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diff --git a/42547-0.txt b/42547-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..de1d3e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/42547-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4962 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42547 *** + +Transcriber's Note: + +Inconsistent numbering of figures and references to figures have been +retained as in the original publication. + + + + +[Illustration: A Specimen of Woodburytype Printing.] + + + + +THE ART AND PRACTICE OF SILVER PRINTING. + + BY + H. P. ROBINSON & CAPT. ABNEY, R.E., F.R.S. + + THE AMERICAN EDITION, + + NEW YORK: + E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., NO. 591 BROADWAY. + 1881. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Silver printing has been often doomed, but it still survives. Other +processes of photographic printing have been introduced, nearly all of +them having their individual merits, especially that of permanency, but +all lacking in two essential qualities--ease of production and beauty +of result. In these particulars no process has ever approached the one +to the working of which this little book is devoted. The one defect of +silver printing is the possibility of its results fading; but surely +it is better to be beautiful, if fading, than permanent and ugly. It +is better to be charmed with a beautiful thing for a few years, than +be bored by an ugly one for ever. But is silver printing necessarily +a fading process? We have in our possession a large number of silver +photographs produced from twenty to twenty-five years ago, which are +as perfect in tone and colour as when they were produced. Carefully +prepared, and properly kept, a silver print should be as permanent as +any other. That silver prints should be permanent as well as beautiful, +has been the object of + + THE AUTHORS. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I.--Preliminary Experiments 1 + + II.--Preparation of Albumenized Paper 6 + + III.--The Sensitizing Bath 13 + + IV.--How to Keep the Sensitizing Bath in Order 20 + + V.--Silvering the Paper 26 + + VI.--Washed Sensitive Paper 31 + + VII.--Cutting Paper 36 + + VIII.--Printing-Frames 42 + + IX.--Preparing the Landscape Negative 45 + + X.--Printing the Landscape 49 + + XI.--Preparing the Portrait Negative 57 + + XII.--Vignetting 60 + + XIII.--Printing the Portrait 69 + + XIV.--Combination Printing 74 + + XV.--Toning 85 + + XVI.--Fixing the Print 92 + + XVII.--Washing the Print 95 + + XVIII.--Printing on Plain Paper 99 + + XIX.--Printing on Resinized Paper 100 + + XX.--Printing on Gelatino-Chloride Emulsion Paper 103 + + XXI.--Drying the Prints 105 + + XXII.--Mounting Photographs 110 + + XXIII.--Defects in Prints 115 + + XXIV.--Encaustic Paste 117 + + XXV.--Enamelling Prints 119 + + XXVI.--Cameo Prints 121 + + Appendix 123 + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THEORY OF SILVER PRINTING. + + +Perhaps it may be wise, first of all, to give the reader some account +of the manner in which the subject of silver printing is to be treated, +before entering into very minute details, so that it may be followed +as a whole, instead of being studied in fragments, a course which is +sure to lead to failure, from a want of comprehending what may have +been skipped. To understand "the why" and "the wherefore" of every +detail is an essential in most occupations, and it is wonderful that +photographers are satisfied with the results of rule-of-thumb formulæ, +instead of reasoning out their utility. In the following pages most of +the theoretical considerations will be brought out in such a manner that +everyone will be able to understand them, provided only that there is a +slight acquaintance with the name and properties of the chemicals which +are dealt with. + + +PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS. + +Into a glass beaker put a couple of pinches of common salt, which must +be dissolved in a little water. + +In a test-tube[1] dissolve about an equal amount of silver nitrate +(AgNO_{3}), and add it to the salt solution. We shall find that we +have an immediate precipitate, for chloride of silver will be formed +by what is called double[2] decomposition, and there will remain in +solution a soluble salt known as sodium nitrate. When the silver +chloride has settled down, decant off the liquid, and add water to it +once or twice, draining off each time. Divide the chloride into four +parts, placing each part on a strip of glass. On two of them pour a +little common salt solution, and on the other two pour a little solution +of silver nitrate; take one of each pair, and place it in a dark +cupboard (if warmed, the quicker will be the operation) to dry. Take +the other two moist portions of chloride into the open air, and expose +them to daylight, and note the results. It will be seen that one of +these will darken very rapidly to a violet colour, whilst the other will +remain much lighter, though perceptibly blackening. After a time the +latter will appear to grow deeper, whilst the former will become a deep +black. The one that blackens most rapidly will be found to be that one +on which the silver nitrate was poured. Divide the slightly blackened +chloride on the strip of glass into two portions, and over one pour a +little beer, and over the other a weak solution of potassium nitrite, +and again note the difference. It will be found that here the blackening +commences anew, but proceeds much more rapidly on that portion over +which the nitrite was poured. Here are the experiments. What do they +teach? + +Potassium nitrite, and silver nitrate, are both inorganic salts, and +they both have an affinity for--that is, tend to combine with--any +of the halogens (by which are meant such bodies as chlorine, iodine, +bromine, and fluorine). In the former case we have silver chloride +formed with a little hypo-chlorous acid; in the latter we have a more +difficult decomposition: the potassium nitrite is decomposed into +hydrochloric acid and potassium nitrate.[3] + +We can tell that chlorine is liberated by the action of light on silver +chloride, since if we prepare some as above, well wash it, and expose it +to light in pure water, we shall find that the latter contains chlorine, +since a few drops of silver nitrate poured into it after exposure give a +white precipitate. + +If we make the same experiments with the dried portions of silver +chloride as we did with the moist, we shall obtain the same results, +with the exception that with the dried, in which there is excess of +salt, there will be hardly any discolouration. The experimentalist +should also note that if the darkened chloride be broken up, the +interior retains its white colour in all its purity. This tells us that +the discolouration is _almost_ confined to the surface, hence it is +useless, for printing purposes, to have such a mass of chloride as would +be opaque, since all but a very thin film would be unacted upon. + +If the darkened chloride be examined closely, it will be seen that +the colour varies, being bluer in the case of that which has silver +nitrate in contact with it (either moist or dry) as compared with that +which is darkened in contact with the potassium nitrite. We have the +best of reasons for believing that the blue colour is really due to a +combination between the sub-chloride and the oxygen contained in the +water or in the air. The true colour of the sub-chloride is that which +is exposed beneath an oxygen absorbent such as the nitrite. + +Practical printers are aware that albumenized paper containing a +chloride is employed for producing silver prints, and the probability is +that the albumen must exercise some kind of influence on the resulting +picture. Let us examine this, and see what effect it can have. Carefully +break an egg, and separate the yolk from the white, pouring the latter +into a beaker. Beat up the white with a bundle of quill pens, allow the +froth to subside, and then filter it. Pour a little of the filtered +albumen (the white of egg) into a test-tube, and add a little silver +nitrate solution to it, and expose the precipitate which falls to light. +It will be seen that it darkens rapidly, assuming a foxy red colour. +Take a couple of glass plates and coat them with plain collodion, wash +under the tap, and whilst still moist flow albumen over them two or +three times, and set them up to dry. When thoroughly dry, plunge them +for a few seconds into a weak solution of silver nitrate (30 grains +to the ounce of water will suffice), wash one under the tap, and then +allow both to dry again. Take both plates out into the light, and note +the results. The one from which the silver nitrate has not been washed +will darken very rapidly, the other will take some time to start; but if +the exposure be sufficiently prolonged, it will gradually assume a hue +equally as dark as the other. + +If we repeat these experiments with gelatine, which is used as a sizing +in some papers, we shall find very much the same nature of things taking +place, the differences being so slight, however, as not to require +detailed notice. + +So far, then, we have considered the darkening properties of the silver +compounds which are to be used by the printer, but it remains to be +seen what _permanency of darkening_ they possess. If we treat the +darkened silver chloride solution exposed with the silver nitrate or +the potassium nitrite to a solution of hyposulphite of soda or ammonia, +both of which are solvents of the white chloride, we shall find that +a residue of metallic silver is left behind. If we treat the darkened +albuminate of silver with the same agents, we shall find that very +little change is effected by them. + +From this we may gather that the action of light on them is of a totally +different nature.[4] This is also most marked if we treat the two with +hydrosulphuric acid solution (sulphuretted hydrogen[5]). It will be +found that the colour of the darkened silver chloride becomes more +intense, while the other is bleached, or, rather, becomes of a yellow +tint. This last effect has an important bearing on the permanency of +silver prints, as will be more fully explained when considering the +subject of fixing the print. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +PREPARATION OF ALBUMENIZED PAPER. + + +In printing on albumenized paper we must divide the operations, and give +a detailed account of each. In case the reader may desire to prepare his +own paper, we give the following formula and directions. + +To prepare the albumen, procure a sufficient number of eggs, remembering +that the white of a large egg will be about a fluid ounce; have a cup +to collect the yolks, and a four-ounce measure at hand. Give the centre +of the egg a smart blow against the top of the cup. The shell can now +be readily pulled in two, the yolk remaining unbroken with part of the +albumen in one half, and the rest of the albumen in the other half of +the shell. Take the halves, one in each hand, and pour the albumen from +one to the other, holding them over the small measure. As the operation +continues, the yolk will gradually separate, the white falling into the +vessel below. If conducted with care, the whole of the latter will be +collected without breaking the yolk. If the yolk break, some will be +sure to find its way into the measure along with the white, and this, +together with the white speck known as the tread, must be rigorously +taken out by means of a spoon. The _uncontaminated_ white is then poured +into a large jar. If the operator carefully collects the white of each +egg into the four-ounce ounce measure first, he will find his labour +much diminished, as it is awkward to get out the small pieces of yolk +from a large quantity of albumen. The eggs are thus broken, and the +white collected till there is a sufficient quantity for the purpose +in hand. Suppose we are going to make up 20 ounces of solution, then +about 18 ounces of white of egg must be found in the jar. One point +to settle is the amount of salt to be used to each ounce of albumen. +It must be recollected that a medium quantity is the best for medium +negatives; anything between 20 and 40 grains per ounce may be used. +We prefer ourselves about 25. Supposing this quantity to be used, we +proceed to dissolve 500 grains of chloride of ammonium in 2 ounces of +water, and add it to the albumen. It has been proved that as regards +colour of the picture, it does not matter what chloride is used. To +prevent crystallization, it is better to use ammonium, which contains +a greater amount of chlorine than do sodium or potassium chlorides. It +must now be beaten up till it is in a froth. This breaks up the fibrous +matter, and on subsidence the liquid will be found to be limpid. The +most convenient implement with which to beat up the albumen is the +American egg-beater. Three or four minutes' work is quite sufficient +to make the whole into a froth. An ordinary culinary whisk, such as is +used in the kitchen, may also be put into requisition, or, in default +of that, a bundle of quill pens. A lesson in producing a froth can be +learnt from the cook of the establishment. When the salted albumen has +settled it must be filtered, which, perhaps, is best effected through +a sponge, though glass-wool is a capital substitute. In either case a +small, loosely-fitting plug is placed in the neck of an ordinary funnel, +and, after rinsing with cold water, the albumen is poured in, and +allowed to filter through slowly. It is advisable to avoid bubbles as +far as possible, and the accompanying arrangement will be found to avoid +their formation. The funnel is placed in the position shown (fig. 1); +the capillary attraction between it and the glass will cause the drops +to trickle down the side, and collect, without bubbles, at the bottom. +This little contrivance will be found of use in other operations besides +that of silver printing, and should be made a note of. The albumen may +also be filtered through one, two, or three thicknesses of muslin, +according to its fineness, tied over the mouth of a bottle or beaker of +which the bottom has been removed. The albumen is placed in a vessel +slightly larger than the filter, which is allowed to sink gradually. +When full it is withdrawn, and the fluid poured into the dish. By this +plan upward filtration is established. The fluid may be poured into the +filter itself, and used in the ordinary manner.[6] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 1.] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.] + +On a larger scale, white of eggs in a fresh condition can be obtained +from egg merchants who utilize the yolks by selling them to the grocers +and confectioners. Albumen can be obtained by the gallon in this +condition, according to the price of eggs. It will be evident that +there is considerable economy in taking the whites wholesale. As a +rule, about three gallons of albumen will coat two reams of albumenized +paper. Mr. England (to whom we are indebted for so many of our remarks +on albumenizing paper) procures about the latter quantity at a time, and +beats it up mechanically in a large vat holding some fifty gallons, in +order to allow space for the froth. He allows the albumen to rest four +days before employing it, and filters it through three thicknesses of +flannel. + +The quality of paper to be used varies considerably with the custom of +the printer. Thus, in some countries, we find a much thinner paper used +than in England. The great desideratum is that it should be perfectly +opaque to transmitted light. A good test of this is to make a couple of +black ink marks on a piece of white paper, and then press down firmly +the paper it is proposed to employ over this. If the black ink marks are +indistinguishable, the paper will do as regards this quality, as the +light reflected from the surface which gives the impression of whiteness +to the eye is much stronger than the light which penetrates through it, +and is absorbed by the black lines. As to quality, it is best to trust +to the manufacturer, those known as Saxe and Rives papers answering +better than any other that we know of. The Rives is, when moist, a paper +which is more easily torn than the Saxe, and, consequently, we recommend +that the former be employed for small work, such as portraits, and the +latter for large landscape prints. + +In regard to the sizes to be albumenized, it must be left to the +operator to say what will be the most useful to him. It is rarely +advisable to albumenize less than a half sheet of paper, the whole size +of which is about 22 by 18 inches; 11 by 18 is not an inconvenient +size to manipulate. At any rate, a dish larger each way by a couple of +inches than the paper must be procured, and put on a level table. The +temperature of the room should be at least 90°, in fact, the hotter +it is the more glossy will be the resulting paper. The solution, free +from bubbles, is poured in, and should be of a depth of at least 1/2 +an inch. Suppose the smaller size to be coated, before commencing, the +paper is taken by the two opposite corners, the hands brought together, +and the convex side brought on to the surface of the fluid; the hands +are then separated, and the paper will gradually float on the surface. +One corner should be gradually raised to see that all air-bubbles are +absent. If there be any, they should be broken with the point of a glass +rod, and the paper again lowered. Bubbles can usually be seen through +the paper, and, instead of raising it, a few gentle taps with the finger +over the spot will generally move the bubble to the edge of the paper. +In practice, some have found it well to moisten the surface of the paper +with a damp sponge, and when quite surface dry to albumenize it. This +should, however, be unnecessary. The sheet should remain on the albumen +a little over a minute, when it could be gently raised by one corner and +allowed to drain over a basin; it is then caught by a couple of American +clips and hung up to dry.[7] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 3.] + +Supposing a whole sheet is to be coated, it will be found more +convenient to take the sheet by the corners of _one end_, one in each +hand, and to lower the surface near the end of the dish, and gradually +draw the paper over the side of the dish till the whole surface is flat. +Bubbles can be got rid of as shown above. + +Two large dishes are usually employed, and by the time the second sheet +is floated in the second dish, the first sheet of paper is ready for +removal from the first dish. The sheets, when slowly removed from the +bath, are allowed to drain a few seconds, and then thrown over wooden +rods of some two inches in diameter, which are removed to a rack, +and placed near a trough to collect the drainings.[8] When drained +sufficiently the rods are removed to other racks, and the paper allowed +to dry spontaneously. + +It is the practice of some albumenized paper manufacturers to hang the +sheets over a line, uncoated side next the line; but this is a mistake, +as it will nearly always be found, on sensitising the paper and exposing +it, that a mark is left across the paper corresponding to the part where +the string touched the back of the paper. + +In practice we have found that each sheet of paper takes up about 1/3 +oz. of solution, and, of course, its equivalent quantity of salt. The +principal difficulty in albumenizing paper is the occurrence of lines +on the paper in the direction in which it was placed on the surface of +the albumen. Any arrest of motion in floating the paper will cause them, +but more usually it is due to imperfect beating up of the solution. Some +papers are not readily coated with albumen, in which case the remedy +given above may prove effectual; or a little solution of oxgall may be +equally well applied. A want of gloss in the dried albumen may be due to +too long a floating on the fluid, or to floating and drying the paper +in too low a temperature. The explanation of the first cause is that +albumen, when fresh, has an alkaline reaction, due to the presence of a +small quantity of soda, which may be said to be its base, and any alkali +will dissolve the gelatinous sizing of a paper. When the sizing is +dissolved, instead of remaining on the surface, the albumen sinks into +the paper, and thereby the gloss is lost. + +When albumen is stale it no longer possesses this alkaline reaction, but +has an acid reaction quite visible on the application of blue litmus +paper to it; the blue colour disappears and is replaced by a red tint. +When in the alkaline state, the paper is much more difficult to coat, +but an acid condition means the production of inferior tones. + +_Rolling the Paper._--The paper, when dried, is often rolled with a +heavy pressure to improve the gloss; a copper-plate press is found +to answer admirably, placing the albumenized side next the bed. This +rolling should not be necessary if attention be paid to the temperature +of the preparation room. The higher the temperature the finer will be +the gloss, as we have already said. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE SENSITIZING BATH FOR ALBUMENIZED PAPER. + + +To render albumenized paper sensitive to light it has to be treated with +a solution of silver nitrate, and the most convenient method of applying +it is to float it on a dish containing the silver salt in solution. The +first point to consider is the strength of the solution. If we float +albumenized paper (face downwards) on a solution of 10 grains of silver +nitrate to the ounce of water, we shall find, what at first sight may +seem to be remarkable, that the albumen will be dissolved away from the +paper, and that there will be a precipitate left in the silver solution. +Why is this? + +It must be remembered that albumen is soluble in water: it is coagulated +or insoluble in water when combined with silver nitrate. The fact +is that the quantity of silver nitrate in the solution we have been +experimenting with is too small. The water dissolves the albumen first, +and then the silver has time to act upon it to form the insoluble +albuminate. If we soak paper in common salt, and treat it in the same +way with the same strength of solution, we shall find that this is not +the case: the silver chloride will remain on the paper. From this we +learn two facts. + +1st. That the silver solution has a greater affinity for the chloride +than for the albuminate, and that in an equal mixture of the two more +chloride would be formed than albuminate; in other words, that the +ammonium chloride would be totally converted into silver chloride long +before the silver albuminate was formed. + +2nd. That a certain strength of silver nitrate is necessary to prevent +the albumen dissolving from off the paper. + +This last fact has fixed the lowest strength of any sensitizing solution +to be thirty grains to the ounce, and even if this be taken as a limit, +it is necessary that the water should be rendered less active by holding +some other soluble matter in its embraces. This is usually effected by +adding some other neutral and inactive nitrates. There does not seem to +be any theoretical limit to the amount of silver nitrate in solution, +but practically it rarely contains more than 80 grains to the ounce, +though occasionally we have heard of it being used of a strength of 100 +grains to the ounce. + +The important point now presents itself. How are we to fix the strength +of the bath? What principles must we follow? + +To answer these questions we extract a passage from another work of this +series.[9] + +"If a paper be coated with albumen (say) in which has been dissolved +a certain quantity of a soluble chloride, and floated on a silver +solution, both chloride and albuminate of silver are formed. It depends, +however, on the strength of the solution as to what proportions of each +are present, owing to the fact that the organic compound is much slower +in formation than the chloride, and has less affinity for the silver. +If the silver solution be not sufficiently strong, the chloride may rob +that portion of it with which it is in contact of all the silver before +any (or, at all events, sufficient) albuminate has been formed, the +molecule being composed almost entirely of silver chloride. The stronger +the silver solution the more 'organate' will it contain; whilst if it +be very weak, very little will be present. Hence it is with albumenized +paper which is weakly salted with a silver chloride a weak sensitizing +bath may be used, whilst if it be rich in the chloride it must be of +proportionate strength." + +It will now be seen that the proportion of chloride to albumen has +to settle the point. We next have to consider the time during which +the silver should be in contact with the paper when the floating is +commenced. Let us take the case of a strong silver solution, and +consider the action that will follow. Immediately the paper is placed in +contact with the solution, silver chloride is formed, and the amount of +the silver nitrate in the layer of fluid in immediate contact with the +surface being scarcely diminished by the formation of silver chloride, +the albuminate is formed almost simultaneously, forming a film which is +to a great extent impermeable to the liquid. But even before this layer +is coagulated, the next layer of chloride will have been formed, so that +we may say we have one layer of albuminate and chloride of silver, and +one layer of chloride of silver alone. + +The further penetration of the silver solution will be very slow; hence, +for fully saturating both the albumen and the salt with silver, the time +of flotation must be prolonged. For some purposes, however, this is not +necessary, as will be seen presently. + +Next let us trace the action of a weak solution, not weak enough to +dissolve the albumen off the paper, but of the minimum strength. The +solution, as before, would immediately form the silver chloride, but +before the albumen had coagulated at the surface, the solution would +penetrate to the interior of the film, and then the formation of the +albuminate would proceed nearly equally throughout the whole of the +interior. Evidently, then, in this case, the contact of the silver +solution would be less prolonged than in the former case. If the +floating be prolonged the silver solution in the interior will become +weakened, and partially dissolve the albumen and be carried by the +water into the interior of the paper; it will also partially dissolve +off the surface, and a negative printed on such a paper would have all +the appearance of being dead in lustre, and existing in the paper itself +instead of on the surface. + +We may thus summarize:-- + +1. A paper floated on a strong solution may require long floating. + +2. A paper floated on a weak solution requires short floating. + +3. And the strength of the solution may be between the 30 grains and +80 grains to the ounce of silver according to the amount of soluble +chloride dissolved in the albumen on the paper when the negative is +really good as regards opacity and delicacy. + +The knowledge of the amount of chloride in the paper supplied by dealers +has to be arrived at somehow, and the following method will answer. Cut +up a quarter sheet of the paper into small pieces, and place them in a +couple of ounces of methylated spirit. This will dissolve out most of +the chloride, and should be decanted off. Another two ounces of spirit +should be added to the paper, and, after thoroughly soaking, should be +decanted off, and added to the other spirit. The spirit containing the +chloride may then be placed in a glass vessel standing in hot water, +when it will evaporate and leave the chloride behind. It may be weighed; +but since it is better to know how much silver chloride (AgCl) would be +formed, the residue should be dissolved in a few drops of water, and a +little silver nitrate added. The silver chloride will be precipitated, +and should be carefully washed with water, and then be filtered, the +paper being opened out and dried before the fire on filter paper. The +chloride is then detached and weighed; 3-1/2 grains of silver chloride +would show that a weak bath should be used, whilst 10 grains would show +that a strong bath was required. + +With most brands of albumenized paper directions are issued as to the +best strength of silver nitrate solution for sensitizing, and a fair +estimate of the chloride present can be gained from such directions. + +A weak solution loses much of its strength by each sheet of paper +floated, much more proportionally, in fact, than a strong solution, +since the same amount of fluid is absorbed by the paper in each case, +whilst the amount of silver abstracted from the _whole_ is also equal, +which reduces the strength per ounce more with the former than with +the latter. A weak sensitizing solution, therefore, requires much +more attention than a strong one: crystals of silver nitrate must be +constantly added to the former. In practice and for general work, then, +we recommend a moderately strong bath, the method of making up of which +we shall describe. + +To make up 2 pints of solution with a strength of 50 grains to the +ounce, we shall require 2,000 grains of silver nitrate. This is +carefully weighed out in the scales, a piece of _filter paper being +placed in each pan_. By adopting this plan freedom from all impurities +that may cling to the pans will be avoided, and the silver nitrate +will be perfectly pure. Place the silver salt in a large clean bottle, +and add half-a-pint of water to it, and shake it to dissolve it. The +best water for the purpose is distilled water; but filtered rain, pure +spring, or river water answers well. If the water contain any chlorides, +it will be shown by a milkiness due to a formation of silver chloride. +This must be filtered out when the remaining pint and a-half of water +is added. The solution is now ready for use, and, being of the simplest +character, is not to be excelled, though the addition of some soluble +salts may be advantageous, particularly in dry climates or in very dry +weather. Such salts are found in sodium nitrate, or ammonium nitrate, as +much as equal weights of either of these substances being added. Thus +our formula would stand as follows were these additions made:-- + +_Original Solution._ + + 1.