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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 19:20:03 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-08 19:20:03 -0800 |
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diff --git a/40863-0.txt b/40863-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..22c9bdb --- /dev/null +++ b/40863-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18568 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40863 *** + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE JUTE: "The use of C. olitorius for the latter purpose dates + from very ancient times, if it may be identified ..." 'if it' + amended from 'it if'. + + ARTICLE KASHI: "Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that 'the art + of glazing earthenware has, in Persia ..." 'earthenware' amended + from 'eathenware'. + + ARTICLE KASHMIRI: "... a poem on Saiva philosophy by a woman named + Lalladevi, is said to be the oldest work in the language which has + survived." 'philosophy' amended from 'philosopy'. + + ARTICLE KAZAÑ: "Kazañ lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail and 253 m. + E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga." 'm.' missing. + + ARTICLE KAZERUN: "... of the city on a huge mound are ruins of + buildings with underground chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i + Gabr ..." 'huge' amended from 'hugh'. + + ARTICLE KEARNEY: "... where the city was planned. Kearney became a + town in 1873, a city of the second class and the county seat in + 1874, and a city of the first class in 1901." 'where' amended from + 'or' and 'planned' amended from 'platted'. + + ARTICLE KEENE: "and as responsible for the commercial treaty + between England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the + time; it was chartered as a city in 1874." 'commercial' amended + from 'commerical'. + + ARTICLE KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK: "Of his minor poems written before + that date the most important are the charming spring-song Vinterns + välde lyktar, and the satirical Mina löjen and Man eger ej snille + för det man är galen." 'satirical' amended from 'satrical'. + + ARTICLE KELLS: "The most notable is St Columbkille's house, + originally an oratory, but afterwards converted into a church, the + chancel of which was in existence in 1752." 'originally' amended + from 'orginally'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XV, SLICE VI + + Justinian II. to Kells + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + JUSTINIAN II. KARAMAN + JUSTIN MARTYR KARAMANIA + JUTE KARAMNASA + JÜTERBOG KARA MUSTAFA + JUTES KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH + JUTIGALPA KARA SEA + JUTLAND KARASU-BAZAR + JUTURNA KARATEGHIN + JUVENAL KARAULI + JUVENCUS, GAIUS AQUILINUS KAREN + JUVENILE OFFENDERS KAREN-NI + JUVENTAS KARIKAL + JUXON, WILLIAM KARLI + K KARLOWITZ + K2 KARLSKRONA + KA'BA, KAABA KARLSRUHE + KABARDIA KARLSTAD + KABBA KARLSTADT + KABBABISH KARMA + KABBALAH KÁRMÁN, JÓZSEF + KABINDA KARNAK + KABIR KARNAL + KABUL KÁROLYI, ALOYS + KABUL RIVER KAROSS + KABYLES KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE + KACH GANDAVA KARRER, FELIX + KACHIN HILLS KARROO + KADUR KARS (province of Russia) + KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT KARS (town of Russia) + KAFFA KARSHI + KAFFIR BREAD KARST + KAFFIRS KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD + KAFFRARIA KARTIKEYA + KAFIRISTAN KARUN + KAGERA KARWAR + KAHLUR KARWI + KAHN, GUSTAVE KARYOGAMY + KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST KASAI + K'AI-FÊNG FU KASBEK + KAILAS KASHAN + KAIN KASHGAR + KAIRA KASHI + KAIRAWAN KASHMIR + KAISERSLAUTERN KASHMIRI + KAISERSWERTH KASHUBES + KAITHAL KASIMOV + KAKAPO KASSA + KAKAR KASSALA + KALA-AZAR KASSASSIN + KALABAGH KASSITES + KALACH KASTAMUNI + KALAHANDI KASTORIA + KALAHARI DESERT KASUR + KALAMATA KATAGUM + KALAMAZOO KATANGA + KALAPUYA KATER, HENRY + KALAT KATHA + KALAT-I-GHILZAI KATHIAWAR + KALB, JOHANN KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH + KALCKREUTH, FRIEDRICH ADOLF KATMANDU + KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD KATO, TAKA-AKIRA + KALEIDOSCOPE KATRINE, LOCH + KALERGIS, DIMITRI KATSENA + KALEWALA KATSURA, TARO + KALGAN KATTERFELTO, GUSTAVUS + KALGOORLIE KATTOWITZ + KALI KATWA + KALIDASA KATYDID + KALIMPONG KAUFBEUREN + KALINGA KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA + KALINJAR KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH + KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER KAUKAUNA + KALISCH, ISIDOR KAULBACH, WILHELM VON + KALISCH, MARCUS KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON + KALISPEL KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB + KALISZ (government of Poland) KAURI PINE + KALISZ (town of Poland) KAVA + KALK KAVADH + KALKAS KAVALA + KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH + KÁLLAY, BENJAMIN VON KAVANAGH, JULIA + KALMAR KAVASS + KALMUCK KAVIRONDO + KALNÓKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND KAW + KALOCSA KAWARDHA + KALPI KAY, JOHN + KALUGA (government of Russia) KAY, JOSEPH + KALUGA (town of Russia) KAYAK + KALYAN KAYASTH + KAMA KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM + KAMALA KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL + KAMCHATKA KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS + KAME KAZALA + KAMENETS PODOLSKIY KAZAÑ (government of Russia) + KAMENZ KAZAÑ (town of Russia) + KAMES, HENRY HOME KAZERUN + KAMMIN KAZINCZY, FERENCZ + KAMPEN KAZVIN + KAMPTEE KEAN, EDMUND + KAMRUP KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH + KAMYSHIN KEARNEY + KANAKA KEARNY, PHILIP + KANARA KEARNY + KANARESE KEARY, ANNIE + KANARIS, CONSTANTINE KEATE, JOHN + KANAUJ KEATS, JOHN + KANDAHAR KEBLE, JOHN + KANDI KECSKEMÉT + KANDY KEDDAH + KANE, ELISHA KENT KEDGEREE + KANE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) KEEL + KANGAROO KEELEY, MARY ANNE + KANGAROO-RAT KEELING ISLANDS + KANGAVAR KEEL-MOULDING + KANGRA KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL + KANISHKA KEENE, LAURA + KANKAKEE KEENE (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) + KANKER KEEP, ROBERT PORTER + KANO KEEP + KANSAS KEEWATIN + KANSAS CITY (Kansas, U.S.A.) KEF + KANSAS CITY (Missouri, U.S.A.) KEHL + KANSK KEIGHLEY + KAN-SUH KEI ISLANDS + KANT, IMMANUEL KEIM, KARL THEODOR + KANURI KEITH (old Scottish family) + KAOLIN KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES + KAPUNDA KEITH, GEORGE + KAPURTHALA KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE + KARACHI KEITH (burgh of Scotland) + KARAGEORGE KEJ + KARA-HISSAR KEKULÉ, FRIEDRICH AUGUST + KARA-HISSAR SHARKI KELLER, ALBERT + KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES KELLER, GOTTFRIED + KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH KELLER, HELEN ADAMS + KARA-KALPAKS KELLERMANN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE DE + KARAKORUM KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK + KARA-KUL KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE + KARA-KUM KELLS + + + + +JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669-711), East Roman emperor 685-695 and +704-711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., at the age of sixteen. +His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful +invasion he made a truce with the Arabs, which admitted them to the +joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000 +Christian Maronites from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a +command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by +conquering all Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the +Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the +emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity +with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus, he extorted +the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting +costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose +under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his +surname), banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a reign +of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius +Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped +from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the +Khazars. Compelled, however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his +new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of +15,000 horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his +rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans, and +once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an +unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by +devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and +Cherson, where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected +nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his +subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, +assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius, +was assassinated in Asia Minor, December 711. + + See E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury, + 1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii. + 320-330, 358-367. + + + + +JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian apologists, was +born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. _Sichem_), now Nablus, in +Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, according to his own account, +were Pagans (_Dial. c. Tryph._ 28). He describes the course of his +religious development in the introduction to the dialogue with the Jew +Trypho, in which he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger +brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of +truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study +of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, Stoics and +Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge +was not to be found in them. On the other hand, he came to look upon the +Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery +and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us +in another place (_Apol._ ii. 12), must be added the deep impression +produced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion +apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places his +decisive interview with the old man, and there he had those discussions +with Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later +years set down in his _Dialogue_. After his conversion he retained his +philosopher's cloak (Euseb., _Hist. Eccl._ iv. 11. 8), the distinctive +badge of the wandering professional teacher of philosophy, and went +about from place to place discussing the truths of Christianity in the +hope of bringing educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, +through philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, giving +lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without opposition from +his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius +(_Apol._ ii. 13). Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 16. 7-8) concludes +somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his disciple Tatian +(_Orat. ad Graec._ 19), that the accusation of Justin before the +authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we +know, from the undoubtedly genuine _Acta SS Justini et sociorum_, that +Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus between +163 and 167. + +To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn +to his _Apology_ and to the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho, for the +authenticity of all other extant works attributed to him is disputed +with good reason. The _Apology_--it is more correct to speak of one +_Apology_ than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the +first, and dependent upon it--was written in Rome about 150. In the +first part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the charge of +atheism and hostility to the state. He then draws a positive +demonstration of the truth of his religion from the effects of the new +faith, and especially from the excellence of its moral teaching, and +concludes with a comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which +the latter are set down with naïve confidence as the work of demons. As +the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity appears his +detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the old dispensation, +which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their +fulfilment in Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of +their religious worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated +themselves to God. The whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with +a reference to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. +In the so-called _Second Apology_, Justin takes occasion from the trial +of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence of the +Christians was proved by the very persecutions. + +Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his +conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a preparation for the +truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most +distinguished in the long list of those who have endeavoured to +reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists +for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the Logos +in the person of Christ, of God, righteousness and immortality, truths +which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic +religious philosophies. In this process the conviction of the +reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world and +the individual through Christ, fell into the background before the +vindication of supernatural truths intellectually conceived. Thus Justin +may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not +having given it its full value as a religion of salvation. It must not, +however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of +Christianity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view of +life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an +intimate comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he +himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the _Dialogue_ +with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to deal with the Judaism that +believed in a Messiah, he was far better able to do justice to +Christianity as a revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this +work are much more completely in harmony with primitive Christian +theology than those of the _Apology_. He also displays in this work a +considerable knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful +polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish +writers. + +Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church +in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have elsewhere no connected +account of this, Justin's _Apology_ contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.), +which give a vivid description of the public worship of the Church and +its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). +And from this it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to +go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his +standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His +works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament +writings. He knows of no canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and +inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the +teachings of Jesus are the "Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are +probably to be understood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel +according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along +with the prophetic writings at the public services. From his writings we +derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at +pains to arrive at an understanding with his opponents. As a theologian, +he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat +dull. There are not many traces of any particular literary influence of +his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us. +The Church as a whole took but little interest in apologetics and +polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these +controversies that which she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus +Justin's writings were not much read, and at the present time both the +_Apology_ and the _Dialogue_ are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. +Paris, 450, A.D. 1364). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The editions of Robert Étienne (Stephanus) (1551); H. + Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis (1742) are + superseded by J. C. T. Otto, _Justini philosophi et martyris opera + quae feruntur omnia_ (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition + contains besides the _Apologies_ (vol. i.) and the _Dialogue_ (vol. + ii.) the following writings: _Speech to the Greeks_ (_Oratio_); + _Address to the Greeks_ (_Cohortatio_): _On the Monarchy of God_; + _Epistle to Diognetus_; _Fragments on the Resurrection and other + Fragments_; _Exposition of the True Faith_; _Epistle to Zenas and + Serenus_; _Refutation of certain Doctrines of Aristotle_; _Questions + and Answers to the Orthodox_; _Questions of Christians to Pagans_; + _Questions of Pagans to Christians_. None of these writings, not even + the _Cohortatio_, which former critics ascribed to Justin, can be + attributed to him. The authenticity of the _Dialogue_ has occasionally + been disputed, but without reason. For a handy edition of the + _Apology_ see G. Krüger, _Die Apologien Justins des Märtyrers_ (3rd + ed. Tübingen, 1904). There is a good German translation with a + comprehensive commentary by H. Veil (1894). For English translations + consult the "Oxford Library of the Fathers" and the "Ante-Nicene + Library." Full information about Justin's history and views may be had + from the following monographs: C. Semisch, _Justin der Märtyrer_ (2 + vols., 1840-1842); J. Donaldson, _A Critical History of Christian + Literature and Doctrine_, vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, _St Justin_ + (3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von Engelhardt, _Das Christentum Justins des + Märtyrers_ (1878); T. M. Wehofer, _Die Apologie Justins des + Philosophen und Märtyrers in litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten + Male untersucht_ (1897); Alfred Leonhard Feder, _Justins des Märtyrers + Lehre von Jesus Christus_ (1906). On the critical questions raised by + the spurious writings consult W. Gaul, _Die Abfassungsverhältnisse der + pseudo-justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos_ (1902); Adolf Harnack, + _Diodor von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum + Diodors nachgewiesen_ (1901). (G. K.) + + + + +JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manufacturing +scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute appears to have +been first used in 1746, when the captain of the "Wake" noted in his log +that he had sent on shore "60 bales of gunney with all the jute rope" +(_New Eng. Dict. s.v._). In 1795 W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of +the East India Company a bale of the fibre which he described as "the +jute of the natives." Importations of the substance had been made at +earlier times under the name of _pat_, an East Indian native term by +which the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early +years of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now +bears. This modern name appears to be derived from _jhot_ or _jhout_ +(Sansk. _jhat_), the vernacular name by which the substance is known in +the Cuttack district, where the East India Company had extensive +roperies when Roxburgh first used the term. