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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41493 ***
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+  Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have
+  been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.
+
+  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+  On page 80, "mearly" may be a typo for "merely".
+  On page 98, "could't" may be a typo for "couldn't".
+  The text refers to both "The Dalles" and "the Dalles".
+  On page 160, "ever charge" may be a typo for "every charge".
+  On pages 178 and 179, Rev. Waller's name is spelled Alvan then
+    Alvin.
+  On page 274, "Lahiana" may be a typo for "Lahaina".
+
+
+
+
+     THE
+     QUARTERLY
+     OF THE
+     OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY
+
+     VOLUME IV
+     MARCH, 1903-DECEMBER, 1903
+
+     EDITED BY FREDERIC GEORGE YOUNG
+
+     J. R. WHITNEY, STATE PRINTER
+     SALEM, OREGON
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+
+
+SUBJECT INDEX.
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+     Astoria, The Educational History of. Alfred A. Cleveland    21-32
+
+     Astoria, Social and Economic History of. Alfred A.
+       Cleveland                                               130-149
+
+     Baker, Dorsey S.: A Pioneer Railroad Builder. Miles C.
+       Moore                                                   195-201
+
+     Bancroft, The Origin and Authorship of the Pacific
+       States Publications: A History of a History. William
+       Alfred Morris                                           287-364
+
+     Calapooia, The Upper. George O. Goodall                     70-77
+
+     Captain of Industry in Oregon, A Pioneer (Joseph Watt).
+       James R. Robertson                                      150-167
+
+     Centennial, The Lewis and Clark. F. G. Young                 1-20
+
+     Corrections, Some. F. G. Young and H. S. Lyman    86-87, 286, 409
+
+     Civil War, Oregon and its Share in the. Robert Treat
+       Platt                                                    89-109
+
+     Code of Oregon, History of the Preparation of the First.
+       James K. Kelly                                          185-194
+
+     Cone, Anson Sterling, Reminiscences of. H. S. Lyman       251-258
+
+     Documents:--
+
+       First Installment--Two Whitman Sources: "Arrival from
+       Oregon"--an editorial from the _New York Daily Tribune_
+       of March 29, 1843, and "Cruising in the Sound"--
+       communication to the _New York Spectator_, April 5,
+       1843; newspaper excerpts relating to the Oregon
+       emigration movement 1842-1843                           168-184
+
+       Second Installment--Oregon material taken from file of
+       an Independence (Mo.) and Weston (Mo.) paper for
+       1844-1845 and from other papers in that vicinity        270-286
+
+       Third Installment--Letter of Jedediah S. Smith, David
+       E. Jackson, and William L. Sublette (1830) giving an
+       account of the taking of the first wagons to the Rocky
+       Mountains and of the Hudson Bay Company post, Fort
+       Vancouver, also operations of Company in Oregon Country
+       & excerpts from St. Louis papers, 1832-1848, on the
+       migration to and settlement of Oregon                   394-409
+
+     Early Days in Oregon, Glimpses of. Charlotte Moffett
+       Cartwright                                                55-69
+
+     Easts, Two, The Great West and the. Henry E. Reed         110-129
+
+     Economic History of Astoria, Social and. Alfred A.
+       Cleveland                                               130-149
+
+     Educational History of Astoria, The. Alfred A.
+       Cleveland                                                 21-32
+
+     Holman, Joseph, Short Biography of. Dictated by himself   392-394
+
+     Hopkins, Mrs. Rebeka, Reminiscences. H. S. Lyman          259-261
+
+     Independence (Mo.), Excerpts from papers of               270-286
+
+     Indian Tradition, Minto Pass; Its History and an. John
+       Minto                                                   241-250
+
+     Indian Wars of Southern Oregon. William M. Colvig         227-240
+
+     Industry, a Pioneer Captain of, in Oregon. (Joseph
+       Watt)                                                   150-167
+
+     Jackson, David E., Letter of, with Jedediah S. Smith
+       and William L. Sublette                                 395-398
+
+     La Bonte's, Louis, Recollections of Men. H. S. Lyman      264-266
+
+     Lane County, Early Schools in. Jos. H. Sharp              267-268
+
+     Lewis and Clark, The, Centennial. F. G. Young                1-20
+
+     Minto Pass: Its History and an Indian Tradition. John
+       Minto                                                   241-250
+
+     Montures on French Prairie, The. S. A. Clarke             268-269
+
+     Oregon and Its Share in the Civil War. Robert Treat
+       Platt                                                    89-109
+
+     Oregon, History of the Preparation of the First Code of.
+       James K. Kelly                                          185-194
+
+     Oregon, Indian Wars of Southern. William M. Colvig        227-240
+
+     Pacific States Publications, The Origin and Authorship
+       of the Bancroft. William Alfred Morris                  287-364
+
+     Papers, Pioneer, of Puget Sound. Clarence B. Bagley       365-385
+
+     Paternalism, An Object Lesson in. T. W. Davenport           33-54
+
+     Puget Sound, Pioneer Papers of. Clarence B. Bagley        365-385
+
+     Railroad Builder, A Pioneer: Dorsey S. Baker. Miles C.
+       Moore                                                   195-201
+
+     Rees, Willard H., In Memoriam of. John Minto              386-391
+
+     Reminiscences Anson Sterling Cone. Mrs. Rebeka Hopkins,
+       Mrs. Anna Tremewan, and Louis La Bonte                  251-266
+
+     San Francisco. From Walla Walla to Captain John Mullan,
+       U. S. A.                                                202-226
+
+     Schools, Early, in Lane County. Jos. H. Sharp             267-268
+
+     Social and Economic History of Astoria. Alfred A.
+       Cleveland                                               130-149
+
+     Smith, Jedediah S., Letter of, with David E. Jackson
+       and William L. Sublette                                 395-398
+
+     Southern Oregon, Indian Wars of. William M. Colvig        227-240
+
+     Sublette, William L., Letter of, with David E. Jackson
+       and Jedediah S. Smith                                   395-398
+
+     Tremewan, Mrs. Anna, Reminiscences of. H. S. Lyman        261-264
+
+     Walla Walla, From, to San Francisco. Captain John
+       Mullan, U. S. A.                                        202-226
+
+     West, The Great, and the Two Easts. Henry E. Reed         110-129
+
+     Weston (Mo.), Excerpts from papers of                     270-286
+
+     Wood, Tallmadge B., Letters of                              80-85
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORS' INDEX.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+     _Bagley, Clarence B._--Pioneer Papers of Puget Sound      365-385
+
+     _Cartwright, Charlotte Moffett_--Glimpses of Early Days
+       in Oregon                                                 55-69
+
+     _Clarke, S. A._--The Montures on French Prairie           268-269
+
+     _Cleveland, Alfred A._--The Educational History of
+       Astoria                                                   21-32
+
+     _Cleveland, Alfred A._--Social and Economic History of
+       Astoria                                                 130-143
+
+     _Colvig, William M._--Indian Wars of Southern Oregon      227-240
+
+     _Davenport, T. W._--An Object Lesson in Paternalism         33-54
+
+     _Goodall, George O._--The Upper Calapooia                   70-77
+
+     _Jackson, David E._--Letter of, with Smith and
+       Sublette                                                395-398
+
+     _Kelly, James K._--History of the Preparation of the
+       First Code of Oregon                                    185-194
+
+     _Lyman, Horace S._--Reminiscences of, Anson Sterling
+       Cone; Mrs. Rebeka Hopkins; Mrs. Anna Tremewan; Louis
+       La Bonte                                                251-266
+
+     _Lyman, Horace S._--Some Corrections                        86-87
+
+     _Minto, John_--Minto Pass: Its History and an Indian
+       Tradition                                               241-250
+
+     _Minto, John_--In Memoriam of Willard H. Rees             386-391
+
+     _Moore, Miles C._--A Pioneer Railroad Builder: Dorsey S.
+       Baker                                                   195-201
+
+     _Mullan, Captain John_--From Walla Walla to San
+       Francisco                                               202-226
+
+     _Platt, Robert Treat_--Oregon and Its Share in the
+       Civil War                                                89-109
+
+     _Reed, Henry E._--The Great West and the Two Easts        110-129
+
+     _Robertson, James Rood_--A Pioneer Captain of Industry
+       in Oregon (Joseph Watt)                                 150-167
+
+     _Sharp, Jos. H._--Early Schools in Lane County            267-268
+
+     _Smith, Jedediah S._--Letter of, with Jackson and
+       Sublette                                                395-398
+
+     _Sublette, William L._--Letter of, with Jackson and
+       Smith                                                   395-398
+
+     _Wood, Tallmadge B._--Letters of                            80-86
+
+     _Young, Frederic George_--The Lewis and Clark
+       Centennial                                                 1-20
+
+
+
+
+     THE QUARTERLY
+     OF THE
+     OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY.
+
+     VOLUME IV.     MARCH, 1903   NUMBER 1
+
+
+
+
+THE LEWIS AND CLARK CENTENNIAL.
+
+THE OCCASION AND ITS OBSERVANCE.
+
+
+Much that seems favorable, and not a little that is clearly
+unfavorable, has come to the Lewis and Clark Centennial because its
+date is just a year later than that of the Louisiana Purchase
+Centennial. A striking advantage in this close succession is, however,
+still to be used. It is the idea of a centennial at Portland in the
+Columbia Valley in the very next year following one at Saint Louis on
+the Mississippi that needs to be exploited. In this close succession
+of these two centennials of the access of the American nationality to
+regions of which one lies far beyond the other we have the key to the
+fullest interpretation of the national significance of the anniversary
+of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Nothing else could so tellingly
+exhibit the basis for a peculiar national interest in our anniversary
+as the fact that it is virtually contemporary with that to be observed
+at Saint Louis. The purchase of Louisiana bears practically the same
+natal relation to the western half of the Mississippi Valley that the
+Lewis and Clark expedition does to the Pacific Northwest. This the
+average American citizen no doubt finds it hard to realize. Oregon,
+however, can boast age over the other commonwealths west of the
+Mississippi, excepting only Missouri and Iowa and they are barely
+older.
+
+The western half of the Mississippi Valley has far outstripped us in
+material development. Nevertheless, considering the conditions of
+isolation under which the people of Oregon have labored they can be
+justly proud of the progress that has been made here in all lines of
+endeavor. Saint Louis will be justified in vaunting in 1904 the
+achievements and results of a century of development in the region of
+which she is the metropolis; but Portland, as the metropolis of the
+Pacific Northwest, would have been culpably derelict if she had not
+undertaken an observance of the centennial of the Lewis and Clark
+expedition that shall emphasize to the nation and to the world the
+significance of the occupation of the Pacific coast by the American
+people, and to foster the aspirations of one of the most favored
+sections on the face of the earth. The basis of our claim to a
+national recognition of our anniversary is something more solid than
+the fact that we have added what we have to the material strength of
+the nation. The secret of the unparalleled effort that Oregon proposes
+to make for the observance of the Lewis and Clark centennial lies
+deeper than a mere feeling of exultation over material development and
+the hope of advertising our resources to the world.
+
+The Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition has clearly two unique and
+complementary missions. It should bring fully into the national
+consciousness the historic services through which this nation attained
+an outlook upon the Pacific comparable with that on the Atlantic, and
+the significance of this to the future of the American people. It
+should address itself to the peculiar problems of progress on this
+coast and thus mark an epoch in the added impetus, the better
+organization, and the higher aims it gives us as a people; rightly
+planned it would be an exposition of patriotic national services and
+of the problems of largest social progress--an exposition of western
+history and western problems.
+
+The Lewis and Clark expedition and the Oregon movement, or the
+American movement to the Pacific, which the Lewis and Clark expedition
+initiated, have not yet had anything like an adequate interpretation
+in American history. Oregon represents the greatest opportunity in our
+national life--an opportunity that the fathers of Oregon made as well
+as seized. A sequel to the Oregon opportunity, or rather a part of it,
+were the immense gains south of the forty-second parallel on the
+Pacific Slope. Through the Oregon opportunity realized this American
+democracy has a territorial basis for supremacy among the nations of
+the world, and this nation and all mankind will profit from it to the
+end of time. The Louisiana Purchase was not an opportunity made, but
+only one accepted when it was tossed into the nation's lap. The Oregon
+opportunity, as it stands in history and in promise for the future--in
+what is realized and in what is only potential--is in its import only
+second to the American opportunity. It had to do with the winning of a
+domain that made our nation four-square and continental, with a
+national territory commensurate with the spirit and possibilities of
+the American people.
+
+The development of the situation on this coast, which the Lewis and
+Clark expedition converted into America's opportunity, was something
+like this: Four hundred years ago this continent lay unoccupied save
+by a race destined to melt away before the onslaughts of the sturdier
+European. The Spaniard, schooled by eight centuries of crusading
+against the Moor, whom he had finally driven from Spanish soil, was in
+the moment of victory, when his hands were free and spirit exultant,
+pointed by Columbus the supposed way to the Indies, long-famed for
+unparalleled riches. Spanish hopes were high and the cavaliers came
+on.
+
+They passed by the West Indies in quest of gold. Cortes and Pizarro
+found something of their hearts' desire in Mexico and Peru. So on they
+pressed down the west coast of South America and up the west coast of
+North America and across the Pacific; but the vigor of the Spaniard
+was about wasted. He hung helplessly to his outposts on the flanks of
+the Pacific Northwest. At the beginning of the last quarter of the
+eighteenth century he rallied and sent vessels up and down the coast
+of Oregon; but his explorations were not determinate, and they were
+not followed by occupation. Early in the eighteenth century the
+Muscovite, advancing eastward across Siberia, had reached the shores
+of the Pacific, and soon gained a foothold on our northern shores,
+with designs on all this coast. England, too, was ready to have a hand
+in the contest for this last great territorial prize on the North
+American continent. Elated by her decisive victories over her mortal
+enemy, France, and, by the treaty of Paris, 1763, the proud possessor
+of all of the eastern half of this continent, of India, mistress of
+the seas, conscious also of the great advantages that the invention of
+the steam engine, the power loom and other machinery gave her, she
+dispatched explorers to scan the different quarters of the globe for
+new possessions. Captain Cook outlined the shores of Australia and of
+many other lands of the south seas, and in 1778 was off the Oregon
+coast. At the same time enterprising Britons were pressing westward
+along the Great Lakes and overland toward this still available portion
+of the continent. Thus, the progressive nations of the world were
+closing in on this last choice imperial domain of the temperate zone
+awaiting a pre-emptor--the possessor of which would be the natural
+master of the Pacific. At this critical juncture the then young
+American nation was fortunate in the spirit of maritime enterprise
+among the merchants of Boston. Seeking the profits of trade in furs
+which the voyage of Cook had revealed, they sent Captains Gray and
+Kendrick to the North Pacific coast, and in 1792 Gray, in the ship
+Columbia, performed the feat that secured to this country priority of
+right to the basin of the Columbia. Still more fortunate was this
+country at this time in having the prescient mind of Thomas Jefferson
+devoted to its interests. While Gray's vessel was lying in the
+Columbia he was getting up a subscription for sending explorers
+overland to the Pacific. Even ten years before this he had proposed an
+expedition to the Pacific under the leadership of George Rogers Clark.
+He then had it in mind to head off an English enterprise of which he
+had heard; but it was not until 1803, twenty years after his first
+effort in this direction, that Jefferson succeeded in getting the
+means for the first and by far the most important of our national
+exploring expeditions--the Lewis and Clark.
+
+But this was not simply an exploring expedition. It represents better
+than any other one event the expansion of this nation from the
+Mississippi to the Pacific. The expedition was great not merely even
+in what it symbolizes. It was grandly great in itself, in its
+inception, and in execution. It was the herald of the American
+democracy making its way across the continent to the Pacific, but it
+was more. There was the highest nobility of purpose in its inception,
+and matchless skill and fortitude in its execution. Not only in the
+train of its consequences, but in every aspect was it glorious and
+worthy of a national celebration. The burden of the special message of
+January 18, 1803, through which President Jefferson secured an
+appropriation for it, was the maintenance of the factory system, or
+the trading posts, among the Indian tribes of the west. Jefferson
+took keenest delight in a project to extend the bounds of knowledge
+and which he hoped would open a water route of commerce across the
+continent with Asia. Yet on the face of it the Lewis and Clark
+expedition had primarily its inception as a means for promoting the
+success of these government trading posts among the Indians. This
+governmental policy, connected with the administration of the factory
+system, was the one comprehensive, wise, and humane national effort to
+raise a lower race to the plane of civilization. The idea was to
+supply the Indian at cost, in exchange for his furs and other
+products, the implements of husbandry and the comforts of civilized
+life, at the same time to protect him from the demoralizing influences
+of the vicious among the white men. The Lewis and Clark expedition was
+thus in its origin associated with a work of the largest philanthropy,
+"a system," says Captain Chittenden, author of "The American Fur Trade
+in the Far West," "which, if followed out as it should have been,
+would have led the Indian to his new destiny by easy stages, and would
+have averted the long and bloody wars, corruption, and bad faith,
+which have gained for a hundred years of our dealings with the Indians
+the unenviable distinction of a 'Century of Dishonor.'"
+
+In his instructions to the leaders of the expedition Jefferson showed
+the tenderest solicitude for the welfare of the red man. The
+expedition could not have been in better hands. Captain Chittenden
+says of it: "This celebrated performance stands as incomparably the
+most perfect achievement of its kind in the history of the world." Dr.
+Elliott Coues has this about it: "The story of this adventure stands
+easily first and alone. This is our national epic of exploration." To
+appreciate the unique skill of leadership in this expedition we need
+but compare its success with the wretched failure of the "Yellowstone
+Expedition" of 1820, which was to have gone over but a part of the
+route of Lewis and Clark. This had an outfit many times more expensive
+than that of Lewis and Clark and ten times as many men; but it went to
+pieces before it got beyond what is now Omaha.
+
+Unique as the Lewis and Clark expedition was in its original purposes
+and in its execution, the Oregon people are sponsors for the
+celebration of its coming centennial anniversary mainly because of the
+consequences with which it was fraught. Theodore Roosevelt, in his
+"Winning of the West," speaks of it as opening "the door into the
+heart of the West." His book has the date mark "1896." It was written
+before the battle of Manila, and the treaty closing the
+Spanish-American war which placed the Philippines permanently under
+our care, before America's determining part in preserving the
+integrity of China after the quelling of the Boxer insurrection. It
+was written before President Roosevelt had set his eyes upon the
+Pacific Northwest. If, after the latter days of this month (May), he
+ever again has occasion to characterize the import of the Lewis and
+Clark expedition, his dictum will be more like this: "It led to the
+acquisition of the whole Pacific Coast, containing the fairest and
+richest regions under the American flag, and made inevitable the
+American mastery of the Pacific and American supremacy among the
+nations of the world." It is, surely, not preposterous to expect a
+revision of the verdict of history on the significance of the Lewis
+and Clark expedition. Henry Adams, than whom no scholar has done
+better work on the history of the United States, in volume IV of his
+history, with date mark, 1890, speaks of the Lewis and Clark
+expedition in this wise: "The crossing of the continent was a great
+feat, but it was nothing more. * * Great gains to civilization could
+be made only on the Atlantic coast under the protection of civilized
+life." Mr. Adams in this estimate seems wholly blind to the fact that
+nations like individuals have opportunities presented to them which
+seized may not give immediate results but which have an ever
+increasing influence upon their destiny. In the Lewis and Clark
+expedition this nation took the flood tide to world supremacy. Three
+years ago, when American arms and diplomacy were exercising such a
+determining influence on the problem of mankind in China, I heard
+Prof. F. J. Turner of the University of Wisconsin, the highest
+authority on western history, who writes so forcibly on the Louisiana
+Purchase in the current number of the _Review of Reviews_, say, that
+"the occupation of the Pacific Coast by the American people was not
+only the greatest event in American history, but a great event in all
+history."
+
+That the American movement Oregonward and Pacificward followed
+strictly in the wake of the Lewis and Clark expedition has many
+proofs. Even before Lewis and Clark reached Saint Louis on their
+homeward journey they met parties of traders and trappers bound for
+the heart of the wilderness from which they were returning. These were
+acting on the information Lewis and Clark had sent back from their
+Mandan winter quarters. A few months after they reached Saint Louis
+the Missouri Fur Company was organized to conduct operations on the
+Upper Missouri, that is, on the trail of Lewis and Clark. Four years
+later John Jacob Astor organized the Pacific Fur Company, and devised
+plans including a great emporium at the mouth of the Columbia, trade
+with China on the west, with the Russian settlements on the north, and
+a line of trading posts overland on the Lewis and Clark route. Astor's
+scheme was a feasible one, but the war of 1812 came on and England
+dispatched a vessel to capture the American post on the Columbia.
+Before this reached Astoria the British sympathizers among Astor's
+partners sold him out. Astor was probably the first to have a vision
+not only of what the nation was to gain on this coast, but also of
+what more might have been gained had President Madison been as bold in
+regard to his enterprise as was Jefferson in the Louisiana purchase.
+Had this been so Captain Chittenden thinks "the political map of North
+America would not be what it is to-day," implying that there would
+have been an uninterrupted American Pacific coast line from the
+extreme north to the Mexican boundary.
+
+So far our rights to the region were based on priority in discovery,
+in exploration, and in occupation; but now for a period of thirty
+years the British Hudson Bay Company was to have almost undisputed
+possession. However, the rights established by Gray, Lewis and Clark,
+and Astor did not lapse and could not be set aside through occupation
+by a mere trading company. During nearly all of this thirty-year
+period the Boston schoolmaster, Hall J. Kelley, was agitating the
+colonization of Oregon, and in 1832, and again in 1834, Nathaniel J.
+Wyeth, with herculean effort, indomitable perseverance, and incredible
+energy led expeditions to the Columbia only to meet with disaster when
+with his slender means he was pitted against the mighty corporation in
+possession here. With Wyeth came the first party of missionaries. The
+"Mountain Men"--retired trappers--soon followed, seeking homes here;
+and, beginning with 1842, annual migrations of thousands of Oregon
+pioneers were on the way. The Lewis and Clark exploration had thus led
+to a national movement--"the migration of a people," says Captain
+Chittenden, "seeking to avail itself of opportunities which have come
+but rarely in the history of the world, and which will never come
+again." The route traced by these Oregon pioneers will some day be
+restored as a national memorial highway, and will be celebrated in
+song and story, every mile of which has the tenderest associations of
+hardship and suffering, but also of high purpose and stern
+determination; and yet the Oregon trail was in the strictest sense a
+derivative of the Lewis and Clark trail. For nearly twenty years the
+Lewis and Clark route up the Missouri River had been the only one used
+to reach the Rocky-mountain wilderness, but in the fall of 1823 a
+party of trappers, pushing westward from the Yellowstone and desirous
+of avoiding the implacable Blackfeet on the Upper Missouri, turned to
+the south and discovered in South Pass, an easy crossing of the Rocky
+Mountains. The region beyond on the headwaters of the Green and Snake
+rivers, and in the basin of the Great Salt Lake, was found to be rich
+in furs. Henceforth to some point in this region the annual cavalcades
+of the fur companies would come and there meet their own trappers, the
+free trappers, and the Indians of all the interior country. This was
+the annual rendezvous for trading, for the delivery of the season's
+catch of furs, and for equipment for the next year's activity. In
+making this annual round trip from Saint Louis the original route into
+this transmontane country, the half-circle route along the Missouri,
+was naturally abandoned for a great cut-off from the western borders
+of Missouri to the South Pass. A direct route northwestward across the
+plains of present Kansas and Nebraska to the Platte, up the Platte and
+the North Fork and its tributary, the Sweetwater, was found to be the
+finest natural highway in the world. To reach Oregon the pioneers took
+this great cut off of the Lewis and Clark trail, and from its western
+terminus on the upper waters of the Snake they had but to follow the
+route of Hunt's Astor party until the original Lewis and Clark trail
+was struck again on the Columbia. The Lewis and Clark trail was thus
+the basis from which was developed the Oregon trail.
+
+During the forties, when the national movement was setting strongly
+towards the Pacific, Oregon was an uppermost subject in the thought,
+and frequently in the plans, of a large portion of the people of this
+country. Oregon pioneers were clinching our hold upon the Pacific
+coast. The party slogan of "fifty-four forty or fight" in 1844 had
+response deep in the hearts of a great majority of the people of the
+northern part of the Mississippi Valley, and stirred the whole nation.
+American influences and activities in California from 1846 on radiated
+mainly from Oregon. Captain Fremont was sent out originally to explore
+the best route to Oregon, and went to California from Oregon. William
+Marshall, the discoverer of gold in California in 1848 was an Oregon
+pioneer of 1844. Peter H. Burnett, the first governor of California,
+was an Oregon pioneer of 1843. The exclusion of slave labor from the
+mines of California was largely due to the "Columbia-river men." But
+now at the close of the forties came the diversion of the national
+interest from Oregon amounting almost to an eclipse of Oregon for some
+fifty years. The annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, the gold
+discovery in California, the opening of the Kansas and Nebraska lands,
+the civil war, the development of the manufacturing industries, the
+occupation of the Dakotas, absorbed in turn the main attention and
+energies of the nation, leaving outlying Oregon in comparative
+obscurity, with resources developing but slowly.
+
+Oregon's day, however, is dawning again. America's surplus energy is
+no longer absorbed in gold mining in California, in occupying the
+plains of Kansas, Nebraska, or the Dakotas. The overloaded passenger
+trains to the Pacific Northwest tell unmistakably the nation's need of
+this region. It needs our farm lands. It will more and more urgently
+need our lumber and our water power and our outlook upon the Pacific;
+and to whom do the American people owe the possession of these
+incomparable and growing boons but to Lewis and Clark and to the
+pioneers to whom Lewis and Clark pointed the way. Governor Chamberlain
+was right the other night when at Boise he spoke of the Lewis and
+Clark expedition as Jefferson's greatest act. Alongside the two
+inscriptions on Jefferson's monument selected by him, namely, that he
+was the author of the Declaration of Independence and that he was the
+founder of the University of Virginia, posterity will fain inscribe
+the fact that he was the promoter and organizer of the Lewis and Clark
+expedition.
+
+The observance of the Lewis and Clark Centennial, therefore, is an
+occasion in which the American people as a whole and through their
+government have the largest reasons for generous participation. For
+great was the Oregon opportunity to the nation and the Lewis and Clark
+expedition was the key that opened it. All honor from the nation at
+large is due to those who made this national opportunity and seized
+it. The possession of the Pacific coast was the corollary and sequel
+to the Oregon movement; but the Oregon movement itself was corollary
+to nothing less than the spirit and vigor of the American people and
+their foothold upon this continent.
+
+We have, then, a national occasion second only to that of Philadelphia
+in 1876; and the first great mission of the centennial will be
+realized when its occasion has been so interpreted and enforced that a
+hearty and liberal participation in the celebration on the part of the
+nation has been secured so that our American national consciousness
+may fully realize what has been "the course of empire" with us as a
+nation and what it is almost certain to be in the future.
+
+The accomplishment of the other mission of the exposition requires a
+true interpretation of the problem of largest progress for the Pacific
+Northwest. Expositions worthy of the name can not be "hit or miss"
+affairs. They are not mere congeries of remarkable products. An
+exposition should have an organic unity and a distinct aim. Its aim
+must bear directly on the highest interests of the supporting
+community. There are peculiar reasons for the exercise of the highest
+degree of care and insight in the organization of the Lewis and Clark
+Centennial Exposition. No people ever before invested so heavily in
+proportion to their means as Portland and Oregon propose to invest in
+the Lewis and Clark Centennial. No exposition was ever held in a
+community so plastic, so completely in the making as are Portland and
+Oregon. The current of common thought and effort is so strongly set
+toward the Lewis and Clark Centennial that the very cast of Oregon's
+civilization in the future will surely come from what is realized in
+that event. The exposition will leave an inspired, unified, and
+enlightened people, with ideals newly defined and elevated; or it will
+be followed by more or less of humiliation, factional strife,
+disgrace, blighting discouragement, with sordid ideals and disordered
+social relations.
+
+Most auspicious was Oregon's response to the idea of a celebration.
+Stronger faith in the good that may come from unity in action toward
+higher things no other people has ever shown; and why should not
+Oregon have faith in greater things for herself and the Pacific
+Northwest? The Pacific Northwest bears almost exactly the same
+relation to the rest of the nation east of us geographically,
+historically, and economically that Greece bore to the Orient, and
+that England bore to the continental nations of Europe.
+
+I take it, then, that the normal attitude towards the exposition
+project is one that regards it as a serious undertaking, having
+tremendous possibilities for making or marring much in the future of
+Oregon. The exposition comes when Oregon is just at the flood tide of
+new opportunities--opportunities that require twentieth century
+enlightenment on the part of the masses if these opportunities are to
+yield anything like unmixed good. Just as the Lewis and Clark
+expedition was the key that opened the Oregon opportunity to the
+nation so is the Lewis and Clark Centennial admirably adapted to
+become the key to open the way to the highest development of
+industrial democracy in the Pacific Northwest and to realize its
+leadership in social progress on this continent. We have, I think, a
+fine example given us by the authorities of Louisiana Purchase
+Exposition of how to plan definitely an exposition to accomplish a
+great purpose. The main idea with them is to make a world's fair for
+the first time represent the world in epitome as a "going concern."
+They thus express their main purpose: "As to the lesson for the world,
+the Directorate desire to make a leading point. It is to show life and
+movement. * * An attempt will be made to put the world before the eye
+of the visitor, each exhibit being so displayed as to make plain its
+story, its purpose, and its aim." And again: "The Department of
+Education is made the first department of the classification in
+accordance with the theory upon which the entire exposition is
+founded. * * * Through education man comes to a knowledge of his
+powers, and of the possibilities of life, and upon it are dependent
+the processes which extend throughout all the fields of industry. This
+correlation of the powers of the brain and of the hand of man,
+extending throughout the entire exhibit scheme of the exposition,
+will, for the first time in the history of expositions, afford a
+strictly scientific basis for the collection and classification of
+objects." And finally: "At Saint Louis, the prevailing characteristic,
+it is intended, shall be life and motion, and the installation of
+products and processes in juxtaposition. The classification is based
+upon this plan, and its effects upon the proportions of the buildings
+is noticeable in that Machinery Hall is relatively so small in area.
+The machines through whose operation raw material is converted into
+use and the processes employed in utilizing natural products will be
+exhibited, so that not only will the fund of human information be
+greatly increased, but suggestion will be made to students,
+scientists, and inventors that will give still greater development
+to genius in the following than in the preceding decade."
+
+The World's Fair, in this carefully planned purpose, affords a fine
+model for the Lewis and Clark Exposition. But Portland is not simply
+to do for the Pacific Northwest and the other peoples in close
+economic and commercial relations with it what Saint Louis aspires to
+do for the world. Saint Louis undertakes what was distinctively the
+nineteenth century problem--that of mastery by man of the physical
+forces of the world and of more nearly perfect adjustment to his
+natural environment. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, with its World
+Congress of the Arts and Sciences, and all of its exhibits arranged to
+promote the development of invention and the application of scientific
+methods to industry, has a great mission; and yet the peculiar field
+which belongs to the Lewis and Clark Exposition gives it, if not a
+greater mission, at least one more advanced--if you please a twentieth
+century mission. Man in the Pacific Northwest has a peculiar problem.
+All the science and art of the past are his legacy. They fairly press
+in upon him in their appeal to him for utilization here. Man here has
+a physical environment so rich and so diversified as not only to
+invite the largest application of science and art, but also one that
+demands the highest organization of associated effort. In other
+words, the Pacific Northwest places man in such relation to history,
+to nature, and to his fellow-man, as to promise him here, if his
+inheritance is not sold for a mess of pottage, man's highest
+development. It rests with the Lewis and Clark Exposition to rise to
+the occasion. For it represents a first possible step in a grand
+cooperative effort to develop a social environment here commensurate
+with what nature has done for us. If for a ruthless, wasteful course
+of social evolution that would never reach any desirable goal we would
+realize one of steady, frictionless progress, with opportunities of
+fullest life open to all, we must make the Lewis and Clark Centennial
+fulfill its high mission. If the people of Oregon and the Pacific
+Northwest do not persist in their determination to make this concerted
+effort toward the inauguration of the highest policies of social
+progress here it is hard to see what occasion can bring them so near
+this mood again. It is the spell that the commemoration of a great
+event and a great movement casts over them that will hardly be
+repeated. The Lewis and Clark Centennial then is the flood tide of
+opportunity. If it is not seized and we lapse again into mere
+individualistic policies "all the voyage" of life in the future of the
+Pacific Northwest will be bound in comparative "shallows and in
+miseries."
+
+An exposition planned to meet the twentieth century needs becomes the
+herald of an industrial democracy in which there is a completely
+harmonious cooperation for the realization of the highest social
+ideals. It is dawning upon us that publicity is the first condition of
+relief from the trust evil. We need yet, however, to realize that
+essential publicity or light is the talisman for developing a true
+democratic spirit to which are disclosed ever expanding vistas of
+possibilities. The first great duty of the exposition authorities is
+to bring to the people of the Pacific Northwest the largest
+enlightenment on the natural resources of this region. Taking our
+timber resources as an illustration, we are painfully aware that the
+timber holdings are not as widely and equably distributed among the
+masses as one could wish; but we have many rich natural monopolies
+which the whole people should share. They have common and incalculable
+permanent interests in the forests of Oregon, in the water power of
+our streams, in our facilities for irrigation, in the mines, and in
+the ensemble of natural beauty here. Shall the great natural forest
+areas in Oregon which may become the source of an ever increasing flow
+of wealth for all time for the whole people be allowed, without state
+forestry activity, to become mere waste places for weed trees? We are
+told by Mr. Elwood Mead, Chief of the Division of Irrigation, that he
+believes Oregon "has the largest area of unimproved land whereon
+irrigation is possible of any State in the Union." Here is a great
+interest in which most fortunately a policy of coöperation between the
+state and the nation has been instituted. What could be more
+propitious for the good fortune of the people than an active
+coöperation between the authorities of the exposition and the United
+States bureaus of forestry, irrigation, and the United States
+geological survey in preparing an exhibit of the data on the interests
+of the people of the State in these natural resources? With such
+definite, earnest, and laudable purposes in view, Congress and the
+Administration would respond to the claims of the Lewis and Clark
+Exposition in a very different spirit from that with which they have
+met recent expositions.
+
+By means of models, relief maps, photographs, drawings, charts, and
+graphic representations generally, along with congresses and the
+discussions by the press, the people, and their legislators, would
+come to take an intelligent and far-sighted view of these great
+inheritances of theirs. A whole summer given to the exposition of the
+people's interests in their common heritage, with the use of the best
+art of illustration, representation, and elucidation, would awaken a
+living interest so that they would make sure of their rights, conserve
+an equality of opportunities and make our natural resources yield
+their highest social utility. Our experience with our state school
+lands shows that such a fortunate condition is absolutely impossible
+without the influence an exposition could exert toward an
+enlightenment on our public inheritances.
+
+The Municipal Exposition at Dresden, Germany, during this summer,
+gives a suggestion for a municipal department for our exposition that
+would work a transformation in our civic spirit and enlightenment. How
+glorious it would be for Oregon if the Lewis and Clark Fair Clubs
+would in dead earnest determine to possess themselves of the
+philosophy of city making, and to do their best to control municipal
+activity in Oregon so as to make it conserve highest economic and
+æsthetic ends and bring about rational unity in all municipal
+development and foster an architectural spirit. Why not commission a
+delegate to Dresden? Why not begin to make wholesome, beautiful, and
+edifying the Oregon village and city, so that, as a whole, each may be
+a positive joy forever? The same strenuous idealism would find a rich
+field in the affairs of our counties and of our school districts. The
+Oregon farm must come in for as many meliorating influences as the
+Oregon town. All that good roads, graded schools, traveling libraries,
+neighborhood telephones, and model farm establishments can do to
+elevate the social conditions of farm life will be greatly furthered
+by the exposition; but the problem that is fundamental with the
+people, both of the town and of the country, pertains not merely to
+sharing the unearned increment of the natural and artificial
+monopolies, but also to participation in the gains of all capitalized
+industry. It is the problem of "peopleizing" the industries. Corporate
+organization and management should be a department of the exposition.
+By the elimination of all the unnecessary risk in investments in
+corporation securities through effective governmental regulation and
+supervision the people may gain control and reap the large profits of
+capitalized industry. The exposition will have its highest mission in
+securing to the people an interest in the gains and a share in the
+control of our industrial organizations.
+
+The next generation of Oregonians will not be found wanting in their
+ardor for the welfare of the state as a whole, in patriotic zeal for
+the betterment of all the conditions of life here and in aspiration to
+give the Pacific Northwest leadership in social progress if the
+schools are furnished the story of the Oregon opportunity as it was
+made and realized. This, as told by the actors themselves, should be
+compiled and distributed to the districts. The highest pitch of
+emulation to the mastery of this story and interest in the aims of the
+exposition may advisedly be secured by a system of prize essays on
+important topics pertaining to Oregon's development.
+
+This outline of the features that the exposition might include does
+not debar from it popular and recreative attractions. It does not slur
+the exhibition of the remarkable products of the farm, the orchard,
+the mine, the river, the forests, and the factory. The ideas
+emphasized will only give these products multiplied significance,
+bringing them into vital relations with life that is more than meat,
+drink, and wear. An exposition thus rationally planned will be the
+poor man's greatest hope. If he loses the aid it would give him toward
+the right solution of the social problem the odds are terribly against
+him in the race for an equitable distribution. Such an exposition
+would go far toward securing an open door to an equality of
+opportunity for all in Oregon. To block the organization of such an
+exposition would not be far from social suicide for the masses.
+
+The dominance of economic forces in progress is becoming more and more
+exclusive. It devolves upon the people to comprehend fully the living
+forces, and, by comprehending them, put themselves in position to
+control them and mold them to the higher uses of conserving an
+equality of opportunity for all. The Lewis and Clark Exposition lends
+itself wholly to this great mission. It is hard to see how a means
+quite so propitious will be available again.
+
+     F. G. YOUNG.
+
+
+
+
+THE EDUCATIONAL HISTORY OF ASTORIA, OREGON.
+
+
+The study of the school history of Astoria is of interest to the
+student of education in that it reveals a condition different from
+that of some of the other cities of Oregon, particularly those of the
+Willamette Valley. In the latter, private and public schools struggled
+for the mastery, with the private school far in the lead for many
+years.[1] In Astoria, on the contrary, the public school idea had a
+firm hold from the beginning and asserted itself as soon as the
+establishment of a public school was possible. The history of
+Astoria's educational progress, covering a period of fifty-two years,
+is chiefly the story of the beginning and gradual development of a
+system of public schools. There is traceable, however, something of
+the conflict, so prominent elsewhere, between the public and the
+private school idea.
+
+
+PRIVATE SCHOOLS.
+
+Astoria's first school, started in 1851, was of necessity private,
+owing to the fact that the school law, passed in 1849, was practically
+inoperative, and, in consequence, no public money was available. In
+the summer of 1851 the Rev. C. O. Hosford, a Methodist minister, at
+the earnest solicitation of some dozen parents, opened a school near
+the corner of Eighth and Bond streets, in a small two-room building,
+erected for use as dwelling house for the teacher, and schoolhouse.[2]
+This little pioneer school had an enrollment of ten pupils, and was
+supported by private subscription. Public sentiment favored a public
+school, and its modifying influence is seen at this time. No tuition
+was charged the individual pupil, but the parents contributed toward
+the support of the school each according to his means rather than in
+proportion to the number of children he sent to the school. Mr. V.
+Boelling, in addition to furnishing the schoolhouse and residence for
+the teacher free of charge, contributed twenty of the forty dollars
+paid monthly to the teacher.[3] The school was in session during the
+months of June, July, August, and September.[4]
+
+It is probable that between the closing of this school and the
+starting of the public school proper there were other semi-public
+schools.[5] Private schools were a necessity in Upper Astoria, owing
+to the small number of families there and the lack of means of
+communication between the two parts of the town. There were at least
+two private schools here prior to 1859, and they were patronized by
+the children of three families.[6] That this was done in at least one
+case from necessity, rather than choice, is shown by the fact that one
+of the patrons of these schools, T. P. Powers, a few years later, was
+the prime mover in the establishment of the Upper Astoria public
+school.[7] Miss Pope and Mrs. H. B. Morse were two of the teachers
+employed in these schools.
+
+In 1864 the first school that was in any sense a rival of the public
+school was started. The Grace Church Parish School became the rallying
+point for the first opposition to public education. This support alone
+would perhaps not have been sufficient to maintain it; but it also
+filled a place in the educational field which the public school seemed
+unable to occupy. That there was a real need for the school is
+apparent from the class of pupils that attended it. Large pupils who,
+owing to lack of early advantages, were far behind in their classes
+and who would have preferred to remain away rather than be classed
+with children much younger than themselves, and pupils advanced beyond
+the studies offered at the time by the district school, made up a
+large part of the number in attendance.[8] Latin, algebra, natural
+philosophy, and other advanced subjects were taught, and pupils for
+these studies came from the public school which had just previous to
+this time decided to exclude all branches beyond those usually taught
+in a district school.[9]
+
+This school was opened in the old "Methodist Church" situated on the
+corner of Fifteenth Street and Franklin Avenue, and was in charge of
+the rector of the Episcopal Church, Rev. T. H. Hyland. Mrs. Hyland,
+who had been a teacher in the East, taught most of the classes.[8] The
+school was supported entirely by tuition fees which were $7 per
+quarter of thirteen weeks. Three quarters were taught each year, and
+the attendance ranged between twenty and thirty pupils.[8]
+
+Rev. Mr. Hyland was appointed to the Astoria parish while it was a
+missionary station and so received no salary from the home
+congregation. The parish school was started chiefly as a means of
+revenue to help pay for the maintenance of the church.[8] Former
+pupils testify to the excellence of the school and to the popularity
+of its founders and teachers.
+
+In 1866 the school moved to the rear of the church on Commercial
+Street, between Eighth and Ninth, and continued regularly until the
+departure of Rev. Mr. Hyland and wife in 1878.[8]
+
+During the fall and winter of 1876-77 a night school, at which
+bookkeeping, writing, and arithmetic were taught, was taught by Mr.
+Kincaid in the Gray building.[10]
+
+In 1878 there were at least four private schools in Astoria. Mrs.
+Maxwell Young taught a school of twenty-five pupils in a building
+where St. Mary's Hospital stands.[11] Miss Cora VanDusen taught a
+summer session in the building near the southeast corner of Tenth and
+Duane streets, which was rented by the school board and furnished to
+Miss VanDusen free of charge during the vacation of the public
+school.[12] When the public school opened in the fall this school was
+moved to the room formerly occupied by the parish school. Professor
+Worthington, principal of the public school, taught a private school
+of six pupils. The fourth private school was taught by Miss Johnson.
+
+The increase in the number of private schools was due to two causes:
+dissatisfaction in some quarters with some action of the principal of
+the "lower town school,"[11] and the great increase in the school
+population. The latter cause was no doubt the more potent. At this
+time there were over five hundred children of school age in Astoria.
+
+In 1881-82 Miss Hewett conducted a private school at Grace Church,
+with an average attendance of twenty-six pupils and an enrollment of
+forty-six.
+
+From 1886 to 1895 Miss Emma C. Warren conducted a private school on
+Exchange Street, between Eleventh and Twelfth. This was by far the
+largest and most pretentious private school ever opened in Astoria,
+and yet represented only to a very small degree the idea antagonistic
+to the public school. All the grammar grades were taught, and also
+classes in advanced subjects, including Latin and German.[13] This
+school occupied to a great extent the place that should have been
+filled by a public high school. With the establishment of the high
+school in 1890-91 its field of usefulness was greatly limited, and in
+1895 it was merged into the high school by the employment of the
+principal, Miss Warren, as the head of the department of English and
+English Literature, and the entrance of most of the pupils of Miss
+Warren's school into the high school.[13]
+
+
+THE PUBLIC SCHOOL.
+
+The earliest schools of Astoria were supported by private funds, yet
+the payment of any fixed sum was not made a condition for entrance.
+They were supported by private subscription for the benefit of all the
+children of the town.
+
+In 1854 District No. 1 was established, and included a large tract of
+land bounded by Young's River, from the falls to its juncture with
+Columbia, the Columbia River and a zigzag line starting near
+Thirty-eighth Street, and connecting the Columbia River with the
+Young's River Falls.[14] To this district, in October of the same
+year, was paid the sum of $20, all the school money then
+available.[14] The next year, under the revised law of 1853-54, the
+county fund yielded more, and District No. 1 received $104.77. A part
+of this amount was from tax, and the rest from fines.[14]
+
+The first school taught after the district was organized, as near as
+can be ascertained (there are no records in existence), was taught in
+what was known as the "Old Methodist Church,"[15] a building erected
+in 1853-54,[16] on a piece of land donated for church and school
+purposes,[17] by James Welch, to the trustees of the Methodist Church.
+J. W. Wayne was probably the first teacher in the district. Nothing is
+known of the condition of the school, except that there were very few
+in attendance, and the school was in session only a very few months.
+Miss Liza Lincoln, Mrs. Hill, an English lady, and Mr. Moore, are
+names associated with the early schools, but the exact time of their
+service is not known, but all taught school some time before 1856.
+
+In that year Judge A. A. Skinner took charge of the public school in a
+building near Bain's Mill, known as the "Holman House."[18] He was
+assisted by Mrs. Skinner, _nee_ Miss Lincoln. The next year the public
+school was taught by Mr. Brown in the "old hospital" building,
+situated between Ninth and Tenth streets, on Duane. Mr. Brown is
+remembered for his skill in handling the large boys.[18] He was
+succeeded by Mr. Maxwell.
+
+Up to this time the district had been without a schoolhouse, but in
+1859 a building was erected on the corner of Ninth and Exchange
+streets. J. T. Maulsby taught the first term of school in it in 1860.
+The school was now too large for one teacher and the following year
+the board engaged the services of J. D. Deardorff and wife. He was a
+man of ability in his line of work and was well liked by both parents
+and pupils.[18] During the next term he was assisted by Mrs. Dr.
+Owens-Adair,[19] and the year following by Mr. Williamson,[18] a
+college bred man, who assisted much in building up the reputation of
+the school. Under Mr. Deardorff's management a nine or ten months'
+term was taught each year, and there were between ninety and one
+hundred pupils in attendance.[20] Astoria was maintaining an expensive
+school, and the money for its support was raised almost entirely by
+tax and private subscription,[20] as the money from the county school
+fund was inconsiderable at this time. This fund yielded to the
+district $132.50 in 1861, $149.80 in 1862, and $92.85 in 1863.[21]
+There is no record of tuition ever having been charged the pupils of
+the district. While Mr. Deardorff taught advanced classes were formed
+and pupils who had finished the ordinary grades of the school were
+enabled to continue their education.[22] Later opposition to these
+classes arose and finally the school board decided that only studies
+of the grammar grade should be taught. When this order was carried
+into effect, during Mr. R. K. Warren's term as teacher, a vigorous
+protest was made against it, and its enforcement caused much
+dissatisfaction.[22]
+
+The Grace Church Parish School had just been organized, and, no doubt,
+profited by the dissension in the ranks of the friends of the public
+school. The increasing burden of maintaining the school and the
+presence of the parish school ready to receive the advanced pupils,
+gave strength to the position of those who were opposed to teaching
+branches above the grade of the ordinary district school.
+
+In 1865 there was an average attendance of one hundred and ten pupils
+and a nine months' term.[23] This year the four districts of the
+county received $460.72 from the county fund and raised $2,308.49 by
+district tax.[23]
+
+In 1868-69 the average attendance in the public schools had dropped
+to eighty-four,[24] caused, in all probability, by the exclusion of
+the advanced classes and their transfer to the Grace Church Parish
+School.
+
+Mr. Finlayson and wife and Professor Robb were the teachers between
+1865 and 1869. From 1869 to 1873 very little change in the condition
+of the school is noted, except that there was a slight increase in
+attendance due to the return to the policy of providing instruction
+for all who had finished the grammar grades. In 1872 the state school
+fund became available and District No. 1 received $110.80 in coin and
+$111.95 in currency.[14]
+
+In 1873 Prof. W. L. Worthington, a very able instructor, was elected
+principal, and remained several years. More than one hundred children
+were in attendance in 1873,[25] and the citizens of Astoria were
+justly proud of their school. The _Astorian_ in its initial number[25]
+says: "We notice that the school is well supplied with maps, charts,
+dictionaries, gazetteers, atlases, etc. We doubt that any common
+school in Oregon is better supplied with such articles. * * The public
+school affords every opportunity for getting a good English
+education." The teachers were Professor Worthington, principal; Miss
+Watt and Miss Lawrence, assistants.[25]
+
+The history from 1873 is concerned chiefly with the rapid increase in
+the school population, the division of the district into six separate
+districts, the subsequent consolidation of all these districts, the
+final readjustment of the boundaries, so as to include only the
+schools within the corporate limits of Astoria, and the establishment
+of the high school, as the completion of the city's educational
+system.
+
+District No. 9, the "Upper Astoria" district, was established in
+1868, but no school was taught here until 1874. Mrs. W. W. Parker, who
+taught the first term of school in the district, had a school of
+fifteen pupils, and received as compensation $75 per month and
+board.[26] T. P. Powers organized the district, and when over seventy
+years of age taught a term of three months in this district in order
+that the right to draw school money should not be forfeited.
+
+The population of Astoria in the two years between 1874-76 nearly
+doubled, owing to the rapid growth of the fishing industry, and the
+schools were not able to keep pace with this growth.[27] In 1878 there
+were over two hundred pupils in actual attendance at the "lower
+schoolhouse." Professor Worthington, the principal, was assisted by
+Miss Brown, Miss McGregor, Miss Neale, and Miss Hewett.[28] In the
+first, or highest grade, algebra, physiology, and natural philosophy
+were taught.[28] The _Astorian_ says of the school: "The public school
+of Astoria is divided into three grades, with three classes in each
+grade. There has been a written examination in three of the grades
+[probably classes]. In this examination great care has been taken to
+make it impossible for the pupils to derive any assistance from
+text-books or from friends."[28]
+
+This crowded condition lasted until 1880 when a temporary relief was
+afforded by the establishment of District No. 9 and the building of
+two of the six rooms of the Shirely school. A ten-mill tax was levied
+for this purpose.
+
+The sudden increase in the school population brought with it such a
+large proportion of the county and state school fund that the money
+from this source, amounting to $1,953.67,[29] paid the entire cost of
+the school during the year 1876, the six-mill tax not having been
+used. "The district is now out of debt, and has $250 cash on
+hand."[30]
+
+The erection of a new school building was the main question before the
+taxpayers at the school meeting of 1882. That it was a necessity was
+admitted by all. The _Astorian_ said editorially: "There are three
+things Astoria needs--and we place them in their relative
+importance--a new schoolhouse, a flouring mill, and a new
+theater."[31]
+
+At the meeting held April 24, 1882, four mills for current expenses
+and five mills for building purposes were levied and a new schoolhouse
+ordered built.[32] The present McClure is the result of that meeting.
+
+District No. 26, known locally as Alderbrook, was established in 1890.
+
+By a legislative act of 1892 the four districts, now included in the
+city schools, together with the schools at John Days and Walluski,
+were consolidated into one district of the first class. This
+arrangement proved unsatisfactory, and in 1899 the boundaries were
+again changed so as to exclude the two districts lying outside the
+corporate limits of the city.
+
+During the fifty years that the public school system has been in
+existence the school population has increased an hundredfold. The
+distance between "upper" and "lower" Astoria, the rapid growth of the
+town during the seventies, made the division of the district almost a
+necessity. The gradual growing together of the two parts of the town
+making the interchange of classes possible and the consequent
+improvement of the schools with a lessening of the expense of
+maintaining them led to the consolidation in 1893 and the readjustment
+of the boundaries in 1899.
+
+
+THE HIGH SCHOOL.
+
+The high school is the result of a slow growth and its continued
+existence is due perhaps as much to indifference as to any very active
+sentiment in its favor. It started as an advanced grade of the public
+school when for financial reasons it was desired to keep as many
+pupils as possible in attendance. The presence of the large pupils and
+the quality of the work done gave the school a standing in outside
+districts and created a feeling of pride in the citizens of the town.
+The higher classes were disbanded in 1863 or 1864. The _Marine
+Gazette_ thus comments: "During the past week we have noticed
+considerable discussion in doors and out about the village district
+school. * * It was generally admitted that the school of eighteen
+months ago, I think it was--at any rate the one that contained all the
+larger boys and girls of the village with several others from Clatsop
+Plains, Oysterville, etc.,--was the best school we had had for three
+years or even a longer period. * * About the time named the teacher
+was restricted as to the amount or kind of instruction to be given in
+the school to the so-called advanced pupils. This restriction caused
+the disbanding or dismissal of several classes of the largest and
+oldest pupils. They quit the school, dispersed, went home, or to other
+schools distant to our town."[33] Advanced studies were restored later
+and became a recognized part of the course of study. The high school
+sentiment, stimulated no doubt by the record of the public for
+excellence in the past and to some extent by the desire to keep pace
+with the standard of scholarship set by the private schools, increased
+and resulted in the establishment of the present efficient high school
+in 1890 and 1891.
+
+The grammar schools are loyally supported in spite of the high rate of
+taxation[34] necessary to maintain them; but there is still a well
+defined sentiment against the maintenance of the high school at public
+expense, though this sentiment seems to be decreasing.
+
+
+WHAT THE SCHOOL HISTORY OF ASTORIA REVEALS.
+
+The earliest schools were semi-public, though supported entirely by
+private subscription. Public sentiment clearly favored the public
+school and secured its establishment so soon as conditions, including
+the necessary school laws, made it possible. The reason for the
+predominance of this sentiment in favor of the public schools can be
+found in the fact that many of the leaders in the development of the
+city came from the northern and middle western states, where the idea
+of public education had a firm hold. V. Boelling, S. T. McKean, W. W.
+Parker, Col. James Taylor, and later Capt. George Flavel, Mrs. H. B.
+Parker, John Hobson and many others were earnest advocates and liberal
+supporters of public schools.
+
+The public school has had an almost uninterrupted growth from the
+beginning, and to-day shows the result of half a century of effort.
+
+     ALFRED A. CLEVELAND.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] An historical survey of Public Education in Eugene, Oregon, by
+Prof. Joseph Schafer, QUARTERLY, March, 1901.
+
+[2] Letter of C. O. Hosford, January 22, 1903.
+
+[3] Letter of C. O. Hosford, January 22, 1903.
+
+[4] Ibid.
+
+[5] Letter of E. C. Jeffers, February 3, 1903.
+
+[6] Interview with Mr. Sam Adair.
+
+[7] Interview with Mrs. Mary Leinweber.
+
+[8] Interview with Rev. T. H. Hyland and wife.
+
+[9] _Marine Gazette_, May 30, 1865.
+
+[10] _Weekly Astorian_, December 18, 1876.
+
+[11] Interview with Mrs. Young.
+
+[12] Interview with Mrs. C. J. Trenchard, _nee_ Miss VanDusen.
+
+[13] Interview with Miss Warren.
+
+[14] County Superintendent's Record Book No. 1, 1853-1874.
+
+[15] Interview with J. M. Welch, and others.
+
+[16] Deed Book No. 1, Clatsop County.
+
+[17] Interview with J. W. Welch.
+
+[18] Interview with F. J. Taylor, and others.
+
+[19] History of Oregon and Washington, Northwest Publishing Company,
+Vol. II, pp. 502-506.
+
+[20] Letter of Mrs. W. W. Parker, December 12, 1902.
+
+[21] County Superintendent's Record Book No. 1, 1853-1874.
+
+[22] _Marine Gazette_, May 30, 1865.
+
+[23] Report of County Superintendent W. B. Gray, 1866.
+
+[24] Report of State Superintendent to Governor Geo. L. Woods.
+
+[25] _Astorian_, July 1, 1873.
+
+[26] Letter of Mrs. W. W. Parker, December 12, 1902.
+
+[27] _Weekly Astorian_, February 5, 1876.
+
+[28] _Weekly Astorian_, December 31, 1878.
+
+[29] County Superintendent's Record Book No. 1, 1853-1874.
+
+[30] _Weekly Astorian_, April 8, 1876.
+
+[31] _Daily Astorian_, April 4, 1882.
+
+[32] _Daily Astorian_, April 25, 1882.
+
+[33] _Marine Gazette_, May 30, 1865.
+
+[34] An eleven-mill tax was levied at the last school meeting.
+
+
+
+
+AN OBJECT LESSON IN PATERNALISM
+
+
+Even among those who have devoted their lives to the study of
+sociological problems, there is much difference of opinion as to the
+quantitative and qualitative influence of certain social conditions in
+producing the generally admitted bad or adverse phases of human
+society.
+
+At one time we read that poverty degrades men morally, and we peruse
+carefully prepared and apparently veracious tables showing that in the
+older countries there is an unfailing correspondence between criminal
+statistics and the price of bread; the per cent of offenses against
+persons and property increasing with the cost of the necessaries of
+life and diminishing with the amount of human exertion required to
+obtain them. Such is the generally received opinion of the common
+people, and we hear from the political platform and see in the
+publications of reform parties the assertion that it is useless to
+preach morals to those whose minds are mainly occupied in devising
+means to keep the wolf from the door.
+
+Those of our citizens who have given special attention to the
+debauching effects of the drink habit, call upon all to come to the
+rescue of American homes and American institutions, by banishing the
+American saloon, to which comes the response that poverty is the
+principal cause of intemperance and its incidents, and that the first
+duty of patriots is to remove poverty.
+
+Equally certain and circumstantial, on the other hand, are those who
+affirm that there is no necessary connection between poverty and
+criminality, and that, as a general rule, debauchery and consequent
+decadence of moral faculty go hand in hand with material prosperity;
+and if mixed coincidence can establish casual connection, they are
+not at fault, for long before Goldsmith wrote of the time "When wealth
+accumulates and men decay," keen eyed observers had connected a
+general laxity of morals with the abundance and diffusion of wealth.
+The failure of intertropical countries to furnish high grade men of
+morals and intellect, Doctor Draper attributes, not more to the
+enervating influence of heat, than to the ease with which human beings
+supply themselves with the necessaries of life. Coming down to the
+present period, it is common knowledge--the expanding profligacy and
+criminality of the mining camps where men could obtain extravagant
+wages in gold for services which in other pursuits would yield them a
+scanty living.
+
+Probably from such lump comparisons and crude observations, under
+complex conditions, have arisen two schools of social economists, one
+whose principal and primary aim is to abolish poverty as the chief
+obstacle in the way of human progress, and the other whose purpose is
+not definitely stated, but which conservatively clings to the _laissez
+faire_ doctrine of letting every man's condition depend upon his
+individual exertion; and as so far, in the world's history, poverty
+has been the condition of the great mass of mankind, in spite of
+individual exertion, the anti-poverty school of necessity, must resort
+to collective or state control of the industries of men, and thus
+relieve them from want and the fear of want, which are thought to be
+so depressing upon their energies.
+
+Just how or to what extent the state is to interfere with the
+individual's management of himself, or to what extent or in what
+manner he shall be relieved when he has failed to provide for his own
+wants and the wants of those depending upon him, are at present
+outside of any satisfactorily practical programme, and hence
+collectivism may be held to include all socialistic schemes from
+Bellamy up or down.
+
+In fact, collectivism is entered upon the moment the state is
+organized, for in the rudest criminal code there is a manifest attempt
+to relieve the individual from the otherwise caution and care
+necessary to defend his person and property; and in truth, as
+government has advanced, so has collectivism advanced, until now in
+the United States of America the commonwealth is giving children
+primary education, supporting and caring for the deaf, blind, idiotic,
+insane, and criminal classes, beside stimulating certain industries
+with bounties upon production or relieving them from the disastrous
+effects of free competition, by levying taxes upon competing products.
+It does much more. Commerce and agriculture have been relieved of
+their old time dread of the elements, for government now keeps watch
+and ward over the wind and waves, and gives timely notice of
+approaching disaster by land and sea. In the endeavor to pass benefits
+around, hatcheries for fish, experiment stations, laboratories, and
+various commissions have been organized and conducted at public
+expense; likewise the mails are carried, the public lands distributed
+to actual settlers or given to railroad companies, patents issued to
+inventors, bounties paid for the destruction of wild animals, noxious
+weeds exterminated, public officers appointed to examine food
+products, to conduct experiments upon flocks and herds, and to destroy
+those infected with contagious diseases.
+
+All this and much more are the results of collectivism, and there
+seems to be a constant tendency, as well as a constant demand, for
+more in the same direction. Individualism is alarmed and socialism
+hopeful; the former, at the encroachments upon personal liberty and
+the discouragement of personal exertion, and the latter, from the
+prospect of a complete disappearance of the competitive principle from
+social life.
+
+Here are two violent antagonisms, while there is no line of
+demarcation between them, as well defined as the most tortuous
+isothermal crossing the American continent. There is no scientific
+boundary of government. As between the two disputants it is a blind
+push and pull, in which neither party is satisfied with the result.
+There are gradations upon either side, and long ago Herbert Spencer
+became alarmed at the coming slavery, and that good man Gerritt Smith
+thought government should have nothing to do with the education of
+children; that it is altogether a private function and can not be
+usurped by the state without serious injury to those most nearly
+interested.
+
+While, however, doctrinaires have been groping for the scientific
+boundary, government has gone forward experimentally, with no chart
+but experience, sometimes right and sometimes wrong, no doubt, in its
+endeavors to follow the line of least resistance and do that which
+seemed likely to promote the general welfare.
+
+Granting the evident natural law that development is the result of
+activity of faculty, and, as a consequence, that individual
+improvement must come from individual exertion, it may be safe to say
+that the scope of government should be such as to give or permit the
+greatest normal and harmonious activity to the units of population, in
+order to bring about the greatest amount of aggregate excellence and
+happiness; and still it appears to be a matter of experience and
+experiment, in which science and altruism play but a subordinate part.
+Nevertheless, there should be investigation of governmental
+experiments, and the great and ever recurring question is, What do
+these show?
+
+Has government help promoted individual competence, and has it
+promoted the general welfare? In answering this question it will not
+do to look at it as a whole; each experiment must be taken by itself,
+and there must be an elimination, so far as may be, of complicating
+and conflicting elements. Of course there will be no attempt in this
+paper to do more than report upon a single phase of government help,
+and one, too, which to my knowledge has never been utilized for
+throwing light upon the great economic question. I refer to the
+settlement of Oregon and Washington under government auspices. It
+would seem as though there never existed more favorable conditions for
+a successful experiment in planting a model colony than were found
+here upon this Northwest coast. Certainly nature was lavish and the
+government munificent, and if these are chiefly instrumental in
+putting a community on its feet to stay, here should be found the
+living proof. Let us see; and first as to the country.
+
+The Cascade range of mountains, a high ridge bearing north and south,
+nearly parallel to the eastern shore of the Pacific Ocean and about
+one hundred miles therefrom, divides the states of Oregon and
+Washington into two unequal parts, popularly known as Eastern and
+Western Oregon and Washington. Bordering the coast of both states is
+another ridge, much lower, and between these two mountain ridges, are
+cross mountains connecting them, and forming valleys with independent
+river systems. These western valleys are but little above the sea
+level, have moist, equable climates, abundant timber, and rich soils;
+while the country east of the Cascades is an elevated table-land,
+sparsely wooded, quite arid, is subject to greater extremes of heat
+and cold and possessed of a strongly alkaline soil.
+
+It is to the western valleys I wish to refer in this connection, as in
+these the donation land law chiefly operated until its expiration in
+the year 1855. Under that law every adult male citizen and his wife,
+immigrating to this coast before the year 1851, were entitled to six
+hundred and forty acres of land selected by the donees in such shape
+as they chose, and those coming after that time, were entitled to
+three hundred and twenty acres taken by legal subdivisions. Never
+before or since have such magnificent inducements been offered to
+settlers, and by the close of the year 1855 nearly all of the good
+lands in the Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue River valleys were occupied
+by the donees who came from every State in the Union, but chiefly from
+the Mississippi Valley.
+
+Saying that these lands were taken by families, in section and
+half-section tracts, gives but a faint idea of what was acquired.
+Doctor Johnson's description of the happy valley in Rasselas would be
+rather too poetical to adopt for this country, as this is too far
+north for people to depend upon the spontaneous productions of the
+earth, but in many respects there is much similarity. The great
+Doctor's fancy had not been expanded and enlightened by the vast
+accomplishments of modern science and invention, whereby the forces of
+nature have been utilized, and, as a consequence, his happy valley was
+constructed more to gratify an indolent and dreamy æstheticism than to
+promote economic industry.
+
+In these western valleys, however, is everything that should stimulate
+men to the use of all their faculties, if steady and sure returns for
+exertion are better than unearned gratification of human wants and
+desires. Let the reader picture to himself an evergreen valley one
+hundred and fifty miles long and forty miles wide, a navigable river
+running the whole length, through its middle, with numerous branches
+on each side, the smaller rising in the foothills, the larger emerging
+from the forest covered mountains, the rich agricultural surface of
+the valley interspersed with timber and prairie in profitable
+proportions, and rising in gentle hills, among which are innumerable
+springs of pure, soft water, or subsiding into lowlands, here and
+there dotted by buttes, and he has the Willamette Valley, said by Saxe
+of Vermont to be the best poor man's country on the globe. This
+picture does not represent all its advantages by any means.
+
+Probably no farming country known has water power so abundant and
+diffused as here. Niagara is unrivaled for power, but the principal
+question there is one of distribution. Here the problem of
+distribution is reduced to small proportions, for no village or city
+is far away from water power.
+
+The Cascade Mountains, through their whole extent, are resonant with
+the clamorings of unused force, and likely, in their dark fir forests
+will first be realized Edison's dreams of the application of electric
+power,--trees felled, cut into saw logs and conveyed to the mill, with
+little of man's help except intelligent superintendence.
+
+To be sure the first settlers of Oregon had no such anticipations as
+these, but they were not slow to perceive the advantages everywhere
+around them; sawmills were erected in advance of the great bulk of the
+immigration, so that immigrants were not required to go through the
+experience of the first settlers of Ohio and Indiana, housing one or
+two generations in log cabins.
+
+No description of soil or surface or scenery can give an adequate
+presentation of this country, as upon the climate depends nearly
+everything which makes it, pre-eminently, a never failing supplier of
+man's wants. In this latitude, countries east of the Rocky Mountains
+have long cold winters and short hot summers, while west of the
+Cascades no such extremes are ever known.
+
+The Kuro-shiwo of Japan, a broad, deep, and warm current of ocean
+water flows along our western shore, tempering the mountain air and
+covering the valleys with perpetual verdure. At this writing, the
+twenty-fifth of January, the fields have been once whitened with
+snow, cattle are pasturing upon unfrosted grass, and wild daisies are
+in bloom. Occasionally a cold wave from the north pushes seaward the
+tropical warmth, when for a few days the inhabitants get a mitigated
+sample of the arctic regions, but such incursions are few and far
+between,--say once in ten years, and not to be compared with the
+winter climate of Idaho, Montana, or the Eastern States. So seldom and
+short are the periods, when the ground is frozen, that agriculture is
+continuous through the whole year. In every winter month plowing is
+done and grain sown.
+
+In what country, between the parallels forty-two and forty-nine north
+latitude, would cattle live through the winter upon grass, which was
+the dependence of those who crossed the great plains to this coast in
+the days of the pioneer? Arriving in these western valleys during the
+months of September and October, their teams worn and impoverished,
+were turned out upon the prairies and by midwinter were fat enough for
+beef.
+
+Such was the country and the climate of the west coast to which the
+immigrants came, a land flowing with milk (no honey), beautiful and
+grand beyond description, rich beyond expectation, healthful beyond
+comparison; its streams abounding with fish, and its mountains with
+game; a country where there has been no failure of crops, and where
+blizzards, hurricanes, and cyclones are unknown.
+
+Now a few words as to the character of the people who settled it, and
+in this examination I shall try to steer clear of the poetry and
+romance which are beginning to dehumanize them. It is not necessary
+for the purpose of this paper to show that the pioneers were more
+moral or more intelligent than those they left in the enjoyment of the
+peace and comforts of well regulated society, but it is important to
+know that they were a fair average in all respects as human beings,
+and as this question can not be determined by a personal examination,
+we must resort to the environment they voluntarily chose, or, in other
+words, to the objects and conditions which impelled them to the
+undertaking. The indolent and cowardly are not attracted by dangers,
+and hence we infer that volunteers make better soldiers than
+conscripts, and this inference is borne out by experience. Enterprises
+of great danger, forlorn hopes, are not chosen by those who love ease
+and quiet pleasure, but by the courageous and venturesome; those who
+take pleasure in overcoming resistance, surmounting obstacles, and
+braving dangers. The former are inclined to remain upon the old
+homestead, under the protection of law and the restraining influence
+of conservative public opinion; the latter push for the frontier, with
+apparent relish for the kind of life found only on the fretful edge of
+civilization. Some have assumed, therefore, that the borders are
+chiefly peopled by the reckless and immoral, those who would not be
+subject to proper restraint in the older communities; such an
+assumption, however, is wide of the mark. Under our flag there are no
+penal colonies; people go where they choose to go, and the currents of
+population are determined by self-selection. Places of trial and
+danger are taken by those who are not dismayed by such incidents, and
+unless we are willing to admit that there is a necessary connection
+between courage and criminality--that the enterprising and resolute
+are as a consequence tinctured with immoral tendencies--we shall
+believe what is more reasonable and in full accord with our
+experience, that the manly virtues are quite compatible with the moral
+attributes. I lived on the frontier, the Platte Purchase in Missouri,
+right among the people who contributed in men and money to the
+invasion of Kansas a few years afterwards, and I must say that I
+never lived in a more hospitable and law-abiding community. The
+forceful faculties were more prominent than in New England, but for
+personal honor, honesty, and brotherly feeling it would compare
+favorably with any portion of the United States. I had left that
+country when the Kansas troubles began, and was somewhat puzzled to
+reconcile the doings of the Border Ruffians with the character of the
+people as I knew them, but when I considered that a large majority of
+them were from the South, and, being born to the institution of
+slavery, were inheritors of all that such a state of society implies,
+I ceased to wonder.
+
+Notwithstanding the great advance in biological science, the human
+being is very much of an enigma, and, however well disposed he may be
+from natural endowment, we can not guess what he may do until his
+previous environment has been examined. Suppose John Brown had been
+born and raised in the South, and had read his Bible through Southern
+spectacles, and had heard the Word expounded by devout defenders of
+the patriarchal institution, would he not have been found praying and
+fighting with Stonewall Jackson when the time came for war?
+
+A large proportion of the pioneers were from Missouri, and at the time
+of the adoption of our constitution, which submitted the question of
+slavery to a popular vote, much solicitude was felt by anti-slavery
+men as to the result. Argument and inquiry were on the wing, and there
+was eminent opportunity, not only to learn the opinions and wishes of
+men but how those opinions and wishes came to be formed. Some of the
+ablest and best advocates of a free state were from the South and some
+of those who voted to fasten the relic of barbarism upon this free
+soil were from the North. One solid, earnest, but uneducated free
+state man, born and raised in Kentucky, and a resident of Missouri
+for several years just before coming to the Oregon Territory, was
+asked as to the evolution of his opinion and answered "that when
+living in his native State, a doubt as to the rightfulness of slavery
+had never crossed his mind; that he regarded abolitionists the same as
+horse thieves, and would have meted out to them the same punishment;
+that when he got to northern Missouri, where there were but few
+slaves, he was struck with the difference he felt and saw, as respects
+social conditions; people were more on an equality; that conservative
+deference paid to slaveholders was conspicuous by its absence, and
+when he got to Oregon, the spirit of abolitionism was in the air." He
+thought that if the good people of Kentucky could experience what he
+had they would clear slavery from that state in a year. I was
+intimately acquainted with that man for thirty years, and I am
+confident that I never saw one more honest and truthful, or one more
+ready to assist in reforms or more willing to be informed. Ignorance
+was his sin, as it was of the majority of those subject to the malign
+influence of slavery, and yet in his native State he was a possible
+border ruffian. What an honest, earnest man believes to be right he
+will defend, and for his convictions there is always a higher law to
+which he will appeal, notwithstanding the limitations of statutes and
+constitutions.
+
+Though a Webster might lose himself in adoration of the Federal Union
+and an Everett offer up his mother a living sacrifice to preserve it,
+it is to the credit of human nature that human rights, human
+interests, human convictions and affections stand nearer and dearer to
+the people than any mere machinery of human government. The
+abolitionists believed the Constitution of the United States was a
+covenant with Death and a league with Hell, and they protested with
+all their soul and strength; to those Southerners reared to believe in
+the divinity of slavery, the Constitution was a worthless rag, for it
+did not protect them in their supposed rights. To the men of earnest
+convictions on both sides we owe our present disenthrallment.
+
+The foregoing apparent digression has been indulged for the reason
+that the Oregon people were severely criticised and denounced in
+connection with our Indian wars, spoilation claims, and the votes cast
+in favor of slavery upon the adoption of our free constitution; and
+also for the reason that the aspect of character has a sociological
+bearing.
+
+Advanced evolutionists include with their scientific shibboleth, "the
+survival of the fittest," an ethical element, when applied to
+civilized society. The early settlements here were singularly free
+from transgressors. There was no criminal code and no courts of law up
+to the time of the provisional government. Every man was a law unto
+himself, and it is said there was no offense against person or
+property of sufficient importance to require them. These were halcyon
+days, often referred to by old Oregonians, who say that crime and
+criminals were unknown until society was put under the tantalizing
+reign of law. I have heard not a few, in referring to the good old
+times, express the opinion that mankind are governed too much by
+statute and thereby released, in a great degree, from moral restraint.
+
+There is occasionally an old settler so impressed with pioneer
+equality, fraternity, and purity, that he lays all subsequent social
+disturbance to the provoking interference of legal machinery with
+natural rights, and he longs "for a lodge in some vast wilderness"
+where he can end his days in peace, away from penalties and penal
+institutions and the temptations which civil government offers to the
+predatory instincts of men.
+
+Such logical metonomy is not mentioned here except to show that the
+pioneers were lovers of peace and good order, and fully subject to
+enlightened moral restraint. As before mentioned, they were peculiar
+in one respect, that is, in the possession of a large share of the
+executive or heroic qualities.
+
+The Great American Desert, with its sand stretches, waterless wastes,
+unbridged rivers, Rocky Mountains, and predatory savages, loomed up
+deterrently to the spiritless. A four to six months' journey in
+wagons, exposed to all the vicissitudes of travel and climate and the
+forays of more dreadful foes, ever on the alert to dispossess
+travelers of their only means of conveyance, was not to be considered
+a pleasure trip.
+
+No doubt that to a certain but undefinable extent and in numerous
+ways, the circumstances and incidents to be expected on the overland
+journey were selective, and yet the Oregon Pioneer, as pictured by his
+eulogists, is rather a fanciful personage. Not that the incidents from
+which the picture is drawn are to any unusual degree false, but that
+there is too much of the commonplace left out, and so the typical
+pioneer, like the typical Yankee, is a caricature. The pioneers, as a
+body, were only a little different from those who were too
+affectionate or diffident to start, and among them were all sorts of
+people; but looking only to those who endured extraordinary
+privations, to those who developed an uncommon degree of strength,
+courage, and virtue, there have grown up the poetry and romance of the
+pioneers, and to none is this more evident than the pioneers
+themselves. At one of their annual gatherings, when an eloquent
+speaker was narrating the trying incidents of the overland journey,
+one of the earlier immigrants inquisitively remarked "I wonder if I
+ever crossed the plains?" I was querying the same; still we must not
+neglect to state that the speaker was dealing in facts. He was leaving
+out so much that those who had passed the ordeal wondered if they had
+ever been there. Indeed, the speakers and writers who have been called
+to the task of perpetuating pioneer history have had the usual
+inducements to false coloring, which has been the curse of all history
+in all times.
+
+Striking incidents, battles, sieges, marches, insurrections,
+revolutions, and the leading actors in them, of such is the warp and
+woof of history, until man is understood to be a mere fighting animal,
+although the greater part of his life has been spent in peaceful
+avocations and the greater exertion of his force and faculties has
+been devoted to constructive industry.
+
+Out of such partiality has inevitably grown the great man theory of
+human progression. The student of history passes along from point to
+point in the bloody trail of the historian, stopping at such
+characters as Alexander, Cæsar, Charlemagne, Napoleon, etc., until
+these great destroyers are looked upon as the prime factors of the
+evolutionary state. Of course, these and such as these must not be
+ignored or left out, for history would cease to be history without
+them, but it is equally important to know that man, judged only by
+them, ceases to be man. Of late an improved philosophy of history
+assigns them their proper place and significance as an index of
+evolution, and gives us the hopeful sign that notwithstanding the
+occasional irruption of man's destructive faculties, his progress is
+principally due to the subordination of the militant spirit. And now,
+while the principal part of our early history, territorial and state,
+is devoted to our really insignificant Indian wars and the principal
+characters on both sides, it is well enough to think that the greater
+constructive works of peace have been going forward with hardly a
+halt, and the more sober tints are yet to be given the picture of
+early Oregon times.
+
+With such coloring as we now have of pioneer life and the passage of
+the great plains, posterity will wonder, as did the pioneer before
+quoted, if the pioneers ever did cross, and also what kind of people
+they must have been to undertake, with such slender means, so perilous
+a journey. Samuel R. Thurston, Oregon's first delegate under the
+Territorial Government, advertised his constituents as "fellows who
+could whip their weight in wildcats," very good electioneering taffy,
+no doubt, but rather strong and really degrading language to apply to
+the earnest men and women who so patiently toiled to the Northwest
+coast.
+
+Of a higher type and tone was the poetical exaggeration "only the
+brave started, only the strong got through." The facts are different.
+Some arrant cowards and many more physically weak persons, by some
+sufficient means, found their way here. The emigrant train was not a
+forlorn hope; no such test was made for membership. Neither was it a
+test of patriotism; albeit every citizen is a quixotic propagator of
+his republican faith. Various were the inducements in the minds of
+those who left the older states for the Pacific Slope. Many, like
+ex-Senator Nesmith, did not really know, as they had no well defined
+purpose, but might answer in his language, and with probable truth,
+that they were "impelled by a vague spirit of adventure." Restless
+spirits are always ready for any move, promising unusual scope for the
+exercise of their faculties. Many were along to enjoy the exhilaration
+of travel, in a new, strange, and truly wonderful country. Many, long
+wasted by the miasmatic fevers of the overrich and productive
+Mississippi Valley, sought immunity in the untainted mountain air of
+the Far West. A few of the Daniel Boone stripe were too much crowded
+where inhabitants exceeded one to the square mile, and took one more
+move with the hope that the hum drum of civilization would never
+overtake them. A few of a poetical turn of mind, tired of the
+monotony of the greater East, sought fresh inspiration and a home upon
+the picturesque shores of the sunset seas.
+
+But while all of the foregoing and many other inducements might have
+been present in varying degree, the great incentive to immigration was
+free land. Not only land for the landless, but land for all, and in
+unstinted quantity. The scenes at Oklahoma divest the emigration to
+Oregon of all mystery, and while there was probably small difference
+in kind or degree of virtue between those who came and those who
+remained, of one fact pioneers are cognizant, namely, that the
+incidents and trials of the overland journey were a wonderful
+developer and equalizer. The fictitious gloss of so-called society was
+abraded, and the shams of character in which human beings had invested
+themselves, like weakly oxen, were left on the road. Everywhere this
+is observable, and it is often remarked that the true pioneer is never
+afterward subject to an undue self-inflation. It seems as though a few
+months' practice of sincere brotherhood is fatal to an offensive
+amount of arrogance and egotism.
+
+Now let us inquire as to the use and the tenacity of hold the pioneers
+had for their unbought possessions. There was no sign of indolence on
+their part upon arriving. The same pushing qualities which enabled
+them to surmount all difficulties in getting here were not wanting
+when homes were to be made and farms to be cultivated. To all
+appearances the older community, with an infusion of vigor born of
+success and adventure, had been transplanted upon virgin soil. Of
+necessity population was sparse. In large districts, principally
+settled by immigrants before 1851, there was but one family to the
+square mile, and in other portions were those arriving afterwards and
+settling two to the square mile. In this way a few people cover, or
+rather appropriate, a large country, and their improvements, though
+considerable, appear very meager. Every thing, however, was at hand;
+rail timber ten cuts to the tree; cedar for shingles and shakes; poles
+straight enough for rafters without hewing, and fir trees, seemingly
+grown for the special purpose of house frames. The soil was favorable.
+Though producing a good growth of the most nutritious native grass, it
+was easily plowed, two good horses being sufficient to turn over two
+acres of sod in a day, and, unlike the sward in other countries, was
+mellow from the first harrowing. Many a family coming as late as
+October plowed and fenced forty acres and raised from twelve hundred
+to sixteen hundred bushels of wheat the next harvest, working their
+cattle that hauled them across the plains and feeding them nothing but
+the bunch grass upon which they pastured through the winter months.
+
+After the discovery of gold in California, the market for all farm
+products was at almost every man's door and at marvelous prices.
+Butter from fifty cents to a dollar a pound; bacon from twenty-five to
+fifty cents a pound; chickens from $5 to $10 per dozen; eggs from
+twenty-five to fifty cents per dozen; sheep from $5 to $12 per head;
+cows, $50; horses, $200; oxen from $100 to $200 per yoke; wheat from
+$1 to $7 per bushel, and labor from $2 to $5 per day. Of course, such
+prices gradually wore down, but the opportunity for large profits in
+farming and stock raising continued for a quarter of a century. Our
+public disbursements, however, were not on the same scale. Up to the
+year 1859 Uncle Sam paid a good share of the governmental expenses,
+and at that time our state government was organized under a
+constitution that has often been called parsimonious.
+
+The sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections of each township, or lands in
+lieu thereof, were devoted by Congress to common schools; land was
+also given to found a state university and agricultural college, and
+five hundred thousand acres along with five per cent of the sales of
+public lands were given to an internal improvement fund to be used by
+the state. Add to this the swamp lands, amounting to several hundred
+thousand acres of the most valuable, all given without cost, and one
+might well ask, "in the name of common sense what more should a
+paternal government do for a people?" And yet it has done more. Coast
+defenses and lighthouses have been built, the rivers dredged, harbors
+improved, something near a million dollars appropriated to cut a canal
+around the cascade falls, and military roads and posts established to
+protect our inhabitants from the aborigines.
+
+In common with all the other inhabitants of the United States, we have
+been suffering for the last few years from an aggravating increase of
+our great American industry, politics, but until the discovery was
+made, that people can grow rich by taxing themselves, the people of
+Oregon were contented with small levies for public purposes. Indeed,
+we have done little in the way of public improvements to create
+expense. With the exception of county roads, which are mainly ungraded
+dirt ways, and the bridging of streams, nothing of importance has been
+attempted.
+
+In view of all the foregoing comes the sharp contrast of the present
+condition of the pioneers and their immediate descendants. In the
+absence of any reliable census reports, I have been obliged to rely
+upon regional inspection, taking a township here and there and tracing
+up the career of the first white inhabitants. For this purpose I have
+selected, for an average, one hundred square miles on the east side of
+the Willamette Valley, in Marion County, which contains the state
+capital, and an examination shows that sixty-six per cent of the
+donation claims have passed out of the possession of the donees and
+their descendants, another fifteen per cent are mortgaged for all
+they are worth, and for practical purposes may be considered as lost
+to them. Not more than fifteen per cent of the whole have been
+ordinarily successful in holding and improving a part of their
+possessions and are now free from debt. Only five of all of them have
+increased their holdings and are thrifty. Eighty-seven per cent held
+section claims, and it may be mentioned that the half-section
+claimants were more successful in holding their own, and add very much
+to the favorableness of this report. In the better part of this
+county, a hundred square miles in a body might be selected where the
+per cent of loss would be greater, but this was settled chiefly by
+French, Scotch, and English Canadians, mountain men and trappers of
+nomadic habits, who married Indian women of the whole or half-breed,
+and of whose descendants less is expected, as they are passionately
+fond of ardent spirits. A teetotaler of mixed blood would be a rare
+sight. Neighborly, clever people, of lax business habits, and of
+necessity trustful, they were soon beat out of their landed
+possessions. Probably in no American community has the credit system
+been so much in vogue as on this Northwest coast, and likely for the
+reason that in no other place are crops so sure, and certainly in no
+other place was a broad basis of credit so much at the disposal of
+debtors. A family with a section of land that produces unfailing crops
+at small cost, can get credit anywhere; and what a harvest it has been
+for merchants and middlemen in these western valleys until recently.
+Ah, man! you are, indeed, a wanting animal, one whose wants are ever
+multiplying and exacting. Only a few of the race are securely
+provident by immediate self-denial, and this truth applies equally to
+the pioneers, those resolute men and women--
+
+     Who kept step with the patient ox,
+     And toiled by the rolling wheel,
+     Drew success from the sand and rocks,
+     As sparks from the flint and steel.
+
+The heads of families did not so readily depart from their early
+habits of economy, but the children soon reveled in their magnificent
+possessions. Girls and boys alike became semi-nomads, or properly
+speaking, fell into the ways of the baronial English or the planter
+class of the South. As a consequence of their newly found competence
+and leisure "they took to horse," and strange, what a fascination
+comes over a human being when he takes to horse. In truth, that boy
+who did not admire the splendid aboriginal equestrians of the Great
+Plains and get filled with the spirit of the wild and free, as he saw
+them scurrying along the mountain side or sweeping down into the
+valley with the speed of the wind; that boy must have been an
+unchangeable clodhopper or a born philosopher.
+
+Very few of them escaped the uncivilizing contamination, and many a
+youth, fresh from an unfinished course at school, had his book
+education cut sadly short by bestriding a cayuse and becoming a
+practical cowboy. The infatuation was not confined to the boys. The
+girls, too, had as much fondness for the noble brute, and were as
+expert and graceful in his management. Some of them have ridden
+seventy-five miles in a day. As a means of social communication at
+that time it had no equal; and for stock raising and the round-up in
+such a country, the horseman was unapproachable. Still, with all such
+advantages, and they were many, which could have been turned into
+permanent profit, the cowboy generation, though having a "heap of
+fun," and no doubt genuine pleasure, let the earth slip from under his
+feet. How could it be otherwise? Who could deny them? A party of boys
+and girls on their favorite steeds, the former in leggings, bell
+spurs, and the graceful sirrapa; the latter in the freshness of
+physical beauty and bedecked with flowing skirts and scarlet streaming
+sash--when such a cavalcade went galloping over the prairies with a
+speed that put to shame a Sheridan's ride, what parent could or would
+deny them.
+
+Well, the parents did not deny them this and other diversions from
+gainful industry, and, little by little, the princely donations of
+land went into the till of the shopkeeper or the safe of the money
+changer. Landless and moneyless, they scattered over the country, and,
+as it were, dropped into all kinds of callings. Many of them have gone
+east of the Cascades and taken homesteads and pre-emptions in the arid
+regions, and there upon the bunch grass lands have gained a living and
+some a competence by stock raising and wool growing. Others followed
+up the streams into the mountains and in some narrow valley made a
+home away from the every day temptations of the lowlanders. Others
+went to the coast. Many of the young have found ample success in other
+avocations and do not regret the loss of the parental donations. They
+are found on the bench, at the bar, in the pulpit, in the governmental
+employ, in college faculties, and in all honorable pursuits. Only a
+few have ignobly failed, and those few do not invalidate the maxim
+that "where there is a will there is a way" for falling into the drink
+habit they lost their wills.
+
+In conclusion, I am not willing to assert that the policy of the
+general government, in donating land as a reward for taking possession
+of this Northwest coast, was not a wise policy or that it was an
+injury to the donees, though in the main they failed to keep the gift,
+but the lesson is none the less valuable; and what is it but a
+confirmation of the general truth that "necessity is the mother of
+invention," the spur to exertion, and that success in this life is to
+be obtained only through the school of experience as the reward of
+continued and temperate effort. As there is no royal road to knowledge
+so there is no royal road to wealth or any other valuable acquisition;
+and it is not proper to confine this edict of fate to mere material
+things, although to be fed and clothed is the first and most imperious
+demand of nature. Man in all of his successful undertakings is an
+evolutionary being. Whether intellectually, morally, or physically
+considered, he keeps best what he has produced, what he has earned. As
+a hard and fast donee, he is not a success; as a beggar, he is
+disgusting even to himself. Sometimes he needs charity, but always
+justice.
+
+     T. W. DAVENPORT.
+
+
+
+
+GLIMPSES OF EARLY DAYS IN OREGON.
+
+
+It would be difficult, indeed, to find anything new to say of
+pioneering or pioneers, and useless to trace the pioneers along their
+journey across the Plains. We will pass over an interval of eight
+months and introduce our loved fathers and mothers on their arrival at
+where Portland now stands.
+
+On the first of November, 1845, after a journey of eight months of
+inconceivable hardships, a small party of those pioneers first stepped
+on the banks of the grand Willamette River, near where Morrison Street
+is now located. The rays of the setting sun casting their light and
+shade o'er the beautiful landscape, impressed the beholders with a
+deep feeling of thankfulness that they were permitted to reach the new
+land, and stand on the shore of the wonderful river of the west. The
+wind murmuring through the branches of the stately fir bade them
+welcome, and the old trees served as shelter for the next two months.
+With the aid of flint, steel, and powder, a large camp fire was soon
+burning brightly, casting a rich glow o'er the magnificent wall of
+forest trees. It was a picturesque scene. The soft moonlight, the
+sparkle of the water, the lurid light from the resinous fire, formed a
+scene worthy of a painter's skill. They sat around the fire for hours
+reveling in the luxury of rest; and they arrived destitute in all save
+character, determination, and self-reliance. With such sterling
+qualities failure was impossible.
+
+The little company did not retire early, as they were forming plans
+for their future work. At a late hour buffalo robes and blankets were
+spread on the ground, and soon all were lost in sleep. The only sound
+that broke the silence was the yelp of the prowling coyote.
+
+With the first rosy blushes of the dawn the men began to rise, and
+before the sun was fairly over the horizon the sound and echoes of
+their axes brought cheer to our mothers' hearts, for they knew ere
+long homes would shelter them from the winter's storms. Weeks of hard
+labor were required to fell the trees, and clear away the brush, and
+prepare the site on which to build. Trees were cut the proper length,
+one side of the log hewed smooth with a broadax, and fitted so they
+would join at the corners and lie compact. It was no easy task, but
+our loved pioneers, with only a saw, auger and ax, broadaxe and adze
+would put to shame some of the more modern workmen. Logs for the
+puncheon floors were split and smoothed with an adze, and fitted close
+together, making a warm and solid floor. The structure raised to a
+proper height, poles were used for rafters; some of the logs were cut
+three feet in length, from which shakes were made and used in place of
+shingles. The fireplace and chimney was built with sticks and
+plastered inside and out with a thick coating of clay. Some had a
+stout iron bar securely fastened on one side of the large fireplace;
+on this bar, which was called a crane, iron hooks were placed, on
+which the teakettle and other cooking utensils were hung; all cooking
+and baking was done before the open fire and broad clay hearth.
+Windows were a sort of sliding door in the wall, without glass. The
+furniture was extremely simple, being split out of fir or cedar trees,
+and, if not elegant, was substantial; doors were also made of shakes,
+and hung on wooden hinges. Wooden pegs were used in place of nails.
+Rough bedsteads were placed in one corner of the large room, the
+trundle bed pushed under it during the day, and at night drawn out
+ready for the little ones. For one to see the number of sweet faces
+and bright eyes of the many children lying in their beds, the scene
+would put the old woman who lived in her shoe far in the minority.
+Large quantities of moss stripped from the trees made good mattresses;
+with buffalo robes and blankets they had comfortable beds. Their
+primitive cabins completed ready for occupancy, with heartfelt
+thankfulness they left the shelter of the trees for their first Oregon
+home.
+
+The latchstring, like a welcome hand, bade them enter. A bright fire
+greeted them with her golden rays and warmth, and the sound of the
+teakettle, cheerily singing, they catch the glad refrain and quickly
+joined with--
+
+     "Home! Home! sweet, sweet home!
+     Be it ever so humble,
+     There's no place like home."
