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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42547 ***
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Inconsistent numbering of figures and references to figures have been
+retained as in the original publication.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A Specimen of Woodburytype Printing.]
+
+
+
+
+THE ART AND PRACTICE OF SILVER PRINTING.
+
+    BY
+    H. P. ROBINSON & CAPT. ABNEY, R.E., F.R.S.
+
+    THE AMERICAN EDITION,
+
+    NEW YORK:
+    E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., NO. 591 BROADWAY.
+    1881.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Silver printing has been often doomed, but it still survives. Other
+processes of photographic printing have been introduced, nearly all of
+them having their individual merits, especially that of permanency, but
+all lacking in two essential qualities--ease of production and beauty
+of result. In these particulars no process has ever approached the one
+to the working of which this little book is devoted. The one defect of
+silver printing is the possibility of its results fading; but surely
+it is better to be beautiful, if fading, than permanent and ugly. It
+is better to be charmed with a beautiful thing for a few years, than
+be bored by an ugly one for ever. But is silver printing necessarily
+a fading process? We have in our possession a large number of silver
+photographs produced from twenty to twenty-five years ago, which are
+as perfect in tone and colour as when they were produced. Carefully
+prepared, and properly kept, a silver print should be as permanent as
+any other. That silver prints should be permanent as well as beautiful,
+has been the object of
+
+    THE AUTHORS.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+    CHAPTER                                                  PAGE
+
+        I.--Preliminary Experiments                             1
+
+       II.--Preparation of Albumenized Paper                    6
+
+      III.--The Sensitizing Bath                               13
+
+       IV.--How to Keep the Sensitizing Bath in Order          20
+
+        V.--Silvering the Paper                                26
+
+       VI.--Washed Sensitive Paper                             31
+
+      VII.--Cutting Paper                                      36
+
+     VIII.--Printing-Frames                                    42
+
+       IX.--Preparing the Landscape Negative                   45
+
+        X.--Printing the Landscape                             49
+
+       XI.--Preparing the Portrait Negative                    57
+
+      XII.--Vignetting                                         60
+
+     XIII.--Printing the Portrait                              69
+
+      XIV.--Combination Printing                               74
+
+       XV.--Toning                                             85
+
+      XVI.--Fixing the Print                                   92
+
+     XVII.--Washing the Print                                  95
+
+    XVIII.--Printing on Plain Paper                            99
+
+      XIX.--Printing on Resinized Paper                       100
+
+       XX.--Printing on Gelatino-Chloride Emulsion Paper      103
+
+      XXI.--Drying the Prints                                 105
+
+     XXII.--Mounting Photographs                              110
+
+    XXIII.--Defects in Prints                                 115
+
+     XXIV.--Encaustic Paste                                   117
+
+      XXV.--Enamelling Prints                                 119
+
+     XXVI.--Cameo Prints                                      121
+
+    Appendix                                                  123
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THEORY OF SILVER PRINTING.
+
+
+Perhaps it may be wise, first of all, to give the reader some account
+of the manner in which the subject of silver printing is to be treated,
+before entering into very minute details, so that it may be followed
+as a whole, instead of being studied in fragments, a course which is
+sure to lead to failure, from a want of comprehending what may have
+been skipped. To understand "the why" and "the wherefore" of every
+detail is an essential in most occupations, and it is wonderful that
+photographers are satisfied with the results of rule-of-thumb formulæ,
+instead of reasoning out their utility. In the following pages most of
+the theoretical considerations will be brought out in such a manner that
+everyone will be able to understand them, provided only that there is a
+slight acquaintance with the name and properties of the chemicals which
+are dealt with.
+
+
+PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS.
+
+Into a glass beaker put a couple of pinches of common salt, which must
+be dissolved in a little water.
+
+In a test-tube[1] dissolve about an equal amount of silver nitrate
+(AgNO_{3}), and add it to the salt solution. We shall find that we
+have an immediate precipitate, for chloride of silver will be formed
+by what is called double[2] decomposition, and there will remain in
+solution a soluble salt known as sodium nitrate. When the silver
+chloride has settled down, decant off the liquid, and add water to it
+once or twice, draining off each time. Divide the chloride into four
+parts, placing each part on a strip of glass. On two of them pour a
+little common salt solution, and on the other two pour a little solution
+of silver nitrate; take one of each pair, and place it in a dark
+cupboard (if warmed, the quicker will be the operation) to dry. Take
+the other two moist portions of chloride into the open air, and expose
+them to daylight, and note the results. It will be seen that one of
+these will darken very rapidly to a violet colour, whilst the other will
+remain much lighter, though perceptibly blackening. After a time the
+latter will appear to grow deeper, whilst the former will become a deep
+black. The one that blackens most rapidly will be found to be that one
+on which the silver nitrate was poured. Divide the slightly blackened
+chloride on the strip of glass into two portions, and over one pour a
+little beer, and over the other a weak solution of potassium nitrite,
+and again note the difference. It will be found that here the blackening
+commences anew, but proceeds much more rapidly on that portion over
+which the nitrite was poured. Here are the experiments. What do they
+teach?
+
+Potassium nitrite, and silver nitrate, are both inorganic salts, and
+they both have an affinity for--that is, tend to combine with--any
+of the halogens (by which are meant such bodies as chlorine, iodine,
+bromine, and fluorine). In the former case we have silver chloride
+formed with a little hypo-chlorous acid; in the latter we have a more
+difficult decomposition: the potassium nitrite is decomposed into
+hydrochloric acid and potassium nitrate.[3]
+
+We can tell that chlorine is liberated by the action of light on silver
+chloride, since if we prepare some as above, well wash it, and expose it
+to light in pure water, we shall find that the latter contains chlorine,
+since a few drops of silver nitrate poured into it after exposure give a
+white precipitate.
+
+If we make the same experiments with the dried portions of silver
+chloride as we did with the moist, we shall obtain the same results,
+with the exception that with the dried, in which there is excess of
+salt, there will be hardly any discolouration. The experimentalist
+should also note that if the darkened chloride be broken up, the
+interior retains its white colour in all its purity. This tells us that
+the discolouration is _almost_ confined to the surface, hence it is
+useless, for printing purposes, to have such a mass of chloride as would
+be opaque, since all but a very thin film would be unacted upon.
+
+If the darkened chloride be examined closely, it will be seen that
+the colour varies, being bluer in the case of that which has silver
+nitrate in contact with it (either moist or dry) as compared with that
+which is darkened in contact with the potassium nitrite. We have the
+best of reasons for believing that the blue colour is really due to a
+combination between the sub-chloride and the oxygen contained in the
+water or in the air. The true colour of the sub-chloride is that which
+is exposed beneath an oxygen absorbent such as the nitrite.
+
+Practical printers are aware that albumenized paper containing a
+chloride is employed for producing silver prints, and the probability is
+that the albumen must exercise some kind of influence on the resulting
+picture. Let us examine this, and see what effect it can have. Carefully
+break an egg, and separate the yolk from the white, pouring the latter
+into a beaker. Beat up the white with a bundle of quill pens, allow the
+froth to subside, and then filter it. Pour a little of the filtered
+albumen (the white of egg) into a test-tube, and add a little silver
+nitrate solution to it, and expose the precipitate which falls to light.
+It will be seen that it darkens rapidly, assuming a foxy red colour.
+Take a couple of glass plates and coat them with plain collodion, wash
+under the tap, and whilst still moist flow albumen over them two or
+three times, and set them up to dry. When thoroughly dry, plunge them
+for a few seconds into a weak solution of silver nitrate (30 grains
+to the ounce of water will suffice), wash one under the tap, and then
+allow both to dry again. Take both plates out into the light, and note
+the results. The one from which the silver nitrate has not been washed
+will darken very rapidly, the other will take some time to start; but if
+the exposure be sufficiently prolonged, it will gradually assume a hue
+equally as dark as the other.
+
+If we repeat these experiments with gelatine, which is used as a sizing
+in some papers, we shall find very much the same nature of things taking
+place, the differences being so slight, however, as not to require
+detailed notice.
+
+So far, then, we have considered the darkening properties of the silver
+compounds which are to be used by the printer, but it remains to be
+seen what _permanency of darkening_ they possess. If we treat the
+darkened silver chloride solution exposed with the silver nitrate or
+the potassium nitrite to a solution of hyposulphite of soda or ammonia,
+both of which are solvents of the white chloride, we shall find that
+a residue of metallic silver is left behind. If we treat the darkened
+albuminate of silver with the same agents, we shall find that very
+little change is effected by them.
+
+From this we may gather that the action of light on them is of a totally
+different nature.[4] This is also most marked if we treat the two with
+hydrosulphuric acid solution (sulphuretted hydrogen[5]). It will be
+found that the colour of the darkened silver chloride becomes more
+intense, while the other is bleached, or, rather, becomes of a yellow
+tint. This last effect has an important bearing on the permanency of
+silver prints, as will be more fully explained when considering the
+subject of fixing the print.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PREPARATION OF ALBUMENIZED PAPER.
+
+
+In printing on albumenized paper we must divide the operations, and give
+a detailed account of each. In case the reader may desire to prepare his
+own paper, we give the following formula and directions.
+
+To prepare the albumen, procure a sufficient number of eggs, remembering
+that the white of a large egg will be about a fluid ounce; have a cup
+to collect the yolks, and a four-ounce measure at hand. Give the centre
+of the egg a smart blow against the top of the cup. The shell can now
+be readily pulled in two, the yolk remaining unbroken with part of the
+albumen in one half, and the rest of the albumen in the other half of
+the shell. Take the halves, one in each hand, and pour the albumen from
+one to the other, holding them over the small measure. As the operation
+continues, the yolk will gradually separate, the white falling into the
+vessel below. If conducted with care, the whole of the latter will be
+collected without breaking the yolk. If the yolk break, some will be
+sure to find its way into the measure along with the white, and this,
+together with the white speck known as the tread, must be rigorously
+taken out by means of a spoon. The _uncontaminated_ white is then poured
+into a large jar. If the operator carefully collects the white of each
+egg into the four-ounce ounce measure first, he will find his labour
+much diminished, as it is awkward to get out the small pieces of yolk
+from a large quantity of albumen. The eggs are thus broken, and the
+white collected till there is a sufficient quantity for the purpose
+in hand. Suppose we are going to make up 20 ounces of solution, then
+about 18 ounces of white of egg must be found in the jar. One point
+to settle is the amount of salt to be used to each ounce of albumen.
+It must be recollected that a medium quantity is the best for medium
+negatives; anything between 20 and 40 grains per ounce may be used.
+We prefer ourselves about 25. Supposing this quantity to be used, we
+proceed to dissolve 500 grains of chloride of ammonium in 2 ounces of
+water, and add it to the albumen. It has been proved that as regards
+colour of the picture, it does not matter what chloride is used. To
+prevent crystallization, it is better to use ammonium, which contains
+a greater amount of chlorine than do sodium or potassium chlorides. It
+must now be beaten up till it is in a froth. This breaks up the fibrous
+matter, and on subsidence the liquid will be found to be limpid. The
+most convenient implement with which to beat up the albumen is the
+American egg-beater. Three or four minutes' work is quite sufficient
+to make the whole into a froth. An ordinary culinary whisk, such as is
+used in the kitchen, may also be put into requisition, or, in default
+of that, a bundle of quill pens. A lesson in producing a froth can be
+learnt from the cook of the establishment. When the salted albumen has
+settled it must be filtered, which, perhaps, is best effected through
+a sponge, though glass-wool is a capital substitute. In either case a
+small, loosely-fitting plug is placed in the neck of an ordinary funnel,
+and, after rinsing with cold water, the albumen is poured in, and
+allowed to filter through slowly. It is advisable to avoid bubbles as
+far as possible, and the accompanying arrangement will be found to avoid
+their formation. The funnel is placed in the position shown (fig. 1);
+the capillary attraction between it and the glass will cause the drops
+to trickle down the side, and collect, without bubbles, at the bottom.
+This little contrivance will be found of use in other operations besides
+that of silver printing, and should be made a note of. The albumen may
+also be filtered through one, two, or three thicknesses of muslin,
+according to its fineness, tied over the mouth of a bottle or beaker of
+which the bottom has been removed. The albumen is placed in a vessel
+slightly larger than the filter, which is allowed to sink gradually.
+When full it is withdrawn, and the fluid poured into the dish. By this
+plan upward filtration is established. The fluid may be poured into the
+filter itself, and used in the ordinary manner.[6]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 1.]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 2.]
+
+On a larger scale, white of eggs in a fresh condition can be obtained
+from egg merchants who utilize the yolks by selling them to the grocers
+and confectioners. Albumen can be obtained by the gallon in this
+condition, according to the price of eggs. It will be evident that
+there is considerable economy in taking the whites wholesale. As a
+rule, about three gallons of albumen will coat two reams of albumenized
+paper. Mr. England (to whom we are indebted for so many of our remarks
+on albumenizing paper) procures about the latter quantity at a time, and
+beats it up mechanically in a large vat holding some fifty gallons, in
+order to allow space for the froth. He allows the albumen to rest four
+days before employing it, and filters it through three thicknesses of
+flannel.
+
+The quality of paper to be used varies considerably with the custom of
+the printer. Thus, in some countries, we find a much thinner paper used
+than in England. The great desideratum is that it should be perfectly
+opaque to transmitted light. A good test of this is to make a couple of
+black ink marks on a piece of white paper, and then press down firmly
+the paper it is proposed to employ over this. If the black ink marks are
+indistinguishable, the paper will do as regards this quality, as the
+light reflected from the surface which gives the impression of whiteness
+to the eye is much stronger than the light which penetrates through it,
+and is absorbed by the black lines. As to quality, it is best to trust
+to the manufacturer, those known as Saxe and Rives papers answering
+better than any other that we know of. The Rives is, when moist, a paper
+which is more easily torn than the Saxe, and, consequently, we recommend
+that the former be employed for small work, such as portraits, and the
+latter for large landscape prints.
+
+In regard to the sizes to be albumenized, it must be left to the
+operator to say what will be the most useful to him. It is rarely
+advisable to albumenize less than a half sheet of paper, the whole size
+of which is about 22 by 18 inches; 11 by 18 is not an inconvenient
+size to manipulate. At any rate, a dish larger each way by a couple of
+inches than the paper must be procured, and put on a level table. The
+temperature of the room should be at least 90°, in fact, the hotter
+it is the more glossy will be the resulting paper. The solution, free
+from bubbles, is poured in, and should be of a depth of at least 1/2
+an inch. Suppose the smaller size to be coated, before commencing, the
+paper is taken by the two opposite corners, the hands brought together,
+and the convex side brought on to the surface of the fluid; the hands
+are then separated, and the paper will gradually float on the surface.
+One corner should be gradually raised to see that all air-bubbles are
+absent. If there be any, they should be broken with the point of a glass
+rod, and the paper again lowered. Bubbles can usually be seen through
+the paper, and, instead of raising it, a few gentle taps with the finger
+over the spot will generally move the bubble to the edge of the paper.
+In practice, some have found it well to moisten the surface of the paper
+with a damp sponge, and when quite surface dry to albumenize it. This
+should, however, be unnecessary. The sheet should remain on the albumen
+a little over a minute, when it could be gently raised by one corner and
+allowed to drain over a basin; it is then caught by a couple of American
+clips and hung up to dry.[7]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 3.]
+
+Supposing a whole sheet is to be coated, it will be found more
+convenient to take the sheet by the corners of _one end_, one in each
+hand, and to lower the surface near the end of the dish, and gradually
+draw the paper over the side of the dish till the whole surface is flat.
+Bubbles can be got rid of as shown above.
+
+Two large dishes are usually employed, and by the time the second sheet
+is floated in the second dish, the first sheet of paper is ready for
+removal from the first dish. The sheets, when slowly removed from the
+bath, are allowed to drain a few seconds, and then thrown over wooden
+rods of some two inches in diameter, which are removed to a rack,
+and placed near a trough to collect the drainings.[8] When drained
+sufficiently the rods are removed to other racks, and the paper allowed
+to dry spontaneously.
+
+It is the practice of some albumenized paper manufacturers to hang the
+sheets over a line, uncoated side next the line; but this is a mistake,
+as it will nearly always be found, on sensitising the paper and exposing
+it, that a mark is left across the paper corresponding to the part where
+the string touched the back of the paper.
+
+In practice we have found that each sheet of paper takes up about 1/3
+oz. of solution, and, of course, its equivalent quantity of salt. The
+principal difficulty in albumenizing paper is the occurrence of lines
+on the paper in the direction in which it was placed on the surface of
+the albumen. Any arrest of motion in floating the paper will cause them,
+but more usually it is due to imperfect beating up of the solution. Some
+papers are not readily coated with albumen, in which case the remedy
+given above may prove effectual; or a little solution of oxgall may be
+equally well applied. A want of gloss in the dried albumen may be due to
+too long a floating on the fluid, or to floating and drying the paper
+in too low a temperature. The explanation of the first cause is that
+albumen, when fresh, has an alkaline reaction, due to the presence of a
+small quantity of soda, which may be said to be its base, and any alkali
+will dissolve the gelatinous sizing of a paper. When the sizing is
+dissolved, instead of remaining on the surface, the albumen sinks into
+the paper, and thereby the gloss is lost.
+
+When albumen is stale it no longer possesses this alkaline reaction, but
+has an acid reaction quite visible on the application of blue litmus
+paper to it; the blue colour disappears and is replaced by a red tint.
+When in the alkaline state, the paper is much more difficult to coat,
+but an acid condition means the production of inferior tones.
+
+_Rolling the Paper._--The paper, when dried, is often rolled with a
+heavy pressure to improve the gloss; a copper-plate press is found
+to answer admirably, placing the albumenized side next the bed. This
+rolling should not be necessary if attention be paid to the temperature
+of the preparation room. The higher the temperature the finer will be
+the gloss, as we have already said.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SENSITIZING BATH FOR ALBUMENIZED PAPER.
+
+
+To render albumenized paper sensitive to light it has to be treated with
+a solution of silver nitrate, and the most convenient method of applying
+it is to float it on a dish containing the silver salt in solution. The
+first point to consider is the strength of the solution. If we float
+albumenized paper (face downwards) on a solution of 10 grains of silver
+nitrate to the ounce of water, we shall find, what at first sight may
+seem to be remarkable, that the albumen will be dissolved away from the
+paper, and that there will be a precipitate left in the silver solution.
+Why is this?
+
+It must be remembered that albumen is soluble in water: it is coagulated
+or insoluble in water when combined with silver nitrate. The fact
+is that the quantity of silver nitrate in the solution we have been
+experimenting with is too small. The water dissolves the albumen first,
+and then the silver has time to act upon it to form the insoluble
+albuminate. If we soak paper in common salt, and treat it in the same
+way with the same strength of solution, we shall find that this is not
+the case: the silver chloride will remain on the paper. From this we
+learn two facts.
+
+1st. That the silver solution has a greater affinity for the chloride
+than for the albuminate, and that in an equal mixture of the two more
+chloride would be formed than albuminate; in other words, that the
+ammonium chloride would be totally converted into silver chloride long
+before the silver albuminate was formed.
+
+2nd. That a certain strength of silver nitrate is necessary to prevent
+the albumen dissolving from off the paper.
+
+This last fact has fixed the lowest strength of any sensitizing solution
+to be thirty grains to the ounce, and even if this be taken as a limit,
+it is necessary that the water should be rendered less active by holding
+some other soluble matter in its embraces. This is usually effected by
+adding some other neutral and inactive nitrates. There does not seem to
+be any theoretical limit to the amount of silver nitrate in solution,
+but practically it rarely contains more than 80 grains to the ounce,
+though occasionally we have heard of it being used of a strength of 100
+grains to the ounce.
+
+The important point now presents itself. How are we to fix the strength
+of the bath? What principles must we follow?
+
+To answer these questions we extract a passage from another work of this
+series.[9]
+
+"If a paper be coated with albumen (say) in which has been dissolved
+a certain quantity of a soluble chloride, and floated on a silver
+solution, both chloride and albuminate of silver are formed. It depends,
+however, on the strength of the solution as to what proportions of each
+are present, owing to the fact that the organic compound is much slower
+in formation than the chloride, and has less affinity for the silver.
+If the silver solution be not sufficiently strong, the chloride may rob
+that portion of it with which it is in contact of all the silver before
+any (or, at all events, sufficient) albuminate has been formed, the
+molecule being composed almost entirely of silver chloride. The stronger
+the silver solution the more 'organate' will it contain; whilst if it
+be very weak, very little will be present. Hence it is with albumenized
+paper which is weakly salted with a silver chloride a weak sensitizing
+bath may be used, whilst if it be rich in the chloride it must be of
+proportionate strength."
+
+It will now be seen that the proportion of chloride to albumen has
+to settle the point. We next have to consider the time during which
+the silver should be in contact with the paper when the floating is
+commenced. Let us take the case of a strong silver solution, and
+consider the action that will follow. Immediately the paper is placed in
+contact with the solution, silver chloride is formed, and the amount of
+the silver nitrate in the layer of fluid in immediate contact with the
+surface being scarcely diminished by the formation of silver chloride,
+the albuminate is formed almost simultaneously, forming a film which is
+to a great extent impermeable to the liquid. But even before this layer
+is coagulated, the next layer of chloride will have been formed, so that
+we may say we have one layer of albuminate and chloride of silver, and
+one layer of chloride of silver alone.
+
+The further penetration of the silver solution will be very slow; hence,
+for fully saturating both the albumen and the salt with silver, the time
+of flotation must be prolonged. For some purposes, however, this is not
+necessary, as will be seen presently.
+
+Next let us trace the action of a weak solution, not weak enough to
+dissolve the albumen off the paper, but of the minimum strength. The
+solution, as before, would immediately form the silver chloride, but
+before the albumen had coagulated at the surface, the solution would
+penetrate to the interior of the film, and then the formation of the
+albuminate would proceed nearly equally throughout the whole of the
+interior. Evidently, then, in this case, the contact of the silver
+solution would be less prolonged than in the former case. If the
+floating be prolonged the silver solution in the interior will become
+weakened, and partially dissolve the albumen and be carried by the
+water into the interior of the paper; it will also partially dissolve
+off the surface, and a negative printed on such a paper would have all
+the appearance of being dead in lustre, and existing in the paper itself
+instead of on the surface.
+
+We may thus summarize:--
+
+1. A paper floated on a strong solution may require long floating.
+
+2. A paper floated on a weak solution requires short floating.
+
+3. And the strength of the solution may be between the 30 grains and
+80 grains to the ounce of silver according to the amount of soluble
+chloride dissolved in the albumen on the paper when the negative is
+really good as regards opacity and delicacy.
+
+The knowledge of the amount of chloride in the paper supplied by dealers
+has to be arrived at somehow, and the following method will answer. Cut
+up a quarter sheet of the paper into small pieces, and place them in a
+couple of ounces of methylated spirit. This will dissolve out most of
+the chloride, and should be decanted off. Another two ounces of spirit
+should be added to the paper, and, after thoroughly soaking, should be
+decanted off, and added to the other spirit. The spirit containing the
+chloride may then be placed in a glass vessel standing in hot water,
+when it will evaporate and leave the chloride behind. It may be weighed;
+but since it is better to know how much silver chloride (AgCl) would be
+formed, the residue should be dissolved in a few drops of water, and a
+little silver nitrate added. The silver chloride will be precipitated,
+and should be carefully washed with water, and then be filtered, the
+paper being opened out and dried before the fire on filter paper. The
+chloride is then detached and weighed; 3-1/2 grains of silver chloride
+would show that a weak bath should be used, whilst 10 grains would show
+that a strong bath was required.
+
+With most brands of albumenized paper directions are issued as to the
+best strength of silver nitrate solution for sensitizing, and a fair
+estimate of the chloride present can be gained from such directions.
+
+A weak solution loses much of its strength by each sheet of paper
+floated, much more proportionally, in fact, than a strong solution,
+since the same amount of fluid is absorbed by the paper in each case,
+whilst the amount of silver abstracted from the _whole_ is also equal,
+which reduces the strength per ounce more with the former than with
+the latter. A weak sensitizing solution, therefore, requires much
+more attention than a strong one: crystals of silver nitrate must be
+constantly added to the former. In practice and for general work, then,
+we recommend a moderately strong bath, the method of making up of which
+we shall describe.
+
+To make up 2 pints of solution with a strength of 50 grains to the
+ounce, we shall require 2,000 grains of silver nitrate. This is
+carefully weighed out in the scales, a piece of _filter paper being
+placed in each pan_. By adopting this plan freedom from all impurities
+that may cling to the pans will be avoided, and the silver nitrate
+will be perfectly pure. Place the silver salt in a large clean bottle,
+and add half-a-pint of water to it, and shake it to dissolve it. The
+best water for the purpose is distilled water; but filtered rain, pure
+spring, or river water answers well. If the water contain any chlorides,
+it will be shown by a milkiness due to a formation of silver chloride.