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Capsules of Jute Plants. a, _Corchorus +capsularis_; b, C. _olitorius_.] + +The fibre is obtained from two species of _Corchorus_ (nat. ord. +_Tiliaceae_), _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_, the products of both +being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agriculture is +any distinction made between them. These and various other species of +_Corchorus_ are natives of Bengal, where they have been cultivated from +very remote times for economic purposes, although there is reason to +believe that the cultivation did not originate in the northern parts of +India. The two species cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects +very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the +relatively greater size attained by _C. capsularis_. They are annual +plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a +man's finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-green +leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 1½ in. broad above the base, and +taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated; the two lower +teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow +flowers are produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves. + +The capsules or seed-pods in the case of _C. capsularis_ are globular, +rough and wrinkled, while in _C. olitorius_ they are slender, quill-like +cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted +from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of _C. capsularis_ and +_C. olitorius_ respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of _C. +olitorius_. + +Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account of their +fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there +extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of _C. olitorius_ for the latter +purpose dates from very ancient times, if it may be identified, as some +suppose, with the mallows ([Hebrew: maluah]) mentioned in Job xxx. 4; +hence the name Jew's mallow. It is certain that the Greeks used this +plant as a pot-herb; and by many other nations around the shores of the +Mediterranean this use of it was, and is still, common. Throughout +Bengal the name by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are +recognized is _nalita_; when on the other hand they are spoken of as +fibre-producers it is generally under the name _pat_. The cultivation of +_C. capsularis_ is most prevalent in central and eastern Bengal, while +in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however, the area under +cultivation is limited, _C. olitorius_ is principally grown. The fibre +known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the product of another plant, +_Abutilon Avicennae_, a member of the Mallow family. + +_Cultivation and Cropping._--Attempts have been made to grow the jute +plant in America, Egypt, Africa and other places, but up to the present +the fibre has proved much inferior to that obtained from plants grown in +India. Here the cultivation of the plant extends from the Hugli through +eastern and northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant +demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too much rain +at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the growth, while a +very dry season is disastrous. The climate of eastern and northern +Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth of the plant. + +The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a measure on +the preparation of the soil. The ground should be ploughed about four +times and all weeds removed. The seed is then sown broadcast as in the +case of flax. It is only within quite recent years that any attention +has been paid to the selection of the seed. The following extract from +_Capital_ (Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it. + + "Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for 1906 has + been issued. The object of these experiments is, of course, to obtain + a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially for no other + purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural department has + about 300 maunds (25,000 lb.) of selected seed for distribution this + year. The selling price is to be _Rs._ 10 per maund. The agricultural + department of the government of Bengal are now fully alive to the + importance of fostering the jute industry by showing conclusively that + attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow + where only one maund grew before. Let them go on (as they will) till + all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated into the new system." + +The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the middle of +June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time of sowing and upon +the weather, is performed from the end of June to the middle of October. +The crop is said to be ready for gathering when the flowers appear; if +gathered before, the fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is +ripe, the fibre is stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic +lustre. + +The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting similar +to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of Bengal it is the +practice to stack the crop for a few days previous to retting in order +to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the stalks. It is stated that +the colour of the fibre is darkened if the leaves are allowed to remain +on during the process of retting. It is also thought that the drying of +the plants before retting facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any +simple operation which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the +operation of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be +derived from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the +bundles are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period +necessary for the completion of the retting process varies according to +the temperature and to the properties of the water, and may occupy from +two days to a month. After the first few days of immersion the stalks +are examined daily to test the progress of the retting. When the fibres +are easily separated from the stalk, the operation is complete and the +bundles should be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of +jute is taken from Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_:-- + + "The proper point being attained, the native operator, standing up to + his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands as he + can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the ends next + the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the whole with a + little management from end to end, without breaking either stem or + fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this half state, he + next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a large handful; + swinging it round his head he dashes it repeatedly against the surface + of the water, drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the + impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface + of the water and carefully picks off all remaining black spots. It is + now wrung out so as to remove as much water as possible, and then hung + up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the sun." + +The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for sending to +one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted into different +qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enormous hydraulic +pressure from which it emerges in the shape of the well-known bales, +each weighing 400 lb. + +The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, and upon the +attention which the fibre has received in its various stages; the yield +per acre varies in different districts. Three bales per acre, or 1200 +lb. is termed a 100% crop, but the usual quantity obtained is about 2.6 +bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales +each. The crop in 1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907 +nearly 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued on +the 19th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., Dundee:-- + + +---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+----------------------+---------------------+--------------+-----------+ + | | |Estimated yield| Estimated | Shipment to Europe. | Shipment to America.| Supplies to | Out-turn | + | Year. | Actual | (100% | total +-----------+----------+---------+-----------+ Indian mills |total crop.| + | | acreage. | equal 3 bales | crop. | Jute. | Cuttings.| Jute. | Cuttings. | and local | Bales. | + | | | per acre). | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | consumption. | | + +---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+ + |1901--1st| 2,216,500 | 94% = | 6,250,000 | | | | | | | + | Final | 2,249,000 | 96% = | 6,500,000 | 3,528,691 | 54,427 | 295,921 | 426,331 | 3,100,000 = | 7,405,370 | + |1902--1st| 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280.000 | | | | | | | + | Final | 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280,000 | 2,773,621 | 39,019 | 230,415 | 207,999 | 2,600,000 = | 5,851,054 | + |1903--1st| 2,100,000 | 85% = | 5,400,000 | | | | | | | + | Final | 2,250,000 | 93¾% = | 6,500,000 | 3,161,791 | 59,562 | 329,048 | 236,959 | 3,650,000 = | 7,437,360 | + |1904--1st| 2,700,000 | 87½% = | 7,100,000 | | | | | | | + | Final | 2,850,000 | 85% = | 7,400,000 | 2,939,940 | 44,002 | 253,882 | 290,854 | 3,475,782 = | 7,004,460 | + |1905--1st| 3,163,500 | 87% = | 8,250,000 | | | | | | | + | Final | 3,145,000 | 87% = | 8,200,000 \| | | | | \ | | + | | | Outlying | 200,000 /| 3,483,315 | 63,118 | 347,974 | 245,044 | 4,018,523 / =| 8,233,358 | + | | | | Madras | 75,384 | | | | | | + |1906--1st| 3,271,400\| 87% = | 8,713,000 | | | | | | | + |Outlying | 67,000/| Madras | 100,000 | | | | | | | + | Final | 3,336,400 | | 8,736,220 | | | | | | | + | (Outlying Districts and Madras, say 250,000 | | | | | | | + | bales additional) | | | | | | | + +---------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+ + + + Estimated consumption of jute 1906-1907. + + In Europe Bales per annum. + Scotland 1,250,000 + England 20,000 + Ireland 25,000 + France 475,000 + Belgium 120,000 + Germany 750,000 + Austria and Bohemia 262,000 + Norway and Sweden 62,500 + Russia 180,000 + Holland 25,000 + Spain 90,000 + Italy 160,000 + ------- 3,419,500 bales + In America 600,000 + ------- 600,000 " + In India-- + Mills 3,900,000 + Local 500,000 + --------- 4,400,000 " + --------------- + 8,419,500 bales + + + Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings. + + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Consumption. | 1894. | 1904. | 1906. | + | | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | United Kingdom | 1,200,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,295,000 | + | Continent | 1,100,000 | 1,800,000 | 2,124,500 | + | America | 500,000 | 500,000 | 600,000 | + | Indian mills | 1,500,000 | 2,900,000 | 3,900,000 | + | Local Indian consumption | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 | + | +-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | Total jute crop consumption| 4,800,000 | 6,900,000 | 8,419,500 | + +----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + +A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made during 1906, and +the report showed that very encouraging results were obtained from land +manured with cow-dung. If more scientific attention be given to the +cultivation it is quite possible that what is now considered as 100% +yield may be exceeded. + +_Characteristics._--The characters by which qualities of jute are judged +are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness, uniformity and +absence of roots. The best qualities are of a clear whitish-yellow +colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and smooth to the touch, and +fine, long and uniform in fibre. When the fibre is intended for goods in +the natural colour it is essential that it should be of a light shade +and uniform, but if intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark +shade, the colour is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a +fibre with a length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has +been known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly +inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing to a +peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls of the +separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness at different +points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal strength. Recently +prepared fibre is always stronger, more lustrous, softer and whiter than +such as has been stored for some time--age and exposure rendering it +brown in colour and harsh and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much +more woody in texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may +be easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate reagents; and +to that fact is due the change in colour and character it undergoes on +exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with facility, up to a certain +point, sufficient to enable it to take brilliant and delicate shades of +dye colour, but it is with great difficulty brought to a pure white by +bleaching. A very striking and remarkable fact, which has much practical +interest, is its highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and +atmosphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under damp +conditions it will absorb as much as 23%. + + Sir G. Watt, in his _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_, + mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre: Serajganji, + Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswal, Bakrabadi, Bhatial, + Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are several other varieties + of minor importance. The first four form the four classes into which + the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly known as + Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Serajgunge is a soft + fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from white to grey. + Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning qualities, and + is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour, which is not so high + as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and approaches red at the + roots. All the better class yarns are spun from these two kinds. + Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, is of good quality and of + great length; its drawback is the low colour, and hence it is not so + suitable for using in natural colour. It is, however, a valuable fibre + for carpet yarns, especially for dark yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh + and low quality fibre, and is used principally for heavy wefts. Each + class is subdivided according to the quality and colour of the + material, and each class receives a distinctive mark called a baler's + mark. Thus, the finest fibres may be divided as follows:-- + + Superfine first marks. + Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers. + Superior first marks " " " + Standard " " " " " + Good " " " " " + Ordinary " " " " " + Good second " " " " + Ordinary " " " " " + + The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Corchorus olitorius_.] + + Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed equal + in equality to some standard mark. It would be impossible to give a + list of the different marks, for there are hundreds, and new marks are + constantly being added. A list of all the principal marks is issued in + book form by the Calcutta Jute Baler's association. + + The relative prices of the different classes depend upon the crop, + upon the demand and upon the quality of the fibre; in 1905 the prices + of Daisee jute and First Marks were practically the same, although the + former is always considered inferior to the latter. It does not follow + that a large crop of jute will result in low prices, for the year + 1906-1907 was not only a record one for crops, but also for prices. R. + F. C. grade has been as high as £40 per ton, while its lowest recorded + price is £12. Similarly the price for First Marks reached £29, 15s. in + 1906 as compared with £9, 5s. per ton in 1897. The following table + shows a few well-known grades with the average prices during December + for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906. + + + +-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | Class. |Dec. 1903.|Dec. 1904.|Dec. 1905.|Dec. 1906.| + +-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | | £ s. d. | £ s. d. | £ s. d. | £ s. d. | + | First marks | 12 15 0 | 16 0 0 | 19 15 0 | 27 15 0 | + | Blacks S C C | 11 2 6 | 14 5 0 | 17 15 0 | 20 15 0 | + | Red S C C | 12 0 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 15 0 | 23 15 0 | + | Native rejections | 8 2 6 | -- | 14 10 0 | 15 17 6 | + | S 4 group | -- | -- | 25 10 0 | 38 0 0 | + | R F block D group | -- | -- | -- | 36 0 0 | + | R F circle D group| 14 10 0 | 16 15 0 | 21 10 0 | -- | + | R F D group | 11 15 0 | 14 2 6 | 17 12 6 | 22 0 0 | + | N B green D | 14 5 0 | -- | 21 0 0 | 32 0 0 | + | Heart T 4 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 22 10 0 | 34 0 0 | + | Heart T 5 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 21 0 0 | 31 0 0 | + | Daisee 2 | 12 17 6 | -- | 18 15 0 | 25 10 0 | + | Daisee assortment | 12 10 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 5 0 | -- | + | Mixed cuttings | 4 5 0 | -- | 10 0 0 | 10 0 0 | + +-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + +_Jute Manufacture._--Long before jute came to occupy a prominent place +amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed the raw material of a +large and important industry throughout the regions of Eastern Bengal. +The Hindu population made the material up into cordage, paper and cloth, +the chief use of the latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags. +Indeed, up to 1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand +labour for this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for +bags and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been +described as follows:-- + + "Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called _tana para_ or warp, + are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure + of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or thread + is wound on them as warp called _tana_. The warp is taken up and + removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placed at two + ends, which are tied to the _ohari_ and _okher_ or roller; they are + made fast to the _khoti_. The _belut_ or treadle is put into the warp; + next to that is the _sarsul_; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the + warp, called _chupari_ or regulator. There is no sley used in this, + nor is a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered + with thread called _singa_ is thrown into the warp as woof, which is + beaten in by a piece of plank called _beyno_, and as the cloth is + woven it is wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood + called _khetone_, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof; + a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight." + +Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the purpose to +which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and dense in texture, for +carrying such seed as poppy or rape and sugar; others less close are +used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like size, and coarser and opener +kinds again are woven for the outer cover of packages and for the sails +of country boats. There is a thin close-woven cloth made and used as +garments among the females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the +Himalayas, and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute +mixed with cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing +purposes. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied, the +following quotation may be cited from the official report of Hem Chunder +Kerr as applying to Midnapur. + + "The articles manufactured from jute are principally (1) gunny bags; + (2) string, rope and cord; (3) _kampa_, a net-like bag for carrying + wood or hay on bullocks; (4) _chat_, a strip of stuff for tying bales + of cotton or cloth; (5) _dola_, a swing on which infants are rocked to + sleep; (6) _shika_, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots, + &c.; (7) _dulina_, a floor-cloth; (8) _beera_, a small circular stand + for wooden plates used particularly in _poojahs_; (9) painter's brush + and brush for white-washing; (10) _ghunsi_, a waist-band worn next to + the skin; (11) _gochh-dari_, a hair-band worn by women; (12) _mukbar_, + a net bag used as muzzle for cattle; (13) _parchula_, false hair worn + by players; (14) _rakhi-bandhan_, a slender arm-band worn at the + Rakhi-poornima festival; and (15) _dhup_, small incense sticks burned + at _poojahs_." + +The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards the close +of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was spun into yarn +and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon. It is claimed that this +was the first British town to manufacture the material. For years small +quantities of jute were imported into Great Britain and other European +countries and into America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the +fibre may be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain. +The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made in this +year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experiments proved to be +the foundation of an enormous industry. It is interesting to note that +the site of Chapelshade Works was in 1907 cleared for the erection of a +large new technical college. + +In common with practically all new industries progress was slow for a +time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth produced from it had +become known the development was more rapid. The pioneers of the work +were confronted with many difficulties; most people condemned the fibre +and the cloth, many warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any +attempt to mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of +deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the fact that +suitable machinery and methods of treatment had not been developed for +preparing yarns from this useful fibre. Warden in his _Linen Trade_ +says:-- + + "For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused to + have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained a + tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch + government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns for those made from + flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for their East Indian + possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got a proper start. That + fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the spinning of the fibre + which it never lost, and since that period its progress has been truly + astonishing." + +The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine hessian +yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form an important +branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks during 1906 as many as +1000 bales were despatched to Brazil, besides numerous quantities to +other parts of the world. + +For many years Great