+
+How well they realized the true meaning of home, as no roof had
+sheltered them for the past ten months. As the family gathered around
+the ruddy light of the cheerful fire, which was their only light,
+plans were made to visit Oregon City for supplies of food and
+clothing. Indians, with their canoes, conveyed them to their
+destination. Soon wheat, bolts of flannel, with other necessary
+articles, were purchased and shipped; fathers stepped on board, and
+the trusty Indian with a stroke of the paddle sent the frail craft
+swiftly gliding o'er limpid water. Ere long they were rushing over the
+Clackamas rapids, which in hurried haste, flows on and yet is never
+gone. As the sun was sinking behind the hills, they reached home,
+where the anxious mother, blinded by tears of gladness, thanked God
+for the much needed supply of clothing and wheat, which was their only
+bread. Deer and other game were plentiful, and easily brought down by
+their trusty rifle. Salmon was bought of the Indians. Ducks, geese,
+and swan were numerous. All winter mothers were kept busy cutting and
+making clothing for the entire household; also teaching their
+daughters how to sew, knit, and attend to general housework; and if
+mothers were sick they did the work with willing hands. The canoe and
+bateaux were their only means of transportation. Neighbors would
+surprise the family by bringing their violins, and spending the
+evening talking and dancing. The large room would be cleared of all
+furniture, which was placed in the loft where the small children were
+put to bed; soon the merry sound of tripping feet were keeping time to
+Money Musk, and other old time music, the old men talked over the
+possibilities of Oregon. One thought bridges would span the
+Willamette; others shook their heads, saying not while we live. Our
+children may live to see one. Others thought railroads would be built
+across the continent; all looked at the speaker and echoed "A
+railroad! Never, over those mountains. Why, man, no one in God's world
+will live to see that day. Steamers and ships will come, but no
+railroad."
+
+Our pioneer mothers made their dresses with plain skirts; waists were
+sewed onto the skirt; sleeves were much like those worn by the women
+of to-day. Their hair was combed smooth by their forehead and wound in
+a coil high on their head, many wore side combs, a high back comb held
+their coil of glossy hair. Hairpins were an unknown luxury. White
+handkerchiefs were worn in place of collars, and they looked very
+pretty crossed or tied in a bow at the throat. All were deft with the
+needle, also weaving; those who have the rare blue and gray
+counterpanes, manufactured by their willing hands, possess an heirloom
+of great value.
+
+In the spring of 1846 gardens were made by those living on farms, from
+which early vegetables were procured, and in the fall many bushels of
+potatoes, pease, and other vegetables were stored; of summer fruit
+there were wild strawberries, and later raspberries and blackberries,
+of which large quantities were picked and dried; also hazel bushes,
+producing nuts in abundance, which were gathered and stored for winter
+use. There was not much buying and selling, except of wheat, which was
+used as currency, as well as for food. Portland was founded in 1845 by
+pioneers who were quick to see the magnitude and resources of the
+country. J. B. Stephens, who was a cooper, saw the large revenue to be
+made by exporting salmon, and soon began making barrels and kegs, from
+which he netted a large profit. The first tannery built in Portland
+was erected near where the exposition building is located, by D. H.
+Lownesdale, who had the honor of introducing a new circulating medium,
+which was Oregon tanned leather.
+
+In 1845 the first ferry from the east bank to the west shore was a
+canoe.
+
+In 1845 Portland was named.
+
+In 1846 the first blacksmith shop was erected on the northwest corner
+of First and Morrison streets.
+
+In 1847 H. Luelling brought the first grafted fruit trees to the
+Northwest. His famous nursery was located near Milwaukie.
+
+In 1847 Captain Crosby built the first frame house; others soon
+followed. Hotels, stores, and business houses were also erected. At
+that time the United States mail arrived yearly.
+
+In 1848 the first Methodist Church was organized in Portland, and a
+church building was begun by J. H. Wilbur; doing good for others was
+his greatest pleasure. Blessed be his name!
+
+In 1850 the first Congregational Church was erected on the northwest
+corner of Second and Jefferson streets. The oldest Congregational
+Church in Oregon was organized in 1842 at or near Hillsboro. The
+second was organized in 1844 at Oregon City by Harvey Clark, with
+three members; he also organized the first Congregational Church in
+Forest Grove; his many golden words and good examples are his living
+monument.
+
+In 1849 Colonel William King built the first sawmill ever built in
+Portland, which was run by water power. Soon after it was finished it
+was destroyed by fire.
+
+In 1850 W. P. Abrams and C. A. Reed erected the first steam sawmill in
+Oregon on the river bank near where Jefferson Street is located. This
+proved a profitable enterprise. Just south of the mill was an Indian
+encampment, occupied by different tribes. Their wigwams were
+constructed of bark and brush. Squaws sat on mats, weaving their water
+tight baskets, often very prettily decorated, while the Indian men
+lounged about in scarlet blankets, as if posing for a picture, and
+their children sat in their canoes gliding o'er the water with
+swanlike grace. Information had been circulated among them that the
+mill would be started up on a certain afternoon, and all were curious
+to see the working of this new evidence of the white man's
+superiority. At the stated time the Indians were in and around the
+mill; suddenly the steam whistle sounded its shrill shrieks in a
+continuous blood curdling blast, which sent every Indian man, woman
+and child fleeing for their lives into the dense woods. It was a long
+time before they could be induced to go near the mill.
+
+In 1847, 1848, and 1849 many emigrants arrived who settled in
+Portland, adding thrift and push to our small colony. The discovery of
+gold in California on the twenty-fourth of January, 1848, caused
+Portland to look like a deserted hamlet, as all men and boys caught
+the gold fever and started for the golden shores of California, where
+many were killed by the Digger Indians; others died of various
+diseases, and some returned home broken in health, while others
+returned with their hard earned gold. Ships arrived yearly in Oregon
+with supplies for the Hudson Bay Company, by way of the Sandwich
+Islands.
+
+In 1849 twenty vessels arrived, and quickly loaded with flour, salmon,
+pork, shingles, lumber, and other products, which they carried to the
+California market. From that time Portland began laying aside her
+swaddling clothes. The first mayor of Portland was Hugh D. O'Bryant,
+who was elected in 1851. When the city was incorporated it was in
+Washington County, and the people from Portland had to go to Hillsboro
+to hold court. In 1856 a meeting of the citizens of Portland was
+called to organize a volunteer company to protect the people and
+property, in case of an Indian outbreak; two hundred names were
+enrolled and H. W. Davis was appointed captain.
+
+In 1850 the steamer Lot Whitcombe was built at Milwaukie, Oregon. In
+1851 the steamers Eagle and Black Hawk were running between Portland
+and Oregon City, where those who wished to proceed farther south,
+would walk to Canemah and there board the steamer Beaver or Enterprise
+which would convey them to any of these points: Butteville, Champoeg,
+Mission Bottom, or Salem. Steamers Belle and Fashion were running
+between Portland and the Cascades.
+
+In 1853 David Monnastes and H. W. Davis erected a foundry on First
+Street. Many other industries were established.
+
+Among the pioneer doctors were Doctors Hawthorne and Lorrea, who
+erected the first hospital on Taylor, between First and Second
+streets. Soon after they selected a beautiful location in East
+Portland, surrounded by forest trees, and erected a home for the
+insane.
+
+In 1853 W. S. Ladd built the first brick building in Portland. Others
+soon followed, and frame houses were now in evidence, and the log
+cabin in which so many happy hours were spent around the great
+fireside was fast disappearing, although built from necessity, not
+choice--happy memories of it still linger which time can not efface.
+
+In 1850 several families left Portland to reside on their donation
+land claims. I will describe one of these homes: A frame house with
+large rooms, papered, and woodwork painted, glass windows, sitting
+room with a large brick fireplace, with a mantle of oak, easy chairs,
+a large mirror, table, and a corner cupboard filled with dishes. The
+kitchen was furnished with a cook stove and all other necessary
+articles. Feather beds were now in use. This house was erected near
+the bank of the ever beautiful Willamette. On the west a creek glided
+in sparkling beauty by the kitchen door, supplying the household with
+cold mountain water. Memory loves to recall those scenes. In a garden
+early vegetables and a variety of flower seeds were growing. A large
+frame barn stood on the hill, with pigpen and chicken house close by;
+a woodshed filled with wood stood near the back gate. In the fall,
+when it was time to garner the wheat, oats, or hay, neighbors,
+bringing their scythes and other instruments used to mow the harvest,
+would surprise the farmer at early dawn, saying, "Well, neighbor, I
+have come to help you with your harvesting;" and they never left until
+the bountiful crop had been garnered. The golden rule, do unto others
+as you would have them do unto you, was lived and practiced and
+represents to us that period in our social system when a neighborhood
+was as one great family.
+
+In 1849 a mint was erected in Oregon City to coin five- and ten-dollar
+gold pieces, which were known as beaver money.
+
+In the fall of 1849 a party of Oregonians, embarked on a sailing
+vessel, left California for Portland. The captain proved to be a most
+unkind and brutal master, not only to the sailors but to the
+passengers, who were compelled to eat the worst of food. After sailing
+for twenty-two days they encountered a violent gale, and were driven
+out of their course. As they were nearing the Columbia-river bar the
+vessel was drawn into the breakers at North Beach and was deserted by
+captain, crew, and passengers, who in their haste to save themselves
+forgot their gold. On reaching shore they were exhausted and were
+obliged to walk around the entire night to keep from freezing. In the
+early morning they saw smoke a short distance up the beach. Each man
+hurried to the scene. They found a comfortable house where they were
+made to feel at home in true pioneer style by the owner, a Mr.
+Johnson, who was, as all Scotchmen are, loyal and hospitable. As they
+were in a weakened condition the good man gave them a small quantity
+of food at first, which was fish cooked on the point of a stick held
+before the fire. All agreed that was the best food they had ever
+eaten. Now they related their hardships encountered on the voyage. Mr.
+Johnson sent out his Indians with instructions to reach the wreck and
+bring everything available ashore. This order seemed scarcely
+possible, but the brave Indians went through the breakers, reaching
+the vessel, and before night brought all the sacks of gold dust and
+many articles of wearing apparel ashore, where each man could claim
+his own. The party remained several days with their benefactor, who
+kindly conveyed them to Astoria.
+
+In 1854 Thomas Fraser was the first to agitate the public school
+question. The following public spirited men were present: Thomas
+Fraser, W. S. Ladd, Josiah Failing, H. W. Corbett, P. Raleigh, A. D.
+Shelby, T. N. Larkin, A. L. Davis, C. Abrams, L. Limerick. All of
+these noble and unselfish men, except one, have passed on to their
+higher home--H. W. Corbett, the surviving one, a pioneer of 1851,
+loved, honored, and justly called the Father of Portland, is still the
+first to give his time and money for the betterment and upbuilding of
+the city and state. God grant that he may be spared many, many more
+years. No monument need be erected to their memory. The nobility of
+their lifework is woven and cemented deeply in the hearts of the
+people.
+
+December, 1855, Multnomah County was organized. In January following
+L. Limerick was appointed county school superintendent. December 4,
+1850, the first weekly _Oregonian_ was published in Portland by T. J.
+Dryer. In 1851 the first regular monthly mail service began between
+Portland and San Francisco, per steamer Columbia.
+
+Before Oregon was admitted to the Union in 1859 the log cabins had
+been cleared away, showing the pioneers were progressive.
+
+In 1858 C. Stewart erected the first theatre building in Portland.
+
+_Wilcox School_--The first day school of any kind was opened in
+Portland in the fall of 1847, by Dr. Ralph Wilcox. It was conducted in
+a house erected by Mr. McNemee at the foot of Taylor Street. It was
+properly a private school and continued one quarter. The names of some
+of the pupils are given: Frances McNemee (now Mrs. E. J. Northup), her
+brothers Moses, Adam, and William; Charlotte Terwilliger (now Mrs. C.
+M. Cartwright), Milton Doan's children--Sarah, Mary, Peter and John,
+Henry Hill, Helen Hill (now Mrs. Wm. Powell), J. Miller,--Murphy, Lucy
+and Charlotte Barnes, Emma and Sarah Ross, Lorenzo Terwilliger, and
+John Terwilliger. Doctor Wilcox came to Oregon in 1845.
+
+_Carter School_--In February, 1848, Miss Julia Carter taught school in
+a log cabin on the corner of Second and Stark streets. She had thirty
+or more pupils. Those who attended Doctor Wilcox's school, also these
+additional: John Cullen, Carrie Polk, the Warren girls--one now Mrs.
+Richard White, the other Mrs. D. C. Coleman; Milton, John, Albert,
+Matilda, and Susan Apperson, were her pupils.
+
+_Hyde School_--In the winter of 1848 and 1849, Aaron J. Hyde taught
+school in what was known as the Cooper shop, which was the only public
+hall in Portland. It was located on the west side of First Street,
+between Morrison and Yamhill streets.
+
+_Lyman School_--Late in December, 1849, Rev. Horace Lyman opened a
+school in a frame building, which was built by Col. Wm. King for
+church and school purposes. It was located on First Street, second
+door north of Oak. On this building was placed a bell, which weighed
+about three hundred pounds. Stephen Coffin bought this bell at his own
+expense. Rev. Jas. H. Wilbur bought the bell of Mr. Coffin and placed
+it on the First Methodist Church. It now hangs in the steeple of the
+Taylor-street M. E. Church. He taught three months, had forty pupils.
+Among his pupils he recalls the Coffins, Chapmans, Parrishes, Kings,
+Hills, Terwilligers, Appersons, Watts, and McNemees.
+
+_Delos Jefferson School_--In August, 1850, Delos Jefferson, now a
+farmer of Marion County, opened a school and taught three months.
+
+_Reed School_--In April, 1850, Cyrus A. Reed taught school for three
+months. He had an average of sixty pupils. Among his pupils he recalls
+the names, Carters, Cullen, Coffin, Hill, Chapman, Terwilliger,
+Parrishes, Stephens, McNemee, and Watts. There was no other district
+organization.
+
+_Rev. Doane's School_--Following Mr. Jefferson, came Rev. N. Doane,
+then and now a minister of the M. E. Church. He taught nine months,
+beginning December 1, 1850. To the former lists of pupils he adds
+Davises, Crosbys, Lownesdale, and Parrishes.
+
+_Central School_--The Central School occupied the present site of the
+Portland Hotel. Monday, May 18, 1858, the first school in the Central
+Building was opened by L. L. Terwilliger, principal, with two
+assistants, Mrs. Mary J. Hensill and Owen Connelly. From the records I
+find that up to July 23, 1858, two hundred and eighty different pupils
+had been enrolled. The names of pupils, parents, and residences are on
+record. Of all the residences noted, but two were west of Seventh
+Street. Those two were F. M. Warren and Wm. H. King. Most of the
+residences were on First, Second, Third, and Fourth streets, with
+quite a number in Couch's Addition. Mr. Terwilliger was principal of
+the Central School for two and a quarter years.
+
+_Bishop Scott's Academy_--Was opened in the spring of 1856, at
+Milwaukie.
+
+_Saint Mary's Academy_--The oldest denominational school in Portland,
+was founded in 1859 by the Sisters of the Most Holy Name of Jesus and
+Mary. The first Catholic Church in Oregon was erected in 1839 at Saint
+Paul, Marion County.
+
+In 1849 a Catholic Church was dedicated in Oregon City.
+
+In 1851 the first Catholic Church was erected in Portland, and
+dedicated in 1852 by Archbishop Blanchet, who labored with zeal to
+better the condition of all. Peace to his memory.
+
+In 1845 George Abernethy, who resided in Oregon City, was chosen to
+serve as governor of Oregon. He was a man of sterling qualities and
+well qualified for the office, and was a pioneer of 1840. In the fall
+of 1851 the academy on Seventh and Jefferson streets was opened with
+C. S. Kingsley, teacher. The school was surrounded by large trees and
+was a long distance from the village. No streets were improved near
+the school. One could follow the cow path that wound around, and the
+tinkling of the cow bell could be heard as late as 1861, when a law
+was passed prohibiting cattle from roaming on the streets.
+
+
+GLIMPSE OF ONE OF MANY SIMILAR SCENES ENDURED OUR LOVED PIONEERS.
+
+In 1850 Mr. S. M. Hamilton, with his wife and four children, after a
+long journey across the Plains arrived at the Cascades. They were
+impressed with the towering mountains and beautiful scenery. Here they
+decided to locate on a donation land claim, which is now known as
+Hamilton's Island. A comfortable house soon greeted them. Mrs.
+Hamilton, who is still with us, is a woman of culture and refinement,
+and many owe their success in life to her loving example and words of
+cheer; but dark days were hovering around their peaceful home. The
+terrible news that Indians were lurking to plunder and kill had filled
+their hearts with terror. Mr. Hamilton had arranged, if the outbreak
+did occur, that two men were to take charge of the boat, while others
+were to remain and defend their property. A bateaux lay in readiness.
+On the morning of the 26th of March, 1856, the dreaded signal sounded,
+striking terror to the stoutest hearts. Mr. Hamilton hurried to his
+home, where wife and children were terrified. His first word was
+"Mary, the Yakima Indians have attacked the men, who were working on
+the portage railroad, and will soon reach our home. Your only safety
+is to embark at once, with other families, who are hurrying to reach
+the boat, their only means of escape." All were now on board except
+one woman, who was carrying her babe, and running over the rocks as
+fast as her strength would permit. One of the men who had charge of
+the boat said "Push out and leave her." Mr. Hamilton placed his hand
+on the boat, saying, "No, no; never leave man, woman, or child who is
+in sight." By this time the woman and child were on board; quickly the
+boat was in the swift current, the occupants were lying on the bottom
+to escape the whizzing bullets and arrows of the savages, whose
+demoniacal and blood curdling yells added terror to the mothers'
+hearts. Picture the agony of those mothers as they were floating away
+from loved ones and home, listening to the frightful shrieks and rapid
+shooting of the Indians. For a moment the father watched the receding
+craft that held all that was dear--dearer than life--not knowing when,
+or if ever, they would meet again. With upturned face he exclaimed
+"Oh, God, have mercy and protect the dear ones." A bullet whistled
+past his head; he raised his trusty rifle, fired, one Indian fell;
+again and again his rifle was reloaded and fired, each time sure of
+its mark. That night his house was burned. The Indians were armed with
+guns and arrows. They killed one woman and her husband; several men
+were killed; after hours of suspense those in the boat sighted the
+steamer Fashion. She quickly halted, taking all on board, turned back,
+reaching Vancouver the following day, where the alarm was sounded, and
+the steamer hurried on to Portland; there the bells tolling forth
+called out the citizens, who, on hearing the terrible news began
+collecting guns and ammunition; the entire population was aroused.
+Nothing since the Whitman massacre had brought such sorrow to their
+hearts. Early in the morning the steamer, loaded with human freight,
+started for the sad scene. A steamer had left Fort Vancouver with our
+illustrious Sheridan, who, with forty men reached the Cascades first.
+On landing they received a volley from the Indians, who fought like
+demons. Now the steamer arrived with the Portland volunteers. At the
+same time Colonel Steptoe, from The Dalles, with infantry and
+volunteers, arrived, who surprised the Indians, many of whom were
+horse racing, others were watching Sheridan. As they saw the new
+arrival of blue coats, they fled to the hills. Nine of the ring
+leaders were captured and hung. To relate all the thrilling incidents
+encountered by the early pioneers would fill volumes, and in
+conclusion, I feel that the hallowed remembrances of all our loyal
+patriotic pioneer fathers and mothers will live to the end of time, as
+they braved dangers that tongue or pen fail to express, and by their
+life's work each one has erected their invincible monument.
+
+     CHARLOTTE MOFFETT CARTWRIGHT,
+     Pioneer of 1845.
+
+
+
+
+THE UPPER CALAPOOIA.
+
+By GEO. O. GOODALL.
+
+
+The early history of the white man in the Upper Calapooia was a quiet
+and uneventful one. The travelers coming in from their long trip
+across the Plains, pushed up the Willamette Valley, and, attracted by
+the beautiful and fertile Calapooia Valley, with its abundance of
+grass on its surrounding hills, and plentiful supply of water, settled
+there to live the peaceful life of farmers or stock raisers, with very
+little trouble of any kind to disturb them in their occupation of
+home-making. In those early days the hills, most of which are now
+heavily wooded, were free from timber and covered with beautiful
+grass. One old settler said: "You can not imagine the beauty of this
+country when we first came here." The Indians had kept the brush
+burned down, burning over the hills each year. The white man neglected
+to do this, and now in many places the grass has given way to moss and
+timber.
+
+According to the best information I could get, the first settlers came
+to the Calapooia in 1846. T. A. Riggs, who came in 1847, and whose
+statement is appended below, says that when he came there were three
+or four settlers near where Brownsville now stands, and one, R. C.
+Finley, six miles up stream. This man Finley was the settler farthest
+up the stream till Riggs and his partner, Asa Moore, took up donation
+claims two or three miles above Finley on Brush Creek, a tributary of
+the Calapooia. From this time on more settlers came every year and
+settled all along the Calapooia Valley and on streams tributary. The
+settlement here preceded that in the upper Willamette to some extent,
+because out in the valley there was less timber, water was less
+plentiful, and the soil was not considered as good as in the
+Calapooia.
+
+Most of the settlers who came were farmers. R. C. Finley, however, was
+a millwright, and in 1849[35] built a flouring mill, which still
+stands, six miles above Brownsville. In 1850 Templeton built a
+sawmill; in 1852 Finley built one, and in 1854 P. V. Crawford built
+one near the present site of Holley. The first settlers had gone to
+Oregon City for flour, and later to Salem. After Finley's mill was
+built people came from as far away as the Umpqua Valley to get flour
+there.
+
+Schools were founded at an early date, the first being taught by Rev.
+H. H. Spalding in a log house one mile above where Brownsville now
+stands, in the summer of 1849. This was a subscription school. The
+first district was organized on the Calapooia in 1853, being the third
+district in Linn County. The first school after the district was
+organized was taught by Robert Moore in the summer of 1853. The
+churches commenced work very soon and several denominations were
+represented. Joab Powell, the celebrated Baptist evangelist, used to
+preach there, and gave it as his opinion that "Thar was some mighty
+big sinners on the head of the Calapooia." Dr. J. N. Perkins preached
+for the Christians, and Rev. H. H. Spalding for the Presbyterians.
+
+P. V. Crawford, for whom Crawfordsville is named, was the first
+regularly appointed postmaster on the Calapooia. Previous to his
+appointment in 1870 there had been a supplied post office at William
+Heisler's store, where Crawfordsville now is. There was never any
+great number of manufacturing enterprises in the Calapooia country. A
+flouring mill, a sawmill or two, and the woolen mill at Brownsville,
+built about 1862, constitute the sum of such enterprises. The chief
+production is still from the farm--live stock and farm produce. The
+range is now greatly curtailed through growth of brush, close
+pasturage, and taking up of land.
+
+There were in this region several men who were public spirited and
+prominent in Oregon affairs in early times. Foremost of all was
+Delazon Smith, who lived down toward Albany, on the Albany prairie,
+but was well known and claimed by all the Linn County section. Smith
+was a preacher when he first lived in Oregon. On one occasion he was
+heard to say, when preaching at Brownsville, that he had been urged to
+give up preaching and go into law, but that he would not give up what
+religion he had for all the wealth of the world. Strange to say,
+however, that was really the last sermon he ever preached. Soon after
+he is said to have been offered a fee of $1,000 to defend a man in a
+criminal case, and from that time on he followed law and politics. He
+was a member of the constitutional convention, was in the legislature,
+and stumped the state with Col. E. D. Baker in the race for United
+States senator. Hugh Brown, founder of Brownsville, was also prominent
+in politics and was a member of the constitutional convention. J. N.
+Rice and Robert Glass were in the legislature in early times, and R.
+C. Finley, though not so prominent politically, was a wealthy,
+liberal, public spirited man, who wielded considerable influence.
+
+No serious Indian troubles ever came upon the settlers on the
+Calapooia. T. A. Riggs tells how the Indians used to steal from the
+whites, and describes a little difficulty he and a neighbor had with
+them over the stealing of an ox, but the Indians of this section never
+attempted to make war on the whites. At a later time, 1856, there was
+a fear that the Indians on the other side of the Cascades, who were
+then on the warpath, might come over and fall upon the settlers along
+the Calapooia. At Fern Ridge a fort was built in anticipation of such
+a contingency, but results proved their fears groundless, and that
+they had perhaps given the eastern Indians credit for more energy than
+they possessed.
+
+During war times there was considerable feeling in this region. The
+people were many of them from Missouri, and many were Douglas
+democrats. When the war commenced a considerable number of Douglas
+democrats turned Republicans. A party composed of Union men and
+Douglas democrats put out a county ticket in 1862 in Linn County. It
+was called the Cayuse ticket. Both Union and non-Union men formed
+secret societies. The democrats organized a secret society known as
+the Knights of the Golden Circle, one of its objects being to prevent
+a draft. George Helm was the leading democrat at this time in this
+section, and was called the "Lion of Linn." The Union men formed the
+Union League, the chief object of which was to watch the democrats. It
+was thought at one time that the Knights of the Golden Circle would
+attempt to capture the fort at Vancouver, but no such attempt was ever
+made.
+
+As I have before stated, the course of settlement and development in
+the Calapooia country was quiet and uneventful. The settlers were at
+first all poor, all subject to the hardships incident to living in a
+new country, shut off from many conveniences of an older community,
+and obliged to ascertain by experiment what crops paid best and how
+they were best handled. Currency was scarce in the settlement and
+wheat served to a large extent as a medium of exchange. When the men
+who had been drawn to the gold mines to seek their fortunes began to
+return with their gold dust there was a rapid advance in business and
+prosperity.
+
+The first newspaper of this locality was printed by George Dyson; the
+name and date I can not now give. The second was the _Informant_,
+printed, like the first, at Brownsville, and by a man named Stein.
+This was in 1886. In 1887 the _Express-Advance_ was started with the
+_Informant's_ plant and continued two years. The _Brownsville Times_
+was started June 15, 1889, by McDonald & Cavendish. With several
+changes of editors this paper is still printed, the present
+proprietors being F. M. Brown and A. B. Cavender.
+
+The question as to why the first settlers came to Oregon is difficult
+to determine. It seems, however, from the very limited amount of
+direct testimony I have been able to get, that there were two forces
+which at least had a powerful influence, and these were, first,
+curiosity to see this great western country; and, secondly, the desire
+to pick out a good piece of land from the thousands of acres open to
+settlement here.
+
+     ALBANY, Oregon, September 21, 1901.
+
+     _Mr. Geo. O. Goodall, Eugene, Oregon_--
+     DEAR SIR: In compliance with your request I will write a
+     short account of the early settlement of the upper Calapooia
+     Valley and some of the annoyances with which the first
+     settlers had to contend, and as I have to depend entirely on
+     memory, I am aware that my account will be very imperfect
+     and the more so as I am almost alone as one of the first
+     settlers, and I believe the only one above Brownsville.
+
+     I crossed the plains in 1846, stopping near Oregon City till
+     the next fall, when I settled in Brush Creek Valley, Brush
+     Creek being the south fork of the Calapooia. When I came
+     here I found Alexander Kirk, W. R. Kirk, James Blakely, Hugh
+     L. Brown, and Jonathan Keeney, all living in the vicinity of
+     where Brownsville now is, they all having crossed the plains
+     in 1846 and come on up the valley to the Calapooia. I also
+     found R. C. Finley some six miles farther up the stream, who
+     also crossed the plains the same year, but settled on the
+     Calapooia in the spring of 1847. Mrs. Agnes B. Courtnay, who
+     came to Oregon in 1845, and whose husband had been killed
+     near Oregon City by a falling tree, made up the settlers on
+     the Calapooia at that time. I will state here that Mr.
+     Finley had settled at the falls of the Calapooia where he
+     contemplated building, and did in 1848 build a flouring
+     mill, being the first mill south of Salem. In the fall of
+     1847, as before stated, I and Asa Moore settled in Brush
+     Creek Valley above Mr. Finley, he being the upper settler up
+     to that time, and at the same time James McHargue and Robert
+     Montgomery, who crossed the plains that season, settled
+     below Mr. Finley and Thomas Fields several miles farther up
+     the stream. Wm. T. Templeton, William Robnett, William
+     McCaw, John Findlay, John A. Dunlap, and Thomas S. Woodfin
+     all crossed the plains in 1847 and subsequently settled on
+     the Calapooia, but after the annoyance with the Indians had
+     ceased.
+
+     The Indians in these early days were in the habit of
+     stealing horses and cattle from the settlers and butchering
+     them, and the settlers would trail them up and if able to
+     catch them would flog them severely, but the Indians seemed
+     to care about as much as a cur for such treatment and would
+     laugh about it as if it was all a huge joke. Some time
+     during the summer of 1847 Isaac B. Courtnay was hunting in
+     Brush Creek Valley, being above the settlement at that time,
+     when he met with a few Indians, who took his gun and
+     ammunition and allowed him to go home. During the fall and
+     winter of 1847 the Indians annoyed Mr. Fields so much that
+     he finally moved down to my place on Brush Creek and stayed
+     until the spring of 1848.
+
+     In the fall of 1847 when I and Mr. Moore came into Brush
+     Creek Valley we were not aware that there were any Indians
+     near there and selected a place to build a cabin in which to
+     spend the winter, we being single men, were going to batch
+     through the winter, when I intended to bring my mother to
+     live with me, my father having died soon after starting for
+     Oregon. When we commenced cutting logs for our cabin two or
+     three Indians appeared on the scene and inquired what we
+     were doing there, and on being told we were going to settle
+     there they demanded pay for the land, and we finally made a
+     bargain with them agreeing to pay them in wheat and pease
+     after the next harvest, this being the way in which many of
+     the early settlers bargained with them.
+
+     During the fall and early winter when an Indian happened to
+     be present at mealtime we gave him something to eat, but it
+     soon became apparent that if we kept this up we would run
+     out of provisions before spring, as there were one or more
+     Indians there nearly every meal, so we were obliged to quit
+     feeding them, when they demanded pay for their land again we
+     told them, however, that we would pay them according to
+     contract. Soon after this they moved away, and we saw no
+     more of them on Brush Creek.
+
+     As Mr. Finley was contemplating the building of a mill the
+     next summer he traded for a fat ox which I had brought with
+     me, intending to butcher him when he commenced work, but
+     soon after the Indians left the ox disappeared also. When we
+     missed him from the other cattle Mr. Finley and I took a
+     circuit around the range of the cattle and struck his trail
+     going toward the Santiam, and after tracking him a mile or
+     two we came across the same Indians, where they were camped
+     and were drying the beef, having killed the ox. When we
+     turned toward the camp Mr. Finley said if that Indian runs
+     I'll shoot him. When they saw us coming they broke for the
+     brush and Mr. Finley fired at one of them, they in their
+     hurry leaving everything in camp, including the only gun
+     they had.
+
+     After selecting such things as we could carry that would be
+     of any value we made a bonfire of the rest, burning
+     everything they had. When we started away I saw an Indian
+     head come up by the side of a log in the timber and took a
+     shot at him, it was a long shot, and I think the ball struck
+     the log, but the head disappeared very suddenly. Another
+     Indian started to run from behind a tree when Mr. Finley
+     fired, aiming, as he said, to break a leg, wounding the
+     Indian above the knee, but not disabling him. This caused
+     quite an excitement in the settlement, the Indians and many
+     of the settlers fearing it would cause an outbreak among the
+     Indians, arguing that we ought not have shot at them, but
+     should have treated them as others had done. However, Mr.
+     Finley and I told them that if they didn't want to be shot
+     at they must not steal from us, as we would shoot every time
+     and that to kill. This put a stop to their stealing in this
+     part of the country and we were not annoyed after that by
+     the natives, and they never called for the pay for their
+     land.
+
+     The Rev. H. H. Spalding taught a neighborhood school in a
+     log schoolhouse one mile above where Brownsville now stands
+     in the summer of 1849, there being no public schools in the
+     country at that time. The first school district on the
+     Calapooia, being the third in Linn County, was organized, I
+     think, in the spring of 1853; but many of the early records
+     of the county were burned in the courthouse, and I am unable
+     to give the precise date. The first school was taught in the
+     district in the summer of 1853 by Robert Moore.
+
+     As to the motive for coming to the Willamette Valley at that
+     early date I hardly know how to answer, unless it was love
+     of adventure, as the question of sovereignty had not been
+     settled between the United States and England when I came
+     here. True, the United States senate had been discussing the
+     matter of giving each settler in Oregon six hundred and
+     forty acres of land, and we rather expected that would be
+     done, but we had no real assurance that such would be the
+     case.
+
+     Among the early county officers of Linn County, after its
+     organization under the Territorial Government, quite a
+     number were living on the Calapooia, Alexander Kirk being
+     elected county judge, N. D. Jack assessor, John A. Dunlap
+     representative, and William McCaw clerk in 1849, and in 1850
+     several men who were elected to county officers went to the
+     mines and failed to qualify, among them the county
+     treasurer, and at a special election I was elected to that
+     office and received and disbursed the first taxes ever
+     collected in Linn County.
+
+     In 1851 I was elected assessor and was the second man to
+     assess the county. In 1856 I served as second lieutenant in
+     the Rogue-river war. In 1862 was elected sheriff for two
+     years.
+
+     Yours truly,
+
+     T. A. RIGGS.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[35] Riggs says 1848; several old settlers say 1849.
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENTS.
+
+
+A letter of M. M. McCarver to Hon. A. C. Dodge, Delegate to Congress
+from Iowa, written immediately on the arrival of the immigration of
+1843.
+
+     [_Explanation_: This document was copied from the _Ohio
+     Statesman_, which had taken it from the _Iowa Gazette_,
+     where it was originally printed.]
+
+     (Reprinted from the _Ohio Statesman_ of September 11, 1844.)
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     ARRIVAL OF EMIGRATION COMPANY NO. I.
+
+     On the first page of to-day's paper will be found a notice
+     of the return of Lieutenant Fremont's exploring company. By
+     this company we are put into possession of several
+     interesting letters from different members of the emigrating
+     company, and, among others, three from our former townsman,
+     M. M. McCarver, one of which, directed to our delegate,
+     together with a letter written by P. H. Burnett to the
+     _Saint Louis Reporter_, we publish below.--_Iowa Gazette_
+     [Burlington].
+
+     TWALATINE PLAINS, Oregon Territory, November 6, 1843.
+
+     DEAR SIR: I avail myself of an opportunity offered by one of
+     the vessels belonging to the Hudson Bay Company to forward
+     you a few lines.
+
+     The emigrants have not all arrived, though more than half
+     are here, and the remainder may be looked for in a few days,
+     all were at the Methodist Mission, about one hundred and
+     fifty miles distant, near The Dalles. On last week several
+     of the families arrived within a few days of Fort Vancouver
+     and the Wallammatte Falls--some by water and others over the
+     Cascade Mountains. The waggons will be brought from The
+     Dalles by water, as the season is now too far advanced to
+     open a road through the mountains. This expedition
+     establishes the practicability beyond doubt of a waggon road
+     across the continent by the way of the southern pass in the
+     Rocky Mountains. We have had no difficulty with the natives,
+     although we have had a tedious journey. We have had less
+     obstacles in reaching here than we had a right to expect, as
+     it was generally understood before leaving the States that
+     one third of the distance, to wit, from Fort Hall to this
+     place, was impassable with waggons. Great credit, however,
+     is due to the energy, perseverance, and industry of this
+     emigrating company, and particularly to Doctor Whitman, one
+     of the missionaries at the Walla Walla Mission, who
+     accompanied us out. His knowledge of the route was
+     considerable, and his exertions for the interest of the
+     company were untiring. Our journey may now be said to be at
+     an end, and we are now in the Wallammatte Valley. I have
+     been here near three weeks, having left my waggon in charge
+     of the teamster and proceeded on horseback from Fort Hall in
+     company with some thirty persons, principally young men.
+     Your first question now will be, "how are you satisfied with
+     the country? Is it worthy of the notice that Congress has
+     given it?" I would answer these in the affirmative. Perhaps
+     there is no country in the world of its size that offers
+     more inducements to enterprise and industry than Oregon. The
+     soil in this valley and in many other portions of the
+     territory is equal to that of Iowa, or any other portion of
+     the United States, in point of beauty and fertility, and its
+     productions in many articles are far superior, particularly
+     in regard to wheat, potatoes, beets, and turnips. The grain
+     of the wheat is more than one third larger than any I have
+     seen in the States. Potatoes are abundant and much better
+     than those in the States. I measured a beet which grew in
+     Doctor Whitman's garden which measured in circumference two
+     inches short of three feet, and there is now growing in the
+     field of Mr. James Johns, less than a mile from this place
+     where I write you, a turnip measuring in circumference four
+     and one half feet, and he thinks it will exceed five feet
+     before pulling time. Indeed, everything here is in a
+     flourishing condition--trade brisk and everybody doing well.
+     The emigrants generally are all, as far as I know,
+     satisfied. Wages for a common hand is from $1 to $1.50 per
+     day, and mechanics from $2 to $4. Wheat is quite abundant
+     and sold to ship or emigrants at $1 per bushel. Flour is
+     from $9 to $10 per barrel; potatoes and turnips fifty cents
+     per bushel; beef from six to eight cents per pound; American
+     cows from $60 to $70; California, from $15 to $20. The
+     prairie is coated with a rich green grass, perhaps the most
+     nutritious in the world; and I am told that the winter is
+     never so severe or the grass so scarce that a poor horse
+     will not fatten in the space of one month. Nothing is wanted
+     but industry to make this one of the richest little
+     countries in the world. I say little, because the fertile
+     part of it is small compared with the very extensive fertile
+     countries in the valley of the Mississippi; yet we have a
+     country sufficient in extent and resources to maintain in
+     lucrative occupations millions of inhabitants. Its great
+     hydraulic power immediately on the seashore, the advantages
+     for stock grazing or wool growing, its fertile soil and
+     indeed, its very isolated situation from competition with
+     the rest of the civilized world, all combine with other
+     circumstances to make it one of the most desirable countries
+     under the sun for industry and enterprise.
+
+     I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
+
+     M. M. McCARVER.
+
+     _Hon. C. A. Dodge._
+
+
+Two letters by Tallmadge B. Word, written from Oregon Territory in
+1846 and 1847. See "Documents" of preceding number of THE QUARTERLY
+for an account of the author:
+
+     CLATSOP, Clatsop Co., Oregon Territory,
+     February 19, 1846.
+
+     DEAR BROTHER: It was with pleasure I received yours of March
+     8, 1845; also one from Cyrel at the same time (Nov. last,
+     1845), and was happy to hear of general health, and that I
+     am blest with the same, and have been ever since I have been
+     in this territory; and, in fact, I have not had an hour's
+     sickness for five years past. You ask me to give a sketch of
+     my travels since I first arrived in Missouri. It is not
+     possible for me to do so, with any degree of accuracy at
+     present. Although I have a Journal of much of my trampings,
+     it is now 200 miles distant, and I will not be able to get
+     it before our mail starts for the U. S. I have also a daily
+     journal of our journey to this country, and one of the
+     weather for the first year I was here, which I sent you by
+     the return party of 1845, but we have ascertained, that our
+     letters were all lost, so I am aware you did not receive
+     mine of '45, but hope it may not keep you from writing in
+     the spring.
+
+     The Ship by which I intended to send you letters, was sold
+     at the Sandwich Islands, and consequently did not return to
+     the U. S. Now of my tramp: I will mearly say that I have
+     ranged over nearly the whole country west of the Missouri
+     River and east of the Rocky Mountains, from the British line
+     on the north to the center of New Mexico on the south. The
+     country is nearly of a sameness, quite a barren, sandy
+     desert, with the exception of borders of streams, valleys,
+     mountains, &c. The whole country abounds in game and
+     Indians--the latter generally hostile. I could tell you of
+     some long hunting yarns, and Indian fights, but they are of
+     too little interest to spend time with now; so I will wait
+     until I take a walk down East, and then some long evening,
+     over a mug of cider and dish of apples, you shall have them.
+
+     I was some of the time in employ of Fur & Trading Co., and
+     some of my time a free trapper. A hunter's life is a dog's
+     life, exposed to all kinds of danger and hardships, and but
+     little gained at last, but men soon get so accustomed to it
+     that in a short time they fear neither man, musket, or the
+     D----, and there is so much nature, romance, and excitement
+     in their way of living, that they soon become much attached
+     to it, for it is much easier for a white man to become an
+     Indian, than to reverse the thing. I have been compelled to
+     [by] hunger to eat mules, horses, dogs, wolves, badgers,
+     ground hogs, skunks, frogs, crickets, ants, and have been
+     without food of any kind for six days and nights. Cats,
+     dogs, or anything else, is right good eating meat at such
+     times.
+
+     At another time we were four days, and three out of the four
+     compelled to fight our way as we traveled, but hungry men
+     are fond of fight and fear nothing, and so we walked
+     through. You may think crickets and ants rather small game
+     to shoot at, and so it is, but we have another way of taking
+     them, which is by going in search, early in the morning,
+     when the crickets (which are in some parts very numerous and
+     as large as the end of your thumb,) by the coolness of the
+     air and dew are very stupid, and climb to the top of weeds
+     in great numbers that the sun may get a fair chance at them;
+     they are at such times easily captured by jarring them off
+     into a basket and then roasting them with hot
+     stones,--feathers, guts, and all,--and make very good
+     eating--when one gets used to it. The ants are taken by
+     sticking a stick in the center of their hill, and making a
+     fire around it, which compels them to ascend the stick, and
+     from that to the basket or sack; in this way a meal is soon
+     procured. But those times are all past with me.
+
+     I am now where we have plenty to eat and out of many dangers
+     to which a man is exposed, and I know well how to prize it.
+     As to how I got here I think I gave you some idea in my
+     letter of 1844, and as I am not able to give the
+     particulars, I will say nothing about it, but I will assure
+     you I am here on Clatsop Plains, at the mouth of the
+     Columbia River, within three quarters of a mile of the
+     Pacific Ocean, in a country that when I arrived here was so
+     thinly populated that I was able to become acquainted with
+     every white person in the territory; but the two last years
+     has so increased the population that two fifths are now
+     strangers to me; 1844 gave by land an emigration of about
+     1,200; 1845 nearly twice that number; this year we expect
+     them by the thousands. The people who come here are from all
+     parts of the globe, but mostly from the western states of
+     the U. S. A great portion are single men, roving characters,
+     who are from every place but this, and this they can not
+     well leave; and the prospects of our infant country are so
+     flattering that we have no inclination to leave it; at
+     present almost every man that arrives here, is at once
+     filled with enterprise, and dives heels over head into
+     something.
+
+     We have now a population of five or six thousand; there is
+     now in operation six sawmills and five flouring mills, six
+     stores, exclusive of the Hudson Bay Co., six blacksmith
+     shops, and three gunsmiths, carpenter shops in any number,
+     two tan yards, Lawyers, Doctors, and Preachers by the dozen.
+     We have a legislature, and they have made scores of laws,
+     the particulars of which you will get in the _Oregon
+     Spectator_, a paper which is printed at Wellemette Falls,
+     once in two weeks; the first number came out last week. I
+     sent you one or two numbers of the first print of the
+     _Northwest Coast_. I presume you would like to know
+     something of the situation of our country, the climate,
+     production, natural resources, &c., of which I will attempt
+     to give you a slight idea. The general character of the
+     country is broken and mountainous, but is interspersed with
+     beautiful valleys. The first I shall introduce to you is the
+     place of Clatsop; it is very small, but beautiful; it is
+     bounded on the north by the Columbia, west by the ocean, and
+     south and east by heavy timbered land; it is about twenty
+     miles in length by two in breadth; from the sea beach to the
+     big timber the soil is of the best quality, capable of
+     producing any vegetation grown in any of the northern or
+     western states in the U. S. As the wind is nine tenths of
+     the time from the salt water, I believe it to be one of the
+     most healthy places on the globe. It is now four years since
+     the first whites settled here, and there has not been a case
+     of sickness nor a death as yet, and but ten or fifteen
+     births, for there is not a woman that has a husband, but
+     what well fulfills the Commandment by about every year
+     giving birth to a fine chub, and very often two at a time,
+     and some instances of women, without husbands, lending a
+     hand in populating our valuable country, and all owing to
+     the climate and shellfish (?) which we have in abundance.
+
+     The number of families at this place is fourteen, counting
+     in five bachelor halls. The tide flows from 9 to 12 feet
+     perpendicular at the mouth of the Columbia. We will now
+     proceed up the river. Thirteen miles from the bar is old
+     Astoria, now occupied by the H. B. Co. This place is a
+     beautiful situation for a town, and will probably be the New
+     York of Oregon; it has a full view of the whole harbor, and
+     a vessel can lay at any time in perfect safety. Now three
+     miles and we come to Tongue Point; this is a narrow point of
+     land running into the river; a fortification on it could
+     have full command of the river, as the channel runs near the
+     point. On we go; heavy timber and broken land on each side
+     of the river, which is from three to ten miles wide; we now
+     come to the mill which I told you I was erecting. I will
+     tell you more of that by and by, but we will go ahead. The
+     banks of the river heavy timbered and broken, but the soil
+     rich; we now come to Coulitye [Cowlitz] River, which is
+     about 200 yards wide at the mouth, comes in on the north
+     side of the Columbia, about 50 miles from the mouth of the
+     Columbia. We will ascend this river 15 miles, against a
+     strong current. The country now opens out into a large
+     plain, many miles in length and breadth, the soil of the
+     best quality, beautifully watered, and interspersed with
+     timber. At the time I first visited these parts there were
+     but fourteen families of French and half-breeds, but since
+     that time there has been a number of American families
+     settled in this section. The valley is one or more hundred
+     miles, in diameter, and situated on one of the noblest
+     harbors on our coast, that, is the Puget Sound. Now we will
+     return to the Columbia, and ascend 40 miles to the
+     Willemette River, of which you will get an idea by the paper
+     which I send. Six miles above the Willemette River is
+     Vancouvers, the principal depot of the Hudson Bay Co.; all
+     of their shipping ascends to this place, though not without
+     some difficulty, particularly if the craft draws more than
+     thirteen feet of water.
+
+     In the vicinity of Fort Vancouver there is much fine farming
+     land. The company has fine farms, and many thousand head of
+     cattle. Fifty or sixty miles above are the Cascades; it is
+     where the river crosses the Cascade Mountains, a range
+     running north and south. East of these mountains is a
+     country extending many hundred miles in each direction, and
+     most particularly adapted to grazing. Stock of all kinds can
+     live here winter and summer without the least care. This is
+     as far as I have seen the country, though it is said there
+     is much fine country in the south of the territory, but no
+     settlements in that section.
+
+     Our stock keeps fat through the winter without care; we had
+     no snow last winter nor this. Buds are now swelling, and
+     some flowers in bloom. You wished to know where we get saws
+     to saw our big timber. I brought two, of the longest kind,
+     with me, and we have since had two from the Hudson Bay Co.,
+     and three from the States. We have timber of all sizes, so
+     we take our choice; we have some 16 feet in diameter and 300
+     feet in length; no mistake. I have measured such. We have
+     shipped three cargoes of lumber to the Sandwich Islands, for
+     which we received $20 per thousand feet, clear of freight.
+     Lumber is, and will be, a great source of wealth to this
+     country. The Columbia, and its tributaries, are alive with
+     salmon during the summer months; the Indians take them in
+     great numbers with spears, nets, and seines; there are many
+     packed and sent to foreign markets annually.
+
+     I am now improving me a farm on Clatsop Plains. I have a
+     splendid claim of six hundred and forty acres of land, about
+     fifty acres timber, the rest prairie--laying immediately on
+     the Pacific. We are all very anxious to hear the result of
+     the treaty (if one is made) between the _U. S._ and John
+     Bull. We are very much afraid Uncle will fool away the north
+     of the Columbia; if he does we shall be _Silux_. We are very
+     anxious the U. S. should extend her jurisdiction over our
+     valuable country, and we are nearly out of patience with the
+     delay. We are not all thieves and runaways, as represented
+     by the Hon Mr. Mc----, nor our country a booty. Boy, if it
+     is, it's inferior to none in point of beauty, pleasant
+     climate, natural resources, and advantages of wealth; and if
+     the settlers were ever thieves they have wholly reformed,
+     for it is generally believed that no other colony has ever
+     equaled this in point of bravery, enterprise, hospitality,
+     honesty, and morality. There are men who arrived here in
+     October last who have at this time one hundred acres fenced
+     and sown to wheat. Now, all we want is a little of Uncle
+     Sam's care, that capitalists may be safe in investing their
+     money.
+
+     Merchandise is generally high here, owing to the scarcity
+     and great demand. Salt $1 per bush.; sugar 12½ cts. per lb.;
+     coffee 25 cts. per lb.; molasses 50 cts. per gal.: tea 50
+     cts. to $1.50; nails 18 cts.: window glass 10 to 12 cts.
+     per light; dry goods in proportion; beef, pork, hides,
+     tallow, and most kinds of produce taken in payment; beef $6
+     per h.; pork $10; hides $2 apiece by the lot; tallow 8 to
+     10; butter 20 to 25; wheat 75 cts. to $1; oats 75 cts.;
+     potatoes 50 cts. per bu.; lumber from 15 to $25 per 1,000
+     feet; shingles 4 to $5 per 1,000; common laborers $1 per
+     day, and mechanics $2. You see by the manner of my writing
+     that I am in great haste, therefore you must allow me to
+     close.
+
+     After you peruse this I want you to enclose it, and, with
+     love and respect, send it to Cyrel, for I have not a
+     moment's time to write to him, and I have nothing to say to
+     him only to be sure he is right and then go ahead; and for
+     you both, to send me letters every chance, for I value each
+     letter at five hundred dollars--provided I could get them no
+     cheaper. Give my love to father, sister, and all inquiring
+     friends, and should like to see some of you in Oregon.
+
+     Yours, most affectionate,
+     T. B. WOOD.
+
+     (I. NASH.--My consent to publish this if you think it of any
+     interest).
+
+The above letter was written by Tallmadge B. Wood, from Clatsop,
+Clatsop County, Oregon Territory, February 19, 1846, to Isaac M. Nash,
+his brother-in-law, at Ballston Spa, Saratoga County, New
+York.--_Florence E. Baker._
+
+
+Copy of a letter written from Oregon City, formerly Willemette Falls,
+Oregon, December 23, 1847, by Tallmadge B. Wood to his brother-in-law,
+Isaac Nash, and sister.--_Florence E. Baker._
+
+     OREGON CITY, December 23, '47.
+
+     DEAR BROTHER: I avail myself of this opportunity of writing
+     you a few lines that you may know that I am still in the
+     land of the living. I received one letter from you by the
+     arrival of Mr. Shively, being the second one that I have
+     received from you since I have been in this brush. We, of
+     course, got news of the fate of the "Oregon Bill" of last
+     session, and as you may judge was very much disappointed,
+     but we grin and bear it because there is no other way for us
+     to do. We are at present in rather an awkward situation;
+     there has of late been some serious difficulties with the
+     upper country Indians in which Dr. Whitman, wife and nine
+     others were murdered.
+
+     There were fifty men dispatched last week to protect the
+     Mission at the Dals, [Dalles]; we have had no news from them
+     since. There are orders for the raising of five hundred men
+     to go up and give the scoundrels a wiping out. So you may
+     say we have the loud cry of war in Oregon; but what is done
+     here, is done by the voluntary acts of the people and
+     without pay. And as there is such a diversity of opinions,
+     as to the best way to proceed, I think there will not be as
+     much done at present, as we have got so many people here
+     that it is not so easy for them all to agree as it was in
+     former times.
+
+     This year's emigration was very large. They all got through
+     with less difficulties than that of last year. There has
+     been considerable sickness with them. Their disease being
+     the measles, the disorder is proving quite fatal with the
+     natives; it was in consequence of this that Dr. Whitman was
+     killed, as they held a malice against the whites for
+     bringing the disorder unto the country.
+
+     Our legislature being in session, it has authorized Mr. Meek
+     to go to the United States with dispatches to the
+     government, informing it of our situation. He starts
+     to-morrow morning, and it is by him that I send this letter.
+     It is a general time of good health and spirits, in Oregon,
+     with the exception of now and then a case of the measles.
+     Our commerce has much improved within the last year. A large
+     number of ships have left our port the last season well
+     ladened.
+
+     The winter thus far is very fine, no freezing, and little
+     rain. Wheat looks well, and great quantity sown. I have sold
+     my interest in my mill, and also my farm. I am going to put
+     up salmon next spring, and after the season is over, which
+     will be in August, I am going to build a mill, as I now have
+     one of the best sites on the Columbia, and lumbering the
+     best business in Oregon.
+
+     I would write much more, had I time and room on my
+     sheet--though I am sure it would not be very interesting. Be
+     sure and send me a letter every time the Ship Whiton sailed
+     for the U. S. as it will return to this country. Be sure and
+     avail that chance though I missed it. Give Father my
+     Respects; tell him I intend on coming to see him once more.
+     I must scratch a few lines to sisters, so I bid you a
+     Farewell.
+
+     Dear Sisters, I have only room to tell you that I am well. I
+     Farmed it and did housework last summer, but I guess I don't
+     do it again soon. There are lots of pretty girls here now,
+     but I do not get time to get one of them just now, but will
+     take a year or two, by and by, and attend to these matters.
+
+     Frances must write to Cyrel for me, for it is now late and I
+     haven't time. Give my love to all cousins and inquiring
+     friends. Write every chance.
+
+     Good by, your affectionate brother,
+     T. B. WOOD.
+
+     To _I. Nash_, _S. C. Nash_, _J. A. Wood_.
+
+     The above letter was folded, and sent without an envelope:
+     It was sealed with a red seal; it cost ten cents postage; it
+     was mailed at St. Joseph, Mo.; it was directed to Isaac
+     Nash, Ballston Spa, Sarotogo County, N. Y.; it arrived at
+     Sarotogo Springs June 5th. It was marked _Missent_. This
+     letter was written on large sheets of pale blue paper with
+     black ink, and is in good preservation now, 1908.--_Florence
+     E. Baker._
+
+
+
+
+SOME CORRECTIONS.
+
+"Seth Luelling," near the bottom of page 282 of volume III should be
+Henderson Luelling.
+
+In the twelfth line of page 284 of the same volume the word "clearer"
+in brackets should be omitted, as the author intended by the word
+"lighter" to refer to the specific gravity of the water.
+
+In the seventeenth line of page 289 of the same volume the words
+"blue" and "mountain" should not begin with capital letters.
+
+Mr. H. S. Lyman requests the insertion of the following note referring
+to the recently published "Complete History of Oregon":
+
+     _To the Editor_--
+
+     As my attention has been called to some points deemed
+     erroneous in the History of Oregon, I would ask space in the
+     OREGON HISTORICAL QUARTERLY to say to subscribers or
+     purchasers of the work that I would esteem it a favor that
+     any matter deemed inaccurate or erroneous be communicated to
+     me.
+
+     Errors in a publication are usually of the following
+     character: Typographical, merely; slips of the proofreader;
+     mistakes of transcription; misapprehension of the writer; or
+     of differences in authorities. Besides this there is the
+     wide field of differences in opinions, or conclusions--many
+     being unable to distinguish between a fact and what is
+     properly but their own personal inference from facts, or
+     supposed facts. Still further, different persons will
+     estimate differently the value of events, and give varying
+     proportions to the elements constituting the whole.
+
+     Typographical errors, or mere blunders of haste, should not,
+     certainly, be expected in a standard work; yet are almost
+     invariably found, particularly in the first edition; and,
+     indeed, seldom or never disappear entirely; almost every
+     teacher, or student, including myself, having noticed, or
+     reported such even in standard text-books. By reference to
+     the preface of my history it will be seen that the work was
+     undertaken with full understanding that a complete, or
+     critical, history of Oregon could not yet be written; but it
+     was thought worth while now to lay the basis of an
+     investigation and ask the patronage of the public. I would,
+     therefore, feel it a most friendly courtesy if any
+     supposedly erroneous matter, whether mere slips, or
+     differences of information or opinion--in the great number
+     of details that it has been attempted to furnish--would be
+     reported to me. I am confident that the work has been begun
+     on a sufficiently broad basis to bear much further
+     elaboration. Any mistakes reported, together with such as
+     may be found by myself, will, if they seem sufficiently
+     numerous and formidable, be collated and published as a page
+     of errata, and the corrected list be furnished each
+     subscriber or purchaser, so far as these may be known.
+
+     I hope that this may prove a useful line of inquiry, and
+     place the readers somewhat on their own mettle, and thus
+     furnish me matter for notice in a second edition, if this
+     should be produced. Such investigation and criticism would
+     also establish more firmly in public confidence such data as
+     do not prove open to question.
+
+     H. S. LYMAN.
+
+     _Astoria, Oregon, May 13, 1903._
+
+
+
+
+     THE QUARTERLY
+     OF THE
+     OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY.
+
+     VOLUME IV.      JUNE, 1903      NUMBER 2
+
+
+
+
+OREGON AND ITS SHARE IN THE CIVIL WAR.[36]
+
+
+By the Convention of 1818, renewed in 1827, the Oregon Country,
+comprising a large part of what is now denominated in general terms,
+the Pacific Northwest, was under the joint occupancy of Great Britain
+and the United States.
+
+The practical evidence of this joint sovereignty on the part of the
+British, was the sway of the Hudson Bay Company through its network of
+trading stations and outfitting points for its cohorts of frontiersmen
+and trappers. Until the advent of the missionary movement from the
+States, there was little practical evidence of the coordinate
+sovereignity of the United States.
+
+When the missionary movement took important shape numerically it
+resulted in a vital need for some form of local government, and hence
+there arose the Provisional Government of Oregon, as it was called,
+fashioned on the lines of state or territorial governments on the
+other side of the intervening mountains and plains, "deriving its just
+powers from the consent of the governed," and empowered by that
+consent to maintain inviolate as far as possible "life, liberty, and
+the pursuit of happiness."
+
+In 1846, abandoning the political war cry of "Fifty-four Forty or
+Fight," which had served its demagogic use as a partisan rallying
+call, a boundary treaty was finally concluded between England and the
+United States fixing the forty-ninth parallel of latitude as the
+northern most boundary of the Oregon Country and of the United States
+in the Northwest.
+
+But still the provisional Government of the immigrants, incomplete in
+concept, rude in operation, imperfect in power, was the only form of
+government, the ten to fifteen thousand Americans in this vast domain
+had to insure domestic tranquillity or oppose resistance to the ever
+present savage foe.
+
+In message after message President Polk called the attention of
+Congress to its inaction and the dangers to which that inaction
+exposed the settlers and how far short of its manifest duty the
+national legislators were in their neglect; but there were mighty
+reasons back of this neglect; mighty forces were battling in the halls
+of legislation--the titanic combat was on between Freedom and Slavery
+and the Missouri Compromise line was some leagues to the northward of
+where California began. The Provisional Legislature of 1845 had taken
+firm ground on the slavery question and the ordinance of 1787
+prohibiting slavery was incorporated in its organic law.
+
+The Douglas house bill of 1846, seeking to organize a territorial
+government for Oregon, followed in this regard the expressed desire of
+the colonists, and met a prompt and instant defeat at the hands of the
+Southern senators. Thereupon, Douglas sought to get around the
+question by a different bill (he was then in the Senate) containing a
+clause sanctioning the colonial laws of Oregon, which would, as a
+matter of fact, accomplish the same result. Joseph L. Meek, an
+accredited representative of the colonists had undergone a dangerous
+overland winter journey to enforce upon the President and Congress
+the necessity of immediate action and of Federal aid in the constant
+conflict with the surrounding Indian tribes.
+
+Judge Thornton, the personal representative of Governor Abernethy of
+the provisional government, was also in Washington on the same errand,
+having come by ocean.
+
+The senate bill of Douglas was finally passed, after being amended in
+the spirit of compromise ever dominant in those days, whereby the
+colonial laws on the subject of slavery were to be continued in force
+until such time as "the legislature could adopt some other law on the
+subject," but the House promptly laid this bill on the table and
+rejoined with a measure practically identical with the Douglas house
+bill of 1846, and after a long and bitter contest, in which Thomas H.
+Benton led the fight for Oregon, on the fourteenth of August, 1848,
+Oregon became a territory of the United States on her own terms, and
+free soil in name as well as in fact.
+
+President Polk promptly appointed General Joseph Lane, of Indiana, a
+native of North Carolina, and a veteran commander of the Mexican war,
+as the first territorial governor of Oregon, and urged upon him the
+immediate organization of the government, in order that it might be
+inaugurated before March 4, 1849, when there would be a change in the
+presidency.
+
+The long journey of Governor Lane, accompanied by ex-Delegate Meek,
+now United States Marshal, across the continent by the Santa Fé trail,
+and up the coast from San Francisco, is one of the stirring incidents
+of those stirring times, and on the third of March, 1849, but one day
+before the expiration of President Polk's term of office, General Lane
+issued a proclamation making known that he entered upon the discharge
+of the duties of his office, and proclaiming the Federal laws in force
+over the Oregon country. Thus was the consummation so longed for by
+the President brought to pass, and what he had striven for so long and
+so patriotically fulfilled in the closing hours of his administration.
+During the years of territorial government the slavery question that
+was tormenting the brain and conscience of the North and the heart and
+chivalry of the South, played but little part in the life of the far
+distant territory.
+
+The political complexion of the territory was overwhelmingly
+Democratic, but it was democracy of the free soil order, which only
+asked of the negro to keep out of its sight and out of its mind. In
+line with this temper was the enforcement against two unfortunate
+blacks of the territorial enactment against free negroes, which being
+promptly held constitutional by the territorial supreme court, the two
+offenders were gently but firmly deported from the boundaries of the
+"white man's country." This same deep-lying sentiment found added
+expression in the forth coming State Constitution, wherein it was
+enacted "No free negro or mulatto not residing in this State at the
+time of the adoption of this Constitution shall come, reside, or be
+within this State, or hold any real estate, or make any contracts, or
+maintain any suit therein; and the legislative assembly shall provide
+by penal laws for the removal by public officers of all such negroes
+and mulattoes, and for their effectual exclusion from the State, and
+for the punishment of persons who shall bring them into the State or
+employ or harbor them." Added expression was given to this point of
+view in the vote on the subject of admission of free negroes,
+submitted to the people in connection with the vote on the adoption of
+the proposed constitution--here the vote in favor of their admission
+was 1,081, contrarywise 8,640.
+
+A potent influence at Washington towards Oregon's admission as a state
+was the well-known democracy of the State, and at home the
+indebtedness to the colonists of the National Government in
+connection with the Indian wars--it seemed plain that two senators and
+one congressman who could vote as well as talk could accomplish more
+than one delegate who could only talk; and so the vote for the
+adoption of the State Constitution was 7,195 for and only 3,215
+against.
+
+On the subject of slavery, submitted to the people at the same
+election, the vote was likewise significant and illuminating, 7,727
+voted for freedom and but 2,645 for slavery. Coming as this
+overwhelming vote did when the agitation of the slavery question was
+at a white heat both in and out of Congress, it was startling in its
+clear and unequivocal verdict on this great question--and it is
+especially significant when we recall the great preponderance of
+Oregon voters born in slaveholding states and cradled in the doctrine
+of African bondage. Can the conclusion be other than that they
+realized the economic and moral blight of the slave system and
+resolved to have none of it in their fair State.
+
+In this election the free soil democrats and the whigs under Thomas J.
+Dryer were found quietly but none the less actually fighting shoulder
+to shoulder.
+
+It is a delicate task to attempt to chronicle history while yet the
+actual participants are some of them living and the children and
+grandchildren of many more constitute our friends and neighbors, and
+far be it from me to criticise the motives or sincerity of those who
+were wrong in the troublous days that followed except in so far as is
+necessary to set forth the facts of history.
+
+On the fourteenth of February, 1859, Oregon became a State of the
+Union. From the loins of the old Whig party in Oregon, as well as
+elsewhere in the country, sprang forth that young giant the Republican
+party, and to the leadership of Dryer was added the silvery eloquence
+of Edward D. Baker, lately come from California. The uncompromising
+slavery wing of the Democratic party nominated John C. Breckinridge
+for President and Joseph Lane, Oregon's first territorial governor and
+present senator, for Vice President. Stephen A. Douglas headed the
+regular Democratic ticket and Abraham Lincoln was the Republican
+chieftain.
+
+In Oregon there was a new alignment alike of leaders and of the rank
+and file--despite the wonderful personal popularity of Oregon's
+favorite son Joseph Lane, and the passionate oratory of Delazon Smith
+his chief campaigner, Oregon cast her vote for Abraham Lincoln for
+President of the United States. The combined Douglas and Lincoln vote
+was 9,480, while Breckinridge and Lane polled 5,074; and from this
+computation we see that a trifle more than one third of the voters of
+Oregon were apparently prepared to follow the programme of disunion
+and secession. Colonel Baker, by a coalition of republicans and
+Douglas democrats, was chosen United States Senator, and left almost
+immediately for Washington to take up his official duties; but he left
+behind him the courageous inspiration of his lofty patriotism--he had
+played upon and touched both the heart and conscience of the young
+Commonwealth, and while the months that followed were months of
+waiting and watching and of prayer, as elsewhere in the Union, there
+was never any real question, after the wonderful rousing of the public
+mind and the public heart of Oregon, largely wrought by his matchless
+eloquence and high ideals, that should war, that saddest of all
+conflicts, a civil war, ensue, the brave young State would stand by
+the flag of the Fathers and the cause of human liberty. At the city of
+San Francisco, _en route_ for Washington, Colonel Baker, in fiery and
+impassioned rhetoric, nailed his banner and Oregon's to the Nation's
+masthead.
+
+He said "As for me, I dare not, will not, be false to freedom. Where
+the feet of my youth were planted, there by freedom my feet shall ever
+stand. I will walk beneath her banner. I will glory in her strength. I
+have seen her in history struck down on a hundred fields of battle. I
+have seen her friends fly from her, her foes gather around her. I have
+seen her bound to a stake. I have seen them give her ashes to the
+winds; but when they turned to exult, I have seen her again meet them
+face to face, resplendent in complete steel, brandishing in her strong
+right hand a flaming sword, red with insufferable light. I take
+courage. The people gather round her. The genius of America will yet
+lead her sons to freedom."
+
+How could such a spirit, such a faith fail to overcome the forces of
+disunion and slavery or fail to inspire his fellow-Oregonians with his
+own unalterable patriotism. Despite all the warnings, despite all the
+months and years of anticipation and alarm, here, as elsewhere, the
+fall of Sumpter came like an electric shock.
+
+Douglas democrats and republicans alike became but Union men and the
+old flag waving in the breeze brought tears, tears of shame and tears
+of determination, even to the eyes of many who had voted for
+Breckinridge and Lane.
+
+On the same steamer that brought the news of the fall of Sumpter, came
+Joseph Lane, the ex-senator, the defeated candidate for Vice
+President. It is known that he came prepared, if not officially, yet
+fully authorized to head a movement for capturing Oregon for disunion.
+Numerous boxes of guns and ammunition accompanied him to his
+destination for this purpose.
+
+But scarcely had he put foot on the wharves of the Oregon metropolis,
+than he realized the vast misconception he had made of his home
+people. Douglas democrats and republicans, and many who had but lately
+voted for him for the vice presidency, declared without hesitation
+for the Union; and the idol of the Oregon democracy, tainted with
+secession and disunion, spurned even by his former friends, made his
+way unaccompanied and unheralded to his southern Oregon home by a
+devious trail, fearing the mob justice of the justly enraged citizens
+of the leading valley towns. And yet it was not all one way in Oregon
+in those troublous days. In certain quarters the disunion sentiment
+was powerful and dangerous.
+
+In the Historical Society's rooms in Portland hangs a banner first
+flung to the breeze on July 4, 1861, not forty miles from that city.
+It is fashioned of long strips of red and white ribbon, and in the
+center of its starry field is an eagle, made by the deft fingers of a
+pioneer woman. The old immigrant who donated it to the Historical
+Society has related how, when he heard the news of the fall of
+Sumpter, he immediately determined to celebrate the Fourth of July by
+flinging the Stars and Stripes to the breeze from his own home and
+with that end in view had procured the ribbon and caused his liberty
+loving wife to fashion it into his country's flag. This coming to the
+ears of certain hot-heads among his neighbors, he was called upon by a
+committee and asked if it was true that he intended hoisting the Old
+Flag on the anniversary of the nation's birth. To his affirmative
+reply came the sharp retort that it would never be allowed to stay,
+but would forthwith be torn down.
+
+"No man will haul down that flag except over my dead body," was the
+stern reply of the sturdy old pioneer. The days ran by and the
+self-formed committee thought that the old pioneer had heeded their
+warning, when one day the news spread that a flagstaff, tall and
+straight, and as unbending as the old man's determination, lay before
+the pioneer house. Then the elders of the hot-heads began to counsel
+moderation, to tell of the old neighbor's good deeds, of his
+unswerving sense of duty, of his faultless marksmanship that before
+that flag could be lowered not only the rough old patriot must lie
+cold in death but many of the attacking party would bite the dust.
+
+Reflection cooled the disunion ardor; perhaps "a tinge of sadness, a
+blush of shame o'er the face of the leader came," howbeit on the
+Fourth of July, 1861, that beautiful silken banner floated on the
+wings of the whispering wind and in the eagle's beak a dead serpent
+hung, sounding a note of derision as well as of triumph from the old
+man's heart.
+
+And while in a few days a more generous impulse came over him, and he
+himself took down the flag and had the serpent removed from the
+eagle's beak, yet with that single exception, until the final pæan of
+victory was sung at Appomattox, that silken emblem of his beloved
+country caressed by summer zephyrs and kissed by the soft mists of
+winter, floated undisturbed above his patriotic home.
+
+Col. George Hunter, in his quaintly interesting narrative
+"Reminiscences of an Old Timer," tells of a somewhat similar incident
+down in the Rogue River country. He says: "One day there had assembled
+at a store, where the double-distilled extract of corn was chiefly
+dispensed, a considerable crowd of men, most of whom were violent
+secessionists, and they were soon filled up, as good democrats were
+supposed to be, with the exhilarating beverage. From some cause or
+other the grand old Stars and Stripes had on this day been raised on a
+pole or staff near by, and pretty soon these half-tipsy fellows took
+offense at the defiant colors, and swore they would tear it down. Two
+or more of them started to execute the threat. Some of the crowd
+remonstrated, but to no avail. I being a stranger and a democrat,
+supposed the republicans present would protect the flag, but seeing no
+movement in that direction, and that if the flag was kept floating
+something must be done and done quickly, I grabbed an old musket that
+chanced to be standing in the corner of the store, and with my best
+speed I made for that flagstaff. My great-grandfathers had both served
+with Washington at Brandywine and Valley Forge, and my grandfather
+with Jackson at New Orleans, and I could't stand by and see the grand
+old banner disgracefully lowered by a drunken rabble of rebel
+sympathizers. As I ran swiftly forward I called frequently to their
+leader to stop, but he paid no attention to me. Knowing that nearly
+all men carried pistols in those days, and that these men were made
+desperate by drink, I determined to have the first shot. I took a
+quick aim and drew the trigger. The cap burst clear, but no report
+followed. Then there was a race between me and their leader for the
+flagstaff (all the rest stopped when the cap burst). We met at the
+flagstaff, and just as he was about to cut the halyards to lower the
+flag, my gun went off in a different way (it didn't snap that time),
+and the barrel brought down on his head proved more effective than the
+bullet which refused to leave the barrel.
+
+"Well, he laid down sudden like, and as I now had time to draw my
+revolver, I informed the mob that I would shoot the first man that
+attempted to haul down that flag before sundown. That settled it.
+Friends removed my man to the store, and many Union men gathered to my
+assistance, which had the effect of stopping any further
+demonstrations in that direction. At the going down of the sun, we
+lowered the flag, cheering as we did so, and laid it away with the
+honor we considered to be due the 'flag of the brave and the emblem of
+the free.'"
+
+In 1861 there were only about seven hundred men and nineteen
+commissioned officers in the regular army in the whole of Oregon and
+Washington, the force having been reduced to its lowest possible
+limit by withdrawals to strengthen the forces in the East. These
+troops were distributed as follows: 111 men, under Capt. H. M. Black,
+at Vancouver; 116 men, under Major Lugenbeel, at Colville; 127 men,
+under Major Steen, at Walla Walla; 41 men, under Captain Van Voast, at
+the Cascades; 43 men, under Capt. F. T. Dent, at Hoskins; 110 men at
+the two posts of Steilacoom and Camp Pickett, and 54 men under
+Lieutenant-Colonel Buchanan, at The Dalles, all under the general
+command of Colonel Wright, with Brig.-Gen. E. V. Sumner commanding the
+military department of the Pacific.
+
+Twofold dangers threatened the widely scattered settlements; from
+without, the ever hostile Indians who were further emboldened by the
+inevitable spirit of uncertainty and unrest that followed on the heels
+of civil war, and from within, disunion intrigue might at any time
+blaze into armed rebellion. It was a time that tried men's souls.
+
+In June, 1861, Colonel Wright made a requisition upon Governor
+Whiteaker for a three-year cavalry company to be mustered into the
+service of the United States and A. P. Dennison, former Indian Agent
+at The Dalles, was appointed enrolling officer. Suspicion of the
+loyalty of both the Governor and of Dennison to the Union cause,
+retarded enlistment and finally led to the abandonment of the
+undertaking.
+
+In November, 1861, the War Department made Thomas R. Cornelius
+colonel, and directed him to raise ten companies of cavalry for the
+service of the United States for three years, to be a part, as it was
+supposed, of the five hundred thousand volunteers called for by
+President Lincoln. Colonel Baker from Washington had taken an active
+interest in encouraging the raising of this famous regiment--it was
+the original regiment of Rough Riders of the West. There was an
+impression that nowhere in the East could there be gathered together
+cavalrymen to withstand the onslaughts of the dashing Southron on his
+black charger and the First Oregon Cavalry was recruited on the
+express promise that should the war continue they would be speedily
+transferred to the Army of the Potomac and given opportunity to cross
+swords with the flower of Southern chivalry.
+
+From the lava beds of Jackson County to the plains of the Tualatin
+rang the bugle call to duty and the pick of the youth of this young
+State were soon in the saddle under the guidon of freedom. R. F. Maury
+was commissioned lieutenant-colonel, Benjamin F. Harding,
+quartermaster, C. S. Drew major, and J. S. Rinearson junior major.
+Each volunteer furnished his own horse and received for himself and
+mount $31 a month, $100 bounty and a land warrant for one hundred and
+sixty acres of land. Company "A" was raised in Jackson County, Capt.
+T. S. Harris; Company "B" in Marion County, Capt. E. J. Harding; "C"
+at Vancouver, Capt. Wm. Kelly; "D" in Jackson County by Capt. S.
+Truax; "E" by Capt. George B. Currey in Wasco County; "F" by Capt.
+William J. Matthews in Josephine County; and Capt. D. P. Thompson of
+Oregon City and Capt. R. Cowles of the Umpqua also had companies. Six
+complete companies rendezvoused at Vancouver in May, 1862, and were
+clothed in government uniforms and armed with old-fashioned
+muzzle-loading rifles, pistols, and sabres.
+
+Colonel Baker was the warm personal friend of Lincoln; he had promised
+the boys of the First Oregon Cavalry before recruiting began that they
+should have a chance, if the war continued, of serving in the East;
+many of the present survivors have told me that they enlisted on this
+express promise, and had Colonel Baker lived there is every reason to
+believe that with his strong personal influence with the President,
+"Tom Cornelius' Rough Riders of Oregon" would have been the prototype
+in fame, as they were in fact, of "Roosevelt's Rough Riders" of the
+Spanish war. Colonel Baker was the colonel of the Fourth Illinois in
+the Mexican war, and it was hardly to be expected that a man of his
+ardent temperament could sit tamely in the halls of legislation while
+the rattle of musketry and the roll of drums were heard at the very
+gates of the national capital.
+
+And thus it came to pass, for on June 28, 1861, he was mustered into
+service for three years as colonel of the First California Infantry, a
+regiment he recruited largely in Pennsylvania, and which was
+afterwards denominated the Seventy-first Pennsylvania. On August 6,
+1861, he was commissioned Brigadier-General of Volunteers, to rank
+from May 17, which commission, although confirmed by the Senate, he
+declined, as he did also a later appointment as Major-General of
+Volunteers, as either appointment would have necessitated his
+resignation as senator from Oregon. It is stated that when General
+Scott had to give up general command of the army on account of his
+advancing years, President Lincoln tendered the succession to Colonel
+Baker, which was alike declined for the same reason.
+
+With impetuous courage and passionate desire to serve his country upon
+the field of battle as well as on the floor of the Senate, Colonel
+Baker could not stay at the rear, but joined his regiment at the
+front, and was as active in the work of the camp as he had been upon
+the stump and rostrum. Occasionally he would revisit the Senate and
+participate in a day's debate and then hurry back to his military
+duties. It was at such a time, sitting in his seat in the Senate, clad
+in his colonel's uniform that John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, late
+pro slavery candidate for the presidency with Joseph Lane, delivered a
+speech which was but a reflection of the secession views of those
+braver Southerners who were already in armed rebellion. Colonel Baker
+grew restive under the words of Breckinridge, his face glowed with
+passionate excitement, and he sprang to the floor when the senator
+from Kentucky took his seat and then and there without previous
+preparation delivered that wonderful philippic, abounding in
+denunciation and invective which alone would make a niche for him in
+the world's temple of fame.
+
+Passionately he asked "What would have been thought, if in another
+capitol, in a yet more martial age, a senator with the Roman purple
+flowing from his shoulders, had risen in his place, surrounded by all
+the illustrations of Roman glory, and declared that advancing Hannibal
+was just and that Carthage should be dealt with in terms of peace?
+What would have been thought, if after the battle of Cannæ, a senator
+had denounced every levy of the Roman people, every expenditure of its
+treasure, every appeal to the old recollections and the old glories?"
+Mr. Fessenden, of Maine, who sat near, responded in an undertone, "He
+would have been hurled from the Tarpeian rock;" and in tones of
+thunder Baker flashed forth the suggested fate and continued "Are not
+the speeches of the senator from Kentucky intended for disorganization?
+Are they not intended to destroy our zeal? Are they not intended to
+animate our enemies? Sir, are they not words of brilliant polished
+treason even in the very capitol of the Republic?" And then replying
+to a taunt of Breckinridge about the loyalty of the Pacific coast, he
+went on "When the senator from Kentucky speaks of the Pacific I see
+another distinguished friend from Illinois, now worthily representing
+the State of California, who will bear witness that I know that State,
+too, and well. I take the liberty, I know that I but utter his
+sentiments, to say that that State will be true to the Union to the
+last of her blood and treasure. There may be some disaffected men
+there and in Oregon, but the great portion of our population are loyal
+to the core and in every chord of their hearts. They are offering to
+add to the legions of the country, every day, by the hundred and the
+thousand. They are willing to come thousands of miles with their arms
+on their shoulders, at their own expense, to share, with the best
+offering of their heart's blood, in the great struggle of
+constitutional liberty."
+
+Can there be any different conclusion than that in that strong
+passage, Colonel Baker referred among others to the First Oregon
+Cavalry, which, though largely recruited after his death, was the
+direct product of his inspiration and suggestion. On the twenty-first
+of October, 1861, while gallantly leading his regiment at the battle
+of Ball's Bluff, Colonel Baker was instantly killed, and with his
+death went the chance of the Oregon regiment to obtain service at the
+seat of war.
+
+As the months rolled by and no fulfillment came of the promises that
+had been made for Eastern service, the regiment joined in a round
+robin to President Lincoln in which they recited the promises that had
+been made to them and asked for their fulfillment. The President's
+answer, filled with the lofty patriotism and spirit of unselfishness,
+that was his daily part, told them that the greatest and highest duty
+for all, was that which lay nearest at hand and with the regular
+troops almost all withdrawn from Oregon and Washington, and the tide
+of immigrants and scattered settlements open to Indian attack and the
+towns and villages liable to disunion, intrigue, and plot, their
+nearest as well as their highest duty was to guard the State from foes
+both savage and traitorous from without and from open treason within.
+
+And to the gallant men of the First Oregon Cavalry the word of the
+great President was final. They accepted the task he set them to
+accomplish, and although to them the pomp and circumstance of war were
+missing, although no patriotic millions stood by to applaud their
+gallant feats, and the eye of Government was not upon them, yet for
+three long weary years they did their duty faithfully and well, and by
+that faithfulness preserved their beautiful State for the Union and
+the wonderful future that has come to it.
+
+Some there were of Oregon blood and Oregon soil, however, who could
+not remain away from the greater theater of war, where the more
+dramatic destiny of the nation was being wrought out in havoc of blood
+and treasure. Col. Joseph Hooker, "Fighting Joe Hooker," living at
+Salem when the war broke out, went East, and became a brigadier-general,
+and Bancroft speaks of others as follows: "Volney Smith, son of
+Delazon Smith, was for a short time lieutenant in a New York regiment;
+James W. Lingenfelter, residing at Jacksonville, was made captain of a
+volunteer company, and killed at Fortress Monroe October 8, 1861; John
+L. Boon, son of the state treasurer, who had been a student of the
+Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio, was at the battles of Shiloh and
+Corinth, in an Ohio regiment, in Gen. Lew Wallace's division; Major
+Snooks, of the Sixty-eighth Ohio, was formerly an Oregonian of the
+immigration of '44; George Williams, of Salem, was second lieutenant
+of the Fourth Infantry, and in the second battle of Bull Run,
+Antietam, Frederickburg, and Gettysburg, losing a foot at Gettysburg;
+Frank W. Thompson, of Linn County, was colonel of the Third Virginia
+Volunteers in 1863; Henry Butler, of Oakland, was a member of the
+eighty sixth Illinois Volunteers; Charles Harker was a lieutenant;
+Roswell C. Lampson, still living in Portland, was the first naval
+cadet from Oregon, and served with conspicuous gallantry and fidelity
+throughout the war; Capt. W. L. Dall, of the steamship Columbia, was
+appointed a lieutenant in the navy; and many of the regular army
+officers, whose northwestern service is indissolubly connected with
+its early history, rose to great eminence during the progress of the
+war.
+
+"Notable among them was Rufus Ingalls, who became lieutenant colonel
+on McClellan's staff; Captain Hazen and Lieutenant Lorraine, who was
+wounded at Bull Run. Grant, Sheridan, Augur, Ord, Wright, Smith,
+Casey, Russell, Reynolds, and Alvord, all became generals, as well as
+Stevens, who had received a military education, but was not in the
+regular army."
+
+It is not the purpose of this paper to follow the patriotic service of
+the First Oregon Cavalry during the long and wearisome months and
+years during which they labored in heat and cold, in storm and
+sunshine, under pioneer and frontier hardships, in chastising the
+hostile Indians, guarding the immigrant caravans, or holding in check
+the forces of disunion and secession. That there was need of them, for
+all these high and patriotic duties, there is no doubt.
+
+As early as shortly after Lincoln's election in 1860, Senator Gwin, of
+California, with the undoubted knowledge and coöperation of Joseph
+Lane, of Oregon, formulated a plan for a slave-holding republic on the
+Pacific coast, with an aristocracy similar to the old Republic of
+Venice, vesting all power in a hereditary nobility, with an executive
+elected from themselves.
+
+Should the Southern States succeed in withdrawing from the Union and
+setting up a Southern Confederacy without war, then with a continuous
+line of slave territory from Texas to the Pacific, the Pacific coast
+should combine with the South; but if war ensued between the North and
+South, then the coast should be captured, and the Venetian Republic
+be inaugurated separately, and slaves imported from the Isles of the
+Sea.
+
+Bancroft, the historian, asserts that but for the strong restraining
+advice of Jesse Applegate and the overwhelming sentiment against him
+on his return, there is no doubt but what General Lane would have
+embarked in the enterprise, and that the boxes of arms and ammunition
+which accompanied his return were intended for that purpose. In 1862
+it became known all through the Pacific coast that an oath bound
+secret organization of confederate sympathizers were holding almost
+nightly meetings at many places; and self-appointed Union detectives,
+from points of vantage could hear the tread of martial feet and the
+hoarse notes of command.
+
+High authority has asserted that Gwin of California, Lane of Oregon,
+and a man named Tilden of Washington, were the instigators and
+advisors of this second movement to steal the Pacific coast from the
+Federal Union and hold it for the forces of disunion and secession.
+They chose for a title the quaint and striking name of "Knights of the
+Golden Circle."
+
+One of the best posted historical authorities on the Pacific coast
+told me a few days ago that he had in his possession cipher documents
+of that strange disloyal order, which some day experts should decipher
+and give to the world, but as yet it was too early for history to
+record anything but the things that were notorious. The same authority
+told me of how one night in San Francisco, eight hundred Knights of
+the Golden Circle, armed to the teeth, had met to make the initial
+outbreak, capture the Benicia Arsenal and arm all rebel sympathizers
+of San Francisco therefrom and carry out the long cherished plan of
+seizing the Pacific coast for disunion.
+
+At the last moment realizing the awful, momentous responsibility of
+their projected attack they clamored for a leader whom they could
+follow as one man. In a moment one name was on every lip, an old hero
+of the Vigilante days--in haste he was sent for (he was not a member
+of their order) and their plan revealed to one whom they thought
+disloyal like themselves, but they had reckoned without their man--he
+was as loyal as the sturdy patriots who fell at Bunker Hill, fighting
+the earlier battle of freedom with bare hands and clubbed muskets.
+
+Knowing that by a brief delay only could he lull them to security, and
+at the same time save the day for the old flag, he asked until 9
+o'clock the next morning to give his answer, they to remain where they
+were until his answer should be returned. Taking this as a practical
+assent, and that he only went to arrange his private affairs, the
+balance of the night wore on; but the old Vigilante was not idle;
+calling together as many of the old Vigilante Committee as were
+available and of known loyalty, he unfolded the treason that was
+lurking in the city's midst, and as they were swift to act in the days
+of '49, so were they now; the loyalty of the commandant at the Benicia
+Arsenal being questioned, he was promptly replaced by one of true and
+tried steel, and loyalists were armed and ready in more than one
+secret place in the city midst if needed and then at 9 o'clock as
+agreed the answer went to the waiting Knights of the Golden Circle
+that the old Vigilante could not be their leader.
+
+Thus all up and down the Pacific coast there was work to be done by
+the troops at home in guarding against the spirit of disloyalty which
+fostered by the early reserves of the Union arms was dangerous and
+threatening.
+
+The situation of Oregon at this time was one of peculiar danger. Both
+England and France were in open sympathy with the states in revolt.
+The French Government were setting up an empire in Mexico. England
+was causing trouble over the disputed boundary at the entrance to
+Puget Sound. Not a single fort or coast or river defense existed in
+either Oregon or Washington, and at any time these hostile foreign
+powers might combine with the Indians as they had done in earlier wars
+and with the disloyal and disaffected within. Separated by such vast
+reaches of country from the loyal states of the Union nothing of
+assistance could be expected from them in case of trouble, in time to
+be effective and hence it was that for upwards of three years, not
+merely the peace and security of Oregon but its permanency as a part
+of the Federal Union depended on the First Cavalry.
+
+The War Governor, Addison C. Gibbs, a strong and patriotic man,
+organized a valuable addition to the military forces of the State in a
+state militia, whose chief duty was to hold in check the Knights of
+the Golden Circle, to which it was a direct antithesis.
+
+At the second election of President Lincoln it was a known fact that
+the Knights had their arms cached in the neighborhood of the leading
+polling places, and intended to carry the election by force of arms.
+This was only prevented by the militia who were superior in numbers
+and who adopted similar tactics which proved effective.
+
+One shudders at the fratricidal bloodshed and awful guerilla warfare
+that would have come to pass in this mountainous and thinly settled
+country had the first outbreak happened and the torch of rebellion
+been lighted. That it did not so come to pass was another evidence of
+the mysterious workings of Divine Providence.
+
+In 1864 Governor Gibbs called for ten companies to be known as the
+First Oregon Infantry, each company to consist of eighty-two privates,
+maximum, or sixty-four minimum, besides officers. Eight companies were
+ultimately enlisted, and at first were chiefly employed in garrison
+duty throughout the Northwest, but later performed gallant service in
+the Indian wars that were ever in progress.
+
+I wish that it were possible within the necessary limits of this
+article to write down some of the many deeds of matchless heroism
+wrought by the loyal men of the Northwest in the dark days of the
+war--deeds fit to rank with the gallantry of Sheridan's dashing
+troopers, with the glorious achievements of Sherman's March to the
+Sea, with the steadfastness of the iron phalanxes of the immortal
+Grant. But we can at least pay our tribute of praise to those rude
+frontiersmen of the Pacific, who loved their country, their country's
+flag, and the cause of freedom,--who fulfilled, without murmur, the
+self-sacrificing duty placed upon them by the martyr President, who
+wrought out in blood and fire the destiny of the Northwest, and whose
+only reward has been the sense of duty done. Of each of them the
+beautiful words of Tennyson are peculiarly appropriate:
+
+     "Not once or twice in our rough island story
+     The path of duty was the way to glory:
+     He that walks it, only thirsting
+     For the right, and learns to deaden
+     Love of self, before his journey closes,
+     He shall find the stubborn thistle bursting
+     Into glossy purples, which outredden
+     All voluptuous garden roses.
+     Not once or twice in our fair island's story
+     The path of duty was the way to glory:
+     He that ever following her commands,
+     On with toil of heart and knees and hands,
+     Thro' the long gorge to the far light has won
+     His path upward, and prevailed,
+     Shall find the toppling crags of Duty scaled
+     Are close upon the shining table-lands
+     To which our God himself is moon and sun.
+     Such was he, his work is done.
+     But while the races of mankind endure
+     Let his great example stand
+     Colossal, seen of every land,
+     And keep the soldier firm, the statesman pure:
+     Till in all lands and thro' all human story
+     The path of duty be the way to glory."
+
+     ROBERT TREAT PLATT.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[36] An address delivered before the University of Oregon, May 20,
+1903.
+
+
+
+
+THE GREAT WEST AND THE TWO EASTS.
+
+
+A resounding chorus of gratulations will herald to the world within
+the next two years the first centennial of two events upon which the
+history of the Great West is founded--the purchase of Louisiana and
+the expedition of Lewis and Clark to the mouth of the Columbia River.
+Whether the student of history at the Saint Louis World's Fair in 1904
+pause in admiration of the political foresight of Jefferson, or join
+in the general acclaim of the heroism of our first explorers at
+Portland, in 1905, the fact that will most impress him is that
+geographical lines have been obliterated and there is no West.
+Migrations having their origin in the dim, remote past, and continuing
+down to the present, have brought the Aryan race face to face on the
+opposite shores of the great western ocean, and the world finds itself
+confronted with that condition which William H. Seward predicted,
+when, addressing himself to the commerce, politics, thought, and
+activities of Europe, he said they "will ultimately sink in
+importance, while the Pacific, its shores, its islands, and the vast
+regions beyond, will become the chief theater of events in the world's
+great hereafter." The East that Columbus sailed westward from Spain to
+discover will ever be the world's East; the West, "the remote shores
+that Drake had once called by the name of New Albion," will be the
+East of the World's Great East, and the West only in its geographical
+relation to the Atlantic seaboard of our own country.
+
+The West has fulfilled every promise of its value to the Union made by
+its champions when its cause was before the people of the new
+Republic; it has refuted every prediction of dire effect made by the
+opponents of its acquisition. When the purchase of Louisiana was under
+consideration, the fear was expressed that people who would move to
+that region would scarcely ever feel the rays of the general
+government, their affections would be alienated by distance, and
+American interests would become extinct. The generous response of men
+and money made by Missouri, Kansas, and Iowa, when the Union was in
+the throes of a struggle for its preservation, attests the loyalty of
+the Louisiana region. A Southern senator asked, in 1843, what good was
+Oregon for agricultural purposes, and said he would not give a pinch
+of snuff for the whole territory. Yet the Oregon Country has given the
+Union three sovereign states, and part of its territory has been taken
+to form two other states; its occupation by Americans was a direct
+cause of the annexation of California; it has in the Columbia River
+and Puget Sound two important bases for military and naval operations;
+far from being inhospitable to the honest farmer of the Atlantic
+seaboard, or the Ohio Valley, it has one hundred thousand farms,
+valued at nearly $600,000,000. Alaska was denounced as a barren waste,
+that would never add one dollar to our wealth, or furnish homes to our
+people. Yet in less than forty years Alaska has supplied gold, fish,
+and furs worth $150,000,000, and has paid revenue to the government
+exceeding by $1,500,000 the price Russia got for it in 1867; and at no
+distant day Hawaii and the Philippines will justify American
+occupation by statistics as telling as those here presented of
+Louisiana, Oregon, and Alaska.