+This must be filtered out when the remaining pint and a-half of water
+is added. The solution is now ready for use, and, being of the simplest
+character, is not to be excelled, though the addition of some soluble
+salts may be advantageous, particularly in dry climates or in very dry
+weather. Such salts are found in sodium nitrate, or ammonium nitrate, as
+much as equal weights of either of these substances being added. Thus
+our formula would stand as follows were these additions made:--
+
+_Original Solution._
+
+    1.--Silver nitrate           50 grains
+        Water                     1 ounce
+
+
+_Modified Solution._
+
+    2.--Silver nitrate           50 grains
+        Ammonium nitrate or
+          sodium nitrate         50   "
+        Water                     1 ounce
+
+The reason of the addition of the ammonium or sodium nitrate is that
+prints are better obtained on paper which is not absolutely free from
+water. When very dry, the liberated chlorine (see page 32) is apt to
+attack the albuminate, whereas it is deprived of much of its activity
+when it is able to be absorbed by water, which, in the presence of
+light, is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and oxygen.[10]
+
+Hydrochloric acid can attack the silver nitrate present in the pores
+of the paper, and produce fresh silver chloride. If the paper were
+quite dry, the liberated chlorine would scarcely be able to attack
+even the silver. Moisture, though very little, is desirable. In the
+excessively dry climate of India, &c., in the summer, one or other of
+these deliquescent salts should be invariably present for the purpose
+indicated, unless fuming be resorted to.
+
+The sensitizing bath should also never be allowed to be acid with nitric
+acid, since the resulting prints would invariably be poor.
+
+The best way of securing this neutral state is by keeping a little
+carbonate of silver at the bottom of the bottle in which the solution is
+kept. A few drops of a solution of sodium carbonate added to the bottle
+over-night will secure this. The reason why nitric acid is to be avoided
+is shown by placing a print in dilute nitric acid. It is well known that
+darkened silver chloride is unaffected by it; but the print will be
+found to change colour, and to become duller and redder than if washed
+in water alone. The nitric acid evidently attacks the albumen. Nitric
+acid decomposes the carbonate of silver (which, be it remembered, is an
+insoluble body), forming silver nitrate, and liberating carbonic acid.[11]
+
+Alum in the printing bath has also been recommended for preventing the
+bath from discolouring, and it is effective in that it hardens the
+surface of the albumen; but the ordinary explanation of its effect is
+defective. If a solution of common alum be added to the silver nitrate
+we get silver sulphate (which is best out of the bath, and it is
+slightly soluble in the solution), and aluminium nitrate is formed.[12]
+
+The same effect would be produced if aluminium nitrate were added to the
+bath solution. We, however, give a means of adding it as recommended by
+some writers. When filtering the solution, put a small lump of alum in
+the filter paper, and pour the solution over it, or add one grain of
+alum to every ounce of solution, and then filter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE SENSITIZING BATH IN ORDER.
+
+
+Experience tells us, however strong we may make the bath solution to
+coagulate the albumen on the paper, that a certain amount of organic
+matter will always be carried into it. At first this is not apparent,
+since it remains colourless in the solution; but after a time, after
+floating a few sheets of paper, the organic silver compound gradually
+decomposes, and the solution becomes of a brown or red tint, and if
+paper were floated on it in this condition there would be a dark surface
+and uneven sensitizing. It is, therefore, necessary to indicate the
+various means that may be employed to get rid of this impurity. The
+earliest, if not one of the best, is by the addition of white China
+clay, which is known in commerce as kaolin. A teaspoonful is placed in
+the bottle containing the solution, and well shaken up; the organic
+matter adheres to it, and precipitates to the bottom, and the liquid can
+be filtered through filter-paper or washed cotton-wool, when it will
+be found decolourized. Another mode of getting the liquid out of the
+bottle is to syphon it off by any syphon arrangement, and this prevents
+a waste in the solution from the absorption of the filtering medium. The
+accompanying arrangement (fig. 4) will be found useful for the purpose,
+and can be applied to other solutions where decantation is necessary. A
+is a wide-mouthed bottle holding the solution. B is a cork fitting the
+mouth, in which two holes have been bored to fit the two tubes, D and C,
+which are bent to the form shown. When the kaolin has subsided to the
+bottom, air is forced by the mouth into the bottle through C, the liquid
+rises over the bend of the tube D, and syphons off to the level of the
+bottom of the tube inserted into the liquid, provided the end of D,
+outside the bottle, comes below it.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 4.]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 5.]
+
+To bend a tube, a common gas flame is superior to a Bunsen burner. The
+tube is placed in the bright part of the flame in the position shown; by
+this means a good length of it gets heated, and a gentle bend is made
+without choking the bore, which would be the case were a point of a
+flame used.
+
+Another method of purifying the solution is by adding a few drops of
+hydrochloric (muriatic) acid to it. Chloride of silver is formed, and
+when well shaken up, carries down with it most of the organic matter,
+but leaves the bath acid from the formation of nitric acid.[13] This
+must be neutralized unless a little silver carbonate is left at the
+bottom of the bottle as described at page 20. A camphor solution may
+also be added for the same purpose. Make a saturated solution of camphor
+in spirits of wine, and add a couple of drachms to the solution, and
+shake well up. The camphor will collect the albumen, and it can be
+filtered out. In case the first dose does not decolourize it, another
+one must be added.
+
+Another plan is to add potassium permanganate (permanganate of potash)
+to it, till such time as the solution takes a faint permanent rose
+tint. The theory is that the organic matter is oxidized by the oxygen
+liberated from the permanganate, and falls to the bottom. It is not
+strictly true, however, and the solution will never be as free from
+organic matter as when the other methods are employed.
+
+The final and best method is to add a small quantity of sodium carbonate
+(say 5 grains), and expose it to daylight. When the organic matter
+becomes oxidized at the expense of the silver nitrate, the metallic
+silver with the oxidized organic matter will fall to the bottom. This
+plan answers admirably when time is no object, but in dull weather the
+action is slow. When once the precipitation fairly commences it goes on
+quickly, and if a little freshly precipitated metallic silver be left at
+bottom of the bottle the action is much more rapid. This is a wrinkle
+worth remembering in all photographic operations where precipitation is
+resorted to.
+
+We have hitherto supposed that the only contamination of the bath is
+organic matter, but it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper
+floated on the solution transfers a certain amount of nitrate of the
+alkali[14] with which the albumen is salted.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 6.]
+
+It will thus be seen that in an old bath there will be no need to add
+the soluble nitrates given in page 17, since they will be already
+formed. When they are in excess the best plan is to precipitate the
+silver by some means,[15] but we select one which is easy of application,
+since it requires no watching. Evaporate the solution to half its
+bulk, and slightly acidify it with nitric acid (10 drops to the pint
+of solution will suffice); throw some ordinary granulated zinc into
+the jar or bottle containing it; the silver will now be rapidly thrown
+down in the metallic state, and in the course of two or three hours
+the action will be complete. Next carefully pour off all the fluid as
+close as possible to the residue. Pick out all the lumps of zinc, and
+add a little dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve up all the small
+particles of zinc which may be amongst the precipitated silver. Filter
+the solution away, and wash the residue once or twice with water. Take
+out the filter paper, and dry it before a fire, or in an oven, and then
+detach the silver, and transfer it to a small crucible, which place,
+with its contents, over a Bunsen burner or spirit lamp flame till it is
+red hot. The heat will destroy all organic matter, leaving a residue of
+carbonous matter behind, which, after subsequent operations, will be
+eliminated by filtration. Next cover the silver with nitric acid,[16]
+and in an evaporating dish slightly warm it over a spirit lamp or
+Bunsen burner. Red fumes will appear, and when all action has ceased,
+more acid must be added till such a time that very nearly (but not
+quite) all the silver is dissolved up. Then evaporate off all the fluid
+and allow it to cool, when water can be added to such an extent that
+it is _over strength_ for the bath. Now measure the whole bulk of the
+solution in a glass measure, and test by the argentometer for strength.
+An argentometer is, in reality, an instrument for taking the specific
+gravity of a liquid. It is as shown in the figure. A B is a glass tube,
+inside of which is a graduated scale showing grains; C is a hollow
+glass cylinder, which has a little glass ball filled with mercury. When
+immersed in water, the instrument sinks till the scale reads 0--that
+is, A B is deeply immersed. When any soluble salt is dissolved in the
+water, the stem rises further. If the soluble salt be silver nitrate,
+the scale is made to read grains per ounce. It is then evident, if the
+bath contains any other soluble salt besides the nitrate of silver, the
+readings will be untrustworthy. Supposing you have a total quantity of
+10-1/4 ounces of solution, and the argentometer tells you it is of a
+strength of 105 grains to the ounce, you must make a small calculation
+to see how much water you must add. In 10-1/4 ounces of solution there
+will be 10-1/4 × 105 or 1076-1/4 grains of silver nitrate. If you want
+to make the bath 40 grains to the ounce, you must divide this quantity
+by 40, which is very nearly 27. The original amount of fluid (10-1/4
+ounces), when deducted from this number of (27) ounces, will give you
+the amount (16-3/4 ounces) of water that is to be added to give you a
+bath of the required strength. When the water is added, the solution
+should be filtered from the carbonaceous matter, and the bath, after
+neutralizing with sodium carbonate, will be ready for use.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+APPLYING THE SILVERING SOLUTION TO THE ALBUMENIZED PAPER.
+
+
+As each piece of paper takes somewhere about five minutes to sensitize
+and hang up to dry, it is evident that the larger the piece of paper
+sensitised the greater will be the saving in time in this operation.
+Practically a whole sheet of paper, which is about 22 inches by 18, is
+the maximum ordinary size, whilst it may be convenient to float a piece
+as small as 3-1/4 by 4-1/4. There is not much difficulty in floating
+either one or the other if ordinary care be taken, but it is no use
+disguising the fact that large sheets are sometimes faultily sensitized
+even by experienced hands, if the solution be not in a proper state. The
+great enemy to success is the formation of bubbles on the surface of the
+solution, and if it be at all contaminated with organic matter they are
+more liable to be met with than if the bath be new. It may be taken as a
+maxim that no paper should be floated if, to commence with, the bath be
+not purified. A flat dish of about 2-1/2 inches in height, and an inch
+larger in breadth and length than the paper to be floated, is used, and
+the solution poured in to a depth of 1/2 inch. The paper is grasped by
+the two hands as shown at page 10, so that a convex albumen surface is
+formed downwards, which is placed diagonally across the dish and lowered
+on to the surface of the solution; the hands are at the same time
+separated outwards, so that the whole surface of the paper is caused
+to float on it without any arrest. By this means all air is forced out
+before the paper, and no bubbles should be beneath. To make assurance
+double sure, the paper is raised from the corners which were not grasped
+by the hands, and if by any chance a small bubble should be found, it
+is immediately broken by the point of a clean quill pen or glass rod.
+Before floating the paper the surface of the solution should be examined
+for scum or bubbles, both of which may be removed by passing a strip of
+clean blotting-paper across it. The dish employed should be scrupulously
+clean, and in cold weather it is a good plan to warm both it and the
+solution before the fire previous to use. In warm weather, the albumen
+of the paper may be in a very horny condition, which increases the
+liability to form bubbles. The writers have found that if the sheet of
+paper be exposed to the steam passing from a kettle of boiling water for
+a few seconds (moving it so that every portion shall come in contact
+with it) just before sensitising, the surface becomes more tractable,
+and in a better condition for sensitizing; keeping the paper in a moist
+atmosphere effects the same end.
+
+The length of time for floating the paper depends on the subjects to be
+printed, _but, as a rule_, three minutes with the 50-grain bath will
+be found to answer for the majority of negatives. When the proper time
+has elapsed, a corner of the paper is raised from the solution by means
+of a glass rod, and grasped by the thumb and forefinger of the right
+hand. It is then raised _very slowly_ from off the solution till another
+corner is clear, when that is grasped by the forefinger and thumb of the
+left hand; and it is finally withdrawn entirely, and drained a minute
+from the lowest corner into the dish. It is next hung up to dry by a
+corner which should be fastened to an American clip (fig. 7) suspended
+from a line stretched across the dark room, taking care to keep the
+corner which last left the solution the lowest. A piece of _clean_
+blotting-paper about one inch long by 1/2 an inch wide is brought in
+contact with this latter corner, and adheres to it from the moisture.
+This collects the draining from the paper whilst drying, and prevents a
+loss of silver, since it can subsequently be detached and placed amongst
+the residues for burning.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 7.]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 8.]
+
+There is another mode of floating large sheets of paper, which is
+sometimes recommended. One corner is turned up about a quarter of an
+inch. This is held by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and the
+opposite corner of the diagonal held by the right hand. The first corner
+is brought on the solution near the opposite corner of the dish to that
+towards which it will eventually be near. The sheet, having assumed a
+convex form, is drawn by the left hand across the dish, the right hand
+being gradually turned to allow the whole surface to come slowly in
+contact with the solution. Air-bubbles are said to be avoided by this
+means, though for our own part we see no practical advantage in it over
+the last method.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 9.]
+
+Some operators also, when lifting the paper from the dish, pass it
+over a glass rod placed as in the figure, in order to get rid of all
+superfluous fluid from the surface. This is a poor substitute for
+withdrawing the paper slowly from the dish, since capillary attraction
+is much more effective and even in its action than this rude mechanical
+means. By those who do not possess patience, however, it may be tried.
+Some practical photographers also "blot off" the excess of silver,
+but this is a dangerous practice unless there is a certainty that no
+"anti-chlor" has been used in preparing the blotting-paper. For our own
+part we recommend the usual mode of draining the paper. When surface
+dry, it can be dried in a drying box. The following is a kind which has
+been adopted by one eminent photographer, and is excellent in principle.
+
+Over a flat and closed galvanized iron bath erect a cupboard. Fig. 10
+gives the elevation, and fig. 11 the section. A is the bath, D the
+cupboard, which may conveniently be closed with a roller shutter,[17] B,
+passing over _c c_, and is weighted by a bar of lead, so as to nearly
+balance the weight of the shutter when closed. A couple of Bunsen
+gas-burners, E E, heat the water in A; the steam generated is carried
+up the flue F, which also carries off the products of the combustion of
+the gas. The paper may be suspended from laths tacked at the top of the
+cupboard by means of American clips.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 10.]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 11.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+WASHED SENSITIVE PAPER.
+
+
+For some classes of work sensitized paper may be washed with advantage
+previous to drying, and there is much economy in this plan, particularly
+in hot weather, since it keeps of a purer white for a much longer
+period than where the silver nitrate is allowed to dry on the surface.
+It may not be out of place to call attention to the action of silver
+nitrate on the paper. If a stick of lunar caustic be applied to the
+skin when dried, there is a peculiar burning effect produced, and even
+in the dark the cuticle becomes discoloured, though not black. In the
+albumenized paper we have albumen and the gelatine sizing, and these
+substances behave somewhat like the skin. The gelatine particularly will
+become oxidized at the expense of the silver, a reddish organic oxide
+being formed; and again, if the silver nitrate be alkaline or strictly
+neutral, we have the same action occurring as when we precipitate
+metallic silver by means of an alkali, and an organic body such as sugar
+of milk. The gelatine takes the place of the latter. When the free
+silver nitrate is removed, the tendency for the spontaneous darkening
+of the paper is much diminished, since the chloride and albuminate of
+silver are much less readily reduced than the nitrate. The following
+plan is adopted for washing the paper:--The paper, after floating,
+is drawn twice rapidly through a dish of rain or distilled water,
+and, unless some other substance which can absorb chlorine be added
+to the last wash water, care should be taken not to soak out all the
+free nitrate, as then the paper would produce flat prints. It is then
+hung up to dry as before. Immediately before use it must be fumed with
+ammonia, in order that the prints may be "plucky," and free from that
+peculiar speckiness of surface which is known to the silver printer as
+"measles." We can readily trace the "measles" to their source. Suppose
+all free silver nitrate is washed away, and the paper be then exposed to
+light, the chloride is rapidly converted into subchloride, and chlorine
+is given off (see page 5); if there be nothing to absorb it at once it
+will attack the albuminate, which is blackened at the same time, and
+fresh chloride will be formed in little minute spots. These discolour,
+and are of different tint to the rest of the print, and give rise to
+the appearance of measles. This, of course, is not so marked when a
+little free silver nitrate is left in the paper; but as what is removed
+is principally removed from the surface, it may still be unpleasantly
+discernible. Fuming obviates it entirely if properly performed, for
+chlorine and ammonia combine to form finally ammonium chloride, a
+neutral and inactive salt.
+
+Any other chlorine absorber may be substituted; thus citric acid,
+potassium nitrite, and many others are effective, and cause vigorous
+prints to be produced. Perhaps the easiest way of giving the paper the
+necessary amount of ammonia is that recommended by Colonel Wortley. This
+is to place overnight the pads of the printing-frame, if they be of
+felt, into a closed box in which is placed a saucer containing a couple
+of drachms of liquor ammoniæ, and to withdraw them as required for the
+printing-frames. The pads will be thoroughly impregnated with the vapour
+of ammonia, and a couple or more prints, in succession, may be made
+before it is necessary to change them.
+
+The ordinary method of fuming is that used in America. Hearn describes
+a box, which is very convenient and simple in construction. He says:
+"Take any common wooden box, large enough for the purpose, and make a
+door of suitable size for it, which, when shut, will totally exclude
+all light. Make a false bottom in this about six inches, or so, from
+the real one, and perforate it with holes of about the same size that
+a gimlet would make. These holes should be very numerous, and at the
+centre there should be, if anything, a smaller number of them, because
+the saucer containing the liquor ammonia is generally placed at the
+centre of the real bottom of the box."
+
+For our own part we dislike the false bottom as constructed, and
+recommend one of fine gauze, and, instead of placing half-an-ounce of
+ammonia in the saucer as Hearn directs, we prefer to soak half-a-dozen
+sheets of blotting-paper in ammonium chloride solution, about 20 grains
+to the ounce, and the same number of sheets soaked in lime water; one
+sheet of each are placed together, and ammonia is liberated by double
+decomposition; calcium chloride being also formed.
+
+This method is excellent in hot, dry weather, since it imparts a certain
+amount of moisture to the paper. In damp weather it is a good plan to
+dry the vapour by sprinkling on the gauze calcium chloride, which will
+rapidly absorb the aqueous vapour, and will allow the ammonia to pass
+on unimpeded. The sheets of paper are held at the top of the box by
+American clips, suspended from laths about three inches apart, and it
+is not a bad plan to fasten a lath on to their bottom edge by the same
+means, to do away with their curling. To fume a single piece of paper
+it may be pinned up to the inside of the top of the lid of a box, and a
+drachm of ammonia sprinkled on cotton wool distributed at the bottom.
+The point to be attended to is that the fuming shall be even, and it is
+evident that the ammonia should rise equally from any part of the bottom
+of the box. In the plan of the box given above, the bottom of the sheet
+is apt to get a little more ammonia than the top. The time of fuming
+depends on so many things that a rule can scarcely be given for it;
+twenty minutes may be considered about the extreme limit.
+
+If this sensitizing bath be acid, the time must evidently be longer than
+when it is strictly neutral or slightly alkaline; and if the negative be
+hard, it will require to be less fumed than if it be of a weak nature,
+since the action of ammonia is to cause rapid darkening in the deep
+shadows. In hot weather the fuming should be shorter than in cold, since
+the ammonia volatilizes much more rapidly when the temperature is high.
+On the whole, we recommend Colonel Wortley's plan of fuming the pads in
+preference to fuming the paper.
+
+Another mode of preserving the paper from discolouration is to add
+citric acid to the printing bath, which is effective owing to the fact
+given at page 32. The following formula is a good one, and has answered
+with the writer. It is--
+
+    Silver nitrate               50 grains
+    Citric acid                  20   "
+    Water                         1 ounce
+
+The paper is floated for the ordinary length of time, when it is dried
+thoroughly and placed between sheets of pure blotting-paper. It will
+keep in its pristine state for months, if excluded from the air. It is
+better to fume this paper strongly before use, or the toning becomes a
+difficult matter.
+
+Ordinary sensitized paper may be preserved for a considerable time if,
+when dry, it is placed between sheets of blotting-paper saturated with a
+solution of carbonate of soda, and dried.
+
+Washed sensitized paper is also improved in sensitiveness by floating it
+for a few seconds on--
+
+    Citric acid                  20 grains
+    Potassium nitrite            10   "
+    Water                         1 ounce
+
+It can be fumed, when dried, in the usual manner.
+
+In the YEAR-BOOK OF PHOTOGRAPHY for 1880 Mr. A. Borland
+recommends the following modification:--
+
+He floats the paper on nitrate of silver, as usual, and after it has
+drained surface dry, blots off any drops that may remain at the edges,
+and then floats the _back_ of the paper for about three minutes on the
+following bath:--
+
+    Nitrate of soda               1 ounce
+    Distilled water              16 ounces
+
+This is rendered slightly acid by a little solution of _freshly_
+prepared citric acid in water. The degree of acidity is regulated by
+litmus paper (the blue specimen), which should be slightly reddened
+by it. After this solution has been mixed about ten minutes, it is
+filtered, and the paper floated. Mr. Borland says the paper keeps well,
+and prints the same as ordinary paper, and any tone may be produced.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+CUTTING PAPER.
+
+
+We have often come across operators who have no really definite plan on
+which they cut up their paper for a day's work, and they have little
+idea of the most economical place of dividing the sheets. The following
+remarks by Mr. Hearn, which appeared in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS,
+1874, will be useful to the printer, and, being so extremely well
+described, we take the liberty of reproducing them.
+
+"In cutting up the paper for printing, due regard should be given to
+the materials employed. In the first place, the fingers should be free
+from anything that will stain or soil the paper, and they should never
+touch the _silvered_ side, but always the _back_. The hands should be
+perfectly dry, free even from any perspiration, for if this is not
+strictly regarded in the handling of the paper, 'finger stains' will
+appear on those parts of the paper with which the fingers come in
+contact. To guard against this, a rough towel should be suspended in a
+convenient place, and the hands wiped upon it as often as may be found
+necessary--say once in every five or ten minutes. An ivory newspaper
+cutter, about eight inches long and an inch wide, together with a
+suitable sized pair of shears, will be all of the instruments necessary.
+
+"In cutting the paper for very large prints, such as 13 by 16, 14 by 18,
+16 by 20, &c., the beginner had best (to obtain the right size) lay over
+the sensitive paper the proper sized mat that is to be placed over the
+print when finished, and then cut accordingly. Considerable paper can be
+saved in this way, and printed in card size.
+
+"There should always be an assortment of different sized mats in the
+printing room; one of each size will do, which should be kept expressly
+for this purpose.
+
+"In cutting the paper for an 11 by 14 print, the length of the sheet
+is generally placed before the printer, and the paper bent over to the
+further edge of the sheet, and then creased, and thus cut into two equal
+pieces, one of which can be used for the contemplated print. I would
+recommend that instead of taking exactly one half of the sheet of paper,
+as described above, to take about _an inch more_ than the half, so as to
+allow for any slight tear that may happen along the edges of the paper
+during the washing, toning, &c., and also so as to be sure of having the
+paper wide enough for the different sized mats.
+
+"I have seen some nice prints printed upon the exact half of a sheet of
+paper, which, when taken from the final washing (and the edges trimmed,
+being slightly torn), were then too narrow to be covered with the proper
+sized mats, and had to be rejected; whereas, if in cutting this paper
+allowance had been made for this final trimming, the prints would have
+been saved. The rest of the sheet can be cut very well into sixteen or
+eighteen carte pieces.
+
+"In cutting cabinets out of a sheet, fifteen is all that can very well
+be obtained, and to get that number lay the sheet on a wide table, or
+printing bench (with the length of it running from right to left), and
+divide it into three equal parts. By laying the cabinet glass on these
+strips of paper, and cutting the paper a little wider than the glass,
+five cabinets can be obtained from each strip, and fifteen out of the
+whole. These pieces will be plenty large enough, both in length and
+width; besides, this is a very convenient and economical way to cut the
+paper without waste.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                          22 inches
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    18 inches. |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |4-2/5|  6  |     |     |
+               |     |inch.| inch|     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+                         _Fig._ 12.]
+
+"By a glance at the cut (fig. 12) it will be seen that the size of the
+pieces will be 4-2/5 by 6 inches, and consequently there will be more
+room for the width than there will be for the length. The edges of the
+width side of the paper can be trimmed a little, as there is usually
+some little tear, or some other defect, that can thus advantageously be
+got rid of. Often, when there are only a few cabinets to be printed,
+I take a quarter-sheet, and bend over the length of it to about
+three-quarters of an inch of the opposite side, crease it, and then
+cut with the paper-knife. You thus obtain a large and small piece; the
+smaller one of these can be cut into four cards, and the larger one
+can be cut in two, and thus obtain two generous size cabinets; or the
+printer can use the larger of the two pieces for printing the 4 by 4
+size. This is the way I obtain my 4 by 4 pieces when I wish them.
+
+"The beginner must remember that in bending over the _length_ of a sheet
+of paper 18 by 22 inches in size, the divided paper will be 11 by 18
+inches in size, which is termed, in the language of the printing room,
+half-sheet.
+
+"To obtain the quarter-sheet, the _length of the half-sheet_ is cut
+equally in two pieces, and then the size will be 9 by 11 inches.
+
+"A glance at fig. 13 will show that either a generous size 4 by 4, or a
+couple of nice cabinet pieces, together with four cartes, can be easily
+obtained from a quarter-sheet.
+
+"To obtain thirty-two cartes, quarter the sheet, and divide each quarter
+into eight equal pieces.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                 9 inches.