--Silver nitrate 50 grains + Water 1 ounce + + +_Modified Solution._ + + 2.--Silver nitrate 50 grains + Ammonium nitrate or + sodium nitrate 50 " + Water 1 ounce + +The reason of the addition of the ammonium or sodium nitrate is that +prints are better obtained on paper which is not absolutely free from +water. When very dry, the liberated chlorine (see page 32) is apt to +attack the albuminate, whereas it is deprived of much of its activity +when it is able to be absorbed by water, which, in the presence of +light, is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and oxygen.[10] + +Hydrochloric acid can attack the silver nitrate present in the pores +of the paper, and produce fresh silver chloride. If the paper were +quite dry, the liberated chlorine would scarcely be able to attack +even the silver. Moisture, though very little, is desirable. In the +excessively dry climate of India, &c., in the summer, one or other of +these deliquescent salts should be invariably present for the purpose +indicated, unless fuming be resorted to. + +The sensitizing bath should also never be allowed to be acid with nitric +acid, since the resulting prints would invariably be poor. + +The best way of securing this neutral state is by keeping a little +carbonate of silver at the bottom of the bottle in which the solution is +kept. A few drops of a solution of sodium carbonate added to the bottle +over-night will secure this. The reason why nitric acid is to be avoided +is shown by placing a print in dilute nitric acid. It is well known that +darkened silver chloride is unaffected by it; but the print will be +found to change colour, and to become duller and redder than if washed +in water alone. The nitric acid evidently attacks the albumen. Nitric +acid decomposes the carbonate of silver (which, be it remembered, is an +insoluble body), forming silver nitrate, and liberating carbonic acid.[11] + +Alum in the printing bath has also been recommended for preventing the +bath from discolouring, and it is effective in that it hardens the +surface of the albumen; but the ordinary explanation of its effect is +defective. If a solution of common alum be added to the silver nitrate +we get silver sulphate (which is best out of the bath, and it is +slightly soluble in the solution), and aluminium nitrate is formed.[12] + +The same effect would be produced if aluminium nitrate were added to the +bath solution. We, however, give a means of adding it as recommended by +some writers. When filtering the solution, put a small lump of alum in +the filter paper, and pour the solution over it, or add one grain of +alum to every ounce of solution, and then filter. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +HOW TO KEEP THE SENSITIZING BATH IN ORDER. + + +Experience tells us, however strong we may make the bath solution to +coagulate the albumen on the paper, that a certain amount of organic +matter will always be carried into it. At first this is not apparent, +since it remains colourless in the solution; but after a time, after +floating a few sheets of paper, the organic silver compound gradually +decomposes, and the solution becomes of a brown or red tint, and if +paper were floated on it in this condition there would be a dark surface +and uneven sensitizing. It is, therefore, necessary to indicate the +various means that may be employed to get rid of this impurity. The +earliest, if not one of the best, is by the addition of white China +clay, which is known in commerce as kaolin. A teaspoonful is placed in +the bottle containing the solution, and well shaken up; the organic +matter adheres to it, and precipitates to the bottom, and the liquid can +be filtered through filter-paper or washed cotton-wool, when it will +be found decolourized. Another mode of getting the liquid out of the +bottle is to syphon it off by any syphon arrangement, and this prevents +a waste in the solution from the absorption of the filtering medium. The +accompanying arrangement (fig. 4) will be found useful for the purpose, +and can be applied to other solutions where decantation is necessary. A +is a wide-mouthed bottle holding the solution. B is a cork fitting the +mouth, in which two holes have been bored to fit the two tubes, D and C, +which are bent to the form shown. When the kaolin has subsided to the +bottom, air is forced by the mouth into the bottle through C, the liquid +rises over the bend of the tube D, and syphons off to the level of the +bottom of the tube inserted into the liquid, provided the end of D, +outside the bottle, comes below it. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 4.] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 5.] + +To bend a tube, a common gas flame is superior to a Bunsen burner. The +tube is placed in the bright part of the flame in the position shown; by +this means a good length of it gets heated, and a gentle bend is made +without choking the bore, which would be the case were a point of a +flame used. + +Another method of purifying the solution is by adding a few drops of +hydrochloric (muriatic) acid to it. Chloride of silver is formed, and +when well shaken up, carries down with it most of the organic matter, +but leaves the bath acid from the formation of nitric acid.[13] This +must be neutralized unless a little silver carbonate is left at the +bottom of the bottle as described at page 20. A camphor solution may +also be added for the same purpose. Make a saturated solution of camphor +in spirits of wine, and add a couple of drachms to the solution, and +shake well up. The camphor will collect the albumen, and it can be +filtered out. In case the first dose does not decolourize it, another +one must be added. + +Another plan is to add potassium permanganate (permanganate of potash) +to it, till such time as the solution takes a faint permanent rose +tint. The theory is that the organic matter is oxidized by the oxygen +liberated from the permanganate, and falls to the bottom. It is not +strictly true, however, and the solution will never be as free from +organic matter as when the other methods are employed. + +The final and best method is to add a small quantity of sodium carbonate +(say 5 grains), and expose it to daylight. When the organic matter +becomes oxidized at the expense of the silver nitrate, the metallic +silver with the oxidized organic matter will fall to the bottom. This +plan answers admirably when time is no object, but in dull weather the +action is slow. When once the precipitation fairly commences it goes on +quickly, and if a little freshly precipitated metallic silver be left at +bottom of the bottle the action is much more rapid. This is a wrinkle +worth remembering in all photographic operations where precipitation is +resorted to. + +We have hitherto supposed that the only contamination of the bath is +organic matter, but it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper +floated on the solution transfers a certain amount of nitrate of the +alkali[14] with which the albumen is salted. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 6.] + +It will thus be seen that in an old bath there will be no need to add +the soluble nitrates given in page 17, since they will be already +formed. When they are in excess the best plan is to precipitate the +silver by some means,[15] but we select one which is easy of application, +since it requires no watching. Evaporate the solution to half its +bulk, and slightly acidify it with nitric acid (10 drops to the pint +of solution will suffice); throw some ordinary granulated zinc into +the jar or bottle containing it; the silver will now be rapidly thrown +down in the metallic state, and in the course of two or three hours +the action will be complete. Next carefully pour off all the fluid as +close as possible to the residue. Pick out all the lumps of zinc, and +add a little dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve up all the small +particles of zinc which may be amongst the precipitated silver. Filter +the solution away, and wash the residue once or twice with water. Take +out the filter paper, and dry it before a fire, or in an oven, and then +detach the silver, and transfer it to a small crucible, which place, +with its contents, over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp flame till it is +red hot. The heat will destroy all organic matter, leaving a residue of +carbonous matter behind, which, after subsequent operations, will be +eliminated by filtration. Next cover the silver with nitric acid,[16] +and in an evaporating dish slightly warm it over a spirit lamp or +Bunsen burner. Red fumes will appear, and when all action has ceased, +more acid must be added till such a time that very nearly (but not +quite) all the silver is dissolved up. Then evaporate off all the fluid +and allow it to cool, when water can be added to such an extent that +it is _over strength_ for the bath. Now measure the whole bulk of the +solution in a glass measure, and test by the argentometer for strength. +An argentometer is, in reality, an instrument for taking the specific +gravity of a liquid. It is as shown in the figure. A B is a glass tube, +inside of which is a graduated scale showing grains; C is a hollow +glass cylinder, which has a little glass ball filled with mercury. When +immersed in water, the instrument sinks till the scale reads 0--that +is, A B is deeply immersed. When any soluble salt is dissolved in the +water, the stem rises further. If the soluble salt be silver nitrate, +the scale is made to read grains per ounce. It is then evident, if the +bath contains any other soluble salt besides the nitrate of silver, the +readings will be untrustworthy. Supposing you have a total quantity of +10-1/4 ounces of solution, and the argentometer tells you it is of a +strength of 105 grains to the ounce, you must make a small calculation +to see how much water you must add. In 10-1/4 ounces of solution there +will be 10-1/4 × 105 or 1076-1/4 grains of silver nitrate. If you want +to make the bath 40 grains to the ounce, you must divide this quantity +by 40, which is very nearly 27. The original amount of fluid (10-1/4 +ounces), when deducted from this number of (27) ounces, will give you +the amount (16-3/4 ounces) of water that is to be added to give you a +bath of the required strength. When the water is added, the solution +should be filtered from the carbonaceous matter, and the bath, after +neutralizing with sodium carbonate, will be ready for use. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +APPLYING THE SILVERING SOLUTION TO THE ALBUMENIZED PAPER. + + +As each piece of paper takes somewhere about five minutes to sensitize +and hang up to dry, it is evident that the larger the piece of paper +sensitised the greater will be the saving in time in this operation. +Practically a whole sheet of paper, which is about 22 inches by 18, is +the maximum ordinary size, whilst it may be convenient to float a piece +as small as 3-1/4 by 4-1/4. There is not much difficulty in floating +either one or the other if ordinary care be taken, but it is no use +disguising the fact that large sheets are sometimes faultily sensitized +even by experienced hands, if the solution be not in a proper state. The +great enemy to success is the formation of bubbles on the surface of the +solution, and if it be at all contaminated with organic matter they are +more liable to be met with than if the bath be new. It may be taken as a +maxim that no paper should be floated if, to commence with, the bath be +not purified. A flat dish of about 2-1/2 inches in height, and an inch +larger in breadth and length than the paper to be floated, is used, and +the solution poured in to a depth of 1/2 inch. The paper is grasped by +the two hands as shown at page 10, so that a convex albumen surface is +formed downwards, which is placed diagonally across the dish and lowered +on to the surface of the solution; the hands are at the same time +separated outwards, so that the whole surface of the paper is caused +to float on it without any arrest. By this means all air is forced out +before the paper, and no bubbles should be beneath. To make assurance +double sure, the paper is raised from the corners which were not grasped +by the hands, and if by any chance a small bubble should be found, it +is immediately broken by the point of a clean quill pen or glass rod. +Before floating the paper the surface of the solution should be examined +for scum or bubbles, both of which may be removed by passing a strip of +clean blotting-paper across it. The dish employed should be scrupulously +clean, and in cold weather it is a good plan to warm both it and the +solution before the fire previous to use. In warm weather, the albumen +of the paper may be in a very horny condition, which increases the +liability to form bubbles. The writers have found that if the sheet of +paper be exposed to the steam passing from a kettle of boiling water for +a few seconds (moving it so that every portion shall come in contact +with it) just before sensitising, the surface becomes more tractable, +and in a better condition for sensitizing; keeping the paper in a moist +atmosphere effects the same end. + +The length of time for floating the paper depends on the subjects to be +printed, _but, as a rule_, three minutes with the 50-grain bath will +be found to answer for the majority of negatives. When the proper time +has elapsed, a corner of the paper is raised from the solution by means +of a glass rod, and grasped by the thumb and forefinger of the right +hand. It is then raised _very slowly_ from off the solution till another +corner is clear, when that is grasped by the forefinger and thumb of the +left hand; and it is finally withdrawn entirely, and drained a minute +from the lowest corner into the dish. It is next hung up to dry by a +corner which should be fastened to an American clip (fig. 7) suspended +from a line stretched across the dark room, taking care to keep the +corner which last left the solution the lowest. A piece of _clean_ +blotting-paper about one inch long by 1/2 an inch wide is brought in +contact with this latter corner, and adheres to it from the moisture. +This collects the draining from the paper whilst drying, and prevents a +loss of silver, since it can subsequently be detached and placed amongst +the residues for burning. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 7.] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 8.] + +There is another mode of floating large sheets of paper, which is +sometimes recommended. One corner is turned up about a quarter of an +inch. This is held by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and the +opposite corner of the diagonal held by the right hand. The first corner +is brought on the solution near the opposite corner of the dish to that +towards which it will eventually be near. The sheet, having assumed a +convex form, is drawn by the left hand across the dish, the right hand +being gradually turned to allow the whole surface to come slowly in +contact with the solution. Air-bubbles are said to be avoided by this +means, though for our own part we see no practical advantage in it over +the last method. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 9.] + +Some operators also, when lifting the paper from the dish, pass it +over a glass rod placed as in the figure, in order to get rid of all +superfluous fluid from the surface. This is a poor substitute for +withdrawing the paper slowly from the dish, since capillary attraction +is much more effective and even in its action than this rude mechanical +means. By those who do not possess patience, however, it may be tried. +Some practical photographers also "blot off" the excess of silver, +but this is a dangerous practice unless there is a certainty that no +"anti-chlor" has been used in preparing the blotting-paper. For our own +part we recommend the usual mode of draining the paper. When surface +dry, it can be dried in a drying box. The following is a kind which has +been adopted by one eminent photographer, and is excellent in principle. + +Over a flat and closed galvanized iron bath erect a cupboard. Fig. 10 +gives the elevation, and fig. 11 the section. A is the bath, D the +cupboard, which may conveniently be closed with a roller shutter,[17] B, +passing over _c c_, and is weighted by a bar of lead, so as to nearly +balance the weight of the shutter when closed. A couple of Bunsen +gas-burners, E E, heat the water in A; the steam generated is carried +up the flue F, which also carries off the products of the combustion of +the gas. The paper may be suspended from laths tacked at the top of the +cupboard by means of American clips. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 10.] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 11.] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +WASHED SENSITIVE PAPER. + + +For some classes of work sensitized paper may be washed with advantage +previous to drying, and there is much economy in this plan, particularly +in hot weather, since it keeps of a purer white for a much longer +period than where the silver nitrate is allowed to dry on the surface. +It may not be out of place to call attention to the action of silver +nitrate on the paper. If a stick of lunar caustic be applied to the +skin when dried, there is a peculiar burning effect produced, and even +in the dark the cuticle becomes discoloured, though not black. In the +albumenized paper we have albumen and the gelatine sizing, and these +substances behave somewhat like the skin. The gelatine particularly will +become oxidized at the expense of the silver, a reddish organic oxide +being formed; and again, if the silver nitrate be alkaline or strictly +neutral, we have the same action occurring as when we precipitate +metallic silver by means of an alkali, and an organic body such as sugar +of milk. The gelatine takes the place of the latter. When the free +silver nitrate is removed, the tendency for the spontaneous darkening +of the paper is much diminished, since the chloride and albuminate of +silver are much less readily reduced than the nitrate. The following +plan is adopted for washing the paper:--The paper, after floating, +is drawn twice rapidly through a dish of rain or distilled water, +and, unless some other substance which can absorb chlorine be added +to the last wash water, care should be taken not to soak out all the +free nitrate, as then the paper would produce flat prints. It is then +hung up to dry as before. Immediately before use it must be fumed with +ammonia, in order that the prints may be "plucky," and free from that +peculiar speckiness of surface which is known to the silver printer as +"measles." We can readily trace the "measles" to their source. Suppose +all free silver nitrate is washed away, and the paper be then exposed to +light, the chloride is rapidly converted into subchloride, and chlorine +is given off (see page 5); if there be nothing to absorb it at once it +will attack the albuminate, which is blackened at the same time, and +fresh chloride will be formed in little minute spots. These discolour, +and are of different tint to the rest of the print, and give rise to +the appearance of measles. This, of course, is not so marked when a +little free silver nitrate is left in the paper; but as what is removed +is principally removed from the surface, it may still be unpleasantly +discernible. Fuming obviates it entirely if properly performed, for +chlorine and ammonia combine to form finally ammonium chloride, a +neutral and inactive salt. + +Any other chlorine absorber may be substituted; thus citric acid, +potassium nitrite, and many others are effective, and cause vigorous +prints to be produced. Perhaps the easiest way of giving the paper the +necessary amount of ammonia is that recommended by Colonel Wortley. This +is to place overnight the pads of the printing-frame, if they be of +felt, into a closed box in which is placed a saucer containing a couple +of drachms of liquor ammoniæ, and to withdraw them as required for the +printing-frames. The pads will be thoroughly impregnated with the vapour +of ammonia, and a couple or more prints, in succession, may be made +before it is necessary to change them. + +The ordinary method of fuming is that used in America. Hearn describes +a box, which is very convenient and simple in construction. He says: +"Take any common wooden box, large enough for the purpose, and make a +door of suitable size for it, which, when shut, will totally exclude +all light. Make a false bottom in this about six inches, or so, from +the real one, and perforate it with holes of about the same size that +a gimlet would make. These holes should be very numerous, and at the +centre there should be, if anything, a smaller number of them, because +the saucer containing the liquor ammonia is generally placed at the +centre of the real bottom of the box." + +For our own part we dislike the false bottom as constructed, and +recommend one of fine gauze, and, instead of placing half-an-ounce of +ammonia in the saucer as Hearn directs, we prefer to soak half-a-dozen +sheets of blotting-paper in ammonium chloride solution, about 20 grains +to the ounce, and the same number of sheets soaked in lime water; one +sheet of each are placed together, and ammonia is liberated by double +decomposition; calcium chloride being also formed. + +This method is excellent in hot, dry weather, since it imparts a certain +amount of moisture to the paper. In damp weather it is a good plan to +dry the vapour by sprinkling on the gauze calcium chloride, which will +rapidly absorb the aqueous vapour, and will allow the ammonia to pass +on unimpeded. The sheets of paper are held at the top of the box by +American clips, suspended from laths about three inches apart, and it +is not a bad plan to fasten a lath on to their bottom edge by the same +means, to do away with their curling. To fume a single piece of paper +it may be pinned up to the inside of the top of the lid of a box, and a +drachm of ammonia sprinkled on cotton wool distributed at the bottom. +The point to be attended to is that the fuming shall be even, and it is +evident that the ammonia should rise equally from any part of the bottom +of the box. In the plan of the box given above, the bottom of the sheet +is apt to get a little more ammonia than the top. The time of fuming +depends on so many things that a rule can scarcely be given for it; +twenty minutes may be considered about the extreme limit. + +If this sensitizing bath be acid, the time must evidently be longer than +when it is strictly neutral or slightly alkaline; and if the negative be +hard, it will require to be less fumed than if it be of a weak nature, +since the action of ammonia is to cause rapid darkening in the deep +shadows. In hot weather the fuming should be shorter than in cold, since +the ammonia volatilizes much more rapidly when the temperature is high. +On the whole, we recommend Colonel Wortley's plan of fuming the pads in +preference to fuming the paper. + +Another mode of preserving the paper from discolouration is to add +citric acid to the printing bath, which is effective owing to the fact +given at page 32. The following formula is a good one, and has answered +with the writer. It is-- + + Silver nitrate 50 grains + Citric acid 20 " + Water 1 ounce + +The paper is floated for the ordinary length of time, when it is dried +thoroughly and placed between sheets of pure blotting-paper. It will +keep in its pristine state for months, if excluded from the air. It is +better to fume this paper strongly before use, or the toning becomes a +difficult matter. + +Ordinary sensitized paper may be preserved for a considerable time if, +when dry, it is placed between sheets of blotting-paper saturated with a +solution of carbonate of soda, and dried. + +Washed sensitized paper is also improved in sensitiveness by floating it +for a few seconds on-- + + Citric acid 20 grains + Potassium nitrite 10 " + Water 1 ounce + +It can be fumed, when dried, in the usual manner. + +In the YEAR-BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY for 1880 Mr. A. Borland +recommends the following modification:-- + +He floats the paper on nitrate of silver, as usual, and after it has +drained surface dry, blots off any drops that may remain at the edges, +and then floats the _back_ of the paper for about three minutes on the +following bath:-- + + Nitrate of soda 1 ounce + Distilled water 16 ounces + +This is rendered slightly acid by a little solution of _freshly_ +prepared citric acid in water. The degree of acidity is regulated by +litmus paper (the blue specimen), which should be slightly reddened +by it. After this solution has been mixed about ten minutes, it is +filtered, and the paper floated. Mr. Borland says the paper keeps well, +and prints the same as ordinary paper, and any tone may be produced. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +CUTTING PAPER. + + +We have often come across operators who have no really definite plan on +which they cut up their paper for a day's work, and they have little +idea of the most economical place of dividing the sheets. The following +remarks by Mr. Hearn, which appeared in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS, +1874, will be useful to the printer, and, being so extremely well +described, we take the liberty of reproducing them. + +"In cutting up the paper for printing, due regard should be given to +the materials employed. In the first place, the fingers should be free +from anything that will stain or soil the paper, and they should never +touch the _silvered_ side, but always the _back_. The hands should be +perfectly dry, free even from any perspiration, for if this is not +strictly regarded in the handling of the paper, 'finger stains' will +appear on those parts of the paper with which the fingers come in +contact. To guard against this, a rough towel should be suspended in a +convenient place, and the hands wiped upon it as often as may be found +necessary--say once in every five or ten minutes. An ivory newspaper +cutter, about eight inches long and an inch wide, together with a +suitable sized pair of shears, will be all of the instruments necessary. + +"In cutting the paper for very large prints, such as 13 by 16, 14 by 18, +16 by 20, &c., the beginner had best (to obtain the right size) lay over +the sensitive paper the proper sized mat that is to be placed over the +print when finished, and then cut accordingly. Considerable paper can be +saved in this way, and printed in card size. + +"There should always be an assortment of different sized mats in the +printing room; one of each size will do, which should be kept expressly +for this purpose. + +"In cutting the paper for an 11 by 14 print, the length of the sheet +is generally placed before the printer, and the paper bent over to the +further edge of the sheet, and then creased, and thus cut into two equal +pieces, one of which can be used for the contemplated print. I would +recommend that instead of taking exactly one half of the sheet of paper, +as described above, to take about _an inch more_ than the half, so as to +allow for any slight tear that may happen along the edges of the paper +during the washing, toning, &c., and also so as to be sure of having the +paper wide enough for the different sized mats. + +"I have seen some nice prints printed upon the exact half of a sheet of +paper, which, when taken from the final washing (and the edges trimmed, +being slightly torn), were then too narrow to be covered with the proper +sized mats, and had to be rejected; whereas, if in cutting this paper +allowance had been made for this final trimming, the prints would have +been saved. The rest of the sheet can be cut very well into sixteen or +eighteen carte pieces. + +"In cutting cabinets out of a sheet, fifteen is all that can very well +be obtained, and to get that number lay the sheet on a wide table, or +printing bench (with the length of it running from right to left), and +divide it into three equal parts. By laying the cabinet glass on these +strips of paper, and cutting the paper a little wider than the glass, +five cabinets can be obtained from each strip, and fifteen out of the +whole. These pieces will be plenty large enough, both in length and +width; besides, this is a very convenient and economical way to cut the +paper without waste. + +[Illustration: + + 22 inches + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | + | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + 18 inches. | | | | | | + | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | |4-2/5| 6 | | | + | |inch.