+
+If a nonexpansive policy had prevailed in our national councils at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century; if the presidential chair had
+been occupied by another than the broad statesman who saw beyond the
+Mississippi, over the Rockies to the Pacific, and over the Pacific to
+the cradle of the world, we should now have an intolerable situation
+of affairs in North America. Had we refused Louisiana from Napoleon,
+what is now the United States would be partitioned, geographically,
+about as follows: East of the Mississippi would be the Republic of the
+United States of America of 1783, with England in Canada on the north,
+and Spain in Florida and fringing the Gulf of Mexico. Louisiana would
+have fallen into England's hands as a result of the Napoleonic wars,
+and so, perhaps, Oregon, either by reason of a favorable
+interpretation of the Nootka convention, or Vancouver's discoveries.
+Mexico, as the successor of Spain, would own Texas and all the
+remainder of the west south of the forty-second parallel and not
+included in Louisiana. With a republic on one side, and European
+sovereignty on the other, the Mississippi would to-day be bristling
+with cannon. The purchase of Louisiana was political foresight, and
+the completion of our title to Oregon was a direct result of the
+Louisiana transaction. The war with Mexico was the logical sequence of
+both. From whatever point we may regard it, the acquisition of the
+trans-Mississippi region, viewed in the perspective of a century, was
+worth what it cost in money, actual war, and risk of war with what, in
+the early stages of our history was the most powerful nation on the
+globe.
+
+The beginnings of the West date from 1850. Further back the census
+reports do not present statistics that can be compared for valuable
+purposes, with present standards, although as early as 1840 there were
+nine hundred thousand people along the western shore of the
+Mississippi in Arkansas, Iowa, Louisiana, and Missouri. These states
+were long on the firing line of American civilization, and their
+people subsisted by general farming, or by outfitting ox-train
+merchandise caravans for Santa Fé and Chihuahua, or by outfitting and
+trading with pioneer settlers _en route_ to Oregon, or gold seekers
+flocking to California. Jim Bridger put up in southwestern Wyoming in
+1843 the first post for the purpose of trading built west of the
+Mississippi River, and its establishment marked the beginning of the
+era of emigration to the Far West. Until a comparatively recent period
+a goodly portion of the public domain lying west of the Missouri
+River, and comprising perhaps five hundred thousand square miles, was
+mapped as the "Great American Desert" and they who penetrated its
+solitudes and returned unscathed to "civilization" were regarded with
+that curiosity that pertains to a traveler who has visited an unknown
+land. With the upbuilding of the country and the spread of knowledge
+of its capabilities, the title of "Great American Desert" has been
+swept away, and the colored maps that illustrate the books of the
+twelfth census, regard the white portion as "unsettled area." This
+includes a considerable area in every state and territory west of the
+ninety-ninth degree of longitude. East of that line the only white
+portion is in southeastern Florida. Progress in the half-century
+comprehended in this brief review has been remarkable and the present
+position of the West is strikingly shown in the appended statement,
+which represent its percentages of the total for the United States for
+the different items tabulated. In a few instances comparisons are made
+with 1890 and 1850:
+
+     =====================================+============================
+                                          |       Per cent.
+                                          +---------+---------+--------
+                                          |  1900.  |  1890.  |  1860.
+                                          +---------+---------+--------
+     Gross area with Alaska               |   75.4  |    ---- |   ----
+     Gross area without Alaska            |   59.1  |    ---- |   ----
+     Population, gross                    |   27.5  |    26.6 |    8.6
+     Urban population                     |   17.6  | [1]13.1 |   14.1
+     Number of farms                      |   35.8  |    32.6 |    8.2
+     Acres improved                       |   48.8  |    44.4 |    6.3
+     Farms, total valuation               |   44.1  |[37]36.7 |    6.9
+     Farm products, value                 |   43.2  |    37.4 |   20.3
+     Farm animals                         |   59.4  |    ---- |   11.9
+     Wool, yield                          |   69.8  |    ---- |    4.7
+     Hops, yield                          |   64.3  |    ---- |    7.1
+     Timber, area                         |   55.4  |    ---- |   ----
+     Lumber product, value                |   32.4  |    24.9 |   10.0
+     Gold, yield                          |   99.6  |    ---- |   ----
+     Silver, commercial value             |   99.8  |    ---- |   ----
+     Coal                                 |   15.1  |    ---- |   ----
+     Railroad mileage                     |   45.2  |    ---- |    .25
+     Manufactures, value of product       |   16.1  |    14.5 |    3.9
+     Operatives in factories              |   12.2  |    11.9 |    3.1
+     Imports and exports                  |   19.0  |    ---- |   ----
+     -------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------
+
+
+POPULATION.
+
+Aggregate population has increased 957. per cent in fifty years, and
+foreign population has grown faster than native:
+
+     ==================+============+============+===========+===========
+                       |            |            |           | Per cent
+                       |   1900.    |   1890.    |   1850.   | of
+                       |            |            |           | increase,
+                       |            |            |           | 1850-1900.
+                       +------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+     Americans         | 18,375,337 | 14,117,931 | 1,785,462 |   929.0
+     Foreigners        |  2,659,317 |  2,556,478 |   213,942 |  1143.0
+                       +------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+        Total          | 21,034,654 | 16,674,409 | 1,999,404 |   957.0
+                       |            |            |           |
+     Per cent American |       87.3 |      84.6  |     89.2  |
+     Per cent foreign  |       12.7 |      15.4  |     10.8  |
+     ------------------+------------+------------+-----------+-----------
+
+The proportion of native born, which suffered a sharp decline between
+1850 and 1890, because of the influx of foreigners to the mines of
+California, Montana, and Nevada, and to the farm lands of Minnesota
+and the Dakotas, is again in the ascendant, the net gain for the
+decade just ended having been 2.7 per cent. The native population is
+largest in the group of southwestern states and territories, Arkansas
+leading with 98.9 per cent; Indian Territory, 98.8 per cent;
+Louisiana, 96.2 per cent; Oklahoma, 96.1 per cent. Along the Pacific
+coast it is highest in Oregon, with 84.1 per cent, and lowest in
+California, with 75.3 per cent, Washington coming in between with 78.5
+per cent. North Dakota, with 64.6 per cent, makes the poorest showing.
+The proportion of natives in the West as a whole in 1900 was 1 per
+cent above the average for the Union, which was 86.3 per cent. The per
+cent of foreigners is highest in North Dakota, where it is 35.4, and
+lowest in Arkansas, where it is 1.1. Minnesota is the only State
+having to exceed 500,000 foreigners. California and Iowa have over
+300,000 each.
+
+The population of the West in 1850 consisted of 1,500,000 farmers and
+traders in the Louisiana country, that is, Missouri, Iowa, Arkansas,
+Minnesota; 200,000 odd who had swarmed into Texas after it had been
+wrested from Mexico, some 60,000 in New Mexico, a group of gold
+diggers in California, a few thousand Mormons in Utah, and a handful
+of hardy pioneers who had braved privations and hostile savages on the
+plains in following the footsteps of Lewis and Clark to the Oregon
+country. At that time there were not quite 2,000,000 people in all the
+boundless region west of the Mississippi River. The establishing of
+direct communication by the overland stage, followed by the building
+of the transcontinental railroad, stimulated growth, and by 1870 the
+West had attained considerable importance in population. In 1850 it
+reported 8.6 per cent of the total population of the Union; 26.6 per
+cent in 1890, and 27.5 per cent in 1900. In 1890 it had over four
+times the population of the new Republic in 1790 and not quite twice
+the population of the nation in 1820. In 1900 its population was
+somewhat under that of the whole country in 1850, the ratio being
+about 21 to 23. The appended table shows how the several states and
+territories of the West have progressed in the matter of population:
+
+     =================+============+============+============
+                      |    1850.   |    1890.   |    1900.
+                      +------------+------------+-------------
+     Arkansas         |    209,897 |  1,128,179 |  1,311,564
+     California       |     92,597 |  1,208,130 |  1,485,053
+     Colorado         |            |    412,198 |    539,700
+     Idaho            |            |     84,385 |    161,772
+     Iowa             |    192,214 |  1,911,896 |  2,231,853
+     Kansas           |            |  1,427,096 |  1,470,495
+     Louisiana        |    517,762 |  1,118,587 |  1,381,625
+     Minnesota        |      6,077 |  1,301,826 |  1,751,394
+     Missouri         |    682,044 |  2,679,184 |  3,106,665
+     Montana          |            |    132,159 |    343,329
+     Nebraska         |            |  1,058,910 |  1,066,300
+     Nevada           |            |     45,761 |     42,335
+     North Dakota     |            |    182,719 |    319,146
+     Oregon           |     13,294 |    313,767 |    413,536
+     South Dakota     |            |    328,808 |    401,570
+     Texas            |    212,592 |  2,235,523 |  3,048,710
+     Utah             |     11,380 |    207,905 |    276,749
+     Washington       |            |    349,390 |    518,103
+     Wyoming          |            |     60,705 |     92,531
+     Alaska           |            |     32,052 |     63,592
+     Arizona          |            |     59,620 |    122,931
+     Indian Territory |            |    180,182 |    392,060
+     New Mexico       |     61,547 |    153,593 |    195,310
+     Oklahoma         |            |     61,834 |    398,331
+                      +------------+------------+------------
+        Total         |  1,999,404 | 16,674,409 | 21,034,654
+     -----------------+------------+------------+------------
+
+Louisiana, with 11.4 inhabitants to the square mile, was the most
+thickly settled state in the West in 1850. Missouri followed with 9.9;
+Arkansas with 4, and Iowa with 3.5. The average for the Union was 7.9.
+That year the little State of Delaware, with 91,532 inhabitants,
+boasted of one two hundred and sixty-third part of the total
+population of the Union. Where was Oregon with about one seventh of
+Delaware's population and Minnesota with less than one half of
+Oregon's? In 1900 the density of the Union was 25.6 inhabitants per
+square mile. Three western states, Missouri, with 45.2, Iowa, with
+40.2, and Louisiana, with 30.4, exceeded the general average. In the
+remainder of the states the density ranged from 0.4 in Nevada to 24.7
+in Arkansas.
+
+The colored population of the trans-Mississippi region is largely
+confined to the states in the southern belt, Arkansas, Louisiana, and
+Texas. In the Pacific states the colored population is principally
+Chinese and Japanese.
+
+Throughout the West, with the exception of Louisiana, the number of
+females to each 100,000 men is under the national average, which is
+95,353. Louisiana reports 98,871, and Utah, for obvious reasons,
+follows with 95,324. Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Texas also have
+between 90,000 and 95,000 females to each 100,000 men, and in
+Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, Indian Territory, New Mexico, and
+Oklahoma, the average is over 85,000 and under 90,000. The proportion
+of women to each 100,000 men is exceedingly low in the Pacific coast
+and mountain states, being 80,987 in California; 73,265 in Idaho;
+62,390 in Montana; 65,352 in Nevada; 77,495 in Oregon; 70,329 in
+Washington; 59,032 in Wyoming. Alaska reports 38,629.
+
+Here, as in other parts of the Union, urban population is growing
+faster than rural. Comparison for this discussion is with the census
+of 1870, as the returns for any previous year would make too meagre a
+showing. In 1870 the West had 56 of the 226 places that reported a
+population of 4,000 and over. In 1890 the number was 176 out of 899,
+and in 1900 it was 251 out of 1,158. Of the West's total population in
+1900, 20.3 per cent was urban, against 37.3 percent for the Union. In
+1900, 17.6 per cent of the total urban population of the country lived
+in the West, 13.1 per cent in 1890, and 14.1 per cent in 1870.
+California with 48.9 per cent and Colorado with 41.2 are above the
+average for the Union, while Washington, with 36.4 makes a close
+approach to the mark. For other states the average is: Iowa, 20.5;
+Kansas, 19.2; Louisiana, 25.1; Minnesota, 31; Missouri, 34.9; Montana
+and Wyoming, 28.6; Nebraska, 20.8; Oregon, 27.6; Utah, 29.4; Arkansas,
+6.9; Idaho, 6.2; Nevada, 10.6; North Dakota, 5.4; South Dakota, 7.2;
+Texas, 14.9; Arizona, 10.6; Indian Territory, 2.5; New Mexico, 6.1;
+Oklahoma, 5. The following statement shows the drift of the population
+into the cities:
+
+  =================+=============+============+============+===========
+                   |             |            |            | Increase
+                   |   1900.     |   1890.    |   1870.    | per cent,
+                   |             |            |            | 1870-1900.
+                   +-------------+------------+------------+-----------
+  Urban population |   5,024,876 |  3,723,427 |  1,145,033 |    338
+  Rural population |  16,009,778 | 12,950,982 |  5,732,063 |    179
+                   +-------------+-------- ---+------------+-----------
+    Total          |  21,034,654 | 16,674,409 |  6,877,096 |    206
+  -----------------+-------------+------------+------------+-----------
+
+In 1870 Saint Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco were the only
+cities that had over 100,000 population. In 1900 ten cities exceeded
+100,000, while eight other cities, Portland leading the contingent,
+had between 50,000 and 100,000. Since 1880 Seattle has advanced from
+one hundred and fifty-first place to forty-eighth place in the rank of
+American cities; Los Angeles from one hundred and thirty-fifth to
+thirty-sixth; Duluth from one hundred and fifty-second to
+seventy-second; Kansas City, Kansas, from one hundred and fifty-fifth
+to seventy-sixth; Portland from one hundred and sixth to forty-second;
+Tacoma from one hundred and fifty-seventh to one hundred and fourth;
+Spokane from one hundred and fifty-eighth to one hundred and sixth,
+and Dallas, Texas, from one hundred and thirty-seventh to
+eighty-eighth. So rapid is the growth of Portland and Seattle that
+before many years they must take position among the country's twenty
+largest cities.
+
+
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+The area of improved land in farms has increased nearly thirty-fold in
+fifty years, but has not kept pace with population. This table shows
+the details:
+
+  =============+=================================+=======================
+               |           Acres improved.       | Acres per inhabitant.
+               +-----------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+-------
+               |  1900.    |   1890.   |  1850.  | 1900. | 1890. | 1850.
+               +-----------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+-------
+               |           |           |         |       |       |
+  Arkansas     |  6,953,735|  5,475,043|  781,530|   5.3 |   4.8 |  3.7
+  California   | 11,958,837| 12,222,839|   32,454|   8.0 |  10.1 |  0.35
+  Colorado     |  2,273,968|  1,823,520|         |   4.2 |   4.4 |
+  Idaho        |  1,413,118|    606,362|         |   8.7 |   7.0 |
+  Iowa         | 29,897,552| 25,428,899|  824,682|  13.3 |  13.3 |  4.2
+  Kansas       | 25,040,550| 22,303,301|         |  17.0 |  15.6 |
+  Louisiana    |  4,666,532|  3,774,668|1,590,025|   3.3 |   3.3 |  3.0
+  Minnesota    | 18,442,585| 11,127,953|    5,035|  16.2 |   8.5 |  0.83
+  Missouri     | 22,900,043| 19,792,313|2,938,425|   7.3 |   7.3 |  4.3
+  Montana      |  1,736,701|    915,517|         |   7.1 |   6.8 |
+  Nebraska     | 18,432,595| 15,247,705|         |  17.3 |  14.4 |
+  Nevada       |    572,948|    723,052|         |  13.2 |  15.8 |
+  North Dakota |  9,644,520|  4,658,015|         |  30.2 |  26.0 |
+  Oregon       |  3,328,308|  3,516,000|  132,857|   8.0 |  11.2 |  9.0
+  South Dakota | 11,285,983|  6,959,293|         |  28.1 |  21.1 |
+  Texas        | 19,576,076| 20,746,215|  643,976|   6.4 |   9.2 |  3.0
+  Utah         |  1,032,117|    548,223|   16,333|   3.7 |   2.1 |  1.4
+  Washington   |  3,465,960|  1,820,832|         |   6.6 |   5.2 |
+  Wyoming      |    792,332|    476,831|         |   8.5 |   7.8 |
+  Alaska       |        159|           |         |       |       |
+  Arizona      |    227,739|    104,128|         |   1.8 |   1.7 |
+  Indian       |           |           |         |       |       |
+   Territory   |  3,062,193|           |         |   7.8 |       |
+  New Mexico   |    326,873|    263,106|  166,201|   1.7 |   1.7 |
+  Oklahoma     |  5,511,994|    563,728|         |  13.8 |   9.0 |
+               +-----------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+-------
+  Total        |202,543,416|159,097,543|7,131,518|   9.6 |   9.5 |  3.56
+  -------------+-----------+-----------+---------+-------+-------+-------
+
+The new farms opened since 1850 are nearly equal in the aggregate to
+the land area of the original thirteen states. The new farms opened
+between 1890 and 1900 are more than the combined land areas of the
+states of Tennessee and West Virginia. North Dakota, with a little
+over 300,000 population, has more land by 1,500,000 acres under farms
+than has all New England with 5,600,000 people. The average number of
+improved acres per inhabitant more than doubled in the West between
+1850 and 1890 and showed in 1900 a slight increase over 1890. In the
+older agricultural states it is steadily decreasing. Thus, in New
+England it fell from 4 acres in 1850 to 1.4 acres in 1900; New York
+from 4 to 2.1 in the same interval. The Ohio valley states have held
+up steadier. Ohio has decreased from 4.9 to 4.6, and Illinois from 5.9
+to 5.7. Indiana has increased from 5.1 to 6.6.
+
+The West has 2,056,748 farms compared with 1,491,405 in 1890, and
+119,510 in 1850. Texas, with 352,190, leads the Union, and Missouri,
+with 284,886, holds second place. Iowa has 37,000 more farms than all
+the New England states combined. While the West has not quite half the
+improved acreage of the country, it has 63 per cent of the unimproved
+acreage or 269,000,000 acres out of 426,400,000 acres. Farms average
+in size from 93.1 acres in Arkansas to 885.9 acres in Montana, 1,174.7
+acres in Nevada, and 1,333 acres in Wyoming, where stock raising
+predominates and requires large ranges. The average for the West is
+229.1 acres against 146.6 acres for the Union.
+
+The proportion of the total land area in farms ranges from 3.7 per
+cent in Nevada to 97.4 per cent in Iowa. Kansas has 79.7, Missouri
+77.3, Texas 74.9, Oklahoma 63, Nebraska 60.8, and Minnesota 51.8. No
+other State has 50 per cent. In the Rocky Mountains and Pacific states
+the average, considering the capabilities of the soil, is surprisingly
+low. California reports 28.9, Washington 19.9, Oregon 16.6, Wyoming
+13, Montana 12.7, Utah 7.8, and Idaho 5.9. Iowa leads the Nation in
+this respect, followed by Indiana with 94.1, Ohio with 93.9, and
+Illinois with 91.5. It is from these four states, whose areas are so
+largely taken up and whose land values are high, that the extreme West
+is seeking by reason of its cheap lands and equable climate, to draw
+its new population. East of the Mississippi River the percentage
+ranges in New England from 32.9 in Maine to 80.8 in Vermont. Along the
+Atlantic coast the average is from 59 per cent in New Jersey to 85 per
+cent in Delaware. Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois have already been shown
+in comparison with Iowa. Kentucky has 85.9, Tennessee 76.1, Wisconsin
+57, and Michigan 47.8. Florida with 12.6 and the District of Columbia
+with 22.1 are the only percentages reported from east of the
+Mississippi River, that look like western figures. Values follow:
+     =================+=================+================+============
+      Total farm      |   The Union.    |   The West.    | Per cent
+      values.         |                 |                | in West.
+     -----------------+ ----------------+--------------- +------------
+     1900             | $20,514,001,838 | $9,155,558,744 |    44.1
+     1890             |  15,982,267,689 |  5,872,085,782 |    36.7
+     1850             |   3,967,343,580 |    276,464,837 |     6.9
+                      |                 |                |
+      Value of farm   |                 |                |
+      products.       |                 |                |
+                      |                 |                |
+     1900             |   4,739,118,752 |  2,050,766,616 |    43.2
+     1890             |   2,460,197,454 |    920,823,920 |    37.4
+     1870[38]         |   2,447,538,658 |    499,092,093 |    20.3
+     -----------------+-----------------+----------------+------------
+
+Productions in quantity of principal crops in the West in 1890 and
+1850 and percentages of the total for those years are thus shown:
+
+   ===================+==============+==============+===========+=========
+                      |              |              | Per cent  | Per cent
+          Product.    | Yield, 1900. | Yield, 1850. | of total, |of total,
+                      |              |              |   1900.   |   1850.
+   -------------------+--------------+--------------+-----------+---------
+   Wheat, bushels     |  431,963,900 |   5,288,868  |    65.5   |   5.2
+   Corn, bushels      |1,363,983,943 |  70,467,713  |    51.1   |  11.9
+   Barley, bushels    |   93,767,657 |      47,709  |    78.2   |    .92
+   Buckwheat, bushels |      312,456 |      77,341  |     2.7   |    .86
+   Oats, bushels      |  454,460,412 |   7,849,962  |    48.1   |   5.3
+   Rye, bushels       |    7,705,068 |      76,255  |    30.1   |    .53
+                      +--------------+--------------+-----------+---------
+   Total grain,       |              |              |           |
+     bushels          |2,352,193,536 |  83,807,848  |    53.1   |   9.6
+                      +==============+==============+===========+=========
+   United States,     |              +              +           +
+     bushels          |4,424,800,923 | 867,453,967  |    ----   |  ----
+   Butter,[B] pounds  |  390,810,814 |  15,184,444  |    36.4   |   4.8
+   Cheese,[39] pounds |    7,609,331 |     614,732  |    46.4   |    .58
+   Wool, pounds       |  193,516,806 |   2,500,885  |    69.8   |   4.7
+   Flax seed, bushels |   19,791,647 |      16,010  |    99.0   |    .28
+   Hay, tons          |   44,799,194 |     253,297  |    53.3   |   1.8
+   Potatoes, bushels  |   87,288,453 |   1,764,969  |    31.9   |   2.6
+   Hops, pounds       |   31,673,821 |      12,719  |    64.3   |   7.1
+   -------------------+--------------+--------------+-----------+---------
+
+The West leads the East in flocks and herds, viz:
+
+   ===================+=========================+========================
+                      |        The Union--      |        The West--
+                      +------------+------------+------------+-----------
+                      |   1900.    |   1850.    |   1900.    |   1850.
+                      +------------+------------+------------+-----------
+   Dairy cows         | 17,139,674 |  6,385,094 |  7,011,333 |    722,221
+   Other meat cattle  | 50,682,662 | 11,393,813 | 35,585,356 |  1,756,059
+   Mules and asses    |  3,366,724 |    559,331 |  1,655,654 |    122,371
+   Horses             | 18,280,007 |  4,336,719 | 10,063,260 |    528,459
+   Sheep              | 39,937,573 | 21,723,220 | 26,940,389 |  1,628,159
+   Lambs              | 21,668,238 |    ----    | 13,632,117 |    ----
+   Swine              | 62,876,108 | 30,354,213 | 32,274,381 |  4,193,895
+                      +------------+------------+------------+-----------
+       Total          |213,950,986 | 74,752,390 |127,162,490 |  8,951,164
+   Per cent           |            |            |    59.4    |    11.9
+   -------------------+------------+------------+------------+-----------
+
+
+MANUFACTURING.
+
+The center of area in the United States, excluding Alaska and recent
+acquisitions, is in northern Kansas, the center of population in
+Indiana, and the center of manufactures in Ohio. The center of area
+will always be in the West and the centers of population and
+manufactures are slowly moving that way. Manufacturing is of minor
+importance, though the aggregate of output exceeded the agricultural
+output in 1900 by over $50,000,000. Relatively its position is not so
+strong, being but 16.1 per cent of the total, against 27.5 per cent
+for population and 43.2 per cent for value of farm products.
+Manufacturing increased substantially in the 1890 and 1900 decade and
+materially in the past fifty years. Thus,
+
+  ======================+================+=================+=============
+                        |      1900.     |      1890.      |    1860.
+  ----------------------+----------------+-----------------+-------------
+  Value of products     |$ 2,104,940,868 | $ 1,367,835,887 | $ 40,398,488
+  Number of operatives  |     652,561    |         508,371 |       30,084
+  Dollars per operative |       2,991    |           2,690 |        1,342
+    Per cent of total:  |                |                 |
+      Product           |      16.1      |         14.5    |        3.9
+      Operatives        |      12.2      |         11.9    |        3.1
+  ----------------------+----------------+-----------------+-------------
+
+Missouri is the principal State for this branch of industry,
+California second, and Minnesota third. These states stand for nearly
+half the total output of Western factories. The output of California,
+Oregon, and Washington, in 1900, was $435,670,399, constituting 3.3
+per cent of the value of products for the United States. Commenting on
+this, we find the census of Manufactures (part 1, page CLXXVIII)
+saying:
+
+     The industrial condition in this group of states in 1900,
+     considering the value, but not the character of the
+     products, was about the same as the New England states in
+     1860 and the Middle states in 1850. From this point of view,
+     the growth of the Pacific states has been remarkable. The
+     character of its industries is still determined largely by
+     its natural resources of farm, forest, and mine, but the
+     recent wars in the Orient, resulting in the opening of new
+     markets, gave to the industries of this section a great
+     stimulus which had only begun to be felt at the time the
+     twelfth census was taken.
+
+
+COMMERCE.
+
+The combined imports and exports of the United States in the year
+ended June 30, 1901, were geographically distributed as follows: New
+York, 45.73 per cent; other ports east of the Mississippi River, 35.24
+per cent; the West (Pacific and Gulf ports), 19.03. Of the seven great
+ports in the Union, three are in the West, New Orleans ranking the
+third, Galveston sixth, and San Francisco seventh. New Orleans has a
+foreign commerce of $173,000,000 a year; Galveston $102,000,000, and
+San Francisco $70,000,000. Puget Sound and the Columbia River, which
+before many years will be large ports, have between them $40,000,000.
+Of the total exports of the United States in 1901, the West reported
+$354,682,075, or 23.1 per cent. Imports were $86,275,443, or 10 per
+cent. Breadstuffs form a considerable item of the exports of Western
+ports. For the ten years ended June 30, 1901, shipments were
+240,000,000 bushels of barley, corn, oats, rye, 450,000,000 bushels of
+wheat, and 26,000,000 barrels of wheat flour, of a total value of
+$521,000,000. San Francisco led in this business, with New Orleans
+second, and Portland, Oregon, third.
+
+
+MINERAL PRODUCTIONS.
+
+Ever since the discovery of gold in California in 1848 mining has been
+one of the most important industries of the West. Between 1848 and
+1900 California yielded gold valued at $1,385,197,097, about one
+eighth the total gold production of the world from 1493 to 1900. The
+West in 1900 produced 99.6 per cent of the Nation's gold, 99.8 per
+cent of its silver (commercial value), and 15.1 per cent of its coal,
+viz:
+
+     ==============+=============+=============+===============
+                   |    Gold.    |   Silver.   |  Total value.
+                   +-------------+-------------+---------------
+     California    | $15,816,200 | $   583,668 | $ 16,399,868
+     Colorado      |  28,829,400 |  12,700,018 |   41,529,418
+     Idaho         |   1,724,700 |   3,986,042 |    5,710,742
+     Montana       |   4,698,000 |   8,801,148 |   13,499,148
+     Nevada        |   2,006,200 |     842,394 |    2,848,594
+     Oregon        |   1,694,700 |      71,548 |    1,766,248
+     South Dakota  |   6,177,600 |     332,444 |    6,510,044
+     Utah          |   3,972,200 |   5,745,912 |    9,718,112
+     Alaska        |   8,171,000 |      45,446 |    8,216,446
+     Arizona       |   4,193,400 |   1,857,210 |    6,050,610
+     Texas, etc.   |   1,587,100 |     704,568 |    2,291,668
+                   +-------------+-------------+---------------
+       Total       | $78,870,500 | $35,670,398 | $114,540,898
+     --------------+-------------+-------------+---------------
+
+Other mineral productions are 30,000,000 tons of coal; 200,000 short
+tons of lead; 413,000,000 pounds of copper; 3,600,000 barrels of
+petroleum, and 30,000 flasks of quicksilver. The copper mines of
+Montana and Arizona have lessened the importance of the Lake Superior
+region as a source of supply, cutting its percentage of the total
+American output from 62.9 in 1862, to 25.9 in 1899.
+
+One of the greatest gold mining regions of the world is located in
+eastern Oregon, covering a gross area of between 3,000 and 4,000
+square miles. Prof. J. Waldemar Lindgren, of the United States
+Geological Survey, believes that the strong, well-defined veins upon
+which most of the important mines of this region are located will
+continue to the greatest depths yet attained in mining.
+
+
+LUMBER INDUSTRY.
+
+According to the census reports for 1900, lumber is excelled in value
+among American productions only by iron and steel, textiles and
+slaughtering and meat packing. The West, having 607,500 square miles,
+or 55.4 per cent of the total wooded area of the country, exclusive of
+Alaska, will surely be paramount in this important industry. Indeed,
+we, this early, find the Director of the Census making this important
+admission in one (203) of his bulletins:
+
+     The white pine area in the Northwest has passed its maximum
+     of production and the attention of lumbermen is being
+     diverted from this region to the Southern pine forests and
+     to the enormously heavy forests of the Northwest coast,
+     which will, in the course of a decade or two, become the
+     chief source of lumber for the country.
+
+Texas, with 64,000 square miles, leads the Union in wooded area.
+Oregon is second, with 54,300 square miles, and Minnesota third, with
+52,200 square miles. Arkansas, California, Missouri, Montana, and
+Washington each have over 40,000 square miles of wooded area. Oregon,
+Washington, and California have at least one third of the standing
+timber of the country, but they cut less than ten per cent of the
+total lumber product. The redwood forest of California is, perhaps,
+the densest forest, measured by the amount of lumber per acre, in the
+world. In quantity of standing timber, Oregon leads the Union with 225
+billion feet; California second with 200 billion feet, and Washington
+third with nearly 196 billion feet. Minnesota, with a product of
+$43,600,000 leads the West and Washington is second, with $30,300,000.
+The total value of the lumber product of the West in 1900 was
+$184,135,988, against $109,201,667 in 1890 and $6,075,896 in 1850. The
+lumber cut was 10,925,736 M feet, board measure, or a little less than
+one third of the output of the Union. Among Western states, Minnesota
+led with 2,342,388 M feet, Arkansas second with 1,623,987 M feet, and
+Washington third with 1,429,032 M feet. Oregon cut 734,528 M feet.
+
+
+RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION.
+
+The transcontinental railroads have brought the West up to its present
+state of development, for they have opened it to settlement, and
+provided reasonable rates for the transport of its products to the
+Eastern markets, even if at the same time they have exposed its infant
+manufacturing industries to the competition of the large
+capitalization of the Atlantic seaboard and the Ohio Valley. In 1850
+the West had 79½ miles of railroad, all in Louisiana. All the rest of
+the westward stretch of the nation to the Pacific was without so much
+as a single rail. What Louisiana could so proudly boast of in 1850 was
+less than the mileage operated by the Boston and Maine and its
+branches in Massachusetts that same year. By 1900 the total had
+swelled to 87,406.13 miles out of the 193,345.78 miles in the United
+States and the percentage from .25 to 45.2. On the basis of miles of
+railroad per 100 square miles of territory Iowa leads with 16.56 and
+Nevada is lowest with .83. In miles of line per ten thousand
+inhabitants Nevada is first with 214.98, and Louisiana last with
+20.44.
+
+In view of the enormous railroad construction in the West in the past
+thirty years it is worth while to recall President Buchanan's telegram
+to John Butterfield, the pioneer of Western overland transportation,
+when the first direct overland mail arrived by stage at Saint Louis
+from San Francisco October 9, 1858:
+
+     I cordially congratulate you upon the result. It is a
+     glorious triumph for civilization and the Union. Settlements
+     will soon follow the course of the road, and the East and
+     the West will be bound together by a chain of living
+     Americans which can never be broken.
+
+
+FINANCE.
+
+In 1850 there were thirty-one banks west of the Mississippi;
+twenty-five in Louisiana and six in Missouri, with deposits
+aggregating $9,500,000. It is difficult to figure the condition of the
+people with regard to money as statements of private banks are
+obtainable in only a few states and the national banks are the only
+guide. On July 16, 1902, the individual deposits in these amounted to
+$639,180,306, and the loans and discounts to $615,116,949.
+
+
+FUTURE OF THE WEST.
+
+The future of the Great West must be considered from two view points:
+(1) In its relation to the Asiatic countries and their trade; and (2)
+in its ability to support a large population. These will be taken up
+in their order.
+
+Asia and Oceanica comprise an area of 21,262,718 square miles, and
+have a population of 847,000,000, or more than half that of the globe.
+Of this number, 435,000,000 are in China and its dependencies, Japan,
+Asiatic Russia and Corea. Asia, and the islands of the Pacific,
+annually buy from the world goods valued at $1,446,000,000 and sell to
+it goods of a value of $1,436,000,000, representing a total trade of
+$2,882,000,000. The United States will in time have a tremendous trade
+across the Pacific, although at present our proportion of the business
+is inconsiderable. In the year ended June 30, 1901, only 9.25 per cent
+of our foreign commerce was with Asia and Oceanica, of which 2.17 per
+cent was with the British East Indies; 2.09 per cent with Japan; 1.67
+per cent with Chinese ports, and .37 with the Philippines. The new
+theatre of the world's activities is a virgin field, as little
+understood on our Pacific seaboard as on our Atlantic seaboard, for
+the exporters of both sections make the same mistakes in packing, and
+in long range dealing with the Oriental customer, to whom the first
+essential in trade is what our consular officers persistently pour
+into unwilling ears as the "look see," or the privilege of inspecting
+the commodity offered for sale, before buying it. These, however, are
+details of commercial organization which our exporters can be depended
+upon to settle on a satisfactory basis. The fear expressed in some
+quarters that the opening of Siberia by the completion of the great
+Russian railroad, and the consequent development of a region that will
+become a competitor of the United States in the trans-Pacific country,
+would appear to be groundless so far as any detrimental effect upon
+our country is concerned. Our general development is based upon the
+attraction of our institutions, the freedom of industry, the cheapness
+and fertility of our lands, hospitable climate, and above all, to the
+long enjoyment of the guarantee of peace. No other country in the
+world can offer the same inducements to progress and no country in the
+world can compete with us on our own terms.
+
+Viewing the future of the West from the point of its ability to
+support a large population, the measure must be the record of the
+half-century just past. It has done more than its most sanguine friend
+dared foretell of it a century ago and it is not half developed.
+Excluding Alaska, it has an area of 2,138,488 square miles and a
+population of 20,971,062, with a density of 9.8. The population
+density of the Union is 25.6 to the square mile. The West is capable
+of reaching this mark and on this basis its population would be,
+approximately 55,000,000, a little more than the states east of the
+Mississippi had in 1900. Every foot of the West is useful for some
+purpose, the purpose depending in some degree upon the success of
+irrigation. The high lands of Nevada are no more to be ignored in the
+general scheme of economy than the irregular and broken surface of
+Vermont, where intensive cultivation of the soil now obtains as a
+result of Western competition in agriculture. When one contemplates
+the rugged mountains of Idaho, eastern Montana, northern California,
+Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, he should reflect
+that some where in this broad land cattle must have range if the price
+of meat is to be kept within bounds. Conditions for horticulture and
+agriculture in Louisiana are as favorable as in any other State in the
+Union. The Columbia-river basin in Oregon, Washington, and Idaho is an
+empire in itself, with a population less than Chicago, and eastern
+Oregon, under irrigation, could produce 100,000,000 bushels of grain.
+There are those who expect Alaska to take station as an agricultural
+community. Manufactures in the West will ultimately bear a close ratio
+to population. Commerce will depend largely upon the effort the Nation
+in general makes across the Pacific.
+
+The West comes on the stage of the world's activity in an era of
+peace, prosperity, and advancement of American principles and
+institutions. Its loyalty to the Union never has been doubted and no
+cloud of discord appears to bring it into contest with the East, for
+its interests are identical with those of that section, and community
+of interest promotes community of purpose. The West, instead of
+proving the Nation destroyer, has proved its savior. What the future
+is in all its aspects, no man can say. The Briton would have been
+thought insane ten years ago who would have dared to predict the day
+that Canada, Australia, and New Zealand would be called upon to uphold
+the prestige of the empire at the Cape of Good Hope. No American,
+however pessimistic, contemplates with pleasure the possibility of
+war, still every American is pleased to see his country protected
+against the day of war. The generation that was contemporaneous with
+the statesman who said Oregon was not worth a pinch of snuff left sons
+and daughters to see an Oregon regiment sailing away from San
+Francisco to plant the Stars and Stripes at Manila and raise the
+United States to the dignity of a world power. In that city whose
+legislative halls echoed with dire warnings if Louisiana should be
+accepted from Napoleon, the citizens of some future day may be
+gladdened to the heart by the sight of a regiment from the Yukon River
+marching down the broad avenues to the defense of the national
+capital.
+
+     HENRY E. REED.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[37] For 1870.
+
+[38] Not reported by United States census prior to 1870. Values for
+this year in depreciated currency. To get true value, reduce one
+fifth.
+
+[39] Made on farms only.
+
+
+
+
+SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC HISTORY OF ASTORIA.
+
+
+On a peninsula flanked by Young's River and the Columbia, ten miles
+from the broad Pacific, is situated the historic city of Astoria. Its
+beginning dates back to April 15, 1811, when an expedition sent from
+New York by John Jacob Astor founded a fur-trading post on the present
+site of the city, and erected a stockade and buildings for the use of
+the traders. For a short time all went well with this little pioneer
+settlement, and a profitable trade was carried on, despite the murder
+of the crew of the Astor Company's vessel, Tonquin, and the
+destruction of the vessel off the coast of British Columbia. The
+Indians became enraged on account of the treatment accorded them by
+the captain, and set upon and murdered the crew, with the exception of
+Mr. Lewis, the ship's clerk, who, though mortally wounded, after
+inducing the Indians to come aboard again, set fire to the magazine
+and blew up the ship and its swarm of savages.
+
+Soon after this, the second war with Great Britain started, and the
+members in charge at Fort Astor, thinking they would be captured by
+the British war vessels then on the coast, and that their goods would
+be confiscated, sold their interest and that of Mr. Astor to a rival
+company, known as the Northwest Fur Company, and controlled by British
+subjects. Soon after this transfer was made the British warship
+Raccoon appeared in the river, and on December 12, 1813, took formal
+possession of Astoria in the name of Great Britain, and named it Fort
+George.
+
+In accordance with the terms of the treaty of Ghent there was to be a
+mutual restoration of all territory captured during the war. When the
+question of the restoration of Astoria or Fort George came up England
+contended that Astoria had been transferred in a commercial
+transaction between an American and a British company, but this
+contention was not pressed against the American claim that the
+settlement of Astoria by an American company confirmed that title
+already secured by the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Gray
+in 1792, and by the exploration of Lewis and Clark in 1805. The United
+States again took possession of Astoria August 9, 1818, and the formal
+transfer was made October 6, 1818.
+
+Astoria was now a very small settlement, consisting of a stockade and
+a few shacks, but bearing the high sounding titles of Astoria and Fort
+George, the latter being the property of the Northwest Fur Company.
+
+In 1821 the Hudson Bay Company and the Northwest Fur Company were
+consolidated, and in 1824 Dr. John McLoughlin was placed in charge of
+Fort George. At this time the fur trade was carried on chiefly with
+the tribes of the interior, and it was the custom for the agents of
+the company to carry the goods to the Indians. Under the circumstances
+Doctor McLoughlin saw that the chief trading post should be farther
+inland, near the head of navigation, and moved to Vancouver,
+Washington, leaving a trader in charge of the company's property at
+Astoria, whose duty it was to watch for the company's vessels, and to
+send the pilot, Indian George, out to meet them and to pilot them to
+Vancouver.
+
+With the departure of the fur company, Astoria became a lookout
+station and a trading post of very little importance. Mofras describes
+it in 1841 as "a miserable squatter's place, invested by the rival
+American and English factions, with the pompous name of Fort George
+and town of Astoria, the fort being represented by a bald spot, from
+which the vestige of buildings had long since disappeared, and the
+town by a cabin and a shed."
+
+This condition was soon to be changed, for the trains of immigrants
+were beginning to arrive in the Willamette Valley, and some were to
+push on to the extreme western limit of the continent. In 1843 J. M.
+Shively came to Astoria and took up a claim in what is now the heart
+of the city, and known as Shively's Astoria. He was followed by Col.
+John McClure, who took the claim joining the Shively claim on the
+west, and now known as McClure's Astoria, and A. E. Wilson, who
+located on the claim to the east of Shively's claim, and now known as
+Adair's Astoria. These three men and James Birnie, the trader, in
+charge of the Hudson Bay Company's station, were the only white men in
+Astoria in 1844. Soon after this Robert Shortess located on the land
+now known as Alderbrook, and a Mr. Smith located at what is now known
+as Smith's Point. Mr. Birnie lived in the company's building, situated
+near the present site of Saint Mary's Hospital, Colonel McClure lived
+in a small cabin just to the south and east of where the Baptist
+Church now stands, and Mr. Shively, "who didn't believe in joint
+occupancy, which disturbed the social relations between Mr. Birnie and
+himself," lived at "Lime Kiln Hall," on the ridge near the eastern
+limit of his claim. Mr. Wilson lived in a cabin in Upper Astoria.
+There were several settlers on Clatsop Plains at this time, among the
+number being D. Summers, Mr. Hobson and family, Rev. J. L. Parrish,
+Messrs. Solomon Smith, Tibbets, Trask, and Perry. Ben Wood, N.
+Eberman, and other young men held claims on the plains, but lived
+elsewhere.
+
+Astoria the fur-trading post now ceased to exist; Astoria, the town,
+was started. Astoria's real beginning, from which resulted a city,
+dates back, then, only to the early forties when the homeseekers first
+settled here. In 1846 James Welch and family and David Ingalls
+arrived. Mr. Welch took possession of the Shively claim during Mr.
+Shively's absence in the East and divided the claim into city lots as
+Mr. Shively had previously done. This led to a dispute over the
+ownership of the claim which was finally settled by an equal division
+of the claim between the two interested parties.
+
+When J. M. Shively returned from the East in 1847 he brought with him
+his commission as postmaster and opened the first post office west of
+the Rocky Mountains in the Shively building, still standing on the
+east side of Fourteenth Street, between Exchange Street and Franklin
+Avenue. The next year S. T. McKean, wife, and six children arrived and
+took up their residence here. In this year also the news of the
+discovery of gold in California led to a stampede to the mines and
+while some of the inhabitants of Astoria went, their places were soon
+filled by people brought here by the great increase in the amount of
+shipping done from Columbia River. A great demand for lumber and
+provisions arose and mills were started to supply this demand. Hunt's
+mill, just below Westport, had commenced operations in 1846, and when
+the gold excitement started, had one hundred thousand feet of lumber
+on hand which was eagerly purchased at $100 per thousand. The
+Milwaukie mill and Abernethy's mill at Oak Point supplied the greater
+part of the lumber for the California trade. In 1849 Marland's mill,
+just above Tongue Point, was started. This mill was later destroyed by
+fire. In 1851-52 James Welch and others built the first mill in the
+city proper. It was located in the block bounded by Commercial, Bond,
+Ninth, and Tenth streets. It was afterward owned by W. W. Parker and
+known as the Parker mill.
+
+The increase in the amount of shipping led to the establishment of the
+customhouse at Astoria in 1849. The same year Captains White and
+Hustler arrived and brought the first pilot boat to operate on the
+Columbia-river bar, the Mary Taylor. The pilots had their headquarters
+at Astoria, and this led to increased trade for Astoria and the
+establishment of boarding houses for the accommodation of the shipping
+men and the passengers of vessels that stopped here either to await
+favorable wind to proceed to up-river points or to cross the bar or to
+complete their cargoes of lumber or increase their cargoes of
+provisions with a few barrels of salt salmon.
+
+When Col. John Adair, the first collector of customs, arrived at
+Astoria he occupied the McClure house and tried to secure land from
+the different owners of the town on which to build the customhouse.
+The owners refused to donate the land and fixed the price at a figure
+which Colonel Adair considered too high. The result of this
+disagreement was the establishing of the United States customhouse at
+Upper Astoria and the beginning of the rivalry between the upper and
+lower towns, which lasted for many years, and led to the building up
+of two towns mutually jealous of each other yet having every interest
+in common. Judge Strong, who passed through Astoria in 1850, says:
+
+     When Astoria was pointed out as we reached the point below,
+     I confess to a feeling of disappointment. Astoria, the
+     oldest and most famous town in Oregon, we had expected to
+     find a larger place. We saw before us a straggling hamlet,
+     consisting of a dozen or so of small houses irregularly
+     planted along the river bank shut in by the dense forest. We
+     became reconciled and indeed somewhat elated in our feelings
+     when we visited the shore and by its enterprising
+     proprietors were shown the beauties of the place. There were
+     avenues and streets, squares and public parks, wharves and
+     warehouses, churches and theaters and an immense
+     population--all upon the map. Astoria at that time was a
+     small place or rather two places--the upper and the lower
+     town--between which there was great rivalry. The upper town
+     was known to the people of lower Astoria as Adairville. The
+     lower town was designated by its rival as "Old Fort George
+     or McClure's Astoria." A road between the two places would
+     have weakened the differences of both, isolation being the
+     protection of either. In the upper town was the customhouse;
+     in the lower town two companies of United States engineers,
+     under command of Major J. S. Hathaway. There were not,
+     excepting the military and those attached to them and the
+     customhouse officials, to exceed twenty-five men in both
+     towns. At the time of our arrival in the country there was
+     considerable commerce carried on, principally in sailing
+     vessels, between the Columbia River and San Francisco. The
+     exports were chiefly lumber, the imports merchandise.
+
+The United States census of 1850 gives Astoria a population of two
+hundred and fifty-two, which number included the two companies of
+United States engineers stationed here and probably a number of
+transients.
+
+I have before me a photograph of a painting copied from a
+daguerreotype picture of Astoria taken in 1856. This picture was taken
+from a spot near where the Parker House now stands and shows a wharf
+and a dozen houses. The wharf was known as the Parker wharf and
+extended from the Parker mill in a northeasterly direction to a point
+just north of the Occident Hotel. This was the first wharf erected in
+Astoria and was built in the early fifties. The picture also shows the
+old Methodist Church which was built in 1853-54, a cooper shop, the
+Shively house, the present residence of Judge F. J. Taylor, and the
+buildings occupied by the United States troops during their stay here.
+A few houses were not shown in the picture, those in the then western
+part of the town and those in upper town.
+
+Astoria was now assuming the proportions of a town and in 1856 was
+incorporated by the territorial legislature. The town included the
+Shively claim and a part of the McClure claim.
+
+With the incorporation of the Astoria and Willamette Valley Railroad
+in 1858 by T. R. Cornelius, W. W. Parker, John Adair and others began
+Astoria's struggle for rail connections with other parts of the state
+and with the East which ended with the completion of the Astoria and
+Columbia River Railroad in 1898.
+
+No census returns were handed in for Astoria in 1860, but the
+estimated population was about two hundred and fifty. The troops had
+been removed before this so that the town had had a substantial growth
+caused chiefly by the increase in the amount of shipping and the trade
+with the small growing settlements near Astoria. Astoria was becoming
+the trade center for all points on the lower Columbia. The fishing
+industry was confined still to the smoking and salting of salmon and a
+considerable quantity was shipped to the Sandwich Islands.
+
+J. M. Shively, who had been appointed postmaster in 1847, left for the
+mines in 1849 leaving his deputy, David Ingalls, in charge of the
+office, who moved the office to his store on the southwest corner of
+Tenth and Duane streets. At this time Astoria was the distributing
+office for the entire Northwest, including the present states of
+Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana. In 1853 San Francisco was made
+the distributing point for the coast. T. P. Powers, who resided in
+Upper Town and was a part owner in that place, succeeded Mr. Shively
+as postmaster and moved the post office to upper town near the
+customhouse. This left Astoria without a federal office and helped to
+build up its rival. With the change of the national administration in
+1861, new officers who were friendly to the lower town were appointed
+and the post office and the customhouse were moved to the lower town.
+It was remarked at the time by a resident of lower town that "politics
+took them away and politics brought them back."
+
+The erection of Fort Stevens and Fort Canby at this time made work
+plentiful around the mouth of the river and contributed to the growth
+of Astoria both in population and in wealth, as many of the supplies
+were drawn from the town.
+
+The school census for the years 1859-70 shows a steady growth in
+population brought about by the establishment of new enterprises, the
+settlement of the country tributary to the town, and the increase in
+amount of shipping from the Columbia River, especially the
+establishment of a regular line of steamers from Portland and Astoria
+to San Francisco. In 1865 Christian Leinweber started the Upper
+Astoria tannery which gave employment to about thirty persons. In 1867
+what was afterwards known as the Hume mill was built near Thirteenth
+and Commercial streets and was one of the city's most important
+resources until its destruction by fire in 1883.
+
+In 1867 Judge Cyrus Olney, who had succeeded to the claim of John
+McClure, formulated a plan to dispose of a part of this property at a
+uniform price per lot. This plan was known, locally, as the Olney
+lottery. Tickets were sold for $50 each, entitling the holder to a lot
+in the city and a chance to draw the "grand prize," which consisted of
+two lots and a house, the property now owned and occupied by Louis
+Kirchoff and situated on Twelfth Street, between Exchange Street and
+Franklin Avenue. The other lots were situated in different parts of
+McClure's Astoria. The plan then amounted to this: each ticket
+entitled the holder to a lot, though the location was a matter of
+chance, and a chance to win two lots and a house. Many lots were
+disposed of by means of this lottery.
+
+By 1870 the population of the town had increased to six hundred and
+thirty-nine, and the population of Clatsop County had increased from
+four hundred and sixty-two in 1850 to one thousand two hundred and
+fifty-five in 1870. Small sailing vessels and steamboats were running
+between Astoria and lower river points, and a regular steamer service
+was maintained between Portland and Astoria and between Portland and
+San Francisco. At this time it was customary for the ocean steamers to
+make the trip from Portland to Astoria during the day, and to tie up
+at Astoria for the night, and to cross the bar the next morning.
+Steamer day was the event of the week and was a source of considerable
+revenue to the merchants of the town.
+
+The Pioneer and Historical Society was organized in this city in 1871,
+and, as the name implies, its membership is limited to the pioneers of
+Oregon, and its object is to prepare and keep a record of the events
+in which the pioneers figured during the founding and development of
+the State. Many records were collected by the society, but for the
+most part have been scattered and lost, as have the books of its once
+valuable library. For several years past the society has had merely a
+nominal existence, but recently a movement has been started to
+reorganize the society, and to carry out the purposes for which it was
+founded, especially in the way of collecting local history.
+
+The _Astorian_, the successor to Astoria's first newspaper, _The
+Marine Gazette_, published during the sixties, was first published in
+1873, and has been issued continuously since that time. Its influence
+in the upbuilding of the town can not be estimated. The early files of
+the paper are filled with articles encouraging new enterprises,
+setting forth the advantages of the town, and recording every new step
+in its advancement.
+
+The question of title to the water frontage became a troublesome one
+when the town began to grow and buildings were being erected along the
+water front. The original settlers thought they had title to this land
+by virtue of their patent from the United States; but later it was
+learned that the State of Oregon had title to all land between high
+and low-water mark. By a legislative act passed in 1872 the State
+authorized the sale of its property in front of Astoria to the owners
+of the property immediately back of the tide land, or to those who had
+purchased their land from such owners and had made improvements
+thereon. The price asked was nominal. During the years 1873-76 most of
+this land was purchased from the State, and the city placed in a
+position to use the property best suited for cannery sites and
+wharves.
+
+By the terms of the new city charter, passed in 1876, the limits of
+the city were extended so as to include Shively's claim, Hustler and
+Aiken's Addition, and all of McClure and Olney's Addition. In 1891 the
+boundaries were again changed so as to include Upper Astoria,
+Alderbrook, all the land between Alderbrook and John Day's River, and
+Smith's Point. The city was bounded at this time by the Columbia
+River, John Day's River, Young's Bay and River, and a line connecting
+John Day's River and Young's River. These boundaries remained until
+1899, when all the land east of Van Dusen's Addition was cut off from
+the city.
+
+In the fall of 1874 the first grain ships to take their entire cargo
+from Astoria were loaded by R. C. Kinney & Sons. This fleet consisted
+of the British ship Vermont and three other vessels. The same year the
+Astoria and Willamette Barge Company was formed for the purpose of
+carrying wheat in barges and steamers from the farms in the Willamette
+Valley to the vessels at Astoria. The company built the "Farmer's
+Wharf" on the site of the present dock and warehouse of the Oregon
+Railway and Navigation Company. This company lacked the capital to
+carry on this enterprise and after loading a few ships sold out to the
+Oregon Steam Navigation Company. The promoters of the barge company
+expected to transport a ship load of wheat to Astoria for less than
+the cost of towage and pilotage between Portland and Astoria. Since
+this time some of the larger grain vessels have completed their
+cargoes here, but this port has not been made a starting point for the
+grain fleet.
+
+While the experiment with the wheat shipping was being tried another
+industry was rising into importance, the one that more than any other
+has contributed to the growth of the town. In 1866 four thousand cases
+of salmon had been packed. The following year eighteen thousand cases
+were packed on the Columbia River, and this important industry was
+established and by 1874 it had reached the proportions of an extensive
+commercial transaction. Astoria's share in the salmon packing business
+began with the erection of Badollet & Company's cannery in Upper
+Astoria in 1873. This cannery did not run the next season. A. Booth &
+Company built the second Astoria cannery. Devlin & Nygant's, R. D.
+Hume & Company's, and Kinney's were built in the order named and all
+were in operation in 1876. Trullinger's mill was built during this
+year and Astoria now boasted of two large mills, five canneries, and a
+tannery. During the two years, from 1874 to 1876, the population of
+the town nearly doubled and many new buildings, consisting of
+canneries, warehouses, and dwellings, were erected. There was much
+money in circulation as every one had money and the fishermen were
+prodigal with theirs. Small change was seldom used, the quarter being
+the smallest coin in general use. This was the period of Astoria's
+greatest growth. From a small shipping station in the sixties it had
+grown to be a town of about two thousand people, controlling the most
+important industry on the lower Columbia and holding a large trade.
+Improvements followed as a matter of course. In 1876 the Western Union
+Telegraph Company completed its line between Portland and Astoria,
+and Robert Mason & Company constructed a building and entered into the
+production of oil from salmon heads. During this year a new enterprise
+was started at the canneries of M. J. Kinney and Hanthorn & Company,
+that of canning beef and mutton. At Kinney's from September, 1876, to
+January, 1877, nineteen thousand five hundred cases of beef and five
+hundred cases of mutton were packed. This industry seems never to have
+gotten beyond the experimental stage in Astoria, owing largely to the
+difficulty of securing cattle at a fair price and to the lack of
+facilities for and experience in handling the meat. During the season
+of 1877 there were eleven canneries in operation in Astoria and more
+than a thousand fishing boats were in use on the river. Just before
+sundown, during the fishing season, the river would be covered with
+white sailed boats, all sailing briskly along on their way to their
+favorite drifts.
+
+Houses during this year were in great demand, and many were built. The
+_Astorian_ thus speaks of the building boom:
+
+     It may seem surprising, but nevertheless it is true, work is
+     progressing in all stages upon one hundred and eighty-nine
+     new buildings in the city of Astoria at this moment. * *
+     Were we to attempt to enumerate the long list of structures
+     erected in this city since last fall we should fail to do
+     the subject justice. In building wharves and warehouses,
+     canneries, and other packing establishments, ship yards, and
+     machine shops, stores, and residences, many thousands of
+     dollars have been spent.
+
+And again:
+
+     Houses are being erected at an alarming rate. Last Saturday
+     ten new structures were raised--one for every working hour
+     of the day.
+
+The river trade, a very important factor in the upbuilding of the
+city, had greatly increased during the past three years. Twenty or
+more steamers, large and small, were engaged during 1878 in making
+daily trips between Astoria and lower river points and upper river
+points as far as Portland. At this time seven steamers were making
+regular trips between Portland and San Francisco, but stopping at
+Astoria and bringing many passengers and much freight to the town. The
+_Astorian_ of May 5, 1877, commenting on the number of people arriving
+at Astoria, says "last month two thousand six hundred and twenty-eight
+bona fide immigrants landed at Astoria by steamers. About one thousand
+seven hundred proceeded inland in search of homes." This was about the
+beginning of the fishing season, and no doubt most of those who
+remained at Astoria were fishermen and cannery workers. The people at
+that time remained in Astoria during the fishing season, and returned
+to California for the winter.
+
+The effect of having such a large floating population was soon felt on
+the morals of the city, and it was during these early years of the
+salmon industry that Astoria acquired the reputation for vice and
+crime that remained long after the city had rid itself of its
+undesirable element. During the year 1877 there were forty saloons in
+the city, and all reaped a rich harvest during the fishing season. The
+_Astorian_ was strong in its protests against the immorality of the
+town, and urged the closing of all the dives and gambling houses, but
+for a time without avail. Later we shall see how the city did rid
+itself of its lowest class of inhabitants.
+
+In 1878 the roadway to Upper Astoria was completed, and the Upper
+Astoria post office abolished. The completion of the roadway was an
+event of great importance to the people of both towns, and had the
+effect of putting an end to the rivalry that had existed since the
+starting of Upper Astoria in 1849, when the customhouse was built. The
+towns were now in fact one, though considered locally as two separate
+towns. By the legislative act of 1891 the corporate limits of the town
+were extended so as to include upper town.
+
+The intense rivalry between the companies operating steamers on the
+Portland-San Francisco route brought about the reduction of freight
+and passenger rates so that there was much travel between Oregon and
+California. As every steamer stopped several hours at Astoria the town
+received considerable patronage from the passengers. The _Astorian_
+speaks of the town being crowded during the stay of one of the ocean
+steamers. The Great Republic frequently carried a thousand passengers,
+and always took on a considerable part of its cargo at Astoria.
+
+The population of Astoria in 1880 was two thousand eight hundred and
+three and the population of Clatsop County seven thousand two hundred
+and twenty-two. This increase in the number of people in the county
+meant much to Astoria, since the supplies for a large part of Clatsop
+County are taken from the city.
+
+In 1883 the salmon industry reached its highest point. Not only were
+more fish canned than at any previous year but a better price than
+ever before was paid for the raw material, thus distributing a larger
+amount of money among the fishermen and cannery workers. During this
+season six hundred and twenty-nine thousand cases of salmon, valued at
+over $3,000,000, were packed on the Columbia River.
+
+It was during this year that the fire, known locally as the "big
+fire," occurred. It started July 2, 1883, in the sawmill near the site
+now occupied by the Foard & Stokes Company and swept the entire water
+front from that point east to Seventeenth Street, including the large
+warehouse owned by the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. The
+volunteer fire department worked heroically and succeeded after
+several hours in gaining control of the fire, though not until it had
+destroyed several blocks of business houses, wharves, and dwellings.
+The wooden streets, built on piling over the water acted as a means
+for carrying the fire from building to building. The loss was very
+heavy but the fishing season was at its height and money plentiful, so
+that in a short time new buildings were erected in place of those
+destroyed by fire.
+
+An interesting chapter in Astoria's history is connected with the fire
+of 1883. During its progress a large quantity of liquor was taken from
+the saloons in the path of the fire and carried to places of safety
+only to be stolen by the rougher class of onlookers. In a short time
+great disorder prevailed in the vicinity of the fire and the officers
+were powerless to prevent the wholesale stealing of the goods taken
+from the stores and houses. Drinking was kept up throughout the night
+but after the fire was checked the scene of disorder was transferred
+to the lower part of town, known as "Swilltown." Here the drunken
+fishermen were soon relieved of their money by the denizens of this
+section. Later some of the fishermen threatened to burn the rest of
+the town in retaliation. The business men of the city fearing that
+this threat would be carried out organized a committee to assist the
+officers in preserving the peace should their aid become necessary,
+the mayor at the same time issuing a proclamation calling upon all
+saloon keepers to close their saloons each night at 12 o'clock. One
+saloon, owned by Riley and Ginder, two ex-policemen, refused to obey
+and when the officers went to arrest the proprietors they were fired
+upon through the barricaded doors. During the conflict three taps were
+sounded on the fire bell, the signal for the citizens' committee to
+assemble. The committee responded quickly and arrived upon the scene
+fully armed and ready for action. The officers in the mean time had
+succeeded in entering the building and had arrested Riley and Ginder
+who were brought before the committee. After a short deliberation they
+were informed that they must leave the city at once under penalty of
+being hanged from the city hall. The threat was sufficient and they
+closed their saloon and left the city. To one who knows the condition
+of affairs that existed in the city after the fire, and the character
+of the men who led the citizens' movement, it is evident that Riley
+and Ginder used the best of judgment in obeying promptly. After
+disposing of this case the committee decided to drive out the crowd of
+disreputable characters that lived in "Swilltown," and accordingly
+served notice on all such to leave town within twenty-four hours. This
+order, backed by a resolute set of citizens, was generally obeyed,
+only one man openly defying the committee. This man, an Englishman by
+the name of Boyle, was known as a "bad man." Nevertheless he was
+captured, whipped, and sent out of town. Recognizing three members of
+the committee he brought suit against them in the United States court
+for damages and secured the verdict. The amount was quickly raised by
+general subscription, $20 being the usual individual contribution. The
+citizens' committee having accomplished the purpose for which it was
+organized now disbanded.
+
+Notwithstanding the steady decline in the salmon pack on the Columbia
+River since 1883 and the closing of many of the canneries in the city,
+Astoria has had a steady growth, due in a great measure to the
+increase in trade with the growing towns and the farming and dairy
+districts tributary to the city, and to the growth of the sawmill
+industry, which though still in its infancy here, is growing rapidly.
+By the close of the summer four and possibly five large mills will be
+in operation.
+
+In 1890 the city had a population of six thousand one hundred and
+eighty-four, a very great increase over the census returns of ten
+years before. Two years before this the Astoria and South Coast
+Railroad was started and the road built from Sea Side to the middle of
+Young's Bay, a distance of about fifteen miles. Though this road did
+not enter the city for several years its building had a marked effect
+on Astoria. Prices for city property increased very rapidly, and
+during the years 1889 and 1890 a real estate boom was in progress.
+While considerable property changed ownership very little building was
+done so that when the period of activity in real estate ended the city
+did not contain rows of empty houses as did so many of the boom towns
+of Washington.
+
+Almost from the beginning of its history Astoria has dreamed of rail
+connections with the East. The coming of the railroad has been
+regarded as the one thing needed to make Astoria the seaport of the
+Northwest. The Astoria and South Coast road had stopped near the
+center of Young's Bay. About three years later a new road that was to
+run up Young's River, thence through the Nehalem Valley to Portland
+was started. This company, after building several miles of trestle
+around Smith's Point and up Young's River, suspended operations owing
+to its inability to secure sufficient financial backing to complete
+the road. The Astoria and Columbia River Railroad Company was given
+subsidy of a million and a half in money and property and in 1898
+built the present road to connect with the Northern Pacific track at
+Goble. The city has been greatly benefited by this road, although the
+long expected period of rapid growth did not accompany it, owing to
+the fact that Astoria has not been made a common point with other
+cities of the Northwest.
+
+The population of the city in 1900 had increased to eight thousand
+three hundred and eighty-one. A conservative estimate places the
+population now at a little over ten thousand.
+
+This is substantially the story of Astoria's settlement and growth,
+both in wealth and population. It remains now to trace the influence
+of its main industry, salmon packing, in determining its social
+conditions. In Astoria foreigners and native born of foreign parentage
+form the great majority of inhabitants. Representatives from almost
+every part of the world live in Astoria, the principal nationalities,
+however, being Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, and Finns. The Finns form a
+greater part of our population than any other nationality.
+
+During the first thirty years after the real growth of the city began
+the population was almost exclusively American, but with the advent of
+the fishing industry came the hardy fishermen and sailors of
+northwestern Europe who found here an opportunity to carry on their
+customary avocations with the assurance of profitable returns for
+their labors. During the first few years of the salmon business a
+great number of fishermen came from other states, so that Astoria had
+a floating population of nearly two thousand during the summer months.
+They were a free and easy set who made money and spent it without
+reserve, the saloons getting a large share of their earnings. As a
+result saloons flourished, carrying with them their many kindred
+evils, and Astoria became a rough place. The foreigners who in more
+recent years have engaged in fishing are, as a class, sober and
+industrious, and home builders. Gradually these adopted citizens have
+displaced the transient fishermen, until now the term fisherman is no
+longer synonymous with rowdy, but rather indicate a hardy, industrious
+citizen of foreign birth. In Upper Astoria and Alderbrook the people
+are mostly Scandinavians, or descendants of this race. In Union or
+Finn town, as the name implies, the people are almost exclusively
+Finns. They are progressive and almost to a man own their own homes,
+not shacks or hovels, but well built, roomy houses. These people, as
+well as the Scandinavians, come from a country where the public school
+system is well established, and are zealous in the cause of the public
+schools of this city. A year ago the people of Union town attended the
+annual school meeting almost in a body, and succeeded in carrying
+through a measure and voting a tax for the construction of a school
+building in the west end of the city, at the same time offering to
+donate a considerable part of the necessary labor. The present Taylor
+school building is the result of these efforts.
+
+In the last city election, out of a total of eleven hundred names
+registered, nearly six hundred were of foreign birth. Of this number
+one hundred and seventy were natives of Finland, eighty-seven of
+Sweden, seventy-two of Norway, sixty-four of Germany, and forty of
+Denmark. The Finns are very clannish, which accounts for their almost
+exclusive Finnish settlement in West Astoria. It is their custom to
+send for their relatives in their own country as soon as they have
+earned the necessary money. In this way the foreign born population is
+steadily increasing. They do not appear to be a speculative class, but
+seem content to work hard, secure a home and save something from their
+yearly earnings though a few cooperative companies have been formed
+for the purpose of packing salmon.
+
+The struggle for material advancement in the way of developing
+resources, securing a railroad, and other enterprises has not been
+greatly aided by the foreign population. Since the coming of these
+foreign-born citizens the fishing element is no longer regarded as a
+rough class of people, but rather as the sober, working class of the
+city. During the winter months most of the fishermen are employed
+carpentering, street building, as workers in the mills and factories
+or engaged in knitting nets and preparing gear for the next season.
+
+Astoria at the present day is a cosmopolitan city of about ten
+thousand inhabitants, composed largely of foreigners. As in earlier
+times fishing is the main industry, though the rapidly growing lumber
+industry bids fair soon to surpass it in importance. At the present
+time there are only seven canneries in operation in Astoria, but the
+cold storage business has assumed large proportions during the past
+two years. Astoria now possesses an excellent water system, a thorough
+school system, consisting of six grammar schools and a high school,
+all together accommodating about fifteen hundred children and
+employing thirty-one teachers. Trade with the surrounding country has
+increased very rapidly during the last few years, but Astoria has been
+but little benefited by the increased export trade from the Columbia
+as most of the cargoes are shipped direct from Portland. During the
+ninety-two years of its existence Astoria has grown from a small
+fur-trading station to the second city in size in the State. While its
+growth has been apparently slow, it has kept pace with the development
+of Oregon and the Northwest as a whole.
+
+     ALFRED A. CLEVELAND.
+
+
+
+
+A PIONEER CAPTAIN OF INDUSTRY IN OREGON.
+
+     NOTE.--The material from which this paper has been prepared
+     was derived from the following sources: manuscript account
+     of "Woolen Mill," the "Journey to Washington," and the
+     "Cargo of Wheat to Liverpool," written by Mr. Watt and
+     loaned to the author by Mr. S. A. Clark, of Washington, D.
+     C., in whose possession it has been. A series of articles in
+     the _Oregonian_ in 1881, by Mr. S. A. Clark, describing the
+     journeys across the country and other incidents, obtained
+     from manuscript and from conversations with Mr. Watt, with
+     whom Mr. Clark was on most intimate terms; a paper
+     containing recollections of his brother's life and incidents
+     by Ahio Watt, of Portland; conversations with the widow and
+     daughter of Mr. Watt, who are now living at Forest Grove,
+     Oregon.
+
+
+A unique place in the industrial history of Oregon must be given to
+Joseph Watt, the first to undertake the manufacture of woolen goods on
+the Pacific coast and the first to send a cargo of wheat to the market
+at Liverpool, both of which acts mark the beginning of important
+industrial and commercial policies in the history of Oregon.
+
+Joseph Watt, or "Joe," as he is more commonly called by those who
+mention him in connection with the history of Oregon, was born at
+Mount Vernon, Knox County, Ohio, on the 17th of December, 1817. His
+earliest ancestor in America was a silk weaver of Scotch-Irish descent
+who came to this country about 1760, settling in the vicinity of
+Philadelphia. His grandfather, Joseph Watt, crossed the Alleghany
+Mountains in 1802 and took up a donation claim in western
+Pennsylvania. His father, John Watt, who had taken part in the war of
+1812 and served with Perry in his first cruise on the Great Lakes,
+migrated to Knox County, Ohio, in 1815. Here he married and reared a
+family of ten children, of whom Joseph was one.
+
+As a boy Watt seems to have been always a dreamer, building castles in
+the air and planning great schemes of business and adventure. Because
+of these dreams of verdant fields and herds of cattle, he desired to
+join the movement for the settlement of Texas, then being effected
+under the leadership of Sam Houston, and was prevented only by the ill
+health of his father and the large family which needed his aid. As a
+sort of compromise his father agreed to migrate to Missouri in 1838.
+This move resulted only in hardship and privation, and soon young Watt
+was turning his thoughts again toward the prairies of Texas. In the
+winter of 1840 and 1841 he started south, stopping in the country of
+the Creeks and Cherokees to earn money at his trade of carpentering.
+It was at this time that the Oregon country was coming prominently
+before the people in Missouri. Watt became interested and returned to
+his home with the intention of migrating to Oregon. On his way through
+the southwestern part of the State in the spring of 1843 he came in
+contact with many who were planning to start that year. Senator Lewis
+F. Linn, of Missouri, had introduced a bill into the Senate in 1838
+providing for the settlement of Oregon and offering six hundred and
+forty acres of land to each settler. Watt read all that he could find
+upon the subject, listened to everything which he could hear and
+talked much with his associates. By the spring of 1843 he was ready to
+start, but his father had become equally anxious to better his
+condition and proposed that the whole family prepare to go the
+following year. By the spring of 1844 it was clear that the expense of
+so long and difficult a journey could not be met, and Watt, unwilling
+to defer his hopes longer, started with two companions, expecting to
+earn his way across the plains by driving the teams or cattle of
+well-to-do emigrants. The assets all told with which he started on
+this long journey were $2.50 in cash and a stock in trade of a pair of
+new boots, some pins and fishhooks, to be used in trade with the
+Indians.
+
+Watt had succeeded in securing employment as driver for a well-to-do
+emigrant, but fell out with his employer before they had gone far.
+With a job here and there, and a trade to his advantage, he managed to
+reach Burnt River with a cow and a rifle to his credit. As the journey
+neared the end however provisions grew scarcer, and those who
+possessed them were less able or willing to share with others. Finding
+that he was not welcome at the camps of the emigrants, and obedient to
+vigorous hints, he started ahead with a single companion and began the
+dangerous and difficult journey over the Blue Mountains. The snow lay
+from twelve to eighteen inches deep, and the trail could only be
+followed by scratches made on the trees by wagons that had passed over
+before. Watt's moccasins had given out and were mended with leather
+cut from his buckskin pants. For provisions they had but a loaf of
+bread between them. The rifle was useless because there was no game in
+the mountains. His cow had been left in the charge of a friend in a
+party behind. All difficulties were surmounted however and the valley
+of the Umatilla was reached. Here they were in the region of game. A
+number of prairie chickens were shot, powder was traded to the Indians
+for a few potatoes, a kettle was borrowed and the weary travelers gave
+themselves over to a feast, which, at intervals, was prolonged through
+the night. Their spirits rose when hunger was appeased, and they knew
+that soon they would be at the mission station at Waiilatpu. Ragged
+and disreputable in appearance they were not cordially received, and
+the independent nature of Watt ever cherished a dislike for missions
+and missionaries. Remaining at the station until the party having
+charge of his cow arrived he effected a trade by which he secured a
+supply of provisions for the last part of the journey to the Dalles,
+where he expected to take a boat down the river. Various experiences
+were yet to be met. Fate decided that he should partake of but a
+single meal from the supply of provisions which he had earned so
+dearly. He escaped death by the arrival of unexpected help when he was
+grappling with an Indian in which encounter the expectoration of
+tobacco juice figured as a peculiar weapon of defense. Finally,
+however, he reached the Dalles where boats belonging to the Hudson Bay
+Company were at anchor. Those who had money to pay their passage were
+packing their goods on board and going themselves, but the chances for
+a passage for a penniless and ragged traveler were small. It was
+Watt's purpose to work for his passage and he made application to the
+boatman. "You are like one of those worn out oxen," was the reply,
+"you haven't strength enough to hold yourself up, let alone work;" and
+the boatman went on with his loading. Sitting on a rock by the river
+Watt was a despondent figure. But the boatman, turning back with the
+exclamation that "it was too bad to leave the poor devil to starve"
+for he might have some "come out to him after all like a lousy
+yearling in the spring," asked if Watt could sing. On learning that he
+could he bade him find a place on the bow of the boat and earn his
+meals as best he could. Under the title of the "figurehead,"
+therefore, he kept his allotted place on the bow, and by his skill in
+singing and telling yarns earned his meals as well as his passage down
+the river. One song, entitled "the bobtailed mare, or the man who went
+to heaven horseback," made a decided hit, and Watt fared sumptuously
+for the remainder of the journey down the Columbia.
+
+Ever at the van across the continent Watt was the first of his party
+to reach his destination at Oregon City, in November of 1844. A
+curious spectacle he must have made as he appeared upon the streets
+with his walnut roundabout, buckskin pants reaching to the knees and
+patched with antelope skin, with a red blanket for an overcoat and
+woolen hat, so worn in the crown that it hung about the neck rather
+than rested on the head. Such was the young castle builder who had
+made his way across the plains with a capital of $2.50 in cash and a
+stock in trade of pins, fishhooks, and a pair of new boots. Such was
+the picturesque appearance made by one who was destined to play no
+unimportant part in the industrial development of Oregon.
+
+For a time he slept in the shavings of a carpenter shop. He tried to
+trade his last possession, his beloved rifle for decent clothes but
+failed. One day in his wanderings along the street he chanced to meet
+the chief factor of the Hudson Bay Company, the hero of his life.
+After a few inquiries Doctor McLoughlin gave orders to a clerk to
+furnish Watt with clothing. "Tut, tut, tut," said the old man, "what
+people these Americans are, wandering vagabonds across a continent.
+What are they coming here for? Give him some clothes." After a bath
+behind the shade of a neighboring bank of the river Watt emerged clad
+in his suit of British corduroy and with all his preconceived and
+inherited antipathy toward the British and the Catholics removed. With
+the first money earned from the task of bricklaying, an employment
+given him by Doctor McLoughlin, he sought to pay for his clothes, and
+purchasing a bath tub, a cake of soap and some tobacco, which was his
+one luxury, he had begun his career as one of the pioneer captains of
+industry in Oregon.
+
+It was not long before an opportunity for advancement presented
+itself. The Catholic Church on the French Prairie was then in process
+of construction and its builders were in need of a workman competent
+to complete the cornice. As Watt was something of an adept at the
+carpenter trade he was offered the work of constructing seven hundred
+feet of cornice at $3 a foot, when he was on the point of offering to
+do it for fifty cents. The return from this employment was sufficient
+to give him a financial start. Not only industrious but shrewd in the
+matter of trade, Watt made the most of the opportunity. About this
+time the brig Henry came up the river at a time of high water, with a
+cargo of goods, among which was a stock of Seth Thomas clocks, an
+article for which the demand was great in this remote region. With the
+savings from his carpenter work Watt purchased the lot, and found
+little trouble in disposing of them in exchange for wheat. The harvest
+for the year had been abundant, while the demand was small, and the
+clocks, which had cost but $4 apiece, were sold for sixty to eighty
+bushels of wheat. Shrewdness in anticipating the oversupply of the one
+year would be followed by the scarcity of the next was more than
+rewarded. Wet weather and other climatic conditions caused a small
+supply while a large emigration increased the demand and the bushels
+of wheat were in turn exchanged for the pieces of gold. Thus in the
+space of two years the capital of $2.50 had increased to over $1,000,
+and the way was open for larger plans.
+
+Watt had never in the meantime ceased his dreaming. It was not now,
+however, the broad plains of Texas and the herds of cattle, but,
+rather, the luxuriant meadows and hills of the Willamette Valley,
+which his imagination covered with flocks of sheep. Pleased with the
+opportunities of a country which had profited him so much, and
+desiring his parents and family to come, he started back to Missouri
+in the spring of 1847. The return was also to be made the means of
+realizing his dreams. It was his intention to bring back a flock of
+sheep. Already he seemed to see the demand that would grow up in a
+damp country like Oregon for woolen garments, and perhaps, likewise,
+the need of suitable clothing for his eight sisters. There were but
+few sheep in the country at that time. Some were in the possession of
+the Hudson Bay Company; others had been driven over in the emigration
+of 1844, and possibly there were a few besides. The return journey was
+made by the southern route. Evidences were visible of the terrible
+sufferings of the party who, in 1847, had been induced to come that
+way. Along the Rogue River the Indians were hostile, and Watt was
+enabled at various times to kindle his fire for breakfast with the
+arrows which lay thick about the camp. On the broad plains he was
+frightened by a band of hostile Pawnees, but, escaping all danger, at
+length reached in safety his home in Missouri.
+
+Before his return to Oregon Watt made a journey to the East, mainly on
+business. Boston, however, with its bleak weather, had few charms for
+him. "With all their steamboats, railroads, fine stores, fine cities,
+fine women and all, give me Oregon," is the reflection which appears
+in the reminiscences of his visit. While in the East and in the
+neighborhood of Washington he decided to visit the national capital
+and carry back to his fellow pioneers in the Far West whatever he
+could learn of the disposition of the administration toward his
+country. As this "self-appointed delegate" was walking about the
+streets of the capital city he was indulging in the reflection,
+typical of the western spirit, that "a great deal of money was being
+spent foolishly in that city." He took occasion to look up old friends
+upon whom the city life failed to exert a helpful influence. His
+purpose there, however, was not curiosity, but information that might
+be of value, and to gain this he sought admission to the Chief
+Executive. President Polk was at the time too busily engaged to give
+him audience, and the disappointment was great, for his reminiscences
+record the exclamation: "What right had he to be busy when I was
+there, all the way from Oregon?" Unable to see the Secretary of War,
+Mr. Davis, for similar reasons, he finally was advised by his friends
+to visit the little brick house, on a back street, which was occupied
+by Senator Benton of Missouri. There he felt he would surely receive a
+cordial welcome. "I must go and see Benton," he says: "Haven't I
+shouted for him in Missouri, and hasn't he made speeches in favor of
+Oregon? Yes, he can tell me what the government is going to do for
+Oregon." Admitted into the house by the colored servant, he stood in
+the presence of the Senator whom he thought well named "Burly Benton."
+
+The interview was far from pleasant, if we may judge from Watt's
+account. Upon learning the residence of his visitor, the Senator
+immediately began a eulogy upon the services to Oregon of his
+son-in-law, Colonel Fremont, which aroused the ire of the westerner.
+"Ah, yes," said Benton, "we know all about Oregon. My son-in-law,
+Colonel Fremont, has traveled all over that country. The country is,
+or ought to be, under everlasting obligation to him for the
+information he has given at the greatest sacrifice a man ever made."
+To this his visitor warmly replied: "As to any information given you
+by Mr. Fremont regarding what the people are doing and their
+prospects, it is certainly guessed at, for I know he was never there.
+His map of the road is good, but when it comes to making roads, he
+never did. He followed the road to Oregon made by emigrants, men,
+women and children to the Dalles, took bateaux to Fort Vancouver, got
+supplies, returned to The Dalles and struck out for California on the
+east side of the mountains."
+
+Watt says in his reminiscences that he shall never forget the look
+that Benton had on his face as he started across the room, rubbing his
+hands and storming, "Perhaps I don't know the movements of my own
+son-in-law." While the picture is completed by the clerk, to all
+intents writing at a desk near by, but whose sides were "prying out
+and in like a pair of bellows."
+
+A tribute paid by Watt to the services actually rendered by Colonel
+Fremont mollified the old senator and the remainder of the interview
+was pleasant. The conversation turned to the object of the visit which
+Watt had expressed to Benton in the following words: "I was in the
+neighborhood of the city and was anxious to learn something about the
+intent of the government concerning Oregon so that I could have
+something to tell the settlers on my return, for we only get the news
+once a year." Watt told him of his plan of transferring his family
+across the plains and of driving sheep and introducing the manufacture
+of wool. To Benton it seemed "quite an undertaking," but Watt, with
+the true pioneer spirit, replied, "Yes, but the people out there do
+not mind hardships and dangers. Somebody has to do it if the country
+is ever settled." To the praises paid by Watt to Oregon and the need
+of an extension of government, Benton replied, "There are a great many
+things to contend with, I am afraid, before that can be done. England
+has to be treated with, for they have some claims out there; and we
+have many designing men here who will give us trouble. I am sure I do
+not know how it will be done, but I think something will be done that
+will satisfy you people. I have been frustrated in some attempts to
+relieve the country but am still in hopes we can do something." The
+conversation then drifted to mutual acquaintances in Missouri, and
+Watt left with some maps and reports of Fremont, presented by the
+Senator, under his arm.
+
+The journey by boat down the Mississippi River was the occasion of
+another experience. A collision occurred just before daylight and
+many of the passengers, unable to get to land, were drowned. Watt
+narrowly escaped by reaching the hurricane deck and wading out of the
+cabin waist deep in the water. "I thought that worse than all the
+Indians in the world," is the remark with which he sums up this
+experience.
+
+Upon reaching home the preparation was made for crossing the
+continent. A band of sheep had been gotten together during Watt's
+absence, much to the amusement of the neighbors, who could not believe
+the enterprise would succeed. The progress, indeed, was slow. When
+rain fell the mud was deep and in dry weather the dust was equally
+trying. "I have driven day after day, pushing the sheep along by my
+knees, and could not see them for the dust," says Watt.
+
+The emigrants of 1848 had a comparatively easy time, and a comfortable
+journey. They were more numerous, were better provided with
+necessities and better organized than those of former years. How great
+the contrast between crossing the plains in 1848 and that which had
+been the occasion of so many difficulties four years before. The ample
+outfit consisted of two large freight wagons with five yoke of cattle
+to each. There was loose cattle and sheep and drivers and herders to
+help with the work. Watt's familiarity with the route, his knowledge
+of the best camping places and sources of water supply caused many to
+look naturally to him as a leader, although the dust that rose from
+the path of the flock of sheep was too much for a close following.
+Watt was a lover of a practical joke, and his knowledge of the country
+often gave him an opportunity to indulge this taste. By his advice a
+company of the emigrants had been induced to camp by the Dry Sandy
+with the promise that water would be abundant. When they reached the
+place there was none to be seen. The bed of the stream was as dry and
+dusty as a desert. To the surprised and indignant inquiries of the
+fellow travelers for water Watt only said, "I have struck the rock and
+water will soon be here." Doubt and despondency, however, were clearly
+seen on the faces of the emigrants, and many thought that they had
+trusted too far. Those who were fortunate enough to have kegs of water
+in possession for such an emergency now brought them out and began the
+preparation of supper. Those less fortunate gathered in groups where
+grumbling could be heard in undertones; but Watt was calm and
+unconcerned through all. Without warning, when darkness came on, a
+thread of ice cold water that the midday sun had released in the
+snow-capped mountains, came trickling down. It grew larger and larger
+and shouts on every side arose "Here's water! Water for all! Moses
+still lives." The thirsty cattle rushed in without questioning the
+source of supply, but the emigrants touched it reverently, half
+doubting the reality of their senses.
+
+The usual vicissitudes of the long but somewhat monotonous journey
+across the plains were enlivened one night by the sudden arrival in
+camp of a messenger, on horseback, from the West. He had been riding
+hard and seemed anxious to proceed as fast as possible. It was Joseph
+Meek, messenger of the Oregon colonists, on his way to Washington to
+announce to the government the Whitman massacre and the Cayuse war.
+"The Cayuse Indians have broken out," he said, "and are murdering far
+and near, sparing neither man, woman, nor children. Men are all up
+from the valley fighting them hand to hand. Our boys charge and the
+Indians charge back, death and destruction at ever charge." The effect
+of the vivid account, that none could give better than Meek, was
+great. Women and children were frightened and crying. Even the men
+questioned the wisdom of proceeding. Watt, however, being well
+acquainted with Meek knew his proclivities for exaggeration when
+striving for effect. Gradually the facts were brought out and the
+situation, though still serious, was not sufficient to turn back the
+emigration. For the rest of the journey Watt was the most cautious of
+the party. No Indians appeared and the fear of the emigrants wore off;
+but, like the water from the mountains, the Indians might come
+unannounced into camp at any time, as the experienced traveler across
+the prairies well knew. Even the seriousness of this occasion
+furnished Watt material for his practical jokes. When the party had
+exceeded the usual limit of carelessness in sitting late and burning
+the camp fires in the enjoyment of social intercourse, Watt arranged
+with the guards of that night a plot. The alarm for Indians was to be
+sounded at early dawn. The plan worked to a charm. The emigrants, who
+had retired to rest with a feeling of security, now crept out in
+confusion or hid themselves away in ridiculous positions. The bully of
+the crowd who had boasted that he "would like to eat an Injin for
+breakfast every morning," was now pushed from the wagon by his
+delicate wife, with a rifle in one hand and his pantaloons in the
+other. The heroine of the hour was a young girl, Mary Greenwood, the
+daughter of one of the reliable men of the party. She was seen amidst
+all the confusion kindling a fire and beginning to mold bullets for
+the men to use.
+
+The journey was made without mishap to the sheep until Snake River was
+reached. Here the current was strong and they were carried down the
+stream. The dreamer of Oregon's new industry stood on the bank,
+helpless, and awaited the issue. The enterprise might easily have
+terminated at that point; but fate decided otherwise. One fellow in
+the flock, with all the qualities of a leader, struck out for shore
+with a strong stroke and soon the larger part of the flock reached
+the land and the wool industry for Oregon was safe.
+
+Without other incidents of importance the journey was finally ended
+and the family were all together in their new home in Oregon. The wool
+weaver had proved a worthy successor to the Scotch Irish silk weaver
+of colonial days. He had shown the stuff from which new countries are
+settled and new industries started. The sheep, after their long and
+dusty drive, were placed upon the rich pastures of the farm in Yamhill
+County, and to all appearances were well pleased with the new
+environment. The cards and reeds and castings for loom and spinning
+wheel were put in place and cloth was made, sufficient to meet the
+needs of the family and in particular of those eight sisters whose
+needs had played so important a part in the beginning of the wool
+industry for Oregon.
+
+The wise dreamer, however, had been unable to see fully the future. He
+had not known that while his plan was under way the discovery of gold
+in California had attracted the notice of the world; that the
+population flocking there would cut off the demand for his woolen
+cloth, while abundance of goods would come in from the East by water
+to increase the supply. The enterprise was well conceived, but as a
+financial move it was doomed to temporary failure. The sheep, however,
+were here and could wait for more favorable conditions. "About six or
+seven years after the gold mining excitement wore off," says Watt,
+"and people began to sober down to the home business, a few began to
+think about the prosperity of the country. We were buying too much and
+had nothing to sell. Stock had run down; there was little inducement
+to go into wheat largely. We must do something to prevent so much of
+an outlay for merchandise from other countries. Wool was almost
+worthless and there was plenty to keep a small mill going if we could
+only get the mill." Being interested in sheep himself Watt was anxious
+to make that industry profitable. He believed that the time had come
+when woolen goods on a considerable scale could be manufactured at a
+profit; that the cheapness of raw material would overbalance the high
+price of labor.
+
+Watt had no personal knowledge of woolen mills but there were in
+Oregon, at the time, two millwrights who understood the subject and
+were anxious to be employed in such an enterprise. As the subject was
+canvassed the interest grew. In 1855, therefore, articles of
+incorporation were drawn up for the erection of a woolen mill to be
+located somewhere in the Willamette Valley. Subscriptions to stock
+were sought and offers of bonuses solicited. The articles provided
+that the capital stock should be $25,000, and that when $9,000 was
+paid in a meeting should be held to decide upon the location of the
+mill. A committee of five was appointed to take charge of the matter.
+The meeting to decide upon location was held at Dallas when the
+requisite amount of stock was paid in. It was a meeting of
+considerable importance, as much rivalry had arisen regarding the
+location. One party wished it to be placed on the Luckiamute, west of
+the Polk County hills, and the other desired it to be located at Salem
+on the east side of the hills. Lively work had been done; the party
+favorable to the Salem location had secured a bonus worth about $7,000
+and had control of the voting stock. Considerable scheming,
+preliminary to the vote occurred, and when it was taken "you could
+hear a pin drop," says Watt. The result was favorable to the Salem
+site, and plans were begun for the construction. Within a few weeks
+all the stock was paid in and the company had possession of a piece of
+land for the mill. A board of five directors was elected and orders
+were given to begin the work. The water power was to be brought from
+the Santiam River by means of a ditch. The task was not great as the
+bed of Mill Creek could be used and the water power was soon secured.
+An agent was sent East to purchase the machinery and by the time it
+arrived the building was ready for its occupation.
+
+Before the machinery was placed the introduction of this new industry
+was the occasion of a splendid ball in the spacious building. It was
+one of the most brilliant social affairs ever held in Oregon up to
+this time. Among the list of those present from all over the territory
+were dignitaries of state, including the Governor; dignitaries from
+the army, including Lieut. Phil Sheridan, and as Watt himself says,
+"even dignitaries from the church were present." Watt was an
+inveterate lover of song and dance, and would go many miles at any
+time to engage in such festivities. He was therefore in the height of
+his glory, which was not even destroyed by the fact that his chosen
+lady, Miss Lyons, beautifully adorned in a gown of blue velvet, with
+golden stars, was led to the dance by the Governor. Indeed, he had no
+reason to be uneasy, for the understanding between them was good, and
+a few years later, 1860, he was married to her, dressed for the
+occasion in a suit of wool made in the mill which he had done so much
+to establish.
+
+By the first of May the machinery was in place, and everything was in
+running order. Cloth bearing the name of "Hardtimes" was produced, and
+the first blankets ever made west of the Rocky Mountains were sold at
+auction. The first pair went to Mr. Watt for $110, and the others
+brought $75 to $25. At first all the product that could be turned out
+found a ready market; competition, however, soon set in and the
+managers of the mill were undecided what course to pursue. Unwilling
+to discontinue the enterprise Watt was consulted, and agreed to take
+the entire product of the mill for a period of three years at a fixed
+price. By an aggressive process of advertising, in which he personally
+carried the goods into all the important places along the line of the
+old Holladay stage route, both in Oregon and California, a market was
+created for the goods. In three months after the agreement had been
+made the managers of the mill were willing to give a large
+consideration in return for a relinquishment of his contract. The
+goods found such ready market that the building and machinery were
+doubled. Prices continued to rise; debts were paid off; the value of
+the stock rose; a gristmill was built by the company; the race through
+the town constructed, and salaries of officials were raised "as high
+as their consciences would allow them to take." A woolen fever began
+to spread through the country. Mills were built at Oregon City,
+Brownsville, and Ellendale. This was the period of greatest
+prosperity. Conditions changed, but Watt was not then connected with
+the business. Divisions had arisen among the stockholders of the
+company, and Watt had disposed of his stock in 1866, when it sold for
+a value of $800 per share. He continued to be interested in sheep to
+the close of his life, and large flocks of the finest breeds were kept
+on his farm under the care of a Scotch herder employed for the special
+purpose. He was ever interested in furthering the sheep industry in
+other parts of Oregon, and it was partly through his influence that
+sheep were first placed upon the ranges of eastern Oregon.