+               +-----+------+
+               |     | 4×4  |
+               |Cab. |      |
+               |     | Cab. |
+               +-----+------+
+    11 inches. |     |      |
+               |  1  |  2   |
+               +-----+------+
+               |     |      |
+               |  3  |  4   |
+               +-----+------+
+
+                _Fig._ 13.]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                    9 inches.
+               +-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |
+               |     | 3×3 |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+
+    11 inches. |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+
+               |  3×9 inches,    |
+               |  Stereoscope.   |
+               +-----+-----+-----+
+
+                   _Fig._ 14.]
+
+"To obtain thirty-six pieces out of a sheet, it is necessary, for
+convenience, to first quarter it, and then divide it into three equal
+strips (fig. 14) taken from the _length_ of the paper. The pieces, as
+thus cut, will measure 3-2/3 by 9 inches, which will answer admirably
+for the stereoscopic size. Each one of these strips of paper can be
+cut into three good sized cartes, making nine out of a quarter, and
+thirty-six out of a whole sheet.
+
+"Forty-two cartes can be obtained very neatly by laying the sheet before
+you (fig. 4), and dividing the length into seven equal parts; when done,
+each strip should measure 3-1/7 by 18 inches in size. The whole number
+of pieces will be forty-two. It will be seen that the size of the carte
+pieces (3 by 3-1/7 inches) only allows very little room for waste paper
+in trimming after printing, and thus it will be found necessary to
+exercise some care in placing these pieces on the negative for printing.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+                             18 inches.
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    22 inches. |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               |     |     |     |     |     |     |
+               +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+                             _Fig._ 15.]
+
+"To obtain the forty-two carte pieces from the sheet without waste,
+great care is required in sensitizing the paper to prevent tearing, and
+also to prevent silver from getting on the back of it; in cutting it
+either the shears or the paper-knife should be used with care. _Do not
+tear the paper with the hands_, as is very often done, especially when
+the printer is in a hurry.
+
+"In making out the above, I have considered the sheet of paper to be 18
+by 22 inches in size, but it is seldom that the sheet measures _exactly_
+this, for the _length_ often measures from one quarter to one inch more,
+but never less, while the width is invariably the same. When this is the
+case, a little better margin is allowed in cutting the sheet up, which
+is a good thing, especially when a large number of small pieces are
+to be obtained from the sheet. Forty-two pieces is all that should be
+obtained from a sheet of paper which measures 18 by 22 (or 18 by 22-1/2,
+&c.) inches, because the pieces of paper are now as small as they
+should be with safe results to the prints, on account of bad edges, &c.,
+which it is often necessary to trim after printing. There is a way to
+obtain forty-eight, and even fifty-two pieces of paper from the sheet,
+but I would not advise any of my readers to try to obtain that quantity,
+as there are many disadvantages connected with it that more than
+neutralize the benefits. The paper is sometimes cut up to the _exact
+carte size_, and then printed up as it is, thus saving the trimming of
+the prints after printing. This is, perhaps (?), a good way, but for
+the beginner it is very risky, because the paper will have to be placed
+_exactly on the negative_, or else the print will be worthless. Even to
+the experienced printer this is very difficult, because the greatest
+care and skill are required to do it _as it should be done_; then the
+_inexperienced_ printer could not hope to do it successfully."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+PRINTING-FRAMES.
+
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.]
+
+There are a variety of printing-frames in the market, each of which may
+have something to recommend it; and yet, as a rule, the simpler and
+more uniform the frames are, the more handy are they for the printer,
+since he rapidly becomes accustomed to handling them, and knows their
+peculiarities. The simplest pattern is one introduced by Meagher, as
+shown in fig. 16. The negative rests on india-rubber strips which line
+a framework of its exact size, and a folding back, as shown, covers
+it. The paper is pressed on to the negative by a pad, and the back on
+that by means of two brass springs. This is a very excellent pattern
+for cabinet pictures and cartes, but we can scarcely recommend it for
+anything larger, since even if it were possible to supply sufficient
+pressure to secure proper contact of the paper, the negative would be in
+danger of being cracked.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 17.]
+
+For all sizes above cabinet, the printing frame as given in the figure
+is the best. The construction will be seen at once. In the front part of
+the frame is a piece of thick plate glass (depending for its thickness
+on the size of the frame). On this the negative rests, and over this
+again are the necessary pads and backboard, which is clamped down by
+means of two cross-bars, on which springs are fixed. An increase of
+pressure may be given by increasing the thickness of the pad (which
+may consist of smooth felt) next the negative, or by sheets of thick
+blotting-paper quite free from all folding marks.
+
+Sometimes the back of the frame is hinged in three pieces,[18] and this
+is almost essential for large prints (say 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches),
+since every part of the picture should be capable of examination during
+the progress in printing. With a simple single hinged backboard this is
+impossible.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 14.]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 15.]
+
+When large negatives are to be printed, the plate glass front should
+always have at least an inch clear all round. For smaller negatives
+(say 12 by 10 and under) half-an-inch clear is sufficient. This allows
+a certain latitude in the position of the negative, and enables the
+fingers to get at the paper without inconvenience. In the frames in
+which the front of the negative is unsupported this cannot be the
+case, and for this reason (as well as those given above) they are not
+recommended for large prints.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+PREPARING A LANDSCAPE NEGATIVE FOR PRINTING.
+
+
+Landscape negatives are rarely ever in perfect harmony for printing,
+and much may be done by judicious doctoring of the best of negatives
+to secure the best of prints. With moderate negatives it is absolutely
+essential that they should be improved. Let us take the example of a
+hard landscape negative, which if printed so that the deep shades should
+show detail, would show none in the high lights.
+
+A piece of thin tissue paper (the kind known as _papier minerale_ is
+the best), of the size of the negative, is damped evenly with a sponge,
+and carefully pasted on the back of the negative. The negative is then
+held up to the light, and the high lights carefully traced with a
+faint line by means of a pencil. These are then cut out by means of a
+sharp penknife, and a trial print taken in the shade. If it be found
+that the shadows still print too deeply when the detail in the high
+light is visible, another thickness of tissue paper may be applied,
+cutting out this time, perhaps, the high lights and the half tones.
+Another trial print will show whether the object is attained. If still
+not satisfactory, crayon in powder from the scrapings of a stick of
+crayon, or blacklead, may be applied by a stump to the parts requiring
+it. It may happen that the effects of the tissue paper may be seen in
+the print by the light penetrating beneath it, and causing the edges
+of the shadows to print too dark. In this case, which may arise from
+the negative being taken on a thin glass plate, the parts covering the
+high lights, and which were cut out, should be indented with a jagged
+edge such as this, the dotted line showing where the cut would come if
+it had been cut out in a clean sharp line. Another mode which we have
+sometimes found successful, though care is required in employing it, is
+to coat the back of the plate with a very dilute emulsion of a quarter
+the ordinary consistency, then to expose it, through the negative, and
+develop with one of the ordinary alkaline developers (we prefer the
+ferrous oxalate),[19] and then fix. This last film may be protected with
+a layer of albumen 1 part of albumen to 25 parts of water. By this means
+the shadows become subdued and the contrasts diminished, and there is no
+danger of any sharp demarcations in the shades being apparent.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 16.]
+
+There is one way of improving a hard negative, if taken on a gelatine
+plate, which would probably be dangerous in the hands of a novice, but
+which is most effective when used with skill and judgment, but must be
+applied before the plate is varnished. One of the most popular methods
+of reducing the density of an over-intensified gelatine negative is with
+a very weak solution of perchloride of iron. The writers have found that
+the reducing agent may be applied locally. Let us suppose the case of a
+figure in a landscape in a light dress, which produces a white patch in
+the print. The negative should be placed in a dish of water, then lifted
+up until the part to be reduced is just above the level of the water;
+a solution of perchloride of iron should then be applied to the part
+with a camel's-hair pencil, care being taken that it does not spread
+over the edges or run down the negative. When this is found to be taking
+place, the plate should be allowed to fall into the water; it can then
+be lifted again, and the operation proceeded with. It is not easy to
+give any strength for the solution of perchloride of iron, but it is
+best to begin weak, and strengthen as required. A saturated solution has
+been used in an obstinate case without any mischief being done, but this
+required very careful watching.
+
+For landscapes, Mr. England has successfully used a strong solution
+of cyanide of potassium with the same object. He moistens the parts
+of the gelatine plates which require reduction with water applied by
+a paint-brush, and afterwards, with another, applies the cyanide. The
+reduction can be watched as it progresses, and by a judicious use of the
+brush no sharp line of demarcation between the reduced and unaltered
+parts is visible.
+
+With a thin negative the tissue paper may be applied as before, only
+in this case the shadows are left bare, the half tones have one
+thickness of tissue paper over them, the highest lights two or three. An
+emulsion may be used in this case as well, only instead of fixing the
+transparency which is at the back, the precipitated silver is dissolved
+away by nitric acid, and the developer applied again. By this means,
+the density in the high lights may be doubled if required. It must
+again be repeated, that in all cases the use of emulsion requires great
+care, seeing that if any get on the varnished surface, markings are
+sure to occur. It sometimes happens, especially with gelatine plates,
+that the corners of one side of a negative print too dark. This is very
+visible in sky and sea pictures. The careful application of blacklead
+on the tissue paper on the back of the plate may often save a beautiful
+negative that would be otherwise useless.
+
+In most landscape negatives there is a want of atmosphere (by which
+we mean the haze always present in the air) in the distance and middle
+distances, and we have found that by applying one piece of tissue-paper
+to the back of the negative to cover the middle distance and distances,
+and another to cover the distance alone, atmospheric effect is produced.
+The effect of atmosphere is usually shown by grey tones as compared
+with those of the foreground, and the greyer they are the more distant
+should the objects be away in nature. This effect is accomplished by the
+tissue-paper. It must, however, be remembered that the lights of distant
+objects are greyer than those of the foreground, hence the tissue paper
+must be used with judgment to prevent the distant lights from appearing
+too white. This sometimes is effected by giving _the lights in the
+foreground_ a covering of tissue paper. We very much doubt if there
+exists any landscape negative which would not be improved by the use of
+tissue paper, since photography often tends to do away with atmosphere.
+We have, in some cases, strengthened the high lights on the film side
+with the paint-brush and Prussian blue. This requires skill, and should
+be done very sparingly. It may be objected that when these artifices
+are resorted to, that the photograph must of necessity fail in regard
+to truthfulness. The answer to this objection is quite easy to give.
+If a photograph were true in itself, they should never be resorted to,
+but since it always falls short of the truth, it is quite legitimate to
+give it the effect that a perfect process would do, by which we mean one
+in which the intensity of the negative is exactly proportional to the
+intensity of the light producing it.
+
+It has been shown in the PHOTOGRAPHIC NEWS of 1877, that the
+gradations of a negative are never perfect, and the use of the tissue
+paper, &c., makes it more nearly in accord with nature.
+
+These remarks, of course, have reference only to what we might call "a
+good printing negative;" the advisability of doctoring poor negatives
+is scarcely open to argument. Improve as much as you like, but be very
+careful not to overdo it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+PRINTING THE LANDSCAPE PICTURE.
+
+
+A trial print from a negative should first of all be taken, to enable
+the operator to gauge as to how much is required to be done to it.
+A piece of sensitized paper of the exact size of the plate is taken
+and examined by transmitted light in the dark room. If there be any
+appearance of markings due to bubbles, or of star-like metallic spots,
+probably due to small particles of iron being in the albumen, it need
+not be rejected altogether. Should there be any of these defects, the
+sheet should be placed on one side to cut up into smaller sizes. We will
+suppose that we are going to print a 15 by 12 negative. A strong frame
+(of the description given at page 44) must be employed, and the thick
+plate glass carefully freed from all dust, grit, or stains. The back
+of the negative is then placed in contact with it, so as to occupy the
+centre of the frame. The piece of sensitive paper is placed over it, and
+the back placed loosely over it, and is then carried face downward into
+the place where the printing is to be done, and the frame is placed face
+downwards on the floor, and left for a few minutes. By this artifice the
+paper takes the same degree of humidity as the atmosphere, and there
+will be no danger of any cockling, and consequent (as it is termed) want
+of contact, between the paper and the negative. This is only necessary
+when there is any very great difference in the temperature of the drying
+room and the place where the prints are to be exposed, and in some
+establishments the difficulty is met by carrying the whole supply of
+paper in a closed box into the latter place, and allowing it to absorb
+any moisture that it can take up. In any case, the paper is next to be
+placed in absolute contact with the negative, and we strongly recommend
+the use of sheets of blotting-paper cut to the proper size (about four
+thicknesses will be sufficient), and backed by a thick pad of closely
+woven and very smooth felt. These latter are rather expensive, but are
+very durable if ordinary care be taken of them. The blotting-paper is
+useful in causing contact, and also because any accidental presence
+of silver nitrate solution on the back of the sensitive paper is
+immediately detected, and there is, consequently, no danger of carrying
+it to another print and spoiling it, which it might do were it absorbed
+by the felt pad.
+
+The back of the frame is then placed _in situ_, and the hinged
+cross-piece brought down and secured by the fasteners. If the springs be
+sufficiently strong, the film of the negative should now be in absolute
+contact with the sensitive paper. If there be any grit on the plate
+glass, or adhering to the back of the negative, it is highly probable
+that the glass plate will crack, and if the plate on which the negative
+is taken be very curved,[20] the same disaster may be expected. Suppose
+the day to be bright, and the negative fairly dense, the frame may
+be placed for the trial print facing away from the sun (if there be
+any) so that it receives merely skylight, and no direct rays. When the
+transparent parts of the negative seem to have taken a fairly black or
+brown colour, the print should be examined. In practice we have found
+(supposing the printing room be away from the dark room) that a cloth
+of thin yellow calico is a useful adjunct during the examination.
+The cloth is large enough to cover the frame and also the head of the
+operator. One half of the back is loosened and raised, the half pieces
+are pulled back, and the paper will probably be found adhering to the
+negative, and may require a little manoeuvring to separate it. A very
+thin slip (of the size of a toothpick) of soft wood, sharpened at one
+end, is a good implement to employ, as by inserting it the paper can be
+separated at one corner, and then be raised by the fingers. We have seen
+some printers blow against the paper, as if they were separating the
+leaves of a book from one another, but this method is to be deprecated,
+since particles of saliva are apt to be carried on to the paper with
+the breath, and to cause spots, which often appear unaccountable.
+Should the print appear slightly deeper than it is required to remain,
+it is probably ready to be withdrawn from the action of light, but the
+remaining half of the paper must next be examined to see whether such is
+the case. To do this the first half of the pressure-board of the frame
+which is loose must be pressed down once more into position, the frame
+reversed end for end, and the other half of the board opened.
+
+If the print is large (say 15 by 12) it is not advisable to look at much
+of it at once, or for a longer time than can be avoided. It constantly
+happens that on a warm day the paper contracts during the short time
+necessary for a proper examination of the print; the consequence is,
+that the paper does not fall on the same place on the negative when
+reflected, and the result is a double print on the paper.
+
+The printing being judged to be complete, the paper is withdrawn by
+taking off pressure-board and pads, and put away for the further
+operations of toning and fixing. In one establishment we are acquainted
+with, the prints when taken from the frame are placed in a box the lid
+of which is pierced by a hole covered with a dark cloth; whilst others
+keep them in a press of blotting-paper. The great point to attend to,
+however, is to keep them away from all actinic light; and we should
+say, further, from all light, since darkened silver chloride becomes
+oxidized in light which is usually considered to be non-actinic.
+No doubt every printer is aware that the prints produced from the
+same negative and on the same sample of albumenised paper similarly
+sensitized vary considerably in richness and depth on different days.
+For instance, when the light is bad, and when, consequently, the
+printing takes a long time, the colour of the darkened surface will
+be found to be much duller than on a day when the light is powerful.
+Silver albuminate is much less sensitive to feeble light, whilst in
+bright light the difference in sensitiveness is not nearly so marked,
+and this may account in a certain degree for the difference; but if any
+one takes the trouble to expose sensitised albumenized paper to bright
+light so as to darken, and then to cover up half, leaving the other half
+to be exposed to the light coming through ruby-glass, it will be found
+that there is a difference in colour between the two portions, and on
+toning the differences will be still more marked. In dull weather the
+red and yellow rays bear a greater proportion to the blue and violet
+rays (all of which enter into the composition of white light) than
+they do on a bright day. It is the blue and violet rays that reduce
+the silver chloride to the state of sub-chloride, and then oxidize the
+latter; yet it must be remembered that the red and yellow also oxidize
+the sub-chloride without being able primarily to produce it. Hence on
+a bright day, when the printing is quick, the red and yellow rays have
+but little time to do any work, whilst on a dull day they have plenty
+of opportunity of oxidizing the sub-chloride as fast as it is formed.
+The oxidized image is always more difficult to tone than one which is
+unoxidized, hence the advantage of printing in a good light if possible.
+The writers believe that one of the principal causes of the variation in
+tone of silver prints, which is only too often to be seen, is caused by
+this difference in length of exposure to the light.
+
+The operator must now be supposed to be cognizant of the operations of
+toning and fixing which are to be described in subsequent chapters,
+and that he has the finished trial print of the particular landscape
+negative before him. He sees whether the middle distance or far distance
+is obtrusive, and notes which portions require to be softened down by
+tissue paper, or to be brought nearer by strengthening the high-lights,
+and eventually forms a picture of it as it should be, centring his
+imagination in it as built up round the point of principal interest. He
+endeavours to see whether the sweeps of light and shade lead up to this
+principal object in the view, and whether, if light, it is in contrast
+with an immediate dark part of the picture, or _vice versa_.
+
+Knowing that this is one of the laws of art, he next should endeavour
+practically to give effect to his imaginative picture by the judicious
+manipulation of tissue paper, the crayon, and the paint, such as
+described in Chapter IX. The next point to attend to is as to whether
+the picture requires clouds or not, and if he have a stock of cloud
+negatives of the right size, he must endeavour to pick out one, a
+portion of which will compose well with the lines of the picture,[21]
+and at the same time be correct as regards light and shade. When such
+a negative is selected, it remains to print it in. A white sky is an
+abomination, and a plain tinted one without gradation is nearly as bad.
+If, therefore, the operator has the heart and means to do this double
+printing, he should never neglect to do it.
+
+But we would here remind him that when a sky-negative has been used
+with a particular view, it should always be devoted to that landscape.
+Nothing could be in worse taste, or further from nature, than to use
+the same sky with different landscapes. We once saw a frame of sixteen
+views, thirteen of which were backed with the same sky; this was bad
+enough, but the absurdity went further, and in the same exhibition were
+landscapes by another photographer with the same sky! The inference is
+that both these photographers bought their sky negatives, printed them,
+and exhibited them as their own--a proceeding to which a harsh name
+might be given. To use a cloud negative properly, the reader should
+consult the chapter on "Combination Printing."
+
+There is another artifice, however, that does away with the blank sky.
+It is practised by some of the leading photographers in England, and may
+be put in requisition instead of the more elaborate double printing. In
+order to do this, a not quite opaque sky--that is, one which "prints
+in" a little--is necessary. Very effective clouds may be produced by a
+paint-brush and lamp-black, Indian ink, or gamboge, by painting them
+artistically _at the back of the negative_. It matters not if the clouds
+so formed show sharp lines and dots, since, if the printing be done in
+diffused light, the thickness of the glass plate on which the negative
+is taken shades these off, and gives them the soft edges which are
+natural to clouds. The clouds may take any of the usual shapes as seen
+in nature, and the paint should not be applied too strongly, but should
+have a certain amount of transparency. In some negatives we have seen
+taken on dry plates, the sky was very transparent, and, when printed
+in the ordinary manner, showed a good deal more than perceptible tint.
+Yet, by a judicious masking, fleecy clouds floating in a light sky were
+produced, which deceived the greatest connoisseurs in such matters.
+
+We will now describe how such a negative should be prepared for printing.
+
+Black varnish should be carefully run round the sky-line on the face
+of the negative, for about a quarter of an inch. On the back of the
+negative the medium should cover the sky to within one-eighth of an inch
+of the sky-line, and by this means a sharp but _slightly softened edge_
+of the distant landscape was projected. The breadth of the black varnish
+border on the back was slightly greater than that on the film side of
+the negative, being about an inch. A piece of cardboard was also roughly
+cut out to the sky-line, and left sufficiently broad so as to more than
+cover the sky when laid flat on it. The negative with the clouds painted
+on it was now placed in the pressure-frame, with the sensitive paper in
+contact with it. Outside the frame, and corresponding with the sky-line,
+the edge of the cardboard was placed, a small bar to act as a weight
+was placed across it as shown in the figure, and the top end supported
+by a couple of wooden pegs. The printing took place in diffused light.
+When the picture was withdrawn from the frame, the sky, being shaded
+gradually by the card, was printed in lightly, whilst the remaining
+portion of the negative received the full light; the sky, as is right it
+should be, was darker near the zenith than toward the horizon, where it
+was, in fact, white; but since the clouds were printed in at the top,
+the baldness of the white sky was avoided.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 20.]
+
+Excellent clouds may also be produced by the stump and crayon on tissue
+paper, many of the effects of delicate clouds being capable of being
+produced in this manner. A certain amount of skill is required in
+producing them, but nothing beyond that which a little practice can give.
+
+We may add that, instead of using this cardboard shade, some printers
+prefer first to entirely mask the sky and print in the landscape, than
+to mask the landscape, and to use a movable screen over the negative,
+drawing it backwards and forwards during exposure, taking the precaution
+that the top of the sky receives the most exposure. The method of
+using the cloud negative, we have already said, will be found in the
+chapter on "Combination Printing." Above all things, the printer must
+bear in mind that if there be any _distance_ in the picture, the sky,
+when it meets the margin, must be only very delicately tinted. Let it
+be remembered that a picture is often spoilt by printing in clouds too
+heavily. The clouds for an effect should be most delicate, with no heavy
+massive shadows which overwhelm those of the landscape itself. We are
+only talking of the ordinary landscape when the effect of storms is not
+desired. It is not within the scope of this work to show how a landscape
+and a sky negative may be printed into one plate to form a transparency
+from which a new negative may be made; suffice it to say that, by using
+collodio-chloride, or by the use of a slow dry plate and exposing to
+candle light, the former may be produced in almost the same way that the
+print is produced, and a negative may then be produced in the camera or
+by a dry plate.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+PREPARING THE PORTRAIT NEGATIVE.
+
+
+So much has been written on the subject of what is called "retouching"
+the negative, that it would be a waste of space to enter very fully
+into details here. It is now generally admitted that working on the
+negative is not only legitimate, but that it is absolutely necessary,
+if a presentable portrait is to be printed. The only question is, where
+to stop. Professional retouchers, in too many cases, do too much, and
+by doing so they "overstep the modesty of nature," and turn the lovely
+delicacy, softness, and texture of living nature into the appearance
+of hard and cold marble statuary. Everything that is necessary to do
+to a portrait negative is very simple; it should be corrected, not
+remodelled. Freckles and accidental spots should be stopped out, high
+lights may be strengthened, and shadows softened. We may here briefly
+indicate the technical methods of performing these operations.
+
+Some operators pour a solution of gum over the negative after fixing,
+and when it is dry work upon the surface of the gum; but it is better
+and safer to retouch the negative after it has been varnished. The
+varnish must be allowed to become thoroughly hard before any working
+upon it is attempted. A negative varnished at night should be ready to
+be retouched the next morning. If very little has to be done to the
+negative, it may be done at once without preparation; but it is often
+advisable to prepare the surface of the varnish to take the lead pencil,
+with which the greater part of the work is done. This is done with
+"retouching medium."
+
+Several preparations under this or similar names are sold by stock
+dealers, all of them giving, as far as we have tried them, equally good
+results. If the photographer prefers to make his own medium, he may
+do so by diluting mastic, or any similar varnish, such as copal, with
+turpentine. Apply the medium to the parts that it is intended to work on
+with the finger, and allow to dry, which it does in a few minutes. Place
+the negative on a retouching desk, and commence to fill up with the
+point of the pencil all spots that are not required, such as freckles or
+uneven marks. Some operators begin at the top of a face and work evenly
+downwards. This is a bad plan, and usually results in a mechanical
+flattening of the face; it is better to fill in here and there as
+necessity appears to arise. The high lights may now be strengthened,
+taking care not to make them violent or spotty. The shadows of the face
+will be found to require softening, but the general shape of the shadows
+must not be altered, and in modifying lines--such as the lines in the
+forehead and under the eye--take care not to remove them altogether. An
+old man without wrinkles is an unnatural and ghastly object--the "marble
+brow" of the poet should be left to literature. The best pencils to
+use are Faber's Siberian lead, the hard ones in preference. HH and HHH
+are the sorts usually employed. The pencils must be kept very finely
+pointed. To ensure this, a piece of wood covered with glass cloth should
+be kept always at hand on which to grind the leads to a point.
+
+Sometimes there are portions of a negative that require more filling
+up than can be done with a pencil; in this case water-colour must be
+employed. Indigo or Prussian blue is, perhaps, best for the purpose,
+because these pigments allow a more appreciable or visible quantity
+to be laid on without becoming opaque than any of the warm colours.