| inch| | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + _Fig._ 12.] + +"By a glance at the cut (fig. 12) it will be seen that the size of the +pieces will be 4-2/5 by 6 inches, and consequently there will be more +room for the width than there will be for the length. The edges of the +width side of the paper can be trimmed a little, as there is usually +some little tear, or some other defect, that can thus advantageously be +got rid of. Often, when there are only a few cabinets to be printed, +I take a quarter-sheet, and bend over the length of it to about +three-quarters of an inch of the opposite side, crease it, and then +cut with the paper-knife. You thus obtain a large and small piece; the +smaller one of these can be cut into four cards, and the larger one +can be cut in two, and thus obtain two generous size cabinets; or the +printer can use the larger of the two pieces for printing the 4 by 4 +size. This is the way I obtain my 4 by 4 pieces when I wish them. + +"The beginner must remember that in bending over the _length_ of a sheet +of paper 18 by 22 inches in size, the divided paper will be 11 by 18 +inches in size, which is termed, in the language of the printing room, +half-sheet. + +"To obtain the quarter-sheet, the _length of the half-sheet_ is cut +equally in two pieces, and then the size will be 9 by 11 inches. + +"A glance at fig. 13 will show that either a generous size 4 by 4, or a +couple of nice cabinet pieces, together with four cartes, can be easily +obtained from a quarter-sheet. + +"To obtain thirty-two cartes, quarter the sheet, and divide each quarter +into eight equal pieces. + +[Illustration: + + 9 inches. + +-----+------+ + | | 4×4 | + |Cab. | | + | | Cab. | + +-----+------+ + 11 inches. | | | + | 1 | 2 | + +-----+------+ + | | | + | 3 | 4 | + +-----+------+ + + _Fig._ 13.] + +[Illustration: + + 9 inches. + +-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | + | | 3×3 | | + +-----+-----+-----+ + 11 inches. | | | | + | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+ + | 3×9 inches, | + | Stereoscope. | + +-----+-----+-----+ + + _Fig._ 14.] + +"To obtain thirty-six pieces out of a sheet, it is necessary, for +convenience, to first quarter it, and then divide it into three equal +strips (fig. 14) taken from the _length_ of the paper. The pieces, as +thus cut, will measure 3-2/3 by 9 inches, which will answer admirably +for the stereoscopic size. Each one of these strips of paper can be +cut into three good sized cartes, making nine out of a quarter, and +thirty-six out of a whole sheet. + +"Forty-two cartes can be obtained very neatly by laying the sheet before +you (fig. 4), and dividing the length into seven equal parts; when done, +each strip should measure 3-1/7 by 18 inches in size. The whole number +of pieces will be forty-two. It will be seen that the size of the carte +pieces (3 by 3-1/7 inches) only allows very little room for waste paper +in trimming after printing, and thus it will be found necessary to +exercise some care in placing these pieces on the negative for printing. + +[Illustration: + + 18 inches. + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + 22 inches. | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + _Fig._ 15.] + +"To obtain the forty-two carte pieces from the sheet without waste, +great care is required in sensitizing the paper to prevent tearing, and +also to prevent silver from getting on the back of it; in cutting it +either the shears or the paper-knife should be used with care. _Do not +tear the paper with the hands_, as is very often done, especially when +the printer is in a hurry. + +"In making out the above, I have considered the sheet of paper to be 18 +by 22 inches in size, but it is seldom that the sheet measures _exactly_ +this, for the _length_ often measures from one quarter to one inch more, +but never less, while the width is invariably the same. When this is the +case, a little better margin is allowed in cutting the sheet up, which +is a good thing, especially when a large number of small pieces are +to be obtained from the sheet. Forty-two pieces is all that should be +obtained from a sheet of paper which measures 18 by 22 (or 18 by 22-1/2, +&c.) inches, because the pieces of paper are now as small as they +should be with safe results to the prints, on account of bad edges, &c., +which it is often necessary to trim after printing. There is a way to +obtain forty-eight, and even fifty-two pieces of paper from the sheet, +but I would not advise any of my readers to try to obtain that quantity, +as there are many disadvantages connected with it that more than +neutralize the benefits. The paper is sometimes cut up to the _exact +carte size_, and then printed up as it is, thus saving the trimming of +the prints after printing. This is, perhaps (?), a good way, but for +the beginner it is very risky, because the paper will have to be placed +_exactly on the negative_, or else the print will be worthless. Even to +the experienced printer this is very difficult, because the greatest +care and skill are required to do it _as it should be done_; then the +_inexperienced_ printer could not hope to do it successfully." + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +PRINTING-FRAMES. + + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.] + +There are a variety of printing-frames in the market, each of which may +have something to recommend it; and yet, as a rule, the simpler and +more uniform the frames are, the more handy are they for the printer, +since he rapidly becomes accustomed to handling them, and knows their +peculiarities. The simplest pattern is one introduced by Meagher, as +shown in fig. 16. The negative rests on india-rubber strips which line +a framework of its exact size, and a folding back, as shown, covers +it. The paper is pressed on to the negative by a pad, and the back on +that by means of two brass springs. This is a very excellent pattern +for cabinet pictures and cartes, but we can scarcely recommend it for +anything larger, since even if it were possible to supply sufficient +pressure to secure proper contact of the paper, the negative would be in +danger of being cracked. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 17.] + +For all sizes above cabinet, the printing frame as given in the figure +is the best. The construction will be seen at once. In the front part of +the frame is a piece of thick plate glass (depending for its thickness +on the size of the frame). On this the negative rests, and over this +again are the necessary pads and backboard, which is clamped down by +means of two cross-bars, on which springs are fixed. An increase of +pressure may be given by increasing the thickness of the pad (which +may consist of smooth felt) next the negative, or by sheets of thick +blotting-paper quite free from all folding marks. + +Sometimes the back of the frame is hinged in three pieces,[18] and this +is almost essential for large prints (say 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches), +since every part of the picture should be capable of examination during +the progress in printing. With a simple single hinged backboard this is +impossible. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 14.] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 15.] + +When large negatives are to be printed, the plate glass front should +always have at least an inch clear all round. For smaller negatives +(say 12 by 10 and under) half-an-inch clear is sufficient. This allows +a certain latitude in the position of the negative, and enables the +fingers to get at the paper without inconvenience. In the frames in +which the front of the negative is unsupported this cannot be the +case, and for this reason (as well as those given above) they are not +recommended for large prints. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +PREPARING A LANDSCAPE NEGATIVE FOR PRINTING. + + +Landscape negatives are rarely ever in perfect harmony for printing, +and much may be done by judicious doctoring of the best of negatives +to secure the best of prints. With moderate negatives it is absolutely +essential that they should be improved. Let us take the example of a +hard landscape negative, which if printed so that the deep shades should +show detail, would show none in the high lights. + +A piece of thin tissue paper (the kind known as _papier minerale_ is +the best), of the size of the negative, is damped evenly with a sponge, +and carefully pasted on the back of the negative. The negative is then +held up to the light, and the high lights carefully traced with a +faint line by means of a pencil. These are then cut out by means of a +sharp penknife, and a trial print taken in the shade. If it be found +that the shadows still print too deeply when the detail in the high +light is visible, another thickness of tissue paper may be applied, +cutting out this time, perhaps, the high lights and the half tones. +Another trial print will show whether the object is attained. If still +not satisfactory, crayon in powder from the scrapings of a stick of +crayon, or blacklead, may be applied by a stump to the parts requiring +it. It may happen that the effects of the tissue paper may be seen in +the print by the light penetrating beneath it, and causing the edges +of the shadows to print too dark. In this case, which may arise from +the negative being taken on a thin glass plate, the parts covering the +high lights, and which were cut out, should be indented with a jagged +edge such as this, the dotted line showing where the cut would come if +it had been cut out in a clean sharp line. Another mode which we have +sometimes found successful, though care is required in employing it, is +to coat the back of the plate with a very dilute emulsion of a quarter +the ordinary consistency, then to expose it, through the negative, and +develop with one of the ordinary alkaline developers (we prefer the +ferrous oxalate),[19] and then fix. This last film may be protected with +a layer of albumen 1 part of albumen to 25 parts of water. By this means +the shadows become subdued and the contrasts diminished, and there is no +danger of any sharp demarcations in the shades being apparent. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.] + +There is one way of improving a hard negative, if taken on a gelatine +plate, which would probably be dangerous in the hands of a novice, but +which is most effective when used with skill and judgment, but must be +applied before the plate is varnished. One of the most popular methods +of reducing the density of an over-intensified gelatine negative is with +a very weak solution of perchloride of iron. The writers have found that +the reducing agent may be applied locally. Let us suppose the case of a +figure in a landscape in a light dress, which produces a white patch in +the print. The negative should be placed in a dish of water, then lifted +up until the part to be reduced is just above the level of the water; +a solution of perchloride of iron should then be applied to the part +with a camel's-hair pencil, care being taken that it does not spread +over the edges or run down the negative. When this is found to be taking +place, the plate should be allowed to fall into the water; it can then +be lifted again, and the operation proceeded with. It is not easy to +give any strength for the solution of perchloride of iron, but it is +best to begin weak, and strengthen as required. A saturated solution has +been used in an obstinate case without any mischief being done, but this +required very careful watching. + +For landscapes, Mr. England has successfully used a strong solution +of cyanide of potassium with the same object. He moistens the parts +of the gelatine plates which require reduction with water applied by +a paint-brush, and afterwards, with another, applies the cyanide. The +reduction can be watched as it progresses, and by a judicious use of the +brush no sharp line of demarcation between the reduced and unaltered +parts is visible. + +With a thin negative the tissue paper may be applied as before, only +in this case the shadows are left bare, the half tones have one +thickness of tissue paper over them, the highest lights two or three. An +emulsion may be used in this case as well, only instead of fixing the +transparency which is at the back, the precipitated silver is dissolved +away by nitric acid, and the developer applied again. By this means, +the density in the high lights may be doubled if required. It must +again be repeated, that in all cases the use of emulsion requires great +care, seeing that if any get on the varnished surface, markings are +sure to occur. It sometimes happens, especially with gelatine plates, +that the corners of one side of a negative print too dark. This is very +visible in sky and sea pictures. The careful application of blacklead +on the tissue paper on the back of the plate may often save a beautiful +negative that would be otherwise useless. + +In most landscape negatives there is a want of atmosphere (by which +we mean the haze always present in the air) in the distance and middle +distances, and we have found that by applying one piece of tissue-paper +to the back of the negative to cover the middle distance and distances, +and another to cover the distance alone, atmospheric effect is produced. +The effect of atmosphere is usually shown by grey tones as compared +with those of the foreground, and the greyer they are the more distant +should the objects be away in nature. This effect is accomplished by the +tissue-paper. It must, however, be remembered that the lights of distant +objects are greyer than those of the foreground, hence the tissue paper +must be used with judgment to prevent the distant lights from appearing +too white. This sometimes is effected by giving _the lights in the +foreground_ a covering of tissue paper. We very much doubt if there +exists any landscape negative which would not be improved by the use of +tissue paper, since photography often tends to do away with atmosphere. +We have, in some cases, strengthened the high lights on the film side +with the paint-brush and Prussian blue. This requires skill, and should +be done very sparingly. It may be objected that when these artifices +are resorted to, that the photograph must of necessity fail in regard +to truthfulness. The answer to this objection is quite easy to give. +If a photograph were true in itself, they should never be resorted to, +but since it always falls short of the truth, it is quite legitimate to +give it the effect that a perfect process would do, by which we mean one +in which the intensity of the negative is exactly proportional to the +intensity of the light producing it. + +It has been shown in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS of 1877, that the +gradations of a negative are never perfect, and the use of the tissue +paper, &c., makes it more nearly in accord with nature. + +These remarks, of course, have reference only to what we might call "a +good printing negative;" the advisability of doctoring poor negatives +is scarcely open to argument. Improve as much as you like, but be very +careful not to overdo it. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +PRINTING THE LANDSCAPE PICTURE. + + +A trial print from a negative should first of all be taken, to enable +the operator to gauge as to how much is required to be done to it. +A piece of sensitized paper of the exact size of the plate is taken +and examined by transmitted light in the dark room. If there be any +appearance of markings due to bubbles, or of star-like metallic spots, +probably due to small particles of iron being in the albumen, it need +not be rejected altogether. Should there be any of these defects, the +sheet should be placed on one side to cut up into smaller sizes. We will +suppose that we are going to print a 15 by 12 negative. A strong frame +(of the description given at page 44) must be employed, and the thick +plate glass carefully freed from all dust, grit, or stains. The back +of the negative is then placed in contact with it, so as to occupy the +centre of the frame. The piece of sensitive paper is placed over it, and +the back placed loosely over it, and is then carried face downward into +the place where the printing is to be done, and the frame is placed face +downwards on the floor, and left for a few minutes. By this artifice the +paper takes the same degree of humidity as the atmosphere, and there +will be no danger of any cockling, and consequent (as it is termed) want +of contact, between the paper and the negative. This is only necessary +when there is any very great difference in the temperature of the drying +room and the place where the prints are to be exposed, and in some +establishments the difficulty is met by carrying the whole supply of +paper in a closed box into the latter place, and allowing it to absorb +any moisture that it can take up. In any case, the paper is next to be +placed in absolute contact with the negative, and we strongly recommend +the use of sheets of blotting-paper cut to the proper size (about four +thicknesses will be sufficient), and backed by a thick pad of closely +woven and very smooth felt. These latter are rather expensive, but are +very durable if ordinary care be taken of them. The blotting-paper is +useful in causing contact, and also because any accidental presence +of silver nitrate solution on the back of the sensitive paper is +immediately detected, and there is, consequently, no danger of carrying +it to another print and spoiling it, which it might do were it absorbed +by the felt pad. + +The back of the frame is then placed _in situ_, and the hinged +cross-piece brought down and secured by the fasteners. If the springs be +sufficiently strong, the film of the negative should now be in absolute +contact with the sensitive paper. If there be any grit on the plate +glass, or adhering to the back of the negative, it is highly probable +that the glass plate will crack, and if the plate on which the negative +is taken be very curved,[20] the same disaster may be expected. Suppose +the day to be bright, and the negative fairly dense, the frame may +be placed for the trial print facing away from the sun (if there be +any) so that it receives merely skylight, and no direct rays. When the +transparent parts of the negative seem to have taken a fairly black or +brown colour, the print should be examined. In practice we have found +(supposing the printing room be away from the dark room) that a cloth +of thin yellow calico is a useful adjunct during the examination. +The cloth is large enough to cover the frame and also the head of the +operator. One half of the back is loosened and raised, the half pieces +are pulled back, and the paper will probably be found adhering to the +negative, and may require a little manoeuvring to separate it. A very +thin slip (of the size of a toothpick) of soft wood, sharpened at one +end, is a good implement to employ, as by inserting it the paper can be +separated at one corner, and then be raised by the fingers. We have seen +some printers blow against the paper, as if they were separating the +leaves of a book from one another, but this method is to be deprecated, +since particles of saliva are apt to be carried on to the paper with +the breath, and to cause spots, which often appear unaccountable. +Should the print appear slightly deeper than it is required to remain, +it is probably ready to be withdrawn from the action of light, but the +remaining half of the paper must next be examined to see whether such is +the case. To do this the first half of the pressure-board of the frame +which is loose must be pressed down once more into position, the frame +reversed end for end, and the other half of the board opened. + +If the print is large (say 15 by 12) it is not advisable to look at much +of it at once, or for a longer time than can be avoided. It constantly +happens that on a warm day the paper contracts during the short time +necessary for a proper examination of the print; the consequence is, +that the paper does not fall on the same place on the negative when +reflected, and the result is a double print on the paper. + +The printing being judged to be complete, the paper is withdrawn by +taking off pressure-board and pads, and put away for the further +operations of toning and fixing. In one establishment we are acquainted +with, the prints when taken from the frame are placed in a box the lid +of which is pierced by a hole covered with a dark cloth; whilst others +keep them in a press of blotting-paper. The great point to attend to, +however, is to keep them away from all actinic light; and we should +say, further, from all light, since darkened silver chloride becomes +oxidized in light which is usually considered to be non-actinic. +No doubt every printer is aware that the prints produced from the +same negative and on the same sample of albumenised paper similarly +sensitized vary considerably in richness and depth on different days. +For instance, when the light is bad, and when, consequently, the +printing takes a long time, the colour of the darkened surface will +be found to be much duller than on a day when the light is powerful. +Silver albuminate is much less sensitive to feeble light, whilst in +bright light the difference in sensitiveness is not nearly so marked, +and this may account in a certain degree for the difference; but if any +one takes the trouble to expose sensitised albumenized paper to bright +light so as to darken, and then to cover up half, leaving the other half +to be exposed to the light coming through ruby-glass, it will be found +that there is a difference in colour between the two portions, and on +toning the differences will be still more marked. In dull weather the +red and yellow rays bear a greater proportion to the blue and violet +rays (all of which enter into the composition of white light) than +they do on a bright day. It is the blue and violet rays that reduce +the silver chloride to the state of sub-chloride, and then oxidize the +latter; yet it must be remembered that the red and yellow also oxidize +the sub-chloride without being able primarily to produce it. Hence on +a bright day, when the printing is quick, the red and yellow rays have +but little time to do any work, whilst on a dull day they have plenty +of opportunity of oxidizing the sub-chloride as fast as it is formed. +The oxidized image is always more difficult to tone than one which is +unoxidized, hence the advantage of printing in a good light if possible. +The writers believe that one of the principal causes of the variation in +tone of silver prints, which is only too often to be seen, is caused by +this difference in length of exposure to the light. + +The operator must now be supposed to be cognizant of the operations of +toning and fixing which are to be described in subsequent chapters, +and that he has the finished trial print of the particular landscape +negative before him. He sees whether the middle distance or far distance +is obtrusive, and notes which portions require to be softened down by +tissue paper, or to be brought nearer by strengthening the high-lights, +and eventually forms a picture of it as it should be, centring his +imagination in it as built up round the point of principal interest. He +endeavours to see whether the sweeps of light and shade lead up to this +principal object in the view, and whether, if light, it is in contrast +with an immediate dark part of the picture, or _vice versa_. + +Knowing that this is one of the laws of art, he next should endeavour +practically to give effect to his imaginative picture by the judicious +manipulation of tissue paper, the crayon, and the paint, such as +described in Chapter IX. The next point to attend to is as to whether +the picture requires clouds or not, and if he have a stock of cloud +negatives of the right size, he must endeavour to pick out one, a +portion of which will compose well with the lines of the picture,[21] +and at the same time be correct as regards light and shade. When such +a negative is selected, it remains to print it in. A white sky is an +abomination, and a plain tinted one without gradation is nearly as bad. +If, therefore, the operator has the heart and means to do this double +printing, he should never neglect to do it. + +But we would here remind him that when a sky-negative has been used +with a particular view, it should always be devoted to that landscape. +Nothing could be in worse taste, or further from nature, than to use +the same sky with different landscapes. We once saw a frame of sixteen +views, thirteen of which were backed with the same sky; this was bad +enough, but the absurdity went further, and in the same exhibition were +landscapes by another photographer with the same sky! The inference is +that both these photographers bought their sky negatives, printed them, +and exhibited them as their own--a proceeding to which a harsh name +might be given. To use a cloud negative properly, the reader should +consult the chapter on "Combination Printing." + +There is another artifice, however, that does away with the blank sky. +It is practised by some of the leading photographers in England, and may +be put in requisition instead of the more elaborate double printing. In +order to do this, a not quite opaque sky--that is, one which "prints +in" a little--is necessary. Very effective clouds may be produced by a +paint-brush and lamp-black, Indian ink, or gamboge, by painting them +artistically _at the back of the negative_. It matters not if the clouds +so formed show sharp lines and dots, since, if the printing be done in +diffused light, the thickness of the glass plate on which the negative +is taken shades these off, and gives them the soft edges which are +natural to clouds. The clouds may take any of the usual shapes as seen +in nature, and the paint should not be applied too strongly, but should +have a certain amount of transparency. In some negatives we have seen +taken on dry plates, the sky was very transparent, and, when printed +in the ordinary manner, showed a good deal more than perceptible tint. +Yet, by a judicious masking, fleecy clouds floating in a light sky were +produced, which deceived the greatest connoisseurs in such matters. + +We will now describe how such a negative should be prepared for printing. + +Black varnish should be carefully run round the sky-line on the face +of the negative, for about a quarter of an inch. On the back of the +negative the medium should cover the sky to within one-eighth of an inch +of the sky-line, and by this means a sharp but _slightly softened edge_ +of the distant landscape was projected. The breadth of the black varnish +border on the back was slightly greater than that on the film side of +the negative, being about an inch. A piece of cardboard was also roughly +cut out to the sky-line, and left sufficiently broad so as to more than +cover the sky when laid flat on it. The negative with the clouds painted +on it was now placed in the pressure-frame, with the sensitive paper in +contact with it. Outside the frame, and corresponding with the sky-line, +the edge of the cardboard was placed, a small bar to act as a weight +was placed across it as shown in the figure, and the top end supported +by a couple of wooden pegs. The printing took place in diffused light. +When the picture was withdrawn from the frame, the sky, being shaded +gradually by the card, was printed in lightly, whilst the remaining +portion of the negative received the full light; the sky, as is right it +should be, was darker near the zenith than toward the horizon, where it +was, in fact, white; but since the clouds were printed in at the top, +the baldness of the white sky was avoided. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 20.] + +Excellent clouds may also be produced by the stump and crayon on tissue +paper, many of the effects of delicate clouds being capable of being +produced in this manner. A certain amount of skill is required in +producing them, but nothing beyond that which a little practice can give. + +We may add that, instead of using this cardboard shade, some printers +prefer first to entirely mask the sky and print in the landscape, than +to mask the landscape, and to use a movable screen over the negative, +drawing it backwards and forwards during exposure, taking the precaution +that the top of the sky receives the most exposure. The method of +using the cloud negative, we have already said, will be found in the +chapter on "Combination Printing." Above all things, the printer must +bear in mind that if there be any _distance_ in the picture, the sky, +when it meets the margin, must be only very delicately tinted. Let it +be remembered that a picture is often spoilt by printing in clouds too +heavily. The clouds for an effect should be most delicate, with no heavy +massive shadows which overwhelm those of the landscape itself. We are +only talking of the ordinary landscape when the effect of storms is not +desired. It is not within the scope of this work to show how a landscape +and a sky negative may be printed into one plate to form a transparency +from which a new negative may be made; suffice it to say that, by using +collodio-chloride, or by the use of a slow dry plate and exposing to +candle light, the former may be produced in almost the same way that the +print is produced, and a negative may then be produced in the camera or +by a dry plate. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +PREPARING THE PORTRAIT NEGATIVE. + + +So much has been written on the subject of what is called "retouching" +the negative, that it would be a waste of space to enter very fully +into details here. It is now generally admitted that working on the +negative is not only legitimate, but that it is absolutely necessary, +if a presentable portrait is to be printed. The only question is, where +to stop. Professional retouchers, in too many cases, do too much, and +by doing so they "overstep the modesty of nature," and turn the lovely +delicacy, softness, and texture of living nature into the appearance +of hard and cold marble statuary. Everything that is necessary to do +to a portrait negative is very simple; it should be corrected, not +remodelled. Freckles and accidental spots should be stopped out, high +lights may be strengthened, and shadows softened. We may here briefly +indicate the technical methods of performing these operations. + +Some operators pour a solution of gum over the negative after fixing, +and when it is dry work upon the surface of the gum; but it is better +and safer to retouch the negative after it has been varnished. The +varnish must be allowed to become thoroughly hard before any working +upon it is attempted. A negative varnished at night should be ready to +be retouched the next morning. If very little has to be done to the +negative, it may be done at once without preparation; but it is often +advisable to prepare the surface of the varnish to take the lead pencil, +with which the greater part of the work is done. This is done with +"retouching medium." + +Several preparations under this or similar names are sold by stock +dealers, all of them giving, as far as we have tried them, equally good +results. If the photographer prefers to make his own medium, he may +do so by diluting mastic, or any similar varnish, such as copal, with +turpentine. Apply the medium to the parts that it is intended to work on +with the finger, and allow to dry, which it does in a few minutes. Place +the negative on a retouching desk, and commence to fill up with the +point of the pencil all spots that are not required, such as freckles or +uneven marks. Some operators begin at the top of a face and work evenly +downwards. This is a bad plan, and usually results in a mechanical +flattening of the face; it is better to fill in here and there as +necessity appears to arise. The high lights may now be strengthened, +taking care not to make them violent or spotty. The shadows of the face +will be found to require softening, but the general shape of the shadows +must not be altered, and in modifying lines--such as the lines in the +forehead and under the eye--take care not to remove them altogether. An +old man without wrinkles is an unnatural and ghastly object--the "marble +brow" of the poet should be left to literature. The best pencils to +use are Faber's Siberian lead, the hard ones in preference. HH and HHH +are the sorts usually employed. The pencils must be kept very finely +pointed. To ensure this, a piece of wood covered with glass cloth should +be kept always at hand on which to grind the leads to a point. + +Sometimes there are portions of a negative that require more filling +up than can be done with a pencil; in this case water-colour must be +employed. Indigo or Prussian blue is, perhaps, best for the purpose, +because these pigments allow a more appreciable or visible quantity +to be laid on without becoming opaque than any of the warm colours. +Sometimes parts--such as the arm of a child--will print too dark when in +contrast with a white dress; in this case it will be necessary to paint +over the part on the back of the negative, or to cut out a piece of +_papier minerale_ to the shape, and paste it over the dark part, also on +the glass side of the negative. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +VIGNETTING + + +Of the many varieties of small portraiture, the vignette is, perhaps, +the most popular, and, when well done, is certainly the most refined +and delicate. Two things are to be especially avoided in vignetting. +The form of the vignette should not follow the form of the figure +closely, as it is too often made to do, and dark backgrounds should +not be employed. The qualities to endeavour to attain are softness of +gradation, and an arrangement of the forms of the vignette that shall +throw out the head and figure, and the resulting print should somewhat +resemble a sketch, finished if you like, but sketchy in effect. Although +the background should be light, it ought not to be white, but of a +tint that would just throw up the white of a lady's head-dress. If the +background screen could be painted so that a little shade should appear +over the shoulders of a sitter for a head, or rather darker behind the +lower part of a three-quarter figure, so much the better would be the +effect. It would be difficult to find a case where gradation could not +be of advantage in a background; however slight, it conduces especially +to relief. + +Having stated what should be aimed at in vignettes, we now come to the +technical methods of producing them. + +In many cases vignetting is considered to be a merely mechanical +operation, and very often looks like it. Perhaps the trade have more to +answer for than the printer, since the qualities of the wares advertised +for the use of the vignetter are often exaggerated to such a degree that +they are supposed to be suitable to any pictures. Vignette glasses are +not so common as they used to be, but they certainly are useful in some +instances; we almost think that the methods of producing vignetting +apparatus which will be described shortly, superior to them. In case the +printer should wish, however, to use these glasses, here is a method by +which he may produce them. Have a piece of orange glass, flashed on one +side only, rather larger than the size of the picture to be vignetted. +Take a rough print, and trace round, in the proper position on the +glass with an ink line, the point to which the picture should extend. +This should be marked on the unflashed surface of the glass--that is, +the surface on which the glass is uncoloured. Place the plate so marked +on a white surface, flashed side uppermost, and make a solution of +hydrofluoric acid and water, 1 part of the former to 3 of the latter, +in a gutta-percha dish or bottle.[22] Make a pad of flannel and cotton +wool at the end of a stick, about the size of a large nut, and drop +this into the solution. Dab this on the coloured surface of the glass +in the central portions where the print is to be completely printed in, +gradually working out to the inked line. Always work from the centre to +the edges, and dilute the acid with a little water as it approaches the +margins. By degrees the flashing will be dissolved away in the centre, +and, if properly performed, the colour will gradually be eaten away, +till the glass is colourless in the centre, and keeping its full shade +of orange at the ink lines. The glass is then washed, and is ready for +use. + +The most popular plan of vignetting is with cotton-wool. We believe that +the greater part of the vignetting done in England is by this clumsy, +costly, and difficult method. It requires more time and attention than +any other way of producing the same results. Its advantages are, that it +is more "elastic," and allows the operator more scope for attention than +other methods. In the hands of a person who has very great skill, taste, +and patience, it is undoubtedly most useful; but when used by anything +lower than the highest skill, the results are almost always hard and +inartistic. The operation is thus performed. A hole is cut in a piece +of cardboard, which is placed over the negative. Under the edges of the +cardboard is placed cotton-wool, which is lightly pulled out, so as to +slightly shade the vignette, and produce the vignetting gradation. + +The next methods of vignetting are dependent on simple laws of optics. +Suppose you cut a round hole in a card, say, half-inch in diameter, and +so arrange it that all the light getting to a sensitive paper comes +through this hole, and that the card is for our experiment placed +half-an-inch from the paper. Now place the hole so as to face the sky, +but so as the sun has no direct rays falling through the hole. It will +be found that the greatest darkening will not occupy a space exactly +opposite the hole, but be _away from the side on which the light is +brightest_. The dark round patch will be shaded gradually off till +a line is reached where, practically, the light has no effect--that +is, if the surface of the card next the paper be blackened. It will +be noted, however, that the shading is not equal on both sides, but +that the gradation is most extended away from the side on which the +light is brightest. A good example of what is meant will be to try the +experiment of placing the paper and card flat on the ground in the +angle between two walls, both of which are in shadow. It will be seen +that the brightest gradation takes place in the direction exactly away +from the angle of the walls. Next repeat the experiment, making the +hole point to the sky, which is equally illuminated and pointing well +away from the sun. It will be found that the gradations are equal, and +the greatest darkening exactly opposite the hole. Raise the card next +to the height of one inch, and the gradations will be found to be more +extended and softer. The reason of this can be well understood by a +glance at the figures. In both, suppose A B to represent the section of +the card, and C D the hole in it, and the dotted circle the sky, and E +F the paper. Take the points _a_, _b_, and _c_ on the paper, and let us +in the three instances see what relative illumination they will receive. +_a_ is opposite the hole, and receives the light from a circle of sky of +which _d e_ is diameter, and _b_ from an ellipse of which _h k_ is one +diameter, and _e_ from an ellipse of which _f g_ is one diameter. In the +first case, where the card is 1/2 inch from the paper, _h k_ is about +one-fifth of _d e_, and _g f_ about one-third of _d f_, and since the +ellipses vary as their two diameters multiplied together, the point _b_ +would receive only one-twenty-fifth the light that _a_ received, and _c_ +about one-ninth. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 21.] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 22.] + +In fig. 21 the card is raised one inch from the paper, and here _f g_ is +about three-quarters of _d e_, and _h k_ about two-fifths; therefore, +in this case, the light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths, or about +one-sixth of that acting on _a_, and about nine-sixteenths or one-half +nearly on _c_. It is thus evident that the further away the card is, +the more extended will be the gradations. Again, suppose, in the last +figure, the bit of sky at _g f_ was twice as bright as at _d e_, then +the amount of light acting on _c_ would be the same as that acting on +_a_. It will thus be seen how important it is for proper gradation that +the hole in the card should be exposed to an equally illuminated sky, +or that some artifice should be employed to render the illumination +equal. If we paste a bit of tissue paper over C D, this is accomplished, +for then it becomes the source of illumination, and it is illuminated +equally all over, since on every part it receives the light of the whole +sky; but this is not the case if it is transparent to diffused light, +and is never the case if it is exposed to direct sunlight, since a +shadow of the hole is always cast on the paper beneath. If you choose to +put another piece of tissue paper, (say) one inch above the hole, and +extending over the whole length of the card, this difficulty is got rid +of, and this last piece of tissue paper illuminates that pasted over the +hole C D, and the gradations will then be nearly perfect. + +Now to apply the above to forming a vignetting block. + +Suppose we have a one-inch head to vignette and to show the shoulders +and chest, to be of the size of a carte-de-visite, that the background +is about a half-tone between black and white, and that but a trace of +it shall appear above the head. To make a good vignette, the graduation +from black to perfect white should lie within a limit of half an inch +for a carte size portrait. The question then arises at what distance +from the plate should a vignetting card be cut to help this object, +and what shape should be made the hole in the card. We take it that +one-fifth of the light necessary to produce a full black tone would +hardly produce any effect on the sensitised paper; knowing this and the +size of the aperture, we can calculate exactly what height the card +could be raised. Take the breadth between the shoulders that is to be +fully printed as 1-1/2 inches, then by constructing a figure similar +to figures 18 or 19 we shall find that the necessary height is about +one-third of an inch.[23] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 23.] + +By judiciously cutting out an aperture in the card and vignetting, +defects in a background may often be entirely eliminated from the +print. Proceed in this way: Take a print of the portrait, and cut out +the figure in such a way as to get rid of the defective background, +and then place this on a piece of thick card (we prefer a thick card, +since it will not sag easily, and thus alter the gradation), and cut out +an aperture corresponding to it. The outsides of most carte-de-visite +frames are raised from the glass about one-third of an inch; place the +card on the front so that the aperture corresponds to the figure on the +negative, and tack it on to the frame. The dotted lines (fig. 23) show +the card fastened on to the frame, and the opening left. This latter +may be covered with tissue paper, and the frame placed in diffused light +from the sky. In some cases it may be necessary to use a larger printing +frame than the ordinary carte frame, in which case the operator should +be able to make a vignetting apparatus raised at a proper height from +the glass. Suppose it is required to raise the opening half an inch +above the glass, and that the card is 4-1/4 by 3-1/2. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 24.] + +Take the card and rule rectangles as shown (fig. 24), the inner one +being 4-1/4 by 3-1/2 inches, the next one 1/2 an inch outside that, +and the third 1/2 an inch outside that again. Cut out the outer +rectangle entirely, so that we have a piece of card of the size ABCD. +Take a needle point, and prick through the card at the points EFGH and +join these points at the back of the card by lines. Now take a sharp +penknife, and, having laid a flat edge along, cut the card half through +its thickness along KL, LM, MN, and NK. Turn the card over, and cut +along the lines corresponding to EH, HG, GE, and FE, also half way +through the thickness of the card. Turn the card over once more, and +cut out the shaded pieces at the corners. Now bend the card along the +cuts, and a raised block will result of this shape. The corners are +held together by pieces of gummed or albumenized paper, and the block +is ready for an aperture to be cut in it according to the portrait to +be printed. Wooden grooves may be glued along the top of the vignetting +frame, into which cards containing other apertures can be slipped.[24] + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 25.] + +The most practical method of vignetting, a modification of the above, +and the one we always prefer in our own practice, is as follows:-- + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 26.] + +Take a piece of soft wood, half an inch thick for a cabinet size--a +thinner piece should be selected for a smaller picture--of a larger +dimension than the negative; in the centre of this cut a hole of the +shape of, but much smaller than, the desired vignette. One side of the +hole should be very much bevelled away, as represented in this section +(fig. 26). Place this block on the glass of the printing-frame, bevelled +side under, the hole being exactly over the part of the negative from +which the vignette is to be printed. The hole must now be covered with +tissue paper or ground glass, and the frame placed flat on a table to +print. The size of the hole in relation to the size of the vignette +will be easily ascertained by a little experience without the labour of +elaborate calculations. On dull days the tissue paper or ground glass +may be omitted. + +This method is very simple and effective. A quantity of vignetting +blocks of various sizes and shapes could be made by a carpenter, or by +the printer, and should be always at hand. + +A vignetting block should never be less than a quarter of an inch away +from the glass, otherwise the gradations will be too abrupt. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +ARTISTIC METHODS OF PRINTING THE PORTRAIT. + + +Having described in the last chapter the various mechanical arrangements +by which a simple vignette is produced, we will now proceed to give some +account of how that and other forms of printing can be turned to the +most artistic account in portraiture. + +The idea that printing is a mere mechanical operation was exploded long +ago. It is now recognized that the final result owes a good deal of its +artistic effect to the way in which the negative is dealt with after it +is varnished, and especially to its treatment by the printer. There are +many varieties of vignettes, and the method is useful in various ways. + + +_Plain Vignettes._--The usual vignetted portrait is that which +represents a good-sized head and shoulders in the space allotted to the +picture. For a carte-de-visite, a head measuring about 1-1/4 inches +from the top of the head to the chin is a good proportion. Larger sizes +are often made, but they look coarse and vulgar, as if the photographer +had tried how much quantity he could give for the money, regardless of +quality; and even if the quality is good, the vulgar effect is still +there. For a cabinet size a head of 1-3/4 or 1-7/8 inches is quite large +enough. A very pretty style is that in which the gradation is carried +out so gradually as only to end with the edge of the paper. + + +_Three-quarter Length Vignettes._--A three-quarter length figure of a +lady, either standing or sitting, makes a pretty picture; for gentlemen, +a three-quarter vignette is not so good, although it is admissible. It +is difficult to make the legs look anything but awkward when they are +vignetted into empty space at the knee. For three-quarter vignettes a +light, sketchy landscape background may be used with effect. + +There are many varieties of what may be called "fancy printing," in +which the vignette takes a conspicuous part. The first style that we +will consider is that of + + +_Vignettes on a Tinted Ground._--Print a vignette in the usual way. +Take it out of the frame, and place it on a board covered with velvet +or flannel, to prevent the paper shifting. Cover the print with glass, +and place over the printed part a piece of black paper roughly torn to +the shape, and rather smaller than the vignette. Place the whole in +the light until the white margin is slightly tinted, or "blushed," as +it is sometimes called. The edges of the black mask should be slightly +turned up or kept moving to prevent the junction of the tinting and the +vignette being visible. + +The above method represents a vignetted head on smooth grey paper, +and is useful to show up the high lights on the face; but there is a +modification of this effect, in which the appearance of a sketch on +rough drawing-paper is produced. + + +_Vignettes on Rough Drawing-paper._--If, instead of placing a piece of +plain glass over the masked print, a thin negative of some diaper or +pattern had been used, the design could have been printed on the paper +instead of the even tint. A very good negative for this purpose is +made as follows:--Obtain a sheet of the roughest drawing-paper, take +a camel-hair brush dipped in thin sepia, and brush it evenly over the +paper; the colour will fall into the depressions of the paper, and make +the roughness still more visible. This should now be placed where a side +light falls upon it, and photographed. A very thin negative is all that +is required. This negative should be used in place of the plain glass, +and, if not printed too dark, the effect of the delicate vignette inside +the rough tint is very pleasing. It is better when using negatives for +this purpose to place them in pressure-frames, instead of merely placing +them or the print on the velvet board, to print, or perfect contact may +not be obtained. + + +_Medallions._--Medallions of oval and other forms are now a good deal +used for small portraits. These are simply produced by gumming a mask, +made of black or yellow paper, with an oval or other-shaped aperture, +on to the negative, the mask preserving the part it covers white. These +masks can be bought from the dealers cheaper and better than they can be +made. Eccentric shapes are, usually, in bad taste; the oval and dome are +quite sufficient for all purposes. If, instead of leaving the outside +of the print--that protected by the mask--white, it could be tinted, +the lights in the picture would have greater value, and the effect +be improved. To do this, the printed part should be covered with a +black-paper disc corresponding with the mask used in printing, the print +covered with glass, and exposed to the light until printed the required +depth. In performing this operation it will be found convenient to gum +the disc to the covering-glass. If texture could be added to this tinted +margin, then another element of beauty would be added. This may be done +in a similar manner to that described for vignettes, by using a negative +made from rough drawing-paper; but, in this case, there is opportunity +for a greater choice of objects from which to make the tinting negative, +such as grained leather, marble of various kinds, paper-hangings--when +suitable patterns can be obtained--and from the borders of old prints. +In this, as in many other things connected with photography, there is +a good deal of room for bad taste, which the photographer must try to +avoid. He must remember that all these surrounding designs should assist +the portrait, and not distract the attention from it. + + +_Vignettes in Ornamental Borders._--The writer has lately produced some +effects that have given much pleasure by using designs specially drawn +for the purpose. The designs principally consist of an oval in the +centre for the portrait, and a tablet underneath, on which the original +of the portrait may sign his name. These forms are surrounded by flowers +and other objects conventionally treated. The spaces for the portrait +and name should be stopped out with black varnish, so as to print +white. The easiest way to use these ornamental border negatives is as +follows:--First print the border negative; you will then have a print +with a white oval space in the centre. Place this print on the portrait +negative, taking care that it occupies the proper position in the oval. +This is easily ascertained by holding the print and negative up to the +light. It should then be placed in the frame and printed, care being +taken that the vignetted gradation does not spread beyond its limits +over the border. + +There is a good deal of variety to be got out of the combination of the +mask and vignette. Here is one of them. + + +_Combination of Medallion and Vignette._--Vignette a head into the +centre of the paper; when this is done, place over it a black paper oval +disc, taking care that the head comes in the centre under the mask. +Place a piece of glass over the whole, and print. When the disc is +removed, the print will represent a vignette surrounded by a dark oval. +Many variations may be made of this form of picture, and there is much +scope for skill and taste. + +Any of the tinting negatives above described may be used, or they can +be made from designs drawn on paper as we have already stated, or from +natural objects. But if our reader has followed us clearly thus far, he +is now in a position to form combinations for himself. This we recommend +him to do, for there is an additional beauty in anything in art that +indicates a distinctive style or shows thought and originality. There is +too much tendency in portraitists to run in grooves, which the universal +prevalence of the two styles, card and cabinet, help to promote. But +we must caution the young photographer against the mistake of making +changes for the sake of change. The "loud," and the bizarre, may attract +foolish people, but it is only the beautiful that will secure the +attention of the cultivated and refined. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +COMBINATION PRINTING. + + +The scope of photography is wider than those who have only taken a +simple portrait or landscape suppose. It is almost impossible to design +a group that could not have been reproduced from life by the means our +art places at our disposal. We do not mean to assert that such subjects +as Michael Angelo's Last Judgment, or Raphael's Transfiguration, for +instance, have ever been done in photography; but it is not so much +the fault of the art, as of the artists, that very elaborate pictures +have not been successfully attempted. It has not been the failing of +the materials, unplastic as they are when compared with paint and +pencils; it has been the absence of the requisite amount of skill in +the photographer in the use of them, that will account for the dearth +of great works in photography. The means by which these pictures could +have been accomplished is Combination Printing, a method which enables +the photographer to represent objects in different planes in proper +focus, to keep the true atmospheric and linear relation of varying +distances, and by which a picture can be divided into separate portions +for execution, the parts to be afterwards printed together on one paper, +thus enabling the operator to devote all his attention to a single +figure or sub-group at a time, so that if any part be imperfect, from +any cause, it can be substituted by another without the loss of the +whole picture, as would be the case if taken at one operation. By +thus devoting the attention to individual parts, independently of the +others, much greater perfection can be obtained in details, such as the +arrangement of draperies, the refinement of pose, and expression. + +The most simple form of combination printing, and the one most easy +of accomplishment and most in use by photographers, is that by which +a natural sky is added to a landscape. It is well-known to all +photographers that it is almost impossible to obtain a good and suitable +sky to a landscape under ordinary circumstances. Natural skies are +occasionally seen in stereoscopic slides and very small views; but I am +now writing of pictures, and not of toys. It rarely happens that a sky +quite suitable to the landscape occurs in the right place at the time +it is taken, and, if it did, the exposure necessary for the view would +be sufficient to quite obliterate the sky; and if this difficulty were +obviated by any of the sun-shades, cloud-stops, or other inefficient +dodges occasionally proposed, the movement of the clouds during the +few seconds necessary for the landscape would quite alter the forms +and light and shade, making what should be the sky--often sharp and +crisp in effect--a mere smudge, without character or form. All these +difficulties are got over by combination printing, the only objections +being that a little more care and trouble are required, and some thought +and knowledge demanded. The latter should be considered an advantage, +for photographs, of a kind, are already too easy to produce. Of course, +when a landscape is taken with a blank sky, and that blank is filled up +with clouds from another negative, the result will depend, to a very +great degree, upon the art knowledge of the photographer in selecting +a suitable sky, as well as upon his skill in overcoming the mechanical +difficulties of the printing. It is not necessary here to enter into +a description of the art aspect of the matter, as that has often been +discussed; so we will confine ourselves to the mechanical details. + +The landscape negative must have a dense sky, or, if it be weak, or have +any defects, it must be stopped out with black varnish. In this case, it +is better to apply the varnish to the back of the glass; by this means +a softer edge is produced in printing than if painted on the varnished +surface. With some subjects, such as those that have a tolerably level +horizon, it is sufficient to cover over part of the sky while printing, +leaving that part near the horizon gradated from the horizon into white. + +It may here be remarked that in applying black varnish to the back of a +negative, occasions will often be found where a softened or vignetted +edge is required for joining, where a vignette glass or cotton wool +cannot be applied; in such cases the edge of the varnish may be softened +off by dabbing slightly, before it is set, with the finger, or, if a +broader and more delicately gradated edge be required, a dabber made +with wash-leather may be employed with great effect. + +[Illustration] + +When an impression is taken, the place where the sky ought to be will, +of course, be plain white paper; a negative of clouds is then placed in +the printing-frame, and the landscape is laid down on it, so arranged +that the sky will print on to the white paper in its proper place; +the frame is then exposed to the light, and the landscape part of the +picture is covered up with a mask edged with cotton wool. The sky is +vignetted into the landscape, and it will be found that the slight +lapping over of the vignetted edge of the sky negative will not be +noticed in the finished print. There is another way of vignetting the +sky into the landscape, which is, perhaps, better and more convenient. +Instead of the mask edged with cotton wool, which requires moving +occasionally, a curved piece of zinc or cardboard is used. Here is +a section of the arrangement. The straight line represents the sky +negative, and the part where it joins the landscape is partly covered +with the curved shade. Skies so treated must not, of course, be printed +in sunlight. + +It is sometimes necessary to take a panoramic view. This is usually +done, when the pantascopic camera is not employed, by mounting two +prints together, so that the objects in the landscape shall coincide; +but this is an awkward method of doing what could be much better +accomplished by combination printing. The joining of the two prints is +always disagreeably visible, and quite spoils the effect. To print the +two halves of a landscape, taken on two plates, together, the following +precautions must be observed: both negatives must be taken before the +camera-stand is moved, the camera, which must be quite horizontal, +pointing to one half of the scene for the first negative, and then +turned to the remaining half of the view for the second negative. The +two negatives should be obtained under exactly the same conditions of +light, or they will not match; they should also be so taken that a +margin of an inch and a-half or two inches is allowed to overlap each +other; that is to say, about two inches of each negative must contain +the same or centre portion of the scene. It is advisable, also, that +they should be of the same density; but this is not of very great +consequence, because any slight discrepancy in this respect can be +allowed for in printing. In printing vignettes with cotton wool, or a +straight-edged vignette glass, the edge of the left-hand negative on +the side that is to join the other, taking care to cover up the part +of the paper that will be required for the companion negative; when +sufficiently printed, take the print out of the frame, and substitute +the right-hand negative; lay down the print so that it exactly falls on +the corresponding parts of the first part printed (this will be found +less difficult, after a little practice, than it appears), and expose +to the light, vignetting the edge of this negative, also, so that the +vignetted part exactly falls on the softened edge of the impression +already done. If great care be taken to print both plates exactly alike +in depth, it will be impossible to discover the join in the finished +print. If thought necessary, a sky may be added, as before described, +or it may be gradated in the light, allowing the horizon to be lighter +than the upper part of the sky. + +Perhaps the greatest use to which combination printing is now put is +in the production of portraits with natural landscape backgrounds. +Many beautiful pictures, chiefly cabinets and card, have been done +in this way by several photographers. The easiest kind of figure for +a first attempt would be a three-quarter length of a lady, because +you would then get rid of the foreground, and have to confine your +attention to the upper part of the figure and the distance. Pictures +of this kind have a very pleasing effect. In the figure negative, +everything should be stopped out, with the exception of the figure, +with black varnish; this should be done on the back of the glass when +practicable, which produces a softer join; but for delicate parts--such +as down the face--where the joins must be very close, and do not admit +of anything approaching to vignetting, the varnish must be applied on +the front. A much better effect than painting out the background of +the figure negative is obtained by taking the figure with a white or +very light screen behind it; this plan allows sufficient light to pass +through the background to give an agreeable atmospheric tint to the +distant landscape; and stopping out should only be resorted to when the +background is too dark, or when stains or blemishes occur, that would +injure the effect. An impression must now be taken which is not to be +toned or fixed. Cut out the figure, and lay it, face downwards, on the +landscape negative in the position you wish it to occupy in the finished +print. It may be fixed in its position by gumming the corners near the +lower edge of the plate. It is now ready for printing. It is usually +found most convenient to print the figure negative first. When this has +been done, the print must be laid down on the landscape negative so +that the figure exactly covers the place prepared for it by the cut-out +mask. When printed, the picture should be carefully examined, to see if +the joins may be improved or made less visible. It will be found that, +in many places, the effect can be improved and the junctions made more +perfect, especially when a light comes against a dark--such as a distant +landscape against the dark part of a dress--by tearing away the edge of +the mask covering the dark, and supplying its place by touches of black +varnish at the back of the negative; this, in printing, will cause the +line to be less defined, and the edges to soften into each other. If the +background of the figure negative has been painted out, the sky will be +represented by white paper; and as white paper skies are neither natural +nor pleasing, it will be advisable to sun it down. + +If a full-length figure be desired, it will be necessary to photograph +the ground with the figure, as it is almost impossible to make the +shadow of a figure match the ground on which it stands in any other way. +This may be done either out of doors or in the studio. The figure taken +out of doors would, perhaps, to the critical eye, have the most natural +effect, but this cannot always be done, neither can it be, in many +respects, done so well. The light is more unmanageable out of doors, +and the difficulty arising from the effect of wind on the dress is very +serious. A slip of natural foreground is easily made up in the studio; +the error to be avoided is the making too much of it. The simpler a +foreground is in this case, the better will be the effect. + +The composition of a group should next engage the student's attention. +In making a photograph of a large group, as many figures as possible +should be obtained in each negative, and the position of the joins so +contrived that they shall come in places where they shall be least +noticed, if seen at all. It will be found convenient to make a sketch +in pencil or charcoal of the composition before the photograph is +commenced. The technical working out of a large group is the same as for +a single figure; it is, therefore, not necessary to repeat the details; +but we give a reduced copy, as a frontispiece to this volume, of a large +combination picture, entitled "When the Day's Work is Done," by Mr. H. +P. Robinson, a description of the progress and planning of which may be +of use to the student. + +A small rough sketch was first made of the idea, irrespective of any +considerations of the possibility of its being carried out. Other small +sketches were then made, modifying the subject to suit the figures +available as models, and the accessories accessible without very much +going out of the way to find them. From these rough sketches a more +elaborate sketch of the composition, pretty much as it stands, and of +the same size, 32 by 22 inches, was made, the arrangement being divided +so that the different portions may come on 23 by 18 plates, and that the +junctions may come in unimportant plates, easy to join, but not easy +to be detected afterwards. The separate negatives were then taken. The +picture is divided as follows:-- + +The first negatives taken were the two of which the background is +composed. The division runs down the centre, where the light wall is +relieved by the dark beyond it. These two negatives were not printed +separately--it is advisable to have as few printings as possible--but +were carefully cut down with a diamond, and mounted on a piece of glass +rather larger than the whole picture, the edges being placed in contact, +making, in fact, _one_ large negative of the interior of the cottage, +into which it would be comparatively easy to put almost anything. The +next negative was the old man. This included the table, chair, and +matting on which his feet rest. This matting is roughly vignetted into +the adjoining ground of the cottage negative. The great difficulty at +first with this figure was the impossibility of joining the light head +to the dark background; no amount of careful registration seemed equal +to effect this difficult operation; but if it could not be done, it +could be evaded. Several clever people have been able to point out the +join round the head, down the forehead, and along the nose, but we have +never been able to see it ourselves, because we know it is not there. +This is how the difficulty was got over. The figure was taken with a +background that would print as nearly as possible as dark as the dark of +the cottage. The join is nowhere near the head, but runs up the square +back of the old woman's chair, then up the wall, and across the picture, +over the head in an irregular line, and descends on the old man's back, +whence it was easy to carry it down the dark edge of his dress and the +chairs till it comes to the group of baskets, pails, &c., that fill +up the corner. On the other side, the join runs along the edge of the +table, and finds its way out where the floor coverings come together. +The old lady was then photographed, and is simply joined round the edge; +so also was the group in the corner, and the glimpse of the village seen +through the window. + +At first sight, it will appear difficult to place the partly-printed +pictures in the proper place on the corresponding negative. There are +many ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen to suit the +subject. Sometimes a needle may be run through some part of the print, +the point being allowed to rest on the corresponding part of the second +negative. The print will then fall in its place at that point. Some +other point has then to be found at a distance from the first; this may +be done by turning up the paper to any known mark on the negative, and +allowing the print to fall upon it; if the two separate points fall +on the right places, all the others must be correct. Another way of +joining the prints from the separate negatives is by placing a candle +or lamp under the glass of the printing-frame--practically, to use a +glass table--and throwing a light through the negative and paper; the +join can then be seen through. But the best method is to make register +marks on the negatives. This is done in the following manner. We will +suppose that we wish to print a figure with a landscape background from +two negatives, the foreground having been taken with the figure. At the +two bottom corners of the figure negative make two marks with black +varnish, thus |_ _|; these, of course, will print white in the picture. +A proof is now taken, and the outline of the figure cut out accurately. +Where the foreground and background join, the paper may be torn across, +and the edges afterwards vignetted with black varnish on the back of +the negatives. This mark is now fitted in its place on the landscape +negative. Another print is now taken of the figure negative, and the +white corner marks cut away very accurately with a pair of scissors. +The print is now carefully applied to the landscape negative, so that +the mark entirely covers those parts of the print already finished. +The landscape is then printed in. Before, however, it is removed from +the printing-frame, if, on partial examination, the joins appear to be +perfect, two lead pencil or black varnish marks are made on the mark +round the cut-out corners at the bottom of the print. After the first +successful proof there is no need for any measurement or fitting to get +the two parts of the picture to join perfectly; all that is necessary +is merely to cut out the little white marks, and fit the corners to the +corresponding marks on the mask; and there is no need to look if the +joins coincide at other places, because, if two points are right, it +follows that all must be so. This method can be applied in a variety of +ways to suit different circumstances. + +It is always well to have as few paintings as possible, and it +frequently happens that two or more negatives can be printed together. +For instance, the picture we have been discussing--"When the Day's +Work is Done"--is produced from six negatives, but it only took three +printings. The two negatives of which the cottage is composed was, as +already explained, set up on a large sheet of glass, and printed at +once; the old man was also set upon another glass of the same size, with +the negative of the glimpse through the window; and the old woman was +printed in like manner, with the corner group of baskets, &c. So that +here were practically three negatives only. These were registered with +corner marks so accurately that not a single copy has been lost through +bad joins. + +There are one or two things to consider briefly before concluding this +subject. + +It is true that combination printing--allowing, as it does, much +greater liberty to the photographer, and much greater facilities for +representing the truth of nature--also admits, from these very facts, +of a wide latitude for abuse; but the photographer must accept the +conditions at his own peril. If he finds that he is not sufficiently +advanced in knowledge of art, and has not sufficient reverence for +nature, to allow him to make use of these liberties, let him put on his +fetters again, and confine himself to one plate. It is certain (and this +we put in italics, to impress it more strongly on the memory) that _a +photograph produced by combination printing must be deeply studied in +every particular, so that no departure from the truth of nature shall +be discovered by the closest scrutiny_. No two things must occur in +one picture that cannot happen in nature at the same time. If a sky +is added to a landscape, the light must fall on the clouds and on the +earth from the same source and in the same direction. This is a matter +that should not be done by judgment alone, but by judgment guided by +observation of nature. Effects are often seen, especially in cloud-land, +very puzzling to the calm reasoner when he sees them in a picture; +but these are the effects that are often best worth preserving, and +which should never be neglected, because it may possibly happen that +somebody will not understand it, and, therefore, say it is false, and, +arguing still further on the wrong track, will say that combination +printing always produces falsehoods, and must be condemned. A short +anecdote may, perhaps, be allowed here. Some time ago a photograph of +a landscape and sky was sent to a gentleman whose general judgment in +art was admitted to be excellent; but he knew that combination printing +was sometimes employed. In acknowledging the receipt he said, "Thank +you for the photograph; it is a most extraordinary effect; sensational, +certainly, but very beautiful; but it shows, by what it is, what +photography cannot do; your sky does not match your landscape; it must +have been taken at a different time of day, at another period of the +year. A photograph is nothing if not true." Now it so happened that +the landscape and sky were taken at the same time, the only difference +being that the sky had a shorter exposure than the landscape, which was +absolutely necessary to get the clouds at all, and does not affect the +result. Another instance arose in connection with a picture representing +a group of figures with a landscape background. Four of the figures +were taken on one plate, at one operation; yet a would-be critic wrote +at some length to prove that these figures did not agree one with +another; that the light fell on them from different quarters; that the +perspective of each had different points of sight; and that each figure +was taken from a different point of view! These two cases are mentioned +to show that it is sometimes a knowledge of the means employed, rather +than a knowledge of nature--a foregone conclusion that the thing must +be wrong, rather than a conviction, from observation, that it is not +right--that influences the judgment of those who are not strong enough +to say, "This thing is right," or "This thing is wrong, no matter by +what means it may have been produced." + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +TONING THE PRINT. + + +If a print on albumenized paper be fixed without any intermediate +process, the result is that the image is of a red, disagreeable tone, +and unsightly. Moreover, it will be found that, if such a print be +exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly loses its freshness, and fades. In +order to avoid this unsightliness, resort is had to toning, the toning, +in reality, being the substitution of some less attackable metal for +the metallic silver which forms a portion of the print. The usual metal +used for substitution is gold applied in the state of the ter-chloride. +It is not very easy to tell precisely how the substitution is effected; +the question is, at present, sub judice, and, therefore, we propose +to omit any theory that may have been broached. It is sufficient to +say that it is believed the first step towards the reduction of the +gold is the production of a hydrated oxide, and never metallic gold. +Be that as it may, if a finely-divided silver be placed in a solution +of chloride of gold, the silver becomes converted into the chloride, +and the gold is quickly reduced to the metallic state; and since gold +combines with more chloride than does silver, it is manifest that when +the substitution takes place,[25] the metallic gold deposited must +be very much less than the silver. The colouring power of gold is, +however, very great, when in the fine state of division in which we have +it, being an intense purple to blue colour, and a very little of this +mixed visually with the ruddy or brown colour of the albuminate which +has been discoloured by light gives, after fixing, a pleasing tone. A +picture, when toned thus, is composed of silver subchloride, metallic +gold, and an organic compound of silver. If a print be kept in the +toning bath too long, we are all aware that the image becomes blue and +feeble, and the same disaster happens when a toning bath is too strong, +_i.e._, is too rich in gold solution. The reason of this is, that too +much gold is substituted for the silver in the sub-chloride, and there +is in consequence too great a colour of the finely-precipitated gold +seen. To make a toning bath, the first thing is to look after the gold. +There is a good deal of chloride of gold sold, which is, in reality, not +chloride of gold, but a double chloride of gold and of some such other +base as potassium, and if it be paid for as pure chloride of gold, it +is manifest that the price will be excessive. It is best to purchase +pure chloride of gold, though it may be slightly acid, since subsequent +operations correct the acidity. In our own practice we get fifteen-grain +tubes, and break them open, and add to each grain one drachm of water, +and in this state it is convenient to measure out. Thus, for every grain +of gold to be used, it is only necessary to measure out one drachm +into a measure. In delicate chemical operations, this would rightly +be considered a rough method; but for a practical photographer it is +sufficiently precise. + +Now if chloride of gold alone were used, it would be found that the +prints, after immersion in a dilute solution, were poor and "measley," +and practice has told us that we must add something to the solution to +enable it to act gradually and evenly. First of all, the gold solution +must be perfectly neutral, and we know no better plan than adding to it +a little powdered chalk, which at once neutralizes any free acid. It +is not a matter of indifference what further retarder is added, for +the reason that the more you retard the action, the more ruby-coloured +becomes the gold, and less blue. A well-known experiment is to dissolve +a little phosphorus in ether, and add it to a gallon of water, and then +to drop in and stir about half a grain of chloride of gold. Phosphorus +reduces the gold into the metallic state, but when so dilute the +reduction takes place very slowly. The gold will, however, precipitate +gradually, but it will be in such a fine state of division that it is +a bright ruby colour. A very common addition to make to a toning bath +is acetate of soda, and if the gold be in defect, the same appearance +will take place in the solution. If chloride of lime, however, be added +instead, and a commencement of precipitation of gold be brought about, +the gold will be of a blue colour, having a slight tendency to purple. +In this case, the grains of gold deposited are larger than when it is in +the ruby state. The tone of the print then depends in a large measure +on the degree of rapidity with which the gold is deposited. The quicker +the deposit, the larger and bluer the gold, whilst an extremely slow +deposition will give the red form. It often happens that no matter how +long a print is immersed in a toning bath, it never takes a blue tone. +The reason will be obvious from the above remarks. + +We now give some toning baths which are much used. + + No. 1.--Gold tri-chloride 1 grain + Sodium carbonate 10 grains + Water 10 ounces + +This bath must be used immediately after mixing, since the gold is +precipitated by the carbonate. The tones given by this bath are purple +and black. The prints should be toned to dark brown for the purple tone, +and a slightly blue tone for the black tone. + + No. 2.--Gold tri-chloride 2 grains + Saturated solution + of chloride of + lime 2 drops + Chalk a pinch + Water 16 ounces + +The saturated solution of chloride of lime is made by taking the common +disinfecting powder, and shaking a teaspoonful up in a pint bottle. +When the solids have settled, the clear liquid can be decanted off, and +corked up till required. This is the solution used above. It is as well +to keep this solution in the dark room. + +The water with this bath should be hot (boiling better still), and the +bath may be used when it is thoroughly cool. It is better, however, to +keep it a day before using, since, when fresh, the action is apt to +be too violent, and the prints are readily over-toned. The tone with +this bath is a deep sepia to black. To get the first tone a very short +immersion is necessary; the prints should be almost red. For a black +tone the prints should be left in the solution till they are induced to +be of a purple hue. + + No. 3 is made as follows:-- + + Sodium acetate 1 drachm + Gold trichloride 5 minim + Distilled water 12 ounces + +This bath is a most excellent one in many respects, and should not be +used under a week to get the best result. As this is a long time to keep +a bath, it is as well to have two always on stock. It keeps indefinitely +if proper care be taken of it. This produces a purple or brown tone, +according to the length of time the print is immersed in it. + +Now, as to toning the print. After the day's printing is done, the +prints should be placed in a pan of good fresh water, in order to +dissolve out all or a certain amount of silver nitrate that is +invariably left in them. A puncheon, such as is used in dairies, is +very convenient. It should be filled with water, and the prints placed +in one by one, taking care that no one sticks to its neighbour, as this +would be a fruitful source of unequal toning. Most water contains a +little carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, &c.; the water will +therefore become milky. When the prints have been in the first water +for ten minutes, they should be removed to another vessel of water, one +by one. The first wash water should be placed in a wooden tub, with +a tap let into it about six inches above the base, together with a +little common salt. The salt forms chloride of silver, which gradually +precipitates, and the clear water is then drawn off on the next day, and +the sediment is left undisturbed. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 27.] + +It now remains to see which toning bath is to be used. If No. 1 or 3, +the whole of the free silver should as far as possible be washed away, +which may entail three or four changes of water; the last two washings +it will hardly repay to place in the tub; the second washing should +certainly be added to it. If No. 2 toning bath be used, a little free +silver should remain in the print; in fact, the washing should be +confined to two changes of water. + +When toning operations are commenced, the toning solution is poured +off from any sediment that may be in the bottle containing it into a +dish a couple of inches wider each way than the largest print which +has to be toned. If big prints have to be toned, it is inadvisable to +place more than a couple in the dish at the same time, since there is a +certain awkwardness in judging of the amount of tone given to a print +which is (say) between two or three. The prints should be placed face up +in the solution, and great care should be taken that liquid separates +each print from the next one to it, otherwise there will be patches of +unequal toning. The dish containing the prints in the solution should be +gently rocked to secure a proper mixture of the solution which may have +been robbed of its gold in those strata next surface of the prints. The +rocking is also advisable to cause any adhesion between two deep-toning +prints impossible. If the prints be of small size, a dozen or more may +be toned at one operation. Each print should be frequently brought to +the surface of the liquid, and examined in order to see how the toning +action is progressing. When one print is judged sufficiently toned, it +is removed to a dish containing pure water, and another untoned print +placed in the dish in its stead. This operation is continued till all +the prints are toned. We have heard that it has been suggested to place +the prints in water containing a little acetic acid or common salt, in +order to stop the toning action continuing from the solution which may +be held in the paper. The former is most undesirable, acetic acid, as we +shall see presently, decomposing the fixing bath. + +As to the addition of common salt, we can scarcely give a favourable +opinion regarding it. The addition of a chloride does, in truth, alter +the colour of the deposited gold (see _ante_), and it may be this that +gives rise to the opinion that it corrects toning action. Of one thing +we have little doubt, however, and that is, that the addition of any +large amount of common salt will tend to turn the albumenate of silver +into chloride, which in fixing will materially weaken the print. When +giving the formula of the toning baths, we have indicated the depth to +which toning should take place. One great point to attend to is, that +a print should not be a slatey colour when fixed, and that can only +be avoided by stopping the toning action when the print arrives at a +blue-purple stage. + +The toning bath, when used, should be replaced in the bottle, and we +recommend that it be kept in a dark place, otherwise any chloride of +silver which finds its way into the solution will darken and be a +nucleus for the precipitation of gold from the solution. The energy of +the toning bath would, in consequence, be wholly gone. It will be found +that in very cold solutions formed in winter the toning action is much +slower than in summer, and we need scarcely point out that this due to +the fact that cold invariably retards chemical action. This retardation +is not advantageous, and it will be found positively hurtful as to the +colour of the precipitated gold. We therefore recommend that the toning +solution and the dish in which it is to be poured should be warmed +before the fire, the former to a temperature of about 70°F., and the +latter a little higher. By this means the toning action will take place +as rapidly as in warm weather, and the same tones be produced. It must +be remembered we are writing for all; not for those alone who have +an elaborate arrangement for keeping their operating rooms at a good +temperature in all weathers, but also for those who cannot afford the +luxury. It is for this reason that we have given the above directions. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +FIXING THE PRINT. + + +Sir J. Herschel was the first to point out that hyposulphite of soda +would dissolve chloride of silver, and subsequently it has been found +that it dissolves almost every organic salt of silver. In our early +chapters we gave some examples of this. When we add hyposulphite to a +salt of silver, such as the chloride, we get one of two reactions, the +formation of a nearly insoluble double hyposulphite of soda and silver, +or a readily soluble one. + + Silver Sodium + Chloride and Hyposulphite + AgCl + Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3} + + form + + Insoluble Double Sodium + Hyposulphite of and Chloride. + Silver and Sodium + AgNaS_{2}O_{3} + NaCl + +And + + Silver Sodium + Chloride and Hyposulphite + + 2AgCl + 3Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3} + + form + + Soluble Double Sodium + Hyposulphite of and Chloride. + Silver and Sodium + Ag_{2}Na_{4}3(S_{2}O_{3}) + 2NaCl + +The first insoluble double hyposulphite is formed when there is only +a small quantity of sodium hyposulphite present; the soluble kind +when the sodium hyposulphite is in excess. Since it is the soluble +kind which we wish to form, it is manifest that the presence of a +sufficiency of hyposulphite in the fixing bath is necessary. If not, +we have left the insoluble form on the paper. If either of these two +kinds of hyposulphite be made in a test-tube, we can readily simulate +the effect of atmospheric exposure. If slightly acid water be added +to the hyposulphite, it will be seen, when chloride of silver has +been dissolved by the hyposulphite, that the precipitate or solution +commences to blacken, sulphide of silver being formed. On the other +hand, if we take albumenate of silver, and dissolve it in hyposulphite +of soda, we shall find that the addition of acid gradually causes a +yellow-looking compound to separate out, and it is probably this body +formed in the paper which causes the gradual yellowing of the whites of +silver prints. + +What is taught us, then, by this observation is, that by thorough +washing we must try and eliminate all traces of hyposulphite of silver, +and, indeed, of the hyposulphite of soda, since the latter decomposes as +rapidly in the presence of acid as does the silver compound. + +The formula for the fixing bath which we recommend is:-- + + Sodium hyposulphite 4 ounces + Water 1 pint + Ammonia 1/2 drachm + +The addition of the ammonia prevents any possibility of an acid reaction +arising, and otherwise softens the film of albumen and the size of +the paper, causing more rapid fixation and more thorough washing. +Another thing the ammonia does is, that it prevents, in a great +measure, blistering of the film of albumen, which is common in some +highly-albumenized paper. + +Experience has shown that one ounce of solid hyposulphite will fix with +safety three sheets of paper, so that an idea can be formed of how much +must be used for a day's printing. The hyposulphite bath which has been +used one day should never be used the next, since it invariably contains +the germs of decomposition in it from some cause or another. Indeed, the +appearance of the solution indicates this is so, since it is usually of +a yellow or brownish appearance. + +The time required for fixing a print varies with the thickness of +the paper used. As a rule, prints on the medium-sized paper require +ten minutes' soaking in the bath, whilst thick-size requires fifteen +minutes. Whilst toning, the dish containing the hyposulphite should +be kept in a gentle rocking motion, as in toning, and for the same +reasons. Prints may be examined from time to time, to see how the +fixing progresses. When a print is not quite fixed, small spots of dark +appearance will be seen when it is examined by transmitted light. The +operation of fixing should be continued after these disappear for at +least three or four minutes, in order that the hyposulphite of soda in +the dish may get impregnated with the double silver and sodium salt +which is in the print, and thus render washing more effectual. It should +be noted that the dish for fixing should be at least as long and wide +as the dish used for toning; that it should be deeper when, as a rule, +all the prints are fixed at one time. Care should be taken that dishes +which are used for sensitizing, toning, or fixing, _should not be used +for anything else_. The glaze of porcelain dishes is often soft, and +frequently absorbs a certain amount of the solutions used. Thus, if +a porcelain dish be used for a solution of any aniline dye, it will +often be found that it is permanently stained. Colour in this last is +merely indication of what happens with any other solution. It will thus +be seen that it is a mistake to use a dish for fixing when the glaze +is cracked, since old hyposulphite must find its way into the body of +the fresh solution that may be used, and thus institute a spontaneous +decomposition, and a consequent want of permanence in the print. For +our own part, we believe that a gutta-percha dish is a safer dish to +use than any other, since it is impervious to any solution, and can be +well scoured after fixing, and before being again brought into use. We +believe that much of the fading of prints may be traced to the use of +unsuitable dishes for fixing. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +WASHING THE PRINT. + + +There are very many apparatus designed for washing prints; but +we believe that, where few prints have to be treated, careful +hand-washing is as superior to machine-washing, as hand-made paper +is to machine-made. In our own practice we take the prints from the +fixing-dish, and immerse them in a large puncheon of water, and allow +them to soak for five minutes, after which we carefully pour off all +the water, and replenish with fresh, in which we leave them for a +quarter-of-an-hour. After that we take the prints and place them on a +glass slab, and, with a squeegee, squeeze as much water as possible out +of each separately; this we repeat twice. After two more washings of a +quarter-of-an-hour, we then wash for half-an-hour, and, with a sponge, +dab them as dry as possible, and again immerse for half-an-hour. After +repeating this operation twice, we allow a stream of running water +to pour into the puncheon for a couple of hours, carrying the stream +through an india-rubber pipe, at the end of which is a glass tube, to +the bottom of the puncheon, and so that the pour of water goes against +the side. By this means there is a constant stir in the water, and the +water flows over the edge of the puncheon. It is convenient to cut a +notch in the top rim of the puncheon, so that the water may find an exit +before reaching the level of the rim. The prints are then taken out, +sponged once more, and dried. By this arrangement we have got prints +which are perfectly unfaded, though they have been in existence eighteen +years, and have been to the tropics, and in the dampest climates. This +method of washing, though tedious, should be applied to all prints; but, +in the present day, it can hardly be hoped that it can be immediately +adopted, on account of the attention it requires; we therefore describe +an apparatus which can be used. It was designed by Mr. England, +and consists of a working trough, as shown in the figure, which is +automatically worked by an overshot wheel. We need not enter into the +details of the invention, as they are self-evident. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 28.] + +This washing arrangement causes the prints to be alternately soaking +in water, and draining. Whilst in the water they are perpetually being +shaken apart by the movement of the tray, and thus every part of the +print gets washed, and it is almost impossible for two prints to stick +together. In all washing apparatus there is a danger of air-bells +forming on the surface of the prints while in the water, but in this +form there is the advantage that whilst draining the air-bells must +break, and so water on rising to the level of the prints can obliterate +any of the evil effects which would be caused by their being perpetually +remaining on one spot. It is useless to attempt to describe other forms +of the apparatus, since there are so many; we have chosen one which +appears to us to be a satisfactory form. + +The following tests for the elimination of hyposulphite are taken from +another work of this series.[26] + +"The following is a most delicate test. + +"Make the following test solution:-- + + Potassium permanganate 2 grains + Potassium carbonate 20 " + Water 1 quart + +"The addition of a few drops of this rose-coloured solution to a pint of +water will yield a slightly pink tinge. If there be any trace of sodium +hyposulphite present, this colour will give place to one of a greenish +hue. + +"If the permanganate be not at hand, the following well-known starch +iodide test may be adopted:-- + +"Take about two drachms of water and a small piece of starch about the +size of a small pea; powder and boil the starch in the water till the +solution is quite clear; add one drop of a saturated solution of iodine +in alcohol to this clear liquid. It will now become dark blue. Of this +solution drop two drops into two clean test tubes, and fill up one with +distilled water and the other with the water to be tested; a faint blue +colour should be perceptible in the first test tube. In the second +test tube, should hyposulphite be present, this blue colour will have +disappeared, the iodide of starch becoming colourless in its presence. +The best mode of comparing the two waters is by placing a piece of white +paper behind the test tubes. + +"It frequently occurs that though sodium hyposulphite cannot be detected +in the washing water, it may be present in the paper itself. The paper +on which most prints are taken being sized with starch, if a _very_ +weak solution of iodine be applied with a brush across the _back_ of a +print, a blue mark will indicate the _absence_ of the hyposulphite. Care +must be taken that the iodine solution is _very_ weak, otherwise a part +of the iodine will first destroy the trace of the salt, and then the +remainder will bring out the blue re-action." + +We finish this chapter by quoting our maxims to be observed in printing. + + "_Maxims for Printing._ + + "1. The prints should have the highest lights _nearly_ white, + and the shadows verging on a bronzed colour before toning. + + "2. Place the prints, before toning, in the water, face + downwards, and do not wash away too much of the free nitrate of + silver. + + "3. The toning solution must be neutral or slightly alkaline, + and not colder than 60°. + + "4. Tone the prints to purple or sepia, according as warm or + brown prints are required. + + "5. Move the prints, in both the toning and fixing solutions, + repeatedly, taking care that no air-bubbles form on the surface. + + "6. Take care that the fixing bath is not acid. + + "7. Use fresh sodium hyposulphite solution for each batch of + prints to be fixed. + + "8. Wash thoroughly after and before fixing. + + "9. Make a sensitizing bath of a strength likely to give the + best results with the negatives to be printed. + + "10. Print in the shade, or direct sunshine, according to the + density of the negative." + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +PRINTING ON PLAIN PAPER. + + +Prints on plain paper are sometimes of use; for instance, they form an +excellent basis on which to colour. They are of course duller than an +albumenized print, since the image is formed more in the body of the +paper than on the surface. The following formula may be used:-- + + Ammonium chloride 60 to 80 grains + Sodium citrate 100 " + Sodium chloride 20 to 30 " + Gelatine 10 " + Distilled water 10 ounces + +Or, + + Ammonium chloride 100 grains + Gelatine 10 " + Water 10 ounces + +The gelatine is first swelled in cold water, and then dissolved in hot +water, and the remaining components of the formulæ are added. It is +then filtered, and the paper is floated for three minutes, following +the directions given on page 10. If it be required to obtain a print on +plain paper in a hurry, a wash of citric acid and water (one grain to +the ounce) may be brushed over the back of ordinary albumenized paper, +and, when dried, that side of the paper may be sensitized and printed in +the ordinary manner. For cold tones the wash of the citric acid may be +omitted. + +The toning and fixing are the same as described in Chapters XII. and +XIII. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +PRINTING ON RESINIZED PAPER. + + +The following is taken from another volume of this series.[27] + +To Mr. Henry Cooper we are indebted for a valuable printing process, +founded on substituting resins for albumen or other sizing matter. The +prints obtained by this process are very beautiful, and lack that gloss +of albumen which is often called vulgar and inartistic. + +The following are the two formulæ which Mr. Cooper has communicated to +the writer:-- + + Frankincense 10 grains + Mastic 8 " + Calcium chloride 5 to 10 " + Alcohol 1 ounce + +When the resins are dissolved in the alcohol, the paper is immersed in +the solution, then dried and rolled. The sensitizing bath recommended is +as follows (though the strong bath given at page 126 will answer):-- + + Silver nitrate 60 grains + Water 1 ounce + +To the water is added as much gelatine as it will bear without +gelatinizing at 60° Fah. + +The second formula gives very beautiful prints, soft and delicate in +gradation. + +The paper is first coated with an emulsion of white lac in gelatine, +which is prepared as follows:-- + +3 ounces of _fresh_ white lac are dissolved in 1 pint of strong alcohol, +and after filtering or decanting, as much water is added as it will bear +without precipitating the lac; 1 ounce of good gelatine is soaked and +dissolved in the pint of boiling water, and the lac solution is added +with frequent stirring. If, at any stage of this operation, the gelatine +is precipitated, a little more hot water must be added. The pint of lac +solution ought, however, to be emulsified in the gelatine solution. + +To use the emulsion, it is warmed, and the paper immersed in or floated +on it for three minutes. When dry, the coated surface is floated in the +following for a couple of minutes:-- + + Ammonium chloride 10 grains + [28]Magnesium lactate 10 " + +When dry, it is sensitized on a moderately strong bath (that given on +the last page will answer). + +If more vigour in the resulting prints be required, it is floated on:-- + + Citric acid 5 grains + White sugar 5 " + +This last bath improves by use, probably by the accumulation of silver +nitrate from the sensitized paper. + +Any of the toning baths given in Chapter XII. will answer, though Mr. +Cooper recommends:-- + + Solution of gold tri-chloride + (1 gr. to 1 dr. of water) 2 dr. + Pure precipitated chalk a pinch + Hot water 10 ounces + +2 dr. of sodium acetate are to be placed in the stock-bottle, and the +above solution filtered on to it. This is made up to 20 ounces, and is +fit for use in a few hours; but it improves by keeping. + +In commencing to tone, place a few ounces of water in the dish, and add +an equal quantity of the stock solution, and if the toning begins to +flag a little, add more of it from time to time. + +With the resin processes over-toning is to be carefully avoided. + +Resinized paper may be obtained from most photographic dealers, +we believe, and for some purposes is an admirable substitute for +albumenized paper. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +PRINTING ON GELATINO-CHLORIDE EMULSION PAPER. + + +Mr. W. T. Wilkinson has recently brought forward the notion of using +gelatine instead of albumen as a medium for holding the silver chloride +in printing. He uses the following formula:-- + + Barium chloride 2,440 grains + Gelatine 2,000 " + Water 20 ounces + +The gelatine is allowed to swell in the water, and, by the aid of heat, +is dissolved; the barium chloride is then added. Next he prepares-- + + Silver nitrate 1,700 grains + Water 5 ounces + +and adds this to the former, little by little, in a large bottle with +much shaking, or pours it slowly into the former in a large jar, +stirring briskly the whole time. This makes an emulsion of silver +chloride, and is used without washing. When required for use, the +gelatine, which will have set when cold, is swelled by placing the jar +containing it in hot water, and is then transferred to a dish. The dish +should be kept warm by being placed, supported on small blocks, in a tin +tray (about two inches larger in dimensions every way than the dish) +filled with hot water, the temperature of which should be about 150° F. +to commence with. Saxe or Rive paper may be coated by rolling the sheet +face outwards, and placing the edge of the roll upon the gelatine. The +two corners of the paper in contact with the solution are then taken +hold of by the fingers, and raised. The paper will unroll of itself, and +take up a thin layer of the gelatine emulsion. The sheet of paper is +then suspended to dry. All these operations are, of course, conducted +in the dark room. The behaviour of the paper in the printing-frame is +precisely the same as albumenized paper, and the washing and toning are +conducted in the same way. For a fixing bath is used-- + + Sodium hyposulphite 2 ounces + Water 20 " + +The washing after fixing is more rapid than with albumenized paper. It +is washed in ten or twelve changes of water for ten minutes, and then +placed for five minutes in an alum bath made as follows:-- + + Potash alum 5 ounces + Water 20 " + +The print is washed in a few changes of water, and the prints are ready +for drying and mounting. The advantage of the alum bath is that the +hyposulphite is destroyed into harmless products, and the gelatine is +rendered insoluble by it. In the formula given there is large excess +of chloride, and we recommend that instead of using 2,440 grains of +barium chloride, 2,050 grains be used. (Mr. Wilkinson has used that +amount of the barium salt that would be required exactly to convert +1,700 grains of silver nitrate into silver chloride, if the formula for +barium chloride were BaCl_{3} instead of BaCl_{2}.) It will be seen +that whichever formula is used, there is no silver left to combine with +the gelatine, and hence the image will be entirely formed by metallic +silver, and not an organic salt of silver. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +DRYING THE PRINTS. + + +In many establishments the prints are taken direct from the washing +water, and hung up by American clips, and thus allowed to dry. When this +is done, the prints curl up as the water leaves the paper, and they +become somewhat unmanageable. If prints have to be dried at all before +mounting--and they must, unless they are trimmed before toning--a better +plan is to make a neat heap of some fifty or sixty of the same size (say +cartes), place them on blotting-paper, and drain for a time, and then in +a screw-press (such as is used to press table-cloths, for instance) to +squeeze out all superfluous water. After a good hard squeeze the prints +should be separated, and the plan adopted by Mr. England carried out. He +has frames of light laths made, of about 6 feet by 3 feet, and over this +frame is stretched ordinary paperhanger's canvas. The prints are laid +on this to dry spontaneously, and they cockle up but very little. The +frames, being light, are easily handled. After the squeezing is done, +supposing the room in which they are placed be not very damp or very +cold, the prints will be ready for trimming and mounting in a couple of +hours. To our minds there is nothing superior to this mode of drying, +since the squeezing in the press tends to eliminate every slight trace +of hyposulphite which might be left in them. + +_Trimming the Prints._--Perhaps more prints are ruined in trimming than +in any other way, when the operator is inexperienced, since it requires +judgment to know which part of the print to trim off, so that a right +balance shall be kept. In trimming landscape prints, it is impossible +to give any set rules; the judgment as to what is artistic must be the +guide. Of one thing we may be certain, that, unless the operator who +took the original negative knows exactly how to balance his picture on +the focussing-screen, the print will always bear cutting down in one +direction or the other. Such a clipping, of course, alters the size of +the print, which, if it be one of a series, will be a misfortune; but, +on the other hand, the artistic value of the individual print will be +increased. + +For portraits there are some few rules which should be followed in +trimming. Always allow the centre of the face to be a little "out" from +the central line of the print, making more space on the side towards +which the sitter is looking. Allow a carte or cabinet to be cut in +such a way that, if the sitter has been leaning on something, it does +not seem as if he had been leaning on nothing. Should there be an +unintentional lean on the part of the sitter, trim the print so that he +appears in an upright position. + +To trim the print, there should be the various sized shapes in glass +used. Thus there should be glasses with bevelled edges for the carte, +the cabinet, and other sizes, which can be laid on the print as a guide +to the trimming. The absolute trimming may be done either by shears +or by a knife, a leather cutters' knife being excellent, since it is +rounded, and can be brought to a keen edge very readily. When the knife +is used, the print is placed on a large glass sheet of good thickness, +the pattern placed over it, and, whilst this is held down by the left +hand, the knife is used by the right, keeping it close to the edge of +the pattern glass. When shears are used, the print is held against the +pattern glass by the left hand, and each side trimmed by one clip, +taking care to make the cut parallel to the edges of the pattern glass. +It requires a little practice to prevent clipping the glass as well as +the paper, but for small sized prints, such as the carte, the shears +have a decided advantage over the knife. + +For cutting out ovals, Robinson's trimmer is an excellent adjunct to the +mounting-room, and in this case ovals stamped out of sheet brass are +used as guides. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 29.] + +The figure will show the action of the trimmer. The small wheel is the +cutter, and, being pivotted, it follows the curve against which it is +held. It is better to cut out prints with this trimmer on sheet zinc +in preference to glass, the edge of the wheel being kept sharp for a +longer time than where the harder glass is used. To use the trimmer, +the print is placed on the sheet of zinc, the oval mask (or square +mask, with slightly rounded corners) is placed in position on it. The +wheel of the trimmer is brought parallel to, and against, the edge of +the mask, the handle being grasped by the right hand, the thumb to the +left, and the fingers on the right. A fairly heavy downward pressure +is brought to bear on the trimmer, and at the same time the wheel is +caused to run along the edge of the mask. The cut should be clean, and +the join perfect, if proper care be taken. It is desirable to practise +on ordinary writing paper before it is taken into use for prints. Square +masks with very slightly rounded corners can be used; the smaller the +wheel, the less curved the corners need be. It will be seen that there +is a limit to smallness of the wheel used, since, if too small, the +stirrup on which it is pivoted would rest upon the mask. The larger the +wheel the easier is the cutting. + +With larger sizes than the carte or the cabinet, mounting may often +have to be delayed, since it is easier to keep a stock of unmounted +prints (say landscapes) unmounted than it is when they are mounted. In +this case the prints should be put away as flat as possible. The plan +of drying we have indicated takes out the "curl," but even then they +will not be flat enough to be handily put away. We therefore recommend +the practice of stroking the prints. A flat piece of hard wood, about +1 foot long and 1-1/2 inch broad, and the thickness of a marquoise +scale, has its edges carefully rounded off. The print is seized by one +corner in one hand and unrolled; the face of the print is brought in +contact with a piece of plate glass. The "stroker," held by the other +hand, is brought with its rounded edge on to the back of the print near +the corner held by the first hand. Considerable pressure is brought upon +the stroker, and the print is drawn through between it and the plate. +The print is then seized by another corner and similarly treated. By +this means a gloss is put upon the print, and the creases and cockles +are obliterated. The print is now ready for trimming. + +It is well to have a square of glass with true edges cut to the size of +the pictures. The prints should be trimmed upon a sheet of plate glass, +a sharp penknife being used to cut them. A rough test for ascertaining +if the opposite sides are equal is to bring them together, and see if +both corners coincide. + +It may sometimes be found useful to cut out a print into an oval. The +following method for tracing any ellipse may be employed:--On a thickish +piece of clean paper draw a line A B, making it the _extreme_ width of +the oval required. Bisect it at O, and draw D O C at right angles to A +B. Make O C equal to _half_ the smallest diameter of the ellipse. With +the centre C and the distance O B, draw an arc of a circle, cutting A +B in E and F. Place the paper on a flat board, and at E and F fix two +drawing-pins. Take a piece of thread and knot it together in such a +manner that half its length is equal to A F. Place the thread round the +two pins at E and F, and stretch it out to tightness by the point of a +lead pencil. Move the pencil guided by the cotton, taking care to keep +it upright. The resulting figure will be an ellipse. Modifications of +this figure may be made by making a second knot beyond the first knot, +and placing the point of the pencil in the loop formed. When the figure +has been traced in pencil on paper, it should be carefully cut out with +a sharp penknife, and placed on the print which is to be trimmed into an +oval. When so placed, a faint pencil line is run round on the print, and +the cutting out proceeds either by scissors or penknife. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 30.