Chinese groceries
-and other wares as may be needed by the colony. These he will sell to
-his comrades, without at first discontinuing his usual avocation. If
-the colony increases in numbers he may rent a small store and with the
-assistance of some of his friends form a store company. Several men
-are usually associated in such enterprises, one of whom will be placed
-in charge as manager. A general assortment of Chinese merchandise is
-obtained, either from New York or San Francisco or direct from China
-itself, and an auspicious name is selected for the company and prominently
-displayed without the store door.
-
-In a short time this place becomes the resort of all the Chinese in the
-colony, many of whom may have a small money interest in the concern. They
-have provisions and clothes to buy; news of the outside world and of
-their own homes may be learned here; and, besides, there is a couch
-provided for opium smoking, which the immigrant, with newly acquired money
-to spend, readily practices as the first dissipation at hand. In time
-the shop-keeper, knowing the advantage of increasing the attractions of
-his place, may procure a tolerably skillful cook and open a restaurant
-in an upper story of his building; but at first this will only be kept
-open on Sundays and holidays.
-
-Other opportunities for making money will not be lost sight of. The
-cellar will be fitted up with bunks for opium smoking, and tables covered
-with matting for the convenience of those who desire to play dominoes;
-and the profit on the opium consumed and the portion of the winnings
-set aside for the use of the tables soon constitute a more important
-source of revenue than the store itself.
-
-Thus many interests besides those of the dealer in clothes and
-provisions grow up under the roof of the little shop. Often a doctor,
-some poor and broken-down student, dispenses medicines from a supply
-of drugs ranged along one side of the store; the itinerant barber,
-an indispensable personage, makes it a place of call; letters for the
-colony are directed in care of the store; public notices are written
-on tablets of red paper and pasted beside the door; Chinese newspapers,
-both of San Francisco and the native ports, are received; and here,
-too, interpreters are to be found, who conduct negotiations and adjust
-differences with the outside world.
-
-As the colony increases in numbers, a kind of society reorganizes,
-and though at first it may have been composed of laborers engaged as
-laundrymen or cigar-makers, many of them in time find other employments
-tributary to the mass, and take up their former occupations or new ones
-most congenial to them. The modifications and divergences of this society
-from that of the Chinese at home, due to the absence of native women and
-the influence of the different and aggressive civilization around it,
-present an interesting field for study.
-
-Time will not permit me to dwell upon even the characteristic features
-of the social life of the Chinese in our cities, but there are certain
-questions connected with their mental characteristics and religious
-belief which a somewhat prolonged contact with those people enables me,
-more or less imperfectly, to answer.
-
-Much misconception exists as to character of the Chinese who emigrate
-to America. They are generally described as the dregs of their people,
-given up to gambling and opium smoking and distinguished only by their
-vices. Some, however, who have observed their constant toil, the readiness
-with which they accept instruction in our language, and their willingness
-to profess a belief in such religious teaching as is at the same time
-offered to them, have greatly exaggerated their moral and mental
-qualities; while others who have questioned them, in the spirit of
-philosophical inquiry, concerning their religious belief and their
-knowledge of Confucius and the sages of antiquity, usually in terms quite
-unintelligible to them, have declared that the popular opinion as to their
-ignorance is well founded, and that they have little in common with
-the class of scholars and philosophers who have dignified and adorned
-the pages of Chinese history from the dawn of their civilization down
-to the present time.
-
-Nearly all the Chinese in America have passed some of their early years
-at school, where they learned to write a few of the many characters of
-their language, and to read it with more or less facility. This is the
-case even among the Sinning people, few of whom go up at home to the
-district examinations, and among whom, even in China, there are few
-literary graduates or persons of distinction--a condition due not so
-much to their lack of natural ability, as to the extreme and grinding
-poverty to which they are subjected.