+Sometimes parts--such as the arm of a child--will print too dark when in
+contrast with a white dress; in this case it will be necessary to paint
+over the part on the back of the negative, or to cut out a piece of
+_papier minerale_ to the shape, and paste it over the dark part, also on
+the glass side of the negative.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+VIGNETTING
+
+
+Of the many varieties of small portraiture, the vignette is, perhaps,
+the most popular, and, when well done, is certainly the most refined
+and delicate. Two things are to be especially avoided in vignetting.
+The form of the vignette should not follow the form of the figure
+closely, as it is too often made to do, and dark backgrounds should
+not be employed. The qualities to endeavour to attain are softness of
+gradation, and an arrangement of the forms of the vignette that shall
+throw out the head and figure, and the resulting print should somewhat
+resemble a sketch, finished if you like, but sketchy in effect. Although
+the background should be light, it ought not to be white, but of a
+tint that would just throw up the white of a lady's head-dress. If the
+background screen could be painted so that a little shade should appear
+over the shoulders of a sitter for a head, or rather darker behind the
+lower part of a three-quarter figure, so much the better would be the
+effect. It would be difficult to find a case where gradation could not
+be of advantage in a background; however slight, it conduces especially
+to relief.
+
+Having stated what should be aimed at in vignettes, we now come to the
+technical methods of producing them.
+
+In many cases vignetting is considered to be a merely mechanical
+operation, and very often looks like it. Perhaps the trade have more to
+answer for than the printer, since the qualities of the wares advertised
+for the use of the vignetter are often exaggerated to such a degree that
+they are supposed to be suitable to any pictures. Vignette glasses are
+not so common as they used to be, but they certainly are useful in some
+instances; we almost think that the methods of producing vignetting
+apparatus which will be described shortly, superior to them. In case the
+printer should wish, however, to use these glasses, here is a method by
+which he may produce them. Have a piece of orange glass, flashed on one
+side only, rather larger than the size of the picture to be vignetted.
+Take a rough print, and trace round, in the proper position on the
+glass with an ink line, the point to which the picture should extend.
+This should be marked on the unflashed surface of the glass--that is,
+the surface on which the glass is uncoloured. Place the plate so marked
+on a white surface, flashed side uppermost, and make a solution of
+hydrofluoric acid and water, 1 part of the former to 3 of the latter,
+in a gutta-percha dish or bottle.[22] Make a pad of flannel and cotton
+wool at the end of a stick, about the size of a large nut, and drop
+this into the solution. Dab this on the coloured surface of the glass
+in the central portions where the print is to be completely printed in,
+gradually working out to the inked line. Always work from the centre to
+the edges, and dilute the acid with a little water as it approaches the
+margins. By degrees the flashing will be dissolved away in the centre,
+and, if properly performed, the colour will gradually be eaten away,
+till the glass is colourless in the centre, and keeping its full shade
+of orange at the ink lines. The glass is then washed, and is ready for
+use.
+
+The most popular plan of vignetting is with cotton-wool. We believe that
+the greater part of the vignetting done in England is by this clumsy,
+costly, and difficult method. It requires more time and attention than
+any other way of producing the same results. Its advantages are, that it
+is more "elastic," and allows the operator more scope for attention than
+other methods. In the hands of a person who has very great skill, taste,
+and patience, it is undoubtedly most useful; but when used by anything
+lower than the highest skill, the results are almost always hard and
+inartistic. The operation is thus performed. A hole is cut in a piece
+of cardboard, which is placed over the negative. Under the edges of the
+cardboard is placed cotton-wool, which is lightly pulled out, so as to
+slightly shade the vignette, and produce the vignetting gradation.
+
+The next methods of vignetting are dependent on simple laws of optics.
+Suppose you cut a round hole in a card, say, half-inch in diameter, and
+so arrange it that all the light getting to a sensitive paper comes
+through this hole, and that the card is for our experiment placed
+half-an-inch from the paper. Now place the hole so as to face the sky,
+but so as the sun has no direct rays falling through the hole. It will
+be found that the greatest darkening will not occupy a space exactly
+opposite the hole, but be _away from the side on which the light is
+brightest_. The dark round patch will be shaded gradually off till
+a line is reached where, practically, the light has no effect--that
+is, if the surface of the card next the paper be blackened. It will
+be noted, however, that the shading is not equal on both sides, but
+that the gradation is most extended away from the side on which the
+light is brightest. A good example of what is meant will be to try the
+experiment of placing the paper and card flat on the ground in the
+angle between two walls, both of which are in shadow. It will be seen
+that the brightest gradation takes place in the direction exactly away
+from the angle of the walls. Next repeat the experiment, making the
+hole point to the sky, which is equally illuminated and pointing well
+away from the sun. It will be found that the gradations are equal, and
+the greatest darkening exactly opposite the hole. Raise the card next
+to the height of one inch, and the gradations will be found to be more
+extended and softer. The reason of this can be well understood by a
+glance at the figures. In both, suppose A B to represent the section of
+the card, and C D the hole in it, and the dotted circle the sky, and E
+F the paper. Take the points _a_, _b_, and _c_ on the paper, and let us
+in the three instances see what relative illumination they will receive.
+_a_ is opposite the hole, and receives the light from a circle of sky of
+which _d e_ is diameter, and _b_ from an ellipse of which _h k_ is one
+diameter, and _e_ from an ellipse of which _f g_ is one diameter. In the
+first case, where the card is 1/2 inch from the paper, _h k_ is about
+one-fifth of _d e_, and _g f_ about one-third of _d f_, and since the
+ellipses vary as their two diameters multiplied together, the point _b_
+would receive only one-twenty-fifth the light that _a_ received, and _c_
+about one-ninth.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 21.]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 22.]
+
+In fig. 21 the card is raised one inch from the paper, and here _f g_ is
+about three-quarters of _d e_, and _h k_ about two-fifths; therefore,
+in this case, the light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths, or about
+one-sixth of that acting on _a_, and about nine-sixteenths or one-half
+nearly on _c_. It is thus evident that the further away the card is,
+the more extended will be the gradations. Again, suppose, in the last
+figure, the bit of sky at _g f_ was twice as bright as at _d e_, then
+the amount of light acting on _c_ would be the same as that acting on
+_a_. It will thus be seen how important it is for proper gradation that
+the hole in the card should be exposed to an equally illuminated sky,
+or that some artifice should be employed to render the illumination
+equal. If we paste a bit of tissue paper over C D, this is accomplished,
+for then it becomes the source of illumination, and it is illuminated
+equally all over, since on every part it receives the light of the whole
+sky; but this is not the case if it is transparent to diffused light,
+and is never the case if it is exposed to direct sunlight, since a
+shadow of the hole is always cast on the paper beneath. If you choose to
+put another piece of tissue paper, (say) one inch above the hole, and
+extending over the whole length of the card, this difficulty is got rid
+of, and this last piece of tissue paper illuminates that pasted over the
+hole C D, and the gradations will then be nearly perfect.
+
+Now to apply the above to forming a vignetting block.
+
+Suppose we have a one-inch head to vignette and to show the shoulders
+and chest, to be of the size of a carte-de-visite, that the background
+is about a half-tone between black and white, and that but a trace of
+it shall appear above the head. To make a good vignette, the graduation
+from black to perfect white should lie within a limit of half an inch
+for a carte size portrait. The question then arises at what distance
+from the plate should a vignetting card be cut to help this object,
+and what shape should be made the hole in the card. We take it that
+one-fifth of the light necessary to produce a full black tone would
+hardly produce any effect on the sensitised paper; knowing this and the
+size of the aperture, we can calculate exactly what height the card
+could be raised. Take the breadth between the shoulders that is to be
+fully printed as 1-1/2 inches, then by constructing a figure similar
+to figures 18 or 19 we shall find that the necessary height is about
+one-third of an inch.[23]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 23.]
+
+By judiciously cutting out an aperture in the card and vignetting,
+defects in a background may often be entirely eliminated from the
+print. Proceed in this way: Take a print of the portrait, and cut out
+the figure in such a way as to get rid of the defective background,
+and then place this on a piece of thick card (we prefer a thick card,
+since it will not sag easily, and thus alter the gradation), and cut out
+an aperture corresponding to it. The outsides of most carte-de-visite
+frames are raised from the glass about one-third of an inch; place the
+card on the front so that the aperture corresponds to the figure on the
+negative, and tack it on to the frame. The dotted lines (fig. 23) show
+the card  fastened on to the frame, and the opening left. This latter
+may be covered with tissue paper, and the frame placed in diffused light
+from the sky. In some cases it may be necessary to use a larger printing
+frame than the ordinary carte frame, in which case the operator should
+be able to make a vignetting apparatus raised at a proper height from
+the glass. Suppose it is required to raise the opening half an inch
+above the glass, and that the card is 4-1/4 by 3-1/2.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 24.]
+
+Take the card and rule rectangles as shown (fig. 24), the inner one
+being 4-1/4 by 3-1/2 inches, the next one 1/2 an inch outside that,
+and the third 1/2 an inch outside that again. Cut out the outer
+rectangle entirely, so that we have a piece of card of the size ABCD.
+Take a needle point, and prick through the card at the points EFGH and
+join these points at the back of the card by lines. Now take a sharp
+penknife, and, having laid a flat edge along, cut the card half through
+its thickness along KL, LM, MN, and NK. Turn the card over, and cut
+along the lines corresponding to EH, HG, GE, and FE, also half way
+through the thickness of the card. Turn the card over once more, and
+cut out the shaded pieces at the corners. Now bend the card along the
+cuts, and a raised block will result of this shape. The corners are
+held together by pieces of gummed or albumenized paper, and the block
+is ready for an aperture to be cut in it according to the portrait to
+be printed. Wooden grooves may be glued along the top of the vignetting
+frame, into which cards containing other apertures can be slipped.[24]
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 25.]
+
+The most practical method of vignetting, a modification of the above,
+and the one we always prefer in our own practice, is as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 26.]
+
+Take a piece of soft wood, half an inch thick for a cabinet size--a
+thinner piece should be selected for a smaller picture--of a larger
+dimension than the negative; in the centre of this cut a hole of the
+shape of, but much smaller than, the desired vignette. One side of the
+hole should be very much bevelled away, as represented in this section
+(fig. 26). Place this block on the glass of the printing-frame, bevelled
+side under, the hole being exactly over the part of the negative from
+which the vignette is to be printed. The hole must now be covered with
+tissue paper or ground glass, and the frame placed flat on a table to
+print. The size of the hole in relation to the size of the vignette
+will be easily ascertained by a little experience without the labour of
+elaborate calculations. On dull days the tissue paper or ground glass
+may be omitted.
+
+This method is very simple and effective. A quantity of vignetting
+blocks of various sizes and shapes could be made by a carpenter, or by
+the printer, and should be always at hand.
+
+A vignetting block should never be less than a quarter of an inch away
+from the glass, otherwise the gradations will be too abrupt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ARTISTIC METHODS OF PRINTING THE PORTRAIT.
+
+
+Having described in the last chapter the various mechanical arrangements
+by which a simple vignette is produced, we will now proceed to give some
+account of how that and other forms of printing can be turned to the
+most artistic account in portraiture.
+
+The idea that printing is a mere mechanical operation was exploded long
+ago. It is now recognized that the final result owes a good deal of its
+artistic effect to the way in which the negative is dealt with after it
+is varnished, and especially to its treatment by the printer. There are
+many varieties of vignettes, and the method is useful in various ways.
+
+
+_Plain Vignettes._--The usual vignetted portrait is that which
+represents a good-sized head and shoulders in the space allotted to the
+picture. For a carte-de-visite, a head measuring about 1-1/4 inches
+from the top of the head to the chin is a good proportion. Larger sizes
+are often made, but they look coarse and vulgar, as if the photographer
+had tried how much quantity he could give for the money, regardless of
+quality; and even if the quality is good, the vulgar effect is still
+there. For a cabinet size a head of 1-3/4 or 1-7/8 inches is quite large
+enough. A very pretty style is that in which the gradation is carried
+out so gradually as only to end with the edge of the paper.
+
+
+_Three-quarter Length Vignettes._--A three-quarter length figure of a
+lady, either standing or sitting, makes a pretty picture; for gentlemen,
+a three-quarter vignette is not so good, although it is admissible. It
+is difficult to make the legs look anything but awkward when they are
+vignetted into empty space at the knee. For three-quarter vignettes a
+light, sketchy landscape background may be used with effect.
+
+There are many varieties of what may be called "fancy printing," in
+which the vignette takes a conspicuous part. The first style that we
+will consider is that of
+
+
+_Vignettes on a Tinted Ground._--Print a vignette in the usual way.
+Take it out of the frame, and place it on a board covered with velvet
+or flannel, to prevent the paper shifting. Cover the print with glass,
+and place over the printed part a piece of black paper roughly torn to
+the shape, and rather smaller than the vignette. Place the whole in
+the light until the white margin is slightly tinted, or "blushed," as
+it is sometimes called. The edges of the black mask should be slightly
+turned up or kept moving to prevent the junction of the tinting and the
+vignette being visible.
+
+The above method represents a vignetted head on smooth grey paper,
+and is useful to show up the high lights on the face; but there is a
+modification of this effect, in which the appearance of a sketch on
+rough drawing-paper is produced.
+
+
+_Vignettes on Rough Drawing-paper._--If, instead of placing a piece of
+plain glass over the masked print, a thin negative of some diaper or
+pattern had been used, the design could have been printed on the paper
+instead of the even tint. A very good negative for this purpose is
+made as follows:--Obtain a sheet of the roughest drawing-paper, take
+a camel-hair brush dipped in thin sepia, and brush it evenly over the
+paper; the colour will fall into the depressions of the paper, and make
+the roughness still more visible. This should now be placed where a side
+light falls upon it, and photographed. A very thin negative is all that
+is required. This negative should be used in place of the plain glass,
+and, if not printed too dark, the effect of the delicate vignette inside
+the rough tint is very pleasing. It is better when using negatives for
+this purpose to place them in pressure-frames, instead of merely placing
+them or the print on the velvet board, to print, or perfect contact may
+not be obtained.
+
+
+_Medallions._--Medallions of oval and other forms are now a good deal
+used for small portraits. These are simply produced by gumming a mask,
+made of black or yellow paper, with an oval or other-shaped aperture,
+on to the negative, the mask preserving the part it covers white. These
+masks can be bought from the dealers cheaper and better than they can be
+made. Eccentric shapes are, usually, in bad taste; the oval and dome are
+quite sufficient for all purposes. If, instead of leaving the outside
+of the print--that protected by the mask--white, it could be tinted,
+the lights in the picture would have greater value, and the effect
+be improved. To do this, the printed part should be covered with a
+black-paper disc corresponding with the mask used in printing, the print
+covered with glass, and exposed to the light until printed the required
+depth. In performing this operation it will be found convenient to gum
+the disc to the covering-glass. If texture could be added to this tinted
+margin, then another element of beauty would be added. This may be done
+in a similar manner to that described for vignettes, by using a negative
+made from rough drawing-paper; but, in this case, there is opportunity
+for a greater choice of objects from which to make the tinting negative,
+such as grained leather, marble of various kinds, paper-hangings--when
+suitable patterns can be obtained--and from the borders of old prints.
+In this, as in many other things connected with photography, there is
+a good deal of room for bad taste, which the photographer must try to
+avoid. He must remember that all these surrounding designs should assist
+the portrait, and not distract the attention from it.
+
+
+_Vignettes in Ornamental Borders._--The writer has lately produced some
+effects that have given much pleasure by using designs specially drawn
+for the purpose. The designs principally consist of an oval in the
+centre for the portrait, and a tablet underneath, on which the original
+of the portrait may sign his name. These forms are surrounded by flowers
+and other objects conventionally treated. The spaces for the portrait
+and name should be stopped out with black varnish, so as to print
+white. The easiest way to use these ornamental border negatives is as
+follows:--First print the border negative; you will then have a print
+with a white oval space in the centre. Place this print on the portrait
+negative, taking care that it occupies the proper position in the oval.
+This is easily ascertained by holding the print and negative up to the
+light. It should then be placed in the frame and printed, care being
+taken that the vignetted gradation does not spread beyond its limits
+over the border.
+
+There is a good deal of variety to be got out of the combination of the
+mask and vignette. Here is one of them.
+
+
+_Combination of Medallion and Vignette._--Vignette a head into the
+centre of the paper; when this is done, place over it a black paper oval
+disc, taking care that the head comes in the centre under the mask.
+Place a piece of glass over the whole, and print. When the disc is
+removed, the print will represent a vignette surrounded by a dark oval.
+Many variations may be made of this form of picture, and there is much
+scope for skill and taste.
+
+Any of the tinting negatives above described may be used, or they can
+be made from designs drawn on paper as we have already stated, or from
+natural objects. But if our reader has followed us clearly thus far, he
+is now in a position to form combinations for himself. This we recommend
+him to do, for there is an additional beauty in anything in art that
+indicates a distinctive style or shows thought and originality. There is
+too much tendency in portraitists to run in grooves, which the universal
+prevalence of the two styles, card and cabinet, help to promote. But
+we must caution the young photographer against the mistake of making
+changes for the sake of change. The "loud," and the bizarre, may attract
+foolish people, but it is only the beautiful that will secure the
+attention of the cultivated and refined.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+COMBINATION PRINTING.
+
+
+The scope of photography is wider than those who have only taken a
+simple portrait or landscape suppose. It is almost impossible to design
+a group that could not have been reproduced from life by the means our
+art places at our disposal. We do not mean to assert that such subjects
+as Michael Angelo's Last Judgment, or Raphael's Transfiguration, for
+instance, have ever been done in photography; but it is not so much
+the fault of the art, as of the artists, that very elaborate pictures
+have not been successfully attempted. It has not been the failing of
+the materials, unplastic as they are when compared with paint and
+pencils; it has been the absence of the requisite amount of skill in
+the photographer in the use of them, that will account for the dearth
+of great works in photography. The means by which these pictures could
+have been accomplished is Combination Printing, a method which enables
+the photographer to represent objects in different planes in proper
+focus, to keep the true atmospheric and linear relation of varying
+distances, and by which a picture can be divided into separate portions
+for execution, the parts to be afterwards printed together on one paper,
+thus enabling the operator to devote all his attention to a single
+figure or sub-group at a time, so that if any part be imperfect, from
+any cause, it can be substituted by another without the loss of the
+whole picture, as would be the case if taken at one operation. By
+thus devoting the attention to individual parts, independently of the
+others, much greater perfection can be obtained in details, such as the
+arrangement of draperies, the refinement of pose, and expression.
+
+The most simple form of combination printing, and the one most easy
+of accomplishment and most in use by photographers, is that by which
+a natural sky is added to a landscape. It is well-known to all
+photographers that it is almost impossible to obtain a good and suitable
+sky to a landscape under ordinary circumstances. Natural skies are
+occasionally seen in stereoscopic slides and very small views; but I am
+now writing of pictures, and not of toys. It rarely happens that a sky
+quite suitable to the landscape occurs in the right place at the time
+it is taken, and, if it did, the exposure necessary for the view would
+be sufficient to quite obliterate the sky; and if this difficulty were
+obviated by any of the sun-shades, cloud-stops, or other inefficient
+dodges occasionally proposed, the movement of the clouds during the
+few seconds necessary for the landscape would quite alter the forms
+and light and shade, making what should be the sky--often sharp and
+crisp in effect--a mere smudge, without character or form. All these
+difficulties are got over by combination printing, the only objections
+being that a little more care and trouble are required, and some thought
+and knowledge demanded. The latter should be considered an advantage,
+for photographs, of a kind, are already too easy to produce. Of course,
+when a landscape is taken with a blank sky, and that blank is filled up
+with clouds from another negative, the result will depend, to a very
+great degree, upon the art knowledge of the photographer in selecting
+a suitable sky, as well as upon his skill in overcoming the mechanical
+difficulties of the printing. It is not necessary here to enter into
+a description of the art aspect of the matter, as that has often been
+discussed; so we will confine ourselves to the mechanical details.
+
+The landscape negative must have a dense sky, or, if it be weak, or have
+any defects, it must be stopped out with black varnish. In this case, it
+is better to apply the varnish to the back of the glass; by this means
+a softer edge is produced in printing than if painted on the varnished
+surface. With some subjects, such as those that have a tolerably level
+horizon, it is sufficient to cover over part of the sky while printing,
+leaving that part near the horizon gradated from the horizon into white.
+
+It may here be remarked that in applying black varnish to the back of a
+negative, occasions will often be found where a softened or vignetted
+edge is required for joining, where a vignette glass or cotton wool
+cannot be applied; in such cases the edge of the varnish may be softened
+off by dabbing slightly, before it is set, with the finger, or, if a
+broader and more delicately gradated edge be required, a dabber made
+with wash-leather may be employed with great effect.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+When an impression is taken, the place where the sky ought to be will,
+of course, be plain white paper; a negative of clouds is then placed in
+the printing-frame, and the landscape is laid down on it, so arranged
+that the sky will print on to the white paper in its proper place;
+the frame is then exposed to the light, and the landscape part of the
+picture is covered up with a mask edged with cotton wool. The sky is
+vignetted into the landscape, and it will be found that the slight
+lapping over of the vignetted edge of the sky negative will not be
+noticed in the finished print. There is another way of vignetting the
+sky into the landscape, which is, perhaps, better and more convenient.
+Instead of the mask edged with cotton wool, which requires moving
+occasionally, a curved piece of zinc or cardboard is used. Here is
+a section of the arrangement. The straight line represents the sky
+negative, and the part where it joins the landscape is partly covered
+with the curved shade. Skies so treated must not, of course, be printed
+in sunlight.
+
+It is sometimes necessary to take a panoramic view. This is usually
+done, when the pantascopic camera is not employed, by mounting two
+prints together, so that the objects in the landscape shall coincide;
+but this is an awkward method of doing what could be much better
+accomplished by combination printing. The joining of the two prints is
+always disagreeably visible, and quite spoils the effect. To print the
+two halves of a landscape, taken on two plates, together, the following
+precautions must be observed: both negatives must be taken before the
+camera-stand is moved, the camera, which must be quite horizontal,
+pointing to one half of the scene for the first negative, and then
+turned to the remaining half of the view for the second negative. The
+two negatives should be obtained under exactly the same conditions of
+light, or they will not match; they should also be so taken that a
+margin of an inch and a-half or two inches is allowed to overlap each
+other; that is to say, about two inches of each negative must contain
+the same or centre portion of the scene. It is advisable, also, that
+they should be of the same density; but this is not of very great
+consequence, because any slight discrepancy in this respect can be
+allowed for in printing. In printing vignettes with cotton wool, or a
+straight-edged vignette glass, the edge of the left-hand negative on
+the side that is to join the other, taking care to cover up the part
+of the paper that will be required for the companion negative; when
+sufficiently printed, take the print out of the frame, and substitute
+the right-hand negative; lay down the print so that it exactly falls on
+the corresponding parts of the first part printed (this will be found
+less difficult, after a little practice, than it appears), and expose
+to the light, vignetting the edge of this negative, also, so that the
+vignetted part exactly falls on the softened edge of the impression
+already done. If great care be taken to print both plates exactly alike
+in depth, it will be impossible to discover the join in the finished
+print. If thought necessary, a sky may be added, as before described,
+or it may be gradated in the light, allowing the horizon to be lighter
+than the upper part of the sky.
+
+Perhaps the greatest use to which combination printing is now put is
+in the production of portraits with natural landscape backgrounds.
+Many beautiful pictures, chiefly cabinets and card, have been done
+in this way by several photographers. The easiest kind of figure for
+a first attempt would be a three-quarter length of a lady, because
+you would then get rid of the foreground, and have to confine your
+attention to the upper part of the figure and the distance. Pictures
+of this kind have a very pleasing effect. In the figure negative,
+everything should be stopped out, with the exception of the figure,
+with black varnish; this should be done on the back of the glass when
+practicable, which produces a softer join; but for delicate parts--such
+as down the face--where the joins must be very close, and do not admit
+of anything approaching to vignetting, the varnish must be applied on
+the front. A much better effect than painting out the background of
+the figure negative is obtained by taking the figure with a white or
+very light screen behind it; this plan allows sufficient light to pass
+through the background to give an agreeable atmospheric tint to the
+distant landscape; and stopping out should only be resorted to when the
+background is too dark, or when stains or blemishes occur, that would
+injure the effect. An impression must now be taken which is not to be
+toned or fixed. Cut out the figure, and lay it, face downwards, on the
+landscape negative in the position you wish it to occupy in the finished
+print. It may be fixed in its position by gumming the corners near the
+lower edge of the plate. It is now ready for printing. It is usually
+found most convenient to print the figure negative first. When this has
+been done, the print must be laid down on the landscape negative so
+that the figure exactly covers the place prepared for it by the cut-out
+mask. When printed, the picture should be carefully examined, to see if
+the joins may be improved or made less visible. It will be found that,
+in many places, the effect can be improved and the junctions made more
+perfect, especially when a light comes against a dark--such as a distant
+landscape against the dark part of a dress--by tearing away the edge of
+the mask covering the dark, and supplying its place by touches of black
+varnish at the back of the negative; this, in printing, will cause the
+line to be less defined, and the edges to soften into each other. If the
+background of the figure negative has been painted out, the sky will be
+represented by white paper; and as white paper skies are neither natural
+nor pleasing, it will be advisable to sun it down.