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +MOUNTING PHOTOGRAPHS. + + +There are many photographers who, unfortunately, are quite indifferent +as to the medium they use in mounting the trimmed photographs. So long +as the medium will cause the adherence of the back of the print to the +cardboard employed, they are perfectly satisfied, whether it be paste +fresh or sour, or starch or gelatine in a similar condition. If any of +our readers have had the misfortune to have their rooms papered with +rancid paste, they will have noticed that the unpleasant smell attending +it has not been removed from the room for weeks, and that there is a +liability of the return of the disgusting odour when the air is at all +damp. In this case the fact that decomposition is going on is detected +by the olfactory nerves, because the quantity is considerable. It is +none the less true, however, that every square inch of the surface of +the wall paper is undergoing the same ordeal, and that if it contains +any colour, &c., which would be affected by decomposing organic matter, +there would be but small chance of the paper retaining its fresh +appearance. Were a silver print mounted with the same paste, we need +scarcely point out that danger to its permanency is to be apprehended. +Paste, we know, is as a rule tabooed, but there is no occasion for it +to be so if care be taken that it is absolutely fresh when employed in +mounting. In looking for a mounting material, we should endeavour to +find something which does not readily take up moisture. Glue, gelatine, +dextrine, and gum are all inadmissible on this account; on the other +hand, starch, arrowroot, cornflour, and gum tragacanth, when once dry, +do not seem to attract moisture. + +Referring to glue, Mr. W. Brooks says[29] that he has recently seen +many photographs which have been mounted with that medium, and in +some cases, where the glue has been put on too thickly, it swells up +into ridges, showing marks of the brush with which it is applied, and +each ridge after a time turns brown. The same writer is not wholly in +favour of starch, but in our own opinion pure white starch is as good +a material as can be met with. To prepare it for use as a mountant, +a large teaspoonful of starch is placed in the bottom of a cup, with +just sufficient cold water to cover it. This is allowed to remain for +a couple of minutes, after which the cup is filled with boiling water, +and well stirred; the starch should then be fairly thick, but not +so thick as to prevent a brush taking up a proper supply for a good +sized print. We will suppose that we are going to mount a day's work +of carte-de-visite prints. In a former chapter we have said that it +is desirable that the prints should be left damp. If they are dried, +they should be _slightly_ moistened, and placed in a heap one above the +other, as by so doing the moisture is confined, and one damping of all +the prints is sufficient. In our own practice we have, as is natural, +all the prints with the faces downwards. A stiff bristle brush is then +dipped into the pot containing the starch, and the starch brushed over +the back of the top print. This one is then carefully raised from the +print beneath it, and, supposing it to have been properly trimmed, it +is laid upon the card, and pressed down by means of a soft cloth, and +placed on one side to dry. The next print is then treated in the same +manner, and so on. By this plan no starch gets on the face of the +prints, which is a desideratum. With a little practice, just sufficient +starch will be brushed on each carte, and no more. Young hands, however, +are sometimes apt to give more than a fair share to them; in this case, +after pressing the print down with the soft cloth, it may be useful to +place on the print a piece of writing paper, and press all superfluous +starch out by a rounded straight-edge, or an ivory or wooden paper +knife. The card in this case should be placed on a slab of thick glass, +so as give an even pressure. The starch, which will exude beyond the +edges of the card, should be carefully wiped off with a _clean_ cloth. + +This is of course a method to be adopted only in the case of bungling +mounting, but it is useful then, and may save a carte. It should be +remembered that the less mounting medium used, the greater is the chance +of a silver print not fading. + +To mount larger prints, the back should be slightly damped, and the +brush with the starch applied with cross strokes, so that every part is +covered. Particular care should be taken that the corners and edges are +not missed, since it often necessitates re-mounting the print, which is +to be avoided as far as possible, since it is a troublesome matter. The +rounded-edged ruler, and the sheet of white paper, is also useful here, +since over a large surface there is more difficulty in getting even +layers of starch, than over smaller ones. When a print has to be mounted +with a margin, the places where the top corners have to come should be +marked with a fine pencil point. By a little dexterity, the top edge of +the print, the back of which has been covered with starch in the manner +described, can be brought into the position indicated by these dots, +and be then lowered without puckers or folds. It should be remembered +that the print should just cover the pencil marks, since it is almost +impossible to erase blacklead with india-rubber, if any starch should by +accident get on it. + +It is well to dry these prints under pressure, since the cardboard is +apt to cockle. A couple of boards rather longer than the prints suffice +for the purpose. The mounted prints are laid between them, a sheet +of clean blotting-paper separating each, and a few weights placed on +the top board. For prints of moderate size, a table-cloth press is an +excellent substitute. + +As to the kind of mounts to be used, opinions vary. To our mind, the +simpler they are, the better they look. It is not rare to find a regular +advertisement of the photographic establishment below a carte or cabinet +print. To say the least of it, this is bad taste, and we are sure it is +bad art. If the work be good, it needs no recommendation; and if it be +bad, the less of an advertisement that appears, the better it is for +the photographer. At the back of a carte or cabinet is the place where +any advertisement should appear; but even here it may be overdone. When +we find the back of the carte got up with any amount of gold-lettering +flourishes, and no blank space on which the eye can rest without +encountering some one especial merit of the artist, we may expect to +find on the front of the card the same kind of tawdry work. It is +seldom advisable to have the mount of a white colour, though for cartes +or cabinets, in which the margin will be hidden in the album, this is +not of much consequence; but for prints in which the margin shows, it +is generally advisable to have some slight tint visible, preferably +of a cream or buff colour. There are some classes of work which will, +however, bear a white margin, but it is rarely the case; and we advise, +as a general rule, that there should be some tone on it, to prevent +its attracting the eye away from the picture by its whiteness. Black +mounts are much in vogue at the present time, and they are effective and +artistic; but chemical analysis has shown them not to be safe, since +they are enamelled with substances which are apt to induce fading. A +good and stable black mount is a desideratum, which it is to be hoped +will be found before long. + +Notwithstanding our preference for starch as a mountant, we give a +method of preparing glue for the same purpose. The glue used should +be light, and as clean as possible. It should be shredded and soaked +in sufficient clean water to cover it for five or six hours; any dust +which may have adhered to it will find its way into the water. The water +should be poured off and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh. The +vessel containing it is heated over a small gas jet or spirit lamp until +solution takes place. The liquid is then thinned down with warm water +till it is of proper consistency, a point which is soon learned by a +little practice. An ordinary small glue pot will be found convenient. + +It is sometimes useful to have at hand a mounting solution which will +not cockle the mount, and the late Mr. G. Wharton Simpson gave a formula +which is very good in this respect. Fine cut gelatine or shredded glue +is swollen in the least possible quantity of water, and this is boiled +with alcohol, with much stirring. If 80 grains of Nelson's No. 1 fine +cut gelatine are taken, 3 dr. of water should be used for making it, and +to it 2 oz. of alcohol be added. When cool this sets into a jelly, and +can be used by letting the bottle into which it has been transferred +stand in hot water. Prints can be mounted on foolscap paper with this +medium without any serious cockling being apparent. + +It should be recollected that no two batches of paper will mount exactly +alike, some expanding more than others. It is well to mount a trial +print before doing many, to see exactly how the paper under manipulation +behaves. + +_Rolling the Prints._--After the prints have been under the hands of the +retoucher, they should be rolled in a rolling-press in order to give a +brightness to the printed image. It would be invidious to point out any +particular press that should be used. Suffice it to say, there are many +excellent ones in the market. The directions for cleaning and using the +press are supplied with each machine; we therefore refrain from saying +anything about them. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +DEFECTS IN PRINTS. + + +The bath solution is sometimes repelled by the paper, and this is found +chiefly in highly albumenized paper, and is generally caused by the +paper being too dry. Passing the sheet of paper over the steam from a +saucepan will generally effect a cure. + +Small white spots, with a black central pin-point, are often met with in +prints. Dust on the paper during sensitizing will cause them, the grit +forming a nucleus for a minute bubble. All paper should be thoroughly +dusted before being floated on the sensitizing bath. + +Grey, star-like spots arise from small particles of inorganic matter, +such as ferric oxide, lime, &c., which are present in the paper. They +become more apparent by decomposition during the printing operations. +They may generally be discernible by examining the paper by transmitted +light. + +Bronze lines (straight) occur through a stoppage during floating the +paper in the sensitizing solution. Should the lines be irregular, +forming angles and curves, it is probable that a scum of silver oxide, +&c., may be detected on the surface of the sensitizing solution. A strip +of blotting-paper drawn across the bath will remove the cause of the +defect. + +Should the print appear marbled, it may be surmised that the sensitizing +solution is weak, or that the paper has not been floated sufficiently. +In some cases it may arise from imperfect albumenizing; but in ordinary +commercial samples the cause can be easily traced. + +Red marks on the shadows may appear during toning, and are very +conspicuous after fixing. They generally arise from handling the paper +with hot, moist fingers after sensitizing; greasy matter being deposited +on the surface, prevents the toning bath acting properly on such parts. + +Weak prints are generally caused by weak negatives. Such can be +partially remedied by paying attention to the strength of the +sensitizing bath (see Appendix), and by using washed paper. + +Harsh prints are due to harsh negatives. They can generally be remedied +by paying attention to the mode of printing, as given in Chapter IX. If +the negative be under-exposed and wanting in detail, there is, however, +no cure for this defect. + +A red tone is due to insufficient toning; whilst a poor and blue tone is +due to an excess of toning. + +The whites may appear yellow from imperfect washing, imperfect toning, +imperfect fixing, or from the use of old sensitized paper. + +Should prints refuse to tone, either the gold has been exhausted, or +else a trace of sodium hyposulphite has been carried into the toning +bath by the fingers or other means. A trace of hyposulphite is much more +injurious to the print than a fair quantity of it. Should the toning +bath refuse to tone after the addition of gold, it may be presumed that +it is contaminated by a trace of sodium hyposulphite. + +A dark mottled appearance in the body of the paper indicates imperfect +fixing, combined with the action of light on the unaltered chloride +during fixing. If the fixing bath be acid, the excess of acid combines +with the sulphur, and forms hydrosulphuric acid, which will also cause +the defect. + +The cause of mealiness or "measles" in the print has been explained in +page 32. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +ENCAUSTIC PASTE. + + +The value of an encaustic paste in improving the effect of photographic +prints has become very generally recognised amongst photographers. +A good encaustic confers three special benefits on the print: it +gives depth, richness, and transparency to the shadows; it renders +apparent delicate detail in the lights which would otherwise remain +imperceptible; and it aids in protecting the surface, and so tends to +permanency. One of the writers has in his possession prints that were +treated with an encaustic paste thirteen years ago, which retain all +their original freshness and purity, while prints done at the same time +from the same negatives have gone, to say the least of it, "off colour." + +Various formulæ for the preparation of encaustic pastes have been +published, and many of them very excellent. The qualities required are, +easiness of application, and the capacity of giving richness and depth +without too much gloss, and of yielding a hard, firm, permanent surface. +For a proper combination of all these qualities, nothing has ever +approached the paste of the late Adam-Salomon, of which the following is +the formula:-- + + Pure white wax 500 grains + Gum elemi 10 " + Benzole 200 " + Essence of lavender 300 " + Oil of spike 15 " + +The wax is cut into shreds, and melted in a capsule over a water +bath. Placing it in a jar, and the latter in a pan of hot water, will +serve. Powder the elemi, and dissolve it in the solvent, using gentle +heat. Some samples of elemi are soft and tough, and will not admit of +powdering, in which case it may be roughly divided into small portions, +and placed in a bottle with the solvents. Strain through muslin, and add +the clear solution to the melted wax, and stir well. It is then poured +into a wide-mouthed bottle, and allowed to cool. + +The encaustic paste is put on the prints in patches, and then rubbed +with a light, quick motion, with a piece of flannel, until a firm, fine +surface is obtained. + +We give another simple formula which is efficient, though we ourselves +prefer the above. + + White wax cut into shreds 1 ounce + Turpentine 1 " + +and thinned down, if necessary, till it has the consistency of "cold +cream." + +Yet another is-- + + White wax 1 ounce + Benzole 2 ounces. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +ENAMELLING PRINTS. + + +There are several modes of enamelling prints, but there is none better +than that described by Mr. W. England, which we quote in his words. +"I have a glass having a good polished surface (patent plate is not +necessary), and rub over it some powdered French chalk tied up in a +muslin bag. Dust off the superfluous chalk with a camel's hair brush, +and coat with enamel collodion. I find it an improvement to add to the +collodion usually sold for the purpose 2 dr. of castor oil to the pint. +When the collodion is well set, immerse the plate in a dish of water. +When several prints are required to be enamelled, a sufficient number +of plates may be prepared and put in dishes; this will save time. Now +take the first plate, and well wash under a tap till all greasiness +has disappeared; place it on a levelling stand, and pour on as much +water as the plate will hold. Then lay the print on the top, squeeze +out all the water, and place the plate and print between several +thicknesses of blotting-paper to remove all superfluous moisture. The +plate, with the print in contact, should now be placed in a warm room +to dry spontaneously, when the print will come easily from the glass. +Care should be taken not to attempt to remove the print till quite +dry. If the pictures required to be enamelled have been dried, it +will be necessary to rub over them some ox-gall with a plug of soft +rag; otherwise the water will run in globules on the surface, and make +blisters when laid on the collodion. + +"I may mention that prints done in this way lose their very glossy +surface on being mounted, but retain their brilliancy, which I think is +an improvement, as I dislike the polished surface usually given to the +print when gelatine is employed." + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +CAMEO PRINTS. + + +At one time there was a rage amongst photographers to produce cameos, +and, for this purpose, a special piece of apparatus was required to +produce the embossing. The figure will explain it. + +[Illustration: _Fig._ 31.] + +The print, after mounting, was enamelled by coating a plate with +collodion--as described above--and a thin film of liquid gelatine +applied. In some cases the carte itself was gelatinized, dried, and +damped, and placed in contact with the collodion film. The carte was +placed face downwards on the gelatine, and placed under pressure till +quite dry. It was then removed, and bore on its surface a high gloss +caused by the collodion. It was then ready for embossing, which was +effected by placing it in the above apparatus. + +Some people like the style; and it will be seen that great variety in +it may be made by printing sufficient depth of border round the cameo; +but, for our own part, we think that, in an art point of view, they are +decidedly vulgar; and besides which, the surface of the cameo is readily +scratched, since it is raised. We only give a brief account of what has +been done in this direction, not to encourage its adoption, but rather +to caution the photographer. + + + + +APPENDIX. + +REDUCTION OF OVER-EXPOSED PRINTS. + + +Mr. England writes as follows to the Photographic Journal, and we can +unhesitatingly say that the method of reducing an over-printed proof is +excellent. + +"A simple and certain method of reducing over-printed proofs has been +one of the wants long felt by all photographers. It is well known that +in every photographic establishment even the most careful printers +cannot always be sure of getting the exact depth of tone required, and +proofs occasionally get over-printed. Of course prevention is better +than cure; but, when a remedy is necessary, the method I am about to +describe answers admirably. I tried a great many experiments before I +succeeded to my satisfaction. I found that cyanide of potassium totally +destroyed the print, even when used moderately strong. By using a weaker +solution it was well under control, and the exact depth could be readily +obtained; but during the washing to remove the cyanide the action of +the latter continued, and spoiled every proof. I then tried several +methods to arrest the action of the cyanide, but without success. It +then occurred to me to use the cyanide in such a weak state that but +little should be held in the paper, only sufficient to reduce the print +to the required depth; for this purpose I made a bath of only four drops +of saturated solution of cyanide to a pint of water. The prints immersed +at first showed no signs of getting lighter, but after about an hour +the most perfect results had been obtained with prints considerably +over-printed. With lighter pictures a less time is required. Proofs +treated in this way lose nothing of their tone during the after-washing, +which should be thoroughly done, and, when dry, retain all the +brilliancy of an ordinary print." + +The plan of using cyanide has, we know, often been proposed, but with +no success until, we believe, Mr. W. Brooks gave a formula which worked +successfully with him. + +Another plan, proposed by Mr. L. Warnerke, for effecting the same thing +is the use of ferric sulphate. A weak solution is prepared, and the +print immersed in it. The reduction takes place rapidly, but evenly. + +We need scarcely say that it is better not to have to use either of +these remedies, by avoiding over-printing; but as mistakes will occur, +it is evident that the above will be of use at times. + + +UTILIZATION OF SILVER RESIDUES. + +All paper or solutions in which there is silver should be saved, as it +has been proved by experience that from 50 to 75 per cent. of the whole +of the silver used can be recovered by rigid adherence to the careful +storage of "wastes." + +1. All prints should be trimmed, if practicable, before toning and +fixing; in all cases these clippings should be collected. When a good +basketful of them is collected, these, together with the bits of +blotting-paper attached to the bottom end of sensitized paper during +drying, and that used for the draining of plates, should be burnt in a +stove, and the ashes collected. These ashes will naturally occupy but a +small space in comparison with the paper itself. Care should be taken +that the draught from the fire is not strong enough to carry up the +ashes. + +2. All washings from prints, waters used in the preparation of dry +plates, all baths, developing solutions (after use), and old toning +baths, should be placed in a tub, and common salt added. This will form +silver chloride. + +3. The old hyposulphite baths used in printing should be placed in +another tub. To this the potassium sulphide of commerce may be added. +Silver sulphide is thus formed. + +4. To No. 1 nitric acid may be added, and the ashes boiled in it till +no more silver is extracted by it. The solution of silver nitrate thus +produced is filtered off through white muslin, and put aside for further +treatment, when common salt is added to it to form chloride, and added +to No. 2. + +5. The ashes may still contain silver chloride. This may be dissolved +out by adding a solution of sodium hyposulphite, and adding the filtrate +No. 3. + +6. No. 2, after thoroughly drying, may be reduced to metallic silver +in a reducing crucible[30] by addition of two parts of sodium carbonate +and a little borax to one of the silver chloride. These should be well +mixed together, and placed in the covered crucible in a coke fire, and +gradually heated. If the operator be in possession of one of Fletcher's +gas furnaces he can employ it economically, and with far less trouble +than using the fire. (It is supplied with an arrangement for holding +crucibles, which is useful for the purpose.) After a time, on lifting +off the cover, it will be found that the silver is reduced to a metallic +state. After all seething has finished, the crucible should be heated +to a white heat for a quarter of an hour. The molten silver should be +turned out into an iron pan (previously rubbed over with plumbago to +prevent the molten metal spirting), and immersed in a pail of water. The +washing should be repeated till nothing but the pure silver remains. + +The silver hyposulphite, having been reduced to the sulphide by the +addition of the potassium sulphide, is placed in a crucible, and +subjected to a white heat; the sulphur is driven off, and the silver +remains behind. + +Another method of reducing silver chloride to the metallic state is by +placing it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid together +with granulated zinc. The zinc is attacked, evolving hydrogen, which, in +its turn, reduces the silver chloride to the metallic state, and forming +hydrochloric acid. After well washing, the silver may be dissolved up in +nitric acid. + +Yet another method is to take sugar of milk and a solution of crude +potash, when the silver is rapidly reduced. This requires careful +washing, and it is well to heat the metal to a dull red heat to get rid +of any adherent and insoluble organic matter which may have been formed, +before dissolving it in nitric acid. + + +TO PRINT FROM WEAK AND HARD NEGATIVES. + +Should a negative be found very hard, a slight modification of the +sensitizing solution will be found beneficial, supposing the ordinary +paper is to be used. + + Silver nitrate 30 grains + Water 1 ounce + +The negative should in this case be printed in the sun. The more intense +the light, the less contrast there will be in the print, as the stronger +light more rapidly effects a change in the albuminate than if subjected +to weaker diffused light. The reason for the reduction in quantity of +the silver nitrate in the solution is given on page 15. + +To print from a weak negative, the sensitizing solution should be:-- + + Silver nitrate 80 grains + Water 1 ounce + +The printing should take place in the shade; the weaker the negative, +the more diffused the light should be. + +If a negative be dense, but all the gradations of light and shade be +perfect, the strong bath, and, if, possible, a strongly-salted paper, +should be used. The printing should take place in sunlight. + + +TO MAKE GOLD TRI-CHLORIDE [AU CL_{3}]. + +Place a half-sovereign (which may contain silver as well as copper) in a +convenient vessel; pour on it half a drachm of nitric acid, and mix with +it two-and-a-half drachms of hydrochloric acid; digest at a gentle heat, +but do not boil, or probably the chlorine will be driven off. At the +expiration of a few hours add a similar quantity of the acids. Probably +this will be sufficient to dissolve all the gold. If not, add acid the +third time; all will have been dissolved by this addition, excepting, +perhaps, a trace of silver, which will have been deposited by the +excess of hydrochloric acid as silver chloride. If a precipitate should +have been formed, filter it out, and wash the filter paper well with +distilled water. Take a filtered solution of ferrous sulphate (eight +parts water to one of iron) acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric +acid, and add the gold solution to it; the iron will cause the gold +alone to deposit as metallic gold, leaving the copper in solution. By +adding the gold solution to the iron the precipitate is not so fine as +if added _vice versa_. Let the gold settle, and pour off the liquid; +add water, and drain again, and so on till no acid is left, testing +the washings by litmus paper. Take the metallic gold which has been +precipitated, re-dissolve in the acids as before, evaporate to dryness +on a water bath (that is, at a heat not exceeding 212° F.) The resulting +substance is the gold tri-chloride. To be kept in crystals this should +be placed in glass tubes hermetically sealed. For non-commercial +purposes it is convenient to dissolve it in water (one drachm to a grain +of gold). Ten grains of gold dissolved yield 15.4 grains of the salt. +Hence if ten grains have been dissolved, 15.4 drachms of water must be +added to give the above strength. + + +TO MAKE SILVER NITRATE. + +Silver coins are mostly alloyed with tin or copper. In both cases the +coin should be dissolved in nitric acid diluted with twice its bulk +of water. If tin be present there will be an insoluble residue left +of stannic oxide. The solution should be evaporated down to dryness, +re-dissolved in water, filtered, and again evaporated to dryness. +It will then be fit for making up a bath. If copper be present, the +solution must be treated with silver oxide. + +The silver oxide thus formed is added, little by little, till the blue +or greenish colour has entirely disappeared. This will precipitate the +copper oxide from the copper nitrate, setting free the nitric acid, +which, in its turn, will combine with the silver oxide. The copper will +fall as a black powder mixed with any excess of silver oxide there may +be. Take one or two drops of the solution in a measure, and add a drachm +of water, and then add ammonia to it till the precipitate first formed +is re-dissolved. If no blue colour is apparent, the substitution of the +silver for the copper is complete; if not, more silver oxide must be +added till the desired end is attained. Distilled water must next be +added till the strength of the bath is that required. This can be tested +by the argentometer. + +If to a solution of silver nitrate a solution of potash be added, a +precipitate will be formed. This is the silver oxide. The potash should +be added till no further precipitation takes place. The oxide should +be allowed to settle, the supernatant fluid be decanted off (a syphon +arrangement is very convenient), and fresh distilled water added to it. +This, in its turn, after the oxide has been well stirred, should be +decanted off. The operation should be repeated five or six times, to +ensure all nitrate of potash being absent, though its presence does not +matter for a printing bath, since this or some other nitrate is formed +when the paper is floated. + + +THE END. + + + + + FOR + Photographic Stock + and Apparatus, + Artists' Materials, etc., + + _Send your orders to the_ + + MAMMOTH STOCK HOUSE + _OF_ + W. R. REID, + + 352 & 354 Euclid Avenue, CLEVELAND, OHIO. + + Entrekin's Enamellers, Weston's Burnishers, + Magee's Nitrate Silver, and other Chemicals, + Photo-Chrome Outfits, Convex Glass, oval and square, + Card size to 10 x 12, Webster's Transparent Water + Colors, Parlor Paste, Velvet Frames, Square and + Oval Walnut Frames, Mouldings and Linings. + SOLAR PRINTING. + + MANUFACTURER OF + + _Reid's New Negative and Ferrotype Collodion, + Reid's New Negative and Ferrotype Varnish, + Reid's Brilliant and Extra Brilliant Non-blistering + Albumen Paper._ + + No charge for packing boxes. Write for price-list. + + Special prices to large buyers and cash customers. + + + + + JAS. H. SMITH + + _Wholesale Dealer in_ + + PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS, + Picture Frames, + Mouldings. + + Albums, Brackets, Mats, Picture Cord, Glass, Patent Window + Cornices, etc. + + OUTFITS A SPECIALTY. + + Second-hand Apparatus, Lenses etc., Bought, Sold or Exchanged. + + _BEST GOODS AT LOWEST PRICES._ + + 26 SOUTH FIFTH STREET, + QUINCY, + ILL. + + Send for Price-Lists. + + + + + A. M. COLLINS, SON & CO. + + Manufacturers of all kinds of + CARDS AND CARDBOARDS + FOR + PHOTOGRAPHERS + + WAREHOUSE: + No. 527 Arch Street + PHILADELPHIA + + + + + 28,000 square feet of Floor room. + The largest force of Employees. + Largest Stock in the United States. + + HIRAM J. THOMPSON, + JOBBER IN + PICTURE FRAMES, MOULDINGS, + MIRRORS, ALBUMS, PICTURES, + AND + PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS. + + No. 259 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO. + + Send for my late Catalogue. + + + + + Photographic Enlargements + BY THE + PLATINOTYPE PROCESS. + DONE WITH THE + Electric Light. + + The Platinotype Prints are characterized by a + _Beautiful Tone, + Perfection of Detail, + Pure Whites, and + ABSOLUTE PERMANENCE._ + + By the use of the Electric Light we are enabled to proceed without + regard to the weather, and can fill orders _promptly_ without the + delays usually attending Solar Printing. + + Send for Price-Lists. + + THOS. H. McCOLLIN, + _631 ARCH STREET_, + (Dealer in all Photographic Supplies.) + PA. PHILADELPHIA, PA. + + + + + _THE OLD RELIABLE!