Britain was the only European country engaged in +the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee. Gradually, +however, the trade began to extend, and now almost every European +country is partly engaged in the trade. + +The success of the mechanical method of spinning and weaving of jute in +Dundee and district led to the introduction of textile machinery into +and around Calcutta. The first mill to be run there by power was started +in 1854, while by 1872 three others had been established. In the next +ten years no fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with +modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were +thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of the Indian +power trade may be gathered from the following particulars of the number +of looms and spindles from 1892 to 1906. In one or two cases the number +of spindles is obtained approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per +loom, which is about the average for the Indian mills. + + + +-------------+------------+--------------+ + | Year. | Looms. | Spindles. | + +-------------+------------+--------------+ + | 1892-3 | 8,479 | 177,732 | + | 1893-4 | 9,082 | 189,144 | + | 1894-5 | 9,504 | 197,673 | + | 1895-6 | 10,071 | 212,595 | + | 1896-7 | 12,276 | 254,610 | + | 1897-8 | 12,737 | 271,363 | + | 1898-9 | 13,323 | 277,398 | + | 1899-1900 | 14,021 | 293,218 | + | 1900-01 | 15,242 | 315,264 | + | 1901-02 | 16,059 | 329,300 | + | 1902-03 | 17,091 | 350,120 | + | 1904* | 19,901 | 398,020** | + | 1905* | 21,318 | 426,360** | + | 1906* | 26,799 | 520,980** | + +-------------+------------+--------------+ + + * End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of + March, the end of financial year. + + ** Approximate number of spindles. + +The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few varieties of +the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success in this direction +has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the other hand, turns out not +only the commoner classes of fabrics, but a very large variety of other +fabrics. Amongst these may be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging, +tarpaulin, sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation +Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting, in +addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part. +Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which Dundee held +in its former days, but the continually increasing demands for jute +fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee to enter new markets and so +to take part in the prosperity of the trade. + +The development of the trade with countries outside India from 1828 to +1906 may be seen by the following figures of exports:-- + + Average per year from 1828 to 1832-33 11,800 cwt. + " " " 1833-34 " 1837-38 67,483 " + " " " 1838-39 " 1842-43 117,047 " + " " " 1843-44 " 1847-48 234,055 " + " " " 1848-49 " 1852-53 439,850 " + " " " 1853-54 " 1857-58 710,826 " + " " " 1858-59 " 1862-63 969,724 " + " " " 1863-64 " 1867-68 2,628,110 " + " " " 1868-69 " 1872-73 4,858,162 " + " " " 1873-74 " 1877-78 5,362,267 " + " " " 1878-79 " 1882-83 7,274,000 " + " " " 1883-84 " 1887-88 8,223,859 " + " " " 1888-89 " 1892-93 10,372,991 " + " " " 1893-94 " 1897-98 12,084,292 " + " " " 1898-99 " 1902-03 11,959,189 " + " " " 1903-04 " 1905-06 13,693,090 " + +The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an agricultural, +as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. The difference between +the production and the exports represents the native consumption, for +very little jute is sent overland. The figures are taken to the 31st of +March, the end of the Indian financial year. + + + +--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+ + | Year. | Acres under | Production | Exports by | + | | cultivation.| in cwt. | sea in cwt. | + +--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+ + | 1893 | 2,181,334 | 20,419,000 | 10,537,512 | + | 1894 | 2,230,570 | 17,863,000 | 8,690,133 | + | 1895 | 2,275,335 | 21,944,400 | 12,976,791 | + | 1896 | 2,248,593 | 19,825,000 | 12,266,781 | + | 1897 | 2,215,105 | 20,418,000 | 11,464,356 | + | 1898 | 2,159,908 | 24,425,000 | 15,023,325 | + | 1899 | 1,690,739 | 19,050,000 | 9,864,545 | + | 1900 | 2,070,668 | 19,329,000 | 9,725,245 | + | 1901 | 2,102,236 | 23,307,000 | 12,414,552 | + | 1902 | 2,278,205 | 26,564,000 | 14,755,115 | + | 1903 | 2,142,700 | 23,489,000 | 13,036,486 | + | 1904 | 2,275,050 | 25,861,000 | 13,721,447 | + | 1905 | 2,899,700 | 26,429,000 | 12,875,312 | + | 1906 | 3,181,600 | 29,945,000 | 14,581,307 | + +--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+ + +_Manufacture._--In their general features the spinning and weaving of +jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and processes +from those employed in the manufacture of hemp and heavy flax goods. +Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to +undergo a preliminary treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the +jute industry, who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did +not know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be +remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had to +encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and hairy yarn +owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre. This peculiarity of +jute, coupled also with the fact that the machinery on which it was +first spun, although quite suitable for the stronger and more elastic +fibres for which it was designed, required certain modifications to suit +it to the weaker jute, was the cause of many annoyances and failures in +the early days of the trade. + + The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. Batch + setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of selecting + the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind of + yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, indeed it + is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four or even + more varieties or marks. The "streaks"[1] or "heads" of jute as they + come from the bale are in a hard condition in consequence of having + been subjected to a high hydraulic pressure during baling; it is + therefore necessary to soften them before any further process is + entered. The streaks are sometimes partly softened or crushed by means + of a steam hammer during the process of opening the bale, then taken + to the "strikers-up" where the different varieties are selected and + hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening machine. The more + general practice, however, is to employ what is termed a "bale + opener," or "jute crusher." The essential parts of one type of bale + opener are three specially shaped rollers, the peripheries of which + contain a number of small knobs. Two of these rollers are supported in + the same horizontal plane of the framework, while the third or top + roller is kept in close contact by means of weights and springs acting + on each end of the arbor. Another type of machine termed the three + pair roller jute opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the + different bales are laid upon the feed cloth which carries them up to + the rollers, between which the layers are crushed and partly + separated. The proximity of the weighted roller or rollers to the + fixed ones depends upon the thickness of material passing through the + machine. The fibre is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth, + and the batcher usually selects small streaks of about 1½ lb. to 2 lb. + weight each and passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the + softening machine. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as + possible upon the feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view + of which is shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a series of + fluted rollers, each pair of which is kept in contact by spiral + springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is + sixty-three, but different lengths obtain. There is also a difference + in the structure of the flutes, some being straight, and others + spiral, and each pair may or may not contain the same number of + flutes. The springs allow the top rollers of each pair to rise as the + material passes through the machine. Advantage is taken of this slight + upward and downward movement of the top rollers to automatically + regulate the flow of water and oil upon the material. The apparatus + for this function is placed immediately over the 11th and 12th rollers + of the softening machine and an idea of its construction may be + gathered from fig. 5. In many cases the water and oil are applied by + less automatic, but equally effective, means. The main object is to + see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing + through, and to stop the supply when the machine stops or when no + fibre is passing. The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine + facilitates the subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this + preliminary process (originally by hand) constituted the first + important step in the practical solution of the difficulties of jute + spinning. The relative quantities of oil and water depend upon the + quality of the batch. Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used, + but in most cases the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 1¼ gallons of + oil is the usual amount given per bale of 400 lb. of jute, while the + quantity of water per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The delivery + attendants remove the streaks, give them a twist to facilitate future + handling, and place them on what are termed jute barrows. The streaks + are now handed over to the cutters who cut off the roots, and finally + the material is allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four hours to + allow the mixture of oil and water to thoroughly spread over the + fibre. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this + article are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Jute Softening Machine.] + + When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken to + the "breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department. A + certain weight of jute, termed a "dollop," is laid upon the feed cloth + for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be arranged + on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the feed cloth + and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the large + cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed, carries part + of the fibre towards the workers and strippers; the surface speed of + the workers being much slower than that of the cylinder. The pins in + the two rollers oppose each other, those of the workers being + "back-set," and this arrangement, combined with the relative angle of + the pins, and the difference in the surface speeds of the two rollers, + results in part of the fibre being broken and carried round by the + worker towards the stripper. This, as its name implies, strips the + fibre off the worker, and carries it round to the cylinder. The pins + of the stripper and cylinder point in the same direction, but since + the surface speed of the cylinder is much greater than the surface + speed of the stripper, it follows that the fibre is combed between the + two, and that part is carried forward by the cylinder to be reworked. + The strippers and workers are in pairs, of which there may be two or + more. After passing the last pair of workers and strippers the fibre + is carried forward towards the doffing roller, the pins of which are + back-set, and the fibre is removed from the cylinder by the doffer, + from which it passes between the drawing and pressing rollers into the + conductor, and finally between the delivery and pressing rollers into + the sliver can. It may be mentioned that more or less breaking takes + place between each pair of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and + that combing and drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins + pointing in the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the + drawing roller and the feed roller is termed the draft:-- + + surface speed of drawing roller + ------------------------------- = draft. + surface speed of feed roller + + In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Improved Batching Gear.] + + The sliver from the can of the breaker card may be wound into balls, + or it may be taken direct to the finisher card. In the latter method + from eight to fifteen cans are placed behind the feed rollers, and all + the slivers from these cans are united before they emerge from the + machine. The main difference between a breaker card and a finisher + card is that the latter is fitted with finer pins, that it contains + two doffing rollers, and that it usually possesses a greater number of + pairs of workers and strippers--a full circular finisher card having + four sets. + + After the fibre has been thoroughly carded by the above machines, the + cans containing the sliver from the finisher card are taken to the + first drawing frame. A very common method is to let four slivers run + into one sliver at the first drawing, then two slivers from the first + drawing are run into one sliver at the second drawing frame. There are + several types of drawing frames, e.g. push-bar or slide, rotary, + spiral, ring, open-link or chain, the spiral being generally used for + the second drawing. All, however, perform the same function, viz., + combing out the fibres and thus laying them parallel, and in addition + drawing out the sliver. The designation of the machine indicates the + particular method in which the gill pins are moved. These pins are + much finer than those of the breaker and finisher cards, consequently + the fibres are more thoroughly separated. The draft in the first + drawing varies from three to five, while that in the second drawing is + usually five to seven. It is easy to see that a certain amount of + draft, or drawing out of the sliver, is necessary, otherwise the + various doublings would cause the sliver to emerge thicker and thicker + from each machine. The doublings play a very important part in the + appearance of the ultimate rove and yarn, for the chief reason for + doubling threads or slivers is to minimize irregularities of thickness + and of colour in the material. In an ordinary case, the total + doublings in jute from the breaker card to the end of the second + drawing is ninety-six: 12 × 4 × 2 = 96; and if the slivers were made + thinner and more of them used the ultimate result would naturally be + improved. + + The final preparing process is that of roving. In this operation there + is no doubling of the slivers, but each sliver passes separately + through the machine, from the can to the spindle, is drawn out to + about eight times its length, and receives a small amount of twist to + strengthen it, in order that it may be successfully wound upon the + roving bobbin by the flyer. The chief piece of mechanism in the roving + frame is the gearing known as the "differential motion." It works in + conjunction with the disk and scroll, the cones, or the expanding + pulley, to impart an intermittingly variable speed to the bobbin (each + layer of the bobbin has its own particular speed which is constant for + the full traverse, but each change of direction of the builder is + accompanied by a quick change of speed to the bobbin). It is essential + that the bobbin should have such a motion, because the delivery of the + sliver and the speed of the flyer are constant for a given size of + rove, whereas the layers of rove on the bobbin increase in length as + the bobbin fills. In the jute roving frame the bobbin is termed the + "follower," because its revolutions per minute are fewer than those of + the flyer. Each layer of rove increases the diameter of the material + on the bobbin shank; hence, at the beginning of each layer, the speed + of the bobbin must be increased, and kept at this increased speed for + the whole traverse from top to bottom or vice versa. + + Let R = the revolutions per second of the flyer; + r = the revolutions per second of the bobbin; + d = the diameter of bobbin shaft plus the material; + L = the length of sliver delivered per second; + then (R - r) d·[pi] = L. + + In the above expression R, [pi] and L are constant, therefore as d + increases the term (R - r) must decrease; this can happen only when r + is increased, that is, when the bobbin revolves quicker. It is easy to + see from the above expression that if the bobbin were the "leader" its + speed would have to decrease as it filled. + + The builder, which receives its motion from the disk and scroll, from + the cones, or from the expanding pulley, has also an intermittingly + variable speed. It begins at a maximum speed when the bobbin is empty, + is constant for each layer, but decreases as the bobbin fills. + + The rove yarn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a further + draft of about eight is given. The principles of jute spinning are + similar to those of dry spinning for flax. For very heavy jute yarns + the spinning frame is not used--the desired amount of twist being + given at the roving frame. + + The count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds of 14,400 + yds., such length receiving the name of "spyndle." The finest yarns + weigh 2¾ lb. to 3 lb. per spyndle, but the commonest kinds are 7 lb., + 8 lb., 9 lb. and 10 lb. per spyndle. The sizes rise in pounds up to + about 20 lb., then by 2 lb. up to about 50 lb. per spyndle, with much + larger jumps above this weight. It is not uncommon to find 200 lb. to + 300 lb. rove yarn, while the weight occasionally reaches 450 lb. per + spyndle. The different sizes of yarn are extensively used in a large + variety of fabrics, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction with + other fibres, e.g. with worsted in the various kinds of carpets, with + cotton in tapestries and household cloths, with line and tow yarns for + the same fabrics and for paddings, &c., and with wool for horse + clothing. The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant colours, but, + unfortunately, the colours are not very fast to light. The fibre can + also be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable closeness, and + advantage of this is largely taken in making stage wigs. + + For detailed information regarding jute, the cloths made from it and + the machinery used, see the following works: Watts's _Dictionary of + the Economic Products of India_; Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_; + Sharp's _Flax, Tow and Jute Spinning_; Leggatt's _Jute Spinning_; + Woodhouse and Milne's _Jute and Linen Weaving_; and Woodhouse and + Milne's _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_. (T. Wo.