+
+If a full-length figure be desired, it will be necessary to photograph
+the ground with the figure, as it is almost impossible to make the
+shadow of a figure match the ground on which it stands in any other way.
+This may be done either out of doors or in the studio. The figure taken
+out of doors would, perhaps, to the critical eye, have the most natural
+effect, but this cannot always be done, neither can it be, in many
+respects, done so well. The light is more unmanageable out of doors,
+and the difficulty arising from the effect of wind on the dress is very
+serious. A slip of natural foreground is easily made up in the studio;
+the error to be avoided is the making too much of it. The simpler a
+foreground is in this case, the better will be the effect.
+
+The composition of a group should next engage the student's attention.
+In making a photograph of a large group, as many figures as possible
+should be obtained in each negative, and the position of the joins so
+contrived that they shall come in places where they shall be least
+noticed, if seen at all. It will be found convenient to make a sketch
+in pencil or charcoal of the composition before the photograph is
+commenced. The technical working out of a large group is the same as for
+a single figure; it is, therefore, not necessary to repeat the details;
+but we give a reduced copy, as a frontispiece to this volume, of a large
+combination picture, entitled "When the Day's Work is Done," by Mr. H.
+P. Robinson, a description of the progress and planning of which may be
+of use to the student.
+
+A small rough sketch was first made of the idea, irrespective of any
+considerations of the possibility of its being carried out. Other small
+sketches were then made, modifying the subject to suit the figures
+available as models, and the accessories accessible without very much
+going out of the way to find them. From these rough sketches a more
+elaborate sketch of the composition, pretty much as it stands, and of
+the same size, 32 by 22 inches, was made, the arrangement being divided
+so that the different portions may come on 23 by 18 plates, and that the
+junctions may come in unimportant plates, easy to join, but not easy
+to be detected afterwards. The separate negatives were then taken. The
+picture is divided as follows:--
+
+The first negatives taken were the two of which the background is
+composed. The division runs down the centre, where the light wall is
+relieved by the dark beyond it. These two negatives were not printed
+separately--it is advisable to have as few printings as possible--but
+were carefully cut down with a diamond, and mounted on a piece of glass
+rather larger than the whole picture, the edges being placed in contact,
+making, in fact, _one_ large negative of the interior of the cottage,
+into which it would be comparatively easy to put almost anything. The
+next negative was the old man. This included the table, chair, and
+matting on which his feet rest. This matting is roughly vignetted into
+the adjoining ground of the cottage negative. The great difficulty at
+first with this figure was the impossibility of joining the light head
+to the dark background; no amount of careful registration seemed equal
+to effect this difficult operation; but if it could not be done, it
+could be evaded. Several clever people have been able to point out the
+join round the head, down the forehead, and along the nose, but we have
+never been able to see it ourselves, because we know it is not there.
+This is how the difficulty was got over. The figure was taken with a
+background that would print as nearly as possible as dark as the dark of
+the cottage. The join is nowhere near the head, but runs up the square
+back of the old woman's chair, then up the wall, and across the picture,
+over the head in an irregular line, and descends on the old man's back,
+whence it was easy to carry it down the dark edge of his dress and the
+chairs till it comes to the group of baskets, pails, &c., that fill
+up the corner. On the other side, the join runs along the edge of the
+table, and finds its way out where the floor coverings come together.
+The old lady was then photographed, and is simply joined round the edge;
+so also was the group in the corner, and the glimpse of the village seen
+through the window.
+
+At first sight, it will appear difficult to place the partly-printed
+pictures in the proper place on the corresponding negative. There are
+many ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen to suit the
+subject. Sometimes a needle may be run through some part of the print,
+the point being allowed to rest on the corresponding part of the second
+negative. The print will then fall in its place at that point. Some
+other point has then to be found at a distance from the first; this may
+be done by turning up the paper to any known mark on the negative, and
+allowing the print to fall upon it; if the two separate points fall
+on the right places, all the others must be correct. Another way of
+joining the prints from the separate negatives is by placing a candle
+or lamp under the glass of the printing-frame--practically, to use a
+glass table--and throwing a light through the negative and paper; the
+join can then be seen through. But the best method is to make register
+marks on the negatives. This is done in the following manner. We will
+suppose that we wish to print a figure with a landscape background from
+two negatives, the foreground having been taken with the figure. At the
+two bottom corners of the figure negative make two marks with black
+varnish, thus |_ _|; these, of course, will print white in the picture.
+A proof is now taken, and the outline of the figure cut out accurately.
+Where the foreground and background join, the paper may be torn across,
+and the edges afterwards vignetted with black varnish on the back of
+the negatives. This mark is now fitted in its place on the landscape
+negative. Another print is now taken of the figure negative, and the
+white corner marks cut away very accurately with a pair of scissors.
+The print is now carefully applied to the landscape negative, so that
+the mark entirely covers those parts of the print already finished.
+The landscape is then printed in. Before, however, it is removed from
+the printing-frame, if, on partial examination, the joins appear to be
+perfect, two lead pencil or black varnish marks are made on the mark
+round the cut-out corners at the bottom of the print. After the first
+successful proof there is no need for any measurement or fitting to get
+the two parts of the picture to join perfectly; all that is necessary
+is merely to cut out the little white marks, and fit the corners to the
+corresponding marks on the mask; and there is no need to look if the
+joins coincide at other places, because, if two points are right, it
+follows that all must be so. This method can be applied in a variety of
+ways to suit different circumstances.
+
+It is always well to have as few paintings as possible, and it
+frequently happens that two or more negatives can be printed together.
+For instance, the picture we have been discussing--"When the Day's
+Work is Done"--is produced from six negatives, but it only took three
+printings. The two negatives of which the cottage is composed was, as
+already explained, set up on a large sheet of glass, and printed at
+once; the old man was also set upon another glass of the same size, with
+the negative of the glimpse through the window; and the old woman was
+printed in like manner, with the corner group of baskets, &c. So that
+here were practically three negatives only. These were registered with
+corner marks so accurately that not a single copy has been lost through
+bad joins.
+
+There are one or two things to consider briefly before concluding this
+subject.
+
+It is true that combination printing--allowing, as it does, much
+greater liberty to the photographer, and much greater facilities for
+representing the truth of nature--also admits, from these very facts,
+of a wide latitude for abuse; but the photographer must accept the
+conditions at his own peril. If he finds that he is not sufficiently
+advanced in knowledge of art, and has not sufficient reverence for
+nature, to allow him to make use of these liberties, let him put on his
+fetters again, and confine himself to one plate. It is certain (and this
+we put in italics, to impress it more strongly on the memory) that _a
+photograph produced by combination printing must be deeply studied in
+every particular, so that no departure from the truth of nature shall
+be discovered by the closest scrutiny_. No two things must occur in
+one picture that cannot happen in nature at the same time. If a sky
+is added to a landscape, the light must fall on the clouds and on the
+earth from the same source and in the same direction. This is a matter
+that should not be done by judgment alone, but by judgment guided by
+observation of nature. Effects are often seen, especially in cloud-land,
+very puzzling to the calm reasoner when he sees them in a picture;
+but these are the effects that are often best worth preserving, and
+which should never be neglected, because it may possibly happen that
+somebody will not understand it, and, therefore, say it is false, and,
+arguing still further on the wrong track, will say that combination
+printing always produces falsehoods, and must be condemned. A short
+anecdote may, perhaps, be allowed here. Some time ago a photograph of
+a landscape and sky was sent to a gentleman whose general judgment in
+art was admitted to be excellent; but he knew that combination printing
+was sometimes employed. In acknowledging the receipt he said, "Thank
+you for the photograph; it is a most extraordinary effect; sensational,
+certainly, but very beautiful; but it shows, by what it is, what
+photography cannot do; your sky does not match your landscape; it must
+have been taken at a different time of day, at another period of the
+year. A photograph is nothing if not true." Now it so happened that
+the landscape and sky were taken at the same time, the only difference
+being that the sky had a shorter exposure than the landscape, which was
+absolutely necessary to get the clouds at all, and does not affect the
+result. Another instance arose in connection with a picture representing
+a group of figures with a landscape background. Four of the figures
+were taken on one plate, at one operation; yet a would-be critic wrote
+at some length to prove that these figures did not agree one with
+another; that the light fell on them from different quarters; that the
+perspective of each had different points of sight; and that each figure
+was taken from a different point of view! These two cases are mentioned
+to show that it is sometimes a knowledge of the means employed, rather
+than a knowledge of nature--a foregone conclusion that the thing must
+be wrong, rather than a conviction, from observation, that it is not
+right--that influences the judgment of those who are not strong enough
+to say, "This thing is right," or "This thing is wrong, no matter by
+what means it may have been produced."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+TONING THE PRINT.
+
+
+If a print on albumenized paper be fixed without any intermediate
+process, the result is that the image is of a red, disagreeable tone,
+and unsightly. Moreover, it will be found that, if such a print be
+exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly loses its freshness, and fades. In
+order to avoid this unsightliness, resort is had to toning, the toning,
+in reality, being the substitution of some less attackable metal for
+the metallic silver which forms a portion of the print. The usual metal
+used for substitution is gold applied in the state of the ter-chloride.
+It is not very easy to tell precisely how the substitution is effected;
+the question is, at present, sub judice, and, therefore, we propose
+to omit any theory that may have been broached. It is sufficient to
+say that it is believed the first step towards the reduction of the
+gold is the production of a hydrated oxide, and never metallic gold.
+Be that as it may, if a finely-divided silver be placed in a solution
+of chloride of gold, the silver becomes converted into the chloride,
+and the gold is quickly reduced to the metallic state; and since gold
+combines with more chloride than does silver, it is manifest that when
+the substitution takes place,[25] the metallic gold deposited must
+be very much less than the silver. The colouring power of gold is,
+however, very great, when in the fine state of division in which we have
+it, being an intense purple to blue colour, and a very little of this
+mixed visually with the ruddy or brown colour of the albuminate which
+has been discoloured by light gives, after fixing, a pleasing tone. A
+picture, when toned thus, is composed of silver subchloride, metallic
+gold, and an organic compound of silver. If a print be kept in the
+toning bath too long, we are all aware that the image becomes blue and
+feeble, and the same disaster happens when a toning bath is too strong,
+_i.e._, is too rich in gold solution. The reason of this is, that too
+much gold is substituted for the silver in the sub-chloride, and there
+is in consequence too great a colour of the finely-precipitated gold
+seen. To make a toning bath, the first thing is to look after the gold.
+There is a good deal of chloride of gold sold, which is, in reality, not
+chloride of gold, but a double chloride of gold and of some such other
+base as potassium, and if it be paid for as pure chloride of gold, it
+is manifest that the price will be excessive. It is best to purchase
+pure chloride of gold, though it may be slightly acid, since subsequent
+operations correct the acidity. In our own practice we get fifteen-grain
+tubes, and break them open, and add to each grain one drachm of water,
+and in this state it is convenient to measure out. Thus, for every grain
+of gold to be used, it is only necessary to measure out one drachm
+into a measure. In delicate chemical operations, this would rightly
+be considered a rough method; but for a practical photographer it is
+sufficiently precise.
+
+Now if chloride of gold alone were used, it would be found that the
+prints, after immersion in a dilute solution, were poor and "measley,"
+and practice has told us that we must add something to the solution to
+enable it to act gradually and evenly. First of all, the gold solution
+must be perfectly neutral, and we know no better plan than adding to it
+a little powdered chalk, which at once neutralizes any free acid. It
+is not a matter of indifference what further retarder is added, for
+the reason that the more you retard the action, the more ruby-coloured
+becomes the gold, and less blue. A well-known experiment is to dissolve
+a little phosphorus in ether, and add it to a gallon of water, and then
+to drop in and stir about half a grain of chloride of gold. Phosphorus
+reduces the gold into the metallic state, but when so dilute the
+reduction takes place very slowly. The gold will, however, precipitate
+gradually, but it will be in such a fine state of division that it is
+a bright ruby colour. A very common addition to make to a toning bath
+is acetate of soda, and if the gold be in defect, the same appearance
+will take place in the solution. If chloride of lime, however, be added
+instead, and a commencement of precipitation of gold be brought about,
+the gold will be of a blue colour, having a slight tendency to purple.
+In this case, the grains of gold deposited are larger than when it is in
+the ruby state. The tone of the print then depends in a large measure
+on the degree of rapidity with which the gold is deposited. The quicker
+the deposit, the larger and bluer the gold, whilst an extremely slow
+deposition will give the red form. It often happens that no matter how
+long a print is immersed in a toning bath, it never takes a blue tone.
+The reason will be obvious from the above remarks.
+
+We now give some toning baths which are much used.
+
+    No. 1.--Gold tri-chloride     1 grain
+            Sodium carbonate     10 grains
+            Water                10 ounces
+
+This bath must be used immediately after mixing, since the gold is
+precipitated by the carbonate. The tones given by this bath are purple
+and black. The prints should be toned to dark brown for the purple tone,
+and a slightly blue tone for the black tone.
+
+    No. 2.--Gold tri-chloride     2 grains
+            Saturated solution
+              of chloride of
+              lime                2 drops
+            Chalk                 a pinch
+            Water                16 ounces
+
+The saturated solution of chloride of lime is made by taking the common
+disinfecting powder, and shaking a teaspoonful up in a pint bottle.
+When the solids have settled, the clear liquid can be decanted off, and
+corked up till required. This is the solution used above. It is as well
+to keep this solution in the dark room.
+
+The water with this bath should be hot (boiling better still), and the
+bath may be used when it is thoroughly cool. It is better, however, to
+keep it a day before using, since, when fresh, the action is apt to
+be too violent, and the prints are readily over-toned. The tone with
+this bath is a deep sepia to black. To get the first tone a very short
+immersion is necessary; the prints should be almost red. For a black
+tone the prints should be left in the solution till they are induced to
+be of a purple hue.
+
+    No. 3 is made as follows:--
+
+            Sodium acetate        1 drachm
+            Gold trichloride      5 minim
+            Distilled water      12 ounces
+
+This bath is a most excellent one in many respects, and should not be
+used under a week to get the best result. As this is a long time to keep
+a bath, it is as well to have two always on stock. It keeps indefinitely
+if proper care be taken of it. This produces a purple or brown tone,
+according to the length of time the print is immersed in it.
+
+Now, as to toning the print. After the day's printing is done, the
+prints should be placed in a pan of good fresh water, in order to
+dissolve out all or a certain amount of silver nitrate that is
+invariably left in them. A puncheon, such as is used in dairies, is
+very convenient. It should be filled with water, and the prints placed
+in one by one, taking care that no one sticks to its neighbour, as this
+would be a fruitful source of unequal toning. Most water contains a
+little carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, &c.; the water will
+therefore become milky. When the prints have been in the first water
+for ten minutes, they should be removed to another vessel of water, one
+by one. The first wash water should be placed in a wooden tub, with
+a tap let into it about six inches above the base, together with a
+little common salt. The salt forms chloride of silver, which gradually
+precipitates, and the clear water is then drawn off on the next day, and
+the sediment is left undisturbed.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 27.]
+
+It now remains to see which toning bath is to be used. If No. 1 or 3,
+the whole of the free silver should as far as possible be washed away,
+which may entail three or four changes of water; the last two washings
+it will hardly repay to place in the tub; the second washing should
+certainly be added to it. If No. 2 toning bath be used, a little free
+silver should remain in the print; in fact, the washing should be
+confined to two changes of water.
+
+When toning operations are commenced, the toning solution is poured
+off from any sediment that may be in the bottle containing it into a
+dish a couple of inches wider each way than the largest print which
+has to be toned. If big prints have to be toned, it is inadvisable to
+place more than a couple in the dish at the same time, since there is a
+certain awkwardness in judging of the amount of tone given to a print
+which is (say) between two or three. The prints should be placed face up
+in the solution, and great care should be taken that liquid separates
+each print from the next one to it, otherwise there will be patches of
+unequal toning. The dish containing the prints in the solution should be
+gently rocked to secure a proper mixture of the solution which may have
+been robbed of its gold in those strata next surface of the prints. The
+rocking is also advisable to cause any adhesion between two deep-toning
+prints impossible. If the prints be of small size, a dozen or more may
+be toned at one operation. Each print should be frequently brought to
+the surface of the liquid, and examined in order to see how the toning
+action is progressing. When one print is judged sufficiently toned, it
+is removed to a dish containing pure water, and another untoned print
+placed in the dish in its stead. This operation is continued till all
+the prints are toned. We have heard that it has been suggested to place
+the prints in water containing a little acetic acid or common salt, in
+order to stop the toning action continuing from the solution which may
+be held in the paper. The former is most undesirable, acetic acid, as we
+shall see presently, decomposing the fixing bath.
+
+As to the addition of common salt, we can scarcely give a favourable
+opinion regarding it. The addition of a chloride does, in truth, alter
+the colour of the deposited gold (see _ante_), and it may be this that
+gives rise to the opinion that it corrects toning action. Of one thing
+we have little doubt, however, and that is, that the addition of any
+large amount of common salt will tend to turn the albumenate of silver
+into chloride, which in fixing will materially weaken the print. When
+giving the formula of the toning baths, we have indicated the depth to
+which toning should take place. One great point to attend to is, that
+a print should not be a slatey colour when fixed, and that can only
+be avoided by stopping the toning action when the print arrives at a
+blue-purple stage.
+
+The toning bath, when used, should be replaced in the bottle, and we
+recommend that it be kept in a dark place, otherwise any chloride of
+silver which finds its way into the solution will darken and be a
+nucleus for the precipitation of gold from the solution. The energy of
+the toning bath would, in consequence, be wholly gone. It will be found
+that in very cold solutions formed in winter the toning action is much
+slower than in summer, and we need scarcely point out that this due to
+the fact that cold invariably retards chemical action. This retardation
+is not advantageous, and it will be found positively hurtful as to the
+colour of the precipitated gold. We therefore recommend that the toning
+solution and the dish in which it is to be poured should be warmed
+before the fire, the former to a temperature of about 70°F., and the
+latter a little higher. By this means the toning action will take place
+as rapidly as in warm weather, and the same tones be produced. It must
+be remembered we are writing for all; not for those alone who have
+an elaborate arrangement for keeping their operating rooms at a good
+temperature in all weathers, but also for those who cannot afford the
+luxury. It is for this reason that we have given the above directions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FIXING THE PRINT.
+
+
+Sir J. Herschel was the first to point out that hyposulphite of soda
+would dissolve chloride of silver, and subsequently it has been found
+that it dissolves almost every organic salt of silver. In our early
+chapters we gave some examples of this. When we add hyposulphite to a
+salt of silver, such as the chloride, we get one of two reactions, the
+formation of a nearly insoluble double hyposulphite of soda and silver,
+or a readily soluble one.
+
+     Silver           Sodium
+    Chloride  and    Hyposulphite
+      AgCl     +   Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3}
+
+    form
+
+     Insoluble Double          Sodium
+      Hyposulphite of   and  Chloride.
+    Silver and Sodium
+      AgNaS_{2}O_{3}     +     NaCl
+
+And
+
+     Silver             Sodium
+    Chloride  and    Hyposulphite
+
+     2AgCl     +   3Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3}
+
+    form
+
+          Soluble Double              Sodium
+          Hyposulphite of      and  Chloride.
+        Silver and Sodium
+    Ag_{2}Na_{4}3(S_{2}O_{3})   +     2NaCl
+
+The first insoluble double hyposulphite is formed when there is only
+a small quantity of sodium hyposulphite present; the soluble kind
+when the sodium hyposulphite is in excess. Since it is the soluble
+kind which we wish to form, it is manifest that the presence of a
+sufficiency of hyposulphite in the fixing bath is necessary. If not,
+we have left the insoluble form on the paper. If either of these two
+kinds of hyposulphite be made in a test-tube, we can readily simulate
+the effect of atmospheric exposure. If slightly acid water be added
+to the hyposulphite, it will be seen, when chloride of silver has
+been dissolved by the hyposulphite, that the precipitate or solution
+commences to blacken, sulphide of silver being formed. On the other
+hand, if we take albumenate of silver, and dissolve it in hyposulphite
+of soda, we shall find that the addition of acid gradually causes a
+yellow-looking compound to separate out, and it is probably this body
+formed in the paper which causes the gradual yellowing of the whites of
+silver prints.
+
+What is taught us, then, by this observation is, that by thorough
+washing we must try and eliminate all traces of hyposulphite of silver,
+and, indeed, of the hyposulphite of soda, since the latter decomposes as
+rapidly in the presence of acid as does the silver compound.
+
+The formula for the fixing bath which we recommend is:--
+
+    Sodium hyposulphite           4 ounces
+    Water                         1 pint
+    Ammonia                       1/2 drachm
+
+The addition of the ammonia prevents any possibility of an acid reaction
+arising, and otherwise softens the film of albumen and the size of
+the paper, causing more rapid fixation and more thorough washing.
+Another thing the ammonia does is, that it prevents, in a great
+measure, blistering of the film of albumen, which is common in some
+highly-albumenized paper.
+
+Experience has shown that one ounce of solid hyposulphite will fix with
+safety three sheets of paper, so that an idea can be formed of how much
+must be used for a day's printing. The hyposulphite bath which has been
+used one day should never be used the next, since it invariably contains
+the germs of decomposition in it from some cause or another. Indeed, the
+appearance of the solution indicates this is so, since it is usually of
+a yellow or brownish appearance.
+
+The time required for fixing a print varies with the thickness of
+the paper used. As a rule, prints on the medium-sized paper require
+ten minutes' soaking in the bath, whilst thick-size requires fifteen
+minutes. Whilst toning, the dish containing the hyposulphite should
+be kept in a gentle rocking motion, as in toning, and for the same
+reasons. Prints may be examined from time to time, to see how the
+fixing progresses. When a print is not quite fixed, small spots of dark
+appearance will be seen when it is examined by transmitted light. The
+operation of fixing should be continued after these disappear for at
+least three or four minutes, in order that the hyposulphite of soda in
+the dish may get impregnated with the double silver and sodium salt
+which is in the print, and thus render washing more effectual. It should
+be noted that the dish for fixing should be at least as long and wide
+as the dish used for toning; that it should be deeper when, as a rule,
+all the prints are fixed at one time. Care should be taken that dishes
+which are used for sensitizing, toning, or fixing, _should not be used
+for anything else_. The glaze of porcelain dishes is often soft, and
+frequently absorbs a certain amount of the solutions used. Thus, if
+a porcelain dish be used for a solution of any aniline dye, it will
+often be found that it is permanently stained. Colour in this last is
+merely indication of what happens with any other solution. It will thus
+be seen that it is a mistake to use a dish for fixing when the glaze
+is cracked, since old hyposulphite must find its way into the body of
+the fresh solution that may be used, and thus institute a spontaneous
+decomposition, and a consequent want of permanence in the print. For
+our own part, we believe that a gutta-percha dish is a safer dish to
+use than any other, since it is impervious to any solution, and can be
+well scoured after fixing, and before being again brought into use. We
+believe that much of the fading of prints may be traced to the use of
+unsuitable dishes for fixing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+WASHING THE PRINT.
+
+
+There are very many apparatus designed for washing prints; but
+we believe that, where few prints have to be treated, careful
+hand-washing is as superior to machine-washing, as hand-made paper
+is to machine-made. In our own practice we take the prints from the
+fixing-dish, and immerse them in a large puncheon of water, and allow
+them to soak for five minutes, after which we carefully pour off all
+the water, and replenish with fresh, in which we leave them for a
+quarter-of-an-hour. After that we take the prints and place them on a
+glass slab, and, with a squeegee, squeeze as much water as possible out
+of each separately; this we repeat twice. After two more washings of a
+quarter-of-an-hour, we then wash for half-an-hour, and, with a sponge,
+dab them as dry as possible, and again immerse for half-an-hour. After
+repeating this operation twice, we allow a stream of running water
+to pour into the puncheon for a couple of hours, carrying the stream
+through an india-rubber pipe, at the end of which is a glass tube, to
+the bottom of the puncheon, and so that the pour of water goes against
+the side. By this means there is a constant stir in the water, and the
+water flows over the edge of the puncheon. It is convenient to cut a
+notch in the top rim of the puncheon, so that the water may find an exit
+before reaching the level of the rim. The prints are then taken out,
+sponged once more, and dried. By this arrangement we have got prints
+which are perfectly unfaded, though they have been in existence eighteen
+years, and have been to the tropics, and in the dampest climates. This
+method of washing, though tedious, should be applied to all prints; but,
+in the present day, it can hardly be hoped that it can be immediately
+adopted, on account of the attention it requires; we therefore describe
+an apparatus which can be used. It was designed by Mr. England,
+and consists of a working trough, as shown in the figure, which is
+automatically worked by an overshot wheel. We need not enter into the
+details of the invention, as they are self-evident.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 28.]
+
+This washing arrangement causes the prints to be alternately soaking
+in water, and draining. Whilst in the water they are perpetually being
+shaken apart by the movement of the tray, and thus every part of the
+print gets washed, and it is almost impossible for two prints to stick
+together. In all washing apparatus there is a danger of air-bells
+forming on the surface of the prints while in the water, but in this
+form there is the advantage that whilst draining the air-bells must
+break, and so water on rising to the level of the prints can obliterate
+any of the evil effects which would be caused by their being perpetually
+remaining on one spot. It is useless to attempt to describe other forms
+of the apparatus, since there are so many; we have chosen one which
+appears to us to be a satisfactory form.