+
+But the dreams of the dreamer broadened as time passed. In 1866, when
+divisions led to his withdrawal from the woolen mill, the crop of
+wheat in the valley was unusually large. The wheat industry had been
+increasing for years. Oregon was rapidly passing from the fur trading
+and pastoral stages of industrial life to that of agriculture. With
+an ever-increasing supply the market was restricted, and here was a
+problem to attract the mind of Watt. Shipments of wheat were made to
+California, but the markets beyond had tempted only the most daring.
+One line of steamers had been established between Portland and New
+York and four or five vessels had been drawn into the trade. The Sally
+Brown was the first to make the trial and Watt was the man who
+gathered up the cargo which she carried from the wheat fields of the
+Willamette. Ever in the van through life Watt conceived the idea that
+a cargo of wheat could be sent to Liverpool, the market of the world.
+With him to think was to act, and in 1868 he went through the valley
+gathering wheat for the first cargo to the greatest wheat market in
+existence. It was an adventure in magnitude exceeding anything that he
+had tried before. Failure would mean a heavy loss, and success would
+usher in a new day for the industrial life of Oregon. The cargo was
+gathered and the vessel set forth on the long voyage. The destination
+was reached and the grain inspected. It was unlike any that had ever
+been seen before on the docks of the great market. The inspectors had
+never seen kernels of wheat so large. The decision was pronounced that
+it could not be right, and the whole cargo was condemned as water
+soaked and unfit for the market. The loss fell heavily upon the
+consignor of the cargo, but a beginning had been made that was
+destined to grow until Oregon's industrial isolation should be ended.
+
+In closing this paper it requires but a few words to sum up the chief
+characteristics of Joseph Watt. He is best seen in the narration of
+his life. Ever engaged in enterprises that were ahead of his time, he
+belonged to the vanguard of industrial development in Oregon. Ever a
+dreamer, he met with heavy reverses but yet retained a competence
+sufficient for a comfortable old age. Independent and genuine in his
+character, there was no cant in his make-up. One of the company of
+kindred spirits that includes the names of Nesmith, Matthieu, Clark,
+Boise, Minto, Crawford, and others, his company was always
+appreciated, for he was genial and sociable in disposition. By the
+Indians he was loved, and they gathered about him at his home in
+Yamhill as they would about no other. Deeply interested in all that
+pertained to Oregon, he was truly one of her benefactors. Always loyal
+to the early state builders, he conducted a party of them in an
+excursion to the East when the railroad connection was completed.
+Always deeply interested in the Pioneer Association, Watt was its
+president for a time and rarely was absent from its meetings. By gift
+from his widow the author of this paper has deposited in the vaults of
+the Oregon Historical Society the little book in which he kept the
+names of the members in their own handwriting. It is worn and soiled
+through frequent use, but it will ever be a valuable reminder of the
+earliest of our state builders, as well as a reminder of him whom the
+author has chosen to designate as a "pioneer captain of industry in
+Oregon."
+
+     JAMES R. ROBERTSON.
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENTS.
+
+
+TWO WHITMAN SOURCES.
+
+Correspondence to the _New York Spectator_ which describes Doctor
+Whitman as a passenger on board the steamer Narraganset on Long Island
+Sound. Doctor Whitman is on his way from New York to Boston.
+
+     Editorial from the _New York Daily Tribune_ of March 29,
+     1843.
+
+     ARRIVAL FROM OREGON.
+
+     We were most agreeably surprised yesterday by a call from
+     Doctor Whitman from Oregon, a member of the American
+     Presbyterian Mission in that territory. A slight glance at
+     him when he entered our office would convince any one that
+     he had seen all the hardships of a life in the wilderness.
+     He was dressed in an old fur cap, that appeared to have seen
+     some ten years' service, faded, and nearly destitute of fur;
+     a vest whose natural color had long since faded, and a
+     shirt--we could not see that he had any--an overcoat, every
+     thread of which could be easily seen, buckskin pants,
+     etc.--the roughest man we have seen this many a day--too
+     poor, in fact, to get any better wardrobe. The doctor is one
+     of those daring and good men who went to Oregon some ten
+     years ago to teach the Indians religion, agriculture,
+     letters, etc. A noble pioneer we judge him to be, a man
+     fitted to be chief in rearing a moral empire among the wild
+     men of the wilderness. We did not learn what success the
+     worthy man had in leading the Indians to embrace the
+     Christian faith, but he very modestly remarked that many of
+     them had begun to cultivate the earth and raise cattle.
+
+     He brings information that the settlers on the Willamette
+     are doing well; that the Americans are building a town at
+     the Falls of the Willamette; that a Mr. Moore of Mr.
+     Farnham's party, some sixty years of age, was occupying one
+     side of the Falls, in the hope that [the] government would
+     make him wealthy by the passage of a preëmption law; that
+     the old man Blair, another member of the same party, was
+     living comfortably a short distance above, as all who have
+     read Mr. Farnham's travels will know that he deserves to do.
+     Doctor Whitman left Oregon six months ago; ascended the
+     banks of the Snake or Laptin River to Fort Hall, and was
+     piloted thence to Santa Fé by the way of the Soda Springs,
+     Brown's Hole, the Wina, and the waters of the del Norte.
+     From Santa Fé he came through the Indians that have been
+     removed from the States to Missouri. The doctor's track
+     among the mountains lay along the western side of the
+     Anahuac Range; and he remarks that there is considerable
+     good land in that region.
+
+     We give the hardy and self-denying man a hearty welcome to
+     his native land. We are sorry to say that his first
+     reception, on arriving in our city, was but slightly
+     calculated to give him a favorable impression of the morals
+     of his kinsmen. He fell into the hands of one of our vampire
+     cabmen, who, in connection with the keeper of a tavern house
+     in West Street, three or four doors from the corner near the
+     Battery, fleeced him out of two of the last few dollars
+     which the poor man had.
+
+     [This editorial was quoted in full by the Boston
+     _Advertiser_ of March 31st.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _New York Spectator_, Wednesday evening, April 5,
+     1843.
+
+     CRUISING IN THE SOUND.
+
+     GENTLEMEN: Respecting the goodly Bay State I can say but
+     little, because since I saw you, I have been only an
+     occupant of steamboat and railroad cars. I had long supposed
+     that a three-day trip to Boston was only hereafter to be a
+     notion and reminiscence of olden time, but alas! I have had
+     the stern reality of things as they "used to was." I left
+     New York on Monday, in the Narraganset, at the usual time.
+     We had a rough trip into the Sound, and at 12 o'clock
+     Captain Woolsey, with sound discretion, carried us into the
+     New Haven Bay, where we anchored till Wednesday morning,
+     when we proceeded to Stonington, and on going over [to?] the
+     railroad and finding it in the vocative case, owing to the
+     outbreak of the waters, we retraced our movements and again
+     took boat, and made a passage around Point Judith.
+
+     It is due to Captain Woolsey and his very gentlemanly aid,
+     Mr. Richmond, to say that everything was done to make a
+     large body of disappointed passengers feel happy; good and
+     plentiful meals were gratuitously provided, and it can
+     hardly be possible that any wayfarer on this occasion left
+     the Narraganset without a deep conviction that, under the
+     severe and awkward circumstances of the passage, all had
+     been done that was possible to obviate the inconveniences
+     and disagreeables of the passage through the Sound. I would
+     add that the boat worked well. We had a very pleasant set of
+     passengers. Among others I may mention the Hon. Robert
+     Rantoul of Boston. This gentleman is by far the ablest man
+     of the Democratic party in Massachusetts, and unless I could
+     see him embarked for Salt River, (which I think must be his
+     final destination,) I would rather have him embark on the
+     same boat in which I sail, than any other. He is a very
+     interesting, affable man, of great research, and will, I
+     doubt not, yet render good service to the country.
+
+
+     THE REV. DR. WHITMAN FROM OREGON.
+
+     We also had one who was the observed of all, Doctor Whitman,
+     the missionary from Oregon. He is in the service of the
+     American Board of Commissioners of Foreign Missions. Rarely
+     have I seen such a spectacle as he presented. His dress
+     should be preserved as a curiosity; it was quite in the
+     style of the old pictures of Philip Quarles and Robinson
+     Crusoe. When he came on board and threw down his traps, one
+     said "what a loafer!" I made up my mind at a glance that he
+     was either a gentleman traveler, or a missionary; that he
+     was every inch a man and no common one was clear. The Doctor
+     has been eight years at the territory, has left his wife
+     there, and started from home on the 1st of October. He has
+     not been in bed since, having made his lodging on buffalo
+     robe and blanket, even on board the boat. He is about
+     thirty-six or seven years of age, I should judge, and has
+     stamped on his brow a great deal of what David Crockett
+     would call "God Almighty's common sense." Of course when he
+     reached Boston he would cast his shell and again stand out a
+     specimen of the "humans."
+
+     I greatly question whether such a figure ever passed through
+     the Sound since the days of steam navigation. He is richly
+     fraught with information relative to that most interesting
+     piece of country, and I hope will shortly lay it before the
+     good people of Boston and New York. Could he appear in New
+     York Tabernacle--in his traveling costume--and lecture on
+     the Northwest coast, I think there would be very few
+     standing places. Much of his route was on foot and
+     occasionally on horse or mule back, with a half-breed guide.
+     To avoid the hostile Indians he had to go off to the Spanish
+     country, and thence to Santa Fé. A rascally hackman took him
+     in at New York, and carried him from place to place at his
+     whim and finally put him down near the Battery, close to his
+     starting point, charging him two dollars, and it being
+     midnight he succeeded in the vile extortion.
+
+     CIVIS.
+
+     In connection with our friend's communication we subjoin an
+     interesting account of Doctor Whitman's mission, as given by
+     Mr. Farnham in his travels in 1839 over the Rocky Mountains.
+     [Fills over one and a half columns.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE OREGON EMIGRATION MOVEMENT,
+     1842-43.
+
+     OREGON--PITTSBURGH MEETING AND DOCTOR WHITE'S REPORT.
+
+     The following paragraphs we find in several of the eastern
+     papers this morning:
+
+     "_The Settlement of Oregon._--The meeting at Pittsburgh last
+     week, reported that it was not expedient for American
+     citizens to emigrate to Oregon until the United States
+     Government had taken measures to secure and protect the
+     emigrants in their rights.
+
+     We see, by a letter in the New York papers, that Elijah
+     White, who went as United States agent to Oregon, and took
+     with him a large party of emigrants, writes, under date of
+     August 17th, that his party had increased to one hundred and
+     twelve, although they had lost two, one by sickness and the
+     other by accident. They started with nineteen wagons, and
+     their journey had been slow and tedious; but they had passed
+     two thirds of the way, and were in excellent health and good
+     spirits. A favorable opportunity for emigration will occur
+     in April, through the aid of Mr. Fitzpatrick, at
+     Independence. Mr. White advises those who intend to go to
+     prepare light strong wagons, and to take no loading except
+     cooking utensils, and provisions for four months. Mules are
+     preferable to horses. He says no doubt exists as to ultimate
+     success of the colony."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Jeffersonian Republican_, September 17, 1842.
+
+     THE SETTLING OF OREGON.
+
+     We learn with gratification that it is at least rumored that
+     an expedition is about to be got up in Saint Louis, to
+     colonize the rich and interesting Territory of Oregon. To
+     such as have so laudable and advantageous an enterprise in
+     view, we are prepared and feel warranted in saying, that it
+     rests not upon "rumor" that many of our fellow-citizens of
+     upper Missouri intend emigrating to that highly celebrated
+     region next spring, and will no doubt be glad to be joined
+     by as many of the enterprising citizens of Saint Louis as
+     may think it their interests to join them.
+
+     We learn from the "Oregon Correspondence Committee" of this
+     place, that already they are beginning to receive names of
+     gentlemen desirous of joining the expeditions, and from
+     present indications, there seems to be no doubt remaining
+     that there will be quite a large company formed. Let not
+     those who now [have it?] in contemplation, draw back, but
+     steadily persevere, and they may confidently promise
+     themselves success. The country which they seek is no doubt
+     one of equal attraction and advantages as any on the globe,
+     and we rest assured that so soon as the number of
+     inhabitants will justify, the fostering hand of a
+     territorial government will be extended to it. Up then every
+     pioneer, and let your cry be "Onward!"--_Western
+     Missourian._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_, March 7, 1843.
+
+     LETTER FROM AN OREGON EMIGRATION AGENT TO A FRIEND AT
+     PITTSBURG.
+
+     WASHINGTON CITY, February 21, 1843.
+
+     DEAR SIR: Nothing of importance has transpired in Congress
+     since my last. I am informed by members of the House of
+     Representatives that the bill for the occupation and
+     settlement of Oregon Territory will come before the House
+     this week. It will pass when acted upon. It was referred to
+     the Committee of Foreign Affairs. John Quincy Adams,
+     chairman of the committee, reported back the same without
+     amendment, on the 13th, and, as might have been expected
+     from him, recommended that the bill do not pass. It is
+     evident, notwithstanding, that the bill will pass when acted
+     upon. Captain Stine [Steen], commanding the Dragoons at Fort
+     Leavenworth, has addressed several letters to Dr. L. F. Linn
+     and others, wishing the Secretary of War to grant him
+     permission to accompany us with the Dragoons. I have
+     postponed an interview with the Secretary of War till I am
+     ready to leave for the West. I have sent many documents to
+     you and others. You will please send some of them to your
+     friends in Ohio, Wheeling, and other places, if you have any
+     to spare. I have given the names of the several committees
+     in Pittsburgh, and west of it, to a number of the members,
+     who promise that they will continue to send all the
+     documents calculated to throw light on the subject of
+     Oregon, etc.
+
+     I am happy to learn that the citizens of Pittsburgh take so
+     warm an interest in the matter.
+
+     I am your most humble and obedient servant,
+
+     J. M. SHIVELY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_ of March 3, 1843.
+
+The War Department made the following responses to the inquiries of
+Prof. Joseph Schafer for information as to provision of military
+escort in 1843 for body of emigrants going to Oregon:
+
+
+     First indorsement.
+
+     WAR DEPARTMENT,
+     ADJUTANT GENERAL'S OFFICE,
+     _Washington_, _September 5, 1902_.
+
+     Respectfully submitted to the Chief of the Record and
+     Pension Office, War Department.
+
+     No information touching the matter of escort for emigrants
+     from Fort Leavenworth to Oregon in the year 1843 has been
+     found in this office.
+
+     J. PARKER,
+     Major of Cavalry, Assistant Adjutant General.
+
+
+     Second indorsement.
+
+     RECORD AND PENSION OFFICE,
+     WAR DEPARTMENT,
+     _Washington_, _September 10, 1902_.
+
+     Respectfully submitted to the Quartermaster General of the
+     Army.
+
+     The records on file in this office show that J. M. Shively,
+     of St. Louis, Missouri, stated under date of March 25, 1843,
+     that his party would start for Oregon on April 20, 1843; and
+     that he desired a company of troops. The records also show
+     that the communication of Mr. Shively was charged to the
+     Quartermaster General.
+
+     Nothing additional has been found bearing on this inquiry.
+
+     ---- ----,
+     Chief, Record and Pension Office.
+
+     [Name signed not decipherable.]
+
+
+     Third indorsement.
+
+     WAR DEPARTMENT,
+     QUARTERMASTER GENERAL'S OFFICE,
+     _Washington_, _October 6, 1902_.
+
+     Respectfully returned, by direction of the Quartermaster
+     General, to Mr. Joseph Schafer, No. 311 Park Street,
+     Madison, Wisconsin.
+
+     No record of any correspondence with Captain E. Steen, 1st
+     Dragoons, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, during the year 1843,
+     bearing on the matter of a military escort for emigrants is
+     found, nor is there any record of the communication of J. M.
+     Shively referred to in the second indorsement hereon.
+
+     S. F. LONG, (?)
+     Major and Quartermaster, United States Army.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_ February 24, 1843.
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     The Xenia _Free Press_ says: A farmer in this county
+     informed us a few days since that he could raise a company
+     of fifty families who, if [supported?] by the Government,
+     would march, on short notice, for Oregon.
+
+     Also on the same page: The _State Register_ (Illinois) says
+     that the largest meetings it ever witnessed were held in
+     Springfield on Wednesday and Thursday evenings in the hall
+     of the House of Representatives, a couple of whigs talking
+     the British side of the question.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_, February 17, 1843.
+
+     THE OREGON MEETING.
+
+     [The meeting was evidently held on Saturday, February 11th.]
+
+     The meeting on Saturday evening at the Council Chamber was
+     much more fully attended than was expected, the proceedings
+     of which will be found in our paper. After the organization
+     and the appointment of a committee to report to the
+     adjourned meeting to be held on Thursday evening next,
+     William B. Hubbard, Esq., in answer to a call of the
+     meeting, commenced a most interesting address, prefaced by
+     offering a resolution complimentary of Doctor Linn of
+     Missouri, and those senators who stood by him in the
+     advocacy of the bill for the settlement of this territory.
+     The cry of fire caused Mr. H. to close his remarks, with a
+     request by the meeting that he would proceed with them at
+     the next meeting. We hope Mr. H. will prepare a synopsis of
+     his remarks for the press. Nothing would be read with
+     greater interest at this time.
+
+     The Government should speedily establish military posts from
+     the frontier settlements on the Missouri to the Pacific.
+     Settlements would speedily take place around each post, and
+     produce in abundance would soon be raised to supply the post
+     and the flow of emigration.
+
+     An adjourned meeting of the citizens of Columbus and its
+     vicinity was held in the United States courtroom on the
+     evening of Thursday, the 10th instant, in pursuance of a
+     resolution adopted at the last meeting.
+
+     [Colonel Medary (editor of the _Statesman_), from a
+     committee appointed to collect facts, reported that the
+     committee wanted more time. The subject growing more and
+     more interesting, on motion the committee was allowed till
+     next Thursday.]
+
+     The resolution offered at last meeting was then taken up,
+     and on motion of Mr. Hubbard, was amended by adding, at the
+     end thereof, the words "without the violation of any
+     international law."
+
+     The resolution, as amended, read as follows:
+
+     _Resolved_, That this meeting duly appreciate the untiring
+     labors and distinguished abilities of Senator Linn and
+     others in Congress, in their successful advocacy of the just
+     claim of the United States to the Oregon Country; and that,
+     as a component part of the Great West, we hope for a speedy
+     adjustment of our rights upon the borders of the Pacific
+     Ocean, and a like speedy occupation and settlement of that
+     country, without the violation of any international law.
+
+     [Copy ordered sent to Hon. Joseph Ridgway, member of
+     Congress for the district.]
+
+The _Ohio Statesman_ of March 10, 1843, contains the report of the
+committee appointed as per the above accounts. The report seems to
+have been drawn up by Col. Samuel Medary, chairman, and is a strong
+and interesting document of considerable length. It discusses in full,
+with all the information available at the time, the economic
+advantages of the Oregon Country, as well as the question of title.
+The report is accompanied by a map.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_, March 14, 1843.
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     The people are again in motion here in relation to the
+     emigration to Oregon this spring. Peter H. Burnett, Esq.,
+     one of our most estimable citizens is among the foremost
+     here in exciting a laudable spirit in relation to the
+     settlement of that desirable country. On Tuesday evening Mr.
+     Burnett delivered a very able lecture upon this subject, in
+     which was embodied a vast fund of information calculated to
+     impress all who had the pleasure of hearing him with the
+     advantages attendant on an early settlement of our western
+     demesne. The American eagle is flapping his wings, the
+     precurser of the end of the British lion, on the shores of
+     the Pacific. Destiny has willed it.--_Platte (Missouri)
+     Eagle._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Chillicothe Intelligencer_, March 17, 1843.
+
+     [At a meeting on March 8th, held in the Courthouse, Amos
+     Holton presented a series of resolutions, and addressed the
+     meeting at length] showing the origin and justice of our
+     claim, and the immense value of that territory to the United
+     States, in a commercial point of view, and to the West in
+     particular, when, on motion the preamble and resolutions
+     were unanimously adopted.
+
+     JOHN A. FULTON, Chairman.
+
+     WM. E. GILMORE, Secretary.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_, April 26, 1843, quoting the _Iowa
+     Gazette_ (Burlington).
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     (The article aims to give a plan of preparations for
+     emigrating, including detailed advice as to outfit, route,
+     etc. The suggestions are similar to those adopted by the
+     Bloomington meeting, for which see THE QUARTERLY of the
+     Oregon Historical Society, Volume III, page 390-391,
+     December number.)
+
+     [The writer thinks that there is a ferry at or near Council
+     Bluffs.] I speak of Burlington as a very suitable point to
+     start from, because we have an abundance of the necessary
+     supplies, and an excellent and very commodious steam
+     ferryboat for those who are east of us.
+
+     (Signed)      ONE WHO INTENDS TO EMIGRATE.
+
+     N. B.--Newspapers who are friendly to the enterprise are
+     requested to give the above an insertion.
+
+The same issue of the _Statesman_ still further quotes from the
+_Gazette_ as follows:
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     The Oregon fever is raging in almost every part of the
+     Union. Companies are forming in the East, and in several
+     parts of Ohio, which, added to those of Illinois, Iowa, and
+     Missouri, will make a pretty formidable army. The larger
+     portion of those will probably join the companies of Fort
+     Independence, Missouri, and proceed together across the
+     mountains. It would be reasonable to suppose that there will
+     be at least five thousand Americans west of the Rocky
+     Mountains by next autumn. This, if nothing else, will compel
+     Congress to act upon the matter. We have reason to suppose,
+     however, that we shall have a congress which will assume the
+     responsibility even without any inducement other than the
+     protection of American honor and American rights.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _National Intelligencer_ (Washington), June 7,
+     1843.
+
+     EMIGRANTS FOR OREGON.
+
+     The _Liberty Banner_, published in Clay County, Missouri,
+     says: We are informed that the expedition to Oregon, now
+     rendezvoused at Westport in Jackson County, will take up its
+     line of march on the 20th of [May] this month. The company
+     consists of some four or five hundred emigrants, some with
+     their families. They will probably have out one hundred and
+     fifty wagons, drawn by oxen, together with horses for nearly
+     every individual, and some milch cows. They will, we
+     suppose, take as much provision with them as they can
+     conveniently carry, together with a few of the necessary
+     implements of husbandry. There are in the expedition a
+     number of citizens of inestimable value to any community,
+     men of fine intelligence and intrepid character, admirably
+     calculated to lay the firm foundations of a future empire.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_, May 3, 1843.
+
+     We attach the suggestions in the report of General
+     Worthington, adopted in this city on Saturday evening, in
+     advance of the publication of the report:
+
+     "The committee, then, do most respectfully recommend that a
+     convention of the western and southwestern states and
+     territories be immediately called, to urge upon the General
+     Government immediate occupation of the Oregon country by a
+     military force, and to adopt such measures as may seem most
+     conducive to its immediate and effectual occupation,
+     _whether the government acts or not in the matter_.
+
+     "That it be declared to the world, that the Californias
+     never should pass into the hands of England for any purpose
+     whatever; and that if they go out of the possession of
+     Mexico, they should at once be attached to the _future_
+     North American Republic of the Pacific Ocean.
+
+     "That all rumored negotiations of the surrender of any part
+     of the Pacific border for an equivalent in the Californias,
+     should be denounced as fraught with danger to the peace and
+     honor and liberty of the American continents, and as a
+     _repudiation_ of Mr. Monroe's triumphantly sustained
+     declaration of 1823, _that these continents are not to be
+     considered subjects of colonization by any European power_.
+
+     "That it be declared that Great Britain should be excluded
+     from the whole of the Northwest coast, between our
+     boundaries with Mexico and Russia; and, that, to give her
+     any part, will be a virtual loss of the whole, as it will
+     cripple, or entirely prevent any important commercial
+     operations by American citizens on our Pacific coast.
+
+     "That we recommend the Oregon Convention to be held in
+     Cincinnati, Ohio, on the third, fourth, and fifth days of
+     July, 1843.
+
+     "That measures be immediately taken for the appointment of
+     committees at the capitals of all the states and territories
+     west and southwest of the Alleghanies, to urge such action
+     upon their several legislatures as will induce Congress to
+     immediate occupation of Oregon country by the arms, the
+     laws, and the citizens of the United States.
+
+     "That an address be published to the people of the West, and
+     the Union generally, setting forth, and urging the adoption
+     of the principles and opinions above proclaimed."
+
+     [The meeting to appoint the delegates to this Oregon
+     Convention was called to meet in Columbus on the last
+     Saturday in June.]
+
+
+     EXPERIENCES OF THE EMIGRATION OF 1843.
+
+     From the _New York Tribune_ (weekly), August 5, 1843.
+
+     We find the following letter from the Oregon Emigration in
+     the _Iowa Gazette_ of the 8th instant (July):
+
+     OREGON EMIGRATING COMPANY.
+
+     KANSAS RIVER, June 3, 1843.
+
+     * * There are over 3,000 and perhaps 5,000 head of cattle,
+     mules, and horses attached to the company. Captain Applegate
+     has over 200 head, and others over 100 head. This has been a
+     bone of contention with some of the emigrants and very
+     nearly divided the company. Indeed, I am not certain but it
+     will be the means of a split yet, as there are a number
+     without cattle who refuse to assist in guarding them. The
+     dissatisfaction is not quite so violent now, as the cattle
+     owners have agreed to furnish the company with beef, (in
+     case of scarcity of buffalo meat,) work cattle and milch
+     cows, the former at a price to be fixed by the committee,
+     and the cows and oxen without charge. The company have
+     agreed to this proposition, and the former law, limiting
+     each individual to three head of loose cattle, is thereby
+     repealed. The number of cattle is quite too large. It is
+     impossible to guard them at night, and the Indians at this
+     place have already commenced stealing horses and killing
+     cattle. The company which leaves next spring for Oregon
+     should keep strict guard on their cattle and horses at the
+     crossing of this river, as some eight or ten horses and
+     mules have been stolen in one night from our company. Doctor
+     Whitman from Walla Walla, who is in our company, advises
+     that the company divide into three or four parties, for
+     speed and convenience, as there will be no danger from the
+     Indians.
+
+     [The name of the writer of the above letter is not given.
+     The letter, however, indicates that he came to the
+     emigration from Burlington, Iowa, and evidently lived there,
+     as his letter was printed first in a Burlington paper. He
+     was chosen a member of the "cabinet advisers" of the
+     captain--nine persons. Probably these points will serve to
+     identify him. Was he M. M. McCarver?]
+
+
+LETTERS DESCRIPTIVE OF OREGON COUNTRY AND ITS EARLIER CONDITIONS.
+
+A letter by the Rev. Alvan F. Waller to his brother at Elba, New York.
+It was first published in the _Christian Advocate and Journal_.
+
+     Taken from the _Ohio Statesman_, March 10, 1843.
+
+     WALLAMETTE FALLS, April 6, 1842.
+
+     DEAR BROTHER: Your last came duly to hand and very much
+     refreshed our spirits. Write every opportunity, being
+     assured that intelligence from our friends is to us in this
+     land like cold water to thirsty souls. You will see by my
+     letter where I am stationed. This is in some respects a
+     pleasant though laborious field of labor. This is and is
+     destined to be, the great emporium of the interior of this
+     country. Its water power for manufacturing purposes is
+     probably not rivaled in the States; at least, few and far
+     between are the privileges which equal or excel it; besides
+     here is an excellent salmon fishery. As to the country,
+     taking it all and all, it is a good farming and grazing
+     country. The winters are so mild that the cattle and horses
+     do well without feeding. The country is well watered, and
+     the inhabitants are, in general, healthy. The ague and fever
+     is the most prevalent disease, although other diseases
+     occur. On the sea coast I believe it is more healthy than
+     back in the country. So far as I and my family are
+     concerned, we have been as healthy as we ever were in the
+     States. Our little ones are quite as hearty and as lively as
+     the fawns that skip over the plains.
+
+     Produce of all kinds, except corn, does well here, so far as
+     it has been fairly tried. Some corn has been raised. Wheat,
+     peas, and oats, I believe, so far as quality is concerned,
+     can not excel in any country. Potatoes are tolerable, and in
+     some parts excellent. Indeed, it is my candid conviction,
+     that an industrious and economical man can live as well
+     (fruit excepted) and make property as fast as in almost any
+     country, and far easier than in any part of the State of New
+     York where I have lived. Let him bring with him a few
+     hundred dollars in cash or property, his farming utensils,
+     etc., and settle on one of these delightful plains and the
+     first year he can support his family from the soil, as he
+     has nothing to do but fence, plow, and sow, and prepare a
+     shelter or house for his family; yet he will have to
+     encounter some difficulties incident to all new countries.
+     Our mills are few and far between, and not all of the first
+     order, but rather multiplying and improving; though a good
+     millwright is very much wanted, as well as apparatus for
+     building mills and a great many wholesome settlers,
+     embracing some capitalists who will open trade with the
+     Islands and China, which can be done from this coast with
+     great facility. But first of all, our government ought to
+     extend its jurisdiction and protection over this country.
+     The state of the country in this respect (especially for
+     Americans), as well in respect to a currency, is unpleasant.
+     The Hudson Bay Company seem determined to monopolize as long
+     as possible; yet in many respects they are quite
+     accommodating, at least, so far as it is to their interest.
+     They profess to claim many of the best and most valuable
+     parts of the country by putting up a little hut without
+     habitation and forbidding any one settling in those places.
+     They made a claim at the Falls, on the side where I now am,
+     about twelve years since, hewing a quantity of timber, etc.,
+     and a few years since they put up a small hut and covered it
+     with bark.
+
+     Last fall an American took possession of a small island in
+     the falls, but no sooner was it known at Fort Vancouver than
+     a company of men was sent off with boards to put up a hut,
+     and soon the governor of the fort came up, greatly incensed,
+     called the man a pilferer, and anything but good; he,
+     however, went on! A cooper wished to build a shop near me,
+     but was informed, by orders from the fort, that if he built
+     his shop would be torn down. He, however, went on and built;
+     his shop still stands. These are naked facts; and others of
+     the same kind, if necessary, can be forthcoming. By this you
+     will have some clue to the state of things in this country
+     in this respect.
+
+     I have written in great haste, as this is to be off early
+     to-morrow morning. Besides, I have plenty of company, a
+     number of men being here to buy salmon, of which I have the
+     care. Others are on their way down the river. Indeed, my
+     house is at times, as to travelers, more like a public house
+     than a Methodist preacher's.
+
+     Your affectionate brother,
+
+     ALVIN F. WALLER.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A letter by Titian R. Peale to Thomas Morgan, Esq., of Washington,
+Pennsylvania:
+
+     WASHINGTON, D. C., February 6, 1843.
+
+     DEAR SIR: Observing the interest you have taken in the
+     "Oregon Bill," now before Congress, I conclude that a few
+     notes, coming from one who has recently traveled through a
+     portion of the Oregon territory, will be acceptable to you,
+     and probably be of use to some of your neighbors, who may
+     feel disposed to profit by the inducements offered, should
+     the bill pass and become a law.
+
+     Being a member of the Scientific Corps of the United States
+     Expedition, in 1841, I had the misfortune to be wrecked, in
+     the ship Peacock, at the mouth of the Columbia River, and
+     subsequently traveled that portion of the country south of
+     the Columbia River, known as the Wallamette Valley, and
+     thence across the mountains to California.
+
+     The soil, we observed, generally on that route, although not
+     as rich as that of the Mississippi Valley, was still
+     sufficiently so, when cultivated, to produce from twenty to
+     forty bushels of wheat to the acre, of as good quality as
+     any I have ever seen in my native State (Pennsylvania),
+     which, added to the facilities for settlers in finding the
+     land ready for the plough, without the labor of clearing,
+     while sufficiency of the finest timber is found on the banks
+     of the numerous streams, is alone sufficient to invite to
+     the further settlement of the country when known. But this
+     is not all. The winters are so mild that it has never yet
+     been found necessary to house cattle, or provide winter food
+     for them. They thrive and multiply beyond expectation.
+
+     Salmon are procured in great profusion in almost all the
+     streams, and ready markets are found for them, as well as
+     all the other products of the territory, in the markets of
+     Mexico, South America, and the numerous islands of the
+     Pacific Ocean. Thus, from its position in the Pacific, it
+     has all the advantages which we possess in the Atlantic
+     Ocean; gaining in the China what might be considered as
+     partly lost from the European trade.
+
+     The tract of country to which I have more particularly
+     alluded is about two hundred and fifty miles long, including
+     the mouth of the Columbia River, and reaching to about one
+     hundred and fifty miles from the coast. This tract of
+     country I considered quite equal, if not superior to
+     Pennsylvania, both in commercial position and capability in
+     agricultural product, and much superior in its advantages
+     for raising cattle, etc., being generally interspersed with
+     prairie and woodland.
+
+     Would the above hasty notes prove satisfactory to you or any
+     of your friends, or if they only serve to awaken a spirit of
+     inquiry, it will always be a source of pleasure to me in
+     having communicated them.
+
+     With great respect, I have the honor to remain, yours truly,
+
+     TITIAN R. PEALE.
+
+     _To Thomas Morgan, Esq., Washington, Pennsylvania._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Letter by Peter H. Burnett to the _St. Louis Reporter_:
+
+     Taken from the _Ohio Statesman_ of September 11, 1844.
+
+     FORT VANCOUVER, November 10, 1843.
+
+     FRIEND PENN: I reached here on yesterday, and the grass is
+     now as luxuriant as a wheat field. Provisions are abundant
+     here, and Doctor McLoughlin (who is the most liberal and
+     hospitable man in the world,) furnishes the emigrants with
+     wheat to be paid for in cash or in wheat next year. At the
+     Cascades we met provisions sent us by the Doctor, and all
+     purchased who applied, even without money. Two boats have
+     been sent us with provisions, and the Doctor has lent two
+     boats to the emigrants free of charge. We find him doing
+     everything to aid the emigrants; and those who are here in
+     the Wallamette Valley, are as hospitable as they could
+     possibly afford to be. Business is very brisk, and labor
+     finds ready employment and prompt payment at high prices.
+     Necessaries of all kinds can be procured at Vancouver.
+
+     Most of the emigrants have reached here with their cattle
+     and baggage, and will soon have their wagons here also. We
+     find that cattle bear a fine price here and will sell
+     readily. Cows at from $50 to $75, oxen at from $50 to $100
+     per yoke; labor $1 per day; beef from 5 to 6 cents; salt
+     salmon $9 to $10 per barrel of about 300 pounds; wheat $1;
+     flour $4 per 100 pounds. Anything can be sold here. Butter
+     from 25 to 37½ cents; sugar, tea, coffee, and dry
+     goods--plenty. American horses bear better prices than they
+     do in the States.
+
+     The country exceeds my expectations, and certainly if man
+     can not supply all his wants here he can not anywhere.
+     Lieutenant Fremont, who bears this, can give you further
+     information. I must close as he leaves immediately.
+
+     PETER H. BURNETT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Letter of Peter H. Burnett's, taken from the _Ohio Statesman_ of
+October 23, 1844, which quotes it from the _Globe_, Washington:
+
+     LINNTON, Oregon, July 25, 1844.
+
+     I am here in our new town, which we have named as above, in
+     respect for Doctor Linn's services for this territory. Gen.
+     M. McCalla [M. M. McCarver] and myself have laid out the
+     town together. He is a gentleman from Iowa Territory, and
+     laid out Burlington, the seat of government. He is an
+     enterprising man. Our place is ten miles from Vancouver, on
+     the west bank of the Wallamette River, at the head of
+     navigation, and three or four miles above the mouth of the
+     Wallamette, and twenty-five miles below the Wallamette
+     Falls. I have no doubt but that this place will be the great
+     commercial town in the territory. We are selling lots at $50
+     each, and sell them fast at that. At the falls there is
+     quite a town already. I own two lots in Oregon City (the
+     town at the falls). They are said to be worth $200 each. I
+     got them of Doctor McLoughlin for two lots here in Linnton.
+     I was six weeks at Vancouver, where myself and family were
+     most hospitably entertained by Doctor McLoughlin, free of
+     charge. He has been a great friend to me, and has done much
+     for this emigration generally. I find provisions high--pork
+     10 cents, potatoes 40 cents, flour $4 per hundred.
+
+     But I find it costs me a little, even less to live here than
+     at Weston. I paid for wood the last year I lived at Weston
+     $75, for corn and fodder $50, all of which is saved here. We
+     use much less pork here than in Missouri. The salmon are
+     running now and will continue to run until October next.
+     They generally commence running the last of February and end
+     in October. I have had several messes of fresh salmon. At
+     this point we purchase of the Indians ducks, geese, swans,
+     salmon, potatoes, feathers, and venison, for little or
+     nothing. Ducks, four loads; geese, eight loads; swans, ten
+     loads; salmon, four loads of powder and shot each. Feathers
+     cost about twelve and a half cents a pound. There are more
+     ducks, etc., here than you ever saw; also pheasants in great
+     numbers. They remain here all the winter. I have hunted very
+     little, being too busy. We find it very profitable to get of
+     the Indians, to whom we trade old shirts, pantaloons, vests,
+     and all sorts of clothing. They are more anxious to purchase
+     clothes than any people you ever saw. You can sell anything
+     here that was ever sold. Stocking Cary ploughs $5 each. We
+     have an excellent blacksmith living in our place who makes
+     first rate Cary ploughs at thirty-one and a quarter cents a
+     pound, he finding it. [Omitting an elaborate description of
+     the Willamette Valley.] American cows are worth here from
+     $50 to $75; American horses from $50 to $75; oxen from $75
+     to $125 per yoke. This is the finest country for grazing
+     cattle you ever saw. They keep fat all winter. Butter sells
+     at 20 to 25 cents. And, what I did not expect to find, this
+     is a good country for hogs. At all events you have here
+     plenty of grass, a root they call wappato, and also plenty
+     of white oak mast. A first rate market can be had for any
+     and everything, and you have never seen business more brisk.
+     Times are first rate and everybody is busy. The
+     manufacturing power is unsurpassed in the world. There are
+     more fine sites than you ever saw. Such water power as that
+     at the falls of Platte can be found everywhere. * *
+
+     [Omitting a portion of the letter describing the timber of
+     Oregon.] I will not persuade you, nor will I any of my
+     friends, to come to this country; but were I in the States
+     again, I should come myself. For $300 you could purchase one
+     hundred young heifers; and in driving them here you might
+     lose from five to ten. When you reached here they would be
+     worth $4,000, and in ten years, without labor or expense,
+     would make you a splendid fortune. You can move here with
+     less expense than you could to Tennessee or Kentucky. Your
+     provisions, teams, etc., you have; your oxen and horses,
+     especially your fine American mares, would be worth double
+     as much as they would cost you there. There are very few
+     good American horses here. The Indian horses are not so
+     gentle as the American, nor so fine blooded. The American
+     cattle are greatly superior to the Spanish for milk, as they
+     give more milk and are more gentle; but the Spanish cattle
+     are larger. Cows have calves here from fifteen to twenty
+     months old, and sheep have lambs twice a year in some parts
+     of territory. The reason is they are always fat and get
+     their growth much sooner. It is my deliberate opinion that
+     no country in the world affords so fair an opportunity to
+     acquire a living as this. I can see no objection to it,
+     except it be by a man who loves liquor, for he can get none
+     here.
+
+     PETER H. BURNETT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Ohio Statesman_, October 23, 1844. Quoted by the
+     _Statesman_ from the _St. Louis Reporter_.
+
+We make the following extracts from two letters which were published
+in the _Western Pioneer_ of the 6th instant, written by William L.
+Smith and John Holman, two emigrants to Oregon. The information from
+that territory, received this year, is of the most interesting
+character:
+
+     The prospect is quite good for a young man to make a fortune
+     in this country, as all kinds of produce are high, and
+     likely to remain so from the extensive demand. The Russian
+     settlements in Asia; the Sandwich Islands; a great portion
+     of California, and the whaling vessels of the Northwest
+     coast, procure their supplies from this place.
+
+     There is as yet but little money in the country, and the
+     whole trade is carried on by orders on an agent or factor.
+     For instance, when I sell my crop of wheat, the purchaser
+     asks me where I wish to receive the pay. Vancouver is as yet
+     the principal point, and an order on that point enables the
+     seller to procure goods, or cattle, or anything else for it.
+
+     The population of this country consists of French, sailors,
+     mountain traders, missionaries, and emigrants from the
+     States. The French population consists of old worn-out
+     servants of the Hudson Bay Company; they universally have
+     Indian wives, and many children, some of whom are very
+     handsome; this part of the population are Catholics. The
+     sailors are those who deserted from vessels while lying on
+     the coast, and have also intermarried with the Indians, and
+     but few of them have embraced any religion--they are,
+     however, generally good citizens. The mountain traders are
+     similar to the sailors, except that they have nearly all
+     embraced the Methodist or Catholic religion.
+
+     The citizens held a meeting some time since and unanimously
+     adopted the statutes of Iowa Territory for their code of
+     laws until the government of the United States should make
+     laws for them. There is little or no crime in Oregon as yet,
+     which is attributed to the absence of spirituous
+     liquors--and so sensible are the citizens of this fact that
+     they are unanimous in favor of excluding it. In fact, Doctor
+     McLoughlin has several cargoes in his warehouse now, which
+     he bought in preference to allowing it to be sold in the
+     country. I can not speak too highly of this excellent man
+     for his kindness to us all. He sent several boats loaded
+     with provisions to meet the emigrants last fall, and
+     continued to distribute little luxuries among us as long as
+     we remained in reach of him--he is always on the lookout for
+     an opportunity to bestow his charity, and bestows with no
+     sparing hand. His intention is to quit the Hudson Bay
+     Company and become an American citizen.
+
+     Our prairies are beautiful, soil good, and the best stock
+     range I ever saw. I have located and recorded six sections
+     of land, which I can hold for one year by making certain
+     improvements thereon, which I intend doing. I can stand in
+     my door and see over all of them. Everything is plenty, but
+     sells high. The prospects for industrious young men are
+     truly flattering. I do think the six sections we have now in
+     possession are intrinsically worth $20,000; that would be $5
+     per acre, and that is not near the value, taking everything
+     into consideration. The situation for trade and commerce is
+     certainly better than any other country. The climate, soil,
+     timber, water, health, products of the country, and the
+     prospects for good society combine to make it delightful. It
+     would astonish you to see the state of society here--more
+     hospitality and friendship, more morality, industry, and I
+     do believe religion, than you will see anywhere. There are a
+     good many scattering Indians, but nothing to be feared from
+     them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _National Intelligencer_, October 28, 1843.
+
+     EMIGRATION--THE FAR WEST.
+
+     We presume most persons thought that when the tide of
+     emigration reached Oregon it would go no farther, for it did
+     not seem that the "Far West" could get beyond the Pacific.
+     We find, however, that some of the emigrants who have
+     reached Oregon are "dissatisfied with the country, and
+     contemplate going to California this spring." So says a
+     letter in the _Iowa Herald_ from one of the settlers, who
+     for his own part likes the country very well, and expects to
+     end his days there. He describes the Oregon region as rough
+     and broken, generally heavy timbered, principally with fir,
+     yellow pine, cedar, hemlock, oak, ash, and maple--well
+     watered, with about one tenth prairie of excellent quality.
+     In the streams is an abundance of fish, among which are the
+     finest salmon in the world. Oregon City is a thriving little
+     place, and from its advantageous position it is likely to
+     become a thriving great one. It is situated at the head of
+     navigation on the Oregon or Columbia River, and at the foot
+     of Walhammat Falls, one of the greatest water powers in the
+     world.
+
+     Of the foregoing documents, the editorial from the _Daily
+     Tribune_, New York, of March 29, 1843, the second in the
+     order of the excerpts, was found and copied by Dr. J. R.
+     Wilson; for all the others the editor is indebted to Prof.
+     Joseph Schafer.
+
+
+
+
+     THE QUARTERLY
+     OF THE
+     OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY.
+
+     VOLUME IV.      SEPTEMBER, 1903      NUMBER 3
+
+     [Entered at Portland, Oregon, Post Office as second-class matter.]
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE PREPARATION OF THE FIRST CODE OF OREGON.
+
+
+I am requested by the Oregon Bar Association to write a paper on "The
+Preparation and Adoption of the First Code."
+
+Before writing about the actual preparation of the first code, I
+desire to say something about the confused and uncertain condition of
+statutory law in Oregon Territory, prior to 1853, and the reasons
+which induced the territorial legislature of 1852-53 to elect three
+commissioners to prepare a code of laws for Oregon Territory.
+
+On June 27, 1844, the Provisional Government of Oregon, declared that
+"All the statute laws of Iowa Territory, passed at the first session
+of the legislative assembly of said territory, and not of a local
+character, and not incompatible with the conditions and circumstances
+of this country, shall be the law of this government, unless otherwise
+modified": Laws, 1843-49, p. 100.
+
+The fourteenth section of the act of Congress of August 14, 1848,
+organizing the Territory of Oregon, continued these laws of the
+Provisional Government in force until they should be altered or
+repealed.
+
+At the first session of the legislative assembly, held at Oregon City,
+two acts were passed by that body, which, owing to the construction
+placed upon them by the supreme court of the Territory, had a tendency
+to produce dissension and discord among the people of Oregon, which
+lasted for two or three years. One of these was "An act to provide for
+the selection of places for location and erection of the public
+buildings of the Territory of Oregon," passed February 1, 1851.
+
+The other act was one which declared to be adopted, and in force,
+certain acts of the revised statutes of Iowa Territory published in
+1843. The legislative assembly of Oregon by a single act adopted these
+acts of Iowa, designating them by their several titles, and the dates
+of their passage. This law was generally known as the "Chapman Code,"
+owing to the fact that the bill was introduced by and its passage
+secured through the influence of Hon. W. W. Chapman, then a member of
+the legislative assembly.
+
+Soon after these two acts were passed, their validity was questioned,
+especially that of the one which located the public buildings, and
+transferred the seat of government from Oregon City to Salem. Those
+who denied their validity did so on the ground that they contravened
+that clause of the organic act of August 14, 1848, section 6, which
+provides that "To avoid improper influences which may result from
+intermixing in one act such things as have no proper relation to each
+other; every act shall embrace but one object, and that shall be
+expressed in the title."
+
+Legal proceedings were soon taken by persons interested in retaining
+the capital at Oregon City to declare the act of removal invalid. A
+suit brought for that purpose came on for hearing before the supreme
+court at Oregon City, in December, 1851. By law the judges of the
+district courts composed the supreme court of the territory. They were
+Thomas Nelson, Chief Justice, O. C. Pratt, and William Strong. Of
+these Nelson and Strong had been appointed by Presidents Fillmore and
+Taylor, respectively, while Pratt was holding over under an
+appointment of President Polk. The former were Whigs politically,
+while the latter was a Democrat. Judges Nelson and Strong convened at
+Oregon City, and opened the supreme court there. Judge Pratt went to
+Salem under the act which changed the seat of government, but without
+a quorum could not hold a session of the court. Judges Nelson and
+Strong then decided that the act of the legislative assembly providing
+for the selection of places for the location and erection of the
+public buildings, passed February 1, 1851, was void, because it
+contravened the organic law of August 14, 1848, as before stated. The
+opinions of the judges were never published in the Oregon Reports, for
+what reason I do not know. Possibly they were not filed with the
+supreme court. Judge Pratt claimed that this decision amounted to
+nothing because it was not made at the seat of government, as
+established by act of the legislative assembly, and in this opinion
+that body then assembled at Salem, readily concurred. This heated
+controversy about the location of the capital was, however, settled by
+a joint resolution of Congress, adopted May 4, 1852 (10 U. S.
+Statutes, 146). The first section legalized the act of the territorial
+legislature which located the public buildings, and the second section
+declared that the late session of the legislative assembly was held in
+conformity with the provisions of law. This, of course, ended all
+dispute about the location of the capital, but unhappily another
+controversy grew out of the construction placed by Judges Nelson and
+Strong upon the sixth section of the organic law of August 14, 1848.
+For the same reasons which they held the act for the location of the
+public buildings void, they also held the act of the legislative
+assembly, which adopted the revised statutes of Iowa, to be also
+invalid. In other words, these judges held that by adopting several
+distinct statutes of Iowa in one act, it necessarily embraced more
+than one object. Judge Pratt took a different view and held that the
+act of the legislative assembly embraced but one object, to wit, the
+adoption of a code of laws of the territory.
+
+The result of these conflicting views of the judges was that in Judge
+Nelson's judicial district, composed of Clackamas, Marion, and Linn
+counties, and in Judge Strong's district, composed of Clatsop County
+and the counties north of the Columbia River, the Iowa Code of 1838,
+adopted by the Provisional Government, was held to be in force. Judge
+Pratt's district, composed of all the territory west of the Willamette
+River, included the counties of Washington, Yamhill, Polk, and Benton,
+and in this district the "Chapman Code" of the Revised Code of Iowa
+Statutes of 1843, was recognized as the law in force. In the district
+of Nelson and Strong, the lawyers would cite the law from the "Little
+Blue Book," as the volume of Statutes of Iowa of 1838 was called. In
+Judge Pratt's district the same lawyers would quote from the "Big Blue
+Book," as the Iowa Code of 1843 was called. There were but three or
+four copies of the _little blue book_ in the territory, one of which
+was owned by Hon. A. E. Wait. The last time I saw it it was in the
+possession of Hon. Benton Killin. There were only two copies of the
+_big blue book_ in Oregon and the statutes adopted by the Chapman Code
+were not published until the latter part of 1853, when they were
+printed by the territorial printer and bound in paper covers. A number
+of these printed copies were distributed among the several counties in
+the territory, but the uncertainty and doubt as to their validity
+made them of little value.
+
+As I said before, Judge Pratt's views of this legal controversy
+coincided with those of the legislative assembly, then in session at
+Salem, and that body passed an act detaching the counties of Marion
+and Linn from the judicial district of Judge Nelson, leaving him only
+Clackamas County, in which he resided. In this act it was provided
+that the terms of court in Marion and Linn counties should commence
+one week earlier than they did under the old law. So Judge Pratt held
+court at Salem and Albany under the new law, and a week later in each
+county Judge Nelson went to Salem and Albany to hold the district
+court under the old law. He found, however, that Judge Pratt had
+preceded him, held the courts, and adjourned for the term. Judge
+Nelson finding that no business was prepared for hearing before him by
+the lawyers, and no jury summoned to try cases, returned somewhat
+disgusted to Oregon City, and was soon after relieved by the
+appointment of Hon. George H. Williams, as chief justice of the
+territory. He went back to his home in New York, where I believe he
+still lives [1894.]
+
+I have referred to this almost forgotten history of the early days of
+the territorial government of Oregon to show the necessity that
+existed for a revision of the statutory laws of the territory. The
+uncertainty as to what laws were then in force, and the desire to be
+relieved from this condition of affairs was the principal reason which
+induced the legislative assembly to pass the act of January, 1853,
+providing for the election by that body of three commissioners to
+prepare a draft for a code of laws, to be submitted to the next
+legislature. In pursuance of this act, the legislative assembly
+elected the following commissioners in the order named: James K.
+Kelly, of Clackamas County, Reuben P. Boise, of Polk County, and
+Daniel R. Bigelow, of Thurston County.
+
+Being first elected, I acted as chairman of the board, and notified
+the other commissioners of the time of our first meeting, which took
+place some time in March, 1853. We met in the council chamber of the
+legislative building, where all our subsequent meetings were held.
+
+The first two or three days were occupied in discussing the general
+outline of our duties and the kind of code to be prepared. By common
+consent we agreed to accept the New York code of practice as the basis
+of our own, but with a notable exception in regard to proceedings in
+equity. Mr. Bigelow strongly insisted upon having no separate court of
+equity or of equity proceedings, but urged that we should follow the
+example of California in this respect. Mr. Boise and I differed from
+Mr. Bigelow. We contended that in the organic act of August 14, 1848,
+a separate system of equity proceedings was contemplated, wherein it
+is provided that "each district court or judge thereof shall appoint
+its clerk, _who shall be the register in chancery_": Act, August 14,
+1848, § 9.
+
+That it was so understood by the members of the first legislative
+assembly appears by the act of September 14, 1849, directing the mode
+of proceedings in chancery: See Hamilton Laws.
+
+The system of equity jurisprudence and proceedings in equity adopted
+by the first code commissioners has now prevailed in Oregon for forty
+years, and during all that time I think has met the approbation of
+both bench and the bar.
+
+Another thing agreed upon by the commissioners was that the code
+should be prepared so that it might be adopted by the legislative
+assembly in several acts instead of one, as was done in the Chapman
+Code in 1850. This was done in order to comply with the provisions of
+the organic law, which required that every act should embrace but one
+object.
+
+These preliminaries being settled it was agreed that each commissioner
+should take one subject and prepare the draft for an act upon that
+particular branch of the law. During the preparation of these drafts
+the commissioners held frequent consultations, as often as once or
+twice a week, to discuss and agree upon the proper phraseology to be
+adopted, or arrangement of subject-matter in the proposed act.
+
+It was agreed among us that Mr. Boise should prepare the act relating
+to executors and administrators, and also proceedings in the probate
+courts.
+
+To Mr. Bigelow was assigned the duty of preparing the act relating to
+crimes and misdemeanors, and to regulate criminal proceedings. I
+undertook to prepare the code of civil procedure in actions at law and
+suits in equity.
+
+These three subjects embraced the greater part of the laws which we
+undertook to prepare, and, after their completion, the remaining
+portion of our work was comparatively easy and brief. According to my
+recollection it was completed in the latter part of the summer or
+early fall of 1853. We prepared the draft for an entirely new code of
+statutory laws, with the single exception of the law relating to
+wills. This had been enacted by the legislative assembly in 1849, at
+its first session, the main features of it being a transcript from the
+Missouri statute on the same subject. As this was one of the first
+acts passed by our own legislation we adopted it in our draft with
+only a few verbal changes.
+
+In the spring of 1853 Joseph G. Wilson, afterwards Judge Wilson of the
+supreme court, came to Oregon, and about May we employed him as our
+clerk to transcribe the drafts prepared by us, in order that they
+could be printed for the use of the legislative assembly at its next
+session in December. We caused about two hundred copies to be printed
+by Mr. Asahel Bush, the territorial printer, for that purpose. These
+were published in an unbound octavo volume, so that they could be
+readily separated into different bills for legislative use.
+
+Soon after we entered upon the discharge of our duties as
+commissioners many of our political friends suggested the propriety of
+electing one or all of us members of the next legislative assembly, so
+that we could explain to the members or give any desired information
+to them concerning our work. We soon, however, learned that Congress
+had passed the act to organize the Territory of Washington, and this
+would necessarily prevent Mr. Bigelow from becoming a member of the
+Oregon legislative assembly.
+
+Mr. Boise was nominated by the Democratic party as a candidate for
+member of the House of Representatives from Polk County. I was
+nominated by the same party as member of the Council, to fill a
+vacancy caused by the resignation of Hon. A. L. Lovejoy, who had
+recently been appointed Postal Agent for Oregon by President Pierce.
+Both Mr. Boise and myself were elected on the first Monday in June,
+1853.
+
+The legislative assembly met on the first Monday in December, and
+after the respective houses were organized Mr. Boise was appointed
+chairman of the Judiciary Committee in the lower house, while I was
+appointed chairman of the same committee in the upper branch of the
+legislature. Of course, the burden of seeing the code properly passed
+rested with him and myself. We divided the draft which the code
+commissioners had prepared into proper bills, according to the
+subject-matter of each. Some of these bills were introduced into the
+House of Representatives by Mr. Boise, and others of them into the
+Council by myself. All we had to do was simply to preface an enacting
+clause to the bill as it had been printed by order of the
+commissioners, and to insert a section at the end of each bill
+declaring that the act should be in force from and after the first of
+May next. The reason these acts were made to take effect on May 1,
+1854, was that there was no possibility of having them printed before
+that time. Indeed, there were no facilities then existing in Oregon
+for either printing or binding the volume containing the statutes
+comprised in the first code. Mr. Bush, the territorial printer, made
+arrangements to have them printed and bound in New York. I do not now
+remember how many copies of the code were ordered to be printed, but
+certainly several hundred. About two hundred of these were sent to
+Oregon by way of Panama and arrived safely some time in the summer of
+1854. The remaining copies of that edition were sent around Cape Horn
+by a sailing vessel. These never reached Oregon. They were either
+shipwrecked or so injured that they were worthless. At the next
+session of the legislative assembly, commencing in December, 1854,
+that body ordered a new edition to be printed to supply the place of
+the copies which were lost at sea, and that edition was printed in New
+York in 1855. It included the acts which were passed at that session
+with those of the code adopted at the preceding session of the
+legislature. This accounts for the printing of two editions--one in
+1854 and another in 1855.
+
+Between May 1, 1854, when the code took effect and the arrival of the
+first copies of the printed volume from New York, we were somewhat
+troubled for want of evidence of existing statutes, and the judges and
+lawyers used in the courts copies of the printed draft reported by the
+code commissioners. A few of these unbound volumes still remained and
+such changes as had been made by the legislature were noted in them.
+Some of the lawyers even went to the trouble of having them indexed so
+as to be more convenient for reference and citation. When, however,
+the first copies of the code arrived from New York these unbound
+copies of the code commissioners' draft were thrown aside. One of them
+I kept as a time-honored curiosity for many years.
+
+Although the _Oregon Code_, as it was then termed, has since been
+revised two or three times to adapt it to a state, instead of a
+territorial government, yet in its main features it has remained
+substantially the same as when prepared by the first code
+commissioners and adopted by the legislative assembly of 1853-54.
+
+The commissioners who prepared the first code of Oregon are all still
+living [1894], but nearly all the members of the legislature that
+adopted it are gone. Besides Judge Boise and myself I can think of no
+one of them who is now living.
+
+     JAMES K. KELLY.
+
+     _September 25, 1894._
+
+
+
+
+A PIONEER RAILROAD BUILDER.
+
+
+Responding to a request for an account of the operations of Dr. D. S.
+Baker as a promoter and financier of transportation enterprises, and
+particularly of the Walla Walla and Columbia River Railway, I herewith
+submit some scraps of history.
+
+Dr. Dorsey S. Baker was born in Wabash County, Illinois, October 18,
+1823. He studied the profession of medicine at the Philadelphia
+Medical College. Crossed the Plains to Oregon with the emigration of
+1848, and went to California in 1849. The practice of his profession
+was remunerative, but his strong predilection for business led him to
+abandon a profession always distasteful.
+
+He engaged in the hardware business in Portland in the early fifties,
+and subsequently built a flouring mill at Oakland, in Southern Oregon,
+and it was his boast that he brought to Oregon the first pair of mill
+stones ever used in the State. In 1861 he removed to Walla Walla, then
+a trading post adjacent to the army garrison established some years
+previously. He engaged in the mercantile business, being associated
+with William Stephens. The firm name was D. S. Baker & Co., afterward
+changed to Baker & Boyer, when his brother-in-law, John F. Boyer, was
+taken into the firm. The firm did a large business with the stockmen
+and settlers, and in outfitting miners and packers flocking by
+thousands to the Oro Fino and Florence mines, and later to Boisé,
+Idaho, and Montana. Sales were large and profits good, and the firm of
+Baker & Boyer flourished.
+
+Doctor Baker was a man of keen business judgment and great foresight.
+It is probably not an over statement to say that the State of
+Washington has not numbered among her citizens any that approached
+him in financial ability. In 1862 he became associated with the late
+Senator Corbett and Captain Ankeny in the steamboat business. They
+built the steamer Spray, which plied between Celilo and Lewiston. The
+company had boats on what was known as the Middle River, between The
+Dalles and the Cascades, and also on the Lower River between the
+Cascades and Portland. They built a wooden tramway portage on the
+Washington side at the cascades, using mules as motive power. The
+remains of this tramway could be seen from the opposite shore within
+recent years. This company's line was run in opposition to that of the
+Oregon Steam Navigation Company, to which it finally sold.
+
+The portage of the cascades, being the key to the situation, was the
+bone of contention. The Oregon Steam Navigation Company had procured
+the passage of a bill through Congress giving them what they claimed
+to be an exclusive right of way over the cascade portage, and this
+question not having been at that time adjudicated, Doctor Baker's
+company sold out as above recited.
+
+Doctor Baker's next transportation enterprise was the building of a
+narrow gauge railroad from Walla Walla to Wallula. He organized a
+company under the corporate name of the Walla Walla and Columbia River
+Railroad Company in 1871. Among the original stockholders were Doctor
+Baker, John F. Boyer, Paine Brothers & Moore, B. L. Sharpstein,
+Charles Moore, B. F. Stone, William Stephens, William O. Green--all
+residents of Walla Walla. Doctor Baker was, however, the capitalist,
+and it was his money, his energy and unflagging perseverance that
+carried the enterprise to a successful consummation. To build thirty
+miles of railroad under conditions then existing was a great
+undertaking. Ties and timber for bridges had to be obtained from the
+head waters of the Yakima River, an untried stream.
+
+A logging camp was established in the winter of 1872--a Wisconsin
+lumberman named Tarbox being placed in charge. An attempt was made to
+drive logs to the mouth of the Yakima the following spring, but the
+water proved insufficient and the log drive was hung up. Another
+expedition was sent to the woods the following winter, in charge of D.
+W. Small, afterward a well known resident and business man of Walla
+Walla. He succeeded, by incredible effort, in bringing out the logs. A
+mill was erected on the banks or east bank of the Columbia above the
+old town of Wallula, where the ties were sawed, and it was at this
+point that the first railroad construction in Washington, other than
+the portage road of the cascades, was begun. Two small dummy or
+camel-back engines were bought in Pennsylvania and shipped out via San
+Francisco and Portland. Freight on them from Portland to Wallula was
+about $450 each. The first ten miles of the road was built with wooden
+stringers six by six, laid on cross ties. It was Doctor Baker's belief
+that these ties would last for a few years, and it was his intention
+to then replace them with T rails, but in this he was doomed to
+disappointment. When construction had reached the ten-mile post, the
+wooden rails at the river end were worn out. He then bought ten miles
+of strap iron and continued construction. This also proved a failure.
+Finally, convinced in the rough school of actual experience that T
+rail only would serve his purpose, he ordered, through Allen & Lewis
+of Portland, twenty miles of 26-pound rail. This was purchased in
+Wales and was brought around the Horn in a clipper ship coming to the
+Columbia River for a cargo of wheat. From Portland the rail was
+shipped by the Oregon Steam Navigation Company line to Wallula. This
+involved five handlings--two at the cascade portage, two at The
+Dalles, and one at Wallula. The cost of the rails and the freight were
+both very great. When the road reached a point ten miles out from the
+Columbia it began to haul wheat, the teamsters being glad to avoid the
+long, hard pull over the sandy roads.
+
+When the road had reached Whitman Station, six miles west of Walla
+Walla, Doctor Baker's available funds were exhausted, and he would not
+borrow. He thereupon announced that its terminus would remain there
+until the earnings sufficed to complete it to Walla Walla. The
+citizens, fearing a rival town would spring up at Whitman, promptly
+raised and donated $25,000 to secure the continuance of the road to
+Walla Walla.
+
+In the inception of the enterprise, Doctor Baker had asked Walla Walla
+County, through the board of county commissioners, to guarantee the
+interest on a proposed issue of bonds, to be sold to provide funds for
+the construction of the road, offering in return to permit the
+commissioners to fix the rate for carrying grain to the Columbia,
+provided only the rate should not be less than $3 per ton. The
+question was submitted to a vote, and rejected by a decided majority.
+Doctor Baker then said: "I will build the road without your
+assistance, and you must allow me to fix the rate." The rate was $5
+per ton from Walla Walla to the river. There was an additional charge
+of fifty cents for transfer to the steamboat. The Oregon Steam
+Navigation Company's charge was $6 per ton, and there was a wharfage
+charge at Portland of 50 cents, making a total of $12 per ton, or
+thirty-six cents per bushel from Walla Walla to Portland. The charge
+of $5 per ton seems now a pretty stiff rate, but teamsters in those
+days sometimes charged $12 per ton for the same haul, although the
+usual charge was $6. They could not always handle the crop, and the
+price fluctuated.
+
+During the discouraging period of construction few people believed
+Doctor Baker would ever complete the road. His friends thought he
+would fail utterly, and predicted that his fortune would be lost, but
+the Doctor knew better than most the wealth of the country's
+undeveloped resources, and with a faith that nothing could shake, and
+with a determination that grew stronger as each obstacle presented
+itself, continued the work of construction, staking his last dollar on
+the success of his enterprise. No mortgage was ever placed on the
+property during his ownership, and no lien or debt encumbered it. It
+paid unheard of dividends, and was sold at a price greatly exceeding
+its cost. The Oregon Steam Navigation Company bought six-sevenths of
+the stock in 1877, Doctor Baker remaining as president. During this
+ownership a branch line was built from Whitman to a point known as
+Blue Mountain Station, in Umatilla County, Oregon, to tap the wheat
+fields of that county.
+
+Still later, on the first day of July, 1879, the road was included in
+a sale made by the Oregon Steam Navigation Company to Henry Villard.
+The track was changed to a standard gauge, and became a part of the
+present Oregon Railway and Navigation system.
+
+Many amusing stories are told of experiences in traveling over this
+line, known as Doctor Baker's "rawhide road." Wheat was hauled on flat
+cars. A box car, with seats along the sides, originally did duty as a
+passenger coach. To the traveling public this was known as "the
+hearse," but no serious accident ever occurred on the line. It was
+strictly a daylight road, Doctor Baker persistently refusing to allow
+trains to be run at night.
+
+H. W. Fairweather, who took charge of the road after its purchase by
+the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, still tells of some of his
+early experiences. At that time the law required a printed schedule of
+freight rates to be posted in each car. Looking about in vain, he
+finally found the required notice posted in the roof of the car in
+such a position that to read it the reader must lie on his back. The
+newspapers have another story regarding General Sherman's ride over
+this road. In 1877 the General had ridden through Montana and Idaho,
+examining the country with reference to the proper location of
+military posts, and had reached Walla Walla on his way to the coast.
+He is said to have made application for a special train to take him to
+Wallula, which Doctor Baker refused to furnish, remarking that there
+was a train load of wheat going out during the afternoon, upon which
+the General could take passage, and that availing himself of the
+opportunity, this aggregation of military glory bestrode a sack of
+wheat, and thus mounted, was dispatched on his journey. The fact was
+that he rode in a passenger coach attached to the freight train, but
+perhaps it is hardly worth while to spoil so good a story.
+
+Some years after the sale of the Walla Walla and Columbia River line,
+Doctor Baker built another narrow gauge to connect with a timber flume
+bringing lumber and wood to Walla Walla. This line was fifteen miles
+in length and extended to the town of Dixie in the foot hills of the
+Blue Mountains. It did a considerable business in transporting wheat.
+This was also sold to the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which
+company still operates it as a narrow gauge.
+
+This was Doctor Baker's last undertaking, his health having failed
+soon after the completion of this road.
+
+When Henry Villiard first met Doctor Baker, he said to him: "You were
+a bold man to build into the lion's jaws," refering to the fact that
+the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company controlled the outlet down
+the Columbia, but Doctor Baker had formulated a maxim, "He who owns
+the approaches to the river owns the river," by which he meant that
+the business of the boats originated on the railroad and the boats
+were dependent on the railroad.
+
+One of Doctor Baker's biographers has said of him, "He was the
+self-reliant architect of his own fortune." Perhaps no man in the
+Northwest has left his name more completely entwined into the history
+of his chosen country and city than has Dorsey S. Baker, who cast his
+lot with Walla Walla forty years ago, whose fortunes were the fortunes
+of the town and whose successes were the successes of the place he
+called his "home."
+
+He died at Walla Walla July 5, 1888. An imposing granite monument, in
+the City Cemetery, emblematic of his rugged virtues and strength of
+character, marks his last resting place.
+
+     MILES C. MOORE.
+     _Walla Walla, Wash., August 7, 1903._
+
+
+
+
+FROM WALLA WALLA TO SAN FRANCISCO.
+
+By CAPT. JOHN MULLAN, U. S. A.
+
+From the Washington _Statesman_ (Walla Walla) of November 29 and
+December 6, 1862.
+
+
+For those who have not made the journey direct from Walla Walla,
+through the agricultural heart of Oregon, and across the mountains
+through the mining region of northern California, there is much of
+interest and pleasure; and though the trip should be fraught with much
+personal discomfort, there is much to repay the traveler in the
+collection of statistics, and in seeing a region where the wilderness
+of yesterday has to-day given place to homes, where material
+prosperity, at least, arrest the attention of the traveler at every
+mile of the journey. The mode of conveyance from Walla Walla to
+Wallula is by stages that run daily between these points, and where
+the journey is of six hours and a cost of $5 brings you to the banks
+of the Columbia, whence you take steamers for the Des Chutes Landing.
+The improvements along the banks of the Walla Walla, in the shape of
+new and additional enclosures for farming purposes, during the last
+two years, have been many, and mark with unerring certainty the future
+of the Walla Walla country, as the distributing center for a radius of
+three hundred miles of country, now fast developing in all the
+elements of material, social, and political prosperity. It has more
+than once occurred to me that the Walla Walla River, by a system of
+locks, could be advantageously used as a line of connection between
+Wallula and Walla Walla, and one needs but see the long line of wagons
+and pack trains, heavily freighted for the interior, to become
+convinced that either this or some more rapid and economical means is
+positively demanded, in order to connect the heart of the valley with
+the Columbia River. Economy at the present would argue in favor of
+converting the river into a canal, but the prospective wants of the
+country are much more in favor of a railroad connection. For a
+distance of eighteen miles below Walla Walla the nature of the face of
+the country is eminently suited in its present condition for laying a
+railroad track; and thence to Wallula the character of work being
+either excavation in sand, clay, or soft rock, will enable a road to
+be built at economical figures. The Touchet and the crossings of the
+Walla Walla River will require heavy bridges but good abutment sites
+are to be had, and the streams not being subject to overflow, no
+impediment will ever be had from this cause. It could be safely stated
+that a capital of $600,000 would construct and equip this road, and
+when it is known that not less than one hundred thousand tons of
+freight, at $20 per ton, and ten thousand passengers, at $5 each, pass
+over this line annually, it does seem strange that capitalists are not
+disposed to move in the matter in a practical shape. It is a project
+in which every citizen could become interested. The farmers could
+supply all the ties needed; the mills are fully capacitated to supply
+all the lumber demanded, and the surplus population from the mines and
+those out of employment could advantageously supply all the labor
+needed in its construction; and with the valley of Walla Walla to
+supply every necessary of life, to me it is anything but an Utopian
+idea, and I feel warranted in believing that another twelve months
+will not roll around before the matter is taken up with a view to its
+practical execution. The teams now freighting on the road will not
+necessarily be thrown out of employment, but the increasing
+development of the interior will cause them simply to seek new lines
+upon which to transport this same freight after the railroad shall
+have deposited it at the city of Walla Walla, which nature has
+constituted a commercial center, and from which will be distributed to
+every point of the compass the merchandise which their wants demand.
+
+Reaching the Columbia at Wallula one is pleased with the commercial
+character which this point is fast assuming. Freight strewn along the
+levee for half a mile--stores erected, commission houses plying their
+vocations, and everything giving an earnest of a prosperous future.
+This site has doubtless many advantages as a commercial point; but so
+long as men shall desire pleasant homes,--where the eye is as desirous
+of drinking in draughts of pleasure and beauty as the pocket is of
+accumulating wealth,--where mills, farms, gardens, and pleasant
+enclosures can be had,--where the products of the fields are garnered
+with a short transportation to a ready market--just so long will Walla
+Walla and not Wallula be the chief emporium and point of business for
+the interior, and for supplying the more immediate demands of the
+Walla Walla Valley. That Wallula will always be a point where
+commission houses, a few stores, and one or more hotels will always be
+supported, no one can doubt; but looking toward a large and growing
+city with all the pleasant appurtenances that make life happy, I can
+not but conceive that its growth must become circumscribed within the
+above limits.
+
+We took passage on the pleasant steamer Tenino, and in eight hours
+were landed at Celilo, a point some two miles below the Des Chutes
+Landing, where the Oregon Steam Navigation Company have already formed
+the nucleus of a thriving village. The freshet of the past season has
+strewn the banks of the Columbia with cord wood in abundance--which
+commands $10 per cord. The John Day's wood yard, however, is the chief
+depot for fuel. Here, too, one notices the marked progress that is
+daily making its onward march to the interior. Here we saw two
+steamers building, one already launched, owned by Captain Gray, and
+still another at Celilo, of large dimensions. There is no doubt we are
+far in advance, in point of boldness and daring, in the question of
+river navigation on the Columbia, of those similarly engaged on the
+eastern waters; and the success which has thus far attended the
+efforts of those who dared to move in the navigation of the Upper
+Columbia, has only emboldened them to greater efforts, and it is no
+dream to feel that the day is not far distant when the Snake to the
+American Falls, and the stretches of the Columbia from Wallula to Fort
+Colville, and the Clark's Fork, from Park's Crossing to Horse Plain,
+will all be tested by steam and thus made tributary to the growing
+wants of trade and travel.
+
+The fare from Wallula to Celilo is $10. A ride of three hours brings
+us to The Dalles--which point, too, is showing visible signs of a
+healthy improvement; and the increasing trade to the mines of John
+Day's and Powder rivers is destined to make it a point of great
+commercial import. Whether the idea entertained by Mr. Newell, and
+other men at The Dalles, of a direct trade from San Francisco to The
+Dalles, shall ever be realized, is not so easy to be determined. It
+certainly has a favorable location for the full consummation of such
+an idea--and we all know what magic results gold can be made to
+produce, and without desire of detriment to Portland, I should
+heartily desire to see such a happy result attained. The will to do
+it, and the means with which to do it, are the only two essentials
+needed; and if these are had, it will be done--and the sooner the two
+former are ascertained the sooner will the commercial idea (grand in
+its conception and pregnant with so many grand results) become a
+matter of past history. The railroad company have resumed the work of
+grading and ballasting, and it is the desire of the company to have
+the cars running by the first of next May. The roadbed is prepared for
+some five or six miles out from the city, and the iron track laid for
+half a mile. My own convictions are that the railroad, eventually, is
+to be more beneficial to Walla Walla than The Dalles, but that the
+latter is also to derive much benefit no one will doubt.
+
+We found the line of opposition steamers running, which, having the
+tendency to reduce the rates of freight and travel, was a thing that
+the commercial and traveling public were but too glad to see. The
+passage from The Dalles to Portland was only one dollar. That
+competition on this immense line will be fraught with healthy results
+no one will doubt. The Oregon Steam Navigation Company, as the
+pioneers on an untested river, do certainly merit much credit for the
+bold hazard they so successfully made, and merit reward as such; and
+though many complaints (founded in justice, doubtless,) have been
+urged, still the history of all monopolies has shown a greater degree
+of extortion than I have heard urged against this company. But so long
+as the Columbia River shall remain an open sea I do heartily desire to
+see competition seek here a channel of investment--and which it will
+always do so long as it is found to pay. All philanthropic ideas of
+"parties desiring to serve the public, without being remunerated,"
+will find no believers among the merchants and travelers of the Upper
+Columbia. The merchant and traveler will take that line where the
+rates are the lowest and accommodation the best, irrespective of the
+owners of the line or those who pioneered them through to a success.
+At least this is the history of the commercial past, and I see no
+reason why it should not be the history of the commercial future.
+Just so soon as capitalists find that putting steamers on the upper
+Columbia is a paying investment, steamers will be put on; and, unless
+the capitalist is so convinced, it will be a difficult task to cause
+him to turn his capital into such a channel.
+
+This age is, preëminently, an _utilitarian_ one; in which facts and
+figures are, particularly, the weapons with which the capitalist wages
+his financial war. Armed with these, his victory is in his own hands;
+not so armed, it is in those of some one else. The portage of the
+Cascades, heretofore so great a bugbear in the trip from The Dalles to
+Portland, is now made in a brief hour on the cars, without detriment
+or danger. An extra dollar for riding on the cars is charged, though,
+if you prefer it, you can walk on the road in nearly the same time,
+free of cost. No traveler passes over this portage without awarding to
+Colonel Ruckle every praise for the bold prosecution of his bold
+project, and no one begrudges him the ample reward which he is to-day
+deriving in token of his past labors. This portage is on the Oregon
+side; but it is to be hoped that the difficulties on the Washington
+side, between Bradford and Bush, will be speedily adjusted, so that
+the steam cars, now running on a portion of the track already
+completed, shall connect the two termini of the portage, and thus
+reduce the time of travel within the minimum limits. The post at Fort
+Cascades is now abandoned, nor does it seem at present necessary to
+hold it under garrison, so far as the Indians are concerned. The
+question of a foreign war, however, would render it a key-point of
+marked importance.
+
+A run of seven hours brings us to Portland. I fear, from the present
+appearance of Vancouver, that all chances of commercial rivalry with
+Portland have been banished. Capital is certainly not seeking it at
+present as a point of investment. The freshet has left its marks of
+devastation along the levee and lower portions of the city, and it
+will require much capital and energy to reinstate Vancouver in the
+position it occupied two years since; and if the idea of making The
+Dalles a large commercial emporium be ever consumated, I can not
+conceive that Vancouver will ever occupy a position of more than
+secondary importance, unless the western slopes of the Cascades should
+open up a gold-bearing region. In such an event Vancouver would
+necessarily become a point of fixed commercial importance; but so long
+as the permanency which now marks Portland shall continue to be
+maintained, and the question on the part of the citizens of The Dalles
+to make it a commercial depot shall continue to be agitated, so long
+will Vancouver stand the chance of being kept in the background. On
+the Lower River we traveled to Portland in company with quite a a
+number of emigrants destined to Puget Sound, and they all regretted
+that they could not have gone from Walla Walla to the Sound by land.
+This is a matter in which every citizen of Washington Territory is
+more or less interested. The road opened in 1853, by the Natchess
+Pass, has fallen into such a state, that, unless repaired and kept so,
+it will be useless for all practical purposes of emigrants for the
+Sound from the States. I understand that the Packwood trail is deemed
+by many preferable to the Natchess route; but whether we shall have a
+route via the Natchess, Snoqualmie, Packwood, or any other pass, is a
+matter about which those truly interested in seeing the Sound section
+brought directly in communication with the interior, will not fall
+out. The citizens of the Sound need a good road across the Cascades,
+direct from Wallula. The valley of the Yakima will doubtless give us a
+good line, and then across to the Wenatchee, via Packwood's Pass,
+either into Olympia or Steilacoom. The long interval which has elapsed
+since the Natchess Pass was traveled has naturally caused the line to
+fall out of repair. The emigrants who desire to locate on the Sound
+need a line by which they can carry their wagons, and over which drive
+their stock, and not be driven to take the steamers down to
+Monticello, thus increasing costs so heavy that it seems
+impracticable. This is a matter of great importance, not only for
+emigrants, but in order to bring the citizens of the Sound, by the
+most direct trade and associations, with those resident on the eastern
+slopes of the Cascades,--and is one of such importance that it is to
+be hoped that the attention of Congress will be duly called to it.
+Military necessity calls for such a line, and a military road should
+be so located and constructed.
+
+The large crowd that daily assembles on the wharf on the arrival of
+the steamer from The Dalles is an unerring barometer of the interest
+felt in the development of the upper country; and a conversation with
+the leading merchant of the city convinced me that the trade of the
+Willamette--where the returns to the merchants are in flour, grain,
+hides, and fruit,--is small and of minor importance compared to that
+whence their returns are by daily steamers and in gold dust. The
+latter is immediately converted into coin and seeks new channels of
+investment, and is turned over a half-dozen times a year, whereas the
+former must bide its fortunate market and sales thus delayed from week
+to week and from month to month. The establishment of a branch mint,
+either at Portland or The Dalles, is becoming a subject of daily
+commercial necessity, and should such a branch be established, if the
+treasurer was allowed, as soon as the assays were made and the value
+of the certificate of deposit made known, to pay out the coin
+immediately for these deposits, much time would be saved to the
+depositor, and much gain and saving to the miner, whereas now, without
+a branch mint, the miners are forced to sell their dust to
+speculators, who must be paid for their time; and this payment is kept
+up till it reaches San Francisco--here from fourteen to twenty days
+are consumed before the dust is coined--though not more than two days
+before the value of the deposit by the assayer is determined. The
+treasurer has always on hand an amount of funds which could be paid
+out for the deposits made, which deposits, when coined, could replace
+that paid out, thus benefiting the miner by bringing him directly in
+contact with the Government, who has eventually to coin his dust, and
+save him time and "shaving" by the speculator, and to this extent
+materially benefits the country by distributing and disbursing the
+money in the very same region where it is dug from the earth. A branch
+mint for Oregon and Washington, and an authority for the assistant
+treasurer to pay out at once the value of the deposit as soon as the
+assay is determined, are two things which, if effected, would
+materially tend to benefit the miner, and hence the country; whereas
+now the time consumed in sending the dust from the mines and getting
+it back in coin must be paid for by somebody, and that somebody ever
+has been, and, unless these changes be made, will always be the miner.
+Just as quick as the dust of the miner is returned to him in coin in
+the minimum space of time and with the minimum "shave"--which in this
+case would be only the cost of transporting it to the branch mint and
+back,--then will the capital of the country be in the hands of the
+greater number, and that number a class of people who are interested
+in the material interest and prosperity of the country--and thus on
+[will our] roads, rivers, and works of internal improvement--our
+schools, academies, and all the elements of social and substantial
+happiness and wealth be added to and quickened by an impulse that is
+healthy in itself, and which aims at and desires healthy avenues of
+investments. Should such a branch mint be established, Portland would
+doubtless claim the site; but whether it be there, at The Dalles, or
+Walla Walla, is not a subject upon which there should be any feeling.
+Let us have it at one of these points; and if there is any one point
+where arguments could be adduced to determine the matter to the
+exclusion of the others, that point is at Walla Walla. For it is here
+whence the greater bulk of gold dust must flow; and if not here, then
+at The Dalles--the great Golden Gate of the Upper Columbia.
+
+Desiring to see a section of the country through which I had never
+passed we took the stage from Portland to Sacramento, which at the end
+of the first day's journey brings us to Salem--where I determined to
+lay over a day to visit the woolen factory, and observe the
+characteristics of the place. The ride through the Willamette from
+Portland to Salem is pleasant and refreshing,--large and well-tilled
+farms, orchards of great proportions, with their trees ladened with
+the golden fruit--peaches, apples, and pears, in most profuse
+abundance; neat and well-trimmed gardens, where the poetry of
+horticulture bespoke the appreciation of the owners of well-tilled
+acres. The style of farms, buildings, barns, and outhouses were all in
+good taste, and indicated the extent of means of the farmers of
+Oregon. The orchards of Oregon during the past twelve years have
+proven to be a source of golden wealth; nor is their value in the
+least diminished by the large amount of fruit being now raised in
+California. Many have asked where Oregon would find a market for her
+orchards when California should produce her own fruit, and though it
+is more than doubtful whether California will ever rival Oregon in the
+growth of apples, yet if this should prove to be the case, the mining
+sections of eastern Oregon and of Washington are to-day sending forth
+a message to all fruits growers to dry, preserve, and can all their
+fruits, and they offer even to-day a golden market that must forever
+consume all fruits so preserved; and I have no doubt but that those
+who will turn their attention to this employment of preparing fruits,
+either as dried or canned, must always reap a golden reward for their
+labors. I noticed at several points that attention was already being
+much given this species of labor, and the future will prove that the
+mining sections for dried fruits will guarantee an equally lucrative
+market for Oregon, that California has proven for her in green fruits
+in times past.
+
+In point of natural beauty I do not think that the Willamette Valley
+compares favorably with the smaller but equally well cultivated valley
+of the Rogue River; but when we see once a magnificent outlet for all
+the produce of the farmer, and the absence of such an outlet in the
+latter, we are forced to prefer a home in the Willamette--where Ceres
+has erected her temple of large proportions, and where her votaries
+are annually basking in the sunshine of her smiles, her bounteous
+plenty. In passing through this rich and exuberant country I could not
+but regret that the donation law that first opened homes to the first
+settlers of Oregon was as generous as it was in the largeness of its
+grant--six hundred and forty acres, in other words, was too large a
+grant for the full and truly healthy growth of any new country. True,
+it required a great inducement to turn a pioneer colony toward the
+Pacific so early as '46 and '47; but I verily believe that one half
+the grant would have brought as many settlers as double the amount has
+done. The true index, doubtless, of the prosperity of a country might
+be regarded the ratio of its population to the square mile; but when
+we find only one settler to the square mile, the country, from
+necessity, must be sparsely populated; and this condition must hold
+for so long a period that detriment on a large scale must be felt.
+That the donation act has had, therefore, its disadvantages with its
+advantages no one I think will doubt,--taking the present as the
+standpoint from which to view the prosperity of the country. This,
+coupled with the fact that the lands were taken without any regard to
+the points of compass--thus ignoring our system of land surveys, so
+simple and yet so beautiful,--I can not but regret that the action of
+our Government could not have foreseen some of the detrimental results
+into which its generosity has led it. Of course, it is among the
+things of the past, but not on that account the less to be regretted.
+The experience in this matter may not, and, probably, never will find
+any field for application--for the spirit of all preëmption,
+homestead, and donation laws, as since passed, has studiedly held two
+things in view, namely, the minimum amount of land commensurate with
+the object to be attained by their cession and the most rigid
+adherence to the points of the compass in their location. In referring
+to the donation act, I do not cavil at the generous action of a
+generous government--for I but too well appreciate that it has had the
+effect to open to our grasp a golden continent, with avenues of trade
+and with wealth--which has built up a line of battlement of half a
+million of Freemen; not probably, in looking at the results attained,
+it might seem ungenerous to object, at this late date, to any of those
+measures that assisted even in part to bring about this result. But I
+am rather disposed to believe that the agricultural districts of the
+Pacific were occupied and filled more in consequence of the gold
+discoveries and to supply their wants than from the spirit which
+pervaded the donation acts; for the latter antedating the discovery
+of gold on the Pacific did not point out the market where the produce
+of well-tilled fields should be sold. The coincidences of that date,
+however, were most happy.
+
+At Salem we found the legislature in session, and the excitement
+incident to the election of Mr. Harding as United States Senator
+having subsided, the body were moving in such business as looked
+toward the growing wants of the State. I found in Mr. Harding a plain,
+unpretending, and sensible gentlemen, and in whom the interests of
+Oregon will find a true representative. At the invitation of Governor
+Gibbs I visited the Committee of the State Fair, composed of delegates
+from all the counties. It was here decided to make Salem the site for
+holding the annual fairs; a point so central, so well suited in every
+respect, that there seemed to be great unanimity of sentiment in the
+matter. The grounds around are open and spacious, and you feel that
+you breathe the air and tread the ground of a rural city, in making a
+tour of its extent. It is one of the most beautiful localities I have
+seen in Oregon--on the right bank of the Willamette, with beautiful
+shade trees, neat cottages, not cramped or huddled together, but with
+ample spaces for gardens--with a fine view of the woods, which, in a
+vista of twenty miles, surround it--and, in the background, with the
+bold slope of the Cascades, renders it one of the most beautiful sites
+for a city to be found in Oregon. It is not only the political center
+of Oregon, but it is also destined to become a point of great
+manufacturing importance. It is surrounded by fine forests of oak,
+fir, pine, cedar. The large fields of grain here cluster around it as
+the center. Its pioneer woolen factory, turning its hundred of
+spindles, here rears its head, thus attracting toward it every milling
+interest. The same stream that turns its gristmills, turns its
+sawmills--and even then the water is not allowed to run to waste, but
+is again caught and harnessed up to the spindles of industry where the
+covering of the back of the sheep of yesterday is converted into a
+covering for your own back of to-day. No one resident north of
+California can visit the woolen factory of Salem without a feeling of
+pride and of pleasure; and as he sees the bales of blankets, of
+clothes, and of flannels, lading the wagons which stand ready to be
+freighted for every homestead in Oregon, he feels the glow of pride in
+thus seeing our own looms weaving wools of our own growth, and desires
+instantly to robe himself in garments that no foreign hand has woven,
+and from wool grown from flocks no alien hand has tended. Let "Home
+Industry" be patronized, home products be consumed, and the country
+will be benefited to such an extent that we shall not have idlers to
+stir up mischief nor rebels to stir up rebellion in either the North
+or South. Mr. Rector, the obliging and gentlemanly head of the
+factory, showed me through the compartments and gave me some valuable
+statistics relative to its annual growth. His intention is to double
+this year the number of spindles. The surplus wool, heretofore shipped
+to New York, will be retained and manufactured at home; thus, our
+clothes and blankets will all be supplied from wool which all can
+grow. Mr. Rector finds difference in the wools grown on the east and
+the west of the Cascades, and preference being given to the latter, as
+containing more oily or fatty matter, and hence requiring less oiling
+in the process of manufacturing. That grown to the east of the
+Cascades is thought to be not only drier but harsher--more dirty--but
+time and the proper attention to its culture will doubtless bring
+about changes. New breeds, housing in winter, and dry foothills for
+grazing, are all advantages which wool growers to the east of the
+Cascades can have on their side. There are few regions where finer
+grazing fields are to be had than the slopes of the Bitter Root
+Mountains; and the freedom from excessive dampness, the pure, fresh
+mountain springs, are all so many advantages, that I confidently look
+forward to the day when these many well-grassed slopes shall be
+covered with fleecy flocks, and when the waters of the many silvery
+streams that now flow through the Walla Walla Valley, shall be caught
+and used to turn the wheels of a woolen factory, from which shall be
+turned out all the fabrics needed to clothe the population destined to
+find homes to the east of the Cascade Mountains. The clothes made by
+the Salem factory compare favorably with those imported. One thing
+certain, there is no cotton in their fabrics. Flannels of every hue
+are turned out at forty cents per yard; blankets from $4 to $8,
+according to texture; and clothes from 75 cents to $1.50 per yard,
+according to fineness. It would be a most happy result if every
+merchant, farmer, miner, and professional man in Oregon and Washington
+would determine in his own mind to have at least one suit of clothes
+made from Salem cloth, and every bed to be covered by at least one
+pair of Salem blankets. This would be affording a practical proof of
+our pride in seeing established in our midst these factories, which
+must eventuate in the profit of individuals. It is much to be
+regretted that the immense and illimitable mill power at Oregon City
+is not now turned to good account. The disasters by fire and flood of
+the Linn City mills have been of such a sad character that the
+tendencies now are to intimidate capitalists, at least for a time,
+from embarking in similar investments at the same site. A substantial
+railroad is being built around the portage at Oregon City, destined to
+diminish the time and cost of shipment up and down the Willamette. The
+season for practicable steam navigation to the upper points of the
+river being over, but little business could be noticed on the part of
+those engaged in this enterprise.
+
+While in Salem I called the attention of Judge Humason, of Wasco, and
+of Governor Gibbs, to the importance of establishing a mail line from
+Walla Walla to Fort Laramie, to there tap the present daily overland
+mail service, by which means our mails at Walla Walla could be
+delivered in fifteen days from Saint Louis, and in seventeen days to
+Portland--this in the summer season--or twenty to twenty-two days in
+the winter. At present our mails cross the continent to Sacramento,
+two thousand miles; thence to Portland, seven hundred; thence to Walla
+Walla, three hundred more; making a total of three thousand miles to
+travel before we get them; whereas I can guarantee a line by the route
+indicated of one half the distance and one half the time. I framed a
+memorial, which Judge Humason would introduce in Congress, for this
+line; and was promised by Mr. Harding his coöperation to see that the
+matter was not allowed to pass unnoticed during the coming winter.
+
+Leaving Salem, a journey of twenty-four hours passes us through
+Corvallis and Eugene City; and through an exceedingly beautiful and
+rich agricultural country on to Oakland, where the celebrated "Baker
+Mills" are established, producing, it is said, the finest flour in
+Oregon. The disasters of the flood were too visible at each and every
+point, sweeping away bridges and ferries, and destroying property to
+the extent of thousands of dollars. A large structure across the
+Umpqua, costing $10,000, was thus carried off--its convenience being
+now replaced by a ferry. All along the road we passed small parties of
+immigrants who crossed the Plains this season; some in search of new
+homes; others to join their friends who years since had preceded them.
+The Umpqua is a beautiful valley in a high state of cultivation; the
+school-houses, dotting here a hill, and there a valley, betoken that
+the education of the youth of the country was not being neglected.