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Also in the forms "streek," "strick" or "strike," as in Chaucer, + _Cant. Tales_, Prologue 676, where the Pardoner's hair is compared + with a "strike of flax." The term is also used of a handful of hemp + or other fibre, and is one of the many technical applications of + "strike" or "streak," which etymologically are cognate words. + + + + +JÜTERBOG, or GÜTERBOG, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of +Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 39 m. S.W. of Berlin, at the junction of the +main lines of railway from Berlin to Dresden and Leipzig. Pop. (1900), +7407. The town is surrounded by a medieval wall, with three gateways, +and contains two Protestant churches, of which that of St Nicholas (14th +century) is remarkable for its three fine aisles. There are also a Roman +Catholic church, an old town-hall and a modern school. Jüterbog carries +on weaving and spinning both of flax and wool, and trades in the produce +of those manufactures and in cattle. Vines are cultivated in the +neighbourhood. Jüterbog belonged in the later middle ages to the +archbishopric of Magdeburg, passing to electoral Saxony in 1648, and to +Prussia in 1815. It was here that a treaty over the succession to the +duchy of Jülich was made in March 1611 between Saxony and Brandenburg, +and here in November 1644 the Swedes defeated the Imperialists. Two +miles S.W. of the town is the battlefield of Dennewitz where the +Prussians defeated the French on the 6th of September 1813. + + + + +JUTES, the third of the Teutonic nations which invaded Britain in the +5th century, called by Bede _Iutae_ or _Iuti_ (see BRITAIN, +ANGLO-SAXON). They settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight together with +the adjacent parts of Hampshire. In the latter case the national name is +said to have survived until Bede's own time, in the New Forest indeed +apparently very much later. In Kent, however, it seems to have soon +passed out of use, though there is good reason for believing that the +inhabitants of that kingdom were of a different nationality from their +neighbours (see KENT, KINGDOM OF). With regard to the origin of the +Jutes, Bede only says that Angulus (Angel) lay between the territories +of the Saxons and the Iutae--a statement which points to their identity +with the Iuti or Jyder of later times, i.e. the inhabitants of Jutland. +Some recent writers have preferred to identify the Jutes with a tribe +called Eucii mentioned in a letter from Theodberht to Justinian (_Mon. +Germ. Hist., Epist. iii._, p. 132 seq.) and settled apparently in the +neighbourhood of the Franks. But these people may themselves have come +from Jutland. + + See Bede, _Hist. Eccles_, i. 15, iv. 16. (H. M. C.) + + + + +JUTIGALPA, or JUTICALPA, the capital of the department of Jutigalpa in +eastern Honduras, on one of the main roads from the Bay of Fonseca to +the Atlantic coast, and on a small left-hand tributary of the river +Patuca. Pop. (1905), about 18,000. Jutigalpa is the second city of +Honduras, being surpassed only by Tegucigalpa. It is the administrative +centre of a mountainous region rich in minerals, though mining is +rendered difficult by the lack of communications and the unsettled +condition of the country. The majority of the inhabitants are Indians or +half-castes, engaged in the cultivation of coffee, bananas, tobacco, +sugar or cotton. + + + + +JUTLAND (Danish _Jylland_), though embracing several islands as well as +a peninsula, may be said to belong to the continental portion of the +kingdom of Denmark. The peninsula (Chersonese or Cimbric peninsula of +ancient geography) extends northward, from a line between Lübeck and the +mouth of the Elbe, for 270 m. to the promontory of the Skaw (Skagen), +thus preventing a natural communication directly east and west between +the Baltic and North Seas. The northern portion only is Danish, and +bears the name Jutland. The southern is German, belonging to +Schleswig-Holstein. The peninsula is almost at its narrowest (36 m.) at +the frontier, but Jutland has an extreme breadth of 110 m. and the +extent from the south-western point (near Ribe) to the Skaw is 180 m. +Jutland embraces nine _amter_ (counties), namely, Hjörring, Thisted, +Aalborg, Ringkjöbing, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle and Ribe. The main +watershed of the peninsula lies towards the east coast; therefore such +elevated ground as exists is found on the east, while the western slope +is gentle and consists of a low sandy plain of slight undulation. The +North Sea coast (western) and Skagerrack coast (north-western) consist +mainly of a sweeping line of dunes with wide lagoons behind them. In the +south the northernmost of the North Frisian Islands (Fanö) is Danish. +Towards the north a narrow mouth gives entry to the Limfjord, or +Liimfjord, which, wide and ramifying among islands to the west, narrows +to the east and pierces through to the Cattegat, thus isolating the +counties of Hjörring and Thisted (known together as Vendsyssel). It is, +however, bridged at Aalborg, and its depth rarely exceeds 12 ft. The +seaward banks of the lagoons are frequently broken in storms, and the +narrow channels through them are constantly shifting. The east coast is +slightly bolder than the west, and indented with true estuaries and +bays. From the south-east the chain of islands forming insular Denmark +extends towards Sweden, the strait between Jutland and Fünen having the +name of the Little Belt. The low and dangerous coasts, off which the +seas are generally very shallow, are efficiently served by a series of +lifeboat stations. The western coast region is well compared with the +Landes of Gascony. The interior is low. The Varde, Omme, Skjerne, Stor +and Karup, sluggish and tortuous streams draining into the western +lagoons, rise in and flow through marshes, while the eastern Limfjord is +flanked by the swamps known as Vildmose. The only considerable river is +the Gudenaa, flowing from S.W. into the Randersfjord (Cattegat), and +rising among the picturesque lakes of the county of Aarhus, where the +principal elevated ground in the peninsula is found in the Himmelbjerg +and adjacent hills (exceeding 500 ft.). The German portion of the +peninsula is generally similar to that of western Jutland, the main +difference lying in the occurrence of islands (the North Frisian) off +the west coast in place of sand-bars and lagoons. Erratic blocks are of +frequent occurrence in south Jutland. (For geology, and the general +consideration of Jutland in connexion with the whole kingdom, see +DENMARK.) + +Although in ancient times well wooded, the greater portion of the +interior of Jutland consisted for centuries of barren drift-sand, which +grew nothing but heather; but since 1866, chiefly through the +instrumentality of the patriotic Heath association, assisted by annual +contributions from the state, a very large proportion of this region has +been more or less reclaimed for cultivation. The means adopted are: (i.) +the plantation of trees; (ii.) the making of irrigation canals and +irrigating meadows; (iii.) exploring for, extracting and transporting +loam, a process aided by the construction of short light railways; and +(iv.), since 1889, the experimental cultivation of fenny districts. The +activity of the association takes the form partly of giving gratuitous +advice, partly of experimental attempts, and partly of model works for +imitation. The state also makes annual grants directly to owners who are +willing to place their plantations under state supervision, for the sale +of plants at half price to the poorer peasantry, for making protective +or sheltering plantations, and for free transport of marl or loam. The +species of timber almost exclusively planted are the red fir (_Picea +excelsa_) and the mountain pine (_Pinus montana_). This admirable work +quickly caused the population to increase at a more rapid rate in the +districts where it was practised than in any other part of the Danish +kingdom. The counties of Viborg, Ringkjöbing and Ribe cover the +principal heath district. + +Jutland is well served by railways. Two lines cross the frontier from +Germany on the east and west respectively and run northward near the +coasts. The eastern touches the ports of Kolding, Fredericia, Vejle, +Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg on Limfjord, Frederikshavn and Skagen. +On the west the only port of first importance is Esbjerg. The line runs +past Skjerne, Ringkjöbing, Vemb and Holstebro to Thisted. Both throw off +many branches and are connected by lines east and west between Kolding +and Esbjerg, Skanderborg and Skjerne, Langaa and Struer on Limfjord via +Viborg. Of purely inland towns only Viborg in the midland and Hjörring +in the extreme north are of importance. + + + + +JUTURNA (older form Diuturna, the lasting), an old Latin divinity, a +personification of the never-failing springs. Her original home was on +the river Numicius near Lavinium, where there was a spring called after +her, supposed to possess healing qualities (whence the old Roman +derivation from _juvare_, to help). Her worship was early transferred to +Rome, localized by the Lacus Juturnae near the temple of Vesta, at which +Castor and Pollux, after announcing the victory of lake Regillus, were +said to have washed the sweat from their horses. At the end of the First +Punic War Lutatius Catulus erected a temple in her honour on the Campus +Martius, subsequently restored by Augustus. Juturna was associated with +two festivals: the Juturnalia on the 11th of January, probably a +dedication festival of a temple built by Augustus, and celebrated by the +college of the _fontani_, workmen employed in the construction and +maintenance of aqueducts and fountains; and the Volcanalia on the 23rd +of August, at which sacrifice was offered to Volcanus, the Nymphs and +Juturna, as protectors against outbreaks of fire. In Virgil, Juturna +appears as the sister of Turnus (probably owing to the partial +similarity of the names), on whom Jupiter, to console her for the loss +of her chastity, bestowed immortality and the control of all the lakes +and rivers of Latium. For the statement that she was the wife of Janus +and mother of Fontus (or Fons), the god of fountains, Arnobius (_Adv. +gentes_ iii. 29) is alone responsible. + + See Virgil, _Aeneid_, xii. 139 and Servius _ad loc._; Ovid, _Fasti_, + ii. 583-616; Valerius Maximus, i. 8. 1; L. Deubner, "Juturna und die + Ausgrabungen auf dem römischen Forum," in _Neue Jahrb. f. das + klassische Altertum_ (1902), p. 370. + + + + +JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140), Roman poet and satirist, +was born at Aquinum. Brief accounts of his life, varying considerably in +details, are prefixed to different MSS. of the works. But their common +original cannot be traced to any competent authority, and some of their +statements are intrinsically improbable. According to the version which +appears to be the earliest:-- + + "Juvenal was the son or ward of a wealthy freedman; he practised + declamation till middle age, not as a professional teacher, but as an + amateur, and made his first essay in satire by writing the lines on + Paris, the actor and favourite of Domitian, now found in the seventh + satire (lines 90 seq.). Encouraged by their success, he devoted + himself diligently to this kind of composition, but refrained for a + long time from either publicly reciting or publishing his verses. When + at last he did come before the public, his recitations were attended + by great crowds and received with the utmost favour. But the lines + originally written on Paris, having been inserted in one of his new + satires, excited the jealous anger of an actor of the time, who was a + favourite of the emperor, and procured the poet's banishment under the + form of a military appointment to the extremity of Egypt. Being then + eighty years of age, he died shortly afterwards of grief and + vexation." + +Some of these statements are so much in consonance with the indirect +evidence afforded by the satires that they may be a series of +conjectures based upon them. The rare passages in which the poet speaks +of his own position, as in satires xi. and xiii., indicate that he was +in comfortable but moderate circumstances. We should infer also that he +was not dependent on any professional occupation, and that he was +separated in social station, and probably too by tastes and manners, +from the higher class to which Tacitus and Pliny belonged, as he was by +character from the new men who rose to wealth by servility under the +empire. Juvenal is no organ of the pride and dignity, still less of the +urbanity, of the cultivated representatives of the great families of the +republic. He is the champion of the more sober virtues and ideas, and +perhaps the organ of the rancours and detraction, of an educated but +depressed and embittered middle class. He lets us know that he has no +leanings to philosophy (xiii. 121) and pours contempt on the serious +epic writing of the day (i. 162). The statement that he was a trained +and practised declaimer is confirmed both by his own words (i. 16) and +by the rhetorical mould in which his thoughts and illustrations are +cast. The allusions which fix the dates when his satires first appeared, +and the large experience of life which they imply, agree with the +statement that he did not come before the world as a professed satirist +till after middle age. + +The statement that he continued to write satires long before he gave +them to the world accords well with the nature of their contents and the +elaborate character of their composition, and might almost be inferred +from the emphatic but yet guarded statement of Quintilian in his short +summary of Roman literature. After speaking of the merits of Lucilius, +Horace and Persius as satirists, he adds, "There are, too, in our own +day, distinguished writers of satire whose names will be heard of +hereafter" (_Inst. Or._ x. 1, 94). There is no Roman writer of satire +who could be mentioned along with those others by so judicious a critic, +except Juvenal. The motive which a writer of satire must have had for +secrecy under Domitian is sufficiently obvious; and the necessity of +concealment and self-suppression thus imposed upon the writer may have +permanently affected his whole manner of composition. + +So far the original of these lives follows a not improbable tradition. +But when we come to the story of the poet's exile the case is otherwise. +The undoubted reference to Juvenal in Sidonius Apollinaris as the victim +of the rage of an actor only proves that the original story from which +all the varying versions of the lives are derived was generally believed +before the middle of the 5th century of our era. If Juvenal was banished +at the age of eighty, the author of his banishment could not have been +the "enraged actor" in reference to whom the original lines were +written, as Paris was put to death in 83, and Juvenal was certainly +writing satires long after 100. The satire in which the lines now appear +was probably first published soon after the accession of Hadrian, when +Juvenal was not an octogenarian but in the maturity of his powers. The +cause of the poet's banishment at that advanced age could not therefore +have been either the original composition or the first publication of +the lines. + +An expression in xv. 45 is quoted as a proof that Juvenal had visited +Egypt. He may have done so as an exile or in a military command; but it +seems hardly consistent with the importance which the emperors attached +to the security of Egypt, or with the concern which they took in the +interests of the army, that these conditions were combined at an age so +unfit for military employment. If any conjecture is warrantable on so +obscure a subject, it is more likely that this temporary disgrace should +have been inflicted on the poet by Domitian. Among the many victims of +Juvenal's satire it is only against him and against one of the vilest +instruments of his court, the Egyptian Crispinus, that the poet seems to +be animated by personal hatred. A sense of wrong suffered at their hands +may perhaps have mingled with the detestation which he felt towards them +on public grounds. But if he was banished under Domitian, it must have +been either before or after 93, at which time, as we learn from an +epigram of Martial, Juvenal was in Rome. + +More ancient evidence is supplied by an inscription found at Aquinum, +recording, so far as it has been deciphered, the dedication of an altar +to Ceres by a Iunius Iuvenalis, tribune of the first cohort of +Dalmatians, _duumvir quinquennalis_, and _flamen Divi Vespasiani_, a +provincial magistrate whose functions corresponded to those of the +censor at Rome. This Juvenalis may have been the poet, but he may +equally well have been a relation. The evidence of the satires does not +point to a prolonged absence from the metropolis. They are the product +of immediate and intimate familiarity with the life of the great city. +An epigram of Martial, written at the time when Juvenal was most +vigorously employed in their composition, speaks of him as settled in +Rome. He himself hints (iii. 318) that he maintained his connexion with +Aquinum, and that he had some special interest in the worship of the +"Helvinian Ceres." Nor is the tribute to the national religion implied +by the dedication of the altar to Ceres inconsistent with the beliefs +and feelings expressed in the satires. While the fables of mythology are +often treated contemptuously or humorously by him, other passages in the +satires clearly imply a conformity to, and even a respect for, the +observances of the national religion. The evidence as to the military +post filled by Juvenal is curious, when taken in connexion with the +confused tradition of his exile in a position of military importance. +But it cannot be said that the satires bear traces of military +experience; the life described in them is rather such as would present +itself to the eyes of a civilian. + +The only other contemporary evidence which affords a glimpse of +Juvenal's actual life is contained in three epigrams of Martial. Two of +these (vii. 24 and 91) were written in the time of Domitian, the third +(xii. 18) early in the reign of Trajan, after Martial had retired to his +native Bilbilis. The first attests the strong regard which Martial felt +for him; but the subject of the epigram seems to hint that Juvenal was +not an easy person to get on with. In the second, addressed to Juvenal +himself, the epithet _facundus_ is applied to him, equally applicable to +his "eloquence" as satirist or rhetorician. In the last Martial imagines +his friend wandering about discontentedly through the crowded streets of +Rome, and undergoing all the discomforts incident to attendance on the +levées of the great. Two lines in the poem suggest that the satirist, +who inveighed with just severity against the worst corruptions of Roman +morals, was not too rigid a censor of the morals of his friend. Indeed, +his intimacy with Martial is a ground for not attributing to him +exceptional strictness of life. + +The additional information as to the poet's life and circumstances +derivable from the satires themselves is not important. He had enjoyed +the training which all educated men received in his day (i. 15); he +speaks of his farm in the territory of Tibur (xi. 65), which furnished a +young kid and mountain asparagus for a homely dinner to which he invites +a friend during the festival of the Megalesia. From the satire in which +this invitation is contained we are able to form an idea of the style in +which he habitually lived, and to think of him as enjoying a hale and +vigorous age (203), and also as a kindly master of a household (159 +seq.). The negative evidence afforded in the account of his +establishment suggests the inference that, like Lucilius and Horace, +Juvenal had no personal experience of either the cares or the softening +influence of family life. A comparison of this poem with the invitation +of Horace to Torquatus (_Ep._ i. 5) brings out strongly the differences +not in urbanity only but in kindly feeling between the two satirists. +Gaston Boissier has drawn from the indications afforded of the career +and character of the persons to whom the satires are addressed most +unfavourable conclusions as to the social circumstances and associations +of Juvenal. If we believe that these were all real people, with whom +Juvenal lived in intimacy, we should conclude that he was most +unfortunate in his associates, and that his own relations to them were +marked rather by outspoken frankness than civility. But they seem to be +more "nominis umbrae" than real men; they serve the purpose of enabling +the satirist to aim his blows at one particular object instead of +declaiming at large. They have none of the individuality and traits of +personal character discernible in the persons addressed by Horace in his +_Satires_ and _Epistles_. It is noticeable that, while Juvenal writes of +the poets and men of letters of a somewhat earlier time as if they were +still living, he makes no reference to his friend Martial or the younger +Pliny and Tacitus, who wrote their works during the years of his own +literary activity. It is equally noticeable that Juvenal's name does not +appear in Pliny's letters. + +The times at which the satires were given to the world do not in all +cases coincide with those at which they were written and to which they +immediately refer. Thus the manners and personages of the age of +Domitian often supply the material of satiric representation, and are +spoken of as if they belonged to the actual life of the present,[1] +while allusions even in the earliest show that, as a finished literary +composition, it belongs to the age of Trajan. The most probable +explanation of these discrepancies is that in their present form the +satires are the work of the last thirty years of the poet's life, while +the first nine at least may have preserved with little change passages +written during his earlier manhood. The combination of the impressions, +and, perhaps of the actual compositions, of different periods also +explains a certain want of unity and continuity found in some of them. + +There is no reason to doubt that the sixteen satires which we possess +were given to the world in the order in which we find them, and that +they were divided, as they are referred to in the ancient grammarians, +into five books. Book I., embracing the first five satires, was written +in the freshest vigour of the author's powers, and is animated with the +strongest hatred of Domitian. The publication of this book belongs to +the early years of Trajan. The mention of the exile of Marius (49) shows +that it was not published before 100. In the second satire, the lines 29 +seq., + + "Qualis erat nuper tragico pollutus adulter + Concubitu," + +show that the memory of one of the foulest scandals of the reign of +Domitian was still fresh in the minds of men. The third satire, imitated +by Samuel Johnson in his _London_, presents such a picture as Rome may +have offered to the satirist at any time in the 1st century of our era; +but it was under the worst emperors, Nero and Domitian, that the arts of +flatterers and foreign adventurers were most successful, and that such +scenes of violence as that described at 277 seq. were most likely to +occur;[2] while the mention of Veiento (185) as still enjoying influence +is a distinct reference to the court of Domitian. The fourth, which +alone has any political significance, and reflects on the emperor as a +frivolous trifler rather than as a monster of lust and cruelty, is the +reproduction of a real or imaginary scene from the reign of Domitian, +and is animated by the profoundest scorn and loathing both of the tyrant +himself and of the worst instruments of his tyranny. The fifth is a +social picture of the degradation to which poor guests were exposed at +the banquets of the rich, but many of the epigrams of Martial and the +more sober evidence of one of Pliny's letters show that the picture +painted by Juvenal, though perhaps exaggerated in colouring, was drawn +from a state of society prevalent during and immediately subsequent to +the times of Domitian.