_ + + P. SMITH & CO., + NO. 121 WEST FIFTH STREET, + CINCINNATI, OHIO. + AND + BRANCH AT + NO. 6 EAST BROAD STREET, + COLUMBUS, OHIO. + + WHERE + _The Amateur and the + Professional Photographer_ + WILL FIND EVERYTHING + + =Requisite for either the WET or the DRY PLATE PROCESS.= + + _Dry Plates and Outfits in Great Variety._ + + _Velvet Frames, etc., etc., etc._ + + + + + MULLETT BROS., + DEALERS IN + Photographic Supplies. + 518 WALNUT ST., + KANSAS CITY, MO. + + Western Photographers! look to your interests, and purchase your stock + and apparatus at the Kansas City Stock House, thereby avoiding heavy + freight bills and a great loss of time. + + _In addition to a full line of Photo. Supplies, we have also a large + variety of_ + + ALBUMS, + SILK VELVET FRAMES, + PICTURE CORD AND NAILS, + CONVEX GLASS, + MATTS, ETC., ETC. + + Photographers in the East contemplating moving West will find it to + their interests to purchase their goods here, thereby saving a great + expense in shipping. + + Having more than doubled our capital and room, we are now able to + compete in _price_ and _variety_ of goods with _any_ house West + of N. Y. Send a trial order and be convinced. + + Prompt and careful attention to all orders. + + + + + MILWAUKEE. + + GUSTAVUS BODE, + Northwestern Photographic Warehouse + and Chemical Laboratory, + 11 Spring St., Milwaukee, Wis. + + A FULL LINE OF + PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS + AND ARTISTS' MATERIALS, + + --EMBRACING-- + + _Apparatus, Chemicals, Glass, + Albumenized Papers, + Frames, Albums, + Views, etc._ + + English, German and American Oil Colors, and all Materials + used in the Fine Arts. + + SPECIALTY. + + Nitrate of Silver and Chloride of Gold made for photographic + purposes. Gold and Silver Wastes refined. Satisfaction + guaranteed. + + SEND FOR PRICE-LIST. + + + + + BUFFALO + PHOTOGRAPHIC WAREHOUSE. + David Tucker & Co. + Photographers' Supplies. + + 410 MAIN ST. BUFFALO, N. Y. + DAVID TUCKER. S. B. BUTTS + + + + + _1860 National Photographic Emporium. 1881_ + + 205 W. Baltimore Street, + BALTIMORE, MD. + + RICHARD WALZL, Proprietor. + + Dry Plate Outfits a Specialty, + + All the latest novelties in connection with the improved Dry-plate + Processes furnished at the shortest notice. + + _Any Photographer_ who wants _Lenses_, _Cameras_, _Camera Stands_, + _Backgrounds_, _Chemicals_, _Glass_, _Albumen Paper_ or in fact _any + Photographic Goods_, should send for our price-list and be convinced + that it is to their interest to send their orders to us direct. A + trial order will convince the most skeptical. + + Photography in all its Branches for the Trade. + + Expert Artists employed on the premises enable us to make this branch + a great feature, and we can always guarantee satisfaction. + + Our Practical Photographic Publications + are unequalled. See testimonials in _Photographer's Friend._ + Price-list sent free to any photographer. + + OUR NEW LENSES ARE THE SENSATION OF THE DAY--and the prices are so + moderate they will astonish you. You can try our lenses before you + buy them. If you want anything in the photographic line, address + + RICHARD WALZL, BALTIMORE, MD. + + + + + PA. PITTSBURGH, PA. + + JOHN I. SHAW, + _Successor to J. W. Morrison_, + + MANUFACTURER AND DEALER IN + _Photographic Materials, Cameras, etc., etc._, + + Nos. 10 & 12 Sixth Street, + PITTSBURGH, PA. + + _Mouldings, Albums, + Oval, Square and Arch Top Frames, + Velvet and Combination Frames._ + + Photographic Dry Plates and Outfits for Amateurs and Professionals. + + Everything required in the practice of Photography in all its forms. + + JOHN I. SHAW, PITTSBURGH, PA. + + + + + W. J. HAZENSTAB'S + NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK HOUSE, + 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo. + + Is now opened and prepared to fill all orders for + + PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS, + _At Bed Rock Prices for Cash._ + _General Outfits for Galleries a Specialty._ + + _Remember I Carry in Stock_: + + Am. Opt. Co's Camera Boxes and Stand, + Success Camera Boxes, + Sam. Peck & Co.'s Camera Boxes, + Voigtlander & Son's Portrait Lenses, + Darlot's Portrait Lenses, + Darlot's Quick-Working Portrait Lenses, + Darlot's View Lenses, + Also the Celebrated Peerless Portrait Lenses, known for their + Rapidity and Depth. + + _And a Large Assortment of_ + CARD STOCK. + + ALSO AGENT FOR + _CRAMER & NORDEN'S DRY PLATES, + EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES, + CARBUTT'S DRY PLATES_. + + Large Assortment of Frames and Mats at very low prices. + + Small Expense in carrying on my business enables me to sell for + less money. + + --> _I Attend to All Orders Personally._ <-- + + Send for Trial Order. Price-lists sent on Application. + + WM. J. HAZENSTAB, + _Photographers' Supply House_, + + 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo. + + _N. B.--Remember I give 5 per cent. discount for cash on all + orders of $10 00 or over._ + + + + + E. Weiskopf, + Manufacturer of + Optical Lenses, + + Specialties: + Condensers, Cosmorama Lenses, and Magnifying Mirrors, + + No. 182 Centre Street, New York. + + + + + NEW YORK, Oct. 10, 1881. + + _In view of the fact that the undersigned has aided in the production + of many of the most artistic photographic pictures produced in this + country during the last ten years, pictures which have received gold + and silver medals at Philadelphia, London, Paris, Amsterdam and other + cities of the world, he feels warranted in soliciting the patronage + of photographers unacquainted with his works._ + + --> _My recently introduced Backgrounds comprise those suitable for + the stocking of a New Gallery, as well as several suitable for + making special Exhibition pictures._ + + No. ---- =Vienna Tapestry=. No. 439. =New Eastlake=. + No. 440. =The Villa=, (_Summer_). No. 435. =The Winter Road=, + No. 433. =The Rustic Wall=. No. 426. =The Palisades=. + + My Three-Quarter Length Backgrounds are, viz: + + _Nos. 435, 437, 438._ + + _For Special Pictures_ I recommend my new _Portrait Plaques_--an + entirely new article in Portraiture. Several Designs. + + _For suspending on Backgrounds_, ornamenting Fireplaces and Sideboards, + my _Imitation Dutch Plaques_ are desirable and very popular. + + MY LATE ACCESSORIES ARE: + + No. 396. =The Gambier Rock=. + No. 399. =Eastlake Fireplace and Cabinet Combined=, + (_very rich_), =several movable parts=. + No. 397. =The Couch and set piece=. + No. 414. =Seavey's Eastlake Cottage and Balcony=. + No. 441. =The Garden Wall=, (_3 parts_). + No. ---- =The New Garden Seat=, (_3 changes_). + + * . Ye Monthlie Bulletin . A.D. + of L. W. Seavey his Workeshop. 1881 + + Under the foregoing heading, in the "Specialty" columns of the several + Photographic Journals of America, will appear from month to month brief + announcements of my new productions. + + LAFAYETTE W. SEAVEY, + _No. 8 Lafayette Place, NEW YORK, U. S. A._ + + + + + PHOTOGRAPHERS' + SUPPLIES. + + FRAMES, + ALBUMS, + _VELVET GOODS._ + + LOWEST PRICES. + + Send For Our Bargain List. + + EUREKA. + CRAMER & NORDEN + AND + EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES. + + AMERICAN OPT. CO. + + DRY PLATE CAMERAS, + AND + _GENERAL APPARATUS._ + + J. C. SOMERVILLE, 1009 OLIVE STREET, _Near Scholten's Gallery_, + ST. LOUIS, MO. + + + + + WILSON'S + PHOTOGRAPHICS. + + A Partial Photographic Encyclopedia. + + _By_ E. L. WILSON, _Editor "Phila. Photographer," + "Photo. Mosaics," etc._ + + _A STANDARD BOOK for ALL Workers in Photography._ + + CONTENTS. + + LESSON A. Treatment of the Subject--B. The Needful + Apparatus--C. The Objective or Lens--D. The Dark-Room--E. Preparation + of the Glass--F. Chemicals and Solutions--G. The Manipulations--H. + Manipulatory Miseries--I. Retouching the Negative--J. The Glass + Studio--K. Accessories and Light--L. Managing the Model--M. Printing + on Albumen Paper--N. Printing on Plain Paper--O. General Remarks on + Printing--P. Printing on Various Surfaces--Q. Printing Perplexities--R. + Art in Printing--S. Mounting and Finishing--T. Photography Outside--U. + Bromo-Gelatine Emulsion Work--V. Vogel's Collodion Emulsion--W. + Enlargements and Lantern Slides--X. Phototypes, Platinotypes, + and Collodion Transfers--Y. Wastes and Their Worth--Z. Metrical + Measuring--&. Concluding Confab--Index (Six Pages.) + + It is believed that this is the most valuable work ever offered to the + working photographer. + + It contains 352 pages; 7 x 8-3/4 inch cover, and is 1-1/2 inches thick. + More than 100 illustrations. It gives full details of all practical + + Processes, Old and New, Public and Secret. + + Among the latter are the "Phototype," sometimes called the "Artotype" + process, with examples; many of the "Lightning" processes; the + "Platinotype" process; the "Collodion Transfer" or "Megatype" process, + and many others. + + 58 pages are devoted to Posing and Lighting; 37 pages give instructions + in Emulsion "Dry" Work; 29 pages show how to Build and Use Skylights; + 108 pages furnish instructions for Manipulating Negatives; 37 pages + are applied to Printing Formula and Dodges; 175 pages gives Notes from + Authors all over the world. + + It is printed on fine white paper, made especially for it, and sold at + the low price of + + $4 00 POST-PAID $4 00. + + For the beginner, for the amateur, for the photographic worker, it is + believed to be most complete. No live photographer should fail to get + it soon, before his neighbor is ahead. + + _EDWARD L. WILSON, Publisher and Proprietor_, + Nos. 912 & 914 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. + + + + + DOUGLASS, THOMPSON & CO., + Merchants in all Requisites pertaining to the + Art-Science of Photography, + + Photographers' Booksellers, Stationers & Newsdealers, + + 229 & 231 STATE STREET, + CHICAGO, ILL. + + A practical knowledge of the Art-Science of Photography gives us a + special advantage in meeting the demands of the Profession. + + _Everything used in_ Silver Printing _selected with greatest care and + guaranteed of the highest order of excellence._ =PRICES LOW=. + + All the STANDARD BRANDS of ALBUMEN PAPER we furnish + under _genuine_ marks and at lowest prices. + + It will pay you to send for our Catalogues, Bureau of Information, + Hints on Burnishing, etc, + + GAYTON A. DOUGLASS. } ALL FREE. + HENRY G. THOMPSON. } + + + + + + ATTENTION PHOTOGRAPHERS! + + _Brooklyn's Head-Quarters_ + + --FOR-- + + Photographic Stock + Of Every Description, + _At the LOWEST possible C. O. D. Prices._ + + Sent all over the United States at the shortest notice. + + All the best Brands of Albumen Papers and Card Stock, etc., + etc., kept constantly on hand. + + --_Send a Trial Order and be Convinced._-- + + L. H. WILCOX, _236 Fulton Street_, BROOKLYN, N. Y. + + + + + The BEST is the CHEAPEST. + + Listen not to the cries of venders of worthless imitations, but + buy the _genuine_, and receive FULL VALUE for your money. + + _Dallmeyer Lenses, + Success Cameras, + Climax Cameras, + E. A., G. C. and Platyscope Lenses, + Handy Head-Rests._ + + _Genuine N. P. A. & S. & M. Albumen Papers_, + + =With The WATER-MARK= + + _Brilliant Swiss Albumen Papers, + A. D. Swiss Albumen Papers, + Hovey's, Morgan's, Peerless, Clemons' & Hail + Columbia Albumen Papers._ + + RAPID PRINTING PAPER, + EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES, + ANTHONY'S DRY PLATE OUTFITS. + Chemicals of Guaranteed Purity and Strength. + + _Every Requisite for the Studio and Field._ + + SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND PRICE-LIST. + + The Most Extensive Line of Velvet, Plush and Ebony Frames, Easels, + Albums, Stereoscopes, Graphoscopes, Portraits of Celebrities, Stereo. + Views, etc., on this Continent. + + E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., 591 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY. 591 + + + + + H. EXTRA BRILLIANT. + + H. EXTRA AND MORGAN'S Albuminized PAPERS + + Fully 2,500 reams of Morgan's Paper has been made and sold within the + last year--equal to twenty million cabinet size pictures. We expect to + increase its sale the coming year to almost double the above, judging + from the demand of the last few months. The pearl tint is used in + greater quantities than the other tints. Send your orders for this brand + of paper to + + J. HAWORTH, + + _DEALER IN PHOTO. SUPPLIES._ + + 626 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. + + + + + EASTMAN'S + Gelatino-Bromide + DRY PLATES. + + RELIABLE, RAPID, INSTANTANEOUS. + + THE BEST! + + Used by all Professionals and Amateurs in preference to any others. + Complete Instructions accompany Each Package. + + _Eastman's Gelatino-Bromide Pellicle_, + For those who wish to prepare their own Plates. + + Manufactured only by the + _EASTMAN DRY PLATE CO., Rochester, N. Y._ + + E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., 591 Broadway, New York, + + _SEND FOR CIRCULAR._ _TRADE AGENTS._ + + + + + Andrew J. Smith, + PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK DEPOT. + + _WE KEEP A FULL LINE OF_ + + Photographic Materials, + Which we are Selling as Low as any house in New York or Boston. + +DEALER IN + + N. P. A. and S. & M. Dresden, Hovey, Berlin, + Morgan's and Clemons' Double Albumenized Paper, + Nixon & Stokes' Ferrotype Holders, + Collins, Son & Co's Card Stock of every description, + Taber & Co's Pebble Mats, etc., + Powers & Weigtman's Silver and Chemicals, + Anthony's Ether, Iodides, Collodion and Varnishes, + Atwood's Alcohol, Hyposulphite of Soda, Sulphate of + Iron, Acetic Acid, and Glass in any quantity. + + _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs & Photographers. Everything pertaining + to the Trade. John Dean & Co's Plates._ + + Large Assortment of Frames, Convex Glass, Artists' Materials, + etc., etc. + _N. B._--No charge for boxing. Your orders are solicited. + + _No. 94 Westminster Street_, + PROVIDENCE, R. I. + + + + + [Illustration: AMERICAN INSTITUTE NEW-YORK] + + HIGHEST MEDAL. + + [Illustration: _The Medal of Superiority_ AWARDED TO Wm F. Ashe FOR A + PHOTOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND COMB. STAIRCASE, BALUSTRADE & PEDESTAL 1878.] + + BACKGROUNDS + For Everybody! + + Fancy, Plain, Rembrandt, etc., etc. + + FLOOR CLOTHS, _painted in Oil_, + _Suitable for Interiors and Exteriors_, + + ASHE'S COMBINATION STAIRCASE + BALUSTRADE AND PEDESTAL. + ASHE'S PATENT _Telescopic_ OR _Extension Pedestals_. + + _AND THE FOLLOWING ACCESSORIES_: + + ROCKS, VINES, BRIDGES, VASES, CABINETS, and MANTEL-PIECES in Papier + Maché and in Profile, the latter interchangeable and with practical + parts, DOORWAYS, COTTAGE WINDOWS, STAIRWAYS, BALUSTRADES, SLEIGHS, + BOATS, VASES, ETC., ETC., in profile. + + _No extra charge to parties who furnish their own designs. + Samples free._ + + W. F. ASHE, + 106 BLEECKER STREET, NEW YORK CITY. + + + + + THE MOUND CITY CENTRAL + Photographic Stock House, + + (H. A. HYATT, Proprietor), + NO. 411 NORTH 4th STREET, + ST. LOUIS, MO. + + Head-quarters in St. Louis for ALL Photographers. + + We keep on hand everything new and of interest to the Fraternity, to + be seen and examined at pleasure. Our stock is always complete and + in keeping with the times. It embraces, with the LARGE and VARIED + assortment of GENERAL PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUISITES, the following STANDARD + BRANDS OF ALBUMEN PAPER, which you can always depend upon getting FRESH + + _Hovey's, Peerless, + Eagle Brand (Dresden), + S. & M. Dresden, + Morgan's, Clemons, + Trapp & Munch_, + --ALSO-- + _Plain and Salted Papers._ + + We carry the Standard Brands _only_. There is _no_ Extra we cannot + duplicate with some REGULAR BRAND. Please remember this, and if + you desire fair treatment, and low prices, just send us a trial order, + note how _promptly_ we serve you, and the _quality_ of _goods_ you + receive, and we will be assured of your future favors. Our Motto is to + _please_, and we guarantee satisfaction. + + _--OUTFITS A SPECIALTY.--_ + + Send for Illustrated Catalogue. + + H. A. HYATT, 411 North 4th Street, St. Louis, Mo. + + + + + _Jno. G. Hood. ESTABLISHED 1865. Wm. D. H. Wilson._ + + WILSON, HOOD & CO., + _No. 825 ARCH ST._, + PHILADELPHIA, + + Deal in all varieties of + PHOTO. GOODS, + + And solicit your orders, for any article you may need, including the + following: + + _S. & M., N. P. A., & C. S. Double Alb. Paper, per ream, 35 cts. + " " " Single " " 25 " + Morgan's Double Alb. Paper, " 34 " + " Single " " 30 "_ + + _All other brands supplied. + Magee's Nitrate Silver, Magee's Chloride of Gold, + Best Hypo. of Soda, keg 112 lbs. $4 48, + American Optical Co. Printing Frames, + American Optical Co. Negative Boxes, + American Optical Co. Retouching Frames, + Negative Racks, Pans, Trays, etc., + Waymouth's Vignette Papers, $1 00 per pack, + Onion Skin Paper, per dozen, 25 cts. + Singhi's Vig. Attachment, $1 50. Todd's Vig. Attachment, $1 50._ + + "Hearn's Artistic Printing" $3 00. "Hearn's Practical Printer" $2 50. + + _COMPLETE PRICE-LISTS FREE._ + + SOLE AGENTS IN UNITED STATES + FOR THE ROSS AND STEINHEIL LENSES. + + + + + 1878 EAGLE STOCK HOUSE. 1881 + + GEORGE MURPHY, No. + 9 West Fourth Street, N. Y. + + Photo. & Ferro. Materials. + + _OUTFITS A SPECIALTY._ + + All Goods sold for Cash. + + MANUFACTURER OF + _Eagle Negative and Positive Collodions, + Eagle Negative and Ferro. Varnishes, + Eagle Retouching Fluid, + Eagle Ground Glass Varnish._ + + SOLE AGENT FOR + _Hammenstede's Collodions and Varnishes, + Photo. Chemicals of best quality._ + + THE RETOUCHER'S OUTFIT: + _Eagle New Metallic Pencil, hard, + Eagle New Metallic Pencil, soft, + Medium Siberian Lead, + Artists' Holder, to fit all_, + + The most complete set offered. + + FOR THE PRINTER'S DEPARTMENT _is offered + Eagle Photo-Printing Masks, + English White Tissue Paper, + Thick Yellow Paper, + Onion-Skin Paper, + Heavy Blotting Paper, + Plain Papers, + Albumen Papers of all brands_. + + Am also Agent for BRENGEL'S SALTED PAPER. + + _Emulsion and Gelatine Dry Plate Materials, Emulsion and Gelatine Dry + Plates, best brands, Backgrounds, Chairs, Accessories, etc._ + + _Bargains in Card Stock. Bargains in Apparatus, Lenses, etc._ + + Domestic and Foreign CASH ORDERS Shipped Promptly. + + Four Doors West of B'way. NEW YORK. + + + + + _ESTABLISHED IN 1802._ + FACTORIES: Waterbury, Conn., New Haven, Conn., New York City. + + Scovill Manufacturing Co., + + MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN + ALL ARTICLES USED IN PHOTOGRAPHY, + + Warehouse, No's 419 & 421 Broome St., + NEW YORK. + + W. Irving Adams, Agent. + + Irving and all brands of Albumen Papers, + Phenix Collodion, + Phenix Varnish. + French and other Chemicals. + Scovill's New Solid Glass Baths, [warranted.] + Osborne's Picturesque Foregrounds, + American Optical Co's Celebrated Cameras, + Dry Plates and Dry Plate Apparatus, + Lenses, + Parlor Paste, + Etc., Etc., Etc., Etc. + + PUBLISHERS + Photographic Times and American Photographer. + + Subscription price, $2 00 per annum. + + Among its contributors are the leading men in the profession. + + + + + [FOUNDED IN 1842.] + + THE NEW ENGLAND + Photographic Stock House. + + Largest variety in the UNITED STATES. + + Every Article required by the Amateur, Photographer, Picture + and Frame Dealer, Frame Maker and Crayon Artist. + + SPECIALTIES. + + _Original Importers of Imitation Dallmeyer Tubes. + Sole Agents for William's Mitering Machines. + N. E. Agents for Bryant's Accessories. + Sole Agents for the celebrated "Berlin Paper." + Sole Agents for the celebrated "Gem Paper." + Sole Agents for Burrill's Portrait Bust Pedestal. + Sole Agent for Burrill's Neg. High Light Reducer. + Bryant's Quick Collodion, Celebrated for Years._ + + _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs._ + + _Every Variety Dry Plate Apparatus and Materials. + Anthony's and American Optical Co's Manufactures. + Dallmeyer, Morrison and Voigtlander Tubes on Sale._ + + C. H. CODMAN & CO., + [Formerly GEO. S. BRYANT & CO.,] + 34 Bromfield St., BOSTON. + + + + + ANTHONY'S + DRY PLATE OUTFITS + + _Most Complete Assortment in Market._ + + [Illustration] + + LIGHT, PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE. FIRM, SUBSTANTIAL AND PRACTICAL. + + _The Lenses supplied with these are superior to those furnished by + Any other House. Send for Descriptive Circular._ + + Anthony's Patent Perfect Dry Plate-holder BEST IN THE WORLD! + + _E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO. 591 B'way, NEW YORK._ + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Footnote 1: Such things as test-tubes should be found in every +photographer's work room; they cost little, and are always useful for +working solutions. The sizes recommended are 3/8-inch, 1/2-inch, and +1-inch diameter. A dozen of each will not be out of the way.] + +[Footnote 2: + + Sodium Silver Silver Sodium + Chloride and Nitrate form Chloride and Nitrate. + NaCl + AgNO_{3} = AgCl + NaNO_{3}] + +[Footnote 3: + + Potassium + Chlorine and Nitrite and Water + 2Cl + KNO_{2} + H_{2}O + +give + + Hydrochloric Potassium + Acid and Nitrate + 2HCl + KNO_{3} + +and + + Silver + Chlorine, Nitrate, and Water + 2Cl + AgNO_{3} + H_{2}O + +give + + Silver Hydrochlorous Nitric + Chloride, Acid and Acid. + AgCl + HClO + HNO_{3}] + + +[Footnote 4: With the former we have this action-- + + Silver Silver Liberated + Chloride gives Sub-chloride and Chloride. + Ag_{2}Cl_{2} = Ag_{2}Cl + Cl + +With the latter the silver in combination with the organic matter, which +is in a state of oxide, is probably reduced to the state of sub-oxide.] + +[Footnote 5: Sulphuretted hydrogen may be prepared by pouring dilute +sulphuric acid on ferric sulphide. The chloride or the silver compound, +when damped, may be held over it, taking care that no liquid is spirted +up on to it.] + +[Footnote 6: Those who prepare collodio-albumen plates will find the +upward filtration arrangement of immense value, as bubbles are unknown +by it.] + +[Footnote 7: If bubbles are seen, they must be broken, and the sheet +floated again for another minute.] + +[Footnote 8: The drainings are added to the next batch of albumen which +is prepared.] + +[Footnote 9: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition, page 121.] + +[Footnote 10: + + Hydrochloric + Chlorine and Water give acid and Oxygen. + Cl + H_{2}O = HCl + O] + +[Footnote 11: + + Nitric Silver Silver Carbonic + Acid and Carbonate give Nitrate and Acid and Water. + 2HNO_{3} + Ag_{2}CO_{3} = 2AgNO_{3} + CO_{2} + H_{2}O] + +[Footnote 12: + + Silver Aluminium + Nitrate and Sulphate (Alum) + 6AgNO_{3} + Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3} + +give + + Silver Aluminium + Sulphate and Nitrate. + 3(Ag_{2}SO_{4}) + 2Al(NO_{2})_{3}] + + +[Footnote 13: + + Silver Hydrochloric Silver + Nitrate and Acid give Chloride and Nitric Acid. + AgNO_{3} + HCl = AgCl + HNO_{3}] + +[Footnote 14: Suppose it is salted with ammonium chloride, we have-- + + Ammonium Silver Ammonium Silver + Chloride and Nitrate give Nitrate and Chloride. + NH_{4}Cl + AgNO_{3} = NH_{4}NO_{3} + AgCl] + +[Footnote 15: Several other methods are given in "Instruction in +Photography," in the Appendix.] + +[Footnote 16: One part of nitric acid to 4 parts of water.] + +[Footnote 17: The shutter may be made of American leather, covered over +with one quarter-inch strips of oak or well-seasoned pine. The shutter +should fit into a groove formed along the sides and bottom of the front +of the cupboard.] + +[Footnote 18: In fig. 18 the fastening for only one of the pressure-bars +is given, to avoid complication.] + +[Footnote 19: See "Instruction in Photography" (page 67), fourth +edition.] + +[Footnote 20: For this reason, amongst others, it is desirable that +photographers should use glass for their negatives which is at least +tolerably flat.] + +[Footnote 21: See "Pictorial Effect in Photography" (Piper and Carter).] + +[Footnote 22: Hydrofluoric acid is always supplied by chemists in +gutta-percha bottles, as it attacks glass. A spare gutta-percha bottle +can easily be procured.] + +[Footnote 23: This calculation is near enough for our purpose. There +are certain niceties which might be introduced, such as the "critical +angle of the glass."] + +[Footnote 24: The boxes in which children's puzzles are often packed +will give an idea of what is meant.] + +[Footnote 25: + + Silver subchloride and gold trichloride + 3Ag_{2}Cl + AuCl_{3} + +give + + silver chloride and gold. + 6AgCl + Au] + +[Footnote 26: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.] + +[Footnote 27: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.] + +[Footnote 28: Or ten minims of ammonium lactate.] + +[Footnote 29: See Mr. W. Brooks' article in Photographic Almanac, 1881.] + +[Footnote 30: The crucible should be of Stourbridge clay.] + + + + +Transcriber's Note: + +Hyphenation, variations in spelling and inconsistent numbering of, +and references to, figures have been retained as in the original +publication. + +Apart from spaces within compounds (which have been removed), +formulae have been retained as originally published, excepted +where noted below. + +On page 81, symbols resembling the left- and right-hand corners of a +frame have been represented as |_ and _| as in varnish, thus |_ _|; + +Changes have been made as follows: + + Page 3 + Nitric Acid _changed to_ + Potassium Nitrate + + Page 6 + If the operator carefully collect the white _changed to_ + If the operator carefully collects the white + + Page 14 + theoretical limit to amount _changed to_ + theoretical limit to the amount + + Page 19 + 2AGNO_{3} _changed to_ + 2AgNO_{3} + + Nitratem _changed to_ + Nitrate. + + Page 22 + AgNo_{3} _changed to_ + AgNO_{3} + + Page 23 + Ammonium Nitrate Silver Chloride _changed to_ + Ammonium Nitrate and Silver Chloride + + NH_{4},NO_{3} _changed to_ + NH_{4}NO_{3} + + AgNo_{3} _changed to_ + AgNO_{3} + + Page 40 + 8 inches. _changed to_ + 18 inches. + + Page 41 + printer could not hope to do it successfully. _changed to_ + printer could not hope to do it successfully." + + Page 46 + the ordinary consistency, than _changed to_ + the ordinary consistency, then + + Page 49 + enable the operator to guage _changed to_ + enable the operator to gauge + + Page 53 + centreing his imagination in _changed to_ + centring his imagination in + + Page 64 + light on B would be only four twenty-fifths _changed to_ + light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths + + Page 65 + and cut out an aperature corresponding _changed to_ + and cut out an aperture corresponding + + Page 66 + at a proper heigth from _changed to_ + at a proper height from + + Page 69 + Having discribed in the last _changed to_ + Having described in the last + + Page 70 + as it sometimes called _changed to_ + as it is sometimes called + + Page 71 + and the effect be improved.. _changed to_ + and the effect be improved. + + Page 83 + If he find that he is not _changed to_ + If he finds that he is not + + Page 87 + so dilute the reduction takes places very slowly _changed to_ + so dilute the reduction takes place very slowly + + Page 88 + common desinfecting powder _changed to_ + common disinfecting powder + + it as as well to have two _changed to_ + it is as well to have two + + Page 90 + a littler acetic acid or common salt _changed to_ + a little acetic acid or common salt + + Page 91 + must be rememberd we are _changed to_ + must be remembered we are + + Page 92 + when the sodium hypsulphite is _changed to_ + when the sodium hyposulphite is + + Page 95 + and, with a squegee _changed to_ + and, with a squeegee + + Page 101 + floated on-- _changed to_ + floated on:-- + + Last page of advertisements + BEST IN THE WORD! _changed to_ + BEST IN THE WORLD! + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art and Practice of Silver Printing, by +H. P. Robinson and Capt. Abney + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42547 *** |