+Roseburg, the county seat of the Umpqua region, is a gem of a village;
+streets neatly laid out, and neat, white, frame cottages, giving the
+place a rare picturesque beauty, where mountain and dale, and the hand
+of refined culture, all joined in beautiful harmony. The line of
+telegraph posts extends throughout this entire distance from Portland
+to Canyonville--the farthest point south where they are as yet
+erected. It is fully anticipated to have the line from Salem to
+Portland in working order by winter; as also the line from
+Jacksonville to Yreka. The posts are supplied and erected by contract
+by the farmers and others living along the line, at a cost of from
+$1.25 to $2 per post, and the line when completed will cost $200 per
+mile. Local intelligence, and the interest which every citizen feels
+in the reception of intelligence, now bristling with so much import,
+will cause this line, as soon as placed in good working order, to pay
+to the stockholders fair dividends on their capital. This link between
+Canyonville and Jacksonville will be completed during the next season.
+I saw Mr. Strong in Yreka, and found him pushing ahead the line with
+all his characteristic energy. He deserves much credit for prosecuting
+this project thus far to a success that is to bring to our doors daily
+intelligence from the East, and it is to be hoped that the citizens of
+the Upper Columbia will move in the same matter as soon as the line is
+completed to Portland.
+
+A ride of twenty hours brings us into the Rogue Valley and to
+Jacksonville, a region I regard as one of the most beautiful and
+picturesque to be found in Oregon. The valley is from twenty-five to
+thirty miles square, entirely taken up by beautiful farms and under
+high cultivation; with farmhouses and barns in good keeping with the
+character of its progress; grist and sawmills erected to supply the
+wants of its inhabitants, and with inexhaustible forests of timber.
+Gold mining is here carried on with much success; and it was
+interesting to see the lines of sluice boxes running through the
+streets of Jacksonville that turned out as pretty gold as any mine on
+the coast. Unfortunately for this fine valley, it has no outlet for
+its produce, and is dependent solely on a home market. Its supplies
+are brought in by the way of Crescent City, by a good wagon road, at a
+cost of four to five cents per pound. Oats here are 40 cents a bushel;
+wheat, 70 to 90 cents; lumber, $15 per thousand; labor from $30 to $40
+per month. We observed, in squads, the ubiquitous Chinaman, moving
+from mining locality to mining locality, fleeing from the kicks of one
+to the cuffs of the other, with no fixed abiding place to be called
+his permanent home.
+
+A location for a railroad line from Portland to Jacksonville is
+eminently practicable, and the citizens of the Willamette will be
+blind to their own interests if they do not so move in the matter so
+as to secure to themselves the advantages of the ample provisions made
+in the Pacific Railroad Bill for a connection between Portland and
+Sacramento; but south from Jacksonville there will be a severe problem
+for the engineers to solve, both in the shape of grades and tunnels.
+The Calapooia range will present an easy problem for solution; but the
+Scott's [Siskiyou?] and Trinity mountains will not be easily handled.
+They are high, broad, and broken, and no railroad line can be laid
+across or through them, except at most enormous cost. But that it is
+practicable, and will in time be built, I have no doubt. But my views
+relative to this location as a branch of the Pacific Railroad have
+been more than confirmed by a detailed view of its geography, and I
+still insist that a branch of the Pacific Railroad that will benefit
+Oregon and Washington as such can only be found by tapping the main
+trunk at or near Fort Laramie, and coming into the Columbia at or near
+the mouth of Snake River; and thence using the main Columbia to such a
+point whence freight can be shipped to and across the ocean. I made
+special inquiries relative to the depth of snow across the Calapooia,
+Scott's and Trinity mountains during the past winter, and learned that
+not less than eight feet fell upon these mountains; still the stage
+coach passed these mountains every day until the freshet suspended the
+travel; which was for the period of six weeks. The Scott's and Trinity
+mountains are higher than any mountains crossed by my road from Walla
+Walla to Fort Benton; and knowing that the question of snow with us is
+no more difficult than that met and overcome on this and other lines,
+I am sanguine to believe that a mail line from Fort Laramie to Walla
+Walla will prove eventually practicable. But the _experimentum
+crucis_, that will leave no lingering doubt even with the most
+uncompromising cavalier, will be afforded us, I trust, during the next
+twelve months; and that will deliver at our doors in Walla Walla the
+mails direct from Saint Louis in fifteen days. I am but too anxious
+that this last crowning success should be afforded us; not only to
+give us increased mail facilities for the present, but to awaken a
+practical attention to that region where the _isothermal_ and
+_isochimal_ lines have for ages past presented, and do still continue
+to present, to us meteorological phases as wonderful in their nature
+as they are destined to prove useful in their future results.
+
+To those who derive pleasure in seeing the rough, rugged, wild face of
+Nature, made to wear the smiles of civilization and of progress, and
+to witness what money and labor can accomplish, I know of no point
+where they can visit to see these in all their grandeur than across
+the Scott's and Trinity mountains, which, in point of difficulty and
+rugged wildness, surpass any mountain region it has ever been my lot
+to travel, from the Columbia to the Missouri River. Toll roads lead
+over both of these mountains; one connecting Yreka with Rogue River;
+and the other, Yreka with Shasta. The road over Scott's Mountain is
+about twenty miles long, and made at a cost not far from $200,000; and
+the other, eight miles, made at a cost of $16,000. The mind that
+conceived the road, and the hand that executed it, were not cast in
+Nature's ordinary mould; genius of a higher order was Nature's gift to
+them. Those who invested their capital (for they were both built by
+private enterprise) are now being well repaid; of this, the long line
+of wagons and pack trains, freighted from Red Bluff to the northern
+mines, furnish unmistakable evidence.
+
+A ride over Scott's Mountain amply repays one for all the labor
+required to make it; and can be made by no one who will not appreciate
+that bold enterprise that is to-day leveling mountains, leveeing
+valleys, bridging torrents, and, by the sound of pick and drill, even
+arousing Nature from her lethargy sleep--deep down in the very bowels
+of the mountains--throughout the length and breadth of California.
+
+Leaving Rogue River, we pass at once from an agricultural to a wild,
+mountainous region, which constitutes the mining section of northern
+California, of which Yreka may be considered the center. It is a place
+of much trade, built mostly of brick, and presents a bustling
+appearance. It supports two newspapers, three or four hotels; has a
+large post office, and, at present, is the northern terminus of the
+State telegraph line. A cemetery, well arranged in its plan, forms the
+northern entrance to the city; the number of graves it contains shows
+that here as elsewhere death has done its work. A day's journey, and
+we come to Shasta, a mining town of one thousand people, possessing
+few attractions outside of a business locality. The road, approaching
+Yreka, winds near the northern base of Mount Shasta, a frowning snow
+peak, fourteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. Though grand
+and majestic, it does not compare favorably in either respect with
+Mount Hood--the father of all snow peaks on the Pacific. From Shasta a
+ride of a day brings us to Red Bluff--to which point steamers of light
+draught are still running from Sacramento, but with so many delays and
+uncertainties that the traveler prefers to continue the journey by the
+stage. At this point, however, we finally emerge from the mountains of
+California and enter upon the broad swelling prairie which constitutes
+the norther portion of the Sacramento Valley--where, though the
+country is mostly a waste, dotted here and there with clumps of oak,
+or openings of the same growth, yet where many large and inviting
+farming sections are had. At Tehama we cross the Sacramento, by a
+buoy-ferry, and, in a few miles, enter upon one of the most choice
+agricultural districts the eye ever rested upon--where grain fields
+are not measured by the acre, nor yet by the mile, but by the league.
+By a day's drive we passed through the extensive and rich fields of
+Major Bidwell, where eleven thousand acres of grain were being
+threshed--where his own mill stood ready to convert into flour the
+produce of his own fields; where his own mammoth store furnished
+hundreds of his employés with all the wants of life; where his own
+energy was opening, with his own means, a wagon road from the
+Sacramento River to the Humboldt mines; and where his own purse has
+already paid out $35,000, and backed by a willingness to pay as much
+more, in order to open up a new market for the exuberant products of
+so rich a soil as he himself possesses. The center of his large
+estate is the beautiful village of "Chico," where, in rural wealth as
+well as in rural simplicity, live an educated and contented peasantry,
+all more or less supported by the means of this bachelor
+millionaire--whose residence, on the banks of the Sacramento, is one
+of those architectural gems hid away amidst shrubs, trees, orchards,
+and groves, as if to avoid the gaze of him whose residence is of
+crowded cities and who is almost unworthy to breath the sweet perfume
+of a region where such bowers grow. May Major Bidwell long
+live--though bachelor he be--to dispense his bounties to a people who
+respect him for the liberal and generous manner in which he shares his
+wealth with those not similarly blest.
+
+From Tehama the ride of half a day brings us to Oroville, a city well
+named, for situated as it is on the Feather River, it is in the heart
+of a rich mining country, where the miners have worked like so many
+beavers, and where the water of the Feather River is made to run in
+pipes and reservoirs into lakes for hundreds of feet above the level
+of the river, at the site of the town. This river is crossed by a
+ferry. A steamer is said to have once landed here from Sacramento, but
+such occurrences I regard as rare. The river is rapid; boils and
+surges over a rocky and rugged bed, and joins the Sacramento at
+Marysville--to which point a night's ride brings us--continuing to
+pass through a rich agricultural region, under a state of high
+cultivation. Marysville is a large, prosperous city--houses, mostly of
+brick--at the junction of the Yuba and Feather rivers. Thence on to
+Sacramento, (a journey of eight hours' staging,) the road is over a
+level, agricultural district, throughout which the piles of drift
+timber and the absence of fences, in many places, and the presence of
+boats and bateaux, all told that the water had been here supreme not
+many months past; barns with their roofs a mile distant; houses
+without any; outhouses and dwellings with a watermark up to the second
+story--and in many localities no dwellings at all, where commodious
+and comfortable tenements had been--all told of the presence and the
+power of the waters of Sacramento when charged with fullness on its
+way to the ocean. It seems to me that a system of high levees is the
+only thing to reclaim hundreds of acres of fine swamp land along the
+Sacramento, and to prevent the repetition of these disastrous results,
+which made the people poor and retard the growth of the State.
+Sacramento is already surrounded by a high levee which may protect it
+another season; but the levee should begin at Marysville and extend to
+Sacramento. It will, of course, be expensive, but it will repay the
+labor in the end.
+
+Between Marysville and Sacramento we passed the large and magnificent
+claim called "Sutter's Ranch," though not under a high state of
+cultivation. The old pioneer is now poor, but his friends are
+sufficiently zealous in his behalf to see that his wants go not
+unsupplied. One can not pass over this region and at the same time
+observe how rapidly the Sacramento River is being obstructed by the
+immense deposits of sand and sediment which its current is daily
+bringing down, thus forming bars and deltas destined not only to
+intercept but probably to suspend at no distant day navigation to its
+upper waters,--without feeling the pressing importance of a railroad
+connection between Sacramento and the more northern regions of
+California. Already are parties out viewing and prospecting a road
+through Noble's Pass, where it is proposed by some to carry the
+Pacific railroad line.
+
+That California will be covered with a network of railways is only a
+question of time, and that time determined by the low rates of
+interest that will cause capitalists to become interested in these
+great works of internal improvement. Local trade and travel must
+always be great, and must always increase so long as gold shall be
+mined, and that period seems to be illimitable.
+
+From Sacramento we took passage on the fine steamer Antelope, for San
+Francisco, which in six hours and at a cost of $5 brought us to the
+end of one section of our journey. There are no opposition steamers on
+now and hence the monopolists command the river. The signs of the
+devastation of the flood marked the entire distance from Sacramento to
+the bay of San Francisco. But here and there we found the inhabitants
+raising their dwellings a story, and by levees and other improvements
+trying to reclaim their fields, as well as to defy the freshets of
+coming years. No one can pass over this exceedingly interesting region
+from Portland to Sacramento without feeling a thrill of pride and of
+pleasure to see what American energy and American capital have
+accomplished during the past fourteen years of its occupancy; and to
+picture in imagination what the next fourteen years may produce, would
+almost render oneself liable to such an unjust criticism that I would
+forbear to enter upon a theme so pregnant with interest; suffice it to
+say, let those who have not made the trip, make it at least once and
+see for themselves pleasant homes and well-tilled fields, grand
+mountains, useful rivers, forests of orchards, and oceans of grain;
+miles of sluice boxes and tons of gold; and the beauty of a region
+redolent with the songs of thrift and industry--and if they be not
+well repaid for all the fatigues of a mountain journey, the fault will
+certainly be theirs, and not the bounty of generous nature, who with
+lavish hand has spread so many pictures of the grand and
+beautiful--nor yet the fault of the inhabitants by the wayside, who
+by culture and improvement have framed these pictures in gilded and
+golden casements, and where contentment and happiness are the visible
+garments in which everything would seem to be enrobed.
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN WARS OF SOUTHERN OREGON.
+
+ADDRESS OF HON. WILLIAM M. COLVIG DELIVERED AT THE REUNION OF THE
+INDIAN WAR VETERANS, AT MEDFORD ON SATURDAY, JULY 26, 1902.
+
+
+I was first invited to deliver an address of welcome to the Indian war
+veterans, who meet here to-day; but within the past few days I was
+informed that an historical sketch of early days in southern Oregon,
+including an account of the Indian wars, would be my part in the
+programme of exercises.
+
+My knowledge of the subject is not very extensive. I lived in southern
+Oregon as early as 1852, but was only a boy, not old enough to take
+part in any of the stirring incidents which I remember of those days.
+I see before me faces that recall events long past, and which left
+pictures in the album of memory that time will never efface, and you
+will pardon me if I refer to one of those personal recollections.
+
+In 1855 my father, Dr. Wm. L. Colvig, and family lived in a log cabin
+on the South Umpqua River, near Canyonville. One bright, clear day in
+October of that year, myself and brother, on returning from a trip in
+the "cañon," saw standing, in an exhausted condition, a white cayuse
+pony before the door of our home. The horse was covered with blood.
+Everything seemed quiet about the place. We rushed into the house and
+saw a man lying on his back, full length, upon the puncheon floor. His
+clothing was partially removed. His body was covered with blood.
+Father was kneeling over him on one side and mother on the other. They
+were dressing his wounds. He had nine separate bullet holes in his
+limbs and body. Doctor Colvig had his case of surgical instruments at
+hand, which consisted of a butcher knife and a pair of scissors. The
+knife was the one we had used to cut meat when crossing the plains.
+Mother was preparing bandages by tearing up some of our old "hickory"
+shirts. Well, they patched Uncle Bill Russell--called "Long Bill" in
+those days--up in pretty good shape. I see him here to-day, but I
+don't think that he is looking for a fight with Indians. At the time
+of which I speak, he had been shot by the Indians about five miles
+from my father's house but succeeded in riding to our door. His
+companion, Weaver, had a close call, but escaped unhurt.
+
+The Indian wars of southern Oregon were stubborn contests. It is a
+natural law that the fittest survive, and wherever civilization in its
+advance meets barbarian force, the latter must give way. When they
+meet there is an "irrepressible conflict," the details of which we can
+not always reconcile with the Golden Rule. The tribes who took part in
+these several wars in southern Oregon were the Rogue Rivers, Modocs,
+Klamaths, Shastas, and Umpquas. The only honest acquisition of the
+Rogue River Indians was their name. On account of the thieving and
+treacherous habits of the people of that tribe, the river which flows
+through the valley was called by the early French trappers "Riviere
+aux Coquin," the river of rogues. The Oregon legislature in 1853
+sought to change the name, and did name it Gold River, but, as the
+boys say, "it didn't take."
+
+It will be impossible for me to do more than mention a few of the more
+prominent incidents, and I can not be very accurate in regard to dates
+and other matters pertaining to that period, as my information has
+been gathered from many sources, some of which are not very authentic.
+
+It may be of interest to know that on December 27, 1850, Congress
+passed what is known as the donation land law, which gave to every
+American citizen over the age of eighteen years, if single, one half
+section of land; if married, one section of land, one half of which
+was the absolute property of the wife, the other half of the husband.
+There were no settlers in the Rogue River Valley prior to New Year's
+day, 1851. In the spring of 1851 a man by the name of Evans
+constructed a ferry across Rogue River, just below the town of
+Woodville. During the same spring a man by the name of Perkins also
+established a ferry on that river. The first donation land claim was
+located by Judge A. A. Skinner, an Indian agent, in June, 1851. This
+claim is the Walker farm, near Central Point. Upon it he built the
+first settler's house ever built in the valley. Chesley Gray, his
+interpreter, also located a donation land claim in June, 1851. It is
+what is known as the "Constant Farm," near Central Point. The
+following named persons filed donation land claims prior to February,
+1852: Moses Hopwood, on Christmas day, 1851; N. C. Dean, at Willow
+Springs, December, 1851; Stone and Poyntz, at Wagner Creek, December,
+1851; L. J. C. Duncan, Major Barron, Thomas Smith, Pat Dunn, E. K.
+Anderson, and Samuel Culver had made their locations prior to
+February, 1852. I do not pretend that these were all, but the entire
+number of claims taken up to that time did not exceed twenty-eight.
+
+In December, 1851, James Clugage and J. R. Poole located the first
+mining claim in southern Oregon, at a point near the old brewery in
+Jacksonville. They had been informed by a couple of young men who were
+passing through the country that they had found gold near that place.
+Immediately after this discovery became known in California and by the
+incoming immigrants to Oregon, there was a rush made to the mines of
+Jacksonville. Old man Shiveley, the discoverer of Shiveley Gulch,
+above Jacksonville, inside of eighteen months had taken out over
+$50,000, and since that time, from the best statistics obtainable, the
+mines of southern Oregon have yielded about $35,000,000 in gold.
+
+During the winter of 1852 flour was sold at $1 per pound, tobacco at
+$1 an ounce, and salt was priceless. Jacksonville was laid out as a
+town in the summer of 1852 by Henry Klippel and John R. Poole.
+
+I will now speak of the Indian wars in which the people of southern
+Oregon were engaged. The first recorded fight between the Indians and
+whites in any portion of southern Oregon occurred in 1828, when
+Jedediah S. Smith and seven other trappers were attacked by the
+Indians on the Umpqua River, and fifteen of the whites were slain,
+only Smith and three of his companions escaping. The next fight of
+which we have any account was in June, 1836, at a point just below the
+Rock Point bridge, where the barn on the W. L. Colvig estate stands.
+In this fight there were Dan Miller, Edward Barnes, Doctor Bailey,
+George Gay, Saunders, Woodworth, Irish Tom, and J. Turners and squaw.
+Two trappers were killed, and nearly all were wounded. Within my
+recollection, Doctor Bailey visited the scene of this fight, and
+pointed out to my father its location. In September, 1837, at the
+mouth of Foots Creek, in Jackson County, a party of men who had been
+sent to California by the Methodist mission to procure cattle, while
+on their return were attacked by the Rogue River Indians and had a
+short, severe fight, in which several of the whites were badly wounded
+and some twelve or fourteen of the Indians killed. In May, 1845, J. C.
+Fremont had a fight with the Indians in the Klamath country; it may
+have been a little over the line in California. Four of Fremont's men
+were killed and quite a large number of the Indians. Kit Carson was a
+prominent figure in this battle.
+
+As before stated, a few bold adventurers had located in Rogue River
+Valley as early as December, 1851. During the spring, summer, and fall
+of that year there was a considerable amount of travel through the
+valley, by parties from northern Oregon going to and returning from
+the great mining excitement of California. Fights between these
+travelers and the Indians were of frequent occurrence. On the
+fifteenth day of May, 1851, a pack train was attacked at a point on
+Bear Creek, where the town of Phoenix is now situated, and a man by
+the name of Dilley was killed. On June 3, 1851, a party of Oregonians,
+under the leadership of Dr. James McBride, had a severe fight near
+Willow Springs with Chief "Chucklehead" and his band. Chucklehead and
+six other Indians were killed; several of the whites were severely
+wounded.
+
+About this time Maj. Phil Kearny, afterwards General Kearny, who was
+killed at the battle of Chantilly in the Civil war, happened to be
+passing through the valley on his way from Vancouver to Benicia,
+California, with a detachment of two companies of United States
+regulars. He remained a short time and assisted in punishing the
+Indians for the numerous depredations committed by them during the
+year. He had several fights while in the valley, in which about fifty
+Indians were killed. One of these fights was on Rogue River, near the
+mouth of Butte Creek, where Captain Stuart, of the United States army,
+received an arrow wound from an Indian, who was also wounded. The
+arrow penetrated the captain's body, and he died the next day at the
+camp on Bear Creek, near Phoenix. The camp thenceforth took the name
+of Camp Stuart, and Bear Creek in all government records is called
+Stuart's Creek. The captain's body was buried at a spot where the
+wagon road crosses the mill race in the town of Phoenix. Some years
+ago his remains were taken up and sent to Washington, D. C., to be
+buried by the side of his mother. Captain Stuart's last words were,
+"Boys, it is awful to have passed through all the battles of the
+Mexican war, and then be killed by an Indian in this wild country."
+
+At the massacre of emigrants at Bloody Point, Klamath County, in 1852,
+thirty-six men, women, and children were murdered. Capt. Ben Wright
+and twenty-seven men from Yreka and Col. J. E. Ross and some
+Oregonians went out to punish these Modocs. Old Schonchin, who was
+afterwards hung at Fort Klamath in 1873, at the close of the Modoc
+war, was the leader. Wright gave them no quarter. He and his men,
+infuriated at the sight of the mangled bodies of the emigrants, killed
+men, women, and children without any discrimination--about forty in
+all; and it is said that they asked for a "peace talk," whereupon a
+roast ox was prepared. Wright poisoned it, gave it to the Indians, and
+then rode away. [This story is now generally discredited.--EDITOR.]
+
+I can not give you the names of all who were killed in Rogue River
+Valley during the years 1851, 1852, and 1853. I will mention some that
+were killed in 1853. In August of that year Edward Edwards was killed
+near Medford; Thomas Wills and Rhodes Nolan, in the edge of the town
+of Jacksonville; Pat Dunn and Carter, both wounded in a fight on Neil
+Creek above Ashland. In a fight with the Indians on Bear Creek, in
+August, 1853, Hugh Smith was killed, and Howell, Morris, Hodgins,
+Whitmore, and Gibbs wounded, the last named three dying from their
+wounds soon after.
+
+These murders, and many more that could be mentioned, brought on the
+Indian war of 1853. Southern Oregon raised six companies of
+volunteers, who served under the following named captains, viz, R. L.
+Williams, J. K. Lamerick, John F. Miller, Elias A. Owens, and W. W.
+Fowler. Capt. B. F. Alden, of the Fourth U. S. Infantry, with twenty
+regulars, came over from Fort Jones, California, and with him a large
+number of volunteers under Capt. James P. Goodall and Capt. Jacob
+Rhoades, two Indian fighters of experience. Captain Alden was given
+the command of all the forces. The first battle of the war was fought
+on the twelfth day of August, 1853, and was an exciting little fight
+between about twenty volunteers under Lieut. Burrell Griffin, of
+Miller's company, and a band of Indians under Chief John. The
+volunteers were ambushed at a point near the mouth of Williams creek,
+on the Applegate. The whites were defeated with a loss of two killed
+and Lieutenant Griffin severely wounded. There were five Indians
+killed and wounded in the battle. On August 10, 1853, John R. Harding
+and Wm. R. Rose, of Captain Lamerick's company, were killed near
+Willow Springs. On the sixteenth of August, 1853, Gen. Joseph Lane,
+afterwards United States senator from Oregon, and a candidate for vice
+president in 1860, came out from his home in Douglas County and
+brought fifty men with him, to take part in the war. General Lane was
+a man of large experience in Indian warfare and in all military
+matters. He had commanded an Indiana regiment in the Mexican war and
+enjoyed a well earned reputation for bravery. On the day that General
+Lane arrived what is known as the battle of Little Meadows was fought.
+Lieutenant Ely and twenty-two men met the Indians near Evans Creek, in
+the timber, and a short, but deadly conflict took place. Seven whites
+were killed inside of an hour; Lieutenant Ely and three men wounded.
+They left the battlefield in charge of the Indians--at least, in the
+popular phraseology of that day, "they got up and got out." On August
+24, 1853, the battle of Evans Creek was fought. In this fight the
+Indians did not fare so well, twelve of them being killed and
+wounded. One volunteer named Pleasant Armstrong was killed and Captain
+Alden and Gen. Joe Lane were each wounded. During the summer of 1853
+several men were shot by Indians in Josephine County. In the fall
+General Lane patched up a temporary peace, which lasted till 1855.
+
+The war of 1855-56 was preceded by a great many murders and
+depredations by the Indians in different parts of southern Oregon. I
+will mention a few: ----. Dyar and ----. McKew, killed while on the
+road from Jacksonville to Josephine County on June 1, 1855. About the
+same time a man by name of ----. Philpot was killed on Deer Creek,
+Josephine County, and James Mills was wounded at the same time and
+place. Granville Keene was killed at a point on Bear Creek, above
+Ashland, and J. Q. Faber was wounded. Two men, ----. Fielding and
+----. Cunningham, were killed in September, 1855, on the road over the
+Siskiyou mountains.
+
+On account of these various depredations Maj. J. A. Lupton raised a
+temporary force of volunteers, composed of miners and others, from the
+vicinity of Jacksonville, about thirty-five in number, and proceeded
+to a point on the north side of Rogue River, opposite the mouth of
+Little Butte Creek. There he attacked a camp of Indians at a time when
+they were not expecting trouble. It is said that about thirty men,
+women, and children were killed by Lupton's men. The major himself
+received a mortal wound in the fight. This fight has been much
+criticised by the people of southern Oregon, a great many of them
+believing that it was unjustifiable and cowardly. Two days after this
+affair a series of massacres took place in the sparsely settled
+country in and about where Grants Pass is now situated. On the ninth
+day of October, 1855, the Indians, having divided up into small
+parties, simultaneously attacked the homes of the defenseless
+families located in that vicinity. I will name a few of those tragic
+events. On the farm now owned by James Tuffs, Mr. Jones was killed,
+and his wife, after receiving a mortal wound, made her escape. She was
+found by the volunteers on the next day and died a few days
+afterwards. Their house was burned down. Mrs. Wagner was murdered by
+the Indians on the same day. Her husband was away from home at the
+time, but returned on the following day to find his wife murdered and
+his home a pile of ashes. The Harris family consisted of Harris and
+wife and their two children, Mary Harris, aged twelve, and David
+Harris, aged ten, and T. A. Reed, a young man who lived with the
+family. Mr. Harris was shot down while standing near his door, and at
+a moment when he little suspected treachery from the Indians with whom
+he was talking. His wife and daughter pulled his body within the door,
+and seizing a double-barreled shotgun and an old-fashioned Kentucky
+rifle, commenced firing through the cracks of the log cabin. They kept
+this up till late in the night, and by heroic bravery kept the Indians
+from either gaining an entrance into the house or succeeding in their
+attempts to fire it. Just back of the cabin was a dense thicket of
+brush, and during a lull in the attack the two brave women escaped
+through the back door and fled through the woods. They were found the
+next day by volunteers from Jacksonville, our late friend, Henry
+Klippel, being one of the number. Mrs. Harris lived to a good old age
+in this county. Mary, who was wounded in the fight, afterwards became
+the wife of Mr. G. M. Love, and was the mother of George Love of
+Jacksonville and Mrs. John A. Hanley of Medford. David Harris, the
+boy, was not in the house when the attack was made, but was at work on
+the place. His fate has never been ascertained, as his body was never
+found. The Indians stated, after peace was made, that they killed him
+at the time they attacked the Harris house. Reed, the young man spoken
+of, was killed out near the house.
+
+On October 31, 1855, the battle of Hungry Hill was fought near the
+present railway station of Leland. Capt. A. J. Smith of the United
+States army was at that battle, and a large number of citizens
+soldiery. The result of the battle was very undecisive. There were
+thirty-one whites killed and wounded, nine of them being killed
+outright. It is not known how many of the Indians were killed, but
+after the treaty was made they confessed to fifteen. The Indians were
+in heavy timber and were scarcely seen during the two days' battle.
+
+In April, 1856, after peace had been concluded between the whites and
+Indians, the Ledford massacre took place in Rancherie Prairie, near
+Mount Pitt, in this county, in which five white men were killed. This
+event was the last of the "irrepressible conflict." Soon afterward the
+Indians were removed to the Siletz reservation, where their
+descendants now live and enjoy the favors of the government which
+their fathers so strongly resisted.
+
+The war in Rogue River Valley had now virtually ended. "Old Sam's"
+band, with an escort of one hundred United States troops, was taken to
+the coast reservation at Siletz. Chiefs "John" and "Limpy," with a
+large number of the most active warriors, who had followed their
+fortunes during all these struggles, still held out and continued
+their depredations in the lower Rogue River country and in connection
+with the Indians of Curry County.
+
+Gen. John E. Wool, commander of the department of the Pacific, in
+November, 1855, had stopped at Crescent City while on his way to the
+Yakima country. He received full information while here of the
+military operations in southern Oregon. Skipping many details, it is
+sufficient to state that he ordered Capt. A. J. Smith to move down
+the river from Fort Lane and form a junction with the United States
+troops under Captains Jones and E. O. C. Ord (afterward a
+major-general in United States army), who were prosecuting an active
+campaign in the region about Chetco, Pistol River, and the Illinois
+River Valley. Captain Smith left Fort Lane with eighty men--fifty
+dragoons and thirty infantry. I can only take the time to mention a
+few of the fights in that region during the spring of 1856. On March
+8th Captain Abbott had a skirmish with the Chetco Indians at Pistol
+River. He lost several men. The Indians had his small force completely
+surrounded when Captain Ord and Captain Jones with one hundred and
+twelve regular troops came to his relief. They charged and drove the
+Indians away with heavy loss. On March 20, 1855, Lieutenant-Colonel
+Buchanan, assisted by Captains Jones and Ord, attacked an Indian
+village ten miles above the mouth of Rogue River. The Indians were
+driven away, leaving several dead and only one white man wounded in
+the fight. A few days later Captain Angne's [Augur?] company (United
+States troops) fought John and "Limpy's" band at the mouth of the
+Illinois River. The Indians fought desperately, leaving five dead on
+the battlefield. On March 27, 1855, the regulars again met the Indians
+on Lower Rogue River. After a brisk fight at close quarters the
+Indians fled, leaving ten dead and two of the soldiers were severely
+wounded. On April 1, 1855, Captain Creighton, with a company of
+citizens, attacked an Indian village near the mouth of the Coquille
+River, killing nine men, wounding eleven and taking forty squaws and
+children prisoners. About this time some volunteers attacked a party
+of Indians who were moving in canoes at the mouth of Rogue River. They
+killed eleven men and one squaw. Only one man and two squaws of the
+party escaped. On April 29, 1855, a party of sixty regulars escorting
+a pack train were attacked near Chetco. In this fight three soldiers
+were killed and wounded. The Indians lost six killed and several
+wounded.
+
+The volunteer forces of the coast war were three companies known by
+the names of "Gold Beach Guards," the "Coquille Guards," and the "Port
+Orford Minute Men." I have not the time to enter into the details of
+the battle that was fought on the twenty-seventh of May, 1855, near
+Big Meadows, on Rogue River. Captain Smith was in command of his
+eighty regulars. Old "John" lead the Indians. The operations covered a
+period of two days, John using all the tactics of military science in
+handling his four hundred braves during the battle. Just as everything
+was ready, according to "John's" plans for an attack upon the
+regulars, Captain Angne's [Augur?] company was seen approaching. The
+Indians were then soon dispersed. Captain Smith lost twenty-nine men
+killed and wounded in this battle, and had it not been for the timely
+arrival of Angne's [Augur?] company, his men would all have been
+killed.
+
+While these operations were being carried on by the United States
+troops, the volunteer forces were not idle. They were kept busy with
+"Limpy" and "George's" warriors, at points in Josephine County. On
+January 28, 1856, Major Latshaw moved down the river with two hundred
+and thirteen men. He had several skirmishes and lost four or five men
+in killed and wounded. On May 29th "Limpy" and "George" surrendered at
+Big Meadows to Lieutenant-Colonel Buchanan. On May 31st Governor Curry
+ordered the volunteer forces to disband--nearly all the Indians had
+surrendered. About one thousand three hundred of the various tribes
+that had carried on the war were gathered in camp at Port Orford.
+About July 1, 1856, "John" and thirty-five tough looking warriors, the
+last to surrender, "threw down the hatchet." I have now gone over, in
+chronological order, the principal events connected with the Indian
+wars of southern Oregon. I am fully aware that the narrative is very
+defective, and that many events of importance have not even been
+mentioned. You who took part in these early struggles can easily fill
+in the gaps, and correct the errors that I may have unconsciously
+made.
+
+There were some men who took part in the Indian wars of southern
+Oregon who afterward became prominent in the history of the Nation. I
+will name a few, viz, Gen. U. S. Grant, Gen. J. B. Hood (late of
+Confederate army), Gen. Phil Kearny, Gen. Wool, Gen. A. J. Smith, Gen.
+Geo. Crooks, Gen. A. V. Kautz, Gen. Phil Sheridan, Gen. J. C. Fremont,
+Gen. Joe Lane (candidate for vice president of the United States in
+1860), Gen. Joe Hooker (who built the military road in the Canyon
+Mountains in 1852), and Kit Carson.
+
+We all rejoice that the general government has at last acknowledged
+the value of your services to civilization; and has made some
+provision of recompense for the privations which you suffered.
+
+I see before me old gray headed mothers who will also share with you
+this recognition of the Nation's gratitude. It is well, and to my
+comrades of the Civil war, who are here, and who have been the
+promotors of this reunion of veterans, let me say that no women of any
+war, in which the American people have ever been engaged, are more
+deserving of the Nation's bounty than these old, feeble, pioneer
+mothers of southern Oregon. When their fathers, brothers, and husbands
+went out to meet their savage foes, these women were not left in well
+protected cities, villages, and homes, but often in rude cabins,
+situated in close proximity to the conflict; and unlike the chances
+of civilized warfare, no mercy could be expected from the
+enemy--surrender meant not only death, but torture and heartless
+cruelty. In every hour of those dark days these women proved
+themselves to be fit helpmates to a race of daring men--and worthy all
+honors that are accorded the brave.
+
+
+
+
+MINTO PASS: ITS HISTORY, AND AN INDIAN TRADITION.
+
+By JOHN MINTO.
+
+
+There was a tradition among the Indians of the central portion of the
+Willamette Valley at the time when the missionaries of the Methodist
+Episcopal Church attempted christianization from 1834 to 1840, that a
+trail or thoroughfare through this natural pass had formerly been much
+used by their people and that its use was abandoned after, and as one
+of the results of, a bloody battle between the Mollalas (who claimed
+the western slopes of the Cascades from the Clackamas River south to
+the Calapooia Mountains,) and the Cayuses who were originally of the
+same tribe, but who had become alienated by family feuds, of which the
+battle or massacre of their tradition was the end. The superstitious
+belief of the Indians in the transmigration of the souls of dead
+warriors into the bodies of beasts of prey, like panthers, bears, and
+wolves, would of itself go far to cause the Indians to abandon the use
+of such a trail, but the formation of the gorge by which the river
+cuts its way through the roughest portion of the range is such as to
+give great numbers of opportunities for ambuscades--a common resort of
+Indian warfare. Certain is it that for some cause the Indians of
+Chemeketa, Chemawa, and Willamette spoke with dread of going up that
+river. They did, however, have trails on each side of this natural
+pass,--that to the south being first used by a pioneer settler named
+Wyley. It became known as the Wyley Trail, and subsequently was
+adopted as a general route over which the Willamette Valley and
+Cascade Mountain Military Wagon Road was located. The other to the
+north comes into the Willamette Valley via the Table Rock and down the
+Abiqua. Both these trails were used exclusively by the Indians of the
+east side of the range as means of coming into the Willamette Valley
+with the exception of the Mollalas, who were intermarried with the
+Warm Springs Indians and the Klamaths when the settlement by the
+whites began. The free trappers and the retired Canadians, who had
+settled as farmers and trading parties of the Hudson Bay Company,
+continued to use the trail up the North Santiam Valley until 1844-45,
+when, in addition to the country reached by it being "trapped out,"
+furs fell in price in the general market so that it temporarily ceased
+to be used by the engagees of the Hudson Bay Company. In the summer of
+1845 Dr. E. White, then a sub-agent of the United States for the
+Indians of Oregon, examined, or claimed to have examined, the route as
+a means of getting immigration into western Oregon more easily than by
+way of the Columbia River Pass. Either the doctor did not examine
+closely or was very easily discouraged; at all events no beneficial
+results followed. At this same time Stephen L. Meek was leading a
+party of the immigration of that year with the purpose of entering the
+Willamette Valley by that way. Meek had trapped on the head waters of
+the John Day River a few seasons previous, and had here met Canadians
+from the Willamette, who had come over the trail and doubtless thought
+he could easily find it; and there is little reason to doubt that he
+would have done so had it not been that by reason of their much
+wandering in searching the way from the mouth of the Malheur to the
+waters of the Des Chutes, the people he led were in such desperate
+straits that he had to flee for his life. There was another reason: a
+ridge makes out on the east side of the main range, but parallel with
+it, which completely shuts the pass from being seen in outline from
+the east.
+
+The failure of Meek to get his party through raised the question in
+the settlements as to whether there was so easy a means of passing the
+Cascade range at that point as the Hudson Bay Company trappers and
+traders represented, and in the spring of 1846 a public meeting was
+held at Salem and a committee of six citizens was selected to go and
+make an examination of the trail. Col. Cornelius Gilliam was the head
+of the committee of the American portion of the party, and Joseph
+Gervais, a Canadian trapper, preëminent for general intelligence among
+his class, went along to show the way. The Hon. T. C. Shaw, nephew of
+Gilliam, was of the party (the youngest). He is at present (1887)
+county judge of Marion County, and recently went over part of the
+ground they then passed. From him it is learned that the trail did not
+then pass through the narrow gorge which has been spoken of, but took
+over the tops of the most broken and rugged portion of the range. The
+party proceeded until they came to what they termed the "scaly rock
+mountain," which Colonel Gilliam pronounced impassable for wagons. The
+party returned and reported accordingly, and from that date till late
+in 1873 that pass way was unused and to a great extent forgotten.
+
+In October, 1873, two hunters in search of good game range penetrated
+up the north bank of the river through the gorge before mentioned, and
+found that about twelve miles from the then settlement on King's
+Prairie that the valley widened out and the mountains seemed lower;
+narrow belts of bottom land lay between the mountains and the river,
+and appeared to continue up to near the base of Mount Jefferson,
+which, in fact, they do. One of these hunters (Henry States) sent for
+John Minto, being unable, on account of a sprained ankle, to go to the
+latter, and told him of their findings. This rediscovery or new
+discovery revived recollections of statements made by Joseph Gervais
+and others, and Minto took sufficient interest in the subject to go
+before the board of county commissioners of Marion County and repeat
+the statements of the hunters, volunteering the suggestion that it was
+important if such a natural pass existed as was thus indicated the
+county had an interest in making the fact known. One of the
+commissioners, Hon. Wm. M. Case, had long lived near neighbor to the
+famous Hudson Bay Company's leader, Tom McKay, and had often heard him
+speak of that as the shortest and best way across the Cascades. A
+short consultation resulted in the "order" that Mr. Minto take two
+comrades and proceed up the valley of the North Santiam until he was
+satisfied whether it made such a natural cut into the range or not.
+After an absence of twelve days the party returned and Minto reported
+a deep valley apparently almost dividing the range, and so sheltered
+that several varieties of wild flowers were found in bloom on the
+eighteenth of November. Upon this representation a petition for the
+survey of a road was presented to the board of county commissioners
+early in 1874, and the viewing out and survey of such a road ordered,
+Porter Jack, Geo. S. Downing, and John Minto to act as viewers, and T.
+W. Davenport as surveyor. The survey was made and the viewers' report
+in favor of an excellent roadway was made to the county commissioners
+of Marion County, August, 1874. The results were got by following up
+the north bank of the Santiam River, generally within sight or sound
+of its waters, from the point where it enters the Willamette Valley to
+its most eastern springs. Starting from the bank of the Willamette
+River at Salem, where its course is east of north parallel with the
+Cascade range, the survey leads up its Santiam branch eighty-three
+(83) miles, to the true summit of the Cascades, here found in a
+narrow cut or pass lying across the summit ridge, the general course
+of the survey being southeast by east. From the summit thus found it
+is an estimated distance of only five (5) miles down to the Matoles
+branch of the Des Chutes River, here running east of north parallel
+with the range, the same course as that of the Willamette on the west
+side; but taking down the eastern declivity with an easy grade for a
+wagon road, the plain of the Des Chutes would be reached in about
+seven miles and the Willamette Valley and Cascade Mountains Road,
+where it skirts the base of Black Butte, three miles into the Des
+Chutes plain, in about ten miles. In making this view and survey an
+old and deeply worn trail was frequently crossed, and such a trail,
+less deep, was found leading over the pass eastward. The first
+observed trail gives some support to the Indian tradition of a former
+native thoroughfare down the valley.
+
+The trail out of the pass is not so much worn, neither is the Strong
+trail leading off towards the west from a point about seven miles
+eastward, used by Lieutenant Fremont as he passed the locality in
+1843. The trail so noted reaches first the immense springs of Matoles,
+where a full grown river rises from under the northeast base of Black
+Butte, into which the salmon ascend in July and August for spawning
+purposes, at that date and since making a valuable fishery for the
+Indians, and scarcely less valuable as fisheries where the numerous
+lakes to the westward, which, taken in connection with abundant game
+of the entire region, make it a hunter's paradise. At the date of
+Fremont's march, of which had Meek been informed in 1845, he would
+have almost certainly succeeded in getting the people he led into the
+Willamette Valley by that way easier than they reached The Dalles
+after he abandoned them.
+
+After the viewing out and survey of the wagon road as before related,
+parties incorporated or filed articles of incorporation for a
+projected railroad through the pass to Winnemucca. It was a mere
+speculation on the part of persons who had neither money nor credit of
+any kind. It had the effect of weakening the public interest in having
+a common road constructed, so that after the lapse of the legal hold
+on the pass thus attained, there was little disposition to spend money
+on the opening of a common road which was liable to be destroyed at
+any time by a railroad interest. An association was formed, however,
+and a stock trail was opened at a cost of $1,800, in labor. As much
+more spent at that time would have enabled wagons to pass. For lack of
+this small sum the trail constructed did not attract the public use
+except in a small measure for horses. In 1880 Hon. John B. Waldo,
+while enjoying a summer recreation trip along the summit ridge, came
+to a point some seven or eight miles south of the point to which the
+survey had been made and over which a trail had been opened, which he
+felt confident was lower than it. He spoke of it to Mr. Minto, who,
+the next spring, had a small sum ($200) placed at his disposal by
+Marion County in order to remove obstructions which had fallen into
+the trail. After removing these obstructions that had fallen in during
+the previous four years, Mr. Minto had $111 of the money left which he
+asked permission of the board of commissioners to use in viewing out
+and surveying the most southern of the two main branches of the Upper
+North Santiam. The suggestion was made that this arm of the stream
+trended so far southward that it would probably be found to reach the
+summit by a greater meander and consequently afford a more gradual
+approach to this supposed lower point of the summit, and therefore be
+more favorable for railroad purposes. The order was made in accordance
+with the suggestion, and Capt. L. S. Scott, Geo. S. Downing, and John
+Minto were appointed viewers and T. W. Davenport surveyor. After some
+loss of time by efforts to locate a line of communication, Minto took
+one comrade and went eastward through the old pass, taking the
+altitude of it as he went and finding it, according to an ordinary
+barometer, such as is used by railroad surveyors, to be five thousand
+five hundred and thirty-six feet above the sea, and proceeding
+southward and then westward on the same day found the instrument to
+read at the point indicated by Judge Waldo, four thousand nine hundred
+and eleven feet above the sea. From this point a line was struck and
+surveyed, which by way of the southeast branch of the North Santiam,
+connects with the original survey by an easy grade for railroad
+purposes and of which the projectors of the Corvallis and Eastern
+railroad were immediately informed. An examination of the whole route
+from Gates to Summit via the last viewed section, was made by Colonel
+Eccleson, civil engineer, and Summit was reached by a fraction over a
+two per cent grade. Construction began at the Summit with the least
+possible delay and rails were hauled by wagon from Albany and laid in
+order to hold the pass. From the pass westward more than half of the
+right of way was cut and much of the grade made ready for the ties
+between this lowest pass and the junction with the original Marion
+County survey at what the party making it called Independence Valley,
+directly south of and as the bird flies about eight miles from the
+apex of Mount Jefferson. From Idanha, the terminal of railroad track
+laid, four miles east of Detroit, fully twelve miles of right of way
+and grade were constructed when work was suspended by the original
+railroad company. From Mill City eastward to the Summit, the company
+appropriated fully ninety per cent of the original surveys made at the
+cost of Marion County. This need not be objected to, but in addition
+to this these railroad promoters often exercised an assumed right to
+name points that will be of permanent interest which they did not
+discover. This seems hardly fair. From my point of view the Hon. John
+B. Waldo, who first observed the apparent lowness of the pass, and
+called my attention to it, is more entitled to have his name attached
+to it than Col. T. E. Hogg, whose name I understand was given to by J.
+I. Blair, the railroad magnate of New York, who was one of the chief
+supporters of Colonel Hogg's enterprise.
+
+As a matter of some historical interest I will close this paper by
+inserting some of the original names given places and things by the
+first white explorers of the valley.
+
+The stream named Breitenbush was named by Henry States, Frank Cooper,
+and John Minto on the first legal examination for the pass for John
+Breitenbush a hunter who had cut his way to it ahead of them. Detroit
+was named by the man from Michigan who first opened a house for
+entertainment there. Boulder Creek was named by T. W. Davenport on his
+survey notes in 1874. It makes in from the north at Idanha which was a
+Muskrat Camp of first surveying party, but renamed by the proprietor
+of the first summer resort house. Minto Mountain was named by some one
+unknown to the writer, after he had led to the opening of a trail to
+Black Butte, in Crook County, in 1879. It was the grass covered
+mountains seen by Minto from the top of a fir tree into which he
+pulled himself to get a view of their surroundings when first seeking
+the pass in November, 1873, and which grass land his associate, Frank
+Cooper, asserted was in eastern Oregon, to his, Cooper's, personal
+knowledge, though he would not risk climbing the tree to see it, being
+a very heavy man. This mountain will for all time be an attractive
+object to summer recreationists and the most easily reached from the
+center of the Willamette Valley when the railroad is extended twelve
+miles farther east. The first stream making in from the northeast of
+Boulder Creek was called, by the surveying party of 1874, the White, a
+first fork from Jefferson. In August the snow melts from the southwest
+slopes of Jefferson and runs through volcanic ash as fine as bolted
+flour and it enters the main Santiam like thickened milk, coloring it
+down to Mehama sometimes. Custom has adopted the name "Whitewater." In
+1879 I gave the name Pamelia Creek to the next stream which flows off
+the south face of Mount Jefferson and the same name now attaches to
+the lake at its south base. The name was given for Pamelia Ann Berry,
+because of her cheerfulness as one of the girl cooks of the working
+party, of which her father and sister were valued members.
+Independence Valley was so named by the road viewing party in 1874.
+Our party rested there on the fourth of July. The first waterfall on
+the east branch was named Gatch's Falls for Prof. T. M. Gatch, by
+election of the party, the young members all having been his students.
+Marion Lake and Orla Falls at the head of it were named at the same
+time. The latter by the younger members of the company who had danced
+with Miss Orla Davenport, the oldest daughter of our surveyor. The
+most of the water of Marion Lake seems to come over these falls from
+the northern declivities, a rocky peak of many pinnacles, locally
+called "Three-fingered Jack," but to which the name of Mount Marion
+was given in the report of this survey. This peak rises from the
+summit ridge south of Mount Jefferson and north of Mount Washington
+about equal distance of seven miles from each and about fifteen miles
+from the most northern of the Three Sisters. There are inviting
+situations for delightful summer residences on or near the ridge, both
+north and south of Mount Marion, which will in the near future
+probably become sites of permanent homes. The climate, as indicated by
+plant life, is that of the Highlands of Scotland, as here the American
+congener of both purple and white heather is found on and near the
+summit ridge.
+
+The writer, who was an active member of these first exploring,
+surveying, and road constructing parties, closes this with the
+statement that the rugged labor sometimes involved was the very best
+kind of summer recreation, where nature in all her varying phases was
+enjoyed and the sights of the day made themes of camp fire talks,
+intermingled with subjects connected with social, educational,
+business, and public interests. There was little difference in this
+respect between the camp fires of a party of professional men seeking
+rest and that of road makers constructing lines of development.
+
+
+
+
+REMINISCENCES.
+
+Secured by H. S. LYMAN.
+
+
+ANSON STERLING CONE.
+
+Anson Sterling Cone, who came to Oregon in 1846, and is now--February,
+1900,--living upon his donation claim a mile and a half from
+Butteville, on one portion of French Prairie, is a native of Indiana,
+having been born in Shelby County of that State in 1827. At the age of
+seventy-three he is still in good health, and of good memory. He is
+carrying on a large farm, and, together with his wife, is supporting
+the family of his brother's daughter, as his own. He is a man of
+medium size, of rather sandy complexion, with hair and beard now
+white. He is plain and straightforward in manner, and remembers
+distinctly many details of his early experiences in Oregon. Some of
+the most interesting features of his narrative are his meeting with
+Whitman; his service as juror on the trial of the Indian murderers of
+Whitman; and his trip overland to California in the first wagon train
+to the mines. His story, however, will be given as he relates it, and
+the reader may then use his own judgment as to the relative importance
+of his recollections.
+
+With his father's family, who removed for a short residence from
+Shelby to La Porte County, Indiana, he went as a mere lad to Iowa. The
+farm occupied by his father was alongside one of the main roads, and
+there, year after year, he saw the emigrants in their great wagons on
+the way to Oregon. In the course of time he took the fever to go with
+them to that enchanted country. The opportunity was not long withheld.
+
+In 1846 a well-to-do neighbor, Edward Trimble, made up a party, in
+which an older brother of Anson's, Aaron Cone, was to go. Obtaining
+permission of his father, Anson, then but a youth of eighteen,
+assisted in helping the train off, and drove with the party for some
+distance. When the time arrived for him to return home (his dejected
+appearance probably indicating his longing to go on with the
+emigrants) Trimble said to him: "Anson, I don't advise or ask you to
+go to Oregon; but if you are bound to, you may go with me." "I have no
+outfit," said the young man. "I have $1,000," answered Trimble; "and
+as long as that lasts you shall have your share of it."
+
+Anson went. His patron, however, never reached Oregon. Trimble was one
+of the comparatively few who fell a victim to the treachery of the
+Indians. He was killed by the Pawnees, on the Platte River, near the
+big island. He had been selected captain of the company of forty-three
+wagons which was made up at Saint Joe, where the train crossed the
+Missouri, and took the route south of the Platte.
+
+At a point opposite the big island, as then known, the cattle were
+stampeded by the Pawnees, and driven away, so that the train was left
+entirely without teams. Trimble started out to hunt the animals; but
+his wife, seeing that he had no arms, said to him, "Edward, you had
+better take your rifle." He answered, "I do not need it; I am only
+going to look for the trail." But reaching a knoll and finding the
+trail of the lost stock, which led to the river, he and a man named
+Harris rode on without stopping, until they discovered the cattle on
+the island. Going down to the river side, however, they were suddenly
+confronted by a party of armed Pawnees, who had secreted themselves
+under the steep bank. Harris then, in his excitement, left his horse,
+and Trimble delaying for him was shot by the Indians. His body was not
+recovered but arrows stained with blood were found, which had
+probably been shot through his body. These were preserved by Mrs.
+Trimble, and it is thought that they are still in possession of the
+family; a daughter of Trimble, having become Mrs. Pomeroy, of Pomeroy,
+Washington.
+
+By the men of the train who saw the affair, Harris was rescued, and
+the most of the oxen, though in a sad state of demoralization, were
+recovered. A considerable number were never found, and on account of
+this seven wagons were compelled to return to Saint Joe, with just
+enough cattle to draw them. But the mischief was also played with the
+oxen that went forward. After one thorough stampede such animals are
+always unreliable. Mr. Cone remembers one serious stampede later, of
+the whole train on the road, which was started only by a jack rabbit
+driven by the dogs under a wagon. "It was a pretty hard sight," he
+says, "to see the wagon hauled off, with oxen on the run. But they had
+to stop at last; some fell down and were dragged along. Many an old ox
+lost his horns. There were horns flying then--let one catch his tip in
+the ground and it was gone!"
+
+However, though under unusual strain from this unlucky incident with
+the rascally Pawnees, the plains and mountains were crossed at last.
+Fort Bridger, Fort Hall, and the Grande Ronde and Blue Mountains were
+passed in due order, and about the middle of October the wagons
+descended upon the Umatilla.
+
+Here the two young men, Anson and his brother Aaron, thought it
+advisable to leave the train and push on to the Willamette. To
+accomplish this they went over to the Walla Walla, with the idea of
+working for Whitman long enough to pay for a pack horse. At Waiilatpu
+they found the doctor at home, and made known their intention. "Boys,"
+replied the Old Man (A. S. C.), "you had better take Bob there, and
+all the provisions you need, and go at once. At the end of the season
+there will be those coming who will have to stay here anyhow, and I
+had better save the work for them. I will be down in the Willamette
+country next summer, and you can pay me then." The young men
+accordingly took "Bob," a trusty old white cayuse horse and a good
+pack animal, who had somehow lost his tail, all except a short stump,
+just sufficient to hold the crupper.
+
+By this kindness and confidence of Whitman Mr. Cone was greatly
+impressed. "He was a good man," he says, "he had a heart like an ox!"
+According to his recollections Whitman was about six feet tall,
+straight as an Indian and of fine presence. His face was florid, his
+hair chestnut, and not noticeably gray. In manner he was quick "for a
+big man," and "always in for anything that had life"--sociable, and a
+good joker. The horse and provisions, taken from the doctor's door,
+amounted to about $25 worth; "and the next summer," says Mr. Cone,
+"when I heard that the Old Man was at Oregon City, didn't I rustle
+around to have the money ready for him!"
+
+Young Cone arrived at Oregon City on November 6th, his nineteenth
+birthday. He began almost immediately to look about the country, and
+taking the road to Tualatin Plains, was surprised, but greatly
+pleased, to meet on the way--at the house of Mr. Masters, near the
+present town of Reedville--an old friend, whom he had known at the
+East. This was T. G. Naylor, long a well known resident of Forest
+Grove. By this hospitable friend Cone was invited to spend the winter
+on the farm on Gale's Creek, and actually spent two months, managing
+to find eight working days between showers, out of that time--which
+indicates that the climate, even then, was rainy. However the young
+immigrant had good health, enjoyed life, and grew fat. For his eight
+days of work he received an order for eight bushels of wheat, and
+being in great need of new clothes, went back to Oregon City, and
+obtaining work at rail splitting, he succeeded in mending his fortunes
+sufficiently to procure new garments. He also found work afterwards in
+the sawmills. "Many a day," he says, "I worked alongside the Kanakas."
+There was at that time a considerable number of these native Sandwich
+Islanders in Oregon. They were good workmen, says Mr. Cone, being
+especially useful in work about the water. They had their own
+quarters, which they kept themselves, and provided their own
+sustenance quite independently.
+
+During the dry season of 1847 the two brothers having decided to
+return East across the Plains, made a long tour of the Willamette
+Valley, in order to tell all about Oregon, with which, however, they
+were not fully satisfied as a permanent home; but their preparations
+not being complete they were delayed until late in the next season.
+
+It was in August of that year that the Cayuse Indian murderers were
+brought down from the upper country, and were tried and hanged at
+Oregon City [Mr. Cone was evidently confused in this part of his
+recollections as the Cayuse Indian murderers did not give themselves
+up until April 1850; and were tried later in that year.--EDITOR.] The
+Indians had the benefit of counsel, and the usual motions were made
+for acquittal. Among others was rejection of many jurymen, on the
+ground of prejudice. As it began to seem that no jury could be found,
+Cone, who was present as a spectator at the trial, whispered to a
+companion, "Come, let's go; they will be getting us on the jury!"
+
+They quietly slipped out, therefore, and retiring to a big rock on the
+bluff, were engaged chatting. A young man soon approached, however,
+whom they took to be another like themselves, but they recognized that
+he was after them and a deputy sheriff, when he proceeded to summon
+them to the jury box. They were accordingly impaneled, with the
+necessary number, and listened to the evidence. The case was entirely
+clear, the prosecution simply presenting evidence to show that the
+accused were the Indians who had committed the crime.
+
+As to the motive of the murder, or the causes back of it, Mr. Cone
+inclines to the opinion very prevalent at the time, that it was due to
+religious differences; "there was another church there, and this I
+know, that none of the other church were hurt." He mentions
+particularly Joe Stanbough, who was not injured, yet was a full-blood
+white man. This is mentioned here, and indeed is given very cautiously
+by Mr. Cone, not as any brand for present sectarian differences, but
+as a true reflection of opinion at the time. The precise justice of
+that opinion is not discussed here.
+
+Very soon after the trial Cone was told by General Lovejoy, at Oregon
+City, of the discovery of gold in California. "If I were you," said
+Lovejoy, "I would go as soon as possible." By this advice Cone and his
+brother were led to get together three wagons and join the overland
+company. This was a most eventful journey and illustrates the capacity
+of the trained Oregon men.
+
+According to Mr. Cone's recollections there were forty one wagons;
+though Peter Burnett says, in "An Old Pioneer," that there were fifty
+and one hundred and fifty men. There was but one family in the train,
+the name of which Mr. Cone has forgotten. In this he coincides with
+Burnett. Cone also recalls Thomas McKay very distinctly as the guide
+and virtual leader; who said that he could take them through to the
+Sacramento River without trouble; "and there is only one place that I
+am afraid of; that is going down the mountain into the Sacramento
+Valley. You may have to let your wagons down with ropes there."
+
+Burnett, in his vivid sketch of this journey, says that he went to
+Doctor McLoughlin for advice, and was directed by him to employ McKay,
+as this intrepid son of the unfortunate Alexander McKay was acquainted
+with every foot of the way and was especially efficient in dealing
+with the Indians. But Mr. Cone recollects nothing of Burnett.
+
+As to Indian troubles, Cone says that there was only one Indian
+killed. This was in the Umpqua Valley, and the deed was without
+provocation, and by an irresponsible young man, of the kind that hung
+on to almost every party. McKay read the young man a severe lesson,
+and complained to the company, endeavoring to show how reckless such
+actions were. The young man made the saucy reply that he must be
+still, or else there would be another Indian killed--alluding to
+McKay's Indian blood. However, there were no other natives disturbed,
+and the way was through the country of the Klamaths, the Modocs, and
+the Pitt River Indians. Burnett mentions meeting a very few natives
+near the end of the journey, but says there was no trouble whatever.
+
+In the Pitt River Valley the Oregon wagon train came upon the track of
+the California immigrants, whom Peter Lawsen--or Lassen, as Burnett
+spells the name--was guiding to his great ranch on the Upper
+Sacramento. When at last overtaken they were found to be in great
+destitution, and so exasperated at Lassen, who had lost the way, and
+was wandering in the Sierra Nevadas, trying to find a practicable way
+down their stupendous western declivities, that he seemed in danger of
+his life. A practicable descent was found at last, however, and then
+began the race to see who would be first into the valley. This was
+near Lassen's Peak, which is so high as to be spotted with old snow,
+even to late autumn.
+
+Here Mr. Cone describes "the maddest man he ever saw." This was the
+pioneer, Job McNemee, of Portland. With an extra good team and high
+determination of his own he had declared that he would be first in the
+valley. He was well on the way to success, having got and held the
+lead; but halfway down the mountain side, in his wild career, he ran
+his wheel against a protruding bowlder, by which the heavy wagon was
+upset, and there it lay, while the other wagons, nine in number, of
+that particular section of the train, went bouncing by. But at last,
+in spite of all accidents, men and animals reached Lassen's ranch, and
+were there treated with royal hospitality. The vaqueros were directed
+to slaughter beef, and the Oregon men, as well as the California
+party, were invited to the barbecue. The Oregonians, however, were not
+likely to wait long. It was now late in November, and though some went
+first up to Redding's ranch, all soon struck out for Coloma. Although
+not an active participant in the Indian troubles there, these are
+recalled by Mr. Cone. He remembers the murder of the party of Oregon
+men, recalling the circumstance, however, that the number killed was
+five, and that one of the six escaped. The Indians, as he remembers,
+were tracked to their camp on the river, and attacked and punished.
+
+His memory was more deeply impressed, however, with the enormous price
+of provisions; as, for instance, going down one day to Sacramento, and
+seeing some nice little hams, he had a mind to purchase one. On asking
+the price he was told four dollars a pound. He concluded he did not
+want any. That was late in the season of '48 or early '49. Vast
+quantities of stores were shipped in soon, and prices fell.
+Misfortunes robbed Mr. Cone of the results of his adventure. His
+brother was taken sick and died. He was himself attacked by scurvy,
+and finally being unable to work longer, sought passage home on a
+sailing vessel, which crossed the Columbia bar late in the fall of
+'49, a very smoky season, and of long drouth, the vessel being
+becalmed for days together.
+
+Mr. Cone remembers many amusing incidents of the mining life; one of
+which was the shooting of Weimer's pig by his partner--the animal
+being a nuisance around camp, yet of great value. One morning the
+partner of Cone said: "Load the gun and I'll shoot the ---- sow." To
+run the bluff, Cone did so, and not to be backed off, the partner shot
+and killed. Then to hide their trespass the carcass was hidden in the
+brush; but upon returning at evening from their rockers the young men
+found that the ravens had taken care of the pork.
+
+In 1850 Mr. Cone, having recovered his health, located a claim on
+French Prairie. His father arrived in Oregon in 1851. His brothers,
+Oscar and G. A., Jr., came in 1847. Three other brothers also became
+Oregonians, Oliver, Francis Marian, and Philander Johnson. All found
+claims near each other on French Prairie, or just across the river.
+Anson and Oscar are the only ones now living.
+
+Of the old father, G. A. Cone, there are eighteen grandchildren and
+thirty-seven great-grandchildren.
+
+Anson Cone was married in 1866 to Sarah A., the widow of his brother
+Oliver, whose maiden name was Wade, and who is herself a pioneer of
+'53.
+
+
+MRS. REBEKA HOPKINS.
+
+Mrs. Hopkins, the daughter of Mr. Peter D. Hall, who perished near
+Fort Walla Walla--Wallula--after escaping from the Whitman massacre,
+is now living on the farm held by her first husband, Philander J.
+Cone. Although past the age of fifty she is in good health, of
+prepossessing appearance, and of very active habits. Her cosy farm
+home, which is on the prairie, but at the edge of the grove, and
+shaded by some oak trees in the dooryard, is ornamented also with
+choice varieties of flowers, especially of roses, of which she has
+many rare kinds.
+
+She was but five years of age when the massacre occurred; and by the
+terror of that event all previous recollections seem to have been
+completely obliterated. She does not remember anything of her father;
+but of the massacre itself, so far as her own observation went, she
+still has a vivid picture in her mind. She recalls the upstairs room
+where the women and children were huddled together after Whitman was
+struck down, and where Mrs. Whitman came after she was shot in the
+breast. Mrs. Whitman, she says, was standing, when wounded, at a
+window, and was washing the blood from her hands, as she had been
+dressing the wounds of her husband. Mrs. Hall was with her. It could
+not have been apprehended that further murders would be committed, and
+Mrs. Whitman must have been the equal object of the Indians
+superstitious rage, as she was the only woman killed.
+
+Mrs. Hopkins remembers the appearance of the upstairs room, and that
+the Indians were kept back from coming up for a time by an old gun,
+which was probably not loaded, but was laid so as to point across the
+stairway. The savages would come to the stairway until within sight of
+this gun barrel, and then afraid, or pretending to be afraid, of its
+fire, would scamper back. Mr. Rogers was with the women and children.
+
+As to the death of her father, who escaped and sought safety at old
+Fort Walla Walla, on the bank of the Columbia River, but was refused
+admission, Mrs. Hopkins believes he was killed near the fort. By Mr.
+Osborne, who with his family, finally reached the fort, the clothes
+of Hall were seen and recognized. It was said to him, when he
+exclaimed, "those are Hall's clothes," that Hall had been drowned in
+attempting to cross the Columbia.
+
+Mrs. Hopkins considers the account of the massacre as given in the
+June number of the _Native Son_ [1899], which was furnished by Mrs. O.
+N. Denny, as the most accurate that she has seen. Mrs. Denny, Mrs.
+Hopkins' older sister, who was about twelve years old at the time of
+the tragedy, has a comprehensive recollection of the whole affair.
+
+
+MRS. ANNA TREMEWAN.
+
+Mrs. Tremewan, now residing at Champoeg, has many most interesting
+recollections of her early life. Although now past middle age she is
+of magnificent physique, being about five feet eight inches tall,
+straight as an arrow and well proportioned, but at the same time of
+that peculiarly supple mold and movement that so distinguishes the
+French creoles. Her hair is still jet black, and long and wavy and
+very thick; her eyebrows heavy and black, and her features, though
+strong and marked, refined and very intelligent.
+
+Her speech is remarkably clear, every word being distinctly
+pronounced, with rather an English or Scotch accent, and in a full
+rich voice of rather low key. During conversation her features light
+up noticeably, and though she speaks deliberately she has no
+hesitation, never pausing to think of a word or construction. She
+complains of her poor memory for dates, but possesses a large fund of
+family information, both of her own people and the Hudson Bay Company.
+
+Her mother was a daughter of Etienne Lucier, of French Prairie; her
+father was Donald Manson, a trusted captain of the Hudson Bay Company,
+and her first husband was Isaac Ogden, a son of Peter Skeen Ogden,
+governor during the latter years of the Hudson Bay Company's
+occupation of Fort Vancouver. She is living now at Champoeg, in the
+old house built by her father, though now owned by herself with her
+husband.
+
+Her brothers are men of education and ability; Donald Manson, Jr.,
+being a resident of Portland; James Manson, living at Victoria; and
+William Manson, who was educated in Scotland, being principal of a
+school at New Westminister, B. C. Another brother, Stephen, no longer
+living, who was named by his mother or his grandfather Lucier, is
+described by those who knew him as a man of remarkably handsome
+appearance, and bright intellect. He was, as a boy, attending the
+school at Waiilatpu at the time of the Whitman massacre, and although
+uninjured was so shocked by the bloody occurrence that long afterwards
+he would start from sleep crying out "The Indians, the Indians!" There
+were two daughters besides Anna (Mrs. Tremewan), Isabella and Lizzie.
+
+The following are some of the recollections taken hurriedly at a
+morning call of Mrs. Tremewan. In reply to a question about her father
+she said: "My father was in the employ of the Hudson Bay Company--you
+may have heard of it. We lived until I was fifteen in British
+Columbia; no, not at Victoria, but on the head waters of Frazer River,
+at Stuart's Lake--you might call that a little ocean. That was a long
+way from Victoria, though that was our point of supplies, and my
+father made a trip from there every year to carry out the furs--for
+that was what he dealt in. He went a part way by river, and a part way
+by horses. At Fort Langley he met the steamer from Victoria, and from
+that point the goods were brought up the river to our place.
+
+"Yes, he used to leave us all alone at Stuart's Lake every year while
+he made the trip, and that would be from April to September. On one
+time I remember perfectly well he came back on the seventh of
+September. What makes me remember this was because it was then my
+sister Lizzie was born, and my mother was still in bed, and when the
+cry was made that the boats were coming, we were all so eager to have
+papa see the baby.
+
+"Indeed, Stuart Lake was a beautiful place, the loveliest I have ever
+seen. The mountains were blue across it, they are so far away. When
+the wind blew the waves rolled up like a sea. The water is perfectly
+clear. When we used to walk along the shore, or swim in the lake, we
+could see to the bottom. It was full of fishes of all kinds; salmon
+and sturgeon and trouts. I have often told my husband that I wished I
+could see Stuart Lake again.
+
+"But I was born in Alaska,--in the land where the gold is now; at Fort
+Stikeen. The cabin was so near the water that the waves rolled up
+against it. I have have often heard my mother tell about it.
+
+"Yes, I remember the trip out from Stuart Lake perfectly. Our first
+stop was at Fort Alexandria; then we came on by boat to a place called
+Kamloops, where we waited a month while the horses were got together
+and trained for the rest of the journey. We came on to Fort Hope, and
+then by boat to Fort Langley. There we took the steamer _Otter_. There
+were two steamers then, the _Otter_ and the _Beaver_; we had the
+_Otter_.
+
+"I did not know what a Yankee was. I remember that when I was on the
+steamer they used to say to me 'So you are going to be a Yankee!' I
+did not like it a bit. We had more the English way of talking, and did
+not say 'I guess.' It was a long time before we could talk like the
+Yankees.
+
+"When my father first came to Oregon he was pretty wealthy and bought
+this place. But he lost so much in the flood of '61 that he was nearly
+broken up. He never fully got over this--together with sickness and
+other things.
+
+"When the Hudson Bay Company was at Fort Vancouver, and during the
+Whitman massacre, Ogden was governor at the fort. Well, his son was my
+first husband--his name was Isaac. Peter Skeen Ogden was a wealthy old
+man; he was from Montreal. He left considerable money to his children.
+He had four; Isaac, who lived at Champoeg, where we were married;
+William, who lives in Portland; Emma, who died at the age of thirty;
+and Mrs. Sarah Draper, of McMinnville, who has six children.
+
+"My mother was a daughter of Stephen Lewis--I think that would be the
+English of it; but the French called it Lucier, Etienne Lucier. What
+makes me think it was 'Stephen,'--I have heard mother say she named my
+brother Stephen for his grandfather. My grandfather was a Frenchman
+from Canada, and my mother was the daughter of his first wife; I think
+she came from east of the Rocky Mountains."
+
+Mrs. Tremewan was well acquainted with Archibald McKinley, who settled
+just across the river from Champoeg; and the family of Mr. Pambrun,
+one of whose daughters was Mrs. Dr. Barclay, of Oregon City; Mrs.
+William Pratt, another; and Mrs. Harriet Harger, of Chehalem Valley,
+another. Mrs. Harger has a family of six daughters.
+
+
+LOUIS LABONTE'S RECOLLECTIONS OF MEN.
+
+See Reminiscences of Louis Labonte, Vol. 1, p. 169.
+
+Doctor McLoughlin: Big man, hair white as snow, face ruddy; fine man,
+but like a grizzly if he was mad; carried a cane, stood straight as an
+arrow; treated him very kindly; got him to school at Vancouver, took
+him by the hand, told him he would provide him books and pens; he
+went to school to Mr. Ball.
+
+Douglass: Slim, but even taller than McLoughlin; his hands reached
+below his knees.
+
+Peter Skeen Ogden: A tall, big man--big as McLoughlin; an American by
+birth.
+
+Donald Manson: A large man; face ruddy; white hair.
+
+Jason Lee: Very tall, powerful; not straight.
+
+Doctor Barclay: Medium height, heavy set.
+
+Pambrun: Medium size; his wife from the Red River.
+
+Archibald McKinley: Lived across the river from Champoeg; big man; red
+face.
+
+George T. Allen: A small looking man; he was nicknamed Twahalasky,
+Indian name for coon; and a small-sized Cascade Indian bearing that
+name traded names with Allen.
+
+James Birnie: A powerful, heavy man; very fine looking; exceedingly
+hospitable.
+
+Alexander Latty: A fine man; captain of steamer _Beaver_ two years; he
+was also mate of the schooner _Cadboro_, built in England.
+
+Captain Scarborough: Medium size, good looking; father of Edward
+Scarborough, of Cathlamet; had a Chinook wife; made frequent trips to
+England in command of Hudson Bay vessels, and introduced pigs and
+Shanghai chickens from China; also took pains to bring ornamental
+shrubbery, perhaps introduced the "Mission Rose."
+
+Captain Brotchie: Another sea captain on Hudson Bay vessels;
+introduced from England the "Brotchie" potato, an early kidney
+variety.
+
+Robert Newell: A very fine man; Labonte's captain when in the Indian
+war of '56, stationed at Vancouver.
+
+Calvin Tibbetts: Came with Wyeth.
+
+Alexander Duncan: Captain of the _Dryad_; came in the river when
+Labonte lived at Scappoose; particular friend of Birnie's.
+
+Thomas McKay: About six feet tall; walked with a limp; never was
+scared; very keen eyes; shot "War Eagle" in Cayuse war.
+
+
+
+
+COMMUNICATIONS.
+
+EARLY SCHOOLS IN LANE COUNTY.
+
+
+     LATHAM, Oregon, February 6, 1902.
+
+     _Mr. Geo. H. Himes, Assistant Secretary Oregon Historical
+     Society, Portland, Oregon_--
+
+     DEAR SIR: Your letter of 3d received [asking for data on
+     early schools in Lane County.] In response would say the
+     first two schools I remember in our district were taught by
+     Mr. James M. Parker and Mr. H. Clay Huston, in a log house
+     on my claim in Lane County. The branches taught were A B
+     C's, spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar,
+     geography. I do not recollect which of these two gentlemen
+     taught first. I taught many terms of three months each in
+     various districts. In early days most districts were weak
+     financially, and but few could afford more than one term in
+     a year. Public money from school funds would not be quite
+     enough to pay the bill, and rate bill would be made for
+     balance and collected from patrons. The method of making
+     rate bills would be to average and find price per day per
+     scholar, and number of days' attendance per rate would be
+     each scholar's fee. Sometimes a subscription school would be
+     gotten [up] at so much per scholar for the term, the teacher
+     taking the subscribers for pay.
+
+     The houses were either log, frame, or box, principally log,
+     but as fast as district became able improvements were made.
+     Some had huge fireplaces where red hot coals assisted the
+     teacher's switch to keep the outer boy and girl warm while
+     he stored away his A B C's or fed his mind on ab, ib, ob.
+     Some were heated by stoves. Some would have long, narrow
+     windows, one on each side of the house, and under them long
+     desks fastened to the walls to write on, and long benches
+     for the writers to sit on; others would be constructed with
+     plenty of windows and reasonably comfortable seats and
+     desks.
+
+     The books principally used were Sanders' and Webster's
+     elementary spelling books, Sanders' first, second, third,
+     and fourth readers. I think Montieth's geographies,
+     Thompson's arithmetics, Smith's and Clark's grammars.
+     Teachers set most of copies for writers, but some copy
+     plates were used. Classes would be formed as much as
+     possible. A-B-C scholars would have to be heard singly, and
+     those just commencing to spell. Those in arithmetic would
+     have to be attended to singly except in general exercises on
+     blackboard. Four lessons a day in A B C's, spelling, first,
+     second, and third readers; two in the fourth reader,
+     besides closing spelling classes at noon and night. Often
+     these would consist of two classes, one class containing the
+     smaller, the other the larger scholars. One geography, one
+     grammar, one blackboard exercise for each class--about
+     fifteen or twenty minutes, set apart especially in fore and
+     afternoon for writers, so teachers could give them close
+     attention. Commencing with the A B C's first, after calling
+     school to order, then the spellers, next first, second,
+     third, and fourth readers; mingled with this would be the
+     necessary assistance to the arithmeticians, geographers,
+     grammarians. Classes having recited, then write geography,
+     grammar,--and blackboard exercise heard, usually in the
+     afternoon. Quiet could be better kept by requiring the
+     scholars to ask permission to speak when they wanted to
+     whisper, to leave their seats when wanting something in
+     another part of the room, or to go out when they wanted to
+     leave the room. Compositions would be better written,
+     speeches committed to memory, and read and delivered at
+     stated times; spelling schools in winter at night, and
+     sometimes examination or exhibition on last day. Christmas
+     times were apt to be jolly times. The scholars made it a
+     point to get to the schoolhouse before the teacher and
+     either bar him out or catch him before he got in, carry him
+     to a pond of water, and make him treat. Teachers would
+     sometimes board around among the scholars and sometimes
+     board at one place. The easiest, best way to control the
+     school was to make no rules only as needed; when
+     irregularity occurred, correct as required, with the
+     understanding that no such would be allowed the second time.
+
+     Patrons of the school furnished fuel, usually hauling wood,
+     wagon lengths, about ten or twelve feet long. Teacher and
+     larger scholars would chop it up for fires. Teacher or large
+     scholars did the sweeping.
+
+     Respectfully.
+
+     JOS. H. SHARP.
+
+
+
+
+THE MONTURES ON FRENCH PRAIRIE.
+
+In his history, H. S. Lyman speaks of "Montour, a character considered
+fabulous by Bancroft, but said to have made a settlement on French
+Prairie."
+
+Referring to notes given me by Mr. L. H. Ponjade, one of the old
+residents on French Prairie, I found the following:
+
+     My father, the old French doctor, had studied at Montpelier,
+     and after receiving his diploma as surgeon and physician,
+     was immediately taken into the service of Napoleon, and
+     served three years as surgeon on the army of France, mostly
+     in Spain. He naturally did not wish to serve in the army
+     again, so came to America, found his way to Oregon, and from
+     force of associations, made his home on French Prairie.
+
+     Our first camp was at the ranch of old man Monture, that at
+     that time looked like an old farm, as it was well improved.
+     Peter Depot then owned the claim where Gervais is now
+     situated, and I understood that he got it from Monture some
+     time previous to that, but do not know the particulars.
+
+     Monture had two sons, named George and Robert. Whether they
+     were both sons of the wife he then lived with I do not know,
+     as morals were rather loose previous to arrival of the
+     missionaries. There was a custom among ex-servants of the
+     Hudson Bay Company to claim a wife wherever they might be
+     among the Indians. After the arrival of Father Blanchet they
+     were allowed to have but one wife.
+
+     I remember that George Monture was a very large man and very
+     powerful; must have weighed 350 pounds. I have seen him
+     lasso wild cattle and hold them to be branded without any
+     cinch or other thing to hold the saddle on the horse. He did
+     it by mere weight and bodily strength. He would do this for
+     half a day together at a time.
+
+     Bob--as he was called--was not so large, but was stout and
+     active. He was a fine shot with his rifle.
+
+When I saw this mention of "Montour," I wrote to my old friend, L. H.
+Ponjade, to ask if his mention of Monture meant the same that Lyman
+thus referred to, and he confirms it as the same, and adds: "The old
+place where they lived was about one quarter of a mile west of
+Parkersville. Every man with any knowledge of old settlers knows of
+the Montures."
+
+     S. A. CLARKE.
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENTS.
+
+OREGON MATERIAL TAKEN FROM A FILE OF AN INDEPENDENCE (MO.) AND WESTON
+(MO.) PAPER FOR 1844 AND 1845; ALSO SOME MINOR EXTRACTS FROM OTHER
+PAPERS IN THAT VICINITY.
+
+
+During this time these towns were important outfitting points for
+Oregon pioneers. The Oregon fever was raging throughout the
+surrounding country, the frontier counties of Missouri. The
+newspapers, Democratic and Whig, in this vicinity appreciated the
+interest in the Oregon Country and in the movement of emigration
+thither. Their columns were open to reports of travelers returning
+from the Columbia. Letters sent back by pioneers in the Willamette
+Valley seemed to be in great demand. The documents printed below
+contain two noteworthy letters from persons who were in the great
+migration of 1843. Contemporary sources of the history of that epochal
+event are especially valuable.
+
+[These extracts were made from the files of these papers in the
+possession of the Missouri Historical Society, Saint Louis, Mo.]
+
+     From the _Independence Journal_, September 12, 1844.
+
+     (Vol. I, No. 1, G. R. Gibson, editor.)
+
+     "Civis," in a communication, dwells upon the importance of
+     the Independence trade in outfitting Santa Fé traders. One
+     hundred and fifty thousand dollars are annually expended at
+     Independence for this purpose. There are good reasons for
+     believing that in a few years it will quadruple that amount.
+     Concerning the outfitting of the Oregon pioneers, he says:
+
+     "The Oregon emigrants will, no doubt, continue to rendezvous
+     near this place, and will number annually 1,500 persons, the
+     outfit for which number will cost $50,000, and all of which
+     our citizens may furnish."
+
+     Mountain trade, now of inconsiderable importance, will be
+     worth $10,000 per annum. "Civis" is urging the establishment
+     of a turnpike to the Missouri River.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Independence Journal_, September 12, 1844.
+
+     OREGON TERRITORY.
+
+     Last Saturday's _Expositor_ contains a long letter from
+     Peter H. Burnett, dated Linnton, Oregon, July 25, 1844,
+     which we shall publish in our next; not having received it
+     in time for this week's paper.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Independence Journal_, September 12, 1844.
+
+     OREGON EMIGRANTS.
+
+     We have news from the Oregon emigrants up to the 3d of
+     August, at which time they left Fort Laramie. They expected
+     to reach their destination about the beginning of October.
+     They were deficient in breadstuffs and could not procure any
+     at the fort without money. They expected to obtain a supply
+     at Buffalo, five or six days' journey from the fort. Some
+     fears were entertained that the Sioux Indians would steal
+     their stock, and otherwise give them trouble. Altogether
+     they appear to have got along very well, considering the
+     unusual weather they experienced between this and the Big
+     Platte.
+
+The _Independence Journal_ of September 19, 1844, gives Peter H.
+Burnett's letter, written from Linnton, Oregon, July 25, 1844. [This
+letter was printed in the June QUARTERLY, 1903, pages 181-184 of this
+volume. It was taken from the _Ohio Statesman_, which quoted it from
+the _Washington Globe_.]
+
+In the _Independence Journal_, September 19, 1844, under the caption
+of "Independence: Its Trade and Prospects," the high state of
+prosperity of the town is spoken of. Wagon makers are employed to
+build seventy-five wagons for the Santa Fé traders by next spring, in
+place of only fifty made the present year. Santa Fé road within the
+State must be improved. United States Government should give it a port
+of entry, and the State legislature should locate a branch of State
+Bank there to accommodate Santa Fé traders and commerce of western
+part of State.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Independence Journal_, October 24, 1844.
+
+     Mr. Gilpin, of this place, who went out to Oregon about
+     eighteen months since, arrived on Tuesday last with several
+     other persons. They left Bent's Fort on the 22d of
+     September. All was quiet and well at the fort, but there
+     was a difficulty between the Santa Féans and Eutaw Indians.
+     The Spaniards had killed some Eutaws; and the head chief and
+     five other principal chiefs went to Santa Fé to receive
+     compensation. The Governor gave them what he could, or what
+     he thought was enough, and, refusing to give more, the head
+     chief, in a passion, pulled his beard, when he seized his
+     sword and killed him and another, and the guards, being
+     called, fell upon the other four and killed them. The
+     Indians who accompanied them immediately left, and killed,
+     on their retreat, several Spaniards who were going from Taos
+     to Santa Fé. Altogether they had killed ten or twelve
+     Spaniards. A war between the Indians and Santa Féans, of
+     course, was expected. Some Spaniards, who were out on a
+     buffalo hunt, met Colonel Owens' company at the Cimmaron,
+     and dispatched immediately an express to Santa Fé. They made
+     up a company at Santa Fé, on receipt of the intelligence,
+     among whom were Messrs. Chavis, Armigo, and Percas, to
+     escort him to Santa Fé; and brought out fresh mules, and
+     everything they would probably need. Colonel Owens
+     accompanied them to Santa Fé, where a ball was to be given
+     him. They met Charles Bent, Mr. Alvarez (our consul at Santa
+     Fé), and Mr. Ferguson, at Choteau's [Chouteau's] Island,
+     about three days' travel this side of Bent's Fort. Mr. St.
+     Vrais [Vrain?] was this side of Corn Creek with waggons,
+     going on well. Doctor Connolly, with Lucas, was between Ash
+     Creek and Pawnee Fork, twenty-five miles ahead of Mr.
+     Speyers' company, which was near Walnut Creek. Mr. Speyers'
+     mules were poor and much worn out; they had left several on
+     the road, beside ten or fifteen lost shortly after they left
+     Independence. All the teams of Messrs. Bent and Connolly
+     were in good order, and they were getting along well.
+
+     We are indebted to a Spaniard, who accompanied Mr. Gilpin,
+     for the foregoing. We have not heard anything of particular
+     importance from Oregon. Mr. Gilpin brought a large number of
+     letters, but we have not, as yet, been favored with the
+     perusal of any. The emigrants, we understand, were generally
+     getting along well.
+
+The _Independence Journal_, October 31, 1844, under the heading
+"Oregon and Colonel Polk," gives an extract of a speech delivered by
+Colonel Polk in Congress on a bill for extending jurisdiction of the
+laws of the United States over all the people of Oregon Territory, and
+directing officers of the Government to take possession of the mouth
+of Columbia River, and establish a fort there. This, it says, will
+show whether he (Polk) is for immediate occupation of it or not; and
+that his opinions coincide with Mr. Clay's upon this subject. Gives
+an extract of Polk's speech to substantiate its claim that Polk was no
+more radical than Clay on this Oregon question. (_Independence
+Journal_ was supporting candidacy of Clay.)
+
+_Weston Journal_, January 4, 1845 (Vol. 1, No. 1), Geo. R. Gibson,
+editor (the same who edited _Independence Journal_ in 1844), in
+leader: "To the Patrons of the _Journal_," he refers to recent
+political campaign, and says, among other things:
+
+     We shall advocate the annexation of Texas, but we wish to do
+     it without dishonor and by common consent. We shall advocate
+     the occupation of the Oregon Territory, and the erection of
+     a chain of posts from Missouri to the mountains; to protect
+     and extend facilities to companies, etc. Proposes to open
+     correspondence as soon as possible with mountain traders and
+     the settlers in Oregon.
+
+The _Weston Journal_ prospectus contained regularly this paragraph:
+
+     From the great intercourse between this place and the
+     mountains, the editor will pay special attention to the news
+     from that quarter, the Oregon Territory, and the whole
+     Indian country. The Oregon Territory, attracting at the
+     present time the public attention, the patrons of the
+     _Journal_ may expect to find in its columns everything of
+     interest which may be gathered either from public or private
+     resources, relative to a country of such vast extent, varied
+     scenery, and diversified soil and climate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Weston Journal_, January 4, 1845.
+
+     LETTER FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS, OREGON, CALIFORNIA,
+     EMIGRATION, ETC.
+
+     We publish the subjoined letter, received by one of our
+     citizens a few days since, from a gentleman who accompanied
+     the Oregon emigration last year [1843]. We give it entire,
+     that our readers may have all the information that can be
+     gathered from this section of the country. It is not so
+     favorable, in some respects, of the Oregon Territory, as the
+     accounts of others, but it is by no means disparaging. Mr.
+     Gilpin thinks that corn can be raised to advantage, and says
+     that the reason why they have none, is--because they plant
+     none. It is undoubtedly a fine country for all the small
+     grains and is unsurpassed as a grazing country. The
+     emigrants who went out the past season have made a great
+     change in business, and money now circulates on the
+     Columbia as well on this side of the mountains, and
+     everything begins to assume the appearance of civilization,
+     business, trade, and the refinements this side the
+     mountains. We see that Mr. Cushing, our minister to China,
+     has returned by way of the city of Mexico; and here we have
+     a letter from one of our enterprising citizens from the
+     _halfway house_--the Sandwich Islands.
+
+     We have been in the habit of looking to Europe for Asiatic
+     news; let our government establish a chain of posts from
+     this to Oregon, an overland mail will speedily follow, and
+     the China and East India trade will pour into our channels
+     of commerce from the gorges of the Rocky Mountains: and a
+     journey from New York to China, by way of Oregon, will be
+     less thought of than it formerly was to Saint Louis. The
+     Government should consider that a little enterprise will
+     place the East India trade at our door; and the sooner the
+     better. We hope Congress, this winter, will take active
+     measures to bring about such a state of things. What is a
+     few thousand dollars compared with the object to be
+     acquired?
+
+     LAHIANA, MAUI, Sandwich Islands, July 17, 1844.
+
+     _J. Wells, Esq._--
+
+     DEAR SIR: In a few days the first ship that has left this
+     place for the States, since my arrival here, will sail, and
+     I take this opportunity to tell you something of my journey
+     and Oregon, etc., though probably you have heard all the
+     news long before you get this. I should have written you ere
+     this, had an opportunity offered. But to tell you of the
+     trip: I left the Shawnee mission on the 29th of May; our
+     route was through the Caw Indian country, which is good, has
+     considerable timber, and is well watered. It is a bad
+     country for wagons to travel through, having so many sloughs
+     and bad creeks; the teams were often stalled, and made very
+     slow progress. We had three rivers and creeks to cross
+     before we reached the Platte River. The Platte River has
+     good grass--plenty of it--but is destitute of timber; here
+     we saw the first buffalo--they were poor and tough. We saw a
+     few of the Pawnee Indians. They are fine looking fellows,
+     and no doubt, live well on buffalo meat; they are quite
+     treacherous. We reached the crossing of Platte on the
+     twenty-sixth day of July, a little more than one month out.
+     The traveling up the Platte is very good, level, and hard.
+     We struck from this to the north fork of the Platte, one
+     day's travel. On the 13th of July we arrived at the crossing
+     of Laramie's Fork, at the fort of the American Fur Company;
+     before arriving here we saw many splendid sights; also many
+     of the dog towns that you have heard of. I saw quantities of
+     the dogs; they are small, round animals, the size of a cat.
+     Certain it is that there are owls that visit them, also
+     rattlesnakes, but for what reason is a matter of dispute.
+     After we left Laramie we came to the Black Hills, the worst
+     of all traveling,--hilly, sandy, and full of wild sage--'tis
+     death on a wagon. The country is all of this barren, sandy
+     kind, until we reach Fort Hall and destitute of timber.
+     Arrived at Fort Hall the 13th of September, after
+     experiencing some cold rains, snow, hail, etc. At Fort Hall
+     we could get no provisions, and were obliged to go down the
+     river (Snake), and depend on getting fish to subsist on;
+     this was the reason of my going to Oregon instead of
+     California. The country down Snake River is hilly, rocky,
+     sandy, no timber, but an abundance of sage, until we get to
+     the Blue Mountains; here is plenty of pine, the country very
+     broken, and bad traveling, though the wagons went through.
+     After getting through the Blue Mountains we came to a
+     splendid country of grass, where there were thousands of
+     Indian horses grazing. About twenty miles from this, we come
+     to the Walla Walla Valley. There is a missionary
+     establishment here. They raise grain and vegetables, but no
+     timber, except for firewood. About twenty miles from this we
+     came to the Columbia River. Many of the emigrants sold their
+     cattle here, and went down the river by water, as they could
+     not cross the Cascade mountains with their wagons, though
+     they could go down one hundred miles farther and then take
+     water, as many did. The country on the Columbia is only fit
+     for grazing, being good grass, but sandy soil. On the 3d of
+     November arrived at Fort Vancouver, just as the rainy season
+     had commenced; and it was very disagreeable and rained most
+     of the time I was there. I then went to the Willamette
+     Falls; quite a town here--forty houses, four stores, two
+     sawmills, one flour mill, and another to be erected soon.
+     This country is not capable of half as large a settlement as
+     people represent; there is much timber, and it can not be
+     cleared in many years, so as to be capable of great
+     production; and what prairie there is will not produce as
+     much as your land; but the wheat is better. Neither do many
+     think the soil will last long, but that it is rather
+     shallow; and there is much fever and ague. Besides, the
+     winters are so wet 'tis impossible to do much out of doors.
+     It has the advantage that grain (wheat) is worth eighty
+     cents per bushel, and cattle will winter themselves. Take it
+     all in all, 'tis nothing like your country.
+
+     After my arrival there, finding that I could not get to
+     California until spring, I concluded to take a vessel for
+     the Sandwich Islands, and then go from here to California,
+     so I concluded to stay. It [this] is a fine climate--a
+     perpetual summer, and little rain. The natives require but
+     little clothing, and, in fact, some of them do not wear any.
+
+     I hardly know what to write about Oregon, or what you would
+     like to know; though if I was where you are, and should see
+     some one from Oregon, I could ask him a hundred questions,
+     as you could me. The report of Wilkes that you had is very
+     correct. There are thousands of salmon here [Oregon]--some
+     wild game, plenty of ducks, geese, and swans, and some good
+     wet places to raise more of them--as there must be some wet
+     places, being so much rain in the winter, and no snow.