-
-Among those from Hohshan and the country adjacent to the city of
-Canton are found many of considerable attainments; not men who would be
-considered scholars at home, or who have even obtained the degree of
-_siu-tsai_ that constitutes the first step to advancement, but clerks
-who are able to read and understand much of the abstruse classical
-literature of their country, and whose sympathies and traditions are
-allied with those of the great literary aristocracy by which their
-nation is dominated. Many of their country people have attained eminence
-in the past, and the lists of the successful graduates at the Triennial
-Examinations at Canton, which are received and posted in the shops here,
-frequently contain names not only of students from their native villages,
-but of their own cousins and kindred.
-
-This class forms a small part, however, of the great mass of the
-immigrants, and their literary ambitions are soon lost here in the
-struggle for existence, for which they seem less fitted than many of
-their ruder neighbors.
-
-The latter appear to be little influenced by the classical instruction
-of the schools. While the books of the sages and philosophers constitute
-the literature, _par excellence_, of China, there exists a vast popular
-literature, quasi-historical, imaginative, and romantic, which is read
-by the mass of the people and more directly controls their minds than
-the teachings of Confucius and his disciples. Within it are enshrined
-the popular traditions and folk-tales, in many other countries as yet
-handed down orally, here amplified and embellished, and although written
-in the vulgar tongue, receiving many charms from their beauties of style
-and literary execution. Stories of the magician _Chau Kung_, of the
-heroic _Kwan Kung_, long since deified as the God of War; of _Muk Kwai
-Ying_, that martial heroine of Chinese historical romance, with tales of
-the _Pat Sin_ (the Eight Genii), and Buddhist legends without number,
-all go to make up this intermingled mass of romance and tradition.
-
-These wonder tales have fallen upon no incredulous ears in the
-past. Accustomed to attribute almost every phenomenon of nature to the
-intervention of supernatural powers, to people every rock and tree with
-its familiar spirit, "to hear the menace of a god in the thunder, and
-see the beneficence of a deity in the rain," they have had little reason
-to question the truth of stories in which the occult and supernatural
-plays little greater part than it daily appears to in the course of
-their own lives.
-
-Their religion is not a system which we can define as that of Tao,
-Buddha, or Confucius, although all these have contributed to give form
-to ceremonies and observances; the worship of the spirits of the dead,
-with a kind of fetichism even more primitive, constitutes the principal
-element of their belief.
-
-We may discover traces of Buddhistic teachings in their worship of Kwan
-Yin, in their ideas as to the transmigration of souls, and in their
-abstinence from eating beef; of Taoism, in the spiritual hierarchy under
-which all of their gods, buddhas, and demons are made to find a place,
-and of the Literary Cult, in those methods of divination and forms of
-worship, still practiced as in the times of Confucius and the sages,
-by whom they were recorded; but deeper and stronger than these is their
-belief in the continued presence of the spirits of the dead and their
-controlling influence upon the fortune and destiny of the living. Such
-ceremonies as are observed by the Chinese here have for their object the
-propitiation and expulsion of these phantoms; prayers and offerings are
-made to higher powers, but their aid is invoked for protection against
-the spirits of the dead and those malignant forces in nature with which
-they are believed to be often associated.
-
-Contact with our civilization must bring with it a more correct conception
-of the physical universe and dissipate many of these illusions. A
-knowledge of our sciences will give China a new place in history, and
-we cannot fail to look with interest upon these first representatives
-of its capable and extraordinary people among us, who may some day play
-no small part in the awakening of their country to a knowledge of the
-resources of the Western World.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-[Footnote 1: The accompanying map of the province of Kwantung is reproduced
-from the Ho Hoh T'ung Shu ("the Concord Almanac") for the year 1855. The
-situations of the several districts mentioned in the text are indicated
-by corresponding figures in red upon the map. The scale of the map is
-about eighty-five miles to the inch.]
-
-[Footnote 2: Hon. George F. Seward, _Chinese Immigration in its Social
-and Economical Aspects_, New York, 1881, p. 191.]
-
-[Footnote 3: _The Chinese in New York, The New York Daily Tribune, June
-21, 1885._]
-
-[Transcriber's Note: The pinyin representations used in the first column
-of the table of names are using modern standards.]
-
-
-
-
-
-
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