+
+The following tests for the elimination of hyposulphite are taken from
+another work of this series.[26]
+
+"The following is a most delicate test.
+
+"Make the following test solution:--
+
+    Potassium permanganate        2 grains
+    Potassium carbonate          20   "
+    Water                         1 quart
+
+"The addition of a few drops of this rose-coloured solution to a pint of
+water will yield a slightly pink tinge. If there be any trace of sodium
+hyposulphite present, this colour will give place to one of a greenish
+hue.
+
+"If the permanganate be not at hand, the following well-known starch
+iodide test may be adopted:--
+
+"Take about two drachms of water and a small piece of starch about the
+size of a small pea; powder and boil the starch in the water till the
+solution is quite clear; add one drop of a saturated solution of iodine
+in alcohol to this clear liquid. It will now become dark blue. Of this
+solution drop two drops into two clean test tubes, and fill up one with
+distilled water and the other with the water to be tested; a faint blue
+colour should be perceptible in the first test tube. In the second
+test tube, should hyposulphite be present, this blue colour will have
+disappeared, the iodide of starch becoming colourless in its presence.
+The best mode of comparing the two waters is by placing a piece of white
+paper behind the test tubes.
+
+"It frequently occurs that though sodium hyposulphite cannot be detected
+in the washing water, it may be present in the paper itself. The paper
+on which most prints are taken being sized with starch, if a _very_
+weak solution of iodine be applied with a brush across the _back_ of a
+print, a blue mark will indicate the _absence_ of the hyposulphite. Care
+must be taken that the iodine solution is _very_ weak, otherwise a part
+of the iodine will first destroy the trace of the salt, and then the
+remainder will bring out the blue re-action."
+
+We finish this chapter by quoting our maxims to be observed in printing.
+
+    "_Maxims for Printing._
+
+    "1. The prints should have the highest lights _nearly_ white,
+    and the shadows verging on a bronzed colour before toning.
+
+    "2. Place the prints, before toning, in the water, face
+    downwards, and do not wash away too much of the free nitrate of
+    silver.
+
+    "3. The toning solution must be neutral or slightly alkaline,
+    and not colder than 60°.
+
+    "4. Tone the prints to purple or sepia, according as warm or
+    brown prints are required.
+
+    "5. Move the prints, in both the toning and fixing solutions,
+    repeatedly, taking care that no air-bubbles form on the surface.
+
+    "6. Take care that the fixing bath is not acid.
+
+    "7. Use fresh sodium hyposulphite solution for each batch of
+    prints to be fixed.
+
+    "8. Wash thoroughly after and before fixing.
+
+    "9. Make a sensitizing bath of a strength likely to give the
+    best results with the negatives to be printed.
+
+    "10. Print in the shade, or direct sunshine, according to the
+    density of the negative."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+PRINTING ON PLAIN PAPER.
+
+
+Prints on plain paper are sometimes of use; for instance, they form an
+excellent basis on which to colour. They are of course duller than an
+albumenized print, since the image is formed more in the body of the
+paper than on the surface. The following formula may be used:--
+
+    Ammonium chloride            60 to  80 grains
+    Sodium citrate              100   "
+    Sodium chloride              20 to  30   "
+    Gelatine                     10   "
+    Distilled water              10 ounces
+
+Or,
+
+    Ammonium chloride           100 grains
+    Gelatine                     10   "
+    Water                        10 ounces
+
+The gelatine is first swelled in cold water, and then dissolved in hot
+water, and the remaining components of the formulæ are added. It is
+then filtered, and the paper is floated for three minutes, following
+the directions given on page 10. If it be required to obtain a print on
+plain paper in a hurry, a wash of citric acid and water (one grain to
+the ounce) may be brushed over the back of ordinary albumenized paper,
+and, when dried, that side of the paper may be sensitized and printed in
+the ordinary manner. For cold tones the wash of the citric acid may be
+omitted.
+
+The toning and fixing are the same as described in Chapters XII. and
+XIII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+PRINTING ON RESINIZED PAPER.
+
+
+The following is taken from another volume of this series.[27]
+
+To Mr. Henry Cooper we are indebted for a valuable printing process,
+founded on substituting resins for albumen or other sizing matter. The
+prints obtained by this process are very beautiful, and lack that gloss
+of albumen which is often called vulgar and inartistic.
+
+The following are the two formulæ which Mr. Cooper has communicated to
+the writer:--
+
+    Frankincense                 10 grains
+    Mastic                        8   "
+    Calcium chloride              5 to 10   "
+    Alcohol                       1 ounce
+
+When the resins are dissolved in the alcohol, the paper is immersed in
+the solution, then dried and rolled. The sensitizing bath recommended is
+as follows (though the strong bath given at page 126 will answer):--
+
+    Silver nitrate               60 grains
+    Water                         1 ounce
+
+To the water is added as much gelatine as it will bear without
+gelatinizing at 60° Fah.
+
+The second formula gives very beautiful prints, soft and delicate in
+gradation.
+
+The paper is first coated with an emulsion of white lac in gelatine,
+which is prepared as follows:--
+
+3 ounces of _fresh_ white lac are dissolved in 1 pint of strong alcohol,
+and after filtering or decanting, as much water is added as it will bear
+without precipitating the lac; 1 ounce of good gelatine is soaked and
+dissolved in the pint of boiling water, and the lac solution is added
+with frequent stirring. If, at any stage of this operation, the gelatine
+is precipitated, a little more hot water must be added. The pint of lac
+solution ought, however, to be emulsified in the gelatine solution.
+
+To use the emulsion, it is warmed, and the paper immersed in or floated
+on it for three minutes. When dry, the coated surface is floated in the
+following for a couple of minutes:--
+
+    Ammonium chloride            10 grains
+    [28]Magnesium lactate        10   "
+
+When dry, it is sensitized on a moderately strong bath (that given on
+the last page will answer).
+
+If more vigour in the resulting prints be required, it is floated on:--
+
+    Citric acid                   5 grains
+    White sugar                   5   "
+
+This last bath improves by use, probably by the accumulation of silver
+nitrate from the sensitized paper.
+
+Any of the toning baths given in Chapter XII. will answer, though Mr.
+Cooper recommends:--
+
+    Solution of gold tri-chloride
+      (1 gr. to 1 dr. of water)   2 dr.
+    Pure precipitated chalk       a pinch
+    Hot water                    10 ounces
+
+2 dr. of sodium acetate are to be placed in the stock-bottle, and the
+above solution filtered on to it. This is made up to 20 ounces, and is
+fit for use in a few hours; but it improves by keeping.
+
+In commencing to tone, place a few ounces of water in the dish, and add
+an equal quantity of the stock solution, and if the toning begins to
+flag a little, add more of it from time to time.
+
+With the resin processes over-toning is to be carefully avoided.
+
+Resinized paper may be obtained from most photographic dealers,
+we believe, and for some purposes is an admirable substitute for
+albumenized paper.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+PRINTING ON GELATINO-CHLORIDE EMULSION PAPER.
+
+
+Mr. W. T. Wilkinson has recently brought forward the notion of using
+gelatine instead of albumen as a medium for holding the silver chloride
+in printing. He uses the following formula:--
+
+    Barium chloride           2,440 grains
+    Gelatine                  2,000   "
+    Water                        20 ounces
+
+The gelatine is allowed to swell in the water, and, by the aid of heat,
+is dissolved; the barium chloride is then added. Next he prepares--
+
+    Silver nitrate            1,700 grains
+    Water                         5 ounces
+
+and adds this to the former, little by little, in a large bottle with
+much shaking, or pours it slowly into the former in a large jar,
+stirring briskly the whole time. This makes an emulsion of silver
+chloride, and is used without washing. When required for use, the
+gelatine, which will have set when cold, is swelled by placing the jar
+containing it in hot water, and is then transferred to a dish. The dish
+should be kept warm by being placed, supported on small blocks, in a tin
+tray (about two inches larger in dimensions every way than the dish)
+filled with hot water, the temperature of which should be about 150° F.
+to commence with. Saxe or Rive paper may be coated by rolling the sheet
+face outwards, and placing the edge of the roll upon the gelatine. The
+two corners of the paper in contact with the solution are then taken
+hold of by the fingers, and raised. The paper will unroll of itself, and
+take up a thin layer of the gelatine emulsion. The sheet of paper is
+then suspended to dry. All these operations are, of course, conducted
+in the dark room. The behaviour of the paper in the printing-frame is
+precisely the same as albumenized paper, and the washing and toning are
+conducted in the same way. For a fixing bath is used--
+
+    Sodium hyposulphite           2 ounces
+    Water                        20   "
+
+The washing after fixing is more rapid than with albumenized paper. It
+is washed in ten or twelve changes of water for ten minutes, and then
+placed for five minutes in an alum bath made as follows:--
+
+    Potash alum                   5 ounces
+    Water                        20   "
+
+The print is washed in a few changes of water, and the prints are ready
+for drying and mounting. The advantage of the alum bath is that the
+hyposulphite is destroyed into harmless products, and the gelatine is
+rendered insoluble by it. In the formula given there is large excess
+of chloride, and we recommend that instead of using 2,440 grains of
+barium chloride, 2,050 grains be used. (Mr. Wilkinson has used that
+amount of the barium salt that would be required exactly to convert
+1,700 grains of silver nitrate into silver chloride, if the formula for
+barium chloride were BaCl_{3} instead of BaCl_{2}.) It will be seen
+that whichever formula is used, there is no silver left to combine with
+the gelatine, and hence the image will be entirely formed by metallic
+silver, and not an organic salt of silver.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+DRYING THE PRINTS.
+
+
+In many establishments the prints are taken direct from the washing
+water, and hung up by American clips, and thus allowed to dry. When this
+is done, the prints curl up as the water leaves the paper, and they
+become somewhat unmanageable. If prints have to be dried at all before
+mounting--and they must, unless they are trimmed before toning--a better
+plan is to make a neat heap of some fifty or sixty of the same size (say
+cartes), place them on blotting-paper, and drain for a time, and then in
+a screw-press (such as is used to press table-cloths, for instance) to
+squeeze out all superfluous water. After a good hard squeeze the prints
+should be separated, and the plan adopted by Mr. England carried out. He
+has frames of light laths made, of about 6 feet by 3 feet, and over this
+frame is stretched ordinary paperhanger's canvas. The prints are laid
+on this to dry spontaneously, and they cockle up but very little. The
+frames, being light, are easily handled. After the squeezing is done,
+supposing the room in which they are placed be not very damp or very
+cold, the prints will be ready for trimming and mounting in a couple of
+hours. To our minds there is nothing superior to this mode of drying,
+since the squeezing in the press tends to eliminate every slight trace
+of hyposulphite which might be left in them.
+
+_Trimming the Prints._--Perhaps more prints are ruined in trimming than
+in any other way, when the operator is inexperienced, since it requires
+judgment to know which part of the print to trim off, so that a right
+balance shall be kept. In trimming landscape prints, it is impossible
+to give any set rules; the judgment as to what is artistic must be the
+guide. Of one thing we may be certain, that, unless the operator who
+took the original negative knows exactly how to balance his picture on
+the focussing-screen, the print will always bear cutting down in one
+direction or the other. Such a clipping, of course, alters the size of
+the print, which, if it be one of a series, will be a misfortune; but,
+on the other hand, the artistic value of the individual print will be
+increased.
+
+For portraits there are some few rules which should be followed in
+trimming. Always allow the centre of the face to be a little "out" from
+the central line of the print, making more space on the side towards
+which the sitter is looking. Allow a carte or cabinet to be cut in
+such a way that, if the sitter has been leaning on something, it does
+not seem as if he had been leaning on nothing. Should there be an
+unintentional lean on the part of the sitter, trim the print so that he
+appears in an upright position.
+
+To trim the print, there should be the various sized shapes in glass
+used. Thus there should be glasses with bevelled edges for the carte,
+the cabinet, and other sizes, which can be laid on the print as a guide
+to the trimming. The absolute trimming may be done either by shears
+or by a knife, a leather cutters' knife being excellent, since it is
+rounded, and can be brought to a keen edge very readily. When the knife
+is used, the print is placed on a large glass sheet of good thickness,
+the pattern placed over it, and, whilst this is held down by the left
+hand, the knife is used by the right, keeping it close to the edge of
+the pattern glass. When shears are used, the print is held against the
+pattern glass by the left hand, and each side trimmed by one clip,
+taking care to make the cut parallel to the edges of the pattern glass.
+It requires a little practice to prevent clipping the glass as well as
+the paper, but for small sized prints, such as the carte, the shears
+have a decided advantage over the knife.
+
+For cutting out ovals, Robinson's trimmer is an excellent adjunct to the
+mounting-room, and in this case ovals stamped out of sheet brass are
+used as guides.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 29.]
+
+The figure will show the action of the trimmer. The small wheel is the
+cutter, and, being pivotted, it follows the curve against which it is
+held. It is better to cut out prints with this trimmer on sheet zinc
+in preference to glass, the edge of the wheel being kept sharp for a
+longer time than where the harder glass is used. To use the trimmer,
+the print is placed on the sheet of zinc, the oval mask (or square
+mask, with slightly rounded corners) is placed in position on it. The
+wheel of the trimmer is brought parallel to, and against, the edge of
+the mask, the handle being grasped by the right hand, the thumb to the
+left, and the fingers on the right. A fairly heavy downward pressure
+is brought to bear on the trimmer, and at the same time the wheel is
+caused to run along the edge of the mask. The cut should be clean, and
+the join perfect, if proper care be taken. It is desirable to practise
+on ordinary writing paper before it is taken into use for prints. Square
+masks with very slightly rounded corners can be used; the smaller the
+wheel, the less curved the corners need be. It will be seen that there
+is a limit to smallness of the wheel used, since, if too small, the
+stirrup on which it is pivoted would rest upon the mask. The larger the
+wheel the easier is the cutting.
+
+With larger sizes than the carte or the cabinet, mounting may often
+have to be delayed, since it is easier to keep a stock of unmounted
+prints (say landscapes) unmounted than it is when they are mounted. In
+this case the prints should be put away as flat as possible. The plan
+of drying we have indicated takes out the "curl," but even then they
+will not be flat enough to be handily put away. We therefore recommend
+the practice of stroking the prints. A flat piece of hard wood, about
+1 foot long and 1-1/2 inch broad, and the thickness of a marquoise
+scale, has its edges carefully rounded off. The print is seized by one
+corner in one hand and unrolled; the face of the print is brought in
+contact with a piece of plate glass. The "stroker," held by the other
+hand, is brought with its rounded edge on to the back of the print near
+the corner held by the first hand. Considerable pressure is brought upon
+the stroker, and the print is drawn through between it and the plate.
+The print is then seized by another corner and similarly treated. By
+this means a gloss is put upon the print, and the creases and cockles
+are obliterated. The print is now ready for trimming.
+
+It is well to have a square of glass with true edges cut to the size of
+the pictures. The prints should be trimmed upon a sheet of plate glass,
+a sharp penknife being used to cut them. A rough test for ascertaining
+if the opposite sides are equal is to bring them together, and see if
+both corners coincide.
+
+It may sometimes be found useful to cut out a print into an oval. The
+following method for tracing any ellipse may be employed:--On a thickish
+piece of clean paper draw a line A B, making it the _extreme_ width of
+the oval required. Bisect it at O, and draw D O C at right angles to A
+B. Make O C equal to _half_ the smallest diameter of the ellipse. With
+the centre C and the distance O B, draw an arc of a circle, cutting A
+B in E and F. Place the paper on a flat board, and at E and F fix two
+drawing-pins. Take a piece of thread and knot it together in such a
+manner that half its length is equal to A F. Place the thread round the
+two pins at E and F, and stretch it out to tightness by the point of a
+lead pencil. Move the pencil guided by the cotton, taking care to keep
+it upright. The resulting figure will be an ellipse. Modifications of
+this figure may be made by making a second knot beyond the first knot,
+and placing the point of the pencil in the loop formed. When the figure
+has been traced in pencil on paper, it should be carefully cut out with
+a sharp penknife, and placed on the print which is to be trimmed into an
+oval. When so placed, a faint pencil line is run round on the print, and
+the cutting out proceeds either by scissors or penknife.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 30.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+MOUNTING PHOTOGRAPHS.
+
+
+There are many photographers who, unfortunately, are quite indifferent
+as to the medium they use in mounting the trimmed photographs. So long
+as the medium will cause the adherence of the back of the print to the
+cardboard employed, they are perfectly satisfied, whether it be paste
+fresh or sour, or starch or gelatine in a similar condition. If any of
+our readers have had the misfortune to have their rooms papered with
+rancid paste, they will have noticed that the unpleasant smell attending
+it has not been removed from the room for weeks, and that there is a
+liability of the return of the disgusting odour when the air is at all
+damp. In this case the fact that decomposition is going on is detected
+by the olfactory nerves, because the quantity is considerable. It is
+none the less true, however, that every square inch of the surface of
+the wall paper is undergoing the same ordeal, and that if it contains
+any colour, &c., which would be affected by decomposing organic matter,
+there would be but small chance of the paper retaining its fresh
+appearance. Were a silver print mounted with the same paste, we need
+scarcely point out that danger to its permanency is to be apprehended.
+Paste, we know, is as a rule tabooed, but there is no occasion for it
+to be so if care be taken that it is absolutely fresh when employed in
+mounting. In looking for a mounting material, we should endeavour to
+find something which does not readily take up moisture. Glue, gelatine,
+dextrine, and gum are all inadmissible on this account; on the other
+hand, starch, arrowroot, cornflour, and gum tragacanth, when once dry,
+do not seem to attract moisture.
+
+Referring to glue, Mr. W. Brooks says[29] that he has recently seen
+many photographs which have been mounted with that medium, and in
+some cases, where the glue has been put on too thickly, it swells up
+into ridges, showing marks of the brush with which it is applied, and
+each ridge after a time turns brown. The same writer is not wholly in
+favour of starch, but in our own opinion pure white starch is as good
+a material as can be met with. To prepare it for use as a mountant,
+a large teaspoonful of starch is placed in the bottom of a cup, with
+just sufficient cold water to cover it. This is allowed to remain for
+a couple of minutes, after which the cup is filled with boiling water,
+and well stirred; the starch should then be fairly thick, but not
+so thick as to prevent a brush taking up a proper supply for a good
+sized print. We will suppose that we are going to mount a day's work
+of carte-de-visite prints. In a former chapter we have said that it
+is desirable that the prints should be left damp. If they are dried,
+they should be _slightly_ moistened, and placed in a heap one above the
+other, as by so doing the moisture is confined, and one damping of all
+the prints is sufficient. In our own practice we have, as is natural,
+all the prints with the faces downwards. A stiff bristle brush is then
+dipped into the pot containing the starch, and the starch brushed over
+the back of the top print. This one is then carefully raised from the
+print beneath it, and, supposing it to have been properly trimmed, it
+is laid upon the card, and pressed down by means of a soft cloth, and
+placed on one side to dry. The next print is then treated in the same
+manner, and so on. By this plan no starch gets on the face of the
+prints, which is a desideratum. With a little practice, just sufficient
+starch will be brushed on each carte, and no more. Young hands, however,
+are sometimes apt to give more than a fair share to them; in this case,
+after pressing the print down with the soft cloth, it may be useful to
+place on the print a piece of writing paper, and press all superfluous
+starch out by a rounded straight-edge, or an ivory or wooden paper
+knife. The card in this case should be placed on a slab of thick glass,
+so as give an even pressure. The starch, which will exude beyond the
+edges of the card, should be carefully wiped off with a _clean_ cloth.
+
+This is of course a method to be adopted only in the case of bungling
+mounting, but it is useful then, and may save a carte. It should be
+remembered that the less mounting medium used, the greater is the chance
+of a silver print not fading.
+
+To mount larger prints, the back should be slightly damped, and the
+brush with the starch applied with cross strokes, so that every part is
+covered. Particular care should be taken that the corners and edges are
+not missed, since it often necessitates re-mounting the print, which is
+to be avoided as far as possible, since it is a troublesome matter. The
+rounded-edged ruler, and the sheet of white paper, is also useful here,
+since over a large surface there is more difficulty in getting even
+layers of starch, than over smaller ones. When a print has to be mounted
+with a margin, the places where the top corners have to come should be
+marked with a fine pencil point. By a little dexterity, the top edge of
+the print, the back of which has been covered with starch in the manner
+described, can be brought into the position indicated by these dots,
+and be then lowered without puckers or folds. It should be remembered
+that the print should just cover the pencil marks, since it is almost
+impossible to erase blacklead with india-rubber, if any starch should by
+accident get on it.
+
+It is well to dry these prints under pressure, since the cardboard is
+apt to cockle. A couple of boards rather longer than the prints suffice
+for the purpose. The mounted prints are laid between them, a sheet
+of clean blotting-paper separating each, and a few weights placed on
+the top board. For prints of moderate size, a table-cloth press is an
+excellent substitute.
+
+As to the kind of mounts to be used, opinions vary. To our mind, the
+simpler they are, the better they look. It is not rare to find a regular
+advertisement of the photographic establishment below a carte or cabinet
+print. To say the least of it, this is bad taste, and we are sure it is
+bad art. If the work be good, it needs no recommendation; and if it be
+bad, the less of an advertisement that appears, the better it is for
+the photographer. At the back of a carte or cabinet is the place where
+any advertisement should appear; but even here it may be overdone. When
+we find the back of the carte got up with any amount of gold-lettering
+flourishes, and no blank space on which the eye can rest without
+encountering some one especial merit of the artist, we may expect to
+find on the front of the card the same kind of tawdry work. It is
+seldom advisable to have the mount of a white colour, though for cartes
+or cabinets, in which the margin will be hidden in the album, this is
+not of much consequence; but for prints in which the margin shows, it
+is generally advisable to have some slight tint visible, preferably
+of a cream or buff colour. There are some classes of work which will,
+however, bear a white margin, but it is rarely the case; and we advise,
+as a general rule, that there should be some tone on it, to prevent
+its attracting the eye away from the picture by its whiteness. Black
+mounts are much in vogue at the present time, and they are effective and
+artistic; but chemical analysis has shown them not to be safe, since
+they are enamelled with substances which are apt to induce fading. A
+good and stable black mount is a desideratum, which it is to be hoped
+will be found before long.
+
+Notwithstanding our preference for starch as a mountant, we give a
+method of preparing glue for the same purpose. The glue used should
+be light, and as clean as possible. It should be shredded and soaked
+in sufficient clean water to cover it for five or six hours; any dust
+which may have adhered to it will find its way into the water. The water
+should be poured off and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh. The
+vessel containing it is heated over a small gas jet or spirit lamp until
+solution takes place. The liquid is then thinned down with warm water
+till it is of proper consistency, a point which is soon learned by a
+little practice. An ordinary small glue pot will be found convenient.
+
+It is sometimes useful to have at hand a mounting solution which will
+not cockle the mount, and the late Mr. G. Wharton Simpson gave a formula
+which is very good in this respect. Fine cut gelatine or shredded glue
+is swollen in the least possible quantity of water, and this is boiled
+with alcohol, with much stirring. If 80 grains of Nelson's No. 1 fine
+cut gelatine are taken, 3 dr. of water should be used for making it, and
+to it 2 oz. of alcohol be added. When cool this sets into a jelly, and
+can be used by letting the bottle into which it has been transferred
+stand in hot water. Prints can be mounted on foolscap paper with this
+medium without any serious cockling being apparent.
+
+It should be recollected that no two batches of paper will mount exactly
+alike, some expanding more than others. It is well to mount a trial
+print before doing many, to see exactly how the paper under manipulation
+behaves.
+
+_Rolling the Prints._--After the prints have been under the hands of the
+retoucher, they should be rolled in a rolling-press in order to give a
+brightness to the printed image. It would be invidious to point out any
+particular press that should be used. Suffice it to say, there are many
+excellent ones in the market. The directions for cleaning and using the
+press are supplied with each machine; we therefore refrain from saying
+anything about them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+DEFECTS IN PRINTS.
+
+
+The bath solution is sometimes repelled by the paper, and this is found
+chiefly in highly albumenized paper, and is generally caused by the
+paper being too dry. Passing the sheet of paper over the steam from a
+saucepan will generally effect a cure.
+
+Small white spots, with a black central pin-point, are often met with in
+prints. Dust on the paper during sensitizing will cause them, the grit
+forming a nucleus for a minute bubble. All paper should be thoroughly
+dusted before being floated on the sensitizing bath.
+
+Grey, star-like spots arise from small particles of inorganic matter,
+such as ferric oxide, lime, &c., which are present in the paper. They
+become more apparent by decomposition during the printing operations.
+They may generally be discernible by examining the paper by transmitted
+light.
+
+Bronze lines (straight) occur through a stoppage during floating the
+paper in the sensitizing solution. Should the lines be irregular,
+forming angles and curves, it is probable that a scum of silver oxide,
+&c., may be detected on the surface of the sensitizing solution. A strip
+of blotting-paper drawn across the bath will remove the cause of the
+defect.
+
+Should the print appear marbled, it may be surmised that the sensitizing
+solution is weak, or that the paper has not been floated sufficiently.