+
+     There is scarcely any corn raised--it will not do well. I
+     saw a little, but it was poor. Most other kinds of grains do
+     well. There is no money in Oregon; although most of those
+     who have been farming a few years have made property, as
+     grain is high and cattle take care of themselves, and sell
+     high. Oxen are worth $75 to $125 per yoke; beef, six cents
+     per pound. Many of the people who went to California have
+     left it and gone to Oregon. I saw many of them while there,
+     and they gave as one of the reasons of leaving--trouble with
+     the Spaniards.
+
+     Truly yours,
+
+     JOHN BOARDMAN.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Weston Journal_, January 11, 1845.
+
+     THE OREGON.
+
+     The editor of the _New York Commercial_ has read letters
+     from the Oregon Territory, brought overland and mailed at
+     the extreme western frontier of the United States. They are
+     as late as June 17th, from the Methodist missionary station
+     at Willamette. The Rev. Mr. Gary, who was sent out by that
+     missionary society, had arrived at Willamette _via_ the
+     Sandwich Islands, himself and wife in good health. Mr. Gary
+     had been but a short time in Oregon when an opportunity
+     offered of sending a communication to the Board of Missions
+     by a small party who were about to return to the United
+     States. He had, however, seen all the mission family, except
+     Rev. Mr. Perkins, who was at a distant post. The
+     missionaries and their families were in good health at the
+     date above mentioned. No event of special interest regarding
+     the mission had taken place since last previous advices. Mr.
+     Gary concurs, with several missionaries who have returned
+     from that far country, in the opinion that the natives are a
+     degraded race of beings, and that there is little prospect
+     of doing them permanent good by any ministerial labor which
+     may be expended among them.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Weston Journal_, January 18, 1845.
+
+     OREGON AND CALIFORNIA.
+
+     A gentleman well qualified for the task has prepared a
+     pamphlet, called a guide to Oregon and California, which
+     will probably be published during the present winter. The
+     readers of the _New Era_ will recollect several well written
+     communications on that subject published during the past
+     year, which emanated from the same pen. The writer has lived
+     in Oregon and California, has traveled different routes to
+     and from those regions, and is well qualified to give full
+     and satisfactory information to emigrants and other persons.
+     Success to his efforts.--_New Era._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Weston Journal_, January 25, 1845.
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     (Editorial.)
+
+     Congress may provide for the occupation of it--for the
+     formation of a territorial government--they may establish
+     posts and a military road across the mountains, and
+     encourage emigration in every possible manner, and the whole
+     will not contribute so much towards its settlement as the
+     negotiations of a treaty with China, opening to us a market
+     for our products in that country. If the one now before
+     Congress has done so, Great Britain may set her claim to the
+     Columbia--it will be a claim for but a short time. Our
+     shipping, farmers, merchants, and tradesmen will soon find a
+     road to a country possessing the advantages the west side of
+     the American continent would possess, in that event, and but
+     a short time would elapse before China would be supplied by
+     American skill and industry, from the mouth of the Columbia,
+     with all she would admit.
+
+The _Weston Journal_, March 1, 1845, under heading, "Oregon
+Territory," speaks of a bill introduced into the Senate proposing that
+Oregon include: All the territory lying west of the Missouri River
+south of the forty-ninth degree of north latitude and east of the
+Rocky Mountains, and north of the boundary line between the United
+States and Texas, not included within the limits of any State, and
+also over the territory comprising the Rocky Mountains, and country
+between them and the Pacific Ocean south of fifty-fourth degree and
+forty-nine minutes of north latitude, and north of the forty-second
+degree of north latitude, etc. [!!!]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Weston Journal_, March 1, 1845.
+
+     RAILROAD TO OREGON.
+
+     The _Philadelphia Ledger's_ Washington correspondent says
+     that Mr. Whitney, of New York, contemplates the construction
+     of a railroad from the western shore of Lake Michigan, in a
+     direct line through to the Columbia River, covering the
+     distance of some 2,100 miles, which shall be the point of
+     debarkation to China.
+
+     The cost of the road, when completed, is estimated at fifty
+     millions of dollars, and twenty-five years would be required
+     to perfect the scheme. Eight days would be about the
+     traveling time from New York City to the terminus of the
+     road, and if [steamship?] facilities were employed, some
+     twenty-five more would convey one to Amoy, in China, so that
+     by this short cut, a journey across the globe might be
+     accomplished within the narrow limit of a single month.
+
+     By the establishment of this means of communication, we
+     should be enabled to command the Chinese market, and to
+     extend our commerce with South America, Mexico, India, and
+     other parts.
+
+     And, in addition to the vast results that would necessarily
+     ensue from this work by the force of circumstances, we should
+     secure the transportation of the English trade on account of
+     the great shortening of time.
+
+     All the coöperation and assistance that Mr. Whitney asks the
+     government is a grant of sixty miles wide of the public
+     land, from one terminus of the contemplated road to the
+     other, for which a full consideration would be given in
+     carrying the mails, and transporting ammunition stores,
+     soldiers, and all public matters free of cost.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From the _Weston Journal_, March 15, 1845.
+
+     OREGON EMIGRANTS.
+
+     Preparations are making on the whole frontier, by the Oregon
+     emigrants, to leave at an early day. One company goes from
+     Savannah, another from some point between that and this, and
+     the company from this county, we understand, will leave at
+     Fort Leavenworth, or its neighborhood. One of the emigrants
+     who goes with the Savannah company informs us that not less
+     than one hundred families will leave at Elizabethtown, and
+     thirty families from the other points. The number from this
+     county we do not know. * * * A committee has submitted some
+     rules and regulations for the intending emigrants. They have
+     not yet had a meeting to adopt them, but they no doubt will
+     do so. They go about it in the right way, and the rules and
+     regulations are such as to secure order and method. They
+     expect to leave about the first of April, if the grass is
+     sufficient, or as soon thereafter as it is.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     REPORT
+
+     Of the committee appointed to draft a constitution for
+     "Savannah Oregon Emigrating Company."
+
+     Whereas, in order the better to prepare the way for and to
+     accomplish our journey to Oregon with greater harmony, it
+     was deemed advisable to adopt certain rules and regulations;
+     and whereas the undersigned, having been appointed a
+     committee to draft and prepare said rules and regulations,
+     and having given the subject that attention which its
+     importance demands, beg leave respectfully to report the
+     following as the result of their deliberations, viz:
+
+     § 1. This association shall be known by the style and name
+     of the "Savannah Oregon Emigrating Company."
+
+     § 2. Any person over the age of sixteen may become a member
+     of this company by subscribing to this constitution and
+     paying into the treasury the initiation fee of one dollar.
+
+     § 3. No person under the age of twenty-one years can become
+     a member without the consent of their legal guardian.
+
+     § 4. No person shall be admitted whose intention is
+     obviously apparent to avoid payment of his debts.
+
+     § 5. A majority of the members shall have power to expel any
+     member for good cause.
+
+     § 6. The officers of this company shall consist of a
+     president, commandant captain, lieutenant, secretary,
+     treasurer, and executive council of thirteen, the commandant
+     being one thereof, and such other inferior military officers
+     as the executive council shall determine.
+
+     § 7. The president shall be elected on the adoption of this
+     constitution, and shall continue in office until the
+     commandant captain shall be elected, when his functions as
+     presiding officer shall cease.
+
+     § 8. The secretary shall be elected on the adoption of this
+     constitution, and shall continue in office until the
+     completion of the objects of this company; and he shall keep
+     a record of the transactions of the company, and perform
+     such other duties as usually pertain to his office.
+
+     § 9. The treasurer (ditto as to election) shall collect and
+     safely keep, and at the direction of the commandant shall
+     disburse all moneys belonging to the company.
+
+     § 10. The commandant captain, lieutenant, and such other
+     military officers as the council shall determine, shall be
+     elected when the company shall assemble at rendezvous
+     preparatory to a final start; and they shall hold office
+     until the completion of their journey, and shall perform
+     such duties as usually appertain to military officers of
+     their respective grades.
+
+     § 11. The executive council, to consist of twelve men,
+     beside the commandant, shall be elected when assembled at
+     the rendezvous, and shall have general superintendence of
+     the affairs of the company, and perform such other duties as
+     may be assigned to them.
+
+     § 12. The company shall elect, at least one month before the
+     rendezvous, three inspectors (not members of the company),
+     whose duty it shall be, after taking oath, to perform all
+     duty faithfully, to inspect the wagons, teams, cattle, and
+     provisions, and report to the executive council, who shall
+     determine upon their report as regards the outfit of all
+     members of the company; said inspectors to be paid a sum not
+     exceeding one dollar for every day actually engaged in such
+     services.
+
+     § 13. The funds of the company shall be faithfully applied
+     for contingent expenses in furthering the objects of the
+     association.
+
+     § 14. The necessary outfit shall consist of 150 pounds of
+     flour, or 200 pounds of meal, and 60 pounds of bacon for
+     every person (excepting infants) in the company.
+
+     § 15. The wagons shall be expected to be able to carry
+     double the amount of their loads, and the teams to be able
+     to draw double the amount the wagons are capable of bearing.
+
+     § 16. All cattle, excepting teams in use, shall be
+     considered as common stock; an inventory of age, brand,
+     kind, and number, shall be handed in by the contributor to
+     the secretary, and at the termination of the journey the
+     company shall account to each contributor for the amount
+     inventoried.
+
+     § 17. The number of cattle thus inventoried and put in shall
+     never exceed fifty to one driver.
+
+     § 18. No ardent spirits to be taken or drank on the route,
+     except for medicinal purposes, and if smuggled in shall,
+     when discovered, be destroyed under the control of the
+     commandant.
+
+     § 19. Every person over the age of sixteen shall furnish
+     himself with a good and sufficient rifle, ---- pounds of
+     powder, and ---- pounds of lead, to be inspected by the
+     inspector, and reported on as in other cases.
+
+     § 20. All members of this association shall assemble at
+     ----, and on the ---- day of ----, 1845, and organize for
+     the final trip.
+
+     § 21. * * * This constitution may be altered or amended at
+     any time by a vote of two thirds of the members present at
+     any regular meeting of the company, or at any special
+     meeting called by the commandant.
+
+     All of which is respectfully submitted.
+
+     JAMES OFFICER,
+     WM. DEAKINS,
+     B. M. ATHERTON,
+     C. F. HALLY,
+
+     _January 4, 1845._      Committee.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From _Western Journal_, March 15, 1845.
+
+     LETTER FROM OREGON.
+
+     The following extracts from a letter written by one of the
+     emigrants of 1843, will be particularly interesting at this
+     time, and should be carefully read by those going out this
+     spring. It will be particularly useful to emigrants who
+     leave from this part of the country:
+
+     FORT VANCOUVER, November 11, 1843.
+
+     DEAR SIR: We were six months to-day, from the time we left
+     home, in getting to this place, though we might have arrived
+     one month sooner had we not unnecessarily wasted time on the
+     way. To give you a full description of our travels would
+     occupy more time than I have to spare. I will, however, give
+     you and my friends a short sketch. We left Westport on the
+     27th of May, and crossed the Kansas River near the old
+     village: thence up the north side of the Kansas, where we
+     had a great deal of rain and stormy weather to encounter
+     which made it very disagreeable traveling. We then crossed
+     over [to] the Platte, about eighty miles above the Pawnee
+     village; thence up the Platte about fifty miles above the
+     forks, where we crossed the South Fork. We then struck over
+     on to the North Fork and traveled up it until we came to
+     Fort Laramie. We then crossed Laramie's Fork of Platte,
+     which we found very difficult to pass. We still kept up the
+     North Fork to within forty miles of the Rocky Mountains,
+     where we crossed it. We came to a small stream, called
+     Sweetwater, one of the streams of the northern branch of
+     Platte; we traveled up this until we passed through the
+     Rocky Mountains, which we found to be as good as any part of
+     our road. We then came to the waters of Green River, which
+     is one of the branches of the Colorado--then to Fort Bridges
+     [Bridger], which is on the waters of Green River; from there
+     we next struck Bear River, which empties into the Great Salt
+     Lake. We traveled several days down this river, then crossed
+     over on to the Snake River, and arrived at Fort Hall on the
+     25th day of August. Here I found some of the best beef I
+     ever saw. From here we traveled down Snake or Lewis River,
+     crossing and recrossing the same to Fort Bosie [Boisé];
+     thence to Fort Walla Walla, crossing the Blue Mountains in
+     our route. We passed them much easier than I expected.
+
+     At Walla Walla myself and Reeves, and many others of the
+     emigrants, exchanged cattle [for cattle] at Vancouver. We
+     got age for age and sex for sex. Here we found it advisable
+     to take [to the] water and travel down the great Columbia,
+     which we did with some difficulty. Those who did not
+     exchange their stock went to the Methodist mission at the
+     foot of the Cascade Mountains. Here they carried their
+     wagons by water and drove their stock through by land. A
+     large portion of the emigrants have arrived, and the
+     remainder will be here in a few days. Those who have been to
+     the Willamette Valley say it is a rich and beautiful
+     country, but to what extent they know not, as they have not
+     had sufficient time to examine it. I find any quantity of
+     provisions can be had here. Doctor McLoughlin, of Vancouver,
+     has rendered great assistance to the emigrants in loaning
+     them his boats and furnishing them with provisions to take
+     back to the companies that are yet behind--at the same time
+     refusing any compensation for either. We have found the
+     Hudson Bay Company at all the forts very accommodating. The
+     road from Independence to Fort Hall is as good a road as I
+     would wish to travel,--from Fort Hall there is some bad road
+     and some good. The reason why we did not try to take our
+     wagons across the Cascade Mountains was that the season had
+     so far advanced it was thought to be a dangerous undertaking
+     through so much snow and cold weather. We will prepare a
+     road across these mountains next summer, so that the next
+     emigration can bring their wagons through without any
+     difficulty. Some of us will meet the next emigration at Fort
+     Hall.
+
+     I will now give you a description of the necessary outfit
+     each person should have to come to this terrestrial
+     paradise. Your wagons should be light, yet substantial and
+     strong, and a plenty of good oxen. Though I wrote while on
+     the Sweetwater that mule teams were preferable, but after
+     seeing them thoroughly tried I have become convinced that
+     oxen are more preferable--they are the least trouble and
+     stand traveling much the best--are worth a great deal more
+     when here. Load your wagons light and put one third more
+     team to them than is necessary to pull the load. Bring
+     nothing with you except provisions and a plenty of clothes
+     to do you one year from the time you leave. They can all be
+     had on as good terms here as in Missouri, and even better;
+     bring but few bedclothes, for they will be worn out when
+     they arrive here--they can be had here on good terms. Your
+     oxen will not require shoeing. Bring a plenty of loose
+     cattle, cows and heifers particularly, as they are but
+     little trouble and are worth a great deal. Bring mules to
+     drive your loose stock. Bring a few good American mares, but
+     use them very tenderly or you will not get them here.
+     American horses are worth considerable in this country.
+     Horses can not get here except they are well used, and you
+     should have two or three pairs of shoes and nails for them
+     and your mules. You should bring 200 pounds of flour, 100
+     pounds of bacon, for every member of the family that can
+     eat, besides other provisions. Make no calculation on
+     getting buffalo or other wild meat, for you are only wasting
+     time and killing horses and mules to get it. Have your wagon
+     beds made in such a manner that they can be used for boats;
+     you will find them of great service in crossing
+     streams--have your wagons well covered, so that they will
+     not leak, or your provisions and clothes will spoil. Have
+     your tents made water tight; start as early as possible; let
+     your teams and stock all be in good order. Start as soon as
+     your stock can get grass enough to travel on, for the grass
+     will be getting better every day until you arrive at Fort
+     Hall; after that you will find the grass bad in places until
+     you get to the Blue Mountains. You will find plenty of grass
+     from there to the Willamette Valley. Our cattle are in
+     better order than they were one month ago. Large flintlock
+     guns are good to traffic with the Snake Indians. Bring a
+     plenty of cheap cotton shirts to trade to the Indians on
+     this side of the mountains. You might start with calves and
+     kill them on the way, before they get poor, for fresh
+     eating. You will find some beans, rice, and dried fruit of
+     great use on the road. You should travel in companies of
+     forty wagons, and continue together the whole route. You
+     will find some ship biscuit to be of great use at times when
+     you can not find fuel sufficient to cook with.
+
+     Be sure and bring nothing except what will be of material
+     use to you on your journey, for, depend upon it, if you
+     overload you will lose your team, wagon, and goods. You will
+     find good stout young cows to answer in place of oxen, in
+     case you should not have sufficient; let them be about
+     middle size; let them be good, sound oxen, that have never
+     been injured. I am satisfied from the products of the
+     country that a man can live easier here than he can in any
+     part of the United States. If he raises any produce he is
+     sure of getting a good price for it in anything he may call
+     for, money excepted. There is very little money in this
+     country, though it is very little use when a man can get
+     anything he wants without it. The merchants here will sell
+     their goods cheaper for produce or labor than they will for
+     cash, because they make a profit on the commodities they
+     purchase, while there is no profit on cash. In fact,
+     business is done here altogether by exchanging commodities.
+     We can purchase anything of the Hudson Bay Company cheaper
+     by promising wheat next year than we can for cash in hand.
+     Cows are worth (that is, American,) from $30 to $50;
+     American horses from $60 to $100; oxen $60 to $80; wheat $1
+     per bushel; oats, 40 cents; potatoes, 40 cents; peas the
+     same; beef, 6 cents; pork, 10 cents; butter, 20 cents;
+     common labor, $1.50; mechanics, $2 to $3.
+
+     The next emigration will get their cattle and wagons through
+     quite easy, if they will start early and travel constantly
+     though slow; they must not push.
+
+     Persons on the north side of the Missouri should rendezvous
+     on the south side of the river, opposite the Blacksnake
+     Hills, and go up the Nemaha and strike the Platte near the
+     Pawnee village; by so doing they will avoid crossing the
+     Kansas, and avoid some bad roads, and go 100 miles nearer.
+
+     We were not troubled with the Indians in the dangerous part
+     of the country, for this reason, I have no doubt,--we kept a
+     strong guard in nighttime and a sharp lookout in daytime.
+     After we passed Green River we abandoned guarding and broke
+     up into small companies, though advised to the contrary, and
+     in passing from the Blue Mountains to the valley some of the
+     emigrants were imposed on, in fact, some of them were
+     robbed, though it was their own fault for not sticking
+     together. You should start with some medicine, for you will
+     have more or less sickness until you get to Fort Hall. Be
+     sure and take good care not to expose yourself
+     unnecessarily, for people have to go through a seasoning on
+     the road, which makes the most of them sick. We are now
+     eating apples which grew at Vancouver. They are now
+     gathering their apples, peaches, and grapes, etc.; these are
+     the only fruits tried as yet; they are fine.
+
+     The missionaries here have done more toward Christianizing
+     the Indians in five years than has been done in the States
+     in twenty years. Numbers of them who can not speak one word
+     of English hold regular family worship. They are members of
+     the Methodist Episcopal church. I am convinced it is in
+     consequence of not being able to get liquor. The Hudson Bay
+     Company and missionaries and settlers have taken a bold
+     stand against the introduction of ardent spirits into this
+     country, and I am convinced while they continue this
+     praiseworthy course we all will see more satisfaction and
+     pleasure, and our little colony will profit thereby.
+
+     S. M. GILMORE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From _Weston Journal_, April 5, 1845.
+
+     CORRESPONDENCE.
+
+     MR. EDITOR: I desire to recommend, through your paper, to
+     all emigrants to Oregon, to pass by the Council Bluffs. The
+     road from Weston to the Bluffs is now in fine order. All the
+     streams are bridged or have ferries, so that there is no
+     obstacle to cause an hour's detention until the company
+     shall reach the Bluffs. The best route is that crossing the
+     Nishnebatona at Huntseeker's Ferry; thence by the residence
+     of Major Stephen Cooper to Port au Poule, where a good
+     ferry-boat is now in preparation to cross the Missouri. From
+     the Missouri, at that point, to the Pawnee villages, the
+     road is much better than on the lower route, and the
+     distance is about the same.
+
+     ONE WHO KNOWS.
+
+     _Weston, April 2, 1845._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From _Weston Journal_, March 15, 1845.
+
+     OREGON! OREGON!! OREGON!!!
+
+     MR. EDITOR: I wish to give notice, through your paper, to
+     all those parties who intend to emigrate to Oregon, that
+     arrangements have been made to cross the Missouri River at
+     two different points, the one in Andrew, the other in
+     Buchanan County. Some of the citizens of Andrew have made an
+     arrangement with the Sacs Indians for the privilege of
+     range, wood, and water, opposite Elizabethtown.
+
+     They have promised the Indians six two-year-old beeves, to
+     be paid by that portion of the Oregon company which may
+     cross at Elizabethtown. This point is very suitable for
+     crossing the Missouri River. The rates of only about half
+     what is usual at the common ferries on the Missouri.
+
+     The company expect to rendezvous in the Indian country,
+     opposite Elizabethtown, between the first and tenth of
+     April. A number of excellent citizens expect to cross at
+     this place. This is the point from which a portion of the
+     Oregon company started last spring. Taking all things into
+     consideration, this is probably the best route to cross the
+     Missouri at Elizabethtown (where there is an excellent
+     large, new ferry-boat), and fall over on the Platte,
+     opposite the Pawnee village, and thence pass along up the
+     south side of the Platte River.
+
+     A MEMBER OF THE OREGON COMPANY.
+
+     _March 8, 1845._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From _Cherokee Advocate_, Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation,
+     February 27, 1845.
+
+     LATER FROM THE SANDWICH ISLANDS AND OREGON.
+
+     Advices are to September 4th. The United States ship
+     _Warren_, Hull, sailed on the 8th of August from Honolulu
+     for Mazatlan, by way of California. The _Delaware_, Carter,
+     which arrived at Honolulu with naval stores from Valparaiso,
+     September 1st, reports having seen a large vessel, probably
+     the United States ship _Savannah_, entering Honolulu Bay.
+     The _Polynesian_ contains intelligence from Oregon to August
+     2d.
+
+     The legislature of Oregon adjourned a few days before the 3d
+     of July, having passed some important laws. One of its acts
+     is: "Any person who shall make, sell, or give away ardent
+     spirits in Oregon, south of Columbia River, shall forfeit
+     and pay $100 for each and every such offense." The
+     legislature is called the "Legislative Committee," and
+     consists of nine persons elected by the people. The officers
+     of the Oregon Territory consist of three governors, called
+     the Executive Committee, a Supreme Judge, and a Legislative
+     Council. The laws are the same as those governing the
+     Territory of Iowa. The government is purely democratic
+     republican. Doctor Babcock is the supreme judge. The name of
+     only one of the governors, Doctor Bailey, is mentioned. On
+     the 1st of August a Belgian brig arrived at the Oregon city,
+     having on board a number of nuns and several Catholic
+     priests from Antwerp, sent out to Oregon by the church of
+     Rome.
+
+     The colony is in a most encouraging condition. The crops
+     were giving promise of an abundant harvest.
+
+     People were coming into the territory in large numbers, and
+     the country is filling up with thriving and energetic
+     colonists. Doctor Babcock, "the supreme judge," went to
+     Oregon as physician to the Methodist mission family. Doctor
+     Bailey was from this city, where his family now
+     resides.--_New York Evening Post._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From _Cherokee Advocate_, February 27, 1845.
+
+     A large company of emigrants are expected to leave
+     Independence, Missouri, about the first of May for Oregon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     From _Cherokee Advocate_, Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation,
+     February 27, 1845.
+
+     PRINTING PRESS FOR OREGON.
+
+     We see by the _Commercial_ that the proprietors of that
+     paper forwarded one of Hoe's best printing presses to Oregon
+     last week, with type, printing ink, paper, etc., for the
+     newspaper about to be established in Oregon. The paper is to
+     be connected with the missionary station there.--_New York
+     Sun, 27th ultimo._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Missouri Statesman_, September 1, 1843.
+
+     The _Western Expositor_ is the name of a new Democratic
+     paper published in Independence. Editor, Robert G. Smart,
+     Esq. It takes the place of the _Western Missourian_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     CORRECTION.
+
+     NOTE.--"William Marshal," on page 11 of the March QUARTERLY,
+     should read "James Wilson Marshall."
+
+
+
+
+     THE QUARTERLY
+     OF THE
+     OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY.
+
+     VOLUME IV.     DECEMBER, 1903     NUMBER 4
+
+
+
+
+THE ORIGIN AND AUTHORSHIP OF THE BANCROFT PACIFIC STATES PUBLICATIONS:
+A HISTORY OF A HISTORY.--I.
+
+By WILLIAM ALFRED MORRIS.
+
+
+The true student of history, when confronted for the first time with a
+statement of what purports to be an historical fact, weighs at the
+outset, as all-important, the evidence of its accuracy. If there be at
+hand no means of verifying the statement, the only ground of assurance
+is a knowledge of who is speaking, how likely he is to know the truth,
+and how well fitted he is to tell it; for to be a writer of accurate
+history one must not only know facts, but must also be truthful, and
+so far above bias upon his subject as to be able to treat it fairly,
+openly, and without false coloring of any part. It is therefore the
+first canon of historical criticism to accept as authority no
+statement unless it be known who is making that statement.
+
+The greater our interest in a given subject, the more important to us
+becomes the question of the authority for all statements concerning
+that subject. As the field of history is narrowed down to a single
+state or to a single locality, where every man may to a certain
+extent be an historian, an anonymous written account, though excellent
+in itself, will still be viewed with suspicion. The fact that there is
+a good local knowledge of the subject by no means removes the
+necessity of determining authorship.
+
+Fortunate it is for the Pacific States and Territories of the United
+States that data concerning their history from its beginning were
+collected during the lifetime of men who laid the foundations of these
+commonwealths. It is then a matter of the highest importance to the
+people of this vast empire to know who wove this material together,
+and wrote the only attempt at a full and connected history of the
+Pacific Coast which has ever been published.
+
+The completion of the Bancroft series of Pacific Slope histories, to
+which reference is here made, marks an event unique in the annals of
+history writing. At no other time and in no other land has there been
+carried to completion a work of like character and magnitude. There
+had previously been written a few histories of Oregon and California
+covering a certain period, and designed chiefly to give a treatment of
+a certain institution or political subject, but so far as the thorough
+working up of the whole ground was concerned, a virgin field presented
+itself.
+
+Moreover, the undertaking was an unusually inspiring one. It was none
+other than that of tracing from the days when Europeans first trod the
+Pacific shores of America the sequence of events by which these lands
+were acquired and occupied by their present holders, political
+governments organized, and the development of resources entered upon;
+in short, it was the following up of the successive steps by which the
+institutions and industries of a nineteenth century civilization were
+established in a western wilderness. When we remember that the greater
+part of this record could at the time of writing be made from
+information furnished directly by the men who made this history, and
+that the lack of material which so often embarrasses the writer could
+not here be a cause of complaint, we may well conclude that such an
+opportunity had never before fallen to the lot of the historian.
+
+Again, in the vast collection of historical sources into one place, as
+well as in the newness of the field and inspiring nature of the work,
+the undertaking presents a most remarkable feature. The projector of
+this enterprise was the first on the coast to undertake such a
+collection on a large scale. This fact, together with the recency of
+many of the events, which both rendered an unending number of
+eye-witnesses easily accessible for procuring personal narratives, and
+likewise caused those who possessed papers and books throwing light
+upon history, to set slight value upon them, enabled Mr. Bancroft to
+collect a library of material such as on the beginning and early
+chapters of Pacific Coast history in all probability can never again
+be equalled.
+
+Finally, in the amount of material which it presents, and in the
+extent of ground which it covers, the Bancroft series has attained
+epoch-making proportions. So closely related is the history of the
+Pacific states and territories of the United States to that of the
+regions north and south, that to insure a complete understanding of it
+required the writing also of the History of Mexico, Texas, and Central
+America, as well as that of British Columbia and Alaska. When we learn
+that two thousand different authorities were consulted in writing the
+History of Central America, and ten thousand in arranging the material
+for the History of Mexico; that in taking out material for the History
+of California eight men were employed for six years; and that in
+merely indexing the material for the History of Mexico five men worked
+ten years, we are inclined to quote approvingly these words of Mr.
+Bancroft:
+
+"I say, then, without unpardonable boasting, that in my opinion there
+never in the history of literature was performed so consummate a feat
+as the gathering, abstracting, and arranging of the material for this
+History of the Pacific States": (Bancroft's Literary Industries, 581).
+
+The history of no American locality would be considered without some
+account of its aborigines. The result, then, of this Bancroft plan has
+been the writing of the History of the Pacific slope of the continent
+from Bering Sea to Darien, with a History of the Native Races in five
+volumes as an introduction, and a half dozen volumes of sketches and
+essays by way of conclusion, in all thirty-nine octavo volumes.
+
+But this work, the greatest of the kind, few if any of whose separate
+divisions have been superseded by later works has suffered greatly in
+the estimation of historians because they do not know who is authority
+for the statements contained in them. Justice to the people of any
+state or territory whose history appears in this series demands that
+they should know in whose words it is related. A compliance with the
+reasonable expectations of the pioneers who contributed books,
+narrations, and documents to aid in the preparation of a standard
+history of their respective states calls for a public knowledge of the
+identity of the writer to the end that the volume in which their chief
+interest centers be not stigmatized as anonymous. And above all, a
+conformity with usage, not to mention an observance of the principles
+of right, requires that the author of finished work published in this
+series, or any other, should receive public acknowledgment of his
+labors and whatever of praise or blame is his due.
+
+Ten years ago it was shown in the California press that the Bancroft
+histories are not the works of the man who claims to be their author.
+But to say that "The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft" were written by
+any person other than Hubert Howe Bancroft is such a contradiction as
+to startle today the great majority both East and West whose attention
+have never been directed to the question. To determine the authorship
+of a work we are wont to consult its title page, and the title pages
+of these volumes all declare that they are "By Hubert Howe Bancroft."
+The advertising matter sent out by the Bancroft publishing
+establishment refers to them as "the writings of Mr. Bancroft," with
+never a suggestion that any other person wrote a line. The same course
+was followed in the reviews of these volumes, which at the time of
+their publication were scattered by the press throughout the length
+and breadth of the leading countries of Europe, as well as in our
+land, although here we must remember that book reviews may be but
+another name for advertising matter prepared by the publisher and
+inserted at advertising rates. In his Literary Industries, the volume
+giving an account of his literary activities, Mr. Bancroft refers to
+himself as the author (Lit. Ind., 361, 661), and speaks of his own
+writing without a clear reference to that of others (Lit. Ind., 288,
+568, 571, 653) in such terms as to give the impression that he was the
+only writer who prepared the manuscript as it went to the printer.
+True, he mentions assistants, and we can easily see, as he tells us,
+that he must have had fifteen or twenty note takers, cataloguers, and
+other library aids (Lit. Ind., 582) in order to arrange so vast an
+amount of material. When assistants are mentioned it is usually in
+words which justify the reader in the inference that these aids are
+meant (see Central America I, preface, viii; Literary Industries,
+584), and that, therefore, the assistants are in no sense authors.
+
+By a careful reading of the Literary Industries, however, we find that
+there was a class of assistants who are differentiated from ordinary
+library aids, by the statement that they were "more experienced and
+able," and whose work Mr. Bancroft describes as "the study and
+reduction of certain minor sections of the history which I employed in
+my writing after more or less condensation and change": (Lit. Ind.,
+568). But even this passage seems to indicate that the material
+prepared by these writers was rewritten by Mr. Bancroft.
+
+As a result, therefore, of the indication of the title page of these
+works, of the recognition of the public press, of the statements of
+the Literary Industries, and of Mr. Bancroft's connection with the
+work widely known through personal means, it happens that today he is
+called the "Historian of the Pacific Coast." Furthermore, he is the
+only person to whom such a title is given, being so recognized by
+newspapers, encyclopedias, and the people at large. In the minds of
+the great number, Hubert Howe Bancroft is the historian of the Pacific
+states for just the same reason that George Bancroft is the historian
+of the United States. Speaking in accord with this popular estimate of
+Mr. Bancroft's work, Wendell Phillips once called him "The Macaulay of
+the West."
+
+Nowhere, however, can there be found a statement by this historian in
+which he lays an unequivocal claim to the authorship of the works
+which have been published under his name. By his own words quoted
+above he admits that the work was, at least in part, coöperative, and
+that he was a compiler of the work of his assistants. And for any one
+man to assert authorship of the Bancroft series of histories would be
+preposterous. According to actual computation, the mere work of
+arranging the material and writing the History of the Pacific States,
+after a small army of note-takers had concluded their operations,
+represents an equivalent to the labors of one man for a hundred
+years: (Frances Fuller Victor in _Salt Lake Tribune_, April 14, 1893.)
+Moreover, the use of quotations from foreign languages, of which Mr.
+Bancroft had no knowledge, proves that parts of the work are not from
+his pen, while the different literary styles (see for example, the
+review of Oregon I in the _New York Tribune_, Nov. 26, 1886; in the
+_S. F. Argonaut_, Oct. 23, 1886; in the _Sacramento D. Record-Union_,
+Oct. 27, 1886; and in the _Portland Oregonian_, Oct. 28, 1886), and
+varying degrees of historical workmanship (Compare reviews of Oregon
+II in _N. Y. Tribune_, January, 1887; and in _S. F. Chronicle_, Jan.
+13, 1887, with reviews of other Bancroft works) clearly reveal the
+work of a number of writers.
+
+A little knowledge on this point has proved a dangerous thing for the
+reputation of the histories. Some of the newspapers of the coast have
+learned that Mr. Bancroft did not do all the writing and have even
+published the names of other authors of the series with statements
+more or less conjectural as to the writing done by them. In some
+cases, wild speculations as to the authorship of the works have been
+published. Many are under the impression that those who went about
+taking statements of pioneers and in other ways collecting material
+were themselves writing the manuscript which was published, and that
+consequently much of the history is no more critically written than an
+ordinary newspaper article, and as little known about its authorship.
+Furthermore, it is believed in some quarters that those who prepared
+narrations for Mr. Bancroft were writing history for him to publish,
+and that persons not connected with the Bancroft library were authors
+of parts of the work. In accordance with this idea, it has been
+claimed that a certain tone favorable to the Mormons which runs
+through the History of Utah is to be accounted for by the theory that
+the volume was written by some one connected with the Mormon church,
+whereas the truth is that, although the historian of that church
+prepared some data for Mr. Bancroft's use, the work was prepared in
+the library by Mr. Bancroft and one of his assistants from the annals
+in his possession (Frances Fuller Victor in _Salt Lake Tribune_, April
+14, 1893).
+
+In some instances, the histories have lost standing because of the
+assumption that Mr. Bancroft was their author. Thus statements in the
+History of California supposed to be, but now known not to be from his
+pen, have been singled out as reckless, and argument has been made
+upon the principle "false in one thing, false in all," that the seven
+whole volumes of California history are unworthy of credence (pamphlet
+proceedings of the Society of California Pioneers in reference to the
+histories of Hubert Howe Bancroft, page 10). Following this lead an
+attempt has been made to discredit Bancroft's Oregon on the ground
+that his California is said to be unreliable.
+
+Had Mr. Bancroft made public the fact that three persons besides
+himself wrote the History of California, that he was in reality the
+author of but sixty pages in the entire seven volumes of that set,
+that he had not the least claim to the authorship of the History of
+Oregon, and that the histories of the two states were in the main
+written by different persons, the fallacy of this argument would have
+been clear, estimates of the collections of matter in these volumes
+would have been made on their own intrinsic merit, and their value
+would not have been impaired by false assumptions concerning their
+authorship.
+
+A third result of this neglect of Mr. Bancroft to make public
+acknowledgment of the extent of the writings of his assistants has
+been the accusation "that he is a purloiner of other peoples' brains,"
+(_Salt Lake Tribune_, Feb. 16, 1893) and that he has made a
+reputation as an author at the expense of his assistants. Concerning
+this charge, the most remarkable ever made in the annals of American
+historical writing, the reader must be the judge after weighing all
+the facts.
+
+The writer's apology for this article is his desire to give such facts
+as he has in the hope that they will do something to clear up mistaken
+ideas concerning the authorship of these histories, that they may aid
+somewhat in forming a correct estimate of the series, and that they
+may secure for the other authors as well as for Mr. Bancroft whatever
+credit is rightfully theirs. To these ends it is to be hoped that
+those who have any additional facts will make them public. The late
+Frances Fuller Victor, one of the Bancroft corps of writers, had long
+collected material on the authorship of the histories. In preparing
+this paper, the writer has depended largely upon information furnished
+by her correspondence and papers, and by explanations given by her in
+conversation.
+
+The statement of Mr. Bancroft in the Literary Industries to the effect
+that his "assistants" merely wrote up minor topics which he then used
+in his own writing, must be taken as applying to the work as projected
+rather than as actually carried out. In a letter written in 1878
+before the final division of labor was made, Mr. Bancroft said, "When
+all the material I have is gone over and notes taken according to the
+general plan, I shall give one person one thing or one part to write,
+and another person another part": (Letter to Mrs. Victor of August 1,
+1878.) Here, it will be observed, the plan is for the "assistants" to
+do the actual work of writing history and not to prepare material for
+their chief to use in his writing. And it will shortly appear that it
+was the "assistants" who wrote the work and Mr. Bancroft who wrote the
+minor parts. To understand why the intended order was thus reversed,
+it is necessary to study the growth of the history project and to
+enter into the steps through which it was evolved.
+
+Hubert Howe Bancroft, with whose name these works are linked, and who
+has been widely credited as their author, is a native of Granville,
+Ohio, where he was born May 5, 1832, a descendent of old New England
+families through both the paternal and maternal lines. In his own
+account of his life (Literary Industries, 47-244), he tells us that
+when but three years old he could read the New Testament without
+having to spell many of the words. At the school age, however, he
+found it difficult to learn, and after a winter at the brick
+schoolhouse under the tutelage of a brother of his mother, the latter
+became satisfied that he was not treated judiciously and fairly took
+him out of school.
+
+A sister had married George H. Derby, a bookseller of Geneva, New
+York, subsequently of Buffalo, and at about the age of fifteen, the
+boy was offered the choice of preparing for college or entering the
+Buffalo bookstore. He at first chose the former course and spent a
+year in the academy of his town, but becoming discouraged in his
+study, entered the employ of Derby in August, 1848. Discharged from
+the store in six months, he returned to Ohio and acted as a sales
+agent for his brother-in-law's goods with such success that he was
+invited back to the store and became a clerk with the beginning of the
+year 1850. His father, influenced by the gold excitement, decided to
+go to California in February of that year, and with George L. Kenny,
+his closest friend, he was sent by Derby to handle books in the land
+of gold, setting out in December, 1851.
+
+After their arrival in San Francisco, Sacramento was determined upon
+as a place of business, and young Bancroft worked in the mines until
+arrangements could be made with his brother-in-law. But Derby's death
+in the meantime ended the plan, and in 1853, he set out to try his
+fortune at the newly-boomed mining town of Crescent City. Here he was
+employed as bookkeeper and bookseller, and made six or eight thousand
+dollars, most of which he subsequently lost through investing in
+Crescent City property. In 1855, Mr. Bancroft made a visit to his old
+home in the East, and his sister, in return for his assistance in
+recovering the amount of Derby's California investment, let him have
+the sum, amounting to $5,500, with which to begin business. Obtaining
+credit in New York he shipped a ten thousand dollar stock of goods for
+San Francisco, and with Kenny organized the firm of H. H. Bancroft and
+Company about December 1, 1856.
+
+From the first, Mr. Bancroft tells us, he had a taste for publishing,
+and it was but three years until the inception of what grew into the
+historical project. In 1859, Wm. H. Knight, manager of the Bancroft
+publishing department, while employed in preparing the Hand Book
+Almanac for the next year, asked for the books necessary to carry on
+the work. It occurred to the head of the firm that he would again have
+occasion to refer to books on the coast states, and he accordingly
+transferred to Mr. Knight a copy of each of the fifty or seventy-five
+books in stock that had reference to the country. Later he added to
+the number by purchases in second-hand stores, and when in the East
+secured from the bookstores of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia,
+volumes which fell under his observation. By 1862, he had a thousand
+volumes, and upon a visit to London and Paris in that year, learned
+that much more remained to be done. In 1866, he started on a search
+throughout Europe, which resulted in increasing his collection to ten
+thousand volumes. As to the field covered by these works, he says:
+
+"Gradually and almost imperceptibly had the area of my efforts
+enlarged. From Oregon it was but a step to British Columbia and
+Alaska; and as I was obliged from California to go to Mexico and
+Spain, it finally became settled in my mind to make the western half
+of North America my field": (Lit. Ind. 180). He now began the
+collection of Mexican works and the purchase of private libraries in
+the United States. In 1869, after ten years' collecting, the library
+numbered sixteen thousand volumes, about half of which were pamphlets.
+In May of the next year, these were placed on one floor of the
+Bancroft building on Market Street, and a young New Englander named
+Henry L. Oak, lately editor of a religious journal published by the
+firm, was installed as librarian.
+
+(The main facts of Oak's life, as learned by Mrs. Victor, are as
+follows: Henry Labbeus Oak was born at Garland, Maine, in 1844. His
+ancestry--including the family names of Oak, Merriam, Hastings, Hill,
+and Smith--was entirely American from a period preceding the
+Revolutionary War, being originally English and Welsh. He was educated
+at the public and private schools of his native town until, in 1861,
+he entered Bowdoin College, and was graduated at Dartmouth in the
+class of 1865. During his college course, he taught in the public and
+high schools of different towns in Maine; and after graduation, for a
+year in an academy at Morristown, New Jersey.
+
+Mr. Oak came to California by steamer in 1866, and, after some
+attempts at commercial life, broken by a long illness, again became a
+teacher. A year was spent as principal of the public school at
+Haywards, and as instructor in the collegiate institute at Napa, and
+in the spring of 1868, he became office editor of the _Occident_, a
+Presbyterian paper which the Bancroft house was then publishing for an
+association. According to Mr. Bancroft (Lit. Ind. 219), "the whole
+burden of the journal gradually fell on him." But when, owing to a
+disagreement with the religious association, the firm declined to
+publish the paper any longer, the young editor was left without
+employment. In the meantime a somewhat erratic Englishman named
+Bosquetti had succeeded Knight as custodian of the Bancroft library,
+and Oak was appointed to assist him. Upon his decamping a few months
+later, at the end of 1868, Mr. Oak was appointed to the position.)
+
+The beginning of a classification of the material in the library had
+been made by Mr. Knight, who saved clippings and arranged them in
+scrap-books and boxes. It now became Oak's duty to superintend the
+extraction of material from the volumes in his custody and to
+catalogue new books as they came in. In May, 1871, he prepared for
+publication by the firm, two guide-books for tourists. It was at the
+same time that Mr. Bancroft took another step toward the history plan.
+
+The plan of publishing a Pacific Coast encyclopedia had been under
+consideration for a year or two, and was now adopted. Mr. Bancroft
+began to look for contributors. John S. Hittell, publisher of the
+Commerce and Industries of the Pacific Coast, prepared a list of the
+principal subjects to be treated, and Oak began to gather statements
+from pioneers and contributors of every sort by issuing circulars and
+writing letters. For about a year the preparations continued. During
+the first half of 1872 Ora Oak, a younger brother of the librarian,
+together with others, extracted material on Pacific Coast voyages and
+travels. Walter M. Fisher, an educated young Englishman who came to
+the library early in the year, wrote out such travels as those of
+Bryant, Bayard Taylor, and Humboldt. The librarian, finding inadequate
+the system of indexing the library then in use, set to work to devise
+a more practical one, and spent three months in bringing it to
+perfection. This was apparently the only part of the year's work which
+proved abiding.
+
+That the material in the Bancroft library was better adapted to the
+preparation of a history than of an encyclopedia gradually appeared to
+those who came in contact with it. (Walter M. Fisher was born in
+Ulster in 1849, and was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, a member
+of an English and Scotch colony. He was educated at Queen's College,
+Belfast. Nemos remembered him as "a handsome fellow, a great eater,
+and a hard worker." Together with Harcourt, he left Bancroft's employ
+in 1874 to accept the editorship of the _Overland Monthly_. Returning
+to London in 1875, he published a clever work entitled the
+_Californians_. Subsequently he became a physician). After several
+years of suggestion, discussion, and change, Mr. Bancroft decided to
+reshape the entire plan of work accordingly. The history of the
+Pacific slope of the continent was to be written, beginning at the
+Isthmus of Panama with the first appearance of the Spaniards, and then
+taking up the successive regions to the north as their history had its
+beginning. This work, embracing an account of all the various
+republics, provinces, states, and territories along the Pacific, it
+was decided to designate as The History of the Pacific States.
+
+Heretofore, Mr. Bancroft had been known only as bookseller and
+publisher, and manager of one of San Francisco's large business
+houses. His experience in writing had been limited to the preparation
+of some material for the proposed encyclopedia. But now, when he had
+reached the age of forty years, practically all of them except the
+first sixteen, spent in the world of business, the head of the firm of
+H. H. Bancroft and Company made his first venture as a literary man,
+writing himself and rewriting the work of others. He began by
+preparing what he considered a suitable introduction to the history.
+The task was not easy, especially for one unaccustomed to write. In
+fourteen weeks he had taken out material from which he wrote three
+hundred pages of introduction to the History of Central America which
+he subsequently reduced to seventy-five pages. This seems to have been
+the only part of the work that he considered as exclusively his own
+theme: (Lit. Ind., 291). But this matter subsequently had to be
+rewritten.
+
+While writing on this volume, Mr. Bancroft became convinced that the
+history could not be complete without an account of the original
+inhabitants of the coast. To quote his own words, "I did not fancy
+them, I would gladly have avoided them. I was no archæologist,
+ethnologist, or antiquary, and I had no desire to become such. My
+tastes in the matter, however, did not dispose of the subject. The
+savages were there, and there was no help for me; I must write them up
+to get rid of them." To compile information concerning the manners and
+customs, the mythology, the language, and the antiquities of these
+aborigines, Mr. Bancroft estimated that two volumes would be required:
+(Lit. Ind., 301). The Native Races as completed is a work of five
+volumes. So much of an expansion in all of the early historical plan
+was necessary.
+
+Mr. Bancroft, wrote but two hundred and seventy out of the four
+thousand pages of the Native Races, devoting his time while that
+series was in preparation largely to a rewriting of the first volume
+of Central America, to a continuation of a summary of early voyages
+for other volumes, and to a perfection of the plan and a collecting of
+material for the histories. His relation to this work may be likened
+to that of a managing editor. He decided upon the division of labor as
+suggested by Oak or others, and required changes in the manuscript as
+completed if he considered them necessary, either for the sake of
+treatment or style, but the extent of his writing as printed in this
+work certainly falls far short of that necessary to substantiate the
+claim which he has made to its authorship. The chapter which he wrote
+was that on the Hyperboreans. As to this work, he tells us in the
+Literary Industries that during the first half of the year 1873 he
+"was writing on northern Indian matter, giving out the notes on the
+southern division to go over the field again and take out additional
+notes": (Lit. Ind. 571). As to his further connection with the work,
+he says that in December of the same year he became convinced that the
+plan of treating Indian languages adopted by Goldschmidt was not the
+proper one, and that the latter was "obliged to go over the entire
+field again and re-arrange and add to the subject matter before I
+would attempt the writing of it." (Lit. Ind., 573.) This passage
+ascribes the actual preparation of the volume to Goldschmidt, and the
+writing referred to here must have been largely in the nature of
+editorial work. It is hardly to be presumed that a man of Mr.
+Bancroft's education and slight literary experience would have
+attempted at this time anything so ambitious as the complete
+preparation of a treatise on Indian languages.
+
+We see, then, that although the influence of Mr. Bancroft was felt in
+arrangement and even in style, the Native Races was written almost
+entirely by other persons. But one would hardly suppose that such was
+the case from reading the words: "During the progress of this work I
+succeeded in utilizing the labors of my assistants to the full extent
+of my anticipations": (Lit. Ind., 304).
+
+When speaking in the Literary Industries of work done for him by
+others, Mr. Bancroft shows a habit which is derived from his long
+experience as manager of a business concern. His constant tendency is
+to speak of work done by those in his employ as his work, neglecting
+a distinction between a publisher and an author, which is a vital one.
+The reputation of a publishing house depends upon the workmanship of
+its employés, but that of an author depends solely upon his own
+talents and the work of his own hands. While a publisher may with all
+propriety speak of work done by agents as his printing, for him to say
+that writing done for him by others is his writing is a positive
+misstatement. When Mr. Bancroft paid his writers for their manuscript,
+he became its owner with full rights of publication, but no one will
+say for a moment that he thereby became the author. In speaking of the
+Native Races, as well as the History of the Pacific States, Mr.
+Bancroft often does so in such terms as to indicate that writing was
+done by him when it was his only by purchase. (Compare statements in
+Literary Industries, 303, 568, 571, and in Native Races I, preface
+xiii, with the facts as shown by the statements of different members
+of Bancroft's literary corps as to the work actually done by each
+writer and as given later in this article.)
+
+The division of responsibility for collating and arranging facts for
+the various divisions of the Native Races was made apparently toward
+the latter part of the year 1872. We are told that routine work was
+laid aside for three or four weeks in the middle of the summer, and
+this time devoted to placing the library in order and cataloguing the
+new books which had been added. This was obviously done preparatory to
+entering upon the new work. To a young Englishman who called himself
+T. Arundel-Harcourt, and who entered the library in November, was
+assigned the preparation of that portion of the work devoted to the
+manners and customs of the civilized nations. (This man's true name he
+did not reveal. His collaborator Nemos says that he attended a
+boarding school, and then continued his studies in Germany, at
+Heidelberg, according to his own account. He claimed to have come to
+America with $5,000 in pocket money, and found his way first to
+Montana. On his arrival at San Francisco he entered the library.
+Leaving in 1874 to assume editorship of the _Overland Monthly_ with
+Fisher, he was soon back in Bancroft's employ. Naturally he was the
+most able of the library corps. But while he was brilliant, handsome,
+and witty, he was at the same time erratic and unreliable. He died in
+1884.)
+
+Mr. Fisher's part was mythology, while the division of the work
+relating to language was given to Albert Goldschmidt, a German, who
+had been employed in the library since the end of 1871. (According to
+Nemos, Goldschmidt was said to have been the son of a Jewish clothing
+dealer at Hamburg. In early life he ran off to sea, and claimed to
+have become master of a vessel. He had acquired much general
+knowledge, and was musically inclined, often singing in church choirs.
+Before coming to the library Nemos says that he led a "vagarious life"
+in Nevada. As a linguist he had great ability, and was able to
+translate almost any language which he encountered, but was inclined
+to fritter away his time. Nemos declared him "the most systematic
+idler in the library." This failing brought about his discharge. Later
+he became a mining superintendent in Chihuahua.) Mr. Oak took the
+subject of Antiquities and Aboriginal History (preface to Native Races
+I, p. 13).
+
+The undertaking was an enormous one, because of the vast quantities of
+material to be handled, as well as the inexperience of the workers,
+which made it necessary for them to devise their own system as they
+proceeded. It is said that by an actual calculation the sum total of
+all the labor expended upon each of the five volumes of the series
+represents an equivalent to the work of one man for ten years.
+(Literary Industries, 305). Indeed, Mr. Bancroft's own reason for
+entrusting this work to others is that it would have taken him a half
+century, leaving his main work untouched. Mr. Oak's indexing system
+proved a great labor saver, as by it the indexers went through all the
+material, classifying and making references. They were followed
+immediately by note-takers, who copied the facts indicated in these
+references. The writers then had the data placed before them for
+arrangement. When Mr. Bancroft's chapter on the Hyperboreans was
+completed he went over it with them, all making criticisms and
+suggestions to be adopted in the arrangement of the other divisions as
+well as that one. By this means was the library system perfected, a
+common method developed, and a corps of library workers trained: (Lit.
+Ind., 304).
+
+The Native Races was very much in the nature of a compilation, and our
+knowledge concerning the authorship of its various parts is
+necessarily less exact than is true of any of the other Bancroft
+works. Such facts as are at hand come from two schedules--one of his
+own works, the other of that of the corps generally--prepared by
+William Nemos, a gifted Swedish writer who entered the library in
+1873, subsequently becoming Oak's chief assistant, and ultimately his
+successor in the librarian's office; from separate information gained
+by Frances Fuller Victor as to the part of the work done by Oak. (This
+consists of three different statements, one in a letter to a friend,
+another in an autobiographical sketch, and a third in a statement
+copied by Mrs. Victor. Mr. Oak himself refuses to give testimony,
+doubtless on account of his former intimate personal connection with
+Mr. Bancroft and his acquiescence in the plan followed, as well as his
+poor health, which renders him unwilling to enter into a discussion
+of the question, and from statements in an autobiography of Thomas
+Savage, chief Spanish interpreter in the library after August, 1873.)
+
+The facts as deduced from these sources show that Oak wrote more of
+the Native Races than any one else, two fifths of the entire work, or
+to be exact, fifteen hundred and ninety-seven pages out of four
+thousand. While engaged in this writing, it must be remembered that he
+also acted as "chief assistant to Mr. Bancroft, manager of all details
+of this work, as well as that on the History, overseer of the corps of
+workers, and chief proof reader," duties which so engrossed his time
+that he wrote principally between eight o'clock in the evening and
+midnight. The fourth volume on Antiquities is his work entire, as is
+also the fifth on Primitive History, except the introductory chapter
+on the Origin of the Americans, in the preparation of which it would
+appear that Bancroft had a hand (Lit. Ind., 570), and the last three
+chapters dealing with the tribes of Central America, the authorship of
+which the writer has no means of determining. Nemos says, however,
+that he prepared "a good deal of clean manuscript" for this volume as
+well as for some others.
+
+To Harcourt the division of the field as already given points as the
+author of the second volume. Oak wrote the introductory chapter
+entitled General View of the Civilized Nations, and also the chapter
+on the Aztec Picture Writing and Maya Arts Calendar and Hieroglyphics.
+Bancroft is the author of the chapter on Savagism and Civilization,
+and Nemos is to be credited with the writing of some parts. As
+Harcourt wrote six hundred and thirty-six pages of the Native Races,
+and there appears but one reference to his writing in connection with
+another volume, and that a chapter of a hundred and fifty pages, we
+may conclude that the remainder of Volume II is from his pen.
+
+With Fisher rests the credit for the authorship in the main of the
+Mythology portion of the third volume. Nemos relates that Fisher
+sought his aid for this work soon after he came to the library,
+believing that his previous training in philosophy fitted him for
+mythology, and that Fisher obtained for him the continuation of the
+volume, when in October, 1874, he left it "half finished" to accept
+the editorship of the _Overland Monthly_. Nemos then being new to the
+work, Harcourt revised his manuscript.
+
+To Goldschmidt had been assigned the task of writing the treatise on
+Indian languages for the third volume. The evidence of Nemos shows
+that Goldschmidt prepared this part of the work, although the
+quotation from the Literary Industries already given seems to show
+that it was revised throughout once, and afterward rewritten, in part,
+at least, by Bancroft. Goldschmidt also prepared the ethnographical
+map of the coast.
+
+Of the first volume, Oak wrote about half of the preface, and the
+chapter on the Columbians, Harcourt the chapter on the Californians,
+and Nemos and Savage the remainder, with the exception of a few slight
+parts prepared by others.
+
+In a compilation like the Native Races, there was of necessity much
+matter printed in such a form that those who prepared it could not
+claim the authorship. Of this character were the contributions of Mr.
+Savage, the Spanish expert. Nemos also claimed to be the author of
+parts of every volume except the fourth, but from his own statements
+we learn that much of his work, like Savage's, consisted in making
+translations.
+
+The public acknowledgment made in the introduction of this work
+concerning the part done by the several writers would be fair, if we
+overlook the fact that its wording tends to give an exaggerated idea
+of Mr. Bancroft's part in it--were the name of the latter but printed
+on the title page as editor or compiler. But by omitting either word
+he has announced himself to the world as author. His own explanation
+for this seems to be that he considers himself responsible for the
+work in treatment and style (Native Races I, Preface XIII), but the
+real reason is no doubt to be found in a desire to give the work
+standing in the literary world by ascribing it to one name already
+quite widely known among book dealers and publishers.
+
+As regards scientific merit these volumes can not make great claims.
+No serious attempt was made to collect facts concerning the American
+Indians of the West at first hand. Mr. Bancroft made no pretensions as
+an antiquarian or ethnologist, content with compiling what others had
+written and thus discharging his duty toward the introductory part of
+his work that he might the sooner take up the more serious task of
+writing the histories. Different parts of the Native Races differ
+greatly in value. Oak was habitually scholarly and always made an
+effort at honest research. Nemos was likewise thoroughly reliable.
+Goldschmidt was noted for his shiftlessness, and Fisher and Harcourt
+are charged with such uncritical methods as the incorporation in their
+writings of statements found in magazine articles which were nowhere
+verified. (Mrs. Victor had learned of this.) The last three must,
+therefore, be considered clever and brilliant writers rather than
+critical historians.
+
+The chief value of the Native Races consisted in the fact that it
+presented in accessible form a classified collection of all the facts
+known concerning the Indians of the Pacific slope. Philosophers who
+made use of these facts in their generalizations, while prizing the
+work highly, were not, however, especially concerned as to how it was
+written. In the East and in Europe the discovery was not made that it
+is merely a compilation. The Native Races was regarded as a work of
+great learning (see Literary Industries, 335, 356) and its authorship
+ascribed to Hubert Howe Bancroft in accordance with a literal reading
+of its title page. The five volumes were published at three-month
+intervals between October 1, 1874, and Christmas, 1875. Just before
+the first volume appeared, Mr. Bancroft made what he called a literary
+pilgrimage to the Eastern States to bring himself and the work to the
+notice of the great literary men there. He also made arrangements for
+publication in France and Germany simultaneously with the issuing of
+the volumes in New York. This was the result as told in his own words:
+"Never probably was a book so generally and so favorably reviewed by
+the best journals in Europe and America. Never was an author more
+suddenly or more thoroughly brought to the attention of literary men
+everywhere": (Lit. Ind., 361.)
+
+As director and manager of the Native Races, Mr. Bancroft performed a
+literary service of great importance and in such a capacity richly
+deserved the unsparing praise which was showered upon him. But the
+commendation and honor bestowed upon him as author of the work we must
+in all fairness regard as quite a different matter. According to his
+own statement (Lit. Ind., 361), this must be considered as the status
+generally assigned him and the basis upon which he was presented with
+a number of complimentary certificates and honorary diplomas, among
+them being honorary membership in the Massachusetts Historical
+Society, the American Antiquarian Society, and the Buffalo Historical
+Society, and the honorary degree of Master of Arts at Yale.
+
+So far as the question of authorship was concerned, all reviews and
+general press mention of subsequent Bancroft publications followed
+along the same line as the reviews of the Native Races, recognizing
+Mr. Bancroft alone as the author. We may, therefore, conclude as does
+he himself (Lit. Ind., 361, 661) that it was his being accredited with
+the authorship of the Native Races which made for him his literary
+reputation. It has been shown that this credit depended in turn upon
+the fact that his own name was on the title page as author instead of
+managing editor. The facts show, therefore, that Mr. Bancroft was
+assisted largely by his corps of writers even in the revision of
+manuscripts, that due credit has never been given Oak, Fisher,
+Harcourt, Goldschmidt, and Nemos, who, aided by a number of compilers
+and writers of fragmentary bits, are the true authors of the work, and
+that the rise of the fame of Hubert Howe Bancroft as an historical
+writer was founded upon a popular misconception, both as to the nature
+of his first work and his connection with that work.
+
+Just as fast as the members of the library force ended their
+respective labors on the Native Races, they were set to work taking
+notes for the history, Mr. Oak continuing to act as manager of detail
+as heretofore. The system of note-taking was perfected by Mr. Nemos
+and now included a boiling down process by which new members could so
+prepare rough material as to permit writers to turn out manuscript
+more quickly.
+
+Laying aside for the time being the work on Central America and
+Mexico, Bancroft and Oak decided to direct the activities of a library
+force now thoroughly trained to the material on California, since
+California history is the starting point for that of a number of other
+states, including Northern Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, and more
+especially because the mass of original material collected for this
+state was greater than for any other, a fact necessitating the
+reduction to a minimum of the possibility of its accidental
+destruction while yet unused: (Lit. Ind., 583.) The actual
+organization of the material on the Southwest, including the writing
+of the history of the Northern Mexican states and Texas down to 1800,
+together with the Spanish and Mexican annals of Arizona, New Mexico,
+California, and the Northwest Coast, was entrusted to Oak as his
+special field.
+
+The story of the collection of this California material as told by Mr.
+Bancroft (Lit. Ind., 365 and sq.) is one of the most interesting
+connected with the history enterprise. In October, 1873, there had
+entered his service one Enrique Cerruti, an erratic individual, born
+in Italy, but intimately acquainted with the ways of Spanish-Americans
+through a long residence in Bolivia, under the government of which
+state he had served in a diplomatic capacity. Cerruti's diplomacy was
+turned toward the securing of historical facts in the possession of
+the old Spanish residents of California, and the first task set for
+his craft was to gain the coöperation of General Vallejo, a native
+Californian, early alcalde at San Francisco, and colonizer of Sonoma.
+After several months' negotiations, his efforts were rewarded by a
+personal narrative from Vallejo, by the gift of his papers, and by his
+enthusiastic support in gaining the aid of other Californians of his
+own race. Among those who furnished dictations at his instance were
+two of his brothers, and his nephew Alvarado, Governor of California
+under Mexican rule. For two years Cerruti and Vallejo worked together
+collecting, their time being divided between Sonoma, San Francisco,
+and Monterey, from which centers they made divers excursions. It seems
+that the wily Italian, together with other representatives of Mr.
+Bancroft, sometimes gained possession of valuable manuscripts by such
+indirection as to cause much dissatisfaction on the part of the
+original owners.
+
+The official Spanish records of the country which had been turned over
+to the United States Surveyor General at San Francisco consisted of
+four or five hundred volumes. To copy these, twelve Spaniards worked
+for a year under the direction of Mr. Savage,[40] "the greatest single
+effort" ever made in connection with the Bancroft enterprise. The
+mission records in possession of the archbishop of San Francisco were
+copied by Mr. Savage and three assistants in a month. In quest of data
+on Southern California, Bancroft and Oak took a trip to San Diego
+early in 1874, returning overland and visiting depositories of
+records. On this tour, Judge Benjamin Hays of San Diego turned over to
+Mr. Bancroft his historical collections, and subsequently directed the
+collecting in the south. The most efficient of the assistants employed
+by him was Edward F. Murray who, among other services, copied the
+records of the Santa Barbara missions. In March, 1877, Mr. Savage
+began work on the civil and ecclesiastical archives at Salinas,
+continuing the work at San José, Santa Cruz, and Sacramento. With
+others, he obtained dictations of the highest importance from native
+Californians and others, and in 1877 and 1878 spent eight months in
+that work, visiting all the missions from San Diego to San Juan
+Bautista with the exception of San Fernando and Purisima.
+
+While his aids were thus gathering the material upon which the History
+of California is founded, Mr. Bancroft, as he tells us (Lit. Ind.,
+657-663), was devoting his attention more especially to the gaining of
+information concerning the proceedings of the two vigilance committees
+that held sway in San Francisco in the "fifties," by no means an easy
+task, since the acts of both of these organizations were illegal and
+their surviving members could not be expected to talk very freely,
+even after a lapse of twenty years. After considerable urging,
+however, those who had custody of the records were induced in the
+interest of history to turn them over for Mr. Bancroft's inspection.
+This material was made use of in the supplemental volumes on Popular
+Tribunals; in the first writing of which Mr. Bancroft was himself
+engaged from 1875 to 1877. Like his manuscript for Central America,
+however, this work had to be revised before its publication ten years
+later.
+
+At an early date, Mr. Bancroft tells us (Lit. Ind., 623-628), he had
+corresponded with the heads of governments lying within his territory.
+The presidents of the Mexican and Central American republics and the
+governors of all the states had accorded him every facility. In 1874,
+especially favorable letters were received from the presidents of
+Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, the latter appointing a special
+commissioner to secure and ship documents.
+
+The great mass of California matter, at first so voluminous as to be
+appalling, was now in hand, and in 1878 Mr. Bancroft turned his
+attention to the Northwest. Upon a visit to British Columbia in that
+year, he obtained access to the official records of the province, took
+the reminiscences of many old fur traders, secured the papers of
+others, and had help from several who had undertaken to write a
+history of the country: (Lit. Ind., 534; Hist. N. W. Coast, preface,
+viii). It was from this data that Mr. Bancroft in the years
+immediately following wrote, with the aid of some other writers, the
+History of the Northwest Coast, and the History of British Columbia,
+volumes constituting the great part of the work of which he can claim
+the actual authorship: (See Lit. Ind., 549.)
+
+The history seeker had already secured the writings of Gov. Elwood
+Evans of Washington Territory. Crossing the straits from Victoria, he
+made some collections about Puget Sound, and then went to Portland and
+Salem, accompanied by Amos Bowman, a stenographer who subsequently
+became one of the writers in the library and prepared some manuscript
+for the History of British Columbia. (Bowman was a Canadian with some
+experience in government surveys and mining explorations. Before
+joining Mr. Bancroft on this expedition, he was located at Anacortes,
+Washington.) The Oregon Pioneer Association was then in session at
+Salem, and a number of its members furnished dictations. The
+secretary, J. Henry Brown, was engaged to copy documents in the state
+archives (Lit. Ind., 540-546). He subsequently made this matter the
+basis of a book which he himself published on Oregon history.
+
+After dictations had been secured in passing through Southern Oregon,
+the Oregon material at Mr. Bancroft's disposal was further increased
+on his return to San Francisco by the employment of Frances Fuller
+Victor, a writer of experience and author of several books on Oregon,
+who, during a residence of more than ten years in the state, had
+collected data with the intention of herself writing and publishing
+its history. As by her researches she had become familiar with the
+history of the entire northwestern part of the United States, the
+working up of this field was assigned her just as the southwest had
+been assigned to Oak.
+
+(Frances Fuller was born in the township of Rome, New York, May 23,
+1826. She was a near relation of Judge Reuben H. Walworth, Chancellor
+of the State of New York, and through her ancestor, Lucy Walworth,
+wife of Veach Williams, who lived at Lebanon, Connecticut, in the
+early part of the eighteenth century, claimed descent from Egbert,
+the first king of England. Veach Williams himself was descended from
+Robert Williams, who came over from England in 1637, and settled at
+Roxbury, Massachusetts.
+
+When Mrs. Victor was thirteen years of age, her parents moved to
+Wooster, Ohio, and her education was received at a young ladies'
+seminary at that place. From an early age she took an interest in
+literature, and when but fourteen years old, wrote both prose and
+verse for the county papers. A little later the _Cleveland Herald_
+paid for her poems, some of which were copied in English journals.
+
+Mrs. Victor's younger sister, Metta, who subsequently married a
+Victor, a brother of Frances' husband, was also a writer of marked
+ability. Between the two a devoted attachment existed, and in those
+days they were ranked with Alice and Phoebe Carey, the four being
+referred to as Ohio's boasted quartet of sister poets. The Fuller
+sisters contributed verse to the _Home Journal_ of New York City, of
+which N. P. Willis and George P. Morris were then the editors. Metta
+was known as the "Singing Sybil." Both sisters were highly eulogized
+by Willis, who regarded them as destined for a great future as
+writers.
+
+In her young womanhood Frances spent a year in New York City, amid
+helpful literary associations. Being urged by their friends, the two
+sisters published together a volume of their girlhood poems in 1851.
+In the more rigorous self-criticism of later years, Mrs. Victor often
+called it a mistaken kindness which induced her friends to advise the
+publication of these youthful productions. But in these verses is to
+be seen the true poetic principle, and their earnestness is especially
+conspicuous.
+
+Metta Fuller Victor, after her marriage, took up her residence in New
+York City, and continued her literary work both in prose and in
+verse. Frances' husband, Henry C. Victor, a naval engineer, was
+ordered to California in 1863. She accompanied him, and for nearly two
+years wrote for the San Francisco papers, her principal contributions
+consisting of city editorials to the _Bulletin_, and a series of
+society articles under the _nom de plume_ of Florence Fane, which, we
+are told, by their humorous hits, elicited much favorable comment.
+
+About the close of the war, Mr. Victor resigned his position and came
+to Oregon, where his wife followed him in 1865. She has often told
+how, upon her first arrival in this state, she recognized in the type
+both of the sturdy pioneers and of their institutions something
+entirely new to her experience, and at once determined to make a close
+study of Oregon. As she became acquainted with many of the leading men
+of the state, and learned more and more about it, she determined to
+write its history, and began to collect material for that purpose.
+
+Her first book on the history of Oregon was The River of the West, a
+biography of Joseph L. Meek, which was published in 1870. Many
+middle-aged Oregonians tell what a delight came to them when in
+boyhood and girlhood days they read the stories of Rocky Mountain
+adventures of the old trapper Meek as recited by this woman of culture
+and literary training, who herself had taken so great an interest in
+them. The book was thumbed and passed from hand to hand as long as it
+would hold together, and today scarcely a copy is to be obtained in
+the Northwest. Intensely interesting as The River of the West is, the
+chief value of the work does not lie in this fact, but rather in its
+value to the historian. Meek belonged to the age before the pioneers.
+It was the trapper and trader who explored the wilds of the West and
+opened up the way for the immigrant. Later writers freely confess
+their indebtedness to Mrs. Victor's River of the West for much of
+their material. The stories of the Rocky Mountain bear killer, Meek,
+romantic though many of them are, check with the stories given by
+other trappers and traders, and furnish data for an important period
+in the history of the Northwest.
+
+In 1872 was published Mrs. Victor's second book touching the
+Northwest, All Over Oregon and Washington. This work, she tells us in
+the preface, was written to supply a need existing because of the
+dearth of printed information concerning these countries. It contained
+observations on the scenery, soil, climate and resources of the
+Northwestern part of the Union, together with an outline of its early
+history, remarks on its geology, botany, and mineralogy, and hints to
+immigrants and travelers. Her interest in the subject led her at a
+later date to revise this book and to publish it again, this time
+under the title Atlantis Arisen.
+
+In 1874 was published Woman's War With Whiskey, a pamphlet which she
+wrote in aid of the temperance movement in Portland. Her husband was
+lost at sea in November, 1875, and from this time, she devoted herself
+exclusively to literary pursuits. During her residence in Oregon she
+had frequently written letters for the San Francisco _Bulletin_ and
+sketches for the _Overland Monthly_. These stories, together with some
+poems, were published in 1877 in a volume entitled The New Penelope.
+
+This last volume was printed by the Bancroft publishing establishment
+in San Francisco. The Bancrofts were an Ohio family of Mrs. Victor's
+early acquaintance. Hubert Howe Bancroft now laid before her his plan
+for writing the history of the Pacific slope, and asked her to work on
+the part concerning Oregon. In 1878 she entered the Bancroft library.
+Leaving the library at the completion of the work, in 1890 she
+returned to Oregon and was employed by the state in 1893 to compile
+her History of the Early Indian Wars of Oregon, a volume which was
+published by the State Printer the following year. She continued to
+write for the Oregon Historical Quarterly up to the time of her death.
+Her last published work was a small volume of poems printed in 1900,
+and selected from the many metrical compositions which she had written
+for newspapers and magazines through a period of sixty years. She was
+an able writer of essay, and possessed an insight into the evolution
+of civilization and government rare, not only for an author of her
+sex, but for any author. Combining the qualities of poet, essayist and
+historian, she occupied a position without a peer in the annals of
+Western literature. She died at Portland, Oregon, November 14, 1902).
+
+Data on Alaska and the Russian Colony at Fort Ross, California, were
+being collected and translated during these years by Ivan Petroff, a
+highly educated Russian some time resident at Cook's Inlet. Material
+from Russia was furnished by the savant M. Pinart who had made a
+special study of Alaska, and Petroff prepared translations. In 1878 he
+visited Alaska in search of more material, and spent the year 1879 and
+part of 1880 in Washington extracting matter from papers, the
+existence of which he had discovered on the northern trip; (Lit. Ind.,
+551-561.) Petroff had begun the writing of this material and had done
+part of the Alaska volume when he left the library to become
+supervisor of the census of 1880 in the Northern Territory, leaving
+Mr. Bancroft and others to bring this part of the work to completion.
+
+(The main facts of Petroff's life which had been a very eventful one
+are here taken from Bancroft's Literary Industries, 270-272. He was
+born at St. Petersburg in 1842, his father being a soldier. His mother
+died in his infancy, and at the age of five, he was placed in the
+military academy of the first corps of cadets at St. Petersburg. Left
+an orphan when but a boy by the death of his father at the battle of
+Inkerman, a remarkable talent for languages secured his transfer to
+the imperial academy of sciences for training as military interpreter.
+A serious illness caused an impediment in his speech which ended such
+prospects, but he was nevertheless permitted to continue his studies
+and became amanuensis for Professor Bohttink while engaged in the
+preparation of a Sanscrit dictionary. Attached subsequently to M.
+Brosset, who was making a study of Armenian antiquities and
+literature, he became so proficient in the language that he was chosen
+to accompany his superior on a two-year scientific expedition through
+Georgia and Armenia. He was then sent to Paris to St. Hilaire with
+part of the material obtained, thence sailing for New York in 1861.
+After working a short time on the _Courier des Etats Unis_, he
+enlisted in the seventh New Hampshire regiment. By hard study he
+mastered the language, after writing letters for the soldiers as a
+means of practice, and acquired a proficiency in the use of English
+such as one seldom meets with in a foreigner. From private he became
+corporal, then sergeant and color bearer, a rank which he held in
+1864, when his company was sent to Florida. He took part in all the
+battles fought by Butler's army and was twice wounded. After the
+battle of Fort Fisher, he was promoted to a lieutenancy. Mustered out
+in July, 1865, he returned to New York, and accepted a position for
+five years with the Russian American Company at Sitka, believing that
+this region was sooner or later to pass to the United States. On the
+way to Alaska he was delayed and improved the time by making a
+horseback tour of Northern California, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon.
+Finding his position filled when he arrived at Sitka, he was given
+charge of a trading post on Cook's Inlet until the transfer of the
+territory to the United States in 1867. Subsequently Petroff was
+appointed acting custom officer on Kodiak Island and was put in charge
+of the seized barkentine Constitution, with which he arrived in San
+Francisco in October, 1870. Mr. Bancroft at once sought his services
+as Russian interpreter for the library. After his return to the
+government service in the north, he distinguished himself both in 1880
+and 1890 by his zeal in securing information concerning Alaska desired
+by the census bureau, and several times risked his life in this
+service. Returning to Washington he was subsequently employed both by
+the census bureau and the state department. With one exception, the
+Utah volume, this was the last of the series of history proper to the
+actual authorship of any considerable part of which Mr. Bancroft can
+lay claim.)
+
+So great was the opposition created among Gentiles in Utah by a turn
+in the Bancroft history more favorable to the Mormons than they
+considered fair, and so many and so fierce the charges against Mr.
+Bancroft in consequence, that he has apparently been very careful to
+give, in the Literary Industries (pp. 631-640), an extended account of
+the manner of collecting the material for the History of Utah. Here he
+tells us that, at an early date in the development of the history
+project, he realized the difficulty of gaining data on Mormon history,
+an obstacle apparently so great as to be insuperable. For though the
+Mormon church have a regular historian, whose duty it is to preserve
+their archives, the director of the Bancroft project at once perceived
+the objections which would be made to the turning of this material
+over to be written up by one not in sympathy with their faith. But he
+must have seen very clearly that a Gentile history of Utah not
+unfavorable to the Mormons was the one thing they desired above all
+else. Accordingly, in 1880, he tells us that he succeeded in showing
+to their satisfaction that he was not prejudiced against them, and
+asked Orson B. Pratt, official historian of the Mormon church, for the
+desired information. John Taylor, president of the church, called a
+council of its twelve apostles, with the result that it was agreed to
+comply with the request, and Franklin D. Richards was sent to San
+Francisco as Professor Pratt's representative, to furnish the Bancroft
+library with such material as was desired from the official church
+records.
+
+The year 1880 is an important one for the history project in another
+and more important respect also. The end of that year found definite
+plans made for the publication of the History of the Pacific States.
+Mr. Bancroft had long since decided that, unlike the Native Races,
+this work should be handled exclusively by his own house, and Mr.
+Nathan J. Stone was placed in charge of the publication department of
+the firm, now A. L. Bancroft and Company, to attend especially to this
+matter. The date of commencement of work by the printers Oak sought to
+have deferred that there might be no haste in searching out and
+digesting facts, but against his advice Bancroft determined to begin
+the publication of the series in 1882, impatient doubtless at the
+prospect of a deferred return from his large financial investment in
+the work, and somewhat fearful, as he tells us, lest through some
+calamity it might never come to publication.
+
+This decision for an early beginning of publication with the general
+change in plan which it brought, rendered Mr. Oak's complicated tasks
+too severe, as he was now in failing health. The work of taking notes
+on the vast amount of material on California and the Spanish Southwest
+generally had been finished some time before, and, as Oak had now
+completed his preliminary researches, he determined to give up part of
+his duties that he might have time to write the volume covering his
+field. To Mr. Nemos, who up to this time had been employed chiefly on
+the Mexican volumes, was accordingly turned over the general direction
+of the half-dozen younger writers, together with the plans of writing,
+and the management of the note-takers, a change which gave him all
+interior supervision except over special departments attended to by
+Mr. Bancroft--such as the work of Oak and Mrs. Victor. Nemos had
+wonderful ability for drilling men into a common method and served as
+director of library detail "with remarkable ability and success."
+
+(This was Oak's expression. All who speak of Nemos have much
+commendation for his ability. He was born in Finland, February 23,
+1848, the son of a nobleman. German and piano lessons were first given
+him by his mother, who belonged to a wealthy family of good stock.
+After a year's study in a private school at St. Petersburg, he
+returned home to attend school, and later took a course at the
+gymnasium, or classic high school, at Stockholm preparatory to
+entering Upsala university, where a brother was at the time in
+attendance.
+
+This ambition was not to be attained, however, for in his seventeenth
+year, family matters compelled him to give up his studies, and a place
+for him was found in a London commission and ship-broker's office by a
+family friend who believed that the acquisition of English and a
+business experience would be of the greatest advantage to the young
+man. Rather than drag the family title into the by-ways of trade, he
+laid it aside and assumed the name of Nemos.
+
+Evening and leisure hours were now devoted to the study of philosophy
+and kindred higher branches under an Upsala graduate. After a business
+training of eighteen months, he was transferred to a responsible
+position in a house trading with India. When five years had been
+spent in this capacity, the fear of consumption induced him to take a
+long sea voyage, and in the spring of 1870 he left Liverpool by
+sailing vessel for Australia, arriving at Melbourne in the third month
+out. A venture at mining resulted disastrously through the dishonesty
+of his partners, and after a stop at Sydney, he came to San Francisco,
+where he landed in the summer of 1871. He had completed an engagement
+as assistant civil engineer on a proposed railroad in Oregon when he
+returned to California and accepted a position in the library. Nemos
+is described as retiring in all his tastes and enthusiastic as a
+student. He was especially fond of philosophy and languages, and had a
+knowledge of all the principal tongues of Europe.)
+
+Oak, although he now considered himself chief only in name, still
+acted as librarian, business agent for most of the intercourse with
+the printing house, and reviser of the final proofs of all the
+volumes.
+
+For protection against fire, the library was in October, 1881, moved
+to a building constructed for its reception on Valencia Street. At the
+same time, the printers began work on the first volume to be
+published, Central America I, which was immediately followed by Mexico
+I. After that time Mr. Bancroft (Lit. Ind., 585,) gave out for the
+press whatever was most convenient, so that frequently parts of
+several volumes were in type at one time. When the printing began,
+material aggregating fifteen volumes was ready. These included
+manuscript for Mexico and Central America, the field assigned Savage
+and Nemos, matter prepared by Oak for California, by Mrs. Victor for
+Oregon, by Bancroft for Popular Tribunals, Literary Industries, and
+The Northwest Coast, and by Petroff for Alaska. Bancroft estimated at
+this time that the notes were also taken for three fourths of the
+works which were yet to be written.
+
+Material upon which to base the remaining fourth was collected in the
+same way as previously, Mr. Bancroft visiting the country to be
+written up, ascertaining the nature and location of the materials,
+collecting what could be had conveniently, and then leaving the
+further ingathering in the hands of agents. A visit to Mexico in 1883
+furnished him with some material on social conditions in that country
+which he tells us was utilized in the last volume of the Mexican
+history: (Lit. Ind., 701). More extensive collections remained to be
+made in the regions farther north.
+
+After the completion of the two volumes on Oregon, Mrs. Victor's
+attention was next directed to the volume on Nevada, Colorado, and
+Wyoming. In the carrying on of this work, a greater number of
+suggestions as to manner of treatment were made by Mr. Bancroft, we
+may believe, than was usual in the preparation of a volume, for the
+reasons that it was hurried more for publication than earlier works,
+that it was written under his immediate direction, and that he himself
+collected and forwarded material from the field as required. The
+record of the progress of the work, as it occurs in Mr. Bancroft's
+letters to the writer of the volume, is of unusual interest in that
+the methods followed, though in some ways exceptional, may perhaps be
+taken as fairly typical of those employed by Mr. Bancroft in the
+preparation of the later volumes of the series which he immediately
+supervised.
+
+In August, 1884, shortly before the completion of the second volume of
+the History of Oregon, Mr. Bancroft went to Salt Lake City, where he
+left with Franklin D. Richards a memorandum to guide him in extracting
+material on the Mormons in Nevada which, he said, would be about the
+first material needed. Pending the arrival of this, on September 11th,
+he advised Mrs. Victor to familiarize herself with the history of
+Wyoming and Colorado, he himself having done the same for Nevada.
+
+A letter written a few days later presents the idea of making a plan
+of the volume "as the men do on Mexico, etc.," and says, "By so doing
+you can give each section its due proportion and by working to the
+plan save unnecessary labor." As to the method of treating early
+expeditions to Colorado and Wyoming, he says to consult the History of
+Utah, and the two opening chapters which he himself had already
+written on Nevada. When these chapters were prepared, it was the
+intention to devote an entire volume to this state. In planning the
+work as recommended in this letter, Mrs. Victor ascertained that these
+chapters were out of proportion for the volume as now planned, and
+wrote to Mr. Bancroft to this effect. On September 21st, however, he
+advised her that he recognized the fact, but that they would "have to
+do." On the same date he forwarded the dictations of three of the
+first Mormons in Nevada, requesting that when the material had been
+used for this volume, they be turned over to Mr. Bates, then at work
+on the History of Utah. He also suggested a perusal of Benton's City
+Saints and other Utah books for light on Nevada, and directed that Mr.
+Newkirk search the library thoroughly for Nevada material.
+
+From Colorado Springs on October 7th he wrote announcing that a
+package of material on Colorado had been sent, though evidently with
+more thought of pleasing those who furnished the dictations than of
+affording material for the history of their state. Said he, "Some of
+the dictations don't amount to much, but I would like them used for
+all they are worth, and more too, putting them in list of authorities,
+quoting them freely, and giving biographical notice, etc." On October
+11th, he wrote that he would go to Denver in a few days to finish
+gathering what material for Colorado he could procure. With reference
+to this he says, "I am told that there is no file of the _Rocky
+Mountain News_, or any other early paper I can get. Possibly I may
+obtain access to one. Still I think we will have stuff enough, all
+there will be room for. I will then go to Cheyenne to get what I can
+on Wyoming, and that will finish up the business of gathering for that
+volume, or any other volume except what the canvassers bring in."
+
+He calls attention to the fact that in the Colorado dictations there
+is frequently material on Montana, and in the Utah dictations,
+material on Idaho and Nevada. The reason for this he gives in the
+typical Bancroft sentence:
+
+"If I strike a man here, as I frequently do, who has been to these
+other places in early times I follow him up there for all it is worth
+of course, the same as here."
+
+At Colorado Springs Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson, author of a Century of
+Dishonor, asked Mr. Bancroft to adopt her views on the Colorado Indian
+wars. With reference to this matter, he wrote on October 13th, the day
+of his departure for Denver, as follows:
+
+"She wishing a thing done would be the very reason I would not do it
+if I could help it. I speak of it that you may get the work and use
+the information. I do not care about mentioning her name one way or
+another in the whole work. She has been polite enough here, although
+she has a broken leg, but I don't care for her politeness. I should
+have had fair recognition for the service I did her in the matter of
+her California articles in the _Century_ which I never got."
+
+Writing subsequently from Denver on November 2d, he says: "Everybody
+in Colorado, nearly, is against Mrs. Jackson on what some call the
+Chevington massacre. That side don't call it a massacre, but a fight.
+I should give their side in full, then say some few took exception to
+this action, and there let it stand on its merits--that is, I think so
+now."
+
+In the same letter Mr. Bancroft announced that he was going over the
+_Rocky Mountain News_ with Mr. Byers, the founder and former editor,
+"a man of remarkable ability and memory," whose dictation to a
+shorthand reporter was given, he said, in such a way that it was
+almost pure history and could be taken from his manuscript as fast as
+one could write. This he advised Mrs. Victor to take as a basis for
+Colorado history, building upon it and giving it the preference in
+regard to discrepancy of statement. He also called attention to the
+fact that "a lot of people" had in one way and another wandered over
+the region before white men settled there, and said he supposed that
+what Coronado did should first be considered. As to the wanderings of
+Spaniards in Colorado, a schedule sent about this time refers Mrs.
+Victor to all Oak had written on the subject, to the first few pages
+of the History of Utah, and to the original authorities upon which the
+latter was based. After calling attention to some works of travel,
+such as Fremont's writings and Renton's Adventures in Mexico and the
+Rocky Mountains, he asked Mr. Nemos to see that the material for Mrs.
+Victor's use in preparing the volume be taken out more thoroughly than
+had heretofore been the case, and upon this point directed him to
+consult the early volumes of the series and make this correspond. Mrs.
+Victor subsequently asked that she be permitted to take out her own
+notes, and the request was granted as Mr. Bancroft had now decided to
+reduce the number of his force as fast as possible and bring the work
+to a conclusion. Already on October 25th, he had given as his opinion
+that Colorado should make about half of the volume, at the same time
+inquiring what laws of Colorado and Wyoming were desired, and
+recommending a study of "Hepworth Dixon's work on the Great West,
+Bonneville's Adventures, and Bayard Taylor's Travels."
+
+Writing from Cheyenne on November 8th, Mr. Bancroft announced the
+shipment of a small package of Wyoming stuff, all that he had been
+able to secure, and also his intention to have some one take matter
+from the office files of the newspapers of that place, the _Sun_ and
+_Leader_, the latter of which was very complete. Though returning
+himself to Denver, that day, he promised to have more Wyoming
+dictations taken.
+
+In a letter dated the next day, he expressed the opinion that a proper
+division of the work would be made by devoting three hundred and fifty
+pages to Colorado, two hundred and twenty-five to Nevada, and one
+hundred and seventy-five to Wyoming, and requested that the writing be
+done on that basis until some change should be found necessary. In
+closing, he suggests another line of research to be carried through
+the volume in the words: "And all the way from the Gulf of Mexico to
+British Columbia, I want to pay special attention to the cattle
+interest and cattle men, the origin and development of the industry,
+one of the most marvelous and important of modern times."
+
+The last letter dealing with the manner of treatment of material dated
+October 9, 1885, asks Mrs. Victor to do the best she can with Mackey
+and the silver question in order to satisfy Mr. Stone, the publishing
+agent, whose work, Mr. Bancroft said, was hard enough at best.
+
+It thus appears that three leading objects were kept constantly in
+mind at this time: one, the handling of the various subjects in such a
+way as not to displease the people in the district written up, that
+the work might be popular and the work of the canvassers easy as they
+went about soliciting subscriptions for it; another, the writing of
+the various chapters in such a way that the first draft would
+constitute finished history and take up no more space than that
+assigned in the volume; and finally, and really at the bottom of the
+preceding, a desire to have the history written as soon as possible.
+Evidence that Mr. Bancroft wished to have the work done in the least
+possible time and with the least possible cost is abundant in these
+letters.
+
+In October Nemos had been set to counting the pages which Mrs. Victor
+had written since entering the library, a proceeding which she
+resented, believing that it afforded no just basis for judging her
+historical work. The next letter from Mr. Bancroft, on October 20th,
+brought the request that she bring the work "at first writing within
+the requisite compass so as not to make it so terribly costly." An
+intimation that greater haste would be pleasing was again conveyed on
+November 1st, when Mr. Bancroft expressed the confidence that if Mrs.
+Victor were to write three volumes more, they would be done in three
+years instead of six, a view of the case most contrary to hers, since
+before entering the library she had already worked out many of the
+problems in Oregon history, and now that she was entering upon another
+field, found more time necessary. That Mr. Bancroft did not make
+allowance for this, however, is shown by a letter written on November
+17th. Here he begins the subject by stating that it would be a great
+mistake to suppose that he was dissatisfied with Mrs. Victor's work,
+or that any one had in the faintest degree criticised it, and says
+that all he wants is to practice such economy of time and money as
+will enable him to complete the work before he is dead or has failed
+in business. Then he proceeds to reckon up results thus:
+
+"I do not know when the present volume will be finished ready for the
+printer. But six years have already passed, and, calling this volume
+done, it would be two years to a volume. About fifteen hundred of
+your pages make a volume, I believe, and counting three hundred days
+to the year, would be two and a half pages a day. When you first came,
+you started off with ten pages, which we all thought rapid, but the
+outcome makes it exceedingly small. This, with what other work has
+been done on your volumes, would make every page of your manuscript
+ready for the printer cost me considerably over two dollars a page."
+
+After a denial that this is intended as a complaint about the past, he
+says:
+
+"Go on and do the best you can. I have written equivalent to six
+volumes during the last six years besides devoting my time to revising
+and outside matters. But I don't expect any one to work as I do. I am
+not satisfied with old hands now, however, who do not give me say,
+four or five pages a day all ready for the printer."
+
+According to the printed rules of the library, the hours were from
+7.15 sharp to 6 o'clock in the evening, with half an hour for lunch.
+When we recall the complexity and minuteness of research and thought
+necessary in historical writing, we must consider three hundred such
+days a year heavy work. The requirement of an average of a certain
+number of pages a day was therefore one which would naturally tend to
+increase the worry of the writer. This requirement was also exacted of
+Mr. Oak, and we may well conclude that if such pressure were brought
+to bear on the two most experienced writers in the library, upon the
+junior writers it must have been intense indeed.
+
+The writing of the volume on Colorado, Nevada, and Wyoming, so far as
+the material at hand permitted, was completed at the end of the year
+1885. With all of the precautions taken, however, the pages on
+Colorado had to be condensed nearly a third to bring them within the
+space allowed. This was done, as was frequently the case, by throwing
+matter into fine type and printing as footnotes, instead of making
+many changes in the manuscript.
+
+The system of biographical footnotes as it appears in the history,
+Mrs. Victor claimed as her contribution to the general plan of the
+work. The idea was followed with excellent results in her own volumes
+as well as those written by others, the object being to make
+biographical mention for the benefit of posterity of every man who
+took a prominent part in the building of a Pacific state or territory.
+For carrying out such a purpose, the time of writing during the lives
+of at least part of the same generation that founded these
+commonwealths, offered unusually good advantages.
+
+The original intention, Mrs. Victor has told us, was for her to
+prepare the volume on Utah, since before coming to the coast, she had
+had occasion to make a study of early Mormon history through coming in
+contact with some refugees from Nauvoo. But so much work had already
+been assigned her that when the time came to do the writing, this was
+impossible. Mr. Bancroft had already made a study of the early Spanish
+history of the territory, and had written this part when he assigned
+the work on the bulk of the remainder to Mr. Alfred Bates, a writer of
+polished English and a man of scholarly attainments who had previously
+assisted Mr. John S. Hittell in his work on The Commerce and
+Industries of the Pacific Coast. (From Literary Industries, 267-68, we
+learn that Bates was a native of Leeds, England, born May 4, 1840. His
+father was a wool stapler who lost his fortune in the panic of 1847.