[3] Book II. consists of the most elaborate of the +satires, by many critics regarded as the poet's masterpiece, the famous +sixth satire, directed against the whole female sex, which shares with +Domitian and his creatures the most cherished place in the poet's +antipathies. It shows certainly no diminution of vigour either in its +representation or its invective. The time at which this satire was +composed cannot be fixed with certainty, but some allusions render it +highly probable that it was given to the world in the later years of +Trajan, and before the accession of Hadrian. The date of the publication +of Book III., containing the seventh, eighth and ninth satires, seems to +be fixed by its opening line to the first years after the accession of +Hadrian. In the eighth satire another reference is made (120) to the +misgovernment of Marius in Africa as a recent event, and at line 51 +there may be an allusion to the Eastern wars that occupied the last +years of Trajan's reign. The ninth has no allusion to determine its +date, but it is written with the same outspoken freedom as the second +and the sixth, and belongs to the period when the poet's power was most +vigorous, and his exposure of vice most uncompromising. In Book IV., +comprising the famous tenth, the eleventh and the twelfth satires, the +author appears more as a moralist than as a pure satirist. In the tenth, +the theme of the "vanity of human wishes" is illustrated by great +historic instances, rather than by pictures of the men and manners of +the age; and, though the declamatory vigour and power of expression in +it are occasionally as great as in the earlier satires, and although +touches of Juvenal's saturnine humour, and especially of his misogyny, +appear in all the satires of this book, yet their general tone shows +that the white heat of his indignation is abated; and the lines of the +eleventh, already referred to (201 seq.), + + "Spectent juvenes quos clamor et audax + Sponsio, quos cultae decet assedisse puellae: + Nostra bibat vernum contrada cuticula solem," + +leave no doubt that he was well advanced in years when they were +written. + +Two important dates are found in Book V., comprising satires xiii.-xvi. +At xiii. 16 Juvenal speaks of his friend Calvinus as now past sixty +years of age, having been born in the consulship of Fonteius. Now L. +Fonteius Capito was consul in 67. Again at xv. 27 an event is said to +have happened in Egypt "nuper consule Iunco." There was a L. Aemilius +Iuncus consul _suffectus_ in 127. The fifth book must therefore have +been published some time after this date. More than the fourth, this +book bears the marks of age, both in the milder tone of the sentiments +expressed, and in the feebler power of composition exhibited. The last +satire is now imperfect, and the authenticity both of this and of the +fifteenth has been questioned, though on insufficient grounds. + +Thus the satires were published at different intervals, and for the most +part composed between 100 and 130, but the most powerful in feeling and +vivid in conception among them deal with the experience and impressions +of the reign of Domitian, occasionally recall the memories or traditions +of the times of Nero and Claudius, and reproduce at least one startling +page from the annals of Tiberius.[4] The same overmastering feeling +which constrained Tacitus (_Agric._ 2, 3), when the time of long +endurance and silence was over, to recall the "memory of the former +oppression," acted upon Juvenal. There is no evidence that these two +great writers, who lived and wrote at the same time, who were animated +by the same hatred of the tyrant under whom the best years of their +manhood were spent, and who both felt most deeply the degradation of +their times, were even known to one another. Tacitus belonged to the +highest official and senatorial class, Juvenal apparently to the middle +class and to that of the struggling men of letters; and this difference +in position had much influence in determining the different bent of +their genius, and in forming one to be a great national historian, the +other to be a great social satirist. If the view of the satirist is +owing to this circumstance more limited in some directions, and his +taste and temper less conformable to the best ancient standards of +propriety, he is also saved by it from prejudices to which the +traditions of his class exposed the historian. But both writers are +thoroughly national in sentiment, thoroughly masculine in tone. No +ancient authors express so strong a hatred of evil. The peculiar +greatness and value of both Juvenal and Tacitus is that they did not +shut their eyes to the evil through which they had lived, but deeply +resented it--the one with a vehement and burning passion, like the +"saeva indignatio" of Swift, the other with perhaps even deeper but more +restrained emotions of mingled scorn and sorrow, like the scorn and +sorrow of Milton when "fallen on evil days and evil tongues." In one +respect there is a difference. For Tacitus the prospect is not wholly +cheerless, the detested tyranny was at an end, and its effects might +disappear with a more beneficent rule. But the gloom of Juvenal's +pessimism is unlighted by hope. + +A. C. Swinburne has suggested that the secret of Juvenal's concentrated +power consisted in this, that he knew what he hated, and that what he +did hate was despotism and democracy. But it would be hardly true to say +that the animating motive of his satire was political. It is true that +he finds the most typical examples of lust, cruelty, levity and weakness +in the emperors and their wives--in Domitian, Otho, Nero, Claudius and +Messalina. It is true also that he shares in the traditional idolatry of +Brutus, that he strikes at Augustus in his mention of the "three +disciples of Sulla," and that he has no word of recognition for what +even Tacitus acknowledges as the beneficent rule of Trajan. So too his +scorn for the Roman populace of his time, who cared only for their dole +of bread and the public games, is unqualified. But it is only in +connexion with its indirect effects that he seems to think of despotism; +and he has no thought of democracy at all. It is not for the loss of +liberty and of the senatorian rule that he chafes, but for the loss of +the old national manliness and self-respect. This feeling explains his +detestation of foreign manners and superstitions, his loathing not only +of inhuman crimes and cruelties but even of the lesser derelictions from +self-respect, his scorn of luxury and of art as ministering to luxury, +his mockery of the poetry and of the stale and dilettante culture of his +time, and perhaps, too, his indifference to the schools of philosophy +and his readiness to identify all the professors of stoicism with the +reserved and close-cropped puritans, who concealed the worst vices under +an outward appearance of austerity. The great fault of his character, as +it appears in his writings, is that he too exclusively indulged this +mood. It is much more difficult to find what he loved and admired than +what he hated. But it is characteristic of his strong nature that, where +he does betray any sign of human sympathy or tenderness, it is for those +who by their weakness and position are dependent on others for their +protection--as for "the peasant boy with the little dog, his +playfellow,"[5] or for "the home-sick lad from the Sabine highlands, who +sighs for his mother whom he has not seen for a long time, and for the +little hut and the familiar kids."[6] + +If Juvenal is to be ranked as a great moralist, it is not for his +greatness and consistency as a thinker on moral questions. In the +rhetorical exaggeration of the famous tenth satire, for instance, the +highest energies of patriotism--the gallant and desperate defence of +great causes, by sword or speech--are quoted as mere examples of +disappointed ambition; and, in the indiscriminate condemnation of the +arts by which men sought to gain a livelihood, he leaves no room for the +legitimate pursuits of industry. His services to morals do not consist +in any positive contributions to the notions of active duty, but in the +strength with which he has realized and expressed the restraining +influence of the old Roman and Italian ideal of character, and also of +that religious conscience which was becoming a new power in the world. +Though he disclaims any debt to philosophy (xiii. 121), yet he really +owes more to the "Stoica dogmata," then prevalent, than he is aware of. +But his highest and rarest literary quality is his power of painting +characters, scenes, incidents and actions, whether from past history or +from contemporary life. In this power, which is also the great power of +Tacitus, he has few equals and perhaps no superior among ancient +writers. The difference between Tacitus and Juvenal in power of +representation is that the prose historian is more of an imaginative +poet, the satirist more of a realist and a grotesque humorist. Juvenal +can paint great historical pictures in all their detail--as in the +famous representation of the fall of Sejanus; he can describe a +character elaborately or hit it off with a single stroke. The picture +drawn may be a caricature, or a misrepresentation of the fact--as that +of the father of Demosthenes, "blear-eyed with the soot of the glowing +mass," &c.--but it is, with rare exceptions, realistically conceived, +and it is brought before us with the vivid touches of a Defoe or a +Swift, or of the great pictorial satirist of the 18th century, Hogarth. +Yet even in this, his most characteristic talent, his proneness to +exaggeration, the attraction which coarse and repulsive images have for +his mind, and the tendency to sacrifice general effect to minuteness of +detail not infrequently mar his best effects. + +The difficulty is often felt of distinguishing between a powerful +rhetorician and a genuine poet, and it is felt particularly in the case +of Juvenal. He himself knew and has well described (vii. 53 seq.) the +conditions under which a great poet could flourish; and he felt that his +own age was incapable of producing one. He has little sense of beauty +either in human life or nature. Whenever such sense is evoked it is only +as a momentary relief to his prevailing sense of the hideousness of +contemporary life, or in protest against what he regarded as the +enervating influences of art. Even his references to the great poets of +the past indicate rather a _blasé_ sense of indifference and weariness +than a fresh enjoyment of them. Yet his power of touching the springs of +tragic awe and horror is a genuine poetical gift, of the same kind as +that which is displayed by some of the early English dramatists. But he +is, on the whole, more essentially a great rhetorician than a great +poet. His training, the practical bent of his understanding, his strong +but morose character, the circumstances of his time, and the materials +available for his art, all fitted him to rebuke his own age and all +after-times in the tones of a powerful preacher, rather than charm them +with the art of an accomplished poet. The composition of his various +satires shows no negligence, but rather excess of elaboration; but it +produces the impression of mechanical contrivance rather than of organic +growth. His movement is sustained and powerful, but there is no rise and +fall in it. The verse is most carefully constructed, and is also most +effective, but it is so with the rhetorical effectiveness of Lucan, not +with the musical charm of Virgil. The diction is full, even to excess, +of meaning, point and emphasis. Few writers have added so much to the +currency of quotation. But his style altogether wants the charm of ease +and simplicity. It wearies by the constant strain after effect, its +mock-heroics and allusive periphrasis, and excites distrust by its want +of moderation. + +On the whole no one of the ten or twelve really great writers of ancient +Rome leaves on the mind so mixed an impression, both as a writer and as +a man, as Juvenal. He has little, if anything at all, of the high +imaginative mood--the mood of reverence and noble admiration--which made +Ennius, Lucretius and Virgil the truest poetical representatives of the +genius of Rome. He has nothing of the wide humanity of Cicero, of the +urbanity of Horace, of the ease and grace of Catullus. Yet he represents +another mood of ancient Rome, the mood natural to her before she was +humanized by the lessons of Greek art and thought. If we could imagine +the elder Cato living under Domitian, cut off from all share in public +life, and finding no outlet for his combative energy except in +literature, we should perhaps understand the motives of Juvenal's satire +and the place which is his due as a representative of the genius of his +country. As a man he shows many of the strong qualities of the old Roman +plebeian--the aggressive boldness, the intolerance of superiority and +privilege, which animated the tribunes in their opposition to the +senatorian rule. Even where we least like him we find nothing small or +mean to alienate our respect from him. Though he loses no opportunity of +being coarse, he is not licentious; though he is often truculent, he +cannot be called malignant. It is, indeed, impossible to say what +motives of personal chagrin, of love of detraction, of the mere literary +passion for effective writing, may have contributed to the indignation +which inspired his verse. But the prevailing impression we carry away +after reading him is that in all his early satires he was animated by a +sincere and manly detestation of the tyranny and cruelty, the debauchery +and luxury, the levity and effeminacy, the crimes and frauds, which we +know from other sources were then rife in Rome, and that a more serene +wisdom and a happier frame of mind were attained by him when old age had +somewhat allayed the fierce rage which vexed his manhood. + + AUTHORITIES.--The remarkable statements in a "life" found in a late + Italian MS. (Barberini, viii. 18), "Iunius Iuvenalis Aquinas Iunio + Iuvenale patre matre vero Septumuleia ex Aquinati municipio Claudio + Nerone et L. Antistio consulibus (55) natus est, sororem habuit + Septumuleiam quae Fuscino (_Sat._ xiv. 1) nupsit," though not + necessarily false, cannot be accepted without confirmation. + + The earliest evidence for the banishment of Juvenal is that of + Sidonius Apollinaris (c. 480), _Carm._ ix. 269, "Non qui tempore + Caesaris secundi | Aeterno coluit Tomos reatu | Nec qui consimili + deinde casu | Ad vulgi tenuem strepentis auram | Irati fuit histrionis + exul," lines which by the exact parallel drawn between Ovid's fate and + Juvenal's imply the belief that Juvenal died in exile. The banishment + is also mentioned by J. Malalas, a Greek historian subsequent to + Justinian, who gives the place as Pentapolis in Africa, _Chron._ x. + 262, Dindorf. The inscription (on a stone now lost) is as follows, the + words and letters in brackets being the conjectural restorations of + scholars:--"[Cere] ri sacrum | [D. Iu] nius Iuvenalis | trib. coh. [I] + Delmatarum | II vir quinq. flamen | divi Vespasiani | vovit + dedicav[it] que | sua pec.," _Corp. inscr. lat._ X. 5382, xiii. 201 + sqq. The best of the known manuscripts of Juvenal (P) is at + Montpellier (125); but there are several others which cannot be + neglected. Amongst these may be specially mentioned the Bodleian MS. + (Canon. Lat. 41), which contains a portion of Satire vi., the + existence of which was unknown until E. O. Winstedt published it in + the _Classical Review_ (1899), pp. 201 seq. Another fragment in the + Bibliothèque Nationale was described by C. E. Stuart in the _Classical + Quarterly_ (Jan. 1909). Numerous scholia and glossaries attest the + interest taken in Juvenal in post-classical times and the middle ages. + There are two classes of scholia--the older or "Pithoeana," first + published by P. Pithoeus, and the "Cornutus scholia" of less value, + specimens of which have been published by various scholars. The + earliest edition which need now be mentioned is that of P. Pithoeus, + 1585, in which P was first used for the text. Amongst later ones we + may mention the commentaries of Ruperti (1819) and C. F. Heinrich + (1839, with the old scholia), O. Jahn (1851, critical with the old + scholia), A. Weidner (1889), L. Friedländer (1895, with a full verbal + index). The most useful English commentaries are those of J. E. B. + Mayor (a voluminous and learned commentary on thirteen of the + _Satires_, ii., vi. and ix. being omitted), J. D. Lewis (1882, with a + prose translation) and J. D. Duff (1898, expurgated, and ii. and ix. + being omitted). There are recent critical texts: conservative and + chiefly based on P, by F. Buecheler (1893, with selections from the + scholia) and S. G. Owen (in the Oxford Series of Texts); on the other + side, by A. E. Housman (1905) and by the same, but with fewer + innovations, in the new _Corpus poetarum latinorum_, fasc. v. The two + last-named editors alone give the newly discovered lines of Satire vi. + There are no recent translations of Juvenal into English verse. Dryden + translated i., iii., vi., x. and xvi., the others being committed to + inferior hands. Other versions are Gifford's (1802), of some merit, + and C. Badham's (1814). Johnson's imitations of Satires iii. and x. + are well known. For the numerous articles and contributions to the + criticism and elucidation of the _Satires_, reference should be made + to Teuffel's _Geschichte der römischen Litteratur_ (Eng. trans. by + Warre), § 331, and Schanz, ditto (1901, ii. § 2, § 420a). + (W. Y. S.; J. P. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This is especially noticeable in the seventh satire, but it + applies also to the mention of Crispinus, Latinus, the class of + _delatores_, &c., in the first, to the notice of Veiento in the + third, of Rubellius Blandus in the eighth, of Gallicus in the + thirteenth, &c. + + [2] Cf. Tacitus, _Annals_, xiii. 25. + + [3] Pliny's remarks on the vulgarity as well as the ostentation of + his host imply that he regarded such behaviour as exceptional, at + least in the circle in which he himself lived (_Ep._ ii. 6). + + [4] x. 56-107. + + [5] + ... "Meliusne hic rusticus infans + Cum matre et casulis et conlusore catello," &c.--ix. 60. + + [6] xi. 152, 153. + + + + +JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS, Christian poet, flourished during the +reign of Constantine the Great. Nothing is known of him except that he +was a Spanish presbyter of distinguished family. About 330 he published +his _Libri evangeliorum IV._, each book containing about 800 hexameters. +The division into books is possibly a reminiscence of the number of the +Gospels. The work itself, written with the idea of ousting the +absurdities of Pagan mythology and replacing them by the truths of +Christianity, may be called the first Christian epic. In the _Praefatio_ +the author expresses the hope that the sacredness of his subject may +procure him safety at the final conflagration of the world and admission +into heaven. The whole is, in the main, a poetical version of the Gospel +of Matthew, the other evangelists only being used for supplementary +details. It is founded upon a pre-vulgate Latin translation, although +there is evidence that Juvencus also consulted the Greek. In spite of +metrical irregularities, the language and style are simple and show good +taste, being free from the artificiality of other Christian poets and +prose writers, and the author has made excellent use of Virgil (his +chief model) and other classical writers. Juvencus set the fashion of +verse translations of the Bible, and the large number of MSS. of his +poem mentioned in lists and still extant are sufficient evidence of its +great popularity. According to Jerome, he was also the author of some +poems on the sacraments, but no trace of these has survived. The Latin +_Heptateuch_, a hexameter version of the first seven books of the Old +Testament, has been attributed to Juvencus amongst others; but it is now +generally supposed to be the work of a certain Cyprianus, a Gaul who +lived in the 6th century, possibly a bishop of Toulon, author of the +_Life of Caesarius_, bishop of Arelate (Arles). + + See M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_ + (1891); A. Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des + Mittelalters_, vol. i. (1889); editions of Juvencus by C. Marold + (1886); J. Hümer in _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum_, + vol. xxiv. (Vienna, 1891); J. T. Hatfield, _A Study of Juvencus_ + (1890), dealing with syntax, metre and language; editions of the + _Heptateuch_ by J. E. B. Mayor (1889; reviewed by W. Sanday in + _Classical Review_, October 1889, and by J. T. Hatfield in _American + Journal of Philology_, vol. xi., 1890), and R. Peiper, vol. xxiii. of + the Vienna series above. + + + + +JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the question of the proper +penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non-adult) offenders has been +increasingly discussed; and the reformatory principle, first applied in +the case of children, has even been extended to reclaimable adult +offenders (juveniles in crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them +sufficiently within the same category to be noticed in this article. In +the old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal methods +for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke the law he was +sent to prison like his elders. It was only in comparatively recent +times that it was realized that child criminals were too often the +victims to circumstances beyond their own control. They were cursed with +inherited taint; they were brought up among evil surroundings; they +suffered from the culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more +from bad example and pernicious promptings. They were rather potential +than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration rather than +vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a painstaking English gaol +chaplain calculated that 58% of all criminals had made their first lapse +at fifteen. Boys and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of +thirteen and fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or +seventeen times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in +prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The chief +lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquaintance with the +demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at one time in London 200 +"flash houses" frequented by 6000 boys trained and proficient in +thieving and depredation. + +The substantial movement for reform dates from the protests of Charles +Dickens, who roused public opinion to such an extent that the first +Reformatory School Act was passed in 1854. Sporadic efforts to meet the +evil had indeed been made earlier. In 1756 the Marine Society +established a school for the reception and reform of younger criminals; +in 1788 the City of London formed a similar institution, which grew much +later into the farm school at Redhlll. In 1838 an act of parliament +created an establishment at Parkhurst for the detention and correction +of juvenile offenders, to whom pardon was given conditional on their +entrance into some charitable institution. Parkhurst was technically a +prison, and the system combined industrial training with religious and +educational instruction. These earlier efforts had, however, been quite +insufficient to meet the evils, for in the years immediately preceding +1854 crime was being so constantly reinforced in its beginnings, under +the existing penal system, that it threatened to swamp the country. +Unofficial, but more or less accurate, figures showed that between +11,000 and 12,000 juveniles passed annually through the prisons of +England and Wales, a third of the whole number being contributed by +London alone. In 1854 the total reached 14,000. The ages of offenders +ranged from less than twelve to seventeen; 60% of the whole were between +fourteen and seventeen; 46% had been committed more than once; 18% four +times and more. + +The Reformatory School Act 1854, which was thrashed out at conferences +held in Birmingham in 1851 and 1853, substituted the school for the +gaol, and all judicial benches were empowered to send delinquents to +schools when they had been guilty of acts punishable by short +imprisonment, the limit of which was at first fourteen and became +afterwards ten days. A serious flaw in this act long survived; this was +the provision that a short period of imprisonment in gaol must precede +reception into the reformatory; it was upheld by well-meaning but +mistaken people as essential for deterrence. But more enlightened +opinion condemned the rule as inflicting an indelible prison taint and +breeding contamination, even with ample and effective safeguards. Wiser +legislation has followed, and an act of 1899 abolished preliminary +imprisonment. + +Existing reformatories, or "senior home office schools" as they are +officially styled, in England numbered 44 in 1907. They receive all +juvenile offenders, up to the age of sixteen, who have been convicted of +an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment. The number +of these during the years between 1894 and 1906 constantly varied, but +the figure of the earliest date, 6604, was never exceeded, and in some +years it was considerably less, while in 1906 it was no more than 5586, +though the general population had increased by several millions in the +period. These figures, in comparison with those of 1854, must be deemed +highly satisfactory, even when we take into account that the latter went +up to the age of seventeen. Older offenders, between sixteen and +twenty-one, come within the category of juvenile adults and are dealt +with differently (see _Borstal Scheme_ below). + +Other schools must be classed with the reformatory, although they have +no connexion with prisons and deal with youths who are only potential +criminals. The first in importance are the industrial schools. When the +newly devised reformatories were doing excellent service it was realized +that many of the rising generation might some day lapse into evil ways +but were still on the right side and might with proper precautions be +kept there. They wanted preventive, not punitive treatment, and for them +industrial schools were instituted. The germ of these establishments +existed in the Ragged Schools, "intended to educate destitute children +and save them from vagrancy and crime." They had been invented by John +Pounds (1766-1839), a Portsmouth shoemaker, who, early in the 19th +century, was moved with sympathy for these little outcasts and devoted +himself to this good work. The ragged school movement found powerful +support in active philanthropists when public attention was aroused to +the prevalence of juvenile delinquency. The first Industrial School Act +was passed in 1856 and applied only to Scotland. Next year its +provisions were extended to England, and their growth was rapid. There +were 45 schools in the beginning; in 1878 the number had more than been +doubled; in 1907 there were 102 in England and Wales and 31 in Scotland. + +The provisions of the Education Acts 1871 and 1876 led to a large +increase in the number of children committed for breaches of the law and +to the establishment of two kinds of subsidiary industrial schools, +short detention of truant schools and day industrial schools in which +children do not reside but receive their meals, their elementary +education and a certain amount of industrial training. The total +admissions to truant schools in 1907 were 1368 boys, and the numbers +actually in the schools on the last day of that year were 1125 with 2568 +on licence. The average length of detention was fourteen weeks and three +days on first admission, seventeen weeks and five days on first +re-admission, and twenty-three weeks six days on second re-admission. +The total number of admissions into truant schools from 1878 to the end +of 1907 was 44,315, of whom just half had been licensed and not +returned, 11,239 had been licensed and once re-admitted, 8900 had been +re-admitted twice or oftener. + +The day industrial schools owed their origin to another reason than the +enforcement of the Education Acts. It was found that some special +treatment was required for large masses of youths in large cities, who +were in such a neglected or degraded condition that there was little +hope of their growing into healthy men and women or becoming good +citizens. They were left unclean, were ill-fed and insufficiently +clothed, and were not usefully taught. The total number who attended +these day schools in 1907 was 1951 boys and 1232 girls. + +The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned upon the +establishment or institution system, as opposed to that of the "family" +or "boarding out" systems adopted in some countries, and some +controversy has been aroused as to the comparative value of the methods. +The British practice has always favoured the well-governed school, with +the proviso that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his +charges. But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by +dividing the boys into "houses," each containing a small manageable +total as a family under an official father or head. Under this system +the idea of the home is maintained, while uniformity of treatment and +discipline is secured by grouping several houses together under one +general authority. The plan of "boarding out" is not generally approved +of in England; the value of the domestic training is questionable and of +uncertain quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of +the foster-parents secured. Education must be less systematic in the +private home, industrial training is less easily carried out, and there +can be none of that _esprit de corps_ that stimulates effort in physical +training as applied to athletics and the playing of games. No very +definite decision has been arrived at as to the comparative merits of +institution life and boarding out. Among the Latin races--France, Italy, +Portugal and Spain--the former is as a rule preferred; also in Belgium; +in Germany, Holland and the United States placing out in private +families is very much the rule; in Austria-Hungary and Russia both +methods are in use. + + The total admissions to English reformatory schools from their + creation to the 31st of December 1907 amounted to 76,455, or 64,031 + boys and 12,424 girls. The total discharges for the same period were + 70,890, or 59,081 boys and 11,809 girls. The results may be tested by + the figures for those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906:-- + + _Boys._--3573 were placed out, of whom 66 had died, leaving 3507; of + these it was found that 2735 (or about 78%) were in regular + employment; 158 (or about 4%) were in casual employment; 439 (or about + 13%) had been convicted; and 175 (or about 5%) were unknown. + + _Girls._--480, of whom 11 had died, leaving 469; of these it was found + that 384 (or about 82%) were in regular employment; 28 (or about 6%) + were in casual employment; 17 (or about 4%) had been convicted, and 40 + (or about 8%) were unknown. + + For industrial schools, including truant and day schools, the total + admissions, up to the 31st of December 1907, were 153,893, or 120,955 + boys and 32,938 girls. The total discharges to the same date + (excluding transfers) were 136,961, or 108,398 boys and 28,563 girls. + The results as tested by those discharged in 1904, 1905 and 1906 were + as follow:-- + + _Boys._--8909 were placed out, of whom 118 had since died, leaving + 8791 to be reported on; of these it was found that 7547 (or about 86%) + were in regular employment; 415 (or about 4.7%) were in casual + employment; 419 (or about 4.7%) convicted or re-committed; and 410 (or + about 4.6%) unknown. + + _Girls._--2505 placed out, of whom 50 had died, leaving 2455; of these + 2180 (or about 89%) were in regular employment; 112 (or about 4%) were + in casual employment; 21 (or about 1%) convicted or re-committed; and + 142 (or about 6%) unknown. + + These results are of course wholly independent of those achieved by + the juvenile-adult prison reformatory at Borstal instituted in October + 1902. The record of the first year's work of this excellent system + showed that 50% of cases placed out had done well, thanks to the + system and philanthropic labours of the Borstal Association. + + An interesting point in regard to the reclamation of these criminally + inclined juveniles is the nature of the employments to which they have + been recommended, and in which, as shown, they have done so well. In + 1904, 1905 and 1906, the total number of boys discharged and placed + was 12,482. By far the largest number of these, nearly a sixth, joined + the army, 679 of them entering the bands; 292 joined the navy; 961 the + mercantile marine; 1567 went to farm service; 414 worked in factories + or mills as skilled hands; but others joined as labourers, a general + class the total of which was 1096. Other jobs found included miners + (629), carters (352), iron or steel workers (214), mechanics (301), + shoemakers (181), tailors (161), shop assistants (228), carpenters + (178), bakers (131), messengers and porters, including 112 errand boys + (315). The balance found employment in smaller numbers at other + trades. The fate of 585 was unknown, 858 had been re-convicted, and + the balance were in unrecorded or casual employment. + + The outlets found by the girls from these various schools naturally + follow lines appropriate to their sex and the instruction received. + Out of a total of 2985 discharged in the three years mentioned, 1235 + became general servants, 268 housemaids, 203 laundry-maids, 52 cooks, + 98 nursemaids, 65 dressmakers, 221 were engaged in factories and + mills, and the balance was made up by marriage, death or casual + employment. + + In Ireland the reformatory and industrial school system conforms to + that of Great Britain. There were in 1905 six reformatory and 70 + industrial schools in Ireland, mostly under Roman Catholic management. + +A short account of the reformatory methods of dealing with juvenile +offenders in certain other countries will fitly find a place here. + +_Austria-Hungary._--The law leaves children of less than ten years of +age to domestic discipline, as also children above that age if not +exactly criminal, although the latter may be sent to correctional +schools. There they are detained for varying periods, but never after +twenty years of age, and they may be sent out on licence to situations +or employment found for them. These schools also receive children +between ten and fourteen guilty of crimes which are, however, by law +deemed "contraventions" only; also the destitute between the same ages +and the incorrigible whose parents cannot manage them. + +In Hungary the penal code prescribes that children of less than twelve +cannot be charged with offences; those between twelve and sixteen may be +deemed to have acted without discretion, and thus escape sentence, but +are sent to a correctional school where they may be detained till they +are twenty years of age. An excellent system prevails in Hungary by +which the supervision of those liberated is entrusted to a "protector," +a philanthropic person in the district who visits and reports upon the +conduct of the boys, much like the "probation officer" in the United +States. + +_Belgium._--The law of November 1891 places the whole mass of +juveniles--those who are likely to give trouble and those who have +already done so--at the disposal of the state. The system is very +elastic, realizing the infinite variety of childish natures. The purely +paternal régime would be wasted upon the really vicious; a severe +discipline would press too heavily on the well-disposed. Accordingly, +all juveniles, male and female, are divided into six principal classes +with a corresponding treatment, it being strictly ruled that there is no +intermingling of the classes; the very youngest, rescued early, are +never to be associated with the older, who may be already vicious and +degraded and who could not fail to exercise a pernicious influence. One +of the great merits of the Belgian system is that the regulations may be +relaxed, and children of whose amendment good hopes are entertained may +be released provisionally, either to the care of parents and guardians +or to employers, artisans or agriculturists who will teach them a trade. + +_Denmark._--There were 61 establishments of all classes for juveniles in +Denmark in 1906, holding some 2000 inmates. In 1874, by the will of +Countess Danner, a large female refuge was founded at Castle Jagerspris, +which holds some 360 girls. Another of the same class is the Royal +Vodrofsvei Bonnehjem at Copenhagen, founded in the same year by Mlle +Schneider. The régime preferred in Denmark is that of the family or the +very small school. The Jagerspris system is to divide the whole number +of 360 into small parties of 20 each under a nurse or official mother. +Employment in Danish schools is mainly agricultural, field labour and +gardening, with a certain amount of industrial training; and on +discharge the inmates go to farms or to apprenticeship, while a few +emigrate. + +_France._--There are five methods of disposing of juvenile offenders in +France:-- + + 1. The preliminary or preventative prison (_maisons d'arrêt_ and _de + justice_) for those arrested and accused. + + 2. The ordinary prison for all sentenced to less than six months, + whose time of detention is too short to admit of their transfer to a + provincial colony. It also receives children whom parents have found + unmanageable. + + 3. The public or private penitentiary colony for the irresponsible + children, acquitted as "without discretion," as well as for the guilty + sentenced to more than six months' and less than two years' detention. + + 4. The correctional colony, where the system is more severe, receiving + all sentenced for more than two years and all who have misconducted + themselves in the milder establishments. + + 5. Various penitentiary houses for young females, whatever their + particular sentence. + +Foremost among French penal reformers stands the name of F. A. Demetz +(1796-1873), the founder of the famous colony of Mettray. M. Demetz was +a judge who, aghast at the evils inflicted upon children whom he was +compelled by law to imprison, left the bench and undertook to find some +other outlet for them. At that time the French law, while it acquitted +minors shown to have acted without discretion, still consigned them for +safe keeping and inevitable contamination to the common gaols. M. Demetz +conceived the idea of an agricultural colony, and in 1840 organized a +small "_société paternelle_," as it was called, of which he became +vice-president. Another philanthropist, the Vicomte de Bretignières de +Courteilles, a landed proprietor in Touraine, associated himself in the +enterprise and endowed the institution with land at Mettray near Tours. +The earliest labours at Mettray were in the development of the +institution, but as this approached completion they were applied to +farmwork, agricultural employment being the chief feature of the place. +The motto and device of Mettray was "the moralization of youth by the +cultivation of the soil"; a healthy life in the open air was to replace +the enervating and demoralizing influences of the confined prisons; and +this was effected in the usual farming operations, to which were added +gardening, vine-dressing, the raising of stock and the breeding of +silkworms. The labour was not light; on the contrary, the directors of +the colony sought by constant employment to send their charges to bed +tired, ready to sleep soundly and not romp and chatter in their +dormitories. The excellence of its aims, and the manifestly good results +that were growing out of the system, soon made Mettray a model for +imitation in France and beyond it. Many establishments were planned upon +it, started by the state or private enterprise; penitentiary colonies +were created for boys in connexion with some of the great central +prisons. The colony of Val de Yèvre has a good record. It was started by +a private philanthropist, Charles J. M. Lucas, (1803-1889) but after +five-and-twenty years was handed over to the state. Other cognate +establishments are those of Petit Quevilly near Rouen, Petit Bourg near +Paris, St Hiliar and Eysses. There are several female colonies, +especially that of Darnetal at Rouen. + +It is for the magistrate or _juge d'instruction_ to select the class of +establishment to which the juvenile delinquents brought before him shall +be committed. The very young, those of twelve years of age and under, +are placed out in the country with families, unless they can be again +entrusted to their parents or committed to _maisons paternels_, +containing very limited numbers, twenty or thirty, in charge of a large +staff. After twelve, and from that age to fourteen or fifteen, the +"ungrateful age" as the French call it, boys are sent to a reformatory +or "preservative school," where they will be under stronger discipline. +For the third class, from fifteen to sixteen or eighteen, stricter +measures are necessary, so as to dispose of them in specially selected +penal colonies, as has already been done at Eysses, where the discipline +is severe, while embodying technical and industrial instruction. + +_Germany._--In most parts of the German Empire juvenile delinquents and +neglected youths are treated in the same establishments. No child of +less than twelve years of age can be proceeded against in a court of +law, although in some German states destitute or abandoned children have +been taken at the ages of six, five and even three years. Youths between +twelve and eighteen may be convicted, but their offences are passed over +if they are proved to have acted without discretion. There are many +kinds of correctional institutions and a number of schools not of a +correctional character. These last are generally very small, the largest +taking barely a hundred, but are very numerous. Many private persons +have devoted themselves to the work. Count A. von der Recke-Volmerstein +(1791-1878) about 1821 founded a refuge for neglected children in +Düsselthal, between Düsseldorf and Elberstadt. Pastor T. F. Fliedner +(1800-1864) built up a fine establishment at Kaiserswerth from 1833, in +which was an infant school, a penitentiary and an orphan asylum. Another +famous name is that of W. von Türk (1774-1846), who studied under +Pestalozzi in Switzerland. + +A school which has largely influenced public opinion in Great Britain, +as in Germany, is the Rauhe Haus, near Hamburg, founded by Dr Wickern in +1833. This began with a single cottage but had grown in twenty years to +a hamlet of twenty houses, with from twelve to sixteen inmates in each. +The establishment is a Lutheran one; both boys and girls are admitted, +in separate houses, and a marked feature of the place is the number of +"brothers," young men of good character qualifying for rescue work as +superintendents of homes, prison officers and schoolmasters. They take +part in the work and are in constant touch with the boys whom they +closely supervise, being bound to "keep them in sight day and night, eat +with them, sleep in their dormitories, direct their labour, accompany +them to chapel, join in their recreations and sports." These "brothers" +are