+In some cases it may arise from imperfect albumenizing; but in ordinary
+commercial samples the cause can be easily traced.
+
+Red marks on the shadows may appear during toning, and are very
+conspicuous after fixing. They generally arise from handling the paper
+with hot, moist fingers after sensitizing; greasy matter being deposited
+on the surface, prevents the toning bath acting properly on such parts.
+
+Weak prints are generally caused by weak negatives. Such can be
+partially remedied by paying attention to the strength of the
+sensitizing bath (see Appendix), and by using washed paper.
+
+Harsh prints are due to harsh negatives. They can generally be remedied
+by paying attention to the mode of printing, as given in Chapter IX. If
+the negative be under-exposed and wanting in detail, there is, however,
+no cure for this defect.
+
+A red tone is due to insufficient toning; whilst a poor and blue tone is
+due to an excess of toning.
+
+The whites may appear yellow from imperfect washing, imperfect toning,
+imperfect fixing, or from the use of old sensitized paper.
+
+Should prints refuse to tone, either the gold has been exhausted, or
+else a trace of sodium hyposulphite has been carried into the toning
+bath by the fingers or other means. A trace of hyposulphite is much more
+injurious to the print than a fair quantity of it. Should the toning
+bath refuse to tone after the addition of gold, it may be presumed that
+it is contaminated by a trace of sodium hyposulphite.
+
+A dark mottled appearance in the body of the paper indicates imperfect
+fixing, combined with the action of light on the unaltered chloride
+during fixing. If the fixing bath be acid, the excess of acid combines
+with the sulphur, and forms hydrosulphuric acid, which will also cause
+the defect.
+
+The cause of mealiness or "measles" in the print has been explained in
+page 32.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+ENCAUSTIC PASTE.
+
+
+The value of an encaustic paste in improving the effect of photographic
+prints has become very generally recognised amongst photographers.
+A good encaustic confers three special benefits on the print: it
+gives depth, richness, and transparency to the shadows; it renders
+apparent delicate detail in the lights which would otherwise remain
+imperceptible; and it aids in protecting the surface, and so tends to
+permanency. One of the writers has in his possession prints that were
+treated with an encaustic paste thirteen years ago, which retain all
+their original freshness and purity, while prints done at the same time
+from the same negatives have gone, to say the least of it, "off colour."
+
+Various formulæ for the preparation of encaustic pastes have been
+published, and many of them very excellent. The qualities required are,
+easiness of application, and the capacity of giving richness and depth
+without too much gloss, and of yielding a hard, firm, permanent surface.
+For a proper combination of all these qualities, nothing has ever
+approached the paste of the late Adam-Salomon, of which the following is
+the formula:--
+
+    Pure white wax              500 grains
+    Gum elemi                    10   "
+    Benzole                     200   "
+    Essence of lavender         300   "
+    Oil of spike                 15   "
+
+The wax is cut into shreds, and melted in a capsule over a water
+bath. Placing it in a jar, and the latter in a pan of hot water, will
+serve. Powder the elemi, and dissolve it in the solvent, using gentle
+heat. Some samples of elemi are soft and tough, and will not admit of
+powdering, in which case it may be roughly divided into small portions,
+and placed in a bottle with the solvents. Strain through muslin, and add
+the clear solution to the melted wax, and stir well. It is then poured
+into a wide-mouthed bottle, and allowed to cool.
+
+The encaustic paste is put on the prints in patches, and then rubbed
+with a light, quick motion, with a piece of flannel, until a firm, fine
+surface is obtained.
+
+We give another simple formula which is efficient, though we ourselves
+prefer the above.
+
+    White wax cut into shreds     1 ounce
+    Turpentine                    1   "
+
+and thinned down, if necessary, till it has the consistency of "cold
+cream."
+
+Yet another is--
+
+    White wax                     1 ounce
+    Benzole                       2 ounces.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+ENAMELLING PRINTS.
+
+
+There are several modes of enamelling prints, but there is none better
+than that described by Mr. W. England, which we quote in his words.
+"I have a glass having a good polished surface (patent plate is not
+necessary), and rub over it some powdered French chalk tied up in a
+muslin bag. Dust off the superfluous chalk with a camel's hair brush,
+and coat with enamel collodion. I find it an improvement to add to the
+collodion usually sold for the purpose 2 dr. of castor oil to the pint.
+When the collodion is well set, immerse the plate in a dish of water.
+When several prints are required to be enamelled, a sufficient number
+of plates may be prepared and put in dishes; this will save time. Now
+take the first plate, and well wash under a tap till all greasiness
+has disappeared; place it on a levelling stand, and pour on as much
+water as the plate will hold. Then lay the print on the top, squeeze
+out all the water, and place the plate and print between several
+thicknesses of blotting-paper to remove all superfluous moisture. The
+plate, with the print in contact, should now be placed in a warm room
+to dry spontaneously, when the print will come easily from the glass.
+Care should be taken not to attempt to remove the print till quite
+dry. If the pictures required to be enamelled have been dried, it
+will be necessary to rub over them some ox-gall with a plug of soft
+rag; otherwise the water will run in globules on the surface, and make
+blisters when laid on the collodion.
+
+"I may mention that prints done in this way lose their very glossy
+surface on being mounted, but retain their brilliancy, which I think is
+an improvement, as I dislike the polished surface usually given to the
+print when gelatine is employed."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+CAMEO PRINTS.
+
+
+At one time there was a rage amongst photographers to produce cameos,
+and, for this purpose, a special piece of apparatus was required to
+produce the embossing. The figure will explain it.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig._ 31.]
+
+The print, after mounting, was enamelled by coating a plate with
+collodion--as described above--and a thin film of liquid gelatine
+applied. In some cases the carte itself was gelatinized, dried, and
+damped, and placed in contact with the collodion film. The carte was
+placed face downwards on the gelatine, and placed under pressure till
+quite dry. It was then removed, and bore on its surface a high gloss
+caused by the collodion. It was then ready for embossing, which was
+effected by placing it in the above apparatus.
+
+Some people like the style; and it will be seen that great variety in
+it may be made by printing sufficient depth of border round the cameo;
+but, for our own part, we think that, in an art point of view, they are
+decidedly vulgar; and besides which, the surface of the cameo is readily
+scratched, since it is raised. We only give a brief account of what has
+been done in this direction, not to encourage its adoption, but rather
+to caution the photographer.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+REDUCTION OF OVER-EXPOSED PRINTS.
+
+
+Mr. England writes as follows to the Photographic Journal, and we can
+unhesitatingly say that the method of reducing an over-printed proof is
+excellent.
+
+"A simple and certain method of reducing over-printed proofs has been
+one of the wants long felt by all photographers. It is well known that
+in every photographic establishment even the most careful printers
+cannot always be sure of getting the exact depth of tone required, and
+proofs occasionally get over-printed. Of course prevention is better
+than cure; but, when a remedy is necessary, the method I am about to
+describe answers admirably. I tried a great many experiments before I
+succeeded to my satisfaction. I found that cyanide of potassium totally
+destroyed the print, even when used moderately strong. By using a weaker
+solution it was well under control, and the exact depth could be readily
+obtained; but during the washing to remove the cyanide the action of
+the latter continued, and spoiled every proof. I then tried several
+methods to arrest the action of the cyanide, but without success. It
+then occurred to me to use the cyanide in such a weak state that but
+little should be held in the paper, only sufficient to reduce the print
+to the required depth; for this purpose I made a bath of only four drops
+of saturated solution of cyanide to a pint of water. The prints immersed
+at first showed no signs of getting lighter, but after about an hour
+the most perfect results had been obtained with prints considerably
+over-printed. With lighter pictures a less time is required. Proofs
+treated in this way lose nothing of their tone during the after-washing,
+which should be thoroughly done, and, when dry, retain all the
+brilliancy of an ordinary print."
+
+The plan of using cyanide has, we know, often been proposed, but with
+no success until, we believe, Mr. W. Brooks gave a formula which worked
+successfully with him.
+
+Another plan, proposed by Mr. L. Warnerke, for effecting the same thing
+is the use of ferric sulphate. A weak solution is prepared, and the
+print immersed in it. The reduction takes place rapidly, but evenly.
+
+We need scarcely say that it is better not to have to use either of
+these remedies, by avoiding over-printing; but as mistakes will occur,
+it is evident that the above will be of use at times.
+
+
+UTILIZATION OF SILVER RESIDUES.
+
+All paper or solutions in which there is silver should be saved, as it
+has been proved by experience that from 50 to 75 per cent. of the whole
+of the silver used can be recovered by rigid adherence to the careful
+storage of "wastes."
+
+1. All prints should be trimmed, if practicable, before toning and
+fixing; in all cases these clippings should be collected. When a good
+basketful of them is collected, these, together with the bits of
+blotting-paper attached to the bottom end of sensitized paper during
+drying, and that used for the draining of plates, should be burnt in a
+stove, and the ashes collected. These ashes will naturally occupy but a
+small space in comparison with the paper itself. Care should be taken
+that the draught from the fire is not strong enough to carry up the
+ashes.
+
+2. All washings from prints, waters used in the preparation of dry
+plates, all baths, developing solutions (after use), and old toning
+baths, should be placed in a tub, and common salt added. This will form
+silver chloride.
+
+3. The old hyposulphite baths used in printing should be placed in
+another tub. To this the potassium sulphide of commerce may be added.
+Silver sulphide is thus formed.
+
+4. To No. 1 nitric acid may be added, and the ashes boiled in it till
+no more silver is extracted by it. The solution of silver nitrate thus
+produced is filtered off through white muslin, and put aside for further
+treatment, when common salt is added to it to form chloride, and added
+to No. 2.
+
+5. The ashes may still contain silver chloride. This may be dissolved
+out by adding a solution of sodium hyposulphite, and adding the filtrate
+No. 3.
+
+6. No. 2, after thoroughly drying, may be reduced to metallic silver
+in a reducing crucible[30] by addition of two parts of sodium carbonate
+and a little borax to one of the silver chloride. These should be well
+mixed together, and placed in the covered crucible in a coke fire, and
+gradually heated. If the operator be in possession of one of Fletcher's
+gas furnaces he can employ it economically, and with far less trouble
+than using the fire. (It is supplied with an arrangement for holding
+crucibles, which is useful for the purpose.) After a time, on lifting
+off the cover, it will be found that the silver is reduced to a metallic
+state. After all seething has finished, the crucible should be heated
+to a white heat for a quarter of an hour. The molten silver should be
+turned out into an iron pan (previously rubbed over with plumbago to
+prevent the molten metal spirting), and immersed in a pail of water. The
+washing should be repeated till nothing but the pure silver remains.
+
+The silver hyposulphite, having been reduced to the sulphide by the
+addition of the potassium sulphide, is placed in a crucible, and
+subjected to a white heat; the sulphur is driven off, and the silver
+remains behind.
+
+Another method of reducing silver chloride to the metallic state is by
+placing it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid together
+with granulated zinc. The zinc is attacked, evolving hydrogen, which, in
+its turn, reduces the silver chloride to the metallic state, and forming
+hydrochloric acid. After well washing, the silver may be dissolved up in
+nitric acid.
+
+Yet another method is to take sugar of milk and a solution of crude
+potash, when the silver is rapidly reduced. This requires careful
+washing, and it is well to heat the metal to a dull red heat to get rid
+of any adherent and insoluble organic matter which may have been formed,
+before dissolving it in nitric acid.
+
+
+TO PRINT FROM WEAK AND HARD NEGATIVES.
+
+Should a negative be found very hard, a slight modification of the
+sensitizing solution will be found beneficial, supposing the ordinary
+paper is to be used.
+
+    Silver nitrate               30 grains
+    Water                         1 ounce
+
+The negative should in this case be printed in the sun. The more intense
+the light, the less contrast there will be in the print, as the stronger
+light more rapidly effects a change in the albuminate than if subjected
+to weaker diffused light. The reason for the reduction in quantity of
+the silver nitrate in the solution is given on page 15.
+
+To print from a weak negative, the sensitizing solution should be:--
+
+    Silver nitrate               80 grains
+    Water                         1 ounce
+
+The printing should take place in the shade; the weaker the negative,
+the more diffused the light should be.
+
+If a negative be dense, but all the gradations of light and shade be
+perfect, the strong bath, and, if, possible, a strongly-salted paper,
+should be used. The printing should take place in sunlight.
+
+
+TO MAKE GOLD TRI-CHLORIDE [AU CL_{3}].
+
+Place a half-sovereign (which may contain silver as well as copper) in a
+convenient vessel; pour on it half a drachm of nitric acid, and mix with
+it two-and-a-half drachms of hydrochloric acid; digest at a gentle heat,
+but do not boil, or probably the chlorine will be driven off. At the
+expiration of a few hours add a similar quantity of the acids. Probably
+this will be sufficient to dissolve all the gold. If not, add acid the
+third time; all will have been dissolved by this addition, excepting,
+perhaps, a trace of silver, which will have been deposited by the
+excess of hydrochloric acid as silver chloride. If a precipitate should
+have been formed, filter it out, and wash the filter paper well with
+distilled water. Take a filtered solution of ferrous sulphate (eight
+parts water to one of iron) acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric
+acid, and add the gold solution to it; the iron will cause the gold
+alone to deposit as metallic gold, leaving the copper in solution. By
+adding the gold solution to the iron the precipitate is not so fine as
+if added _vice versa_. Let the gold settle, and pour off the liquid;
+add water, and drain again, and so on till no acid is left, testing
+the washings by litmus paper. Take the metallic gold which has been
+precipitated, re-dissolve in the acids as before, evaporate to dryness
+on a water bath (that is, at a heat not exceeding 212° F.) The resulting
+substance is the gold tri-chloride. To be kept in crystals this should
+be placed in glass tubes hermetically sealed. For non-commercial
+purposes it is convenient to dissolve it in water (one drachm to a grain
+of gold). Ten grains of gold dissolved yield 15.4 grains of the salt.
+Hence if ten grains have been dissolved, 15.4 drachms of water must be
+added to give the above strength.
+
+
+TO MAKE SILVER NITRATE.
+
+Silver coins are mostly alloyed with tin or copper. In both cases the
+coin should be dissolved in nitric acid diluted with twice its bulk
+of water. If tin be present there will be an insoluble residue left
+of stannic oxide. The solution should be evaporated down to dryness,
+re-dissolved in water, filtered, and again evaporated to dryness.
+It will then be fit for making up a bath. If copper be present, the
+solution must be treated with silver oxide.
+
+The silver oxide thus formed is added, little by little, till the blue
+or greenish colour has entirely disappeared. This will precipitate the
+copper oxide from the copper nitrate, setting free the nitric acid,
+which, in its turn, will combine with the silver oxide. The copper will
+fall as a black powder mixed with any excess of silver oxide there may
+be. Take one or two drops of the solution in a measure, and add a drachm
+of water, and then add ammonia to it till the precipitate first formed
+is re-dissolved. If no blue colour is apparent, the substitution of the
+silver for the copper is complete; if not, more silver oxide must be
+added till the desired end is attained. Distilled water must next be
+added till the strength of the bath is that required. This can be tested
+by the argentometer.
+
+If to a solution of silver nitrate a solution of potash be added, a
+precipitate will be formed. This is the silver oxide. The potash should
+be added till no further precipitation takes place. The oxide should
+be allowed to settle, the supernatant fluid be decanted off (a syphon
+arrangement is very convenient), and fresh distilled water added to it.
+This, in its turn, after the oxide has been well stirred, should be
+decanted off. The operation should be repeated five or six times, to
+ensure all nitrate of potash being absent, though its presence does not
+matter for a printing bath, since this or some other nitrate is formed
+when the paper is floated.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+ FOR
+ Photographic Stock
+ and Apparatus,
+ Artists' Materials, etc.,
+
+ _Send your orders to the_
+
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+ _OF_
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+ HIRAM J. THOMPSON,
+ JOBBER IN
+ PICTURE FRAMES, MOULDINGS,
+ MIRRORS, ALBUMS, PICTURES,
+ AND
+ PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIALS.
+
+ No. 259 Wabash Ave., CHICAGO.
+
+ Send for my late Catalogue.
+
+
+
+
+ Photographic Enlargements
+ BY THE
+ PLATINOTYPE PROCESS.
+ DONE WITH THE
+ Electric Light.
+
+ The Platinotype Prints are characterized by a
+ _Beautiful Tone,
+     Perfection of Detail,
+         Pure Whites, and
+ ABSOLUTE PERMANENCE._
+
+ By the use of the Electric Light we are enabled to proceed without
+ regard to the weather, and can fill orders _promptly_ without the
+ delays usually attending Solar Printing.
+
+ Send for Price-Lists.
+
+ THOS. H. McCOLLIN,
+ _631 ARCH STREET_,
+ (Dealer in all Photographic Supplies.)
+ PA. PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+
+
+
+
+ _THE OLD RELIABLE!_
+
+ P. SMITH & CO.,
+ NO. 121 WEST FIFTH STREET,
+ CINCINNATI, OHIO.
+ AND
+ BRANCH AT
+ NO. 6 EAST BROAD STREET,
+ COLUMBUS, OHIO.
+
+ WHERE
+ _The Amateur and the
+     Professional Photographer_
+     WILL FIND EVERYTHING
+
+ =Requisite for either the WET or the DRY PLATE PROCESS.=
+
+ _Dry Plates and Outfits in Great Variety._
+
+ _Velvet Frames, etc., etc., etc._
+
+
+
+
+ MULLETT BROS.,
+ DEALERS IN
+ Photographic Supplies.
+ 518 WALNUT ST.,
+ KANSAS CITY, MO.
+
+ Western Photographers! look to your interests, and purchase your stock
+ and apparatus at the Kansas City Stock House, thereby avoiding heavy
+ freight bills and a great loss of time.
+
+ _In addition to a full line of Photo. Supplies, we have also a large
+ variety of_
+
+ ALBUMS,
+     SILK VELVET FRAMES,
+         PICTURE CORD AND NAILS,
+             CONVEX GLASS,
+                 MATTS, ETC., ETC.
+
+ Photographers in the East contemplating moving West will find it to
+ their interests to purchase their goods here, thereby saving a great
+ expense in shipping.
+
+ Having more than doubled our capital and room, we are now able to
+ compete in _price_ and _variety_ of goods with _any_ house West
+ of N. Y. Send a trial order and be convinced.
+
+ Prompt and careful attention to all orders.
+
+
+
+
+ MILWAUKEE.
+
+ GUSTAVUS BODE,
+ Northwestern Photographic Warehouse
+ and Chemical Laboratory,
+ 11 Spring St., Milwaukee, Wis.
+
+ A FULL LINE OF
+ PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS
+ AND ARTISTS' MATERIALS,
+
+ --EMBRACING--
+
+ _Apparatus, Chemicals, Glass,
+     Albumenized Papers,
+         Frames, Albums,
+       Views, etc._
+
+ English, German and American Oil Colors, and all Materials
+ used in the Fine Arts.
+
+ SPECIALTY.
+
+ Nitrate of Silver and Chloride of Gold made for photographic
+ purposes. Gold and Silver Wastes refined. Satisfaction
+ guaranteed.
+
+ SEND FOR PRICE-LIST.
+
+
+
+
+ BUFFALO
+ PHOTOGRAPHIC WAREHOUSE.
+ David Tucker & Co.
+ Photographers' Supplies.
+
+ 410 MAIN ST. BUFFALO, N. Y.
+ DAVID TUCKER.   S. B. BUTTS
+
+
+
+
+ _1860 National Photographic Emporium. 1881_
+
+ 205 W. Baltimore Street,
+ BALTIMORE, MD.
+
+ RICHARD WALZL, Proprietor.
+
+ Dry Plate Outfits a Specialty,
+
+ All the latest novelties in connection with the improved Dry-plate
+ Processes furnished at the shortest notice.
+
+ _Any Photographer_ who wants _Lenses_, _Cameras_, _Camera Stands_,
+ _Backgrounds_, _Chemicals_, _Glass_, _Albumen Paper_ or in fact _any
+ Photographic Goods_, should send for our price-list and be convinced
+ that it is to their interest to send their orders to us direct. A
+ trial order will convince the most skeptical.
+
+ Photography in all its Branches for the Trade.
+
+ Expert Artists employed on the premises enable us to make this branch
+ a great feature, and we can always guarantee satisfaction.
+
+ Our Practical Photographic Publications
+ are unequalled. See testimonials in _Photographer's Friend._
+ Price-list sent free to any photographer.
+
+ OUR NEW LENSES ARE THE SENSATION OF THE DAY--and the prices are so
+ moderate they will astonish you. You can try our lenses before you
+ buy them. If you want anything in the photographic line, address
+
+ RICHARD WALZL, BALTIMORE, MD.
+
+
+
+
+ PA. PITTSBURGH, PA.
+
+ JOHN I. SHAW,
+ _Successor to J. W. Morrison_,
+
+ MANUFACTURER AND DEALER IN
+ _Photographic Materials, Cameras, etc., etc._,
+
+ Nos. 10 & 12 Sixth Street,
+ PITTSBURGH, PA.
+
+ _Mouldings, Albums,
+     Oval, Square and Arch Top Frames,
+         Velvet and Combination Frames._
+
+ Photographic Dry Plates and Outfits for Amateurs and Professionals.
+
+ Everything required in the practice of Photography in all its forms.
+
+ JOHN I. SHAW, PITTSBURGH, PA.
+
+
+
+
+ W. J. HAZENSTAB'S
+ NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK HOUSE,
+ 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+ Is now opened and prepared to fill all orders for
+
+ PHOTOGRAPHIC GOODS,
+ _At Bed Rock Prices for Cash._
+ _General Outfits for Galleries a Specialty._
+
+ _Remember I Carry in Stock_:
+
+ Am. Opt. Co's Camera Boxes and Stand,
+     Success Camera Boxes,
+         Sam. Peck & Co.'s Camera Boxes,
+             Voigtlander & Son's Portrait Lenses,
+                 Darlot's Portrait Lenses,
+                     Darlot's Quick-Working Portrait Lenses,
+                         Darlot's View Lenses,
+ Also the Celebrated Peerless Portrait Lenses, known for their
+ Rapidity and Depth.
+
+ _And a Large Assortment of_
+ CARD STOCK.
+
+ ALSO AGENT FOR
+ _CRAMER & NORDEN'S DRY PLATES,
+     EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES,
+         CARBUTT'S DRY PLATES_.
+
+ Large Assortment of Frames and Mats at very low prices.
+
+ Small Expense in carrying on my business enables me to sell for
+ less money.
+
+ --> _I Attend to All Orders Personally._ <--
+
+ Send for Trial Order.     Price-lists sent on Application.
+
+ WM. J. HAZENSTAB,
+ _Photographers' Supply House_,
+
+ 406 Market Street, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+ _N. B.--Remember I give 5 per cent. discount for cash on all
+ orders of $10 00 or over._
+
+
+
+
+ E. Weiskopf,
+ Manufacturer of
+ Optical Lenses,
+
+ Specialties:
+ Condensers, Cosmorama Lenses, and Magnifying Mirrors,
+
+ No. 182 Centre Street, New York.
+
+
+
+
+ NEW YORK, Oct. 10, 1881.
+
+ _In view of the fact that the undersigned has aided in the production
+ of many of the most artistic photographic pictures produced in this
+ country during the last ten years, pictures which have received gold
+ and silver medals at Philadelphia, London, Paris, Amsterdam and other
+ cities of the world, he feels warranted in soliciting the patronage
+ of photographers unacquainted with his works._
+
+ --> _My recently introduced Backgrounds comprise those suitable for
+     the stocking of a New Gallery, as well as several suitable for
+     making special Exhibition pictures._
+
+ No. ---- =Vienna Tapestry=. No. 439. =New Eastlake=.
+     No. 440. =The Villa=, (_Summer_). No. 435. =The Winter Road=,
+         No. 433. =The Rustic Wall=. No. 426. =The Palisades=.
+
+ My Three-Quarter Length Backgrounds are, viz:
+
+ _Nos. 435, 437, 438._
+
+ _For Special Pictures_ I recommend my new _Portrait Plaques_--an
+ entirely new article in Portraiture. Several Designs.
+
+ _For suspending on Backgrounds_, ornamenting Fireplaces and Sideboards,
+ my _Imitation Dutch Plaques_ are desirable and very popular.
+
+ MY LATE ACCESSORIES ARE:
+
+ No. 396. =The Gambier Rock=.
+     No. 399. =Eastlake Fireplace and Cabinet Combined=,
+         (_very rich_), =several movable parts=.
+             No. 397. =The Couch and set piece=.
+                 No. 414. =Seavey's Eastlake Cottage and Balcony=.
+                     No. 441. =The Garden Wall=, (_3 parts_).
+                         No. ---- =The New Garden Seat=, (_3 changes_).
+
+ * . Ye Monthlie Bulletin . A.D.
+ of L. W. Seavey his Workeshop. 1881
+
+ Under the foregoing heading, in the "Specialty" columns of the several
+ Photographic Journals of America, will appear from month to month brief
+ announcements of my new productions.
+
+ LAFAYETTE W. SEAVEY,
+ _No. 8 Lafayette Place, NEW YORK, U. S. A._
+
+
+
+
+ PHOTOGRAPHERS'
+ SUPPLIES.