+Compelled at an early age to earn his own livelihood, he began
+teaching at the age of fifteen, and later taught at Marlborough
+College of which the dean of Westminster was then head. To him young
+Bates became private secretary in 1862. While preparing for Cambridge
+the following year, he accepted a lucrative position in New South
+Wales, where he suffered much from ill health, at one time being given
+up by three doctors. An offer of a position as teacher in California
+took him thither and he continued at this work for a year. During the
+two years spent with Mr. Hittell, he was the most valued of his
+assistants.) Those acquainted with the circumstances and the men have
+accordingly held that certain incidents in Utah history unfavorable to
+the Mormons could not have been toned down by Bates as they are in the
+printed volume, and that the Mormon turn to the work was therefore
+given by Bancroft in the pages which he wrote and in his revision of
+Bates' work. (See article by Frances Fuller Victor in _Salt Lake
+Tribune_ of April 14, 1893.) This seems probable from what Mr.
+Bancroft tells us of his efforts to secure material for the volume
+from the Mormon church, as well as his natural desire to please
+subscribers to the work.
+
+Mr. Nemos, who was a foreigner, had no preference as to the field in
+which his writing was done, and it was consequently scattered through
+different volumes. Besides collaborating with Mr. Savage and others on
+the Mexican and Central American volumes, he wrote part of the
+material on British Columbia and Alaska. By the time Mrs. Victor's
+third volume was completed at the end of the year 1885, Oak had
+completed his work on the North Mexican States and the five volumes on
+California under Spanish and Mexican rule. The writing of the two
+volumes containing the American portion of California history was
+thereupon assigned to Mrs. Victor and Nemos, the former assuming
+responsibility for the preparation of the political chapters, a field
+in which her work had been pronounced especially good, and the latter
+taking up the institutional chapters, a part which he had largely
+fulfilled toward all the Spanish volumes of the history.
+
+The introduction of the institutional feature is to be accredited to
+Nemos. The writing done by Oak was in the form of annals, a form in
+general suited admirably to the provincial records which he worked up;
+but against such a style throughout the series, Nemos tells us that he
+presented suggestions and arguments to Mr. Bancroft for introducing
+material which should tell the history of the people, and that in this
+he prevailed.
+
+In April, 1886, the burning of the Bancroft business house threatened
+temporarily to bring the history project to an abrupt termination at a
+time when only the first volumes had been published, but the
+enterprise soon recovered from the blow. Under the leadership of Mr.
+Bancroft, both business and history writing went on as before, the
+firm of Bancroft and Company being organized for the conduct of the
+former, while the publication of the history previously carried on as
+a department of the general book concern was now turned over to The
+History Company, a corporation organized by Mr. Bancroft for the
+purpose of handling the work.
+
+At the completion by Oak of his volume on New Mexico and Arizona in
+May, 1887, he retired from the library with health very much
+shattered, leaving Mr. Nemos at the head of affairs. After spending
+some time on a new work now undertaken by Mr. Bancroft, the latter
+also severed his connection with library matters in August, 1888.
+
+At the time of Oak's departure, Bancroft was planning a biographical
+work to be issued at the conclusion of the task which was then
+engaging the attention of the library force. This work, at first
+called Chronicles of the Kings, but published under the title
+Chronicles of the Builders of the Commonwealths, was to present in
+detail the lives of wealthy and influential men who had borne a
+prominent part in the affairs of the various Pacific Coast states. For
+such notice they were charged from a thousand to ten thousand dollars
+according to the length of the published sketch. (This is according to
+the printed schedule, the minimum price being paid for three pages
+print, the maximum for thirty. This included also the printing of a
+portrait engraved on steel.) The attempt to burden the prestige gained
+by the histories and their projector with such a load could result
+only in crippling both. The volumes printed subsequent to the
+inauguration of this scheme could not be received with the same
+open-mindedness as former works. The information subsequently made
+public that money was accepted for notice in the Chronicles lost for
+Mr. Bancroft the regard of the press of the coast, caused grave doubts
+to be expressed concerning his disinterestedness as an historian,
+called out an expression of many bitter--in some cases utterly
+false--statements concerning his work, and sadly damaged the literary
+reputation he had been for nearly twenty years building on the work
+done under his direction.
+
+While it was inevitable that the publication of the Chronicles as a
+parasite upon the history should result thus disastrously and
+deplorably for the fame of the latter work, we must not fail to
+recognize the fact that the labors of the writers upon both works were
+not a whit less conscientious and painstaking than they had always
+been. After the sixth and seventh volumes of the California history
+were completed in 1888, the volume on Washington, Idaho, and Montana
+was written. In 1890, the final volume on California was published,
+followed in the next year by the supplementary volumes, Essays and
+Literary Industries, which ended twenty years of library work for
+Hubert Howe Bancroft and his assistants.
+
+The History of the Pacific States, we have seen, was an evolution,
+passing through the stages of handbook and encyclopædia before it
+became a history. But when the last idea had been reached, the
+development of the project was by no means complete, but rather just
+begun. The necessity of the Native Races was demonstrated before work
+had proceeded for a twelve-month. As late as 1878, Mr. Bancroft
+estimated that the history proper would comprise but fourteen volumes
+at the outside.
+
+In his letter to Mrs. Victor, dated August 1st of that year, we get an
+interesting glimpse of the plan in an earlier stage. The work is to be
+divided, he says, somewhat in the following manner: Conquest of
+Darien, one volume; Conquest of Mexico, one volume; Mexico under the
+Viceroys, two volumes; Mexican Revolution and Modern History, one or
+two; Explorations Northward and the History of California, three or
+four; the Northwest Coast, Oregon and British Columbia together, two
+or three; Alaska, one. Under the head of California history was to be
+included somewhere the histories of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and
+Nevada, and the history of Oregon was likewise to include Washington,
+Idaho, and Montana. Oregon and British Columbia he thought could be
+written in a year. Not until six more years had passed was it finally
+recognized that natural expansion as the work proceeded would
+necessitate devoting to the series of history proper a number of
+volumes exactly double that which was then contemplated. To this
+series were added as a supplement an even half dozen volumes.
+
+If we find that the outline grew from that of a few volumes in 1872 to
+one of almost forty in 1884, and that the work expanded fourteen
+volumes after it had been definitely laid out, we are not at all
+surprised that the part of the whole which Mr. Bancroft intended to
+write grew relatively less as time went on, and the part assigned to
+others became correspondingly greater. There is some evidence to show
+that when writing began on the first volume of the Central American
+History in 1873, the director of the project actually had in mind the
+plan which he gives in the Literary Industries, that of writing with
+the aid of assistants who were to be responsible for "the study and
+reduction of certain minor sections" which he was to "employ" in his
+own writing. Thus we find, according to the information left by Nemos,
+that Bancroft actually wrote half of the volume, that Oak at first
+took out notes, and that Nemos prepared his work in the rough, leaving
+a considerable part of it to be rewritten. For the next volume
+undertaken, the first of the six on Mexico, we see that the chief was
+unable to prepare so much material in its final form, and rested with
+but two chapters completely to his credit, together with the rewriting
+of part of Nemos' work on the remainder. In four or five years, he
+expresses the determination of writing what he can himself and leaving
+the rest to his aids. This as we shall see amounted in the end to his
+doing about one seventh of the history, slightly revising the work of
+the other authors, often by the aid of critics in his employ, and
+preparing most of the material for the supplementary volumes.
+
+Thus it came about that the original plan, the plan as published, was
+exactly reversed, and instead of Mr. Bancroft's doing all the work in
+final form, except some minor sections assigned to those whom he
+called his assistants, it was the so-called assistants who really
+wrote the History of the Pacific States, and Mr. Bancroft who did a
+few minor, or at any rate less difficult parts. Nor is it at all true,
+as one authority has said (Appleton's Encyclopædia of American
+Biography, I, 156), that Mr. Bancroft wrote the most important
+chapters. Of course, the surprising thing about this is that Mr.
+Bancroft should have stated in the Literary Industries that he had
+followed a plan for the division of labor originally intended, but not
+followed at all. Especially unfortunate is this, in view of repeated
+charges of absorbing the literary reputation of his collaborators and
+aids, and appropriating the credit for their work.
+
+It has long since been recognized that the name of Hubert Howe
+Bancroft can not be placed in the ranks of great American historical
+writers. In the first place, he wrote only parts of volumes. It will
+be observed, too, that as a rule he wrote simpler parts, consisting of
+synopses of early voyages, or annals easy to handle, such as the
+rovings of Spaniards in Utah, or the rise of a provincial government
+among the fur-traders of British Columbia. But Mr. Bancroft, as
+founder of the library and organizer of the history, has rendered a
+real and lasting service to historical literature.
+
+The first great end subserved by his undertaking was the preservation
+of a great mass of invaluable historical material, which would
+otherwise have been lost. In 1880, he wrote:
+
+"There are men yet living who helped to make our history, and who can
+tell us what it is better than their sons, or than any who shall come
+after them. A score of years hence few of them will remain. Twenty
+years ago, many parts of our territory were not old enough to have a
+history; twenty years hence, much will be lost that may now be
+secured": (Lit. Ind., 635).
+
+It is thus for the timeliness of his labors in collecting his library
+that the Pacific Coast, and the whole world as well, is indebted to
+Mr. Bancroft. For this work his qualifications as a successful
+business man experienced in handling books were exactly those
+required.
+
+A second great end which Mr. Bancroft attained was the founding of a
+history of Western North America on the original sources which he had
+collected in order that it might constitute a foundation upon which
+future histories would be built.
+
+"He who shall come after me," says he in the letter quoted above,
+"will scarcely be able to undermine my work by laying another and
+deeper foundation. He must build upon mine or not at all, for he can
+not go beyond my authorities for facts. He may add to or alter my
+work, for I shall not know or be able to tell everything, but he can
+never make a complete structure of his own."
+
+That the volumes supervised by Mr. Bancroft should contain
+imperfections is in the nature of the case inevitable. Perfect
+historical estimates of contemporaries can not as a rule be made, and
+history based largely on personal reminiscence must contain errors of
+refraction which can be corrected only in the clearer light of later
+years. The handling of material by a writer who did not collect it,
+and who is likely to find the places and conditions dealt with strange
+to his experience, inevitable though it be in so large an undertaking,
+results in the writing of faulty history. The hastening of the work
+and the editorial revision of manuscripts by a manager desirous of
+pleasing subscribers, and impelled by various other motives of his
+own, are not circumstances likely to increase the accuracy of the
+work. But after allowance has been made for all inaccuracies which
+have crept in through these various avenues, we still have the fact
+that the histories are based upon sources which may be supplemented
+but can never be displaced. No greater mistake could be made,
+therefore, than to say that because they contain errors they are
+worthless. All must agree with the practical argument made by a
+thoughtful old pioneer of the writer's acquaintance that, in spite of
+all criticisms which may be passed upon the Bancroft histories, they
+contain a great fund of information which is nowhere else to be found
+in print.
+
+A third result of the history plan, and one which is of importance to
+historical writers everywhere who have large fields to cover, was the
+devising of a coöperative method for organizing the vast collections
+in the library. Mr. Bancroft makes the claim of having been the first
+to resort to such a division of labor; and points out (Literary
+Industries, 767) that his method avoids the repetition of details and
+insures a more thorough working up of the field than does the
+coöperative method as the term is usually understood, under which the
+writers work independently of each other after the field is divided.
+Such a claim might indeed be granted had Mr. Bancroft announced
+himself as editor and reviser instead of author, and had he designated
+the part of the work written by each of his collaborators in
+accordance with the usual custom in coöperative works. The printing of
+his name as author on the title page, and his general recognition as
+such in accordance with press notices following those of the Native
+Races, have, of course, largely lost for him the credit of originating
+a coöperative method for the organizing of large quantities of
+material.
+
+Concerning the understanding Mr. Bancroft had with his corps of
+writers generally as to the public acknowledgment of their work which
+he would make, information is not at hand. Only one had ever before
+written and published a book, and perhaps the majority gave no thought
+to the rights which would be theirs as authors. Certain it is that
+when the greater number of the more prominent writers entered the
+library, the work was planned on a much smaller scale than that upon
+which it was carried out, and, as they did not know that they were to
+become the authors of entire or consecutive volumes, the question was
+not then of the importance which it assumed with the later growth of
+the series. What the understanding was with those who first entered
+the library we can not say definitely, but his ideas on that subject
+seems to have been a survival of the encyclopædia project. To Mrs.
+Victor, just prior to her entering his service, he wrote on August 1,
+1878:
+
+"The work is wholly mine. I do what I can myself, and pay for what I
+have done over that; but I father the whole of it and it goes out only
+under my name. All who work in the library do so simply as my
+assistants. Their work is mine to print, scratch, or throw in the
+fire. I have no secrets; yet I do not tell everybody just what each
+does. I do not pretend to do all the work myself, that is, to prepare
+for the printer all that goes out under my name. I have three or four
+now who can write for the printer after a fashion; none of them can
+suit me as well as I can suit myself. One or two only will write with
+very little change from me. All the rest require sometimes almost
+rewriting."
+
+He further adds that it gives him pleasure to acknowledge his
+obligations to his assistants, but that this acknowledgment is always
+voluntary on his part and not claimed as a right by them, and says
+that while he is not sure of mentioning certain persons in connection
+with certain parts as he had done in the introduction to the Native
+Races, he will certainly not do more than that. The only mention which
+he promises definitely to his writers is a biographical notice in the
+Literary Industries.
+
+"The work in the library," says he, "good or bad, is mine; were it not
+so, I would simply do what I could with my own fingers, or do
+nothing."
+
+It is easy enough to see why Mr. Bancroft should wish to have absolute
+control of manuscripts to insure good work, and a complete covering of
+the field, but it is difficult to see how he could justly make the
+claim before the world that manuscripts turned out by other persons
+were his writing.
+
+Not only was the myth of Mr. Bancroft's authorship repeated on the
+title page of each volume of the history, and in the reviews which
+built upon the prestige gained by him as supposed author of the Native
+Races, but not a word was printed to show that any one else wrote the
+least part of the work. When asked to indicate in the preface the part
+done by each person, according to the evidence of a number of his
+writers, he always declared that this was just the one thing he wished
+to avoid. The only approach to an acknowledgment is the statement in
+the preface in words which apparently refer only to indexers and
+note-takers, that he has been "able to utilize the labors of others,"
+among whom as the most faithful and efficient he mentions Oak, Nemos,
+Savage, Petroff, and Mrs. Victor. (History of Central America, I,
+preface viii). The promise is made that he will speak of these and
+others at length elsewhere, and this promise is redeemed by the
+printing of their biographies in the Literary Industries without
+indicating who was engaged in writing and who in purely routine work
+connected with the library, much less designating what parts of the
+work each had done. From a popular edition of this volume subsequently
+issued for wider circulation, even these were stricken out.
+
+While the real authors of the history never agreed to keep silence
+concerning their right to recognition, it was very well understood
+that they would remain in Mr. Bancroft's employ only so long as they
+acquiesced in his claiming the work as solely his own and made no
+individual claims for themselves. This bread and butter argument for
+silence proved effective in all cases. An example of the method in
+meeting claims made for any of the library writers occurs in
+connection with the publication of the History of Oregon. A notice of
+the work just before it was issued was sent to the Oregon press and
+the statement made that Mrs. Victor was the author. (Emma H. Adams in
+Portland _Oregonian_, October 5, 1886, under the title, "Mrs. Victor
+and Her Latest Literary Work.") This was met by Mr. Bancroft with a
+letter for publication in the paper printing the notice, in which he
+asserted that no entire volume of the series had been written by Mrs.
+Victor. Of course the significance of this statement is in the word
+"entire," which simply meant that he had interpolated a line here and
+there as he went over the manuscript. A note to Mrs. Victor under date
+of October 16th explains this apparent denial of her authorship thus:
+
+"I do not want for myself the credit due to my assistants. At the same
+time, I do not deem it necessary to explain to the public just what
+part of the work was done by each. Everybody knows that you have been
+at work on Oregon, and that is all right, although I have done
+considerable work on your manuscript for better or worse, or at all
+events to make it conform to the general plan."
+
+In view of Mr. Bancroft's persistent refusal to give "assistants"
+anything like credit for their work in accord with general custom and
+literary ethics as well, and in view of the fact that this refusal
+meant that the public would credit him solely as the author, it must
+have been a difficult matter for him to convince his corps of writers
+that he did not want the credit due them.
+
+The process of making Mrs. Victor's manuscripts conform to the general
+plan, which is here regarded as the principal source of alteration,
+according to Oak, meant nothing except the condensation of her work,
+mainly by the omission of considerable portions, in order to bring it
+within the space assigned. That such revision did not affect her
+claims to authorship, is of course apparent.
+
+It is sufficiently clear, from what appears above, that Mr. Bancroft's
+public justification of himself for publishing under his own name all
+the work done in the library is the fact that he reserved the right to
+alter all manuscripts and make what changes he saw fit. This made him
+managing editor, however, not author. The comparatively few additions
+he made to the manuscripts can not justify such a claim. That the
+revision of Mrs. Victor's work consisted in the main of nothing more
+than leaving out parts appears from two cases already cited, one in
+connection with the History of Colorado, Nevada, and Wyoming, the
+other with the History of Oregon, as well as from the direct
+statements of those who supervised library work. As we have seen he
+demanded that his writers turn out a certain number of pages a day
+"all ready for the printer," so he could have had little occasion to
+revise their work. The writers who Mr. Bancroft said in 1878 wrote
+with very little change from him were of course Oak and Nemos. Now Oak
+wrote seven and a half volumes of the history, and Nemos and Mrs.
+Victor five each, while Bancroft wrote four--a total of at least
+twenty-two volumes out of the twenty-eight to the authorship of which
+no serious claim could be made on the ground of altered manuscripts.
+Moreover, Savage says in his autobiography that, while Bancroft made
+additions and amendments to the three volumes which he wrote, in some
+of his pages only a word or two was changed and that others remained
+intact. What rewriting was occasionally done on the remaining volumes,
+was apparently done as often by other persons as by Mr. Bancroft. His
+relation toward the work was therefore exactly the same as that of a
+managing editor toward the matter printed in a newspaper. The latter
+could never claim the authorship of the articles written by his
+staff, although altered to a considerable extent by him or by his
+direction.
+
+It should be stated here that Mr. Bancroft justified his course to
+those in the library by insisting that they furnished him merely with
+rough notes, and that it would be necessary for him to rewrite the
+work, or at any rate, considerable portions of it. This, had it been
+done, would have been strictly in accord with the account of his
+connection with the work as printed in the Literary Industries. But it
+was not done, and the account as printed is incorrect.
+
+Since the completion of the history, but one of the writers has
+publicly claimed the authorship of the volumes written in the library.
+Ill health, only too common with those who labored through the work,
+has in most cases been a sufficient barrier to such action. Savage and
+Bates remained in Mr. Bancroft's employ for a number of years engaged
+in other work, and of course under such circumstances could not make
+any claims. Nemos as a foreigner could not be expected to take much
+interest in such matters, and his early return to Europe and
+subsequent residence there have rendered it difficult for him to make
+such a statement did he so desire. Mrs. Victor alone has printed a
+general statement of the portions of the history written by her, a
+course in which she was influenced by years of absolute independence
+in directing her literary energies before entering Mr. Bancroft's
+employ, and a consequent appreciation of the rights and honors of
+authorship. Four volumes of the Bancroft histories were exhibited as
+her work at the Mechanics Pavilion in San Francisco during the fair in
+January, 1893, and also among a collection of the works of New York
+women authors made the same year (_Utica Morning Herald_, May 4,
+1893). A special preface over her name inserted in the first volume of
+the Oregon history in the exhibit claimed the authorship of the
+volumes.
+
+(These are the words of the preface: "It seems not only just, but
+necessary to affix my name to at least four volumes of the History of
+the Pacific States, although that does not cover all the work done on
+the history by myself. The four volumes referred to comprise the
+states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, Wyoming, and
+Nevada. My name is therefore placed on the backs of these volumes
+without displacing that of Mr. Bancroft.")
+
+As to the shares of the various writers in the history proper, we have
+the sources of information which have already been mentioned in
+speaking of the Native Races, supplemented by very full data left by
+Mrs. Victor concerning her part in the work. It is thus possible to
+give in a general way the authorship of each volume, barring
+fragmentary writing.
+
+From these sources it is found that during the progress of the work on
+the Native Races, Mr. Bancroft had after hard labor and much revision
+completed his introduction to the History of Central America, and had
+written a half of the first volume. Oak wrote half of the preface and
+the fine print summary of explorations, and Nemos was responsible for
+a third of the volume from page 460 on, although he prepared material
+in the rough, leaving it to be rewritten by a German aid whose name is
+not given, but who may have been a man by the name of Kuhn mentioned
+as having done work on the second volume.
+
+Of this latter volume, Mr. Bancroft wrote one chapter, apparently the
+first, which deals with Pizarro and Peru. Nemos and a writer named
+Peatfield (J. J. Peatfield, described by Bancroft [Lit. Ind.,
+265-267,] as a "strong man and one of talent," was born in
+Nottinghamshire, England, August 26, 1833. His father, a clergyman,
+educated him for the church and he took his degree at Cambridge in
+1857, being graduated in the classical tripos. The church, however,
+was distasteful to him, and he obtained a tutorship, subsequently in
+1862 going to Nicaragua to engage in cacao cultivating. This
+enterprise proved a failure. After attempting cotton, cacao again, and
+finally coffee all in vain, in 1865 he became a bookkeeper at San
+José, the capital of Costa Rica. In January, 1868, he was made a clerk
+and translator to the legation at Guatemala, and two years later,
+British Consul General for Central America. While holding the
+consulship of Guatemala a third time, he resigned on account of ill
+health and went to San Francisco, where he arrived in November, 1871.
+Becoming bookkeeper and cashier for a Nevada mine at White Pine, and
+battling much with ill health, he returned to San Francisco, where he
+acted as teacher and bookkeeper until February, 1881, when he entered
+the library), labored together on the volume and prepared half of it,
+and Bates a fourth. Kuhn wrote a fifth which was partly rewritten by
+Nemos. The latter claimed about a fourth of a volume as the actual
+material written by him for the first and second volumes together.
+
+The third volume, including the history of Central America in the
+nineteenth century, was written by Savage, who, nearly all his life
+had been engaged in the consular service of the United States in Cuba
+and Central America.
+
+(Thomas Savage, according to a biography written by himself, was born
+at Havana, Cuba, August 27, 1823, a short time after his parents had
+removed thither from Philadelphia. His father, a descendant of the
+earliest settlers of Massachusetts and a brother of Savage, the famous
+genealogist of New England, was from Boston, and his mother, a native
+of Charleston, South Carolina, was the daughter of a French planter
+who had escaped the great massacre in San Domingo and a Maryland
+woman of Jewish extraction).
+
+In childhood, Savage was several times taken to the United States and
+back as the necessities of his father's business demanded. At the age
+of fifteen, he had studied the Latin classics, advanced mathematics
+and languages, nearly breaking forever his health, which had always
+been feeble. Abandoning his studies and taking a long rest in the
+country, he regained sufficient strength to enable him to support
+himself, for his parents had now lost their fortune. He entered a
+commercial house at Havana, and after working a few years as
+bookkeeper, in the summer of 1846 joined the United States consulate
+as clerk and translator. From that time until the end of the year
+1867, he was attached to the consulate, rising successively to the
+positions of secretary to the consul general, deputy consul general,
+and vice consul general. From 1854 on, there was not a single year
+during which the consulate general was not in his charge for several
+months. During the War of the Rebellion he was several times in
+charge, once for twenty months, and during this trying period won the
+confidence of his government by laboring hard to do his whole duty.
+
+He spent the greater part of the year 1868 in the United States, and
+then went to Panama, where he was engaged as assistant editor of the
+_Star and Herald_, having charge of the Spanish portion of the paper.
+Savage had lost a wife in Cuba, and in January, 1870, married a second
+time. Shortly afterward, he embarked for Salvador, where he taught
+English in the University, became consul-general, and finally started
+a newspaper. Just as this last enterprise was beginning to pay, his
+wife's precarious health necessitated his removal to a better climate,
+and he settled in Guatemala. Here he established a fine printing
+office, and began the publication of a newspaper. Though aided by the
+government, the business nevertheless proved unprofitable, and after
+selling out at a heavy loss, he came to San Francisco in 1873.
+Throughout life, Savage was a constant reader, with a special fondness
+for history. He once said that he believed he had read the histories
+of all the world.
+
+From a perusal of what Nemos says concerning the History of Mexico, we
+are led to infer that Bancroft again wrote the introduction, as the
+former librarian credits his chief with two chapters of the first
+volume. Nemos wrote the remainder, but Bancroft rewrote some of his
+work, he said only a fifth, much of the revision consisting in a mere
+change of words. Oak differed with him on this point, holding that
+Bancroft did more rewriting, but Nemos persists that this is an
+exaggeration.
+
+The second volume was done by Nemos, Savage, and Peatfield, Nemos
+writing the first half and some later chapters, two thirds of the
+volume in all, Savage one fourth, and Peatfield a little.
+
+Of the third volume, Nemos wrote between a third and a half,
+including, as he tells us, the leading institutional and political
+parts, Savage a third, a writer named Griffin (George Butler Griffin
+was a native of New York state, and a graduate of Yale. He was a
+linguist, and had been an engineer in South America. Apparently early
+in the eighties, his connection with the library had ceased. He died
+by his own hand.) two or three chapters, and Peatfield a part.
+
+Of volume four, Bancroft did one chapter, Peatfield a fourth of the
+whole, and Savage a third. Nemos "assisted on parts," his work
+aggregating a fourth of the volume.
+
+The fifth volume of the Mexican History, embracing the period from
+1804 to 1861, was known as Savage's volume. Of the manuscript, he
+actually wrote about two thirds. Nemos did about a fourth, including
+the fall of Mexico and the leading war episodes. Some of the writing
+was done by Peatfield. (In conversation he claimed to have written a
+large part of the Mexican War chapters.)
+
+The last volume of the Mexican History was prepared chiefly by Nemos
+and Savage, the latter writing the first and last chapters, the former
+about two thirds of the volume, including the history of Maximilian
+and the institutional chapters. Peatfield did a little work on this
+volume. Oak's contribution to the History of Mexico, according to his
+own statement, consisted of a "few slight parts."
+
+The history of the northern part of Mexico, and the Southwest of the
+United States was Oak's special field, designated by him as The
+Spanish Northwest. The entire first volume of the History of the North
+Mexican States is his work. The history of Lower California in this
+volume, as well as that in the next, was based on a manuscript on
+Lower California written several years before by Harcourt. But this
+work was so altered by both Oak and Nemos in their respective volumes
+through condensation, the changing of conclusions, and the adding of
+new material, as to amount to a rewriting.
+
+The History of Texas in North Mexican States, second volume, is the
+work of Peatfield; the remainder of the volume, between a third and a
+half, that of Nemos. (The Texas part was subsequently extended by
+Peatfield for the edition now in circulation, that it might find a
+better sale in that state.)
+
+The volume on Arizona and New Mexico is the work of Oak alone.
+
+Spanish and Mexican California likewise belonged to Oak's field and
+the first five volumes of the History of California are from his pen.
+(Nemos adds, "though he neglected to put in institutions, leaving
+them for W. N. [himself] and Savage." In view of Oak's oft-repeated
+assertion that he was sole author of these five volumes, this must
+mean that they were supplied in other volumes. Moreover, there are no
+institutional parts properly speaking in these five volumes, and if
+such parts as "Mission Progress," "Commercial Affairs," and the like
+are to be regarded, they make up half the work.)
+
+The early American history of California was a topic in which Mr.
+Bancroft was naturally interested because of his own mining experience
+during the early gold days. Nemos' schedule shows that he wrote sixty
+pages for the sixth volume of California, a circumstance which taken
+with our knowledge of fields of research into which he entered in the
+preparation of California Pastoral and Popular Tribunals makes us
+reasonably sure that he wrote the first, second, and twenty-fifth
+chapters. Mrs. Victor, who in her work on Oregon had been found
+especially strong as a writer on political subjects, was assigned the
+task of working up the political history of California, and, according
+to her own statement, wrote two hundred and thirty-four pages for this
+volume. We can positively identify chapters twelve, thirteen,
+twenty-three, and twenty-four as her work. From the similarity of
+their subject-matter to some already treated by her in the Oregon
+history, and from the fact that their addition to the work just
+indicated brings the total almost exactly to the figures given, we may
+conclude that she also wrote the third, fourth, and fifth chapters.
+The chapter entitled Mexican Land Titles is Oak's work, and the
+remainder of the volume, almost two thirds, is that of Nemos.
+
+Information given by Mrs. Victor shows that she wrote for the final
+volume of the History of California four hundred and eighty-nine pages
+on politics and railroads. We are thus enabled to designate as her
+work chapters nine to twenty-one inclusive, and chapter twenty-five.
+This still leaves to her credit eighteen pages to be located in some
+other chapter. The rest of the volume, embracing the portions dealing
+with commerce, manufactures, agriculture, and mining, was written,
+Nemos says, by himself. Before publication, the sheets on California
+judiciary were submitted to Justice Stephen J. Field for his approval.
+The estimate of certain pioneer characters in the California history,
+together with the adopting of the Mexican view of the conquest of that
+state by Americans, brought down upon Mr. Bancroft the condemnation of
+the California Society of Pioneers, who, in 1894, expelled him from
+honorary membership in their body. (See pamphlet proceedings of the
+Society of California Pioneers in reference to the History of Hubert
+Howe Bancroft.) It is a curious fact, however, that the passages which
+were made the basis of the society's indictment are almost entirely in
+the first five volumes of the California history, which were written
+by Oak. He has declared that even the revisions were his own and not
+Bancroft's.
+
+The History of Utah, another storm-center among the histories, was
+written by Bates and Bancroft, the former, according to Nemos,
+preparing twice as much manuscript as the latter. The earlier chapters
+are by Bancroft, but no more certain assignment of their respective
+shares in the work can be made from the information at hand.
+
+The History of Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming, as already noticed, was
+written by Mrs. Victor, with the exception of the first two chapters
+on Nevada, which were by Bancroft. Mrs. Victor's statement of her work
+includes these also, perhaps by inadvertence. It is possible that she
+rewrote them, however, as Mr. Bancroft had admitted that they were out
+of proportion.
+
+In the work on the Northwest Coast, we again see Bancroft's
+predilection for early voyages. The first half of Volume I, including
+the Spanish explorations of the coast, belonged to Oak's field, and
+was written by him. Bancroft wrote most of the remainder of the two
+volumes, which included the maritime fur trade, the Lewis and Clark
+expedition, the Astor enterprise, the Northwest and Hudson Bay
+companies, and the later American fur trade.
+
+A hundred pages on the "Oregon Question" written by Mrs. Victor for
+Oregon were incorporated in the second volume of the History of the
+Northwest Coast. She had taken the American side of the case, a view
+with which Mr. Bancroft was not in sympathy. By his order, Mr. Oak
+rewrote the subject from an English standpoint. He added chapter
+fifteen, but to some extent made use of her work in preparing chapter
+sixteen. Mrs. Victor always claimed that he merely altered it, Oak
+himself that he rewrote it. The remainder of her manuscript was
+retained and printed as chapter eighteen.
+
+The volume on Washington, Idaho, and Montana, was written wholly by
+Mrs. Victor, a task for which she was fitted by her work on early
+Oregon history.
+
+The History of Oregon was also her work, a fact which has been known
+and fully recognized by prominent Oregonians since the day of its
+publication. She had contemplated writing such a work even before the
+beginning of Mr. Bancroft's project, and it was only a realization of
+her inability to compete single handed with the capital and other
+resources at his disposal which caused her to enter his employ. In
+collecting material within the state, she had the assistance of such
+pioneer families as her friends the Applegates and McBrides, and among
+others, of Judge Deady and Elwood Evans. Valuable data concerning
+Hudson Bay rule in Oregon were furnished her in a correspondence with
+Mr. A. B. Roberts and Mr. Allen, formerly of the Hudson Bay Company.
+(This correspondence is now in the possession of Mr. E. H. Kilham, of
+Portland, Or.) The work as written made more than two volumes, and
+condensation was necessary. A chapter on geology and mining was
+omitted by Mr. Bancroft; the disposal of the manuscript on the "Oregon
+Question" has already been noticed, and matter on the San Juan
+boundary dispute and the Modoc war was also incorporated in other
+volumes. Mrs. Victor considered the first volume of the History of
+Oregon as perfect as it could be made at the time. With certain
+features of the second she was not so well satisfied, the most
+prominent being the omission of the history of the Oregon Steam
+Navigation Company, necessitated by Mr. Bancroft's failure to secure
+material, and certain changes made by him in her manuscript on Indian
+Wars in Southern Oregon in such a way as to throw blame upon the
+settlers (Mrs. Victor in [Salem] _Oregon Statesman_ February 24,
+1895). It is worthy of note that her history is the first to pass over
+the political results attributed to Whitman's ride by previous
+writers. The sheets of the Oregon history before they were issued were
+submitted to Judge Deady for his approval.
+
+In the half of the History of British Columbia which he wrote, Mr.
+Bancroft utilized some of the material that he had collected in
+person. Bates prepared a fourth of the manuscript, and Nemos and
+Bowman together the remainder, Nemos writing some of the chapters and
+revising others.
+
+The History of Alaska afforded Mr. Bancroft an opportunity for further
+research in the field of early voyages. He is credited with half of
+the volume, Bates with a third, Nemos a little, and Petroff about a
+fourth. Nemos places all of his own writing on this work and British
+Columbia together at a third of a volume.
+
+A review of the facts shows that if we exclude the comparatively few
+interpolations and changes made by Mr. Bancroft, we can with assurance
+declare the authorship of all portions of the third volume of Central
+America, of the volumes on California, and of those on the North
+Mexican States, Arizona and New Mexico, Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming,
+the Northwest Coast, Oregon and Washington, Idaho and Montana, and
+that we can give in general terms, though without being able to locate
+the exact parts done by individuals, the names of the authors of two
+volumes of Central America, and all of Mexico, Utah, British Columbia,
+and Alaska. In these works Oak and Nemos were agreed that there were
+scattered fragmentary bits aggregating several volumes so worked over
+by different writers in different ways as to render it impossible to
+determine the exact authorship.
+
+Turning to a consideration of the individual field of writing, we find
+that of the twenty-eight volumes of history proper, Bancroft is to be
+credited with four, no one entire, Oak with seven and a half, Nemos
+five, no one entire, Mrs. Victor a little less than five, Savage over
+three, Peatfield one and a half, principally in small parts, and Bates
+one and a fourth. (This is a computation based exactly upon the facts
+as given, except in Bancroft's case.) Nemos upon the same basis makes
+the shares, except Savage's and Bancroft's, all slightly greater. He
+assigns to Oak between seven and a half and seven and two thirds
+volumes, to himself and Mrs. Victor over five each, to Peatfield about
+two, and to Bates one and a half. An actual count of the parts of
+volumes written by Bancroft gives a total of three and a half, but
+Nemos said that he took four as the number upon the authority of Oak.
+This would allow him a half volume of interpolations in the
+twenty-four and a half volumes done by others. Griffin, Petroff, Kuhn,
+and a man named Rasmus were the authors of fragments. Oak thought that
+the name was Erasmus, but said that Nemos who gave Rasmus was the
+better authority.
+
+Concerning these facts in their main features, there is a complete
+agreement between Oak and Nemos, who together knew all the details
+which were to be known, and the evidence of the other writers fits
+exactly with their statements. The popular estimate of Hubert Howe
+Bancroft as the historian of the Pacific Coast, is founded upon the
+vague references and indefinite assertions of the Literary Industries
+within the pages of which there is nowhere to be found a
+straightforward statement that this man wrote more than a part of the
+works to which his name is attached. On the other hand, his own
+statements over his own signature admit that he did not pretend to be
+the author of what went out under his name. The ranking of Mr.
+Bancroft among historians of the United States is, therefore, an
+error, and what has appeared in the public press concerning an
+"Historian of the Pacific Coast," and a "Macaulay of the West," is
+legend pure and simple. Instead of one Pacific Coast historian who
+wrote the Bancroft volumes, there were eight.
+
+As to the six supplementary volumes of the "Works of Hubert Howe
+Bancroft," which ended the series, Mrs. Victor had some means of
+determining the authorship. According to her notes, Savage and Nemos
+did a great deal of writing and revising. The Modoc War in _inter
+pocula_, a part of the chapter entitled Some Indian Episodes, was
+written by Mrs. Victor from notes obtained by herself on the ground.
+She also wrote some other matter for this volume. The remainder was
+done by Bancroft and his family, who also aided him much on Popular
+Tribunals.
+
+Pastorals was produced chiefly by Bancroft. Of the Literary
+Industries, Nemos wrote several chapters or parts, Savage a little,
+and Oak three or four bits of a few paragraphs each. It must be
+remembered that Bancroft's writing in these private volumes was
+subjected to criticism, revision, and retouching by the best literary
+talent which the library afforded.
+
+Concerning the Chronicles of the Builders, the biographical series
+which followed the histories, with such unfortunate results, some
+notes in Mrs. Victor's handwriting taken in 1888, about a year before
+work finally ended, give us the following facts: The introductory
+essay is by Nemos, as are also the reflective chapters and reviews,
+together with most of the historical text. Peatfield wrote Oregon,
+Washington, and Texas, though some of the latter was rewritten by
+Nemos. Mrs. Victor wrote "Routes and Transportation," and a number of
+the leading biographies, making nearly a volume. Savage wrote about a
+third of a volume.
+
+Mr. Bancroft as a writer of history was subject to certain influences
+likely to be felt in his treatment of facts, which did not affect his
+coworkers. One great object was of course to make the work popular. It
+was with this end in view that much attention was given to literary
+finish and typographical features. It was his practice to have a
+writer employed for the purpose go over his own manuscripts and
+sometimes those of his assistants to add "classical allusions," as he
+termed them, for rhetorical effect. He himself was given to the
+reading of English classics--Carlyle's works are especially mentioned
+by his friends--as a means of acquiring a good literary style. To
+stimulate the reader's attention, he occasionally made a side remark
+of such a ludicrous character as to be startling when one comes upon
+it in a perfectly serious paragraph. Mrs. Victor often laughed over
+the interlineation in a paragraph written by her on the Oregon
+boundary question of the words:
+
+"Man is a preposterous pig; probably the greediest animal that crawls
+upon this planet": (Oregon, I, 592.)
+
+In passing upon the work of his corps of writers, one who combined the
+duties of financier as well as editor of the work either consciously
+or unconsciously must have been influenced by the question whether the
+treatment of the subject before him was such as would please the
+people in the locality whose history was being written. The Mormon
+turn given the History of Utah by the toning down of certain incidents
+which other historians have "shrunk from contemplating" occurs to us
+as a case in point: (Frances Fuller Victor in _Salt Lake Tribune_,
+April 14, 1893; _New York Mail and Express_, November 23d).
+
+The publication of the Chronicles before all of the volumes of history
+were out could hardly have lessened this tendency, as a favorable
+mention of a man in the history would naturally tend to make him more
+approachable upon the subject of contributing to that work. Upon the
+back of the letter to Mrs. Victor instructing her to give prominence
+to certain dictations, which he admits are practically worthless, is
+written in her hand the legend, "Ways that are dark and tricks that
+are vain." As a result of complaint, changes were sometimes made in
+the text, even after the first edition was out: (Pamphlet, Proceedings
+of the Society of California Pioneers in Reference to the Histories of
+Hubert Howe Bancroft).
+
+In the History of Montana occurs an example of a change made directly
+for business reasons. Several pioneers justly entitled to a place in
+the history of their territory disagreed with the agent of the
+Bancroft house concerning the number of volumes of the history which
+their contract required them to take. As a punishment for their
+refusal to comply with the demands of the publisher, their biographies
+were stricken from their place in the footnotes after the volume was
+set up, and other matter was substituted. (The original sheets with
+marginal annotations as to amounts paid and biographies to be omitted
+are in the possession of Mr. E. H. Kilham of Portland, Oregon.) In
+view of these facts, we are forced to conclude that the business man
+in Mr. Bancroft, developed by the experiences and associations of a
+lifetime, sometimes got the better of the historical editor of
+scarcely fifteen years' standing.
+
+A second factor to be considered in Mr. Bancroft's writing was
+sometimes expressed by his acquaintances as a mistaking of
+contrariness for originality. As already indicated, his tendency is
+toward a form of writing such as will attract the reader's attention.
+This tendency frequently asserts itself in sweeping statements and
+striking characterizations, many of them apparently impelled by a
+desire to give a turn to an incident or an estimate of a character
+different from that given by any previous writer. Thus Bancroft wrote
+an estimate of General Grant, which was startling because of the
+general hostility of its tone, and was considered so unjust by Mrs.
+Victor and Oak that they persuaded him to leave it out. (Letter of
+Mrs. Victor of July 25, 1892. The paragraph which was originally
+intended as a footnote in the History of Oregon, II, 246, is printed
+on page 18 of the Pamphlet of the Society of California Pioneers,
+which gives their proceedings with reference to Bancroft's histories.)
+
+Again, in making an effort to avoid following Washington Irving, he
+has given in the part of the Northwest Coast which he wrote a
+treatment of the Astor enterprise, and an estimate of the character of
+Captain Bonneville, which later historians have shown to be
+prejudiced and in error. (See Chittenden's History of the American Fur
+Trade in the Far West, I, 432-33.)
+
+A third influence affecting the treatment of facts of history which
+passed under Mr. Bancroft's editorship, as well as those which he
+presented in the scattered portions of volumes of which he could claim
+real authorship, is that of personal bias. The manager of the Bancroft
+enterprise was a man, who in the course of a thirty years' business
+career had many business rivalries and personal enmities. His strong
+dislikes frequently assert themselves in his writings, if we are to
+take his own statements. (Lit. Ind., 374.)
+
+Again, the personal equation must be accounted for in the value which
+he sets on the work of historians who wrote before him. He not
+infrequently disparages their writings in the strongest terms, his
+depreciation of Washington Irving being one of the most palpable
+cases. (Chittenden's History of American Fur Trade in the Far West, I,
+244-46), has forcibly revealed the extent of the injustice done by
+Bancroft in this one case. That there are others like it will readily
+appear. For the effort to demonstrate the superiority of the Bancroft
+histories over others, we must accordingly make due allowance when
+attempting a critical estimate.
+
+Furthermore, the editor-manager began the work with certain theories
+and notions of history that have found their way into the pages which
+he has published. From the beginning, he adopted the British side in
+dealing with the dispute over the Oregon boundary. In his treatment of
+Indian wars, the same tendency to adopt ready-made theories asserted
+itself. In the manuscript of Mrs. Victor's History of Oregon, treating
+of Indian Wars in Southern Oregon which "gave great credit to the
+veterans of that struggle and the settlers generally for their
+forbearance," the editor interlined some expressions, throwing the
+blame upon the settlers. When it was pointed out to him that this was
+not true, he replied that he had begun his History of Central America
+with this theory of Indian wars, and must be consistent throughout the
+entire series (Communication of Frances Fuller Victor to the [Salem]
+_Oregon Statesman_, February 24, 1895).
+
+To such errors as those just enumerated the work of Mr. Bancroft's
+collaborators was not subject. The dislike inspired by some of the
+measures of their chief has sometimes resulted in their disparagement
+as historians by a public press, absolutely ignorant of the parts of
+the work for which they were responsible. (In the _Salt Lake Tribune_,
+February 16, 1893, is a very striking example. Occasional utterances
+of the San Francisco papers of about the same time follow along the
+same line.) It must be remembered that they were not only able and
+educated, but that the competitive wage system under which they worked
+offered every inducement to search for the truth and to make it known
+as they found it in the best collection of books, pamphlets, and
+newspapers on Pacific Coast history that was ever made. The only
+characteristics which were common to the library corps, as shown by a
+study of their biographies, were good education, ill health, and
+liberal religious views.
+
+In general, these writers had special qualifications which adapted
+them for work in their respective fields. To Oak there was a
+fascination in the study of documents from which the usually
+uninteresting and sometimes tedious details of events in Spanish and
+Mexican provincial localities were derived. His contributions to
+history he could honestly claim were better than other writings on the
+same subject because of the exhaustiveness of his research through the
+great amount of material at his disposal. While he admired the finer
+qualities of style in the writings of others, they were not required
+in his work. He frankly declared that he had little natural ability in
+this line, and in the writing of provincial annals found no
+opportunity for the cultivation of what he had. Oak once asserted in a
+joking mood that he had found of great service a thorough knowledge of
+Spanish and French, together with a useful smattering of other
+languages, including English. None of his chapters were rewritten or
+even reread with a view to polish, for the reason that he believed his
+works had their chief value merely as records, and that an attempt to
+make them fascinating to general readers could but result in impairing
+their value for reference. The fact that the superintendent of
+literary activities in the Bancroft library was an enthusiast in
+original research who cared vastly more what was said than how it was
+said is a circumstance favoring the accuracy of the histories which
+must not be overlooked. Oak could say that from the first he had
+exercised an important influence in the direction of honest research
+and against superficial work, and that he opposed undue haste in
+bringing the work to a conclusion.
+
+Nemos, unlike Oak, was a writer of smooth, flowing English. On account
+of his foreign birth he had no preference in the selection of a field,
+and wrote for more different volumes than any other member of the
+library force. His great ability, and his consequent position of
+all-round man, are to be accounted for by great natural endowment
+supplemented by a thorough training in youth in his own country, a
+schooling during his London residence in the philosophy of his own
+country as well as that of the German universities, and a wide
+acquaintance with European languages. With a remarkable faculty for
+systematizing work, he was useful, honorable, and trustworthy.
+
+To Mrs. Victor was assigned the agreeable task of working up the field
+in which she had long taken special interest. She was the only member
+of the staff who had a literary reputation before entering the
+library. Noted as a poetess of unusual promise in her earlier days,
+she had also written excellent prose for different journals, among
+them a magazine history of the United States published in serial form
+by the Harpers, until the beginning of the Civil War compelled the
+discontinuance of the publication in which it appeared. As a
+contributor to the San Francisco papers in the early "sixties," she
+had met with pronounced success, while her work on her projected
+History of Oregon and her publication of two works on the Northwest
+fitted her for her special field. She had the enviable faculty of
+putting life into her writings, and it was partially on account of her
+graceful style that Mr. Bancroft sought her services, for his eye was
+always attracted by good literary work. But the volumes written by
+Mrs. Victor were of a far different stamp from the popular literary
+history. The late Mary Sheldon Barnes, professor of history in
+Stanford University, declared that she had done her work well. All who
+were acquainted with her personally recognized the fact that she
+placed the truth as she conceived it before all else. The leading
+opponents of the stand she took on disputed questions freely
+recognized the fact that she had striven to do conscientious,
+painstaking work. Given to speaking what she believed was the whole
+truth, even when it was contrary to her immediate interest to do so,
+she was the last of all persons whom a regard for literary effect
+would swerve from the path of historical accuracy.
+
+A better man for chief Spanish authority than Thomas Savage could
+scarcely have been found. Thoroughly acquainted with the language by a
+life-long residence in Spanish America, he had a natural fondness for
+history, to which his long continuance in the consular service had
+added a habit of accuracy, and a capacity for hard work. The fifth
+volume of the History of Mexico, embracing the history of that country
+from 1824 to 1861, and the third volume of the Central American
+history which threads out the tangled skein of the history of the five
+little republics in the nineteenth century, serve as examples of the
+vast amount of detail which his writing covered, to say nothing of his
+labors in collecting and extracting an overwhelming mass of material
+on Spanish American history. All agree that he was a polished and
+sound man.
+
+In the writers of smaller parts of the history, we find that the
+qualifications and fitness for the individual field of writing were no
+less than in those who prepared more manuscript. Peatfield's
+connection with the British consular service bespeaks his reliability
+and capability; Bates' occupancy of a responsible position under a
+prominent English educator, and the high regard in which his work was
+held by Hittell bear witness that he was competent to write history;
+and Petroff's standing as a scholar in his own country, together with
+his thorough acquaintance with Alaska, vouch for the character of his
+work.
+
+While the Bancroft corps of writers were not infallible, they were a
+class of persons in whose integrity and accuracy we may have as great
+confidence as in the average historian. We can only regret that we can
+not point out all parts of the work done by each, and that we can not
+show in detail the extent of Mr. Bancroft's editorial alterations of
+their work. This latter feature, inherent in the Bancroft plan of
+writing history, is its greatest weakness, since it of necessity
+involves some uncertainty as to whether the words we are reading are
+those of the author who wrote the volume, or the interpretation of Mr.
+Bancroft. A comparative study of the style of what we know to be the
+work of the respective writers may suffice to settle a given case. We
+may state as a fact that the majority of alterations in the
+manuscripts of the chief assistants were due to the necessity of
+condensation; and that, aside from this, the revision of their work
+usually consisted merely in the suppression of radical utterances and
+the interlineation of a few lines occasionally for literary effect.
+The somewhat rough estimate given of the number of volumes written by
+the respective writers indicates that Mr. Bancroft's revisions
+constitute about one page in fifty of the work in fields assigned to
+his assistants, although the average may be lower. In view of these
+facts, the knowledge that those who wrote the Bancroft histories were
+capable, honest persons, must tend decidedly toward the increasing of
+our general confidence in the series.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[40] This is on the authority of Savage.
+
+
+
+
+PIONEER PAPERS OF PUGET SOUND.
+
+By CLARENCE B. BAGLEY.
+
+
+The trapper, the trader, the missionary, and the printer were the
+pioneers of "Old Oregon," as the original territory lying between the
+Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, and extending northward from
+California to the British possessions may be properly called. A mere
+handful of patriotic Americans founded a provisional government for
+this vast wilderness in 1843, and the American Government enclosed it
+safely in the national fold in 1846 by treaty with Great Britain, and
+organized it into a territory August 14, 1848.
+
+Those who are the leading spirits in the several historical societies
+of the Northwest, and the writers of its history, realize the true
+value to be placed upon the labors of the pioneer printers and
+newspaper men of "Old Oregon." This expression is tautological. There
+were no newspaper men who were not printers in the pioneer days.
+
+It has been my good fortune, as child, boy, and man, to know nearly
+all the old newspaper men of Oregon and Washington of that period by
+sight, and to be on terms of friendship with most of them, as well as
+most intimate with the majority. Among them were:
+
+Ashael Bush, W. L. Adams, Thomas H. Pearne, T. J. Dryer, Harvey W.
+Scott, H. L. Pittock, Beriah Brown, James O'Meara, W. Lair Hill, Wm.
+G. T'Vault, Samuel A. Clarke, Mrs. Duniway, D. W. Craig, John
+Atkinson, E. M. Waite, L. Samuels, John Burnett, J. M. Baltimore,
+William Newell, P. B. Johnson, R. R. Rees, E. T. Gunn, Charles
+Besserer, Eugene Semple, A. M. Poe, John Miller Murphy, Randall H.
+Hewitt, L. G. Abbott, Thornton F. McElroy, James N. Gale, J. R.
+Watson, David Higgins, Charles and Thomas W. Prosch, John F. Damon, D.
+C. Ireland, Francis H. Cook, S. L. Maxwell, H. C. Patrick, R. F.
+Radebaugh, and many of their contemporaries, as well as a host of
+their successors.
+
+Nearly all these were practical printers, and most of them skillful at
+the case, capable of taking entire charge of the mechanical department
+of the early day printing offices.
+
+This training made them accurate in their literary work. While some of
+them might not have been on intimate terms with the rules of grammar,
+they made up for any such deficiency by untiring and conscientious
+efforts to give their readers good newspapers, in the face of the
+gravest difficulties. In the matter of politics full allowance had
+ever to be made for the personal bias of the writer, but in the matter
+of news, especially that of a local character, the most absolute
+fidelity to the truth was ever maintained. No efforts were made for a
+"good story" at the expense of truth. The head of the paper always had
+a personal knowledge of the facts and usually prepared the account of
+them. If he found he had made a mistake he usually corrected it in the
+next issue, if it was of sufficient importance. For this reason the
+writer of the present day who delves among the old newspaper files of
+pioneer days, and even down to within twenty or twenty-five years ago,
+can rely upon the fairness and truthfulness of their local columns.
+They were all writing history but few of them realized it.
+
+Life was too strenuous with the pioneers of the "forties" and
+"fifties" for them to spend much time in keeping diaries or other
+records of passing events. If they had done so, the unsettled
+conditions under which they lived, the lack of substantial buildings,
+the migration to new countries, and the rush to new mines, would have
+resulted in the loss or destruction of most of such manuscripts.
+
+Of the early Oregon papers, I doubt if more than two or three perfect
+files exist. Of the early papers of Washington, not more than three or
+four complete files remain of any of them. Of the first Seattle
+papers, there is but one file. It I began collecting more than forty
+years ago. How much care, then, should be exercised in gathering these
+old papers from the garrets and the closets where they have lain fifty
+years or more, perhaps--as well as to observe the most painstaking
+care for their preservation.
+
+When the missions among the Indians of Oregon were established by
+Messrs. Whitman and Spalding in 1836, the First Native Church of
+Honolulu decided to send to it a small printing press and some type
+and material that had been in use for some time there in printing
+spelling books and religious matter, thinking the work of the mission
+in Oregon would be advanced by its aid.
+
+Edwin O. Hall had been one of the printers of the Honolulu mission and
+he was engaged to accompany the printing outfit to Oregon. With the
+press, type, fixtures, a stock of paper and binding apparatus in his
+charge he, accompanied by his wife, arrived at Vancouver, on the
+Columbia River, early in the month of April, 1839. In a few days the
+press and party started up the Columbia River in a canoe and reached
+Wallula on the 30th. From there the press was sent on pack animals to
+Lapwai, on the Clearwater River, not far from the present City of
+Lewiston, Idaho, while the rest of the outfit and the party went on up
+the river by canoe.
+
+May 18, 1839, the first proof sheet in the original Oregon Territory
+was struck off amid great rejoicing among the missionary party. A
+large number of publications in the Flathead, Spokane, Cayuse, and Nez
+Percé language was printed by the mission people. In fact, the press
+was in use a great deal until in 1846, when Doctor Whitman sent it to
+The Dalles, where it remained until after the Whitman massacre,
+November 29-30, 1847.
+
+In 1848 it was in use near Hillsboro, on Tualatin Plains, for several
+months, where eight numbers of the _Oregon American and Evangelical
+Unionist_ appeared, which was the third paper in chronological order.
+
+By this time more modern presses, apparatus and types had reached
+Oregon and the pioneer outfit was laid aside. Years later it came into
+the possession of the Oregon Historical Society at Portland.
+
+The _Oregon Spectator_ was the first newspaper in Old Oregon, and the
+initial number appeared at Oregon City on Thursday, February 5, 1846.
+A new plant had been procured for it in New York, whence it was sent
+around "The Horn." Col. William G. T'Vault was its editor and John
+Flemming the printer. This paper passed through many vicissitudes in
+the ensuing years--numerous changes of editors and publishers with
+frequent alterations in size, now larger and again smaller, until it
+finally suspended in 1855.
+
+The second paper was the _Oregon Free Press_, which appeared in March,
+1848, under the control of George L. Curry, who later became Governor
+of Oregon.
+
+The fourth in order was the _Western Star_, first issued at Milwaukie
+November 21, 1850, by Lot Whitcomb. At that time Milwaukie, on the
+east side of the Willamette, a few miles above Portland, was a rival
+of the latter place for commercial supremacy, but in May, 1851,
+Milwaukie had fallen behind in the race, and the _Star_ was moved to
+Portland, and its name changed to the _Oregon Weekly Times_. It lived
+much longer than most of the early newspaper ventures of the
+Northwest. Among its numerous editors were A. C. Gibbs, Governor of
+Oregon during the Civil War period, and also W. Lair Hill, with whom
+all lawyers of Oregon and Washington are familiar personally or by
+reputation. He was the author of the well-known code of this state
+bearing his name, and for a considerable period a resident of Seattle.
+
+The fifth was the _Weekly Oregonian_ and the only one of all the
+newspapers of Oregon and Washington appearing prior to 1860 to survive
+with its original name and without periodical suspensions.
+
+The _Oregonian_ had to struggle for existence during all its early
+years. Rivals unnumbered went to the newspaper graveyard during the
+succeeding quarter century. It is a conservative estimate to place the
+aggregate at a $1,000,000 sunk during that period by ambitious
+printers, dissatisfied politicians, and by corporations who could not
+control its editorials, in the various attempts to break the
+_Oregonian_ down. The most notable contest was between the _Oregonian_
+and the _Bulletin_, when Ben. Holladay was the great magnate in
+railroad and steamship affairs of the Northwest. He established, about
+1872, a first-class newspaper and job printing office that cost not
+less than $50,000. He employed the best newspaper talent he could
+secure, and the _Bulletin_ at once became a dangerous rival for the
+_Oregonian_, which had to depend solely on its own resources for its
+support, while the weekly deficit in the _Bulletin_ office was made
+good by a check from Ben. Holladay.
+
+The _Oregonian_ had at that time about seven thousand subscribers at
+$3 per year to its weekly paper, while the _Bulletin_ had only a few
+hundred. The _Weekly Oregonian_ saved the day, and the _Bulletin_ died
+the death. Its backer is reputed to have sunk not less than $100,000.
+This left the _Oregonian_ master of the field, and it became the
+overshadowing journalistic power of the Northwest until the great
+dailies of Seattle forced it to the rear in the State of Washington.
+
+Thomas J. Dryer was its first editor and A. M. Berry the first
+printer. Henry L. Pittock became a printer in its office in November,
+1853, and was admitted to partnership in 1856, and only four years
+later became its sole owner. Mr. Harvey W. Scott went on its editorial
+staff in May, 1865. In 1877 he bought an interest in the paper and
+became editor-in-chief. He and Mr. Pittock still own the paper, and it
+need not be added that it has made them immensely wealthy.
+
+The _Daily Oregonian_ made its first appearance February 4, 1861. It
+consisted of four pages, each page about 11½x18 inches, four columns
+to the page.
+
+March 26, 1851, the _Oregon Statesman_ was launched on the newspaper
+sea at Salem, the state capital, with Joseph S. Smith at the helm. In
+later years Smith went to Congress from that state and was always a
+conspicuous figure in Democratic circles. In September, 1852, when we
+arrived in Salem from across "the plains," Asahel Bush had become
+owner and editor. He soon became public printer, then an exceedingly
+profitable billet, and in six or eight years was quite wealthy. The
+_Statesman_ was the leading Democratic journal for a long period and
+wielded a powerful influence until Joseph Lane and the Democratic
+party under him lost the state, when Abraham Lincoln was elected
+President. After that its influence gradually declined. It underwent
+the usual changes of ownership and temporary suspensions.
+
+It will be difficult for the younger men in the newspaper offices of
+today, with their many departments and special work, to realize the
+many cares and duties devolving upon the pioneer newspaper men. The
+successful one was a capable printer who could "set type," run a
+press, make up the forms, make a roller, and wash it if need be. He
+was editorial writer, local reporter, business manager, and mailing
+clerk. A "job office" was usually a part of the printing establishment
+and he, perforce, must be his own job printer and pressman as well.
+
+During all the earlier years there were no telegraphic dispatches, the
+"news" being selected from the weekly issues of the _Tribune_ or
+_Herald_ of New York City, which came by mail steamer to the Isthmus
+of Panama, thence across and by steamer to San Francisco, and thence
+with the utmost irregularity by steamer to Portland, from there down
+the Columbia and up the Cowlitz River and by pack animal or mud wagon
+to Olympia.
+
+Under all these adverse circumstances it is remarkable what good
+newspapers were issued. They were usually on paper 24x36 inches in
+size, which was about the limit for hand presses then in use. The
+editorial matter was vigorous and able, the typography and presswork
+equal to that of the present day, the selection of news and literary
+matter unexceptionable. It is not a matter of surprise that men
+capable of accomplishing such good work in the face of such
+difficulties should have wielded a powerful influence in the pioneer
+work of the territory.
+
+Of the pioneer newspaper men of Oregon and Washington there are many
+in Seattle. First in age and experience is Charles Prosch, with over
+forty years to his credit. Rev. John F. Damon comes next in seniority
+of service. Judge Orange Jacobs had much editorial experience in
+Oregon before coming here. Henry G. Struve, Esq., was an editorial
+writer for years prior to 1873, in Vancouver, Clarke County, and in
+Olympia. Ex-Governor Semple spent many years in all kinds of newspaper
+work in Oregon and Washington, beginning about 1870. Thomas W. Prosch
+learned to be a printer as he learned to read on the _Herald_ at
+Steilacoom and the _Tribune_ in Olympia. C. B. Bagley began newspaper
+work in 1868 and continued it with little intermission for twenty
+years. Samuel C. Crawford began as printer's devil for John Miller
+Murphy on the Olympia _Standard_ thirty years or more ago. Beriah
+Brown, the senior of them all, recently died here, and his son Berry
+began "at the case" and other newspaper work as early as 1868.
+
+The _Columbian_ was the "pioneer newspaper west of the mountains,
+between the father of Oregon waters and Kamstkatka," as an editorial
+paragraph in the first number puts it. Messrs. Wiley & McElroy
+established it in Olympia September 11, 1852. Later its name was
+changed to the _Pioneer_, and not long afterward it was merged with
+the _Democrat_, a rival paper, under the name of _Pioneer and
+Democrat_. From the above date Olympia has never been without one or
+more weekly papers, and at times has enjoyed two daily papers at the
+same time.
+
+The _Puget Sound Courier_ was the pioneer paper at Steilacoom, which
+was started by Affleck & Gunn, May 19, 1854. It was Whig in politics,
+and as the population was overwhelmingly Democratic it soon died for
+lack of sustenance.
+
+Mr. Charles Prosch, the dean of newspaperdom on Puget Sound, whose
+erect form and snow-white hair are familiar on the streets of Seattle,
+published the _Puget Sound Herald_ at Steilacoom, beginning March 12,
+1858, for about six years, and later other papers at Olympia.
+
+The _Northern Light_ appeared at Whatcom in 1858, under the management
+of W. Bausman & Co., during a few weeks of the height of the Fraser
+River gold rush, but its light was soon snuffed out.
+
+The _Port Townsend Register_ was started January 4, 1860, by a young
+man named Travers Daniels, but the field was not an encouraging one,
+and at the end of ten weeks he sold out to William T. Whitacre, who
+kept it alive until August, when it suspended.
+
+July 5 of the same year the _Northwest_ was started in Port Townsend
+by E. S. Dyer, publisher, and John F. Damon, editor. Mr. Damon
+continued with the paper until it suspended, before the second volume
+was completed.
+
+Rev. John F. Damon, the Congregational clergyman of Seattle, is too
+widely known to require extended mention here.
+
+The _Register_ was resuscitated late in 1860 and run a violent career
+for several months, and later was followed by the _Message_, which ran
+several years under different management.
+
+In 1874 C. W. Philbrick purchased the press on which the last-named
+paper was printed, changed the name to _Puget Sound Argus_, and
+succeeded in placing it on a paying basis, a hitherto impossible
+achievement in Port Townsend. In 1877 Philbrick, after accumulating
+considerable property, sold the _Argus_ to Mr. Allen Weir.
+
+July 29, 1861, the _Overland Press_ was started in Olympia. A short
+time before the pony express had been put on the route between the
+Missouri River and Sacramento, carrying the news and a few letters,
+thus placing San Francisco and New York in communication with each
+other in from ten to twelve days. This suggested the name of the
+paper. It was enabled to give a brief summary of Eastern news only
+three weeks old. Prior to this it had been from six weeks to three
+months old when it reached Olympia.
+
+The great Civil War had broken out only a few weeks earlier and the
+manager of the _Press_ of Victoria, British Columbia, with commendable
+business sagacity, determined to establish a paper in Olympia
+containing the latest war news, and have it ready to distribute at all
+Puget Sound ports and have a supply to distribute to its own readers
+in Victoria and other parts of British Columbia on the arrival of the
+weekly mail. The Eliza Anderson, then the crack steamer of Puget Sound
+waters, made weekly trips, leaving Olympia early on Monday morning,
+arriving at Seattle about 4 P. M., and at Victoria early Tuesday
+morning. The paper at once became very popular and gained an immense
+circulation for those days.
+
+Early in the fourth volume its name was changed to the _Pacific
+Tribune_. Randall H. Hewitt, now living in Los Angeles, owned and
+published it for a time, when Charles Prosch acquired it and continued
+its publication at Olympia until 1873. By this time his son, Thomas W.
+Prosch, had manifested much newspaper ability and had become the owner
+of the paper. He moved it to Tacoma, the new railroad town, that year
+and continued there until the almost total death of the place forced
+another move and he came to Seattle with it. In 1878 Thaddeus Hanford
+bought it and merged it with the _Post-Intelligencer_. With but one
+change of name it had lived about seventeen years, or longer than any
+other of the early Washington papers, with one exception.
+
+This exception was and is the _Washington Standard_ of Olympia, the
+most notable instance of newspaper longevity, with the exception of
+the _Oregonian_, in old Oregon. Its first number was largely written,
+set up and printed by its founder, John Miller Murphy, and now, almost
+forty-three years later, it is his proud boast that it has never
+missed an issue, has never changed its name and that not a single one
+of its weekly issues has failed to have more or less editorial matter
+from his pen. It was "Union" in sentiment during the war of the
+rebellion, but espoused the cause of Andrew Johnson in his contest
+with a Republican Congress, and since then has always been
+consistently Democratic. Mr. Murphy has always been too proud of his
+independence to subordinate his will or the expressions of his journal
+to the control of his party leaders, and has often refused preferment
+at their hands on that account. He still superintends the mechanical
+department of his office, as well as attending to his editorial
+duties. He had achieved a competence but the panic of 1893 and the
+ensuing period of financial depression made great inroads upon his
+fortune, so that necessity compels him to remain in the harness,
+though nearly a half century of continuous work has certainly earned
+him rest.
+
+The _Seattle Gazette_ was the name under which the first paper
+published in Seattle appeared, dated December 11, 1863, nearly forty
+years ago. It was edited, set up, published, and with the assistance
+of an Indian for roller boy, printed by J. R. Watson. The office was
+in the second story of one of Yesler's buildings, then standing near
+the present north line of the Scandinavian Bank Building. The paper
+consisted of four pages, the printed matter on each page measuring
+9½x14½ inches. The type and other material were destroyed many years
+ago, but the old Ramage[41] printing press is a relic highly prized at
+the State University. The _Seattle Gazette_, _Puget Sound Gazette_,
+and _Puget Sound Weekly_ continued nearly four years with frequent
+changes in form and ownership.
+
+Pioneer printers have taken a great deal of interest in regard to the
+antecedents of this old press. Mr. George H. Himes was an Olympia boy,
+who served his apprenticeship in the office of the _Washington
+Standard_ under John Miller Murphy. From there he went to Portland and
+in time "Himes the Printer" became a household word in Oregon and
+Washington. He has of late years been prominent in the pioneer and
+historical societies of Oregon. He has given much time to research
+regarding this old press, and as a result gives it as his opinion that
+it was first sent from New York to Mexico, thence to Monterey,
+California, in 1834, where it was used by the Spanish governor for a
+number of years in printing proclamations, etc., and on August 15,
+1846, the _Californian_, the pioneer paper of California, was printed
+on it. Late in 1846 it was sent from Monterey to San Francisco and
+used in printing the _Star_, the first paper of that city, issued in
+January, 1847. These two papers were combined at a later date, and in
+the fall of 1848 the first number of the _Alta California_ was issued
+from it. From San Francisco it went to Portland and the first number
+of the _Oregonian_ was taken off it. In 1852 it and the old plant of
+the _Oregonian_ was bought by Thornton F. McElroy and J. W. Wiley, who
+brought it around on the schooner Mary Taylor to Olympia, where the
+first number of the _Columbian_ was printed on it. In 1863 J. R.
+Watson brought it to Seattle, and December 10th the first paper, the
+Seattle _Gazette_, was printed on it. Again in 1865 S. L. Maxwell used
+it to print the earlier numbers of the _Intelligencer_.
+
+There seems to be no doubt that it was used to print the first
+newspapers on the Pacific Coast, the first in Monterey, San Francisco,
+Portland, Olympia, Seattle.
+
+Although Seattle's first paper was of much more modest proportions
+than any of its predecessors or contemporaries, it had the honor of
+starting the first daily paper in the territory, which appeared April
+23, 1866, and continued to August 11th of the same year.
+
+The Western Union Telegraph line was completed to Seattle October 26,
+1864, and at 4 P. M. of that date the _Gazette_ issued its "Citizen's
+Dispatch," giving the first published dispatch coming by wire to this
+place. It gave the Eastern war news to October 24th, from Kansas City
+and from Chattanooga of the operations of Sherman against Hood in the
+Atlanta campaign.
+
+Occasionally telegraphic dispatches appeared in succeeding papers, but
+not until about July 1, 1872, when the _Puget Sound Dispatch_ was
+established by Larrabee & Co., Beriah Brown, editor, was any regular
+publication of the press dispatches undertaken here.
+
+In June, 1867, a suspension took place, and August 5th next S. L.
+Maxwell sent to press the first number of the _Weekly Intelligencer_.
+The plant had come into the ownership of Messrs. Daniel and C. B.
+Bagley, and Mr. Maxwell was permitted to use the same and pay for it
+as he could out of the earnings of the paper. The type, rules, press,
+and much of the advertising matter of the older paper, still standing
+in the forms, was used in the makeup of the new paper, so that it may
+properly be considered a lineal successor of the _Seattle Gazette_.
+Mr. Maxwell proved to be a good newspaper and business man, and as the
+town and surrounding country was having a vigorous growth, it did not
+take him long to pay off the small debt and to add much needed
+material to the office, which was moved across Yesler Way to a small
+wooden building, and, later, up Yesler Way to near the southwest
+corner of Second Avenue South. It gained influence as it grew, made
+money for its owner almost from the start, and had the local field to
+itself until the _Dispatch_ was started.
+
+In the latter part of 1878 some of the prominent local office-holders
+and business men organized a company to start another paper, and
+November 21, 1878, the _Seattle Weekly Post_ made its first
+appearance, being made up from the _Daily Post_, which started on the
+15th of the month. Its first quarters were in the two-story wooden
+building owned by Hillory Butler that stood on the ground now occupied
+by the southwest corner of the Hotel Butler. In passing it may be
+added that this building was, from time to time, the home of more
+early papers than any other in town--_Dispatch_, _North Pacific
+Rural_, _Chronicle_, _Post_, _Times_, _Press_, and others with single
+and hyphenated titles long since forgotten.
+
+In the meantime the _Intelligencer_ had been installed in a larger
+two-story building then standing on the west side of First Avenue
+where it deflects into First Avenue South, and remained there several
+years.
+
+About 1879 Thomas W. Prosch and Samuel L. Crawford had acquired
+ownership of it. Both had been printers from boyhood, and Mr. Prosch
+had gained much experience as a newspaper man in Olympia and Tacoma,
+and under their management it continued to grow in value and
+influence.
+
+In 1881 the Post Publishing Company began the erection of a
+substantial brick building, two stories and basement on the northeast
+corner of Yesler Way and Post Street. As it was nearing completion
+negotiations were opened for a consolidation of the _Post_ and
+_Intelligencer_, and this was effected October 1, 1881, with Thomas W.
+Prosch owner of one half and John Leary and George W. Harris each one
+quarter. The basement and lower story of the new building were used by
+the company and the upper story rented for offices.
+
+This building continued to be the home of the paper under several
+managements, until the great fire of June 6, 1889, destroyed it and
+most of its plant.
+
+Early in 1886 a joint stock company, consisting of Frederick J. Grant,
+C. B. Bagley, Griffith Davies, Jacob Furth, John H. McGraw, E. S.
+Ingraham, W. H. Hughes, Thomas Burke, and Dr. Thomas T. Miner, bought
+the _Post-Intelligencer_ from T. W. Prosch. Grant continued
+editor-in-chief, Bagley was business manager, S. L. Crawford city
+editor and reporter, and E. S. Meany had charge of the carrier
+service.
+
+Near the close of the same year L. S. J. Hunt purchased the
+controlling interest in the paper and assumed management at once. He
+had come to Seattle with large financial backing, determined to go
+into the newspaper field, and the majority of the stockholders,
+fearing he might establish another paper and make it a powerful rival,
+sold him their interests. He proceeded to spend money most lavishly
+upon it and soon built it up into a great paper.
+
+In May, 1871, a small printing outfit that had been in use at Sitka,
+Alaska, was brought to Seattle, and for a few months the _Seattle
+Times and Alaska Herald_ was printed from it.
+
+Later this material became the nucleus of the office of the _Puget
+Sound Dispatch_, which was established by Beriah Brown and Charles H.
+Larrabee. The latter was then a prominent attorney in Seattle. He was
+among the killed at the time of an appalling tragedy at Tehachipe
+Pass, on the line of the Southern Pacific, between Los Angeles and San
+Francisco. He soon retired from the paper, leaving Beriah Brown in
+sole control, which he retained with an occasional intermission until
+about 1878, when it was merged with the _Intelligencer_.
+
+Mr. Brown was one of the old school newspapermen, who were writers of
+editorials worthy of the greatest papers of the United States. He was
+a friend of Horace Greeley, the elder Bennett and others of the noted
+editors of a half century ago. He rarely wrote anything for his own
+paper. His custom was to go to the case and put his articles in type
+as he composed them. Few can realize the difficulties occasioned by
+the dual processes of thought thus brought into play. Local news is
+the life of all newspapers in young communities. This he could not
+purvey, nor was his business management a success.
+
+Thaddeus Hanford, the eldest of the brothers of that name, in his
+early boyhood showed ability as a writer and after he had passed
+through college with honor he returned to Seattle and engaged in
+newspaper work. For a year or more he was the owner of the
+_Intelligencer_, but sold it about 1879 as is noted elsewhere.
+
+One of the most widely known as well as popular of the old-time
+newspaper men was E. T. Gunn. He worked in the _Oregonian_ office as
+early as 1851 and was one of its owners for a time. In 1855 he was
+engaged in newspaper work at Steilacoom. November 30, 1867, he started
+the _Olympia Transcript_ and its publication was continued regularly
+until his death in 1883. The _Transcript_ was the neatest and
+best-printed of all the early papers and for many years exerted much
+influence in political affairs of the territory. A split in the
+Republican party occurred in 1867 and was the cause of the
+_Transcript_ being started, and for about six years while this schism
+continued it championed the cause of the "bolting wing" of the party.
+In 1872 an alliance between the bolters and the Democrats resulted in
+the overwhelming triumph of the fusion party, Judge O. B. McFadden
+being elected to Congress over Selucius Garfield, the Republican
+candidate. All the newspapers in Olympia were in sympathy with the
+fusionists, and this led to the organization of a company which
+established the _Puget Sound Courier_.
+
+This company was under the leadership of Elisha P. Ferry, then
+Surveyor-General, who became Territorial Governor in 1873, and the
+first Governor of the State of Washington in 1889.
+
+The _Daily Courier_ made its first appearance January 2, 1872, and
+the weekly later in the week. During that year H. G. Struve, then
+practicing his profession in Olympia, did much editorial work, while
+the late Fred Prosch had charge of the mechanical department. In
+December C. B. Bagley became business manager and city editor, and in
+June, 1873, he bought the office and newspaper. The daily was
+discontinued at the close of 1874. Mr. Bagley was appointed
+Territorial Printer in 1873, and held that position for ten years. He
+continued the _Weekly Courier_ until late in 1884, when he sold out to
+Thomas H. Cavanaugh, who changed the name of the paper to the
+_Partisan_.
+
+During the period between 1873 and 1883 Olympia had four weekly
+newspapers most of the time, while several small dailies appeared from
+time to time, but never for more than a few months. Until the Seattle
+papers began to take telegraphic dispatches the Olympia papers had
+most of their circulation at Seattle and points further down Sound,
+but this gradually ceased, and long before the admission of the state
+their patronage had become almost wholly local in character.
+
+Steilacoom, until about 1880, when Tacoma began its second growth, was
+a favorite field for newspaper ventures. Mr. Charles Prosch held the
+field there nearly six years, much longer than anyone else, and while
+some of his early contemporaries manifested more vigor and
+belligerency in their editorial columns, none of them gave so much
+local news or possessed one half the literary merit of the _Herald_.
+
+Francis H. Cook also moved from Olympia to Tacoma, with a newspaper
+plant, on which he had for a time published the _Echo_. This paper was
+started in 1868 by Randall H. Hewitt, and that year in its office the
+writer began work as a printer. James E. Whitworth, now of Seattle,
+Nathan S. Porter, of Olympia, and Ike M. Hall worked together in that
+office. Hundreds of the older residents of Seattle remember Judge
+Hall, who died here about ten years ago. Early in 1869 C. B. Bagley
+became the owner and publisher of the _Echo_ for about a year. Like
+most of its fellows, it underwent all manner of changes of ownership,
+of form and place of publication during an erratic career of about
+eight years.
+
+During the eight or ten years following the founding of Tacoma in
+1873, many attempts were made to establish newspapers there, but most
+of them were far from profitable to their backers. In fact, it has
+been frequently reported that their more pretentious successors have
+not been far from financial stress.
+
+The _Beacon_ was brought from Kalama by Mr. and Mrs. Mooney, which had
+been the organ of the Northern Pacific Railroad. This soon died. In
+1880 there started the _North Pacific Coast_, but its life was brief.
+
+R. F. Radebaugh, of San Francisco, and H. C. Patrick, of Sacramento,
+came to Tacoma and started the _Weekly Ledger_ April 23, 1880. April
+7, 1883, the _Daily Ledger_ was started, and both the weekly and daily
+are still appearing regularly, having long passed the usual period
+that has been fatal to so many papers on Puget Sound.
+
+Mr. Patrick left the _Ledger_ in 1882 and bought the _Pierce County
+News_, which had been started August 10, 1881, by George W. Mattice.
+Mr. Patrick changed the name to _Tacoma News_, and it appeared as a
+weekly paper until September 15, 1883, when he started the _Daily
+News_. It continues to occupy the evening field, while the _Ledger_
+retains the morning field.
+
+The limits of this article do not permit mention of many papers which
+have appeared from time to time in every town and almost every
+village. In the writer's collection there are not less than one
+hundred publications, daily, weekly, or monthly, that have sprung
+into life since 1852. Most of them are forgotten in the communities
+where they appeared. Success has come to but here and there one.
+
+Kirk C. Ward was a fluent writer and a promoter of no small sagacity.
+Having lost control of the _Post_, he soon induced some friends to
+back him and started the _Chronicle_. It had a variegated career and
+finally became the property of one of the leading law firms of the
+city, McNaught, Ferry, McNaught & Mitchell. They employed a Bohemian
+from Kansas, named Frank C. Montgomery, as editor, who conducted it
+until May 1, 1886, when Homer M. Hill, who is now engaged in other
+business in Seattle, bought it.
+
+The Hall brothers were conducting the _Call_ and the two papers were
+consolidated, and on Monday, May 3, 1886, the paper came out with Vol.
+1, No. 1 of the Seattle _Daily Press_. A weekly paper was also run in
+connection with the daily. Mr. Hill ere long acquired the entire
+ownership of the paper. He was a shrewd, capable business man of
+untiring industry, and under his management the paper became a
+valuable property. Interests in it had been sold and bought back from
+time to time, and at the time Mr. Hill closed out his ownership Harry
+White held some of its shares. At that time the paper was absolutely
+free from debt and had a good bank account and was making money for
+its owners.
+
+Mr. W. E. Bailey, a wealthy young man from Philadelphia, had large
+interests here, and he became the victim to an ambition to conduct a
+big newspaper. Under these circumstances Mr. Hill had no difficulty in
+getting his price for the _Press_. Mr. L. S. J. Hunt of the
+_Post-Intelligencer_ conducted the negotiations and made the purchase
+and at once transferred the property to Mr. Bailey. He made important
+additions to the mechanical department and engaged a large news and
+editorial force, whose chief instructions were to make a clean, live
+newspaper.
+
+At the time Mr. Hill bought the _Chronicle_ it owned the Associated
+Press evening franchise, which was its most valuable asset.
+
+In passing, it is proper to note the fact that the present _Times_ is
+the lineal successor of the _Chronicle_, and while for a brief period
+there was a break in the legal succession, it may be truthfully said
+that the historical succession to the Associated Press franchise is
+derived from the _Chronicle_ down through the _Press_ and the
+_Press-Times_ to _The Times_ of to-day.
+
+The consolidation of the _Chronicle_ and _Call_ threw a lot of
+printers and newspaper men out of employment, including Thomas H.
+Dempsey, the foreman of the _Chronicle_ office. The latter was a keen
+business man and a competent printer. He and the late Col. George G.
+Lyon and James P. Ferry at once organized a new company, and secured a
+printing outfit that served their purpose temporarily. The same day,
+May 3, 1886, that the _Press_ was issued, No. 1, Vol. 1 of the _Daily
+Times_ also appeared. Seattle, then a little city of about 10,000
+population, was thus the proud possessor of three daily papers.
+
+The starting of these two papers just preceded the "boom" in Seattle
+real estate, when the volume of advertising was vastly increased as
+well as population of the city, and both papers made money rapidly.
+
+February 10, 1891, Mr. Bailey bought the _Times_ from Lyon and
+Dempsey, paying for it $48,000. He had paid somewhere from $20,000 to
+$25,000 for the _Press_. He consolidated the two under the name of the
+_Press-Times_.
+
+The period of financial depression which followed a couple of years
+later bore heavily upon Mr. Bailey and and he was finally compelled
+to give up the paper to his creditors, having lost not less than
+$200,000 during his journalistic career.
+
+The history of its subsequent vicissitudes and difficulties would fill
+a volume, but can be touched upon but briefly here. The paper was on
+the market for a long time. John Collins had it for a time and sunk a
+lot of money in it, having acquired it through a mortgage of $15,000.
+John W. Pratt, whose recent lamented death is fresh in the memories of
+a host of friends, secured control of it for a time. At times it was
+published by a receiver. Hughes and Davies came into possession of it
+through ex-Sheriff James Woolery, who had taken it over under the
+mortgage given to John Collins.
+
+During this troubled period among other happenings the name was
+changed back to _The Times_, and also the Associated Press franchise
+was surrendered and that of the United Service taken over. Later, and
+subsequent to the mortgage of $15,000 given to John Collins, the
+Associated Press franchise was again secured, and this was a vital
+point in the legal contest that arose, The Times Printing Company,
+headed by Col. A. J. Blethen on one side, and Hughes & Davies on the
+other.
+
+Colonel Blethen bought _The Times_ August 7, 1897, and his first
+editorial appeared in it three days later. He came well equipped for
+newspaper work and management by reason of wide experience in other
+fields, and month by month he and his sons, Joseph and Clarence B.,
+have made it better and better, and to-day is one of the most valuable
+newspaper properties on the Pacific Coast and one of the great dailies
+of the United States.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] The Ramage was so called because it was constructed by Adam
+Ramage, who went to Philadelphia about 1790, and is believed to have
+been the first press builder in America. For many years he constructed
+all the presses used in this country. The posts and cross-pieces of
+the larger sizes of his early presses were made of wood, and the bed,
+platen, tracks, springs, screw, lever, etc., of iron. The largest
+Ramage press I ever saw had a bed 22x32 inches, with platen 16x22
+inches. This was used in printing the _Oregonian_ for the first four
+months of its life, December, 1850, to April, 1851, and required four
+impressions to perfect a paper--an impression for each page. Sixty to
+seventy perfect papers per hour was the limit of a pressman's
+capacity. During the summer of 1853 a wooden extension was added to
+the platen of the press by an Olympia (Wash.) mechanic, thus doubling
+its capacity. The extra strain upon the muscles of the pressman as a
+result of this enlargement caused the old machine to be dubbed a
+"man-killer."--GEORGE H. HIMES.
+
+
+
+
+IN MEMORIAM OF WILLARD H. REES.
+
+
+It is a labor of love to say that when the writer first met W. H. Rees
+in 1844, the latter was, for a man in his twenty-fifth year, in
+advance of his general surroundings. His intelligence and manner of
+telling what he knew on any subject drew men near his own age to him
+strongly. There were, I found on riper acquaintance, family reasons
+for part of this. His father (then a citizen of Hamilton County,
+Ohio), had been a member of the legislature of his native state of
+Delaware, and his mother had a place in the _literati_ of her day. The
+father was of Welsh stock, and judging by the son, an active, ardent
+member of the Whig party at the time. Willard and I were thrown
+together in the tide of emigration setting out from Saint Louis
+towards the rendezvous of proposed emigrants to Oregon. The boat we
+were on landed at Weston, and from thence we hired a team belonging to
+other emigrants to haul our effects, and we walked to Saint Joseph.
+From thence Rees and I footed it ten miles higher up the Missouri to
+the camp of the emigrants under Gilliam's leadership. Learning there
+that a man living but three miles off needed two assistants to get his
+family and effects to Oregon, we were at his residence next morning as
+he rose from breakfast, and within five minutes were engaged to come
+to Oregon with him as his assistants. Within twenty-five minutes,
+mounted on a good horse, with gold coin to purchase breadstuffs for
+ten persons for three months' journey, Rees was on his way back to
+Saint Joe. He and I then began a year of such intimate relations to
+each other as leads me to say Capt. R. W. Morrison, our employer, made
+no mistake in trusting Mr. Rees with the most important acts in
+conducting his preparations for the journey to Oregon. When we
+effected a military organization for the trip, no mistake was made in
+the election of Rees as first sergeant, with the duties of adjutant.
+And when, after arrival in Oregon, fifteen of us near the same age
+were employed logging and running Hunt's saw mill, on the Lower
+Columbia, Rees was easily our leader. Leaving that in June, 1845, and
+coming to Oregon City to vote, he still, without effort on his part,
+was by common consent in the first place. There were at Oregon City
+two young men I might claim as his peers at that date--Charles E.
+Pickett and J. W. Nesmith. It was the former and Rees, I believe, who
+led to the formation of the first literary association. Mr. Pickett
+was at that time reader from the public news box. The contents were
+volunteer contributions, each writer choosing his subject, and of
+course extending from harmless fun to the most serious questions. This
+suggested the formation of the literary society, naturally.
+
+J. W. Nesmith stood among the young men of 1843 immigration to Oregon
+as W. H. Rees stood among those of 1844. Both observers and helpers in
+the history being made, the former watching and participating
+personally in almost every forward movement, the latter wielding
+perhaps a greater personal influence, but manifesting no ambition for
+personal advancement. Mr. Rees worked as a carpenter at Oregon City
+from June, 1845, to June, 1846 (the exact dates are not remembered),
+but between these dates had purchased a claim in the northern portion
+of Champoeg, [Marion] County. At the finishing of Doctor McLoughlin's
+flouring mill he with other American mechanics celebrated the occasion
+with a ball, which was attended by most of the leading people of
+parties having interest in the Oregon Boundary Question. Lieut. Wm.
+Peel was there using his tongue, eyes and ears, we may suppose, to
+give reliable information in regard to Americans in Oregon to his
+father, then premier of the British Government. Lieutenant Peel was of
+the British navy, but not of the _Modeste_ whose officers generally
+were in company with him when mingling with Americans as on this
+occasion. There was no dancing going on. It was a time of social
+relaxation. Doctor Newell, a Rocky Mountain doctor, and a man of
+sterling good sense, had been giving his opinion of some of Peel's
+social behavior as not such as was beyond criticism among Americans.
+Peel replied, "Well, Doctor, Americans believe in the rule of
+majorities, and I think the British are in a majority here." Mr.
+Newell thought not. A Britisher will settle any question by a bet, and
+Mr. Peel offered the bet of a bottle of wine that a majority of those
+then present were for the British side of the Oregon Boundary
+Question. Doctor Newell took the bet. A count was made and Mr. Newell
+won. Peel on this, looking at a man across the mill floor, offered
+another bottle on that particular man fighting for the British side in
+the contingency of war over Oregon. William Penland, an Englishman,
+put the question: "Sir, which flag would you support in the event of
+war over Oregon?" Rees replied, "I fight under the Stars and Stripes,
+sir." Mr. Rees, no matter what his garb, was always comparatively
+neat, and might well be taken for a middle class Welshman.
+
+Newell and he already neighbors, from this time forward had a potent
+influence among the French-Canadian farmers. Both were admirers of
+Doctor McLoughlin, and Rees' influence was greatly enhanced by his
+taking the finishing of the Catholic Church at Saint Louis, and by
+writing brief tributes to their lives as they passed to the other
+side. From his genial social nature it was easy for Mr. Rees to give
+these retired engagees of the Hudson Bay Company information as to
+what these newly formed relations to the United States Government
+required of them, in which he was aided by neighbors and
+friends--Doctor Newell and F. X. Mathieu. It was his pleasure and
+pastime to learn of the later life, death and burial in the French
+settlement of two of the gallant band, Philip Degrett and Francis
+Rivet, [The authoritative lists of the Lewis and Clark Company does
+not contain these two names.--ED.] who followed the lead of Lewis and
+Clark from the sources of the Columbia to the ocean in 1805, and to
+give to the historian a transcript of the first Catholic parish
+registry, including the names and ages of Gervais, Lucier, Cannon,
+Labonte, and Dubruil, who came with Hunt in 1811.
+
+In 1847 Mr. Rees was elected as a colleague of his friend Dr. Newell.
+Wm. H. Rector, A. Chamberlain and Anderson Cox being the other members
+representing Champoeg County in the lower house of the Oregon
+legislature. From the foregoing causes and his steady patriotism Mr.
+Rees became a potent influence in sending young men from the French
+settlement to the fighting field in the Cayuse country on the Whitman
+massacre, himself going as regimental commissary agent.
+
+As the troops were retiring from the Cayuse country, gold was
+discovered in California and many of the soldiers were amongst the
+first to go to the mines, Willard H. Rees of the number. A larger
+proportion of the French half-breeds never returned than of the
+Americans, and from 1849 the Canadian settlement began to
+disintegrate. As the pioneer settlement died, Rees's ready pen gave
+them kindly notice. In the period between 1850 and 1860 he was
+watchful and active, but never for himself; being of Whig antecedents
+it was natural for him to help in the formation of the Union party,
+and that he did; also, being a leader in the formation of the Pioneer
+Association, the pages of its annual publications will furnish the
+future historical gleaner many valuable points there inserted by the
+pen of Willard H. Rees.
+
+The death of his body at 83 years is not reasonable cause of mourning;
+his nearest friends have had cause for sadness in the slow and gradual
+mental decay which was perceptible to them for many years before the
+final end. A change, slight and unperceived by ordinary observers,
+was noted by his intimate friends as far back as 1879, when a few
+lines in the annual address to the pioneers prepared by him but which
+he was unable to attend and deliver, and were well read by F. M.
+Bewley, seemed unlike the Rees of 1859. Yet in that address he
+characteristically goes to the very beginning of social free and easy
+interchange of personal views on the life of the times of 1845-6. This
+early social life expressed itself through an organization called the
+Pioneer Lyceum and Literary Club, and he thus speaks of it: "The
+following are the names Charlie Pickett had on the membership roll.
+They were at times widely scattered and are designated upon the roll
+as regular and visiting members:
+
+"John H. Couch, F. W. Pettygrove, J. M. Woir, A. L. Lovejoy, J.
+Applegate, S. W. Moss, Robert Newell, J. W. Nesmith, Ed Otie, H. A. G.
+Lee, F. Prigg, C. E. Pickett, Wm. C. Dement, Medorum Crawford, Hiram
+Strait, J. Wambaugh, Wm. Cushing, Philip Foster, Ransom Clark, H. H.
+Hide (Hyde?), John G. Campbell, Top McGruder, W. H. Rees, Mark Ford,
+Henry Saffren, Noyes Smith, Daniel Waldo, P. G. Stewart, Isaac W.
+Smith, Joseph Watt, Frank Ematinger, A. E. Wilson, Jacob Hoover, S. M.
+Holderness, John Minto, Barton Lee, General Husted, and John P.
+Brooks.
+
+"Perhaps a more congenial, easy-going, self-satisfying club has never
+since congregated in the old capital city and under changed condition
+of affairs, especially in fashions so strikingly different from the
+unique and richly colored costumes of that day, never will the good
+people of our spray-bedewed old city rest upon the like again." The
+names are given as history, the last quotation as a sample of Mr.
+Rees's quiet humor.
+
+Now an end of life by natural law is not a proper subject of mourning.