honourably known throughout the world and have performed a large +work in distant lands as missionaries, prison officers and +schoolmasters. The Rauhe Haus receives three classes of juveniles: +first, the boys, mostly street arabs; second, girls of the same +category; third, children taken as boarders from private families, who +confess their inability to manage them. The instruction given is in +trades, in farming operations, gardening and fruit-raising. The pupils +are largely assisted on release, through the good offices of the +citizens of Hamburg. + +_Holland._--In the Low Countries, refuges, called "Godshuis," were +founded as early as the 14th century, intended for the care and shelter +of neglected youth and indigent old age. In the 17th century people came +from all parts of Europe to learn from the Dutch how orphans and +unfortunate children could best be cared for. The Godshuis of Amsterdam +was a vast establishment, into which as many as 4000 juveniles were +sometimes crowded, with such disastrous effects that its name was +changed to that of "pesthuis," and the government in the beginning of +the present century ordered it to be emptied and closed. Other +reformatory institutions in Holland are the Netherlands Mettray, the +reform school of Zetten, near the Arnheim railway station, for +Protestant girls; and that of Alkmaar for boys; the reformatory school +of St Vincent de Paul at Amsterdam for both sexes; the Amsterdam +reformatory for young vagabonds, male and female; the reform school of +Smallepod at Amsterdam. The Netherlands Mettray, which is about five +hours' journey from Amsterdam on a farm called Rissjelt, near Zutphen, +is planned on the model of the French Mettray and was founded about 1855 +by M. Suringar, a veteran Dutch philanthropist, long vice-president of +the directors of prisons in Amsterdam. + +_Italy._--In Italy there is no distinction between the treatment of the +offending and the neglected or deserted in youth. There are seventeen or +more correctional establishments, eight of which are state institutions +and the rest founded by private benevolence or by charitable +associations or local communities. None of these is exclusively +agricultural; ten are industrial, seven industrial and agricultural +combined. In Italy the age of responsibility is nine, below which no +child can be charged with an offence. The Italian schools are mostly +planned on a large scale. That of Marchiondi Spagliardi accommodates +550, divided among three houses under one supreme head. The Turazza +institution at Treviso holds 380, and there are eight others with from +200 to 300 inmates. The régime is very various; the larger number of +schools are on the congregate system, with daily labour in association +and isolation by night. The "family" method is also practised with small +groups, divisions or companies, into which the children are formed +according to age or conduct. + +_Sweden._--All children below the age of sixteen may be sent to a +correctional establishment or boarded out in respectable families:-- + + 1. If they have committed acts punishable by law which indicate moral + perversity and it is deemed advisable to correct them. + + 2. If they are neglected, ill-used, or if their moral deterioration is + feared from the vicious life and character of parents or friends. + + 3. If their conduct at school or at home is such that a more severe + correctional treatment is necessary for their rescue. + +Under this law the state is also to provide special schools to take all +above ten who have shown peculiar depravity; all who have reached +eighteen and who are not yet thought fit for freedom; all who have +relapsed after provisional release. Sweden is rich in institutions +devoted to the care of destitute and deserted children, all due to the +efforts of the charitable. The largest correctional establishment is +that founded at Hall, near the town of Sodertelge on the shores of the +Baltic. This admirable agricultural colony, modelled on that of Mettray, +owes its existence to the "Oscar-Josephine society," founded by Queen +Josephine, widow of Oscar I. + +_United States._--In the words of a report made in 1878 by F. B. +Sanborn, secretary of the American Social Science Society, "America can +justly plume herself upon the work accomplished by her juvenile +reformatories since their inauguration down to the present time." The +first in point of date and still the most considerable of the +reformatories in the United States is that founded in 1825, thanks to +the unwearied efforts of the great American publicist and philanthropist +Edward Livingston, which now has its home on Randall's Island in New +York City. In the following year a reformatory of the same class was +founded in Boston, and another in the year after in Philadelphia. All +were intended to receive criminal youth. There are state reformatories +now in almost all the states of the Union, and those for juvenile adults +in New York and Massachusetts have attracted world-wide attention, +aiming so high and with such an elaboration of means that they deserve +particular description. + +The great state reformatory establishment of Elmira, New York, called +into existence in 1889 with the avowed aim of compassing the reformation +of the criminal by new processes, partakes of the system involved in the +treatment of juvenile offenders. It was based upon the principle that +crime ought to be attacked in its beginnings by other than ordinary +punitive and prison methods. Under this view, the right of society to +defend itself by punishment was denied, and it was held that a youthful +offender was more sinned against than sinning. It was urged that his +crime, due largely to inherited defects, mental or physical and vicious +surroundings, was not his own fault, and he had a paramount claim to be +treated differently by the state when in custody. The state was not +justified in using powers of repression to imprison him in the usual +mechanical hard and fast fashion and then return him to society, no +better, possibly worse, than before; it was bound to regenerate him, to +change his nature, improve his physique, and give him a new mental +equipment, so that when again at large he might be fitted to take his +place amongst honest citizens, to earn his living by reputable means and +escape all temptation to drift back into crime. This is the plausible +explanation given for the state reformatory movement, which led to the +creation on such costly and extensive lines of Elmira, and of Concord in +Massachusetts, a cognate establishment. There is very little penal about +the treatment, which is that of a boarding school; the education, +thorough and carried far, includes languages, music, science and +industrial art; diet is plentiful, even luxurious; amusements and varied +recreation are permitted; well stocked libraries are provided with +entertaining books; a prison newspaper is issued (edited by an inmate). +Physical development is sedulously cultivated both by gymnastics and +military exercises, and the whole course is well adapted to change +entirely the character of the individual subjected to it. The trouble +taken in the hope of transforming erring youth into useful members of +society goes still further. The original sentence has been indefinite, +and release on parole will be granted to inmates who pass through the +various courses with credit and are supposed to have satisfied the +authorities of their desire to amend. The limit of detention need not +exceed twelve months, after which parole is possible, although the +average period passed before it is granted is twenty-two months. The +hope of permanent amendment is further sought by the fact that a +situation, generally with good wages and congenial work, provided by the +authorities, awaits every inmate at the time of his discharge. The +inmates, selected from a very large class, are first offenders, but +guilty generally of criminal offences, which include manslaughter, +burglary, forgery, fraud, robbery and receiving. The exact measure of +reformation achieved can never be exactly known, from the absence of +authentic statistics and the difficulty of following up the surveillance +of individuals when released on parole. Reports issued by the manager of +Elmira claim that 81% of those paroled have done well, but these results +are not definitely authenticated. They are based upon the ascertained +good conduct during the term of surveillance, six or twelve months only, +during which time these subjects have not yet spent the gratuities +earned and have probably still kept the situations found for them on +discharge. No doubt the material treated at Elmira and Concord is of a +kind to encourage hope of reformation, as they are first offenders and +presumably not of the criminal classes. Although the processes are open +to criticism, the discipline enforced in these state reformatories does +not err in excessive leniency. They are not "hotels," as has been +sometimes said in ridicule, where prisoners go to enjoy themselves, have +a good time, study Plato and conic sections, and pass out to an assured +future. There is plenty of hard work, mental and physical, and the +"inmates" rather envy their fellows in state prisons. A point to which +great attention is paid is that physical degeneracy lies at the bottom +of the criminal character, and great attention is paid to the +development of nervous energy and strengthening by every means the +normal and healthful functions of the body. A leading feature in the +treatment is the frequency and perfection with which bathing is carried +out. A series of Turkish baths forms a part of the course of +instruction; the baths being fitted elaborately with all the adjuncts of +shower bath, cold douche, ending with gymnastic exercises. + +A remarkable and unique institution is the state reformatory for women +at Sherborn, Massachusetts, for women with sentences of more than a +year, who in the opinion of the court are fit subjects for reformatory +treatment. The majority of the inmates were convicted of drunkenness, an +offence which the law of Massachusetts visits with severity--a sentence +of two years being very common. This at once differentiates the class of +women from that in ordinary penal establishments. At the same time we +find that other women guilty of serious crime are sent by the courts to +this prison with a view to their reform. Thus of 352 inmates, while no +fewer than 200 were convicted of drunkenness, there were also 63 cases +of offences against chastity and 30 of larceny. The average age was +thirty-one and the average duration of sentence just over a year. In +appearance and in character it more resembles a hospital or home for +inebriates than a state convict prison. A system of grades or divisions +is relied upon as a stimulus to reform. The difference in grades is +denoted by small and scarcely perceptible variations of the little +details of everyday life, such as are supposed in a peculiar degree to +affect the appreciation of women, e.g. in the lowest division the women +have their meals off old and chipped china; in the next the china is +less chipped; in the highest there is no chipped china; in the next +prettily set out with tumblers, cruet-stands and a pepper pot to each +prisoner. The superintendent relies greatly also on the moralizing +influence of animals and birds. Well-behaved convicts are allowed to +tend sheep, calves, pigs, chickens, canaries and parrots. This privilege +is highly esteemed and productive, it is said, of the most softening +influences. + +The "George Junior Republic" (q.v.) is a remarkable institution +established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New York State, by +Mr. William Reuben George. The original features of the institution are +that the motto "Nothing without labour" is rigidly enforced, and that +self-government is carried to a point that, with mere children, would +appear whimsical were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name +implies, a miniature "republic" with laws, legislature, courts and +administration of its own, all made and carried on by the "citizens" +themselves. The tone and spirit of the place appeared to be excellent +and there is much evidence that in many cases strong and independent +character is developed in children whose antecedents have been almost +hopeless. + +_Borstal Scheme in England._--The American system of state reformatories +as above described has been sharply criticized, but the principle that +underlies it is recognized as, in a measure, sound, and it has been +adopted by the English authorities. Some time back the experiment of +establishing a penal reformatory for offenders above the age hitherto +committed to reformatory schools was resolved upon. This led to the +foundation of the Borstal scheme, which was first formally started in +October 1902. The arguments which had led to it may be briefly stated +here. It had been conclusively shown that quite half the whole number of +professional criminals had been first convicted when under twenty-one +years of age, when still at a malleable period of development, when in +short the criminal habit had not yet been definitely formed. Moreover +these adolescents escaped special reformatory treatment, for sixteen is +in Great Britain the age of criminal majority, after which no youthful +offenders can be committed to the state reformatory schools. But there +was always a formidable contingent of juvenile adults between sixteen and +twenty-one, sent to penal servitude, and their numbers although +diminishing rose to an average total of 15,000. It was accordingly +decided to create a penal establishment under state control, which should +be a half-way house between the prison and the reformatory school. A +selection was made of juvenile adults, sentenced to not less than six +months and sent to Borstal in 1902 to be treated under rules approved by +the home secretary. They were to be divided on arrival into three +separate classes, penal, ordinary and special, with promotion by industry +and good conduct from the lowest to the highest, in which they enjoyed +distinctive privileges. The general system, educational and disciplinary, +was intelligent and governed by common sense. Instruction, both manual +and educational, was well suited to the recipients; the first embraced +field work, market gardening, and a knowledge of useful handicrafts; the +second was elementary but sound, aided by well-chosen libraries and +brightened by the privilege of evening association to play harmless but +interesting games. Physical development was also guaranteed by gymnastics +and regular exercises. The results were distinctly encouraging. They +arrived at Borstal "rough, untrained cubs," but rapidly improved in +demeanour and inward character, gaining self-reliance and self-respect, +and left the prison on the high road to regeneration. It was wisely +remembered that to secure lasting amendment it is not enough to chasten +the erring subject, to train his hands, to strengthen his moral sense +while still in durance; it is essential to assist him on discharge by +helping him to find work, and encourage him by timely advice to keep him +in the straight path. Too much praise cannot be accorded to the agencies +and associations which labour strenuously and unceasingly to this +excellent end. Especial good work has been done by the Borstal +association, founded under the patronage of the best known and most +distinguished persons in English public life--archbishops, judges, +cabinet ministers and privy councillors--which receives the juvenile +adults on their release and helps them to employment. Their labours, +backed by generous voluntary contributions, have produced very gratifying +results. Although the offenders originally selected to undergo the +Borstal treatment were those committed for a period of six months, it was +recognized that this limit was experimental, and that thoroughly +satisfactory results could only be obtained with sentences of at least a +year's duration, so as to give the reforming agencies ample time to +operate. In the second year's working of the system it was formally +applied to young convicts sentenced to penal servitude between the ages +of sixteen and twenty-one. In the next year it was adopted for all +offenders between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one committed to prison, +as far as the length of sentence would permit. The commissioners of +prisons, in their _Report_ for the year 1908 (Cd. 4300) thus expressed +themselves on the working of the experiment:-- + + "Experience soon began to point to the probable success of this + general application of the principle, in spite of the fact that the + prevailing shortness of sentences operated against full benefit being + derived from reformatory effort. The success was most marked in those + localities where magistrates, or other benevolent persons, personally + co-operated in making the scheme a success. Local Borstal committees + were established at all prisons, and it was arranged that those + members of the local committees should become _ex officio_ honorary + members of the Central Borstal Association, which it was intended + should become, what it now is, the parent society directing the + general aid on discharge of this category of young prisoners." + +In spite of the general adoption of the Borstal system, there was a +large class of young criminals who were outside its effects, those who +were sentenced to terms of ten days and under for trifling offences. +These juvenile adults, once having had the fear of prison taken away by +actual experience, were found to come back again and again. To remedy +this state of affairs, a bill was introduced in 1907 to give effect to +the principle of a long period of detention for all those showing a +tendency to embark on a criminal career. The bill was, however, dropped, +but a somewhat similar bill was introduced the next year and became law +under the title of The Prevention of Crime Act 1908. This measure +introduces a new departure in the treatment of professional crime by +initiating a system of detention for habitual criminals (see +RECIDIVISM). The act attempts the reformation of young offenders by +giving the court power to pass sentence of detention in a Borstal +institution for a term of not less than one year nor more than three on +those between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one who by reason of +criminal habits or tendencies or association with persons of bad +character require such instruction and discipline as appear most +conducive to their reformation. The power of detention applies also to +reformatory school offences, while such persons as are already +undergoing penal servitude or imprisonment may be transferred to a +Borstal institution if detention would conduce to their advantage. The +establishment of other Borstal institutions is authorized by the act, +while a very useful provision is the power to release on licence if +there is a reasonable probability that the offender will abstain from +crime and lead a useful and industrious life. The licence is issued on +condition that he is placed under the supervision or authority of some +society or person willing to take charge of him. Supervision is +introduced after the expiration of the term of sentence, and power is +given to transfer to prison incorrigibles or those exercising a bad +influence on the other inmates of a Borstal institution. The act marks a +noteworthy advance in the endeavour to arrest the growing habit of +crime. (A. G.; T. A. I.) + + + + +JUVENTAS (Latin for "youth": later _Juventus_), in Roman mythology, the +tutelar goddess of young men. She was worshipped at Rome from very early +times. In the front court of the temple of Minerva on the Capitol there +was a chapel of Juventas, in which a coin had to be deposited by each +youth on his assumption of the _toga virilis_, and sacrifices were +offered on behalf of the rising manhood of the state. In connexion with +this chapel it is related that, when the temple was in course of +erection, Terminus, the god of boundaries, and Juventas refused to quit +the sites they had already appropriated as sacred to themselves, which +accordingly became part of the new sanctuary. This was interpreted as a +sign of the immovable boundaries and eternal youth of the Roman state. +It should be observed that in the oldest accounts there is no mention of +Juventas, whose name (with that of Mars) was added in support of the +augural prediction. After the Second Punic War Greek elements were +introduced into her cult. In 218 B.C., by order of the Sibylline books, +a _lectisternium_ was prepared for Juventas and a public thanksgiving to +Hercules, an association which shows the influence of the Greek Hebe, +the wife of Heracles. In 207 Marcus Livius Salinator, after the defeat +of Hasdrubal at the battle of Sena, vowed another temple to Juventas in +the Circus Maximus, which was dedicated in 191 by C. (or M.) Licinius +Lucullus; it was destroyed by fire in 16 B.C. and rebuilt by Augustus. +In imperial times, Juventas personified, not the youth of the Roman +state, but of the future emperor. + + See Dion. Halic., iii. 69, iv. 15; Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36. + + + + +JUXON, WILLIAM (1582-1663), English prelate, was the son of Robert Juxon +and was born probably at Chichester, being educated at Merchant Taylors' +School, London, and at St John's College, Oxford, where he was elected +to a scholarship in 1598. He studied law at Oxford, but afterwards he +took holy orders, and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, a living +which he retained