+
+ FRAMES,
+ ALBUMS,
+ _VELVET GOODS._
+
+ LOWEST PRICES.
+
+ Send For Our Bargain List.
+
+ EUREKA.
+ CRAMER & NORDEN
+ AND
+ EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES.
+
+ AMERICAN OPT. CO.
+
+ DRY PLATE CAMERAS,
+ AND
+ _GENERAL APPARATUS._
+
+ J. C. SOMERVILLE, 1009 OLIVE STREET, _Near Scholten's Gallery_,
+ ST. LOUIS, MO.
+
+
+
+
+ WILSON'S
+ PHOTOGRAPHICS.
+
+ A Partial Photographic Encyclopedia.
+
+ _By_ E. L. WILSON, _Editor "Phila. Photographer,"
+ "Photo. Mosaics," etc._
+
+ _A STANDARD BOOK for ALL Workers in Photography._
+
+ CONTENTS.
+
+ LESSON A. Treatment of the Subject--B. The Needful
+ Apparatus--C. The Objective or Lens--D. The Dark-Room--E. Preparation
+ of the Glass--F. Chemicals and Solutions--G. The Manipulations--H.
+ Manipulatory Miseries--I. Retouching the Negative--J. The Glass
+ Studio--K. Accessories and Light--L. Managing the Model--M. Printing
+ on Albumen Paper--N. Printing on Plain Paper--O. General Remarks on
+ Printing--P. Printing on Various Surfaces--Q. Printing Perplexities--R.
+ Art in Printing--S. Mounting and Finishing--T. Photography Outside--U.
+ Bromo-Gelatine Emulsion Work--V. Vogel's Collodion Emulsion--W.
+ Enlargements and Lantern Slides--X. Phototypes, Platinotypes,
+ and Collodion Transfers--Y. Wastes and Their Worth--Z. Metrical
+ Measuring--&. Concluding Confab--Index (Six Pages.)
+
+ It is believed that this is the most valuable work ever offered to the
+ working photographer.
+
+ It contains 352 pages; 7 x 8-3/4 inch cover, and is 1-1/2 inches thick.
+ More than 100 illustrations. It gives full details of all practical
+
+ Processes, Old and New, Public and Secret.
+
+ Among the latter are the "Phototype," sometimes called the "Artotype"
+ process, with examples; many of the "Lightning" processes; the
+ "Platinotype" process; the "Collodion Transfer" or "Megatype" process,
+ and many others.
+
+ 58 pages are devoted to Posing and Lighting; 37 pages give instructions
+ in Emulsion "Dry" Work; 29 pages show how to Build and Use Skylights;
+ 108 pages furnish instructions for Manipulating Negatives; 37 pages
+ are applied to Printing Formula and Dodges; 175 pages gives Notes from
+ Authors all over the world.
+
+ It is printed on fine white paper, made especially for it, and sold at
+ the low price of
+
+ $4 00 POST-PAID $4 00.
+
+ For the beginner, for the amateur, for the photographic worker, it is
+ believed to be most complete. No live photographer should fail to get
+ it soon, before his neighbor is ahead.
+
+ _EDWARD L. WILSON, Publisher and Proprietor_,
+ Nos. 912 & 914 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
+
+
+
+
+ DOUGLASS, THOMPSON & CO.,
+ Merchants in all Requisites pertaining to the
+ Art-Science of Photography,
+
+ Photographers' Booksellers, Stationers & Newsdealers,
+
+ 229 & 231 STATE STREET,
+ CHICAGO, ILL.
+
+ A practical knowledge of the Art-Science of Photography gives us a
+ special advantage in meeting the demands of the Profession.
+
+ _Everything used in_ Silver Printing _selected with greatest care and
+ guaranteed of the highest order of excellence._ =PRICES LOW=.
+
+ All the STANDARD BRANDS of ALBUMEN PAPER we furnish
+ under _genuine_ marks and at lowest prices.
+
+ It will pay you to send for our Catalogues, Bureau of Information,
+ Hints on Burnishing, etc,
+
+ GAYTON A. DOUGLASS. }      ALL FREE.
+ HENRY G. THOMPSON.  }
+
+
+
+
+
+ ATTENTION PHOTOGRAPHERS!
+
+ _Brooklyn's Head-Quarters_
+
+ --FOR--
+
+ Photographic Stock
+ Of Every Description,
+ _At the LOWEST possible C. O. D. Prices._
+
+  Sent all over the United States at the shortest notice.
+
+ All the best Brands of Albumen Papers and Card Stock, etc.,
+ etc., kept constantly on hand.
+
+ --_Send a Trial Order and be Convinced._--
+
+ L. H. WILCOX, _236 Fulton Street_, BROOKLYN, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+ The BEST is the CHEAPEST.
+
+ Listen not to the cries of venders of worthless imitations, but
+ buy the _genuine_, and receive FULL VALUE for your money.
+
+ _Dallmeyer Lenses,
+     Success Cameras,
+         Climax Cameras,
+ E. A., G. C. and Platyscope Lenses,
+     Handy Head-Rests._
+
+ _Genuine N. P. A. & S. & M. Albumen Papers_,
+
+ =With The WATER-MARK=
+
+ _Brilliant Swiss Albumen Papers,
+ A. D. Swiss Albumen Papers,
+ Hovey's, Morgan's, Peerless, Clemons' & Hail
+ Columbia Albumen Papers._
+
+ RAPID PRINTING PAPER,
+     EASTMAN'S DRY PLATES,
+         ANTHONY'S DRY PLATE OUTFITS.
+    Chemicals of Guaranteed Purity and Strength.
+
+ _Every Requisite for the Studio and Field._
+
+ SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND PRICE-LIST.
+
+ The Most Extensive Line of Velvet, Plush and Ebony Frames, Easels,
+ Albums, Stereoscopes, Graphoscopes, Portraits of Celebrities, Stereo.
+ Views, etc., on this Continent.
+
+ E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO., 591 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY. 591
+
+
+
+
+ H. EXTRA BRILLIANT.
+
+ H. EXTRA AND MORGAN'S Albuminized PAPERS
+
+ Fully 2,500 reams of Morgan's Paper has been made and sold within the
+ last year--equal to twenty million cabinet size pictures. We expect to
+ increase its sale the coming year to almost double the above, judging
+ from the demand of the last few months. The pearl tint is used in
+ greater quantities than the other tints. Send your orders for this brand
+ of paper to
+
+ J. HAWORTH,
+
+ _DEALER IN PHOTO. SUPPLIES._
+
+ 626 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA.
+
+
+
+
+ EASTMAN'S
+ Gelatino-Bromide
+ DRY PLATES.
+
+ RELIABLE, RAPID, INSTANTANEOUS.
+
+ THE BEST!
+
+ Used by all Professionals and Amateurs in preference to any others.
+ Complete Instructions accompany Each Package.
+
+ _Eastman's Gelatino-Bromide Pellicle_,
+ For those who wish to prepare their own Plates.
+
+ Manufactured only by the
+ _EASTMAN DRY PLATE CO., Rochester, N. Y._
+
+ E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., 591 Broadway, New York,
+
+ _SEND FOR CIRCULAR._      _TRADE AGENTS._
+
+
+
+
+ Andrew J. Smith,
+ PHOTOGRAPHIC STOCK DEPOT.
+
+ _WE KEEP A FULL LINE OF_
+
+ Photographic Materials,
+ Which we are Selling as Low as any house in New York or Boston.
+
+DEALER IN
+
+ N. P. A. and S. & M. Dresden, Hovey, Berlin,
+     Morgan's and Clemons' Double Albumenized Paper,
+         Nixon & Stokes' Ferrotype Holders,
+ Collins, Son & Co's Card Stock of every description,
+     Taber & Co's Pebble Mats, etc.,
+         Powers & Weigtman's Silver and Chemicals,
+ Anthony's Ether, Iodides, Collodion and Varnishes,
+     Atwood's Alcohol, Hyposulphite of Soda, Sulphate of
+         Iron, Acetic Acid, and Glass in any quantity.
+
+ _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs & Photographers. Everything pertaining
+ to the Trade. John Dean & Co's Plates._
+
+ Large Assortment of Frames, Convex Glass, Artists' Materials,
+ etc., etc.
+ _N. B._--No charge for boxing. Your orders are solicited.
+
+ _No. 94 Westminster Street_,
+ PROVIDENCE, R. I.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: AMERICAN INSTITUTE NEW-YORK]
+
+ HIGHEST MEDAL.
+
+ [Illustration: _The Medal of Superiority_ AWARDED TO Wm F. Ashe FOR A
+ PHOTOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND COMB. STAIRCASE, BALUSTRADE & PEDESTAL 1878.]
+
+ BACKGROUNDS
+ For Everybody!
+
+ Fancy, Plain, Rembrandt, etc., etc.
+
+ FLOOR CLOTHS, _painted in Oil_,
+ _Suitable for Interiors and Exteriors_,
+
+ ASHE'S COMBINATION STAIRCASE
+ BALUSTRADE AND PEDESTAL.
+ ASHE'S PATENT _Telescopic_ OR _Extension Pedestals_.
+
+ _AND THE FOLLOWING ACCESSORIES_:
+
+ ROCKS, VINES, BRIDGES, VASES, CABINETS, and MANTEL-PIECES in Papier
+ Maché and in Profile, the latter interchangeable and with practical
+ parts, DOORWAYS, COTTAGE WINDOWS, STAIRWAYS, BALUSTRADES, SLEIGHS,
+ BOATS, VASES, ETC., ETC., in profile.
+
+ _No extra charge to parties who furnish their own designs.
+ Samples free._
+
+ W. F. ASHE,
+ 106 BLEECKER STREET, NEW YORK CITY.
+
+
+
+
+ THE MOUND CITY CENTRAL
+ Photographic Stock House,
+
+ (H. A. HYATT, Proprietor),
+ NO. 411 NORTH 4th STREET,
+ ST. LOUIS, MO.
+
+ Head-quarters in St. Louis for ALL Photographers.
+
+ We keep on hand everything new and of interest to the Fraternity, to
+ be seen and examined at pleasure. Our stock is always complete and
+ in keeping with the times. It embraces, with the LARGE and VARIED
+ assortment of GENERAL PHOTOGRAPHIC REQUISITES, the following STANDARD
+ BRANDS OF ALBUMEN PAPER, which you can always depend upon getting FRESH
+
+ _Hovey's, Peerless,
+     Eagle Brand (Dresden),
+         S. & M. Dresden,
+   Morgan's, Clemons,
+       Trapp & Munch_,
+         --ALSO--
+ _Plain and Salted Papers._
+
+ We carry the Standard Brands _only_. There is _no_ Extra we cannot
+ duplicate with some REGULAR BRAND. Please remember this, and if
+ you desire fair treatment, and low prices, just send us a trial order,
+ note how _promptly_ we serve you, and the _quality_ of _goods_ you
+ receive, and we will be assured of your future favors. Our Motto is to
+ _please_, and we guarantee satisfaction.
+
+ _--OUTFITS A SPECIALTY.--_
+
+ Send for Illustrated Catalogue.
+
+ H. A. HYATT, 411 North 4th Street, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+
+
+
+ _Jno. G. Hood. ESTABLISHED 1865. Wm. D. H. Wilson._
+
+ WILSON, HOOD & CO.,
+ _No. 825 ARCH ST._,
+ PHILADELPHIA,
+
+ Deal in all varieties of
+ PHOTO. GOODS,
+
+ And solicit your orders, for any article you may need, including the
+ following:
+
+ _S. & M., N. P. A., & C. S. Double Alb. Paper, per ream, 35 cts.
+    "        "          "    Single     "          "      25  "
+ Morgan's Double Alb. Paper,                       "      34  "
+   "      Single     "                             "      30  "_
+
+ _All other brands supplied.
+     Magee's Nitrate Silver, Magee's Chloride of Gold,
+         Best Hypo. of Soda, keg 112 lbs. $4 48,
+             American Optical Co. Printing Frames,
+                 American Optical Co. Negative Boxes,
+                     American Optical Co. Retouching Frames,
+                         Negative Racks, Pans, Trays, etc.,
+                     Waymouth's Vignette Papers, $1 00 per pack,
+                             Onion Skin Paper, per dozen, 25 cts.
+ Singhi's Vig. Attachment, $1 50.    Todd's Vig. Attachment, $1 50._
+
+ "Hearn's Artistic Printing" $3 00.  "Hearn's Practical Printer" $2 50.
+
+ _COMPLETE PRICE-LISTS FREE._
+
+ SOLE AGENTS IN UNITED STATES
+ FOR THE ROSS AND STEINHEIL LENSES.
+
+
+
+
+ 1878 EAGLE STOCK HOUSE. 1881
+
+ GEORGE MURPHY, No.
+ 9 West Fourth Street, N. Y.
+
+ Photo. & Ferro. Materials.
+
+ _OUTFITS A SPECIALTY._
+
+ All Goods sold for Cash.
+
+ MANUFACTURER OF
+ _Eagle Negative and Positive Collodions,
+ Eagle Negative and Ferro. Varnishes,
+ Eagle Retouching Fluid,
+ Eagle Ground Glass Varnish._
+
+ SOLE AGENT FOR
+ _Hammenstede's Collodions and Varnishes,
+ Photo. Chemicals of best quality._
+
+ THE RETOUCHER'S OUTFIT:
+ _Eagle New Metallic Pencil, hard,
+ Eagle New Metallic Pencil, soft,
+ Medium Siberian Lead,
+ Artists' Holder, to fit all_,
+
+ The most complete set offered.
+
+ FOR THE PRINTER'S DEPARTMENT _is offered
+ Eagle Photo-Printing Masks,
+ English White Tissue Paper,
+ Thick Yellow Paper,
+ Onion-Skin Paper,
+ Heavy Blotting Paper,
+ Plain Papers,
+ Albumen Papers of all brands_.
+
+ Am also Agent for BRENGEL'S SALTED PAPER.
+
+ _Emulsion and Gelatine Dry Plate Materials, Emulsion and Gelatine Dry
+ Plates, best brands, Backgrounds, Chairs, Accessories, etc._
+
+ _Bargains in Card Stock. Bargains in Apparatus, Lenses, etc._
+
+ Domestic and Foreign CASH ORDERS Shipped Promptly.
+
+ Four Doors West of B'way. NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+ _ESTABLISHED IN 1802._
+ FACTORIES: Waterbury, Conn., New Haven, Conn., New York City.
+
+ Scovill Manufacturing Co.,
+
+ MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN
+ ALL ARTICLES USED IN PHOTOGRAPHY,
+
+ Warehouse, No's 419 & 421 Broome St.,
+ NEW YORK.
+
+ W. Irving Adams, Agent.
+
+ Irving and all brands of Albumen Papers,
+ Phenix Collodion,
+ Phenix Varnish.
+ French and other Chemicals.
+ Scovill's New Solid Glass Baths, [warranted.]
+ Osborne's Picturesque Foregrounds,
+ American Optical Co's Celebrated Cameras,
+ Dry Plates and Dry Plate Apparatus,
+ Lenses,
+ Parlor Paste,
+ Etc., Etc., Etc., Etc.
+
+ PUBLISHERS
+ Photographic Times and American Photographer.
+
+ Subscription price, $2 00 per annum.
+
+ Among its contributors are the leading men in the profession.
+
+
+
+
+ [FOUNDED IN 1842.]
+
+ THE NEW ENGLAND
+ Photographic Stock House.
+
+ Largest variety in the UNITED STATES.
+
+ Every Article required by the Amateur, Photographer, Picture
+ and Frame Dealer, Frame Maker and Crayon Artist.
+
+ SPECIALTIES.
+
+ _Original Importers of Imitation Dallmeyer Tubes.
+ Sole Agents for William's Mitering Machines.
+ N. E. Agents for Bryant's Accessories.
+ Sole Agents for the celebrated "Berlin Paper."
+ Sole Agents for the celebrated "Gem Paper."
+ Sole Agents for Burrill's Portrait Bust Pedestal.
+ Sole Agent for Burrill's Neg. High Light Reducer.
+ Bryant's Quick Collodion, Celebrated for Years._
+
+ _Dry Plate Outfits for Amateurs._
+
+ _Every Variety Dry Plate Apparatus and Materials.
+ Anthony's and American Optical Co's Manufactures.
+ Dallmeyer, Morrison and Voigtlander Tubes on Sale._
+
+ C. H. CODMAN & CO.,
+ [Formerly GEO. S. BRYANT & CO.,]
+ 34 Bromfield St., BOSTON.
+
+
+
+
+ ANTHONY'S
+ DRY PLATE OUTFITS
+
+ _Most Complete Assortment in Market._
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ LIGHT, PORTABLE AND INEXPENSIVE. FIRM, SUBSTANTIAL AND PRACTICAL.
+
+ _The Lenses supplied with these are superior to those furnished by
+ Any other House. Send for Descriptive Circular._
+
+ Anthony's Patent Perfect Dry Plate-holder BEST IN THE WORLD!
+
+ _E. & H. T. ANTHONY & CO. 591 B'way, NEW YORK._
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: Such things as test-tubes should be found in every
+photographer's work room; they cost little, and are always useful for
+working solutions. The sizes recommended are 3/8-inch, 1/2-inch, and
+1-inch diameter. A dozen of each will not be out of the way.]
+
+[Footnote 2:
+
+   Sodium         Silver           Silver          Sodium
+  Chloride  and   Nitrate   form  Chloride  and   Nitrate.
+    NaCl     +   AgNO_{3}     =     AgCl     +    NaNO_{3}]
+
+[Footnote 3:
+
+                 Potassium
+  Chlorine  and   Nitrite   and   Water
+     2Cl     +    KNO_{2}    +   H_{2}O
+
+give
+
+  Hydrochloric        Potassium
+      Acid      and    Nitrate
+      2HCl       +     KNO_{3}
+
+and
+
+                   Silver
+  Chlorine,       Nitrate,  and   Water
+     2Cl     +    AgNO_{3}   +   H_{2}O
+
+give
+
+   Silver       Hydrochlorous        Nitric
+  Chloride,         Acid       and    Acid.
+   AgCl      +      HClO        +   HNO_{3}]
+
+
+[Footnote 4: With the former we have this action--
+
+     Silver               Silver          Liberated
+    Chloride    gives  Sub-chloride  and  Chloride.
+  Ag_{2}Cl_{2}    =      Ag_{2}Cl     +      Cl
+
+With the latter the silver in combination with the organic matter, which
+is in a state of oxide, is probably reduced to the state of sub-oxide.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Sulphuretted hydrogen may be prepared by pouring dilute
+sulphuric acid on ferric sulphide. The chloride or the silver compound,
+when damped, may be held over it, taking care that no liquid is spirted
+up on to it.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Those who prepare collodio-albumen plates will find the
+upward filtration arrangement of immense value, as bubbles are unknown
+by it.]
+
+[Footnote 7: If bubbles are seen, they must be broken, and the sheet
+floated again for another minute.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The drainings are added to the next batch of albumen which
+is prepared.]
+
+[Footnote 9: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition, page 121.]
+
+[Footnote 10:
+
+                               Hydrochloric
+  Chlorine  and   Water  give     acid       and  Oxygen.
+     Cl      +   H_{2}O    =       HCl        +      O]
+
+[Footnote 11:
+
+  Nitric           Silver          Silver         Carbonic
+   Acid    and   Carbonate  give  Nitrate    and    Acid   and  Water.
+  2HNO_{3}  +  Ag_{2}CO_{3}   =  2AgNO_{3}    +    CO_{2}   +   H_{2}O]
+
+[Footnote 12:
+
+    Silver              Aluminium
+   Nitrate    and    Sulphate (Alum)
+  6AgNO_{3}    +    Al_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}
+
+give
+
+      Silver               Aluminium
+     Sulphate      and      Nitrate.
+  3(Ag_{2}SO_{4})   +   2Al(NO_{2})_{3}]
+
+
+[Footnote 13:
+
+    Silver        Hydrochloric         Silver
+   Nitrate   and      Acid      give  Chloride  and  Nitric Acid.
+   AgNO_{3}   +       HCl         =     AgCl     +     HNO_{3}]
+
+[Footnote 14: Suppose it is salted with ammonium chloride, we have--
+
+  Ammonium         Silver           Ammonium            Silver
+  Chloride  and   Nitrate   give     Nitrate     and   Chloride.
+  NH_{4}Cl   +    AgNO_{3}    =   NH_{4}NO_{3}    +      AgCl]
+
+[Footnote 15: Several other methods are given in "Instruction in
+Photography," in the Appendix.]
+
+[Footnote 16: One part of nitric acid to 4 parts of water.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The shutter may be made of American leather, covered over
+with one quarter-inch strips of oak or well-seasoned pine. The shutter
+should fit into a groove formed along the sides and bottom of the front
+of the cupboard.]
+
+[Footnote 18: In fig. 18 the fastening for only one of the pressure-bars
+is given, to avoid complication.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See "Instruction in Photography" (page 67), fourth
+edition.]
+
+[Footnote 20: For this reason, amongst others, it is desirable that
+photographers should use glass for their negatives which is at least
+tolerably flat.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See "Pictorial Effect in Photography" (Piper and Carter).]
+
+[Footnote 22: Hydrofluoric acid is always supplied by chemists in
+gutta-percha bottles, as it attacks glass. A spare gutta-percha bottle
+can easily be procured.]
+
+[Footnote 23: This calculation is near enough for our purpose. There
+are certain niceties which might be introduced, such as the "critical
+angle of the glass."]
+
+[Footnote 24: The boxes in which children's puzzles are often packed
+will give an idea of what is meant.]
+
+[Footnote 25:
+
+  Silver subchloride  and  gold trichloride
+       3Ag_{2}Cl       +       AuCl_{3}
+
+give
+
+  silver chloride  and  gold.
+       6AgCl        +    Au]
+
+[Footnote 26: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.]
+
+[Footnote 27: "Instruction in Photography," 4th edition.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Or ten minims of ammonium lactate.]
+
+[Footnote 29: See Mr. W. Brooks' article in Photographic Almanac, 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 30: The crucible should be of Stourbridge clay.]
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+Hyphenation, variations in spelling and inconsistent numbering of,
+and references to, figures have been retained as in the original
+publication.
+
+Apart from spaces within compounds (which have been removed),
+formulae have been retained as originally published, excepted
+where noted below.
+
+On page 81, symbols resembling the left- and right-hand corners of a
+frame have been represented as |_ and _| as in varnish, thus |_ _|;
+
+Changes have been made as follows:
+
+    Page 3
+    Nitric Acid _changed to_
+    Potassium Nitrate
+
+    Page 6
+    If the operator carefully collect the white _changed to_
+    If the operator carefully collects the white
+
+    Page 14
+    theoretical limit to amount _changed to_
+    theoretical limit to the amount
+
+    Page 19
+    2AGNO_{3} _changed to_
+    2AgNO_{3}
+
+    Nitratem _changed to_
+    Nitrate.
+
+    Page 22
+    AgNo_{3} _changed to_
+    AgNO_{3}
+
+    Page 23
+    Ammonium Nitrate Silver Chloride _changed to_
+    Ammonium Nitrate and Silver Chloride
+
+    NH_{4},NO_{3} _changed to_
+    NH_{4}NO_{3}
+
+    AgNo_{3} _changed to_
+    AgNO_{3}
+
+    Page 40
+    8 inches. _changed to_
+    18 inches.
+
+    Page 41
+    printer could not hope to do it successfully. _changed to_
+    printer could not hope to do it successfully."
+
+    Page 46
+    the ordinary consistency, than _changed to_
+    the ordinary consistency, then
+
+    Page 49
+    enable the operator to guage _changed to_
+    enable the operator to gauge
+
+    Page 53
+    centreing his imagination in _changed to_
+    centring his imagination in
+
+    Page 64
+    light on B would be only four twenty-fifths _changed to_
+    light on B would be only four-twenty-fifths
+
+    Page 65
+    and cut out an aperature corresponding _changed to_
+    and cut out an aperture corresponding
+
+    Page 66
+    at a proper heigth from _changed to_
+    at a proper height from
+
+    Page 69
+    Having discribed in the last _changed to_
+    Having described in the last
+
+    Page 70
+    as it sometimes called _changed to_
+    as it is sometimes called
+
+    Page 71
+    and the effect be improved.. _changed to_
+    and the effect be improved.
+
+    Page 83
+    If he find that he is not _changed to_
+    If he finds that he is not
+
+    Page 87
+    so dilute the reduction takes places very slowly _changed to_
+    so dilute the reduction takes place very slowly
+
+    Page 88
+    common desinfecting powder _changed to_
+    common disinfecting powder
+
+    it as as well to have two _changed to_
+    it is as well to have two
+
+    Page 90
+    a littler acetic acid or common salt _changed to_
+    a little acetic acid or common salt
+
+    Page 91
+    must be rememberd we are _changed to_
+    must be remembered we are
+
+    Page 92
+    when the sodium hypsulphite is _changed to_
+    when the sodium hyposulphite is
+
+    Page 95
+    and, with a squegee _changed to_
+    and, with a squeegee
+
+    Page 101
+    floated on-- _changed to_
+    floated on:--
+
+    Last page of advertisements
+    BEST IN THE WORD! _changed to_
+    BEST IN THE WORLD!
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art and Practice of Silver Printing, by 
+H. P. Robinson and Capt. Abney
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42547 ***