+Willard H. Rees did not so regard it, when his generous kindness led
+him to collect the most praiseworthy incidents of very earliest and
+most unlettered of the pioneers from those coming with Lewis and Clark
+and Astor's enterprise to those better informed who came after he
+himself was here. The contributions of Willard H. Rees, J. W. Nesmith,
+and M. P. Deady to the Oregon Pioneer Association publication would
+alone constitute no mean volume of the history of Oregon, beginning
+with retired Canadian hunters and trappers who by cultivating the soil
+of Oregon and creating a magazine of supplies to the American
+homebuilders unawares were cultivating the seeds of civilization aided
+and foreseen by the Applegates, Burnetts, Waldos, Nesmiths, Rees, and
+others who managed a bloodless victory over the pro-British occupation
+of Oregon.
+
+
+
+
+SHORT BIOGRAPHY OF JOSEPH HOLMAN.
+
+
+Joseph Holman was born at Little Torrington, Devonshire, England,
+August 20, 1815. His parents were John and Elizabeth Holman. His
+father was a mechanic, and manufacturer of agricultural implements,
+and died when Joseph was quite young, leaving two older sons. The
+eldest son carried on his father's business, the younger brothers
+living with him to learn the trade.
+
+When Joseph was sixteen years of age, the second brother emigrated to
+Canada and sent such good reports of large wages for mechanics that
+when Joseph was eighteen his elder brother allowed him to follow,
+though bound to him until twenty-one. In 1833 Joseph took passage on
+the ship "Eliza" for Canada and landed at Prince Edward's Island where
+the ship was seized for debt, which detained the passengers some
+weeks, the creditors furnishing codfish and potatoes only, for food.
+The ship finally sailed for Quebec and to London, in Canada, where
+Joseph found his brother, and worked in that place for several years,
+but disliked the rough ways of that early time. He went alone to New
+Lisbon, Ohio, where he worked at wagon making for a year. Hearing much
+of the so-called West at that time, he went to Peoria, Illinois, found
+work and lived two years there. During that time, Jason Lee, on his
+way from Oregon to the East, stopped at Peoria and lectured on Oregon.
+In the spring of 1839 eighteen persons agreed to go to Oregon and
+settle there. Joseph Holman had ideas of a large city at the mouth of
+the Columbia River, and he wanted to be one to help take the claim.
+The party started west with horses and wagons. At Independence,
+Missouri, they sold the wagons and bought mules to carry packs. Mr.
+Farnham was chosen captain. They traveled to Bent's Fort on the
+Arkansas River without mishap, and to Bent's Fort on the Platte River
+[generally called St. Vrain's] became demoralized. Some went back, Mr.
+Farnham went to Santa Fé, others went through the next year, but
+Joseph Holman, with Cook, Fletcher and Kilbourn, determined to go to
+Oregon. While away from the fort to get dry buffalo meat for food the
+Indians stole their horses. They worked at the fort until they earned
+more horses, and late in the fall the four started alone and reached
+Green River, in the Rocky Mountains, and camped in a sheltered place
+called "Brown's Hole," also Joe Meek, Doctor Newell, Cary and others.
+Joseph Holman's mechanical knowledge helped him here, for he stocked
+guns, made saddles for Indians, and received an extra horse and beaver
+skins (as good as money) in return. Doctor Newell decided to start
+early in the spring, with the beaver skins to Fort Hall, in Idaho, to
+avoid Indian war parties who would be out later on. They were caught
+in the snow and nearly perished. Where Doctor Newell expected to see
+buffalo they did not see one. They were four days without any food,
+until they met a Digger Indian woman who sold them her two dogs. After
+that they now and then killed an antelope until they reached Fort Hall
+where they remained three weeks to recuperate themselves and horses.
+Doctor Newell remained here. The four young men left with a Hudson Bay
+agent for Fort Boise, but went alone from there to Walla Walla,
+arriving there May 1, 1840; from there down the Columbia River to Fort
+Vancouver, was the hardest part of the trip, especially from The
+Dalles to Fort Vancouver, on the north side of the Columbia. The water
+was high at that season of the year, had covered the Indian trail on
+the bank of the river, and they were obliged to lead their ponies over
+the bluffs to Fort Vancouver, a fact Doctor McLaughlin could hardly
+believe when they arrived, at 11 o'clock June 1, 1840. In the
+afternoon of the same day a ship arrived at Fort Vancouver from New
+York, with forty Methodist missionaries to teach and convert the
+Indians. A Miss Almira Phelps, from Springfield, Massachusetts, was
+one, to whom Joseph was married in less than a year. He was twenty-six
+years of age, and even then showed a progressive spirit. The four, Mr.
+Cooke, Mr. Fletcher, Mr. Kilbourn, and Joseph Holman, rode around
+looking for places to settle. They took up land and built a cabin. The
+Methodist mission employed them for a time and paid them in stock.
+
+Joseph Holman cut the first stick of timber on the present town site
+of Salem, and just back of the asylum for the insane he took up his
+claim of land, which was a mile square. He rode a horse to the east,
+to the north, to the west, to the south, and staked it. Years
+afterward surveyors said he surveyed it correctly on his horse, a mile
+square. Mrs. John H. Albert, now living, was born on this land, Joseph
+Holman's eldest daughter. His only son, George Phelps Holman, was the
+first white child born in Salem, or the county.
+
+Joseph Holman's heart and soul were for Oregon, for its building up,
+its prosperity. His loyalty was unbounded. He was honest,
+affectionate, and true.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+This short statement was dictated by Mr Joseph Holman to his wife
+during his last illness in 1880. He was on a lounge, and told these
+facts, and she penciled them down and copied them June 27, 1902, in
+the present form.
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENTS.
+
+
+Letter of fur traders Jedediah S. Smith, David E. Jackson, and Wm. L.
+Sublette--1830.
+
+Gives an account of the taking of the first wagons to the Rocky
+Mountains and of the Hudson's Bay Company post, Fort Vancouver, and
+its operations in the Oregon Country. An argument for the termination
+of the convention of 1818.
+
+     The letter of Smith, Jackson, and Sublette forms part of
+     Senate Executive Documents 39, 21st Congress, 2d session,
+     pp. 21-23. The whole document is taken up with a
+     consideration of "the state of the British establishments in
+     the valley of the Columbia, and the state of the fur trade,
+     as carried on by the citizens of the United States and the
+     Hudson's Bay Company," as shown in the communications of
+     Gen. W. H. Ashley, Joshua Pilcher, J. D. Smith, David E.
+     Jackson, and W. L. Sublette, and William Clark and Lewis
+     Cass.
+
+     ST. LOUIS, October 29, 1830.
+
+     SIR: The business commenced by General Ashley some years
+     ago, of taking furs from the United States territory beyond
+     the Rocky Mountains has since been continued by Jedediah S.
+     Smith, David E. Jackson, and William L. Sublette, under the
+     firm of Smith, Jackson, and Sublette. They commenced
+     business in 1826, and have since continued it, and have made
+     observations and gained information which they think it
+     important to communicate to the government. The number of
+     men they have employed has usually been from eighty to one
+     hundred and eighty; and with these, divided into parties,
+     they have traversed every part of the country west of the
+     Rocky Mountains, from the peninsula of California to the
+     mouth of the Columbia River. Pack horses, or rather mules,
+     were at first used, but in the beginning of the present
+     year, it was determined to try wagons, and in the month of
+     April last, on the 10th day of the month, a caravan of ten
+     wagons, drawn by five mules each, and two dearborns, drawn
+     by one mule each, set out from St. Louis. We have eighty-one
+     men in company, all mounted on mules, and these were
+     exclusive of a party left in the mountains. Our route from
+     St. Louis was nearly due west to the western limits of the
+     state and thence along the Santa Fé trail about forty miles,
+     from which the course was some degrees north of west, across
+     the waters of the Kanzas, and up the Great Platte River, to
+     the Rocky Mountains, and to the head of Wind River, where it
+     issues from the mountains. This took us until the 16th of
+     July, and was as far as we wished the wagons to go, as the
+     furs to be brought in were to be collected at this place,
+     which is, or was this year, the great rendezvous of the
+     persons engaged in that business. Here the wagons could
+     easily have crossed the Rocky Mountains, it being what is
+     called the Southern [South] Pass, had it been desirable for
+     them to do so, which it was not for the reason stated. For
+     our support, at leaving the Missouri settlements, until we
+     should get into the buffalo country, we drove twelve head of
+     cattle, beside a milk cow. Eight of these only being
+     required for use before we got to the buffaloes, the others
+     went on to the head of Wind River. We began to fall in with
+     the buffaloes on the Platte, about three hundred and fifty
+     miles from the white settlements, and from that time lived
+     on buffaloes, the quantity being infinitely beyond what we
+     needed. On the fourth of August, the wagons being in the
+     meantime loaded with furs which had been previously taken,
+     we set out on the return to St. Louis. All the high points
+     of the mountains then in view were white with snow, but the
+     passes and valleys, and all the level country, were green
+     with grass. Our route back was over the same ground nearly
+     as in going out, and we arrived at St. Louis on the 10th of
+     October, bringing back the ten wagons, the dearborns being
+     left behind; four of the oxen and the milk cow were also
+     brought back to the settlements in Missouri, as we did not
+     need them for provision. Our men were all healthy during the
+     whole time, we suffered nothing by the Indians, and had no
+     accident but the death of one man, being buried under a bank
+     of earth that fell in upon him, and another being crippled
+     at the same time. Of the mules, we lost but one by fatigue,
+     and two horses stolen by the Kanzas Indians; the grass
+     being, along the whole route going and coming, sufficient
+     for the support of the horses and mules. The usual weight in
+     the wagons was about one thousand eight hundred pounds. The
+     usual progress of the wagons was from fifteen to twenty-five
+     miles per day. The country being almost all open, level, and
+     prairie, the chief obstructions were ravines and creeks, the
+     banks of which required cutting down, and for this purpose a
+     few pioneers were generally kept ahead of the caravan. This
+     is the first time that wagons ever went to the Rocky
+     Mountains, and the ease and safety with which it was done
+     prove the facility of communicating overland with the
+     Pacific Ocean. The route from the Southern Pass, where the
+     wagons stopped, to the Great Falls of the Columbia, being
+     easier and better than on this side of the mountains, with
+     grass enough for horses and mules, but a scarcity of game
+     for the support of men. One of the undersigned, to wit,
+     Jedediah S. Smith, in his excursion west of the mountains,
+     arrived at the post of the Hudson's Bay Company, called Fort
+     Vancouver, near the mouth of Multnomah River. He arrived
+     there in August, 1828, and left the 12th of March, 1829, and
+     made observations which he deems it material to communicate
+     to the government. Fort Vancouver is situated on the north
+     side of the Columbia, five miles above the mouth of the
+     Multnomah, in a handsome prairie, and on a second bank about
+     three quarters of a mile from the river. This is the fort as
+     it stood when he arrived there; but a large one, three
+     hundred feet square about three quarters of a mile lower
+     down, and within two hundred yards of the river, was
+     commenced the spring he came away. Twelve pounders were the
+     heaviest cannon which he saw. The crop of 1828 was seven
+     hundred bushels of wheat, the grain full and plump, and
+     making good flour, fourteen acres of corn, the same number
+     of acres in peas, eight acres of oats, four or five acres of
+     barley, a fine garden, some small apple trees, and grape
+     vines. The ensuing spring eighty bushels of seed wheat were
+     sown. About two hundred head of cattle, fifty horses and
+     breeding mares, three hundred head of hogs, fourteen goats,
+     the usual domestic fowls. They have mechanics of various
+     kinds, to wit, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, carpenters, coopers,
+     tinner, and baker. A good saw mill on the bank of the river
+     five miles above, a grist mill worked by hand, but intended
+     to work by water. They had built two coasting vessels, one
+     of which was then on a voyage to the Sandwich Islands. No
+     English or white woman was at the fort, but a great number
+     of mixed blood Indian extraction, such as belong to the
+     British fur trading establishments, who were treated as
+     wives, and the families of children taken care of
+     accordingly. So that everything seemed to combine to prove
+     that this fort was to be a permanent establishment. At Fort
+     Vancouver the goods for the Indian trade are imported from
+     London, and enter the territories of the United States
+     paying no duties, and from the same point the furs taken on
+     the other side of the mountains are shipped. The annual
+     quantity of these furs could not be exactly ascertained, but
+     Mr. Smith was informed indirectly that they amounted to
+     about thirty thousand beaver skins, besides otter skins and
+     small furs. The beaver skins alone, at New York prices,
+     would be worth above two hundred and fifty thousand dollars.
+     To obtain these furs, both trapping and trading are resorted
+     to. Various parties, provided with traps, spread over the
+     country south of the Columbia to the neighborhood of the
+     Mexican territory, and in 1824 and 1825 they crossed the
+     Rocky Mountains and trapped on the waters of the Missouri
+     River. They do not trap north of latitude 49 degrees, but
+     confine that business to the territory of the United States.
+     Thus this territory, being trapped by both parties, is
+     nearly exhausted of beavers, and unless the British can be
+     stopped, will soon be entirely exhausted, and no place left
+     within the United States where beaver fur in any quantity
+     can be obtained.
+
+     The inequality of the convention with Great Britain in 1818
+     is most glaring and apparent, and its continuance is a great
+     and manifest injury to the United States. The privileges
+     granted by it have enabled the British to take possession of
+     the Columbia River, and spread over the country south of
+     it; while no Americans have ever gone, or can venture to go
+     on the British side. The interest of the United States and
+     her citizens engaged in the fur trade requires that the
+     convention of 1818 should be terminated, and each nation
+     confined to its own territories. By this commercial interest
+     there are other considerations requiring the same result.
+     These are, the influence which the British have already
+     acquired over the Indians in that quarter, and the prospect
+     of a British colony, and a military and naval station on the
+     Columbia. Their influence over the Indians is now decisive.
+     Of this the Americans have constant and striking proofs, in
+     the preference which they give to the British in every
+     particular.
+
+     In saying this, it is an act of justice to say, also, that
+     the treatment received by Mr. Smith at Fort Vancouver was
+     kind and hospitable; that, personally, he owes thanks to
+     Governor Simpson and the gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay
+     Company, for the hospitable entertainment which he received
+     from them, and for the efficient and successful aid which
+     they gave him in recovering from the Umquah Indians a
+     quantity of fur and many horses, of which these Indians had
+     robbed him in 1828.
+
+     As to the injury which must happen to the United States from
+     the British getting the control of all the Indians beyond
+     the mountains, building and repairing ships in the tide
+     water region of the Columbia, and having a station there for
+     their privateers and vessels of war, is too obvious to need
+     a recapitulation. The object of this communication being to
+     state _facts_ to the Government, and to show the facility of
+     crossing the continent to the Great Falls of the Columbia
+     with wagons, the ease of supporting any number of men by
+     driving cattle to supply them where there was no buffalo,
+     and also to show the true nature of the British
+     establishments on the Columbia, and the unequal operation of
+     the convention of 1818.
+
+     These _facts_ being communicated to the Government, they
+     consider that they have complied with their duty, and
+     rendered an acceptable service to the administration; and
+     respectfully request you, sir, to lay it before President
+     Jackson.
+
+     We have the honor to be sir, yours, respectfully,
+
+     JEDEDIAH S. SMITH,
+     DAVID E. JACKSON,
+     W. L. SUBLETTE.
+
+     To the Hon. John H. Eaton, _Secretary of War_.
+
+Excerpts from St. Louis papers, 1832-1848, on the migration to and
+settlement of Oregon.
+
+     The _Missouri Republican_, July 5, 1831.
+
+     The American Society for encouraging the settlement of
+     Oregon Territory, propose to enlist 1000 men for the
+     purpose, to rendezvous in this city January next. Each man
+     will receive gratuitously a lot of land. There is said to be
+     "an immense water power up the Wallamott or Mulnomah."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, November 8, 1831.
+
+     An unlucky little paragraph of ours in relation to the
+     prosperous colony at the mouth of the Columbia River has
+     been the source of much trouble to us. We have been
+     frequently addressed both by letter and in person for
+     information upon the subject, without having the means of
+     replying satisfactorily to querists. * * * We cannot now
+     state whether the plan has been abandoned, but time has
+     passed by when the adventurers were to have assembled here.
+     The project originated in Boston, where, we believe, the
+     principal officers of the society reside.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, April 24, 1832.
+
+     OREGON COLONY.
+
+     Thirty-six persons attached to this colony arrived in this
+     city Friday last. They have since proceeded on their way.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _St. Louis New Era_, February 14, 1843.
+
+     OREGON, THE NEW ELDORADO.
+
+     We derive from a long letter in the _National Intelligencer_
+     the following sketch of the Territory beyond the Rocky Mts.,
+     which is now the theme of debate in the U. S. Senate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Newark Advertiser._
+
+     "Within a few years several Americans, of whom the writer is
+     one, have crossed the Rocky Mts., to the mouth of the
+     Columbia, with objects entirely unconnected with trade or
+     commerce. Mine was a desire to see a new country, a love of
+     adventure for its own sake, and an enthusiastic fondness for
+     natural history. The party with which I traveled left
+     Independence, Mo., about the latter part of April, 1834, and
+     arrived at the British Fort, Vancouver, in September, having
+     performed the whole journey on horseback. From this time
+     until October, 1836, with the exception of the first winter
+     which I passed at the Sandwich Islands, my residence was in
+     the Territory of Oregon. Dr. McLoughlin, chief factor,
+     treated me with uniform and singular kindness, supplying all
+     my wants and furnishing me with every facility in the
+     prosecution of my plans. This is, I believe, the uniform
+     character of the Superintendents of British forts in that
+     country. Travelers, naturalists, and all who are not traders
+     are kindly and hospitably treated, but the moment a visitor
+     is known to trade a beaver skin from an Indian, that moment
+     he is ejected from the community. The company has a sum of
+     money amounting to several thousand pounds sterling, laid
+     aside at Vancouver for the sole purpose of opposing all who
+     may come to interfere with its monopoly, by purchasing at
+     exhorbitant prices all the furs in possession of the
+     Indians, and thus forcing the settler to come to terms or
+     driving him from the country. If it be an individual who is
+     thus starved into submission he then usually clears a piece
+     of land on the Willamette River, takes an Indian wife, and
+     purchases furs of the natives, which, by previous contract,
+     he is bound to sell to the company at an advance which is
+     fixed by the governor.
+
+     Ft. Vancouver, the principal trading post of the Oregon,
+     stands on the north bank of the river, about 90 miles from
+     the mouth. The fort consists of several dwellings,
+     storehouses, workshops, etc., all of frame arranged together
+     in quadrilateral form, and surrounded by a stockade of pine
+     logs about 20 ft. high. The Ft. has no bastions, and
+     contains no armament. There are, to be sure, 4 great guns
+     frowning in front of the governor's mansion, 2 long 18s and
+     2 9-pounders, but two of them have long been spiked and the
+     others are unfit for service.
+
+     The rainy season begins here about the middle of October and
+     continues until the first of April. During this period the
+     weather is almost uniformly dull, foggy, or rainy. Sometimes
+     rain falls incessantly for the space of 2 or 3 weeks.
+     Occasionally, during the winter months, there will be a
+     light fall of snow, and in the winter of 1835-6 the river
+     was frozen over. The intensity of cold, however, continued
+     but a few days and was said to be very unusual. The general
+     range of the thermometer, (Fahr.) during that season was
+     from 36-48 degrees, but for 3 or 4 days was as low as 25
+     degrees.
+
+     In the vicinity of Ft. Vancouver, the cattle graze during
+     the whole winter; no stabling or stall feeding is ever
+     requisite, as the extensive plains produce the finest and
+     most abundant crops of excellent prairie grass. In choosing
+     a site for settlement on the main river, it is always
+     necessary to bear in mind the periodical inundations. Ft.
+     Vancouver itself, though built on a high piece of land at a
+     distance of 600 yards from the common rise of the tides, is
+     sometimes almost reached by the freshets of early spring.
+     The soil here, on both sides of the river is a rich black
+     loam, the base being basaltic rock.
+
+     The face of the country from Ft. George, (Astoria,) to
+     Vancouver, a distance of 80 miles, is very much of a uniform
+     character, consisting of alluvial meadows, along the
+     river-side, alternating with forests of oak, pine, etc.,
+     while behind are extensive plains, some of which receive
+     estuaries of the river, while others are watered by lakes or
+     ponds. The pine forests are very extensive, the trees being
+     of great size, and the timber extraordinarily beautiful. All
+     the timber of the genus pinus is gigantic. I measured with
+     Dr. Gairdner, surgeon of the fort, a pine of the species
+     _Douglass_, which had been prostrated by the wind. Its
+     height was above 200 ft., and its circumference 45 feet.
+     Large as was this specimen, its dimensions are much exceeded
+     by one measured by the late David Douglas. The height of
+     this tree was nearly 300 ft., and the circumference 56 ft.
+     Cones of this pine, according to Mr. D., were 12 to 15
+     inches long, resembling in size and form sugar loaves. Oak
+     timber of various kinds is abundant along the river, as well
+     as button wood, balsam, poplar, ash, sweet gum, beech, and
+     many other useful kinds, but no hickory or walnut. The
+     governor of Ft. Vancouver, who is an active agriculturist,
+     has exerted himself for several years in raising whatever
+     appears adapted to the soil. Wheat, rye, barley, pease, and
+     culinary vegetables of all kinds are raised in ample
+     quantity. Fruits of various kinds, apples, peaches, plums,
+     etc., do remarkably well. I remember being particularly
+     struck, upon my arrival at Vancouver in the autumn, with the
+     display of apples in the garden of the fort. Trees were
+     crowded with fruit, so that every limb had to be sustained
+     with a prop. Apples were literally packed along the
+     branches, and so closely that I could compare them to
+     nothing more aptly than ropes of onions. In the vicinity of
+     Walla Walla or the Ney [z] Perce's Fort, the country in
+     every condition for many miles exhibits an arid and
+     cheerless prospect. The soil is deep sand, and the plain
+     upon which the fort stands produces nothing but bushes of
+     aromatic wormwood. Along the borders of the small streams,
+     however, the soil is exceedingly rich and productive, and on
+     these strips of land the superintendent raises his corn and
+     the vegetables necessary for the consumption of his people.
+     The prong-horned antelope occasionally ranged these plains;
+     black-tailed or mule deer is found in the vicinity; grouse
+     of several species are very abundant, and large prairie hare
+     is common. In autumn and winter, in the vicinity of Ft.
+     Vancouver, ducks, geese, and swans swarm in immense numbers.
+     These are killed by the Indians and taken to the Ft. as
+     articles of trade. For a single duck, one load of powder and
+     shot is given; for a goose, 2; and for a swan, 4 loads. For
+     deer 10 loads of ammunition, or a bottle of rum is the usual
+     price. Early in May salmon are first seen entering the
+     river, and the Columbia and all its tributaries teem with
+     these delicious fish. The Indians take great numbers by
+     various modes, subsisting almost wholly on them during their
+     stay, and drying and packing them away in thatched huts to
+     be used for their winter store. Salmon also forms a chief
+     article of food for the inmates of the fort, and hundreds of
+     casks are salted down every season.
+
+     About 20 miles above this, in the Wallamet Valley, is the
+     spot chosen by the Methodist missionaries for their
+     settlement, and here also, a considerable number of retired
+     servants of the company had established themselves. The soil
+     of this delightful valley is rich beyond comparison, and the
+     climate considerably milder than that of Vancouver. Rain
+     rarely falls, even in the winter season, but dews are
+     sufficiently heavy to compensate for its absence. The
+     epidemic of the country, ague, is rarely known here. In
+     short, the Wallamet Valley is a terrestrial paradise, to
+     which I have known some to exhibit so strong an attachment
+     as to declare that notwithstanding the few privations which
+     must necessarily be experienced by settlers of a new
+     country, no consideration would ever induce them to return
+     to their former homes."
+
+     J. K. T. [TOWNSEND].
+
+     Washington, Jan. 26, 1843.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _St. Louis New Era_, Tuesday, February 28, 1843.
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     The following is an extract from a letter dated Honolulu,
+     Oct. 30, 1842. "The town is now full of strangers, the
+     Chenamus having brought some 19 passengers from the Oregon,
+     who are returning home, disgusted with the people and the
+     country. Then again, the Victoria brings a few families here
+     on their way to the river to settle. They must be encouraged
+     by meeting so many here, returning."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _New Era_, Thursday, March 9, 1843.
+
+     (Contains notice of "Travels in the Great Prairie
+     Wilderness, the Anahuac and Rocky Mts., and in Oregon
+     Territory," by T. J. Farnham; said to contain full account
+     of a journey overland and the Methodist missions in the
+     Territory. Notice copied into "_Era_" from _N. Y. Tribune_,
+     from which office it is issued.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, July 22, 1843.
+
+     We learn from Maj. Albert Wilson who has just returned from
+     the Mountains, that he met the Oregon emigrants on the big
+     Arkansas [Platte], one month after they had left the
+     settlements, and that they were cheerfully wending their way
+     onwards. There were 1150 emigrants, 175 wagons, and a great
+     number of cattle, horses, mules, etc., etc. Lord Stewart and
+     his party of pleasure, consisting of 100 persons, were three
+     days in advance of the Oregon emigrants.
+
+     Copied into _Rep._ from "_Liberty Banner_."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, August 7, 1843.
+
+     A letter received from the emigrants, at Iowa City, some
+     days since:
+
+     OREGON EMIGRATING CO.
+
+     June 10, 1843.
+
+     The return of a company of mountain traders to the
+     settlements presents an opportunity for writing which I feel
+     much inclined to embrace. We are now between 2 and 300 miles
+     west of Independence, on the Blue river, a tributary of the
+     Kansas, in good health and spirits. I regret to say that a
+     division has taken place in the company, in consequence of
+     the number of cattle driven by some, those having no cattle
+     refusing to stand guard over stock belonging to others. The
+     result of all this was that Capt. Burnett resigned command
+     of the company, and the commander, in accordance with our
+     regulations, ordered a new election, and so altered the
+     by-laws that the commander should be called colonel, and
+     also authorized the election of 4 captains, and 4 orderly
+     sergeants. The cattle party selected myself as their
+     candidate, those opposed selected Mr. Wm. Martin, an
+     experienced mountaineer. There being a majority in
+     opposition to the cattle party, Mr. Martin was elected, and
+     a division of the company ensued. About 50 wagons, with
+     those who had large droves of loose cattle, now left, with a
+     general request that all in favor of traveling with them
+     should fall back. I was particularly solicited to leave
+     Martin's party, but as it would travel much the fastest, and
+     Col. Martin was a very clever fellow, I declined. The new
+     company, it is expected, will be commanded by Capt.
+     Applegate. Our roads, since leaving the settlements have
+     been very fine, except within the last few days, during
+     which period they have been almost impassable in consequence
+     of the tremendous rains, but they are again improving. We
+     have had no trouble with the Indians, with the exception of
+     horse and cattle stealing, and this business they have
+     carried on pretty lively. I had a very fine mule and an ox
+     stolen from me on the Kansas river, and we lost in all some
+     8 or 10 head of horses and mules. I believe there is not a
+     case of sickness in camp, though old Mr. Stout, from Iowa,
+     has a violent swelling in his eyes. Tell the boys from Iowa
+     to come on with all the cattle and sheep they can get, and a
+     company large enough to drive them.
+
+     Truly yours, etc.,
+
+     M. M. M. [MCCARVER].
+
+     P. S.--My friend, Mr. Henry Lee, from Iowa, has just been
+     elected Capt. of one of the divisions. While writing, news
+     has been brought in of the discovery of a dead Indian about
+     one mile from this place, and freshly scalped, and nearly
+     all the company have gone to see him. He was shot with
+     arrows and is supposed to be a Pawnee, killed by a party of
+     the Kansas Indians whom we met the other day, consisting of
+     200, with fresh scalps and fingers, which they said had been
+     taken the day before.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, Friday, September 6, 1843.
+
+     We have been favored with the perusal of a private letter
+     from Bent's Fort, dated July 26. The writer is one of Mr.
+     Fitzpatrick's party, and says that thus far their trip has
+     been a severe one. The party has been delayed since the 14th
+     inst., waiting for the arrival of Mr. Fremont, who left them
+     on the 17th of June with 18 men. After progressing ahead
+     some distance, he despatched an express back, requesting the
+     rear party with Fitzpatrick not to move until he joined
+     them, alleging as a reason that there were hostile Mexicans
+     on their route. On the morning of the date of the letter,
+     the writer says, they were dividing into two parties again,
+     with the intention of meeting at Ft. Hall, Oregon, in about
+     4 days [weeks]. Fitzpatrick's party intended crossing the
+     Platte that morning, and would take up its line of march
+     over the mountains. He speaks of a slight difficulty with
+     the Indians, but furnishes no particulars.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, Friday, September 29, 1843.
+
+     We have received from Mr. Edward Hutwa a very handsome, and,
+     as far as we have any means of judging, a correct lithograph
+     map of the Oregon Territory, as claimed by the U. S., with a
+     portion of the adjacent territory. The principal rivers,
+     mountains, routes, trading depots, and the trading depots
+     and forts of the Hudson's Bay Co., are laid down with
+     accuracy. To those migrating to the Columbia, or to those
+     wishing to study the topography of the country, this map
+     will be of importance.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, Wednesday, December 13, 1843.
+
+     A postscript to a letter from a gentleman in the Indian
+     country, dated October 19, received by a gentleman of this
+     city, says: "Ft. Hall, on the Oregon has been delivered up
+     to Lt. Fremont, and it is believed that Ft. Vancouver soon
+     will be." How far the report is reliable, we have no means
+     of knowing, except that he and his party are in Oregon by
+     the authority and direction of the United States Government.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, Thursday, December 14, 1843.
+
+     We yesterday noticed a postscript of a letter from the
+     Oregon country. We have since seen letters from Lt. Fremont
+     and other men of his party, written at Ft. Hall, and bearing
+     date of 20th September, which do not confirm the report
+     alluded to. The silence of these letters as to the
+     surrender of Ft. Hall is full assurance to us that the
+     report is not correct. The letter before us, the statements
+     of which are corroborated by Lt. Fremont, himself, says:--
+
+     "I arrived at this place (Ft. Hall) on the 13th inst., with
+     my part of the caravan all safe and in tolerable order. * * *
+     (Unimportant part skipped). Lt. Fremont, whom I parted
+     with on the South fork of the Platte, and expected to meet
+     at this place, joined us yesterday after making a survey of
+     the Salt Lake, which he has done much to his satisfaction.
+     The exploration and new routes which we have taken have made
+     our trip tedious and very laborious, but, I hope it will be
+     satisfactory to the Department. We leave tomorrow for the
+     lower country, and find it necessary to let some of our men
+     off on account of the scarcity of provisions, which are not
+     to be had at this place. The full objects of the expedition,
+     will, I hope, be completed ere we return. I shall leave the
+     party in a few days for Walla Walla, or perhaps lower down,
+     to provide necessary supplies for the completion of the
+     business in that quarter. I can not say what time we will
+     return to St. Louis; it is to be hoped before the
+     adjournment of Congress. The emigrants passed this place
+     some short time since, pretty well worn down and scarce of
+     food. The Indians on the Columbia are expected to become
+     troublesome to these newcomers. It is supposed they are
+     induced to acts of violence by some persons as yet unknown.
+     They have already burned Dr. Whitman's mill, and I fear it
+     is not the last spark which will be kindled in the
+     settlement and occupation of this country. The Hudson's Bay
+     Company are improving and pushing their business, perhaps
+     with greater energy than usual, Dr. McLoughlin is laying off
+     towns on the Willamette, selling lots, etc. This is the
+     report, and you can see that the Dr. is in advance of Dr.
+     Linn's bill."
+
+     The foregoing is the latest news from Oregon, and may be
+     relied upon as correct. Not the least interesting part of it
+     is that which relates to the disposition of the Indians
+     towards the emigrants. We have always believed that the
+     Indians, backed and incited as they will be by agents and
+     emissaries of the Hudson's Bay Co., and furnished as they
+     doubtless will be, with arms and means of warfare from some
+     source, would oppose the emigrants in making their
+     settlements. That the country must be conquered before it is
+     attained, we hardly entertain a doubt, and if we did, the
+     supineness of our Government would only strengthen the
+     belief. Why is it that our Government is so indifferent to
+     the claims of the nation upon this territory, its wealth and
+     possessions?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     St. Louis _Reveille_, Oct. 21, 1844.
+
+     The Platte _Argus_ contains a letter from "Multnomah City,"
+     Oregon, from which we make the following extracts. The
+     killing of the Indian has been briefly mentioned
+     heretofore.
+
+     "When I first came here, 19 months ago, there were but 4 or
+     5 houses, now there is upwards of 80 good buildings, nearly
+     all of two stories, and 4 or 5 of three stories high. If
+     there had been plenty of nails we should have had a number
+     more up. If a supply of nails reaches us this spring, we
+     shall have 200 houses before this reaches you, and some of
+     these of brick, for a company from Baltimore are now
+     building a brickyard. A tanyard is also being established.
+     The fact is, we have mechanics of all kinds here, though not
+     a tenth of the number of each kind required. The winter is
+     past, but it was no winter. It was rather a blooming spring,
+     for we had but little rain and no snow, and grass green all
+     the time. We have had but two days' rain in the last 45. I
+     saw cattle yesterday which had run all winter, in finer
+     condition than I ever saw any in your state. Uncle Sam had
+     better be doing something for this country, for if not,
+     within three years _it will be too late_. You laugh, but if
+     you live you will see it. Therefore stir them up, Mac, for
+     we do not want trouble here, and would all rejoice if the
+     star-spangled banner embraced us within its ample folds. Our
+     flag flying by authority would make a vast difference here.
+
+     An Indian committed some outrages lately, and our sheriff
+     endeavored in vain to arrest him; then offered $100 reward
+     for the Indian, and went to his own house, 30 miles from
+     this place. On Monday the Indian came into Oregon City,
+     close to Dr. McLoughlin's mill, where some 25 or 30 men were
+     at work. Winslow and some white men went to take him, and
+     got close to him. He saw Winslow, fired his gun, which
+     missed its mark, the ball lodging in a tree on this side of
+     the river within 2 feet of me, for I was at work at my
+     garden at the time. The Indian then fired his pistol, 2
+     balls from which lodged in the shoulder of G. W. LeBreton,
+     clerk of the court, tearing his arm dreadfully. Mr. LeB.
+     seized the Indian with the other hand, and then threw him
+     down. Winslow then ran up and knocked out his brains. In the
+     meantime, 5 other Indians fired their guns, and then their
+     arrows, and wounded two men."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Reveille_, November 4, 1844.
+
+     NEWS FROM OREGON.
+
+     The _Western Expositor_ of Saturday last announces the
+     arrival of Mr. Wm. Gilpin, formerly of this place, from
+     Oregon. Mr. Gilpin passed the winter among the American
+     settlements of the Willamette and the adjacent sea coast,
+     and he describes them as enjoying prosperity when he left
+     them in April last. The emigrant party of '43, which he
+     accompanied, arrived at their destination in November last,
+     "after having braved and overcome unparalleled dangers and
+     difficulties from savages, from hunger, from thirst,
+     crossing parched treeless plains, fierce angry rivers, and
+     forcing their wagons through 1000 miles of mountains,
+     declared impassable by the most experienced guides and
+     voyageurs."
+
+     This accession swelled the population of Oregon to upwards
+     of 2000, and they had formed a government, elected officers,
+     established courts, and a record of land titles. "Farms," he
+     says, "freckle the magnificent plains, towns are springing
+     up at convenient points upon the rivers, a dozen of
+     excellent mills supply lumber and flour for home use and
+     export; the fisheries are not neglected, and lands are
+     surveyed. A college, numerous schools, and several churches
+     are scattering education amongst the young. Money has been
+     sent from New York for a printing press and steam engine,
+     cattle and stock of all kinds are accumulating and rapidly
+     increasing under a mild climate and unfailing pastures.
+     Provisions of all kinds are abundant, of most excellent
+     quality and moderate prices."
+
+     Mr. Gilpin passed the trading fort of Bridger and Vasquez on
+     the 19th of August. This fort is 100 miles west of Green
+     River, and exactly half way from Independence to the
+     Willamette. The American trappers scattered among the
+     mountains had there collected to meet the emigrants of last
+     spring; an advanced party of 30 of whom, with their wagons
+     and cattle, passed on the 17th, two days later than the
+     emigrants of the preceding year. Two larger companies
+     behind, under the command of Gen. Gilliam and Col. Ford,
+     passed subsequently, and all in good time reached the
+     settlements before the setting in of winter.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Reveille_, January 20, 1845.
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     We learn from a letter published in the _Weston Journal_,
+     dated at the Sandwich Islands, that the Oregon emigrants who
+     went out during the past season, have made great changes in
+     business, money now circulating, and everything begins to
+     assume the appearance of the civilization, business, trade,
+     and refinements this side of the mountains.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, February 8, 1848.
+
+     OREGON.
+
+     We see it stated in up-country papers that the late arrivals
+     from Oregon furnished information that two parties of
+     emigrants, dissatisfied with their prospects in that
+     country, attempted to return home last winter, but were
+     prevented by the difficulties of road and weather. We have
+     never entertained a doubt that this disposition was
+     uppermost with all the best portions of the emigration to
+     that region; but obstacles are presented of such a character
+     as to deter many persons from attempting to return.
+     Emigrants from the states find the greatest difficulty in
+     descending the mountain declivities into the valley of the
+     Columbia River, but then their wagons have been relieved of
+     a great part of the provisions and surplus weight, and they
+     do get along. If they should attempt to return to the United
+     States, however, a different prospect is presented. They
+     must start amply provided with provisions and everything
+     necessary for the journey, and thus loaded it has been
+     deemed impossible to get wagons along over the mountains
+     which they necessarily have to ascend in their progress.
+     This cause alone has deterred many persons from making the
+     attempt, and they have been compelled to accommodate
+     themselves to a country and a condition of things in no
+     respect better than they originally left. No man, in our
+     opinion, who has a comfortable home in any of the states can
+     be justified in giving it up in the expectation of bettering
+     himself in Oregon. If he has a family, he does a gross
+     injustice to them in exposing them to the hardships of so
+     long and perilous a journey with no prospect of returning to
+     their friends, should they become discontented; and even if
+     an emigrant has nobody to care for but himself, he had
+     better stay at home and earn an honest living, than go to
+     Oregon and run the risk of working out a precarious one. For
+     this reason we have never countenanced any one for whom we
+     had the least respect in a journey to Oregon or California
+     with a view to a fixed residence there. Neither country
+     presents half the inducements to be found in any one of the
+     Western states, and an adventure of this kind is prima facie
+     evidence of a restless and discontented spirit, not likely
+     to be pleased anywhere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, May 19, 1848.
+
+     On the 20th of November the Governor appointed Columbia
+     Lancaster to be Supreme Judge of Oregon Territory, in place
+     of J. Quinn Thornton, resigned. From some proceedings of the
+     legislature of a subsequent period, we infer that Judge
+     Thornton had left Oregon on a visit to Washington City, as a
+     sort of general agent, to attend to the distribution of
+     offices in the new territory. Of his arrival we have not
+     heard, and it is probable that Mr. Meek may reach Washington
+     before him.
+
+     [Then follows proceedings of legislature, resolutions, etc.,
+     intended to keep J. Q. T. from leaving the territory, quoted
+     in full. Also Governor's message, expressing the
+     disappointment at the failure of Congress to extend
+     jurisdiction over that country, etc.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, July 26, 1848.
+
+     ARRIVAL OF MR. KIT CARSON FROM CALIFORNIA.
+
+     Information has been received by Gov. Mason in California of
+     the difficulties between the Oregon settlers and Indians,
+     but it does not appear to come down to a later date than
+     that which we have received from Oregon direct.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+     _Republican_, August 2, 1848.
+
+     LATE FROM OREGON.
+
+     [General account of defense of Oregon regiment against
+     Indians; death of Col. Gilliam, etc.]
+
+
+     NOTE--A CORRECTION.
+
+     The name "L. H. Ponjade" occurring on pages 268 and 269 of
+     the September number of THE QUARTERLY should be L. H.
+     Poujade.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+
+
+INDEX TO VOL. IV.
+
+
+     Abbott, Captain, 237.
+
+     Abbott, L. G., 365.
+
+     Abrams, W. P., 60.
+
+     Abrams, C., 63.
+
+     Academy, Bishop Scott's, opened, 66.
+
+     Academy, St. Mary's, opened, 66.
+
+     Adair, Col. John, first collector customs at Astoria, 134, 135.
+
+     Adams, Henry, wrote history of United States, 7.
+
+     Adams, Emma H., 342.
+
+     Adams, W. L., 365.
+
+     Affleck & Gunn, publishers of _Puget Sound Courier_, 372.
+
+     Agriculture in United States, table of, 118.
+
+     Agriculture, 118-122;
+       values, table of, 121.
+
+     Aiken, ----, 139.
+
+     Albert, Mrs. John H., 394.
+
+     Allen, Capt. B. F., wounded, 234.
+
+     Allen and Lewis, 197.
+
+     Allen, ----, 353.
+
+     Allen, George T., 265.
+
+     "All Over Oregon and Washington";
+       purpose of, 317.
+
+     _Alta California, The_, 376.
+
+     Alvarez, ----, consul at Santa Fé, 272.
+
+     Alvarado, Governor of California under Mexican rule, 311.
+
+     Alvord, General, 105.
+
+     Anderson, E. K., 229.
+
+     Angne [Augur?], Captain, 237.
+
+     Ankeny, Captain, 196.
+
+     American Antiquarian Society, 309.
+
+     Applegate, Jesse, 106, 390.
+
+     _Argonaut, The San Francisco_, 292.
+
+     _Argus, The Puget Sound_, 373.
+
+     Armstrong, Pleasant, 234.
+
+     Arundel, Harcourt T., employed by Bancroft, 303.
+
+     Astoria and Columbia River Railroad Company, 146.
+
+     Astoria and Willamette Barge Company, 136.
+
+     Astoria, Social and Economic History of, by Alfred A.
+       Cleveland, 130.
+
+     Astor, John Jacob, 8, 9, 131.
+
+     _Astorian, The_, 28, 29, 30, 138;
+       quotation from, 141, 142, 143.
+
+     Atkinson, John, 365.
+
+     "Atlantis Arisen," revision of "All Over Oregon and Washington,"
+       317.
+
+     Augur, General, 105.
+
+
+     Babcock, Doctor, supreme judge of Oregon Territory, 285.
+
+     Badollet, and Company, 140.
+
+     Bagley, Clarence B., pioneer papers of Puget Sound, 365, 371,
+         377, 378, 379;
+       business manager _Courier_, 381;
+       owner and publisher _Echo_, 382.
+
+     Ball, John, teacher, 265.
+
+     Bailey, Doctor, 230;
+       governor Oregon Territory, 1845, 285.
+
+     Bailey, W. E., purchased the _Press_, 383;
+       purchased the _Times_, 384.
+
+     Baker, Colonel E. D., candidate for United States senator, 72, 93;
+       elected United States senator, 94, 99;
+       mustered into service, 101;
+       reply to Breckinridge, 102;
+       death of, 103.
+
+     Baker, Florence E., 84.
+
+     Baker and Boyer, 195.
+
+     Baker, D. S. & Company, 195.
+
+     Baker, Dr. D. S., the pioneer railroad builder, sketch of life,
+       195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200.
+
+     Baker Mills, The, 217.
+
+     Baltimore, J. M., 365.
+
+     Bancroft Pacific States Publications: The origin and authorship of,
+       A History of A History, by William Alfred Morris, 289.
+
+     Bancroft, Hubert Howe, "The Macaulay of the West," 292;
+       a sketch of early life and of growth of history project, 296;
+       first venture as a literary man, 301;
+       fame as historical writer, 310;
+       method of collecting material, 324;
+       three leading objects kept in mind in preparation of histories,
+         328;
+       plan for works, 335;
+       not a great American historical writer, 337;
+       errors in works, 358.
+
+     Bancroft, H. H. & Company, firm of, organized, 297.
+
+     Bancroft's histories, vastness of the enterprise, 289;
+       not all his own work, 291;
+       parts written by assistants, 330.
+
+     Barclay, Mrs. Dr., 264.
+
+     Barclay, Doctor, 265.
+
+     Barnes, Mary Sheldon, 362.
+
+     Barnes, Edward, 230.
+
+     Barron, Major, 229.
+
+     Bates, Alfred, employed by Bancroft, 325, 363;
+       sketch of life, 331.
+
+     Bausman, W., and Company, printers, of _Northern Light_, 372.
+
+     _Beacon, The_, 382.
+
+     Berry, A. M., first printer on the _Oregonian_, 370.
+
+     Berry, Pamelia Ann, 249.
+
+     Bent, Charles, 272.
+
+     Benton, Senator, 91, 157.
+
+     Bewley, F. M., 390.
+
+     Black, Capt. H. M., 99.
+
+     Blair, J. I., 248.
+
+     Besserer, Charles, 365.
+
+     Bidwell, Major, 222, 223.
+
+     "Blue Book, The Big," name for Iowa code of laws, 188.
+
+     "Blue Book, The Little," 188.
+
+     Bigelow, Daniel R., elected commissioner to draft code of laws
+       for Oregon, 190, 191, 192.
+
+     Bernie, James, 132, 265.
+
+     Blakeley, James, 74.
+
+     Blanchet, Archbishop, 66, 269.
+
+     Blethen, Col. A. J., purchased _The Times_, 385.
+
+     Boelling, V., 22, 32.
+
+     Boardman, John, letter from, 276.
+
+     Boise, Reuben P., 167;
+       elected commissioner to draft code of laws for Oregon, 190;
+       elected state representative, 192, 194.
+
+     Bonneville, Captain, 359.
+
+     Boon, John L., 104.
+
+     Booth, A., & Company, 140.
+
+     Bohttink, Professor, 319.
+
+     Bowman, Amos, employed by Bancroft, 314.
+
+     Border Ruffians, 42.
+
+     Bosquetti, librarian for Bancroft, 299.
+
+     Boyer, John F., 195, 196.
+
+     Boyle, ----, 145.
+
+     Breckinridge, John C., nominated for president, 94, 101.
+
+     Breitenbush, John, 248.
+
+     Bridger, Jim, 113.
+
+     Brotchie, Captain, 265.
+
+     Brooks, John P., 390.
+
+     Brosset, M., 319.
+
+     Brown, ----, 26.
+
+     Brown, Miss, teacher, 29.
+
+     Brown, John, 42.
+
+     Brown, Hugh, founder of Brownsville, 74.
+
+     Brown, F. M., 74.
+
+     Brown, Beriah, 365, 372;
+       editor _Puget Sound Dispatch_, 377;
+       publisher _Puget Sound Dispatch_, 379.
+
+     Brown, J. Henry, employed by Bancroft, 314.
+
+     Buchanan, Lieutenant Colonel, 99, 237, 238.
+
+     Buchanan, President, 126.
+
+     Buffalo Historical Society, 309.
+
+     _Bulletin, The_, 317, 369.
+
+     Burnett, Peter H., 11, 78, 256, 271;
+       letters of taken from _Ohio Statesman_ and _St. Louis Reporter_,
+         180.
+
+     Burnett, John, 365.
+
+     Bush, Asahel, territorial printer, 192, 193, 365;
+       editor _Oregon Statesman_, 370.
+
+     Burke, Thomas, 379.
+
+     Butler, Hillory, 378.
+
+     Butler, Henry, 104.
+
+     Butterfield, John, 126.
+
+     Byers, ----, founder _Rocky Mountain News_, 327.
+
+
+     Calapooia, The Upper, by George O. Goodall, 70.
+
+     _Call_ and _Daily Press_ consolidated, 383.
+
+     California Pioneers, Society of, 294, 351.
+
+     California material, how collected by Bancroft, 311.
+
+     _Californian, The_, pioneer paper of California, 376.
+
+     Campbell, John G., 390.
+
+     Carey, Alice and Phoebe, 315.
+
+     Carson, Kit, 230, 239.
+
+     Carter, Miss Julia, 64.
+
+     Carter, ----, 232.
+
+     Cartwright, Charlotte Moffett, Glimpses of Early Days in Oregon,
+       69.
+
+     Carey, ----, 393.
+
+     Case, Hon. Wm. M., 244.
+
+     Casey, General, 105.
+
+     Cavalry, The First Oregon, recruited, 100, 103.
+
+     Cavender, A. B., 74.
+
+     Cavendish, McDonald and, 74.
+
+     Cavanaugh, Thomas H., purchased _Courier_, 381.
+
+     Cerruti, Enrique, employed by Bancroft, 311.
+
+     Chamberlain, Governor George E., 12.
+
+     Chamberlain, A., state representative, 389.
+
+     Chapman Code, The, 186, 188, 190.
+
+     Chapman, Hon. W. W., 186.
+
+     Chittenden, Captain, the American Fur Trade in the Far West
+       (quoted), 6, 9.
+
+     _Chronicle, The San Francisco_, 293.
+
+     Chronicles of the Builders of the Commonwealth, plan of, 334.
+
+     Clark, George Rogers, proposed expedition of, 5.
+
+     Clark, Harvey, 59.
+
+     Clark, ----, 167.
+
+     Clark, Ransom, 390.
+
+     Clarke, S. A., The Montures on French Prairie, 265, 268, 365.
+
+     Clay, Henry, 273.
+
+     Cleveland, Alfred A., The Educational History of Astoria, Oregon,
+       21.
+
+     Cleveland, Alfred A., The Social and Economic History of Astoria,
+       130.
+
+     Clugage, James and Poole, located first mining claim in Southern
+       Oregon, 229.
+
+     Coffin, Stephen, 65.
+
+     Columbia River, discovery of, 5.
+
+     _Columbian, The_, pioneer newspaper north of the Columbia River,
+       372, 376.
+
+     Colvig, Hon. Wm. H., Indian Wars of Southern Oregon, 227.
+
+     Colvig, Dr. Wm. L., 227, 228, 230.
+
+     Collins, John, 385.
+
+     Commerce, 123.
+
+     Cone, Aaron, 252.
+
+     Cone, Anson Sterling, 251.
+
+     Cone, Philander J., 259.
+
+     Connelly, Dr., 272.
+
+     Connelly, Owen, 66.
+
+     Cook, Captain, off the Oregon coast, 4.
+
+     Cook, Francis H., 366; publisher _The Echo_, 381.
+
+     Cooper, Frank, 248.
+
+     Coquille Guards, 238.
+
+     Corbett, H. W., 63, 64;
+       senator, 196.
+
+     Cornelius, Thomas R., appointed colonel, 99, 101, 135.
+
+     Corvallis and Eastern Railroad, 247.
+
+     Couch, John H., 390.
+
+     _Courier, The Puget Sound_, 372, 380;
+       the daily, first appearance, 380.
+
+     Courtnay, Mrs. Agnes B., 74.
+
+     Courtnay, Isaac B., 75.
+
+     Coues, Dr. Elliott, 6.
+
+     Cowles, Captain R., 100.
+
+     Cox, Anderson, state representative, 389.
+
+     Craig, D. W., 365.
+
+     Crawford, Medorum, 390.
+
+     Crawford, P. V., 71, 167.
+
+     Crawford, Samuel C., 372.
+
+     Crawford, Samuel L., 378;
+       city editor _Post Intelligencer_, 379.
+
+     Creighton, Captain, 237.
+
+     Crooks, General George, 239.
+
+     Crosby, Captain, 59.
+
+     Culver, Samuel, 229.
+
+     Cunningham, ----, 234.
+
+     Currey, Captain George B., 100.
+
+     Curry, Governor George L., 238, 368.
+
+     Cushing, William, 390.
+
+     Cushing, ----, minister to China, 274.
+
+
+     Dall, Captain W. L., appointed lieutenant in navy, 104.
+
+     Damon, John F., 365, 371;
+       editor _The Northwest_, 373.
+
+     Daniels, Travers, publisher Port Townsend _Register_, 372.
+
+     Daniel, ----., 377.
+
+     Davenport, T. W., An Object Lesson in Paternalism, 33, 244, 247,
+       248.
+
+     Davenport, Miss Orla, 249.
+
+     Davis, ----, secretary of war, 157.
+
+     Davis, H. W., appointed captain volunteer company, 61.
+
+     Davis, A. L., 63.
+
+     Davies, Griffith, 378.
+
+     Deady, Judge M. P., 352, 353;
+       contributions to Oregon Pioneer Association, 391.
+
+     Deakins, William, 280.
+
+     Dean, N. C., 229.
+
+     Deardorff, J. D., and wife, 26, 27.
+
+     Degrett, Phillip, 389.
+
+     Dement, William C., 390.
+
+     Dempsey, Thomas H., publisher _Times_, 384.
+
+     Dennison, A. P., 99.
+
+     Denny, Mrs. O. P., 261.
+
+     Dent, Captain F. T., 99.
+
+     Depot, Peter, 269.
+
+     Derby, George H., 296.
+
+     Devlin and Nygant, 140.
+
+     Dilley, ----, 231.
+
+     _Dispatch, The Puget Sound_, 377, 379.
+
+     Dixon, Hepworth, 327.
+
+     Doane, Rev. N., 65.
+
+     Documents, 78;
+       Oregon material taken from a file of an Independence, Mo., and
+         Weston, Mo., paper for 1844 and 1845, 270, 395.
+
+     Dodge, Hon. A. C., 78.
+
+     Douglas House Bill of 1846, 90.
+
+     Douglas, Stephen A., candidate for president of United States, 94.
+
+     Douglass, ----, 265.
+
+     Downing, George S., 244, 247.
+
+     Draper, Doctor, 34.
+
+     Draper, Mrs. Sarah, 264.
+
+     Drew, C. S., Major First Oregon Cavalry, 100.
+
+     Dryer, Thomas J., 64, 93, 365;
+       first editor of _Oregonian_, 370.
+
+     Duncan, L. J. C., 229.
+
+     Duncan, Alexander, 266.
+
+     Dunlap, John A., 75;
+       representative, 76.
+
+     Duniway, Mrs., 365.
+
+     Dunn, Pat, 229, 232.
+
+     Dyar, ----., 234.
+
+     Dyer, E. S., publisher _Northwest_, 373.
+
+     Dyson, George, 74.
+
+
+     Eberman, N., 132.
+
+     Eccleson, Col. E., 247.
+
+     Edison, Thomas A., 39.
+
+     Edwards, Edward, 232.
+
+     Ely, Lieutenant, 232.
+
+     Ematinger, Frank, 390.
+
+     Emigration of 1843, experiences of, 177.
+
+     Evans Creek, battle of, 233.
+
+     Evans, Mr., constructed a ferry on Rogue River, 229.
+
+     Evans, General Elwood, 314, 352.
+
+     Everett, ----., 43.
+
+     _Expositor, The Western_, 74.
+
+     _Express Advance, The_, 74.
+
+
+     Faber, J. G., 234.
+
+     Failing, Josiah, 63.
+
+     Fairweather, H. W., 199.
+
+     Fessenden, Mr., 102.
+
+     Ferguson, Mr., 272.
+
+     Ferry, Elisha P., first governor of Washington, 380.
+
+     Ferry, James P., published _Times_, 384.
+
+     Field, Justice Stephen J., 351.
+
+     Fielding, ----., 234.
+
+     Fields, Thomas, 75.
+
+     Fillmore, President, 187.
+
+     Finance, 126.
+
+     Findlay, John, 75.
+
+     Finlayson, Mr., and wife, 28.
+
+     Finley, R. C., 70, 71, 72, 74.
+
+     Fisher, Walter M., 299;
+       sketch of life, 300.
+
+     Flavel, Captain George, 32.
+
+     Flemming, John, printer _Oregon Spectator_, 368.
+
+     Foard and Stokes Company, 143.
+
+     Ford, Mark, 390.
+
+     Foster, Phillip, 390.
+
+     Fowler, W. W., 232.
+
+     Frazer, Thomas, 63.
+
+     Fremont, Captain, 11, 78;
+       colonel, 157, 158, 230;
+       general, 239, 245.
+
+     Fur and Trading Company, 80.
+
+     Fur Company, The American, 274;
+       The Northwest, 130, 137;
+       The Missouri, organized, 8;
+       The Pacific, 8.
+
+     Furth, Jacob, 378.
+
+
+     Gale, James N., 366.
+
+     Garfield, Selucius, defeated for congress, 380.
+
+     Gary, Rev. Mr., 276.
+
+     Gatch, Prof. T. M., 249.
+
+     Gay, George, 230.
+
+     _Gazette, The Marine_, 31, 138.
+
+     _Gazette, The_, published first dispatch coming by wire to
+         Seattle, 377;
+       first paper in Seattle, 375.
+
+     Gervais, Joseph, 243, 244.
+
+     Gibbs, Addison C., was governor of Oregon, 108, 214, 217.
+
+     Gibbs, A. C., editor _Oregon Weekly Times_, 368.
+
+     Gibbs, ----., 232.
+
+     Gibson, George R., 273.
+
+     Gilliam, Colonel Cornelius, 243.
+
+     Gilmore, S. M., letter from, 284.
+
+     Gilpin, Mr., 271.
+
+     Glass, Robert, 72.
+
+     Gold, discovery of, in California, prices of products in Oregon,
+       49, 60.
+
+     "Gold Beach Guards," 238.
+
+     Goldschmidt, Albert, employed by Bancroft, 304.
+
+     Goodall, George O., the Upper Calapooia, 70.
+
+     Goodall, Captain James P., 233.
+
+     Grace Church Parish School started, 23, 27.
+
+     Grant, General, 105, 109, 239.
+
+     Grant, Frederick J., 378.
+
+     Gray, Captain, sent to North Pacific Coast, 5, 9, 131, 205.
+
+     Gray, Chesley, 229.
+
+     Green, Wm. O., 196.
+
+     Greenwood, Mary, 161.
+
+     Griffin, Lieutenant Burrell, 233.
+
+     Griffin, George Butler, sketch of life, 348.
+
+     Gunn, E. T., newspaper man, 380.
+
+     Gunn, Affleck &, 372.
+
+     Gwin, Senator, plan for slave-holding republic on Pacific Coast,
+       105, 106.
+
+
+     Hall, Peter D., 259.
+
+     Hall, Edwin O., 367.
+
+     Hall, Ike M., 381.
+
+     Hally, C. F., 280.
+
+     Hamilton, S. M., 67.
+
+     Hamilton, Louis, reference to, 190.
+
+     Hand Book Almanac, 297.
+
+     Hanford, Thaddeus, 374, 380.
+
+     Hanley, Mrs. John A., 235.
+
+     Hanthorn & Company, cannerymen, 141.
+
+     Harding, Captain E. J., 100.
+
+     Harding, Benjamin F., quartermaster First Oregon Cavalry, 100.
+
+     Harding, Senator, 214, 217.
+
+     Harding, John R., killed by Indians, 233.
+
+     Harger, Mrs. Harriet, 264.
+
+     Harker, Charles, 104.
+
+     Harris, Captain T. S., 100.
+
+     Harris, David, 235.
+
+     Harris, Mary, 235.
+
+     Harris, ----, 252.
+
+     Harris, George W., 378.
+
+     Hathaway, Major J. S., 135.
+
+     Hawthorne, Doctor, 61.
+
+     Hays, Judge Benjamin, 312.
+
+     Hazen, Captain, 105.
+
+     Helm, George, "Lion of Linn," 73.
+
+     Hensill, Mrs. Mary J., 66.
+
+     _Herald, Puget Sound_, 372, 381.
+
+     _Herald, The Cleveland_, 315.
+
+     Hewitt, Miss, teacher, 24, 29.
+
+     Hewitt, Randall H., 365;
+       publisher _Pacific Tribune_, 374;
+       published _Echo_, 381.
+
+     High School, The Astoria, 31.
+
+     Higgins, David, 366.
+
+     Hill, Mrs., 26.
+
+     Hill, W. Lair, 365;
+       editor _Oregon Weekly Times_, 369.
+
+     Hill, Homer M., purchased _Chronicle_, 383.
+
+     Himes, Geo. H., 375.
+
+     History of the Preparation of the First Code of Oregon, by James
+       K. Kelly, 185.
+
+     History of the Early Indian Wars of Oregon, 318.
+
+     History Company, The, 333.
+
+     Hittell, John S., 299, 331.
+
+     Hobson, John, 32.
+
+     Hobson, Mr., and family, 132.
+
+     Hodgins, ----, 232.
+
+     Hogg, Col. T. E., 248.
+
+     Holderness, S. M., 390.
+
+     Holman, Joseph, Short Biography of, 392.
+
+     Holman, George Phelps, first white child born in Marion County,
+       394.
+
+     Holladay, Ben, published _The Bulletin_, 369.
+
+     _Home Journal_, of New York, 315.
+
+     Hood, Gen. J. B., 239.
+
+     Hooker, Colonel Joseph, 104;
+       builder of military wagon road, 239.
+
+     Hoover, Jacob, 390.
+
+     Hopkins, Mrs. Rebeka, 259.
+
+     Hopwood, Moses, 229.
+
+     Hosford, Rev. C. O., opened first school in Astoria, 21.
+
+     Houston, Sam, 151.
+
+     Howell, ----., 232.
+
+     Hudson Bay Company, possession of the Northwest, 9, 78, 81, 82,
+         83, 89;
+       and Northwest Fur Company consolidated, ----, ----, 132, 153,
+         154, 156, 242, 261.
+
+     Hughes, W. H., 378.
+
+     Hughes and Davies, purchased _The Times_, 385.
+
+     Humason, Judge, 217.
+
+     Hume, R. D., and Company, 140.
+
+     Hungry Hill, battle of, 236.
+
+     Hunt, L. S. J., 383.
+
+     Hunter, Col. George, "Reminiscences of an Old Timer," quotation
+       from, 97.
+
+     Hunt's Astor party, route of, 10.
+
+     Heisler, William, 71.
+
+     Husted, General, 390.
+
+     Hustler, Captain, 134, 139.
+
+     Huston, H. Clay, 267.
+
+     Hyde, Aaron J., 65.
+
+     Hyde, H. H., 390.
+
+     Hyland, Rev. T. H., 23.
+
+     Hyland, Mrs. T. H., 23.
+
+
+     Indian Wars of Southern Oregon, an address by William H. Colvig,
+       227.
+
+     Indians: Umpquas, 228;
+       Klamaths, 228;
+       Rogue Rivers, 228;
+       Modoc, 228;
+       Shasta, 228;
+       Mollalas, 241;
+       Cayuses, 241, 255;
+       Klamaths, 242;
+       Warm Spring, 242;
+       Pawnees, 252.
+
+     Infantry, The First Oregon, 108.
+
+     _Informant, The_, 74.
+
+     Ingalls, Rufus, 105.
+
+     Ingalls, David, 133, 136.
+
+     Ingraham, E. S., 378.
+
+     _Intelligencer, The Weekly_, 377.
+
+     _Iowa Gazette_, 78.
+
+     Iowa Code, 188.
+
+     Ireland, D. C., 366.
+
+     Irish, Tom, 230.
+
+     Irving, Washington, 358.
+
+
+     Jack, D. N., elected assessor of Linn County, 76.
+
+     Jack, Porter, 244.
+
+     Jackson, Stonewall, 42.
+
+     Jackson, Mrs. Helen Hunt, 326.
+
+     Jackson, P. B., 365.
+
+     Jackson, David E., letter of, 395.
+
+     Jacobs, Judge Orange, 371.
+
+     Jefferson, President, trading posts with Indians, 5, 12, 110.
+
+     Jefferson, Delos, 65.
+
+     Johns, James, 79.
+
+     Johnson, Miss, 24.
+
+     Johnson, Doctor, 38.
+
+     Johnson, Mr., 63.
+
+     Johnson, P. B., 365.
+
+     Jones, Mr., killed by Indians, 235.
+
+     Jones, Captain, 237.
+
+     _Journal, The Independence_, 270, 277.
+
+
+     Kautz, General A. V., 239.
+
+     Kearny, Major Phil, 231, 239.
+
+     Keene, Granville, 234.
+
+     Keeney, Johnathan, 74.
+
+     Kelley, Hall J., agitating colonization of Oregon, 9.
+
+     Kelly, Captain William, 100.
+
+     Kelly, James K., History of the Preparation of the "First Code
+         of Oregon," 185;
+       elected commissioner to draft code of laws for Oregon, 189;
+       nominated and elected member of council, 192.
+
+     Kendrick, Captain, sent to North Pacific coast, 5.
+
+     Kenny, George L., 296.
+
+     Kirchoff, Louis, 137.
+
+     Kilham, E. H., 353, 358.
+
+     Killin, Hon. Benton, 188
+
+     Kincaid, Mr., night school taught by, 24.
+
+     King, Colonel William, 60, 65.
+
+     King, Wm. H., 66.
+
+     Kingsley, C. S., 67.
+
+     Kinney's cannery, 140.
+
+     Kinney, R. C., & Sons, 139.
+
+     Kinney, M. J., 141.
+
+     Kirk, Alexander, 74;
+       elected county judge of Linn County, 76.
+
+     Kirk, W. R., 74.
+
+     Klippel, Henry, laid out Jacksonville as a town, 230, 235.
+
+     Knights of the Golden Circle, 73, 106, 108.
+
+     Knight, Wm. H., Manager Bancroft Publishing Department, 297.
+
+     Kuro-shiwo of Japan (Japan current), 39.
+
+
+     La Bonte, Louis, Recollections of Men, 264.
+
+     Ladd, W. S., 61, 63.
+
+     Lamerick, Captain J. K., 232.
+
+     Lampson, Roswell C., 104.
+
+     Land Law, The Donation, 37, 38, 229.
+
+     Lane, General Joseph, appointed governor of Oregon, 91;
+       nominated for vice president, 94, 95, 101, 105, 106, 233, 234,
+         239, 370
+
+     Larkin, T. N., 63.
+
+     Larrabee, Charles H., publisher _Puget Sound Dispatch_, 380.
+
+     Larrabee & Company, publishers _Puget Sound Dispatch_, 377.
+
+     Latshaw, Major, 238.
+
+     Latty, Alexander, 265.
+
+     Lawrence, Miss, 28.
+
+     Lawson, Peter, 257.
+
+     Leary, John, 378.
+
+     Ledford Massacre, 236.
+
+     _Ledger, The Philadelphia_, 277.
+
+     _Ledger, The Weekly_, 382.
+
+     Lee, Jason, 265, 393.
+
+     Lee, Barton, 390.
+
+     Lee, H. A. G., 390.
+
+     Leinweber, Christian, 137.
+
+     Lewis and Clark Centennial, The, by F. G. Young, 1.
+
+     Lewis and Clark Expedition--Relation to the Northwest, 1;
+       primary inception of, 6.
+
+     Lewis and Clark, exploring expedition, 5;
+       the trail, 10, 12, 13, 115.
+
+     Lewis and Clark Centennial, mission of, 2;
+       possibilities of, 16;
+       duties of its authorities, 16-18.
+
+     Lewis, Mr., 9, 130.
+
+     Lewis and Clark, 8.
+
+     Lewis, Stephen (Etienne Lucier), 264.
+
+     Limerick, L., 63;
+       appointed county school superintendent, 64.
+
+     Lincoln, Miss Liza, 26.
+
+     Lincoln, Abraham, 74, 97, 99, 101, 108, 370.
+
+     Lindgren, Waldemar, 124.
+
+     Lingenfelter, James W., 104.
+
+     Linn, Senator Lewis F., 151.
+
+     Literary Club, The Pioneer Lyceum, 390.
+
+     Little Meadows, Battle of, 233.
+
+     Lorraine, Lieutenant, 105.
+
+     Lorrea, Doctor, 61.
+
+     Louisiana Purchase Exposition, purpose of, 14.
+
+     Love, George, 235.
+
+     Love, G. M., 235.
+
+     Lovejoy, Hon. A. L., appointed postal agent for Oregon, 192, 256,
+       390.
+
+     Lownesdale, D. H., 59.
+
+     Lucier, Etienne, 261, 264.
+
+     Luelling, H., 59.
+
+     Lugenbeel, Major, 99.
+
+     Lumber Industry, The, 124.
+
+     Lupton, Major J. A., 234.
+
+     Lyman, Rev. Horace, 65.
+
+     Lyman, H. S., Some Corrections, 86.
+
+     Lyman, H. S., Reminiscences, 251, 268.
+
+     Lyon, Colonel George G., published _Times_, 384.
+
+
+     Madison, President, 9.
+
+     _Mail and Express, The New York_, 357.
+
+     Manufacturing, 122.
+
+     Marshall, J. W., discoverer of gold in California, 11.
+
+     Massachusetts Historical Society, 309.
+
+     Massacre at Bloody Point, 232.
+
+     Mason, Robert, & Company, 141.
+
+     Masters, ----, 254.
+
+     Mathieu, F. X., 167, 389.
+
+     Matthews, Captain Wm., 100.
+
+     Mattice, George W., purchased _Pierce County News_, 382.
+
+     Maulsby, G. T., 26.
+
+     Manson, Donald, 261, 265.
+
+     Manson, James, 262.
+
+     Manson, Jr., Donald, 262.
+
+     Manson, Wm., 261, 262.
+
+     Manson, Stephen, 262.
+
+     Maury, R. F., Lieutenant Colonel First Oregon Cavalry, 100.
+
+     Maxwell, Mr., 26.
+
+     Maxwell, S. L., 366;
+       publisher _Weekly Intelligencer_, 377.
+
+     Mead, Elwood, chief of Division of Irrigation, 17.
+
+     Meany, E. S., 379.
+
+     Medary, Col. Samuel, 174.
+
+     Meek, Joseph, 85, 90;
+       United States Marshal, 91, 160, 316, 393.
+
+     Meek, Stephen L., 242, 245.
+
+     "Message, The," 373.
+
+     McBride, Dr. James, 231.
+
+     McCarver, M. M., 78;
+       letter of, 403.
+
+     McClure, Colonel John, 132, 137.
+
+     McDonald & Cavendish, 74.
+
+     McElroy, Thornton F., 365, 376.
+
+     McFadden, Judge O. B., elected to congress, 380.
+
+     McCaw, William, elected clerk of Linn County, 76.
+
+     McGraw, John H., 378.
+
+     McGregor, Miss, teacher, 29.
+
+     McGruder, Top, 390.
+
+     McHargue, James, 75.
+
+     McKay, Tom, 244, 256, 266.
+
+     McKay, Alexander, 257.
+
+     McKean, S. T., 32;
+       and family, 133.
+
+     McKew, ----, 234.
+
+     McKinley, Archibald, 264, 265.
+
+     McLoughlin, Dr. John, in charge of Fort George, 131, 154, 257,
+         264, 281;
+       flouring mill completed, 387.
+
+     McNaught, Ferry, McNaught & Mitchell, law firm of, 383.
+
+     McNemee, Mr., 64.
+
+     McNemee, Job, 258.
+
+     Miller, Dan, 230.
+
+     Miller, Captain John F., 232.
+
+     Mills, James, 234.
+
+     Mineral Productions, 123, 124.
+
+     Miner, Dr. Thomas T., 379.
+
+     Minto Pass: Its History and an Indian Tradition, by John Minto,
+       241.
+
+     Minto, John, 167: Minto Pass: Its History and an Indian Tradition,
+       241, 243, 244, 247, 390.
+
+     Missouri Historical Society, 270.
+
+     Mofras' description of Astoria in 1841, 131.
+
+     Monnastes, David, 61.
+
+     Money, Beaver, coined at Oregon City, 62.
+
+     Montgomery, Robert, 75.
+
+     Montgomery, Frank C., editor _Chronicle_, 382.
+
+     Monture, George and Robert, 269.
+
+     Montures on French Prairie, The, by S. A. Clarke, 268.
+
+     Mooney, Mr. and Mrs., publishers _The Beacon_, 382.
+
+     Moore, Mr., 26.
+
+     Moore, Asa, 70, 74.
+
+     Moore, Robert, 71, 76.
+
+     Moore, Miles C., on A Pioneer Railroad Builder, 195.
+
+     Moore, Charles, 196.
+
+     Moore, Paine Brothers &, 196.
+
+     Morrison, Captain R. W., 386.
+
+     Morris, ----, 232.
+
+     Morris, William Alfred, The Origin and Authorship of the Bancroft
+       Pacific States Publications: A History of a History, 287.
+
+     Morris, George P., editor _New York Home Journal_, 315.
+
+     Morse, Mrs. H. B., 22.
+
+     Moss, S. W., 390.
+
+     "Mountain Men," 9.
+
+     Mullan, Captain John, From Walla Walla to San Francisco, 202.
+
+     Municipal Exposition, Dresden, Germany, 18.
+
+     Murphy, John Miller, 365;
+       publisher _Standard_, 372, 374, 376.
+
+     Murray, Edward F., assistant to Bancroft, 312.
+
+     Muscovite, the advance of in the Pacific Northwest, 4.
+
+
+     Nash, Isaac M., 84.
+
+     Native Races, The, preparation of material, 308.
+
+     Naylor, T. G., 254.
+
+     Neale, Miss, teacher, 29.
+
+     Nelson, Thomas chief justice supreme court, 187, 188;
+       relieved of office of supreme judge, 189.
+
+     Nemos, William, employed by Bancroft, 305;
+       sketch of life, 322;
+       severed connections with Bancroft library, 333.
+
+     Nesmith, Senator Jas. W., 47, 167, 387;
+       contributions to Oregon Pioneer Association, 390, 391.
+
+     _New Era, The_, 277;
+       extract from, 399.
+
+     Newell, ----, 205.
+
+     Newell, Robert, 265, 388, 390, 393.
+
+     Newell, Wm., 365.
+
+     Newkirk, Mr., employed by Bancroft, 325.
+
+     _New Penelope, The_, 317.
+
+     _News, The Pierce County_, 382.
+
+     Nolan, Rhodes, 232.
+
+     _North Pacific Coast_, 382.
+
+     _Northern Light_, 372.
+
+     _Northwest Coast_, 81.
+
+     _Northwest, The_, 378.
+
+
+     Oak, Ora, employed by Bancroft, 299.
+
+     Oak, Henry L., Bancroft's librarian, 298;
+       main facts of his life, 298, 305;
+       retired from Bancroft's library, 333.
+
+     O'Bryant, Hugh D., first mayor of Portland, 61.
+
+     _Occident, The_, Presbyterian paper, 298.
+
+     Officer, James, 280.
+
+     Ogden, Isaac, 262.
+
+     Ogden, William, 264.
+
+     Ogden, Emma, 264.
+
+     Ogden, Peter Skeen, 262, 264, 265.
+
+     _Ohio Statesman_, 78.
+
+     Olney, Judge Cyrus, the Olney lottery, 137.
+
+     O'Meara, James, 365.
+
+     Oregon, Glimpses of Early Days in, by Charlotte Moffett
+       Cartwright, 55.
+
+     _Oregon Spectator, The_, 81;
+       first newspaper in old Oregon, 368.
+
+     Oregon and Its Share in the Civil War, by Robert Treat Platt, 89.
+
+     Oregon, a territory of United States, 91;
+       became a state, 93;
+       voted for Lincoln, 94;
+       railroad to, 277;
+       printing press, 286.
+
+     "Oregon Country, The," 111.
+
+     Oregon--Pittsburgh meeting and Dr. White's report, 170.
+
+     Oregon Historical Society, 167;
+       old mission press, 368.
+
+     Oregon Territory, confused condition of statutory laws, 185.
+
+     Oregon Bar Association, 185.
+
+     Oregon Emigration Movement, documents relating to, 170.
+
+     Oregon Steam Navigation Company, 196, 197, 198;
+       bought six sevenths stock Walla Walla and Columbia River Railroad
+         Company, 199, 204, 206, 353.
+
+     Oregon, Provisional Government of, adoption of Iowa laws, 185.
+
+     Oregon Reports, 187.
+
+     Oregon Country and Its Earlier Conditions, Letters descriptive of,
+       178.
+
+     Oregon Code, 194.
+
+     Oregon Emigrating Company, 177.
+
+     Oregon Emigrants, extract from _Independence Journal_, 271.
+
+     Oregon Pioneer Association, 314.
+
+     _Oregon Weekly Times_, 368.
+
+     _Oregon American and Evangelical Unionist, The_, 368.
+
+     Oregon Emigrating Company, 403.
+
+     Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, 139, 143, 199, 200.
+
+     _Oregon Free Press_, 368.
+
+     _Oregonian_, first published, 64, 293, 369;
+       Daily, 370, 376.
+
+     Ord, General, 105.
+
+     Ord, Captain E. O. C., 237.
+
+     Osborne, ----, 260.
+
+     Otie, Ed, 390.
+
+     _Overland Monthly, The_, 300, 304, 317.
+
+     _Overland Press, The_, 373.
+
+     Owens, Adair, Mrs. Dr., 26.
+
+     Owens, Captain Elias A., 232.
+
+     Owens, Colonel, 272.
+
+
+     Paine Brothers & Moore, 196.
+
+     Pambrun, ----., 264, 265.
+
+     Parker, Mrs. H. B., 32.
+
+     Parker, Mrs. W. W., 29.
+
+     Parker, W. W., 32, 133, 135.
+
+     Parker, James M., 267.
+
+     Parrish, Rev. J. L., 132.
+
+     _Partisan_, 381.
+
+     Paternalism, An Object Lesson In, by T. W. Davenport, 33.
+
+     Patrick, H. C., 366;
+       started _Weekly Ledger_, 382.
+
+     Pearne, Thomas H., 365.
+
+     Peatfield, J. J., employed by Bancroft, 345;
+       sketch of life, 346, 363.
+
+     Peel, Lieut. William, 387.
+
+     Perry, ----, 132.
+
+     Pettygrove, F. W., 390.
+
+     Perkins, Dr. J. N., 71.
+
+     Perkins, T., constructed a ferry on Rogue River, 229.
+
+     Petroff, Ivan, sketch of life, 318;
+       employed by Bancroft, 318, 363.
+
+     Phelps, Almira, 394.
+
+     Philpot, ----., 234.
+
+     Philbrick, C. W., published _Puget Sound Argus_, 373.
+
+     Phillips, Wendell, 292.
+
+     Pickett, Charles E., 387, 390.
+
+     Pierce, President, 192.
+
+     Pinart, M., furnished Bancroft's Alaska material, 318.
+
+     Pioneer and Historical Society, 138.
+
+     Pioneer Captain of Industry in Oregon, A, by James R. Robertson,
+       150.
+
+     Pioneer Railroad Builder, A, by Miles C. Moore, 195.
+
+     Pioneer Papers of Puget Sound, by Clarence B. Bagley, 365.
+
+     Pittock, H. L., 365;
+       printer of the _Oregonian_, 370.
+
+     Poe, A. M., 365.
+
+     Polk, President James K., 90, 91, 187.
+
+     Polk, Colonel, 272.
+
+     Pomeroy, Mrs., 253.
+
+     Poujade, L. H., 268.
+
+     Poole, J. R. and Clugage, located first mining claim in Southern
+       Oregon, 229.
+
+     Poole, John R., laid out Jacksonville as a town, 230.
+
+     Pope, Miss, teacher, 22.
+
+     Population, increase of, in West, 114;
+       table of, for United States, 116.
+
+     Porter, Nathan S., 381.
+
+     Portland founded, 59.
+
+     Port Orford Minute Men, 238.
+
+     _Post Intelligencer, The_, 374.
+
+     _Post, The Seattle Weekly_, 377;
+       _The Daily_, 378.
+
+     _Post_ and _Intelligencer_ consolidated, 378.
+
+     Powell, Joab, 71.
+
+     Powers, T. P., 22, 29, 136.
+
+     Poyntz, Stone &, 229.
+
+     Pratt, O. C., justice supreme court, 187, 188.
+
+     Pratt, Orson B., appointed historian Mormon Church, 321.
+
+     Pratt, Mrs. William, 264.
+
+     Pratt, John W., 385.
+
+     _Press, The_, 373;
+       Daily, 383.
+
+     Prigg, F., 390;
+       publisher of _Pacific Tribune_, 374.
+
+     Prosch, Thomas W., 366, 371, 378;
+       published _Puget Sound Herald_, 372.
+
+     Prosch, Charles, 366, 371, 374, 381.
+
+     Prosch, Fred, in charge mechanical work of _Courier_, 381.
+
+     Provisional Government of Oregon, 89.
+
+     Public School, The, of Astoria, 25.
+
+     Public buildings, transferred from Oregon City to Salem, trouble
+       caused, 186.
+
+
+     Radebaugh, R. F., 366;
+       started _Weekly Ledger_, 382.
+
+     Railroad, Astoria and Willamette Valley, 135.
+
+     Railroad, Astoria and Columbia River, 136.
+
+     Railroad, Astoria and South Coast, 116.
+
+     Railroad Transportation, 125, 126.
+
+     Railroad Bill, The Pacific, 219.
+
+     Railroad, Corvallis and Eastern, 247.
+
+     Raleigh, P., 63.
+
+     Rasmus, employed by Bancroft, 355.
+
+     _Record-Union, Sacramento_, 292.
+
+     Rector, William H., state representative, 389;
+       head of Salem Woolen Mill, 215.
+
+     Reed, C. A., 60, 65.
+
+     Reed, Henry E., The Great West and The Two Easts, 129.
+
+     Reed, T. A., 235.
+
+     Rees, Willard H., In Memoriam of, 386.
+
+     Rees, Willard H., elected state representative, 389, 390;
+       contribution to Oregon Pioneer Association, 391.
+
+     Rees, R. R., 365.
+
+     _Register, The Port Townsend_, 372.
+
+     Reminiscences secured by H. S. Lyman, 251.
+
+     _Reporter, Saint Louis_, 78.
+
+     _Republican, The Missouri_, extracts from, 399, 402.
+
+     Reynolds, General, 105.
+
+     Rhoades, Captain Jacob, 233.
+
+     Rice, J. N., 72.
+
+     Richards, Franklin D., 321, 324.
+
+     Riggs, T. A., 70, 72;
+       copy letter of, 74.
+
+     Riley and Ginder, 144.
+
+     Rinearson, J. S., junior major First Oregon Cavalry, 100.
+
+     River of the West, The, 316.
+
+     Rivet, Francis, 389.
+
+     Robb, Professor, 28.
+
+     Robertson, James R., on A Pioneer Captain of Industry, 150.
+
+     Roberts, A. B., 353.
+
+     Robnett, Wm., 75.
+
+     _Rocky Mountain News, The_, 327.
+
+     Roosevelt, Theodore, "Winning of the West," (quoted), 7.
+
+     Rose, Wm. R., death of, 233.
+
+     Ross, Colonel J. E., 232.
+
+     Ruckle, Colonel, 207.
+
+     Russell, General, 105.
+
+     Russell, Uncle Bill, 228.
+
+     Russian-American Company, 319.
+
+
+     Saffren, Henry, 390.
+
+     Samuels, L., 365.
+
+     Saunders, Mr., 230.
+
+     Savage, Thomas, employed by Bancroft, 306;
+       sketch of life, 346, 362.
+
+     Savannah Oregon Emigrating Company, report of committee, 278.
+
+     Sawmill, first in Oregon, 60.
+
+     Scarborough, Captain, 265.
+
+     School History of Astoria, what it reveals, 32.
+
+     School, The Wilcox, first in Portland, 64.
+
+     Schools in Lane County, Early, letter by Joseph H. Sharp, 267.
+
+     Scott, Harvey W., 365;
+       editor _Oregonian_, 370.
+
+     Scott, General, 101.
+
+     Scott, Captain L. S., 246.
+
+     Semple, Eugene, 365, 371.
+
+     Sutter's Ranch, 224.
+
+     _Seattle Times_ and _Alaska Herald_, 379.
+
+     Seward, William H., 110.
+
+     Sharpstein, B. L., 196.
+
+     Sharp, Joseph H., Early Schools in Lane County, 268.
+
+     Shelby, A. D., 63.
+
+     Sheridan, General, 68, 105, 109, 164, 239.
+
+     Sherman, General, 109, 200.
+
+     Shaw, Hon. T. C., 243.
+
+     Shively, Mr., 84, 229.
+
+     Shively, J. M., 132;
+       first postmaster west of Rocky Mountains, 133, 136.
+
+     Shortess, Robert, 132.
+
+     Skinner, Mrs. Judge A. A., 26.
+
+     Skinner, Judge A. A., 26;
+       located first donation land claim, 229.
+
+     Small, D. W., 197.
+
+     Smart, Robert G., editor _Western Expositor_, 283.
+
+     Smith, Gerritt, 36.
+
+     Smith, Delazon, 72, 94, 104.
+
+     Smith, Volney, 104.
+
+     Smith, Solomon, 132.
+
+     Smith, Jedediah, attacked by Indians, 230;
+       letter of, 395.
+
+     Smith, Thomas, 229.
+
+     Smith, Hugh, 232.
+
+     Smith, Gen. A. J., 105;
+       Captain, 236, 238, 239.
+
+     Smith, Joseph S., editor of the _Oregon Statesman_, 370.
+
+     Smith, Noyes, 390.
+
+     Smith, Isaac W., 390.
+
+     Snooks, Major, 104.
+
+     South Pass, The, discovery of, 10.
+
+     Spalding, Rev. H. H., 71, 76, 367.
+
+     Spanish, Advance of, in Pacific Northwest, 4.
+
+     Speyers, ----., 272.
+
+     Stanbough, Joe, 256.
+
+     _Standard, The Washington_, 374.
+
+     _Star, The_, first paper in San Francisco, 376.
+
+     States, Henry, 243, 248.
+
+     _Statesman, The Washington_, article of Captain John Mullan, 202.
+
+     _Statesman, The Oregon_, 353, 360, 370.
+
+     Steen, Major, 99.
+
+     Stein, Mr., 74.
+
+     Stephens, J. B., 59.
+
+     Stephens, Wm., 195, 196.
+
+     Steptoe, Colonel, 69.
+
+     Stewart, C., 64.
+
+     Stewart, P. G., 390.
+
+     Stevens, General, 105.
+
+     Stone, B. F., 196.
+
+     Stone & Poyntz, 229.
+
+     Stone, Nathan J., charge of publication department, A. L. Bancroft
+       & Company, 321.
+
+     Strait, Hiram, 390.
+
+     Strong, Judge, 134, 187, 188.
+
+     Struve, Henry G., 371, 381.
+
+     Stuart, Captain, death of, 231.
+
+     St. Vrain, Mr., 372.
+
+     Sublette, William L., letter of, 395.
+
+     Supreme Court, decisions of, 187.
+
+     Summers, Doctor, 132.
+
+     Sumner, Brigadier General E. V., 99.
+
+
+     Tarbox, a Wisconsin lumberman, 197.
+
+     Taylor, Colonel James, 32.
+
+     Taylor, Judge F. J., 135.
+
+     Taylor, President, 187.
+
+     Taylor, John, 321.
+
+     Templeton, ----., 71.
+
+     Templeton, William T., 75.
+
+     Terwilliger, L. L., 66.
+
+     Tibbetts, Mr., 132.
+
+     Tilden, of Washington, 106.
+
+     Times Printing Company, 385.
+
+     _Times, Daily_, 384.
+
+     Thompson, Frank W., 104.
+
+     Thompson, Captain D. P., 100.
+
+     Thornton, Judge, 91, 96.
+
+     Thurston, Samuel R., first delegate Oregon territorial government,
+       47.
+
+     _Transcript, The Olympia_, 380.
+
+     Trask, Mr., 132.
+
+     Tremewan, Mrs. Anna, 261.
+
+     _Tribune, The New York_, 293.
+
+     _Tribune, Salt Lake_, 293, 294.
+
+     _Tribune, The Pacific_, 374.
+
+     Trimble, Edward, 251.
+
+     Truax, Captain S., 100.
+
+     Tuffs, James, 225.
+
+     Turner, Professor F. J., 8.
+
+     Turners, J., 230.
+
+     T'Vault, Colonel William G., 365;
+       editor _Oregon Spectator_, 368.
+
+
+     Union League, The, 73.
+
+     _Unionist, The_, 360.
+
+
+     Vallejo, General, 311.
+
+     Vancouver, Fort, 83.
+
+     VanDusen, Miss Cora, 24.
+
+     Van Voast, Captain, 99.
+
+     Victor, Frances Fuller, 293, 294, 295, 305;
+       employed by Bancroft, 314;
+       sketch of life, 314, 324;
+       volume on Nevada, Colorado, Wyoming, 324.
+
+     Victor, Meta Fuller, 315.
+
+     Victor, Henry C., 316.
+
+     Vigilante committee, 107.
+
+     Villard, Henry, bought Walla Walla and Columbia River Railroad,
+       199, 200.
+
+
+     Wagner, Mrs., murdered by Indians, 235.
+
+     Wait, Hon. A. E., 188.
+
+     Waite, E. M., 365.
+
+     Waldo, Hon. John B., 246, 247, 248.
+
+     Waldo, Daniel, 390.
+
+     Waller, Rev. Alvan F., letter of, 178.
+
+     Wallace, General Lew, 104.
+
+     Walla Walla and Columbia River Railroad Company, 196.
+
+     Walla Walla to San Francisco, From, by Capt. John Mullan, U. S. A.,
+       202.
+
+     Walworth, Lucy, 314.
+
+     Walworth, Judge Reuben, 314.
+
+     Wambaugh, J., 390.
+
+     Ward, Kirk, a fluent writer, 383.
+
+     Warren, Miss Emma C., conducted private school in Astoria, 24.
+
+     Warren, Mr. R. K., 27.
+
+     Warren, F. M., 66.
+
+     Washington, Territory of, organized, 192.
+
+     Watt, John, 150.
+
+     Watt, Miss, 28.
+
+     Watt, Joseph, Sr., 150;
+       early life, 150, 159, 166, 390.
+
+     Watson, J. R., 366, 375, 376.
+
+     Wayne, J. W., 26.
+
+     Weaver, ----, 228.
+
+     Webster, Daniel, 43.
+
+     Weir, Allen, bought _Puget Sound Argus_, 373.
+
+     Welch, James, 26, 133.
+
+     Wells, J., Letter to, 274.
+
+     West, The Great and The Two Easts, by Henry E. Heed, 110.
+
+     West, future of, 127;
+       The Great, table of comparisons, 114.
+
+     _Weston Journal_, 368.
+
+     _Western Star_, 368.
+
+     Western Union Telegraph, 140;
+       completed to Seattle, 377.
+
+     Whitacre, William T., 372.
+
+     Whiteaker, Governor John, 99.
+
+     White, Captain, 134.
+
+     White, Dr. E., Indian sub-agent, 242.
+
+     White, Harry, 383.
+
+     Whitcomb, Lot, published _Western Star_, 368.
+
+     Whitman, Doctor, 78, 79, 84, 254, 260, 367.
+
+     Two Whitman Sources, 168.
+
+     Whitmore, ----., 232.
+
+     Whitney, ----., 277.
+
+     Whitworth, James E., 381.
+
+     Wilbur, J. H., 59, 64.
+
+     Wilcox, Dr. Ralph, 64.
+
+     Wiley & McElroy, publishers _Columbian_, 372.
+
+     Wiley, J. W., 376.
+
+     Willamette Valley and Cascade Mountain Military Wagon Road, 242.
+
+     Williams, Geo., 104.
+
+     Williams, Hon. George H., appointed chief Justice of Oregon
+       Territory, 189.
+
+     Williams, Captain R. L., 232.
+
+     Williams, Robert, 315.
+
+     Williams, Veach, 314.
+
+     Williamson, ----., 26.
+
+     Willis, N. P., editor _New York Home Journal_, 315.
+
+     Wills, Thomas, 232.
+
+     Wilson, A. E., 132.
+
+     Wilson, Joseph G., 191.
+
+     Woman's War With Whiskey, one of Mrs. Victor's books, 317.
+
+     Woir, J. M., 390.
+
+     Wood, Tallmadge B., copy of letters from, 80, 84, 132.
+
+     Woodfin, Thomas S., 75.
+
+     Woodworth, Mr., 230
+
+     Wool, General John E., 236, 239.
+
+     Woolery, James, 385.
+
+     Worthington, Professor, 24, 28, 29.
+
+     Wright, Colonel, 99, 105.
+
+     Wright, Captain Ben, 232.
+
+     Wyeth, Nathaniel J., expedition to the Columbia, 9.
+
+     Wyley, ----., pioneer settler, 241.
+
+
+     Yellowstone Expedition, failure of, 7.
+
+     Young, F. G., The Lewis and Clark Centennial, 1.
+
+     Young, Mrs. Maxwell, 24.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical
+Society, Vol. IV, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 41493 ***