until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in +1615. In December 1621 he succeeded his friend, William Laud, as +president of St John's College, and in 1626 and 1627 he was +vice-chancellor of the university. Juxon soon obtained other important +positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles I. In 1627 +he was made dean of Worcester and in 1632 he was nominated to the +bishopric of Hereford, an event which led him to resign the presidency +of St John's in January 1633. However, he never took up his episcopal +duties at Hereford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of +London in succession to Laud. He appears to have been an excellent +bishop, and in March 1636 Charles I. entrusted him with important +secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England; thus for +the next five years he was dealing with the many financial and other +difficulties which beset the king and his advisers. He resigned the +treasurership in May 1641. During the Civil War the bishop, against whom +no charges were brought in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham +Palace, and his advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high +opinion of him, and who at his execution selected him to be with him on +the scaffold and to administer to him the last consolations of religion. +Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1649 and retired to Little +Compton in Gloucestershire, where he had bought an estate, and here he +became famous as the owner of a pack of hounds. At the restoration of +Charles II. he became archbishop of Canterbury and in his official +capacity he took part in the coronation of this king, but his health +soon began to fail and he died at Lambeth on the 4th of June 1663. By +his will the archbishop was a benefactor to St John's College, where he +was buried; he also aided the work of restoring St Paul's Cathedral and +rebuilt the great hall at Lambeth Palace. + + See W. H. Marah, _Memoirs of Archbishop Juxon and his Times_ (1869); + the best authority for the archbishop's life is the article by W. H. + Hutton in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (1892). + + + + +K The eleventh letter in the Phoenician alphabet and in its descendant +Greek, the tenth in Latin owing to the omission of Teth (see I), and +once more the eleventh in the alphabets of Western Europe owing to the +insertion of J. In its long history the shape of K has changed very +little. It is on the inscription of the Moabite Stone (early 9th cent. +B.C.) in the form (written from right to left) of [symbol] and [symbol]. +Similar forms are also found in early Aramaic, but another form [symbol] +or [symbol], which is found in the Phoenician of Cyprus in the 9th or +10th century B.C. has had more effect upon the later development of the +Semitic forms. The length of the two back strokes and the manner in +which they join the upright are the only variations in Greek. In various +places the back strokes, treated as an angle <, become more rounded (, +so that the letter appears as K, a form which in Latin probably affected +the development of C (q.v.). In Crete it is elaborated into [symbol] and +[symbol]. In Latin K, which is found in the earliest inscriptions, was +soon replaced by C, and survived only in the abbreviations for +_Kalendae_ and the proper name _Kaeso_. The original name Kaph became in +Greek _Kappa_. The sound of K throughout has been that of the unvoiced +guttural, varying to some extent in its pronunciation according to the +nature of the vowel sound which followed it. In Anglo-Saxon C replaced K +through Latin influence, writing being almost entirely in the hands of +ecclesiastics. As the sound-changes have been discussed under C it is +necessary here only to refer to the palatalization of K followed earlier +by a final _e_ as in _watch_ (Middle English _wacche_, Anglo-Saxon +_wæcce_) by the side of _wake_ (M.E. _waken_, A.-S. _wacan_); batch, +bake, &c. Sometimes an older form of the substantive survives, as in the +Elizabethan and Northern _make_ = _mate_ alongside _match_. (P. Gi.) + + + + +K2, or MT GODWIN-AUSTEN, the second highest mountain in the world, +ranking after Mt Everest. It is a peak of the Karakoram extension of the +Muztagh range dividing Kashmir from Chinese Turkestan. The height of K2 +as at present determined by triangulation is 28,250 ft., but it is +possible that an ultimate revision of the values of refraction at high +altitudes may have the effect of lowering the height of K2, while it +would elevate those of Everest and Kinchinjunga. The latter mountain +would then rank second, and K2 third, in the scale of altitude, Everest +always maintaining its ascendancy. K2 was ascended for the first time by +the duke of the Abruzzi in June 1909, being the highest elevation on the +earth's surface ever reached by man. + + + + +KA'BA, KAABA, or KAABEH, the sacred shrine of Mahommedanism, containing +the "black stone," in the middle of the great mosque at Mecca (q.v.). + + + + +KABARDIA, a territory of S. Russia, now part of the province of Terek. +It is divided into Great and Little Kabardia by the upper river Terek, +and covers 3780 sq. m. on the northern slopes of the Caucasus range +(from Mount Elbruz to Pasis-mta, or Edena), including the Black +Mountains (Kara-dagh) and the high plains on their northern slope. +Before the Russian conquest it extended as far as the Sea of Azov. Its +population is now about 70,000. One-fourth of the territory is owned by +the aristocracy and the remainder is divided among the _auls_ or +villages. A great portion is under permanent pasture, part under +forests, and some under perpetual snow. Excellent breeds of horses are +reared, and the peasants own many cattle. The land is well cultivated in +the lower parts, the chief crops being millet, maize, wheat and oats. +Bee-keeping is extensively practised, and Kabardian honey is in repute. +Wood-cutting and the manufacture of wooden wares, the making of _búrkas_ +(felt and fur cloaks), and saddlery are very general. Nalchik is the +chief town. + +The Kabardians are a branch of the Adyghè (Circassians). The policy of +Russia was always to be friendly with the Kabardian aristocracy, who +were possessed of feudal rights over the Ossetes, the Ingushes, the +Abkhasians and the mountain Tatars, and had command of the roads leading +into Transcaucasia. Ivan the Terrible took Kabardia under his protection +in the 16th century. Later, Russian influence was counterbalanced by +that of the Crimean khans, but the Kabardian nobles nevertheless +supported Peter the Great during his Caucasian campaign in 1722-23. In +1739 Kabardia was recognized as being under the double protectorate of +Russia and Turkey, but thirty-five years later it was definitively +annexed to Russia, and risings of the population in 1804 and 1822 were +cruelly suppressed. Kabardia is considered as a school of good manners +in Caucasia; the Kabardian dress sets the fashion to all the +mountaineers. Kabardians constitute the best detachment of the personal +Imperial Guards at St Petersburg. + + A short grammar of the Kabardian language and a Russian-Kabardian + dictionary, by Lopatinsky, were published in _Sbornik Materialov dla + Opisaniya Kavkaza_ (vol. xii., Tiflis, 1891). Fragments of the poem + "Sosyruko," some Persian tales, and the tenets of the Mussulman + religion were printed in Kabardian in 1864, by Kazi Atazhukin and + Shardanov. The common law of the Kabardians has been studied by Maxim + Kovalevsky and Vsevolod Miller. + + + + +KABBA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria, +situated chiefly on the right bank of the Niger, between 7° 5´ and 8° +45´ N. and 5° 30´ and 7° E. It has an area of 7800 sq. m. and an +estimated population of about 70,000. The province consists of +relatively healthy uplands interspersed with fertile valleys. It formed +part at one time of the Nupe emirate, and under Fula rule the armies of +Bida regularly raided for slaves and laid waste the country. Amongst the +native inhabitants the Igbira are very industrious, and crops of +tobacco, indigo, all the African grains, and a good quantity of cotton +are already grown. The sylvan products are valuable and include palm +oil, kolas, shea and rubber. Lokoja, a town which up to 1902 was the +principal British station in the protectorate, is situated in this +province. The site of Lokoja, with a surrounding tract of country at the +junction of the Benue and the Niger, was ceded to the British government +in 1841 by the _attah_ of Idah, whose dominions at that time extended to +the right bank of the river. The first British settlement was a failure. +In 1854 MacGregor Laird, who had taken an active part in promoting the +exploration of the river, sent thither Dr W. B. Baikie, who was +successful in dealing with the natives and in 1857 became the first +British consul in the interior. The town of Lokoja was founded by him in +1860. In 1868 the consulate was abolished and the settlement was left +wholly to commercial interests. In 1879 Sir George Goldie formed the +Royal Niger Company, which bought out its foreign rivals and acquired a +charter from the British government. In 1886 the company made Lokoja its +military centre, and on the transfer of the company's territories to the +Crown it remained for a time the capital of Northern Nigeria. In 1902 +the political capital of the protectorate was shifted to Zungeru in the +province of Zaria, but Lokoja remains the commercial centre. The +distance of Lokoja from the sea at the Niger mouth is about 250 m. + +In the absence of any central native authority the province is entirely +dependent for administration upon British initiative. It has been +divided into four administrative divisions. British and native courts of +justice have been established. A British station has been established at +Kabba town, which is an admirable site some 50 m. W. by N. of Lokoja, +about 1300 ft. above the sea, and a good road has been made from Kabba +to Lokoja. Roads have been opened through the province. (See NIGERIA.) + + + + +KABBABISH ("goatherds": James Bruce derives the name from _Hebsh_, +sheep), a tribe of African nomads of Semitic origin. It is perhaps the +largest "Arab" tribe in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and its many clans are +scattered over the country extending S.W. from the province of Dongola +to the confines of Darfur. The Kabbabish speak Arabic, but their +pronunciation differs much from that of the true Arabs. The Kabbabish +have a tradition that they came from Tunisia and are of Mogrebin or +western descent; but while the chiefs look like Arabs, the tribesmen +resemble the Beja family. They themselves declare that one of their +clans, Kawahla, is not of Kabbabish blood, but was affiliated to them +long ago. Kawahla is a name of Arab formation, and J. L. Burckhardt +spoke of the clan as a distinct one living about Abu Haraz and on the +Atbara. The Kabbabish probably received Arab rulers, as did the Ababda. +They are chiefly employed in cattle, camel and sheep breeding, and +before the Sudan wars of 1883-99 they had a monopoly of all transport +from the Nile, north of Abu Gussi, to Kordofan. They also cultivate the +lowlands which border the Nile, where they have permanent villages. They +are of fine physique, dark with black wiry hair, carefully arranged in +tightly rolled curls which cling to the head, with regular features and +rather thick aquiline noses. Some of the tribes wear large hats like +those of the Kabyles of Algeria and Tunisia. + + See James Bruce, _Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile_ (1790); + A. H. Keane, _Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan_ (1884); _Anglo-Egyptian + Sudan_ (edited by Count Gleichen, 1905). + + + + +KABBALAH (late Hebrew _kabbalah_, _qabbalah_), the technical name for +the system of Jewish theosophy which played an important part in the +Christian Church in the middle ages. The term primarily denotes +"reception" and then "doctrines received by tradition." In the older +Jewish literature the name is applied to the whole body of received +religious doctrine with the exception of the Pentateuch, thus including +the Prophets and Hagiographa as well as the oral traditions ultimately +embodied in the Mishnah.[1] It is only since the 11th or 12th century +that Kabbalah has become the exclusive appellation for the renowned +system of theosophy which claims to have been transmitted +uninterruptedly by the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets ever since +the creation of the first man. + + + Doctrine of the Sephiroth. + +The cardinal doctrines of the Kabbalah embrace the nature of the Deity, +the Divine emanations or _Sephiroth_, the cosmogony, the creation of +angels and man, their destiny, and the import of the revealed law. +According to this esoteric doctrine, God, who is boundless, and above +everything, even above being and thinking, is called _En Soph_ ([Greek: +apeiros]); He is the space of the universe containing [Greek: to pan], +but the universe is not his space. In this boundlessness He could not be +comprehended by the intellect or described in words, and as such the En +Soph was in a certain sense _Ayin_, non-existent (_Zohar_, iii. 283).[2] +To make his existence known and comprehensible, the En Soph had to +become active and creative. As creation involves intention, desire, +thought and work, and as these are properties which imply limit and +belong to a finite being, and moreover as the imperfect and +circumscribed nature of this creation precludes the idea of its being +the direct work of the infinite and perfect, the En Soph had to become +creative, through the medium of ten Sephiroth or intelligences, which +emanated from him like rays proceeding from a luminary. + +Now the wish to become manifest and known, and hence the idea of +creation, is co-eternal with the inscrutable Deity, and the first +manifestation of this primordial will is called the first _Sephirah_ or +emanation. This first Sephirah, this spiritual substance which existed +in the En Soph from all eternity, contained nine other intelligences or +_Sephiroth_. These again emanated one from the other, the second from +the first, the third from the second, and so on up to ten. + + The ten Sephiroth, which form among themselves and with the En Soph a + strict unity, and which simply represent different aspects of one and + the same being, are respectively denominated (1) the Crown, (2) + Wisdom, (3) Intelligence, (4) Love, (5) Justice, (6) Beauty, (7) + Firmness, (8) Splendour, (9) Foundation, and (10) Kingdom. Their + evolution was as follows: "When the Holy Aged, the concealed of all + concealed, assumed a form, he produced everything in the form of male + and female, as things could not continue in any other form. Hence + Wisdom, the second Sephirah, and the beginning of development, when it + proceeded from the Holy Aged (another name of the first Sephirah) + emanated in male and female, for Wisdom expanded, and Intelligence, + the third Sephirah, proceeded from it, and thus were obtained male and + female, viz. Wisdom the father and Intelligence the mother, from whose + union the other pairs of Sephiroth successively emanated" (_Zohar_, + iii. 290). These two opposite potencies, viz. the masculine Wisdom or + Sephirah No. 2 and the feminine Intelligence or Sephirah No. 3 are + joined together by the first potency, the Crown or Sephirah No. 1; + they yield the first triad of the Sephiric decade, and constitute the + divine head of the archetypal man. + + From the junction of Sephiroth Nos. 2 and 3 emanated the masculine + potency Love or Mercy (4) and the feminine potency Justice (5), and + from the junction of the latter two emanated again the uniting potency + Beauty (6). Beauty, the sixth Sephirah, constitutes the chest in the + archetypal man, and unites Love (4) and Justice (5), which constitute + the divine arms, thus yielding the second triad of the Sephiric + decade. From this second conjunction emanated again the masculine + potency Firmness (7) and the feminine potency Splendour (8), which + constitute the divine legs of the archetypal man; and these sent forth + Foundation (9), which is the genital organ and medium of union between + them, thus yielding the third triad in the Sephiric decade. Kingdom + (10), which emanated from the ninth Sephirah, encircles all the other + nine, inasmuch as it is the Shechinah, the divine halo, which + encompasses the whole by its all-glorious presence. + +In their totality and unity the ten Sephiroth are not only denominated +the World of Sephiroth, or the World of Emanations, but, owing to the +above representation, are called the primordial or archetypal man (= +[Greek: prôtogonos]) and the heavenly man. It is this form which, as we +are assured, the prophet Ezekiel saw in the mysterious chariot (Ezek. i. +1-28), and of which the earthly man is a faint copy. + +As the three triads respectively represent intellectual, moral and +physical qualities, the first is called the Intellectual, the second the +Moral or Sensuous, and the third the Material World. According to this +theory of the archetypal man the three Sephiroth on the right-hand side +are masculine and represent the principle of rigour, the three on the +left are feminine and represent the principle of mercy, and the four +central or uniting Sephiroth represent the principle of mildness. Hence +the right is called "the Pillar of Judgment," the left "the Pillar of +Mercy," and the centre "the Middle Pillar." The middle Sephiroth are +synecdochically used to represent the worlds or triads of which they are +the uniting potencies. Hence the Crown, the first Sephirah, which unites +Wisdom and Intelligence to constitute the first triad, is by itself +denominated the Intellectual World. So Beauty is by itself described as +the Sensuous World, and in this capacity is called the Sacred King or +simply the King, whilst Kingdom, the tenth Sephirah, which unites all +the nine Sephiroth, is used to denote the Material World, and as such is +denominated the Queen or the Matron. Thus a trinity of units, viz. the +Crown, Beauty and Kingdom, is obtained within the trinity of triads. But +further, each Sephirah is as it were a trinity in itself. It (1) has its +own absolute character, (2) receives from above, and (3) communicates to +what is below. "Just as the Sacred Aged is represented by the number +three, so are all the other lights (Sephiroth) of a threefold nature" +(_Zohar_, iii. 288). In this all-important doctrine of the Sephiroth, +the Kabbalah insists upon the fact that these potencies are not +creations of the En Soph, which would be a diminution of strength; that +they form among themselves and with the En Soph a strict unity, and +simply represent different aspects of the same being, just as the +different rays which proceed from the light, and which appear different +things to the eye, are only different manifestations of one and the same +light; that for this reason they all alike partake of the perfections of +the En Soph; and that as emanations from the Infinite, the Sephiroth are +infinite and perfect like the En Soph, and yet constitute the first +finite things. They are infinite and perfect when the En Soph imparts +his fullness to them, and finite and imperfect when that fullness is +withdrawn from them. + + + The Universe. + +The conjunction of the Sephiroth, or, according to the language of the +Kabbalah, the union of the crowned King and Queen, produced the universe +in their own image. Worlds came into existence before the En Soph +manifested himself in the human form of emanations, but they could not +continue, and necessarily perished because the conditions of development +which obtained with the sexual opposites of the Sephiroth did not exist. +These worlds which perished are compared to sparks which fly out from a +red-hot iron beaten by a hammer, and which are extinguished according to +the distance they are removed from the burning mass. Creation is not +_ex nihilo_; it is simply a further expansion or evolution of the +Sephiroth.[3] The world reveals and makes visible the Boundless and the +concealed of the concealed. And, though it exhibits the Deity in less +splendour than its Sephiric parents exhibit the En Soph, because it is +farther removed from the primordial source of light than the Sephiroth, +still, as it is God manifested, all the multifarious forms in the world +point out the unity which they represent. Hence nothing in the whole +universe can be annihilated. Everything, spirit as well as body, must +return to the source whence it emanated (_Zohar_, ii. 218). The universe +consists of four different worlds, each of which forms a separate +Sephiric system of a decade of emanations. + + They were evolved in the following order. (1) The World Of Emanations, + also called the Image and the Heavenly or Archetypal Man, is, as we + have seen, a direct emanation from the En Soph. Hence it is most + intimately allied to the Deity, and is perfect and immutable. From the + conjunction of the King and Queen (i.e. these ten Sephiroth) is + produced (2) the World of Creation, or the Briatic world, also called + "the Throne." Its ten Sephiroth, being farther removed from the En + Soph, are of a more limited and circumscribed potency, though the + substances they comprise are of the purest nature and without any + admixture of matter. The angel Metatron inhabits this world. He alone + constitutes the world of pure spirit, and is the garment of Shaddai, + i.e. the visible manifestation of the Deity. His name is numerically + equivalent to that of the Lord (_Zohar_, iii. 231). He governs the + visible world, preserves the harmony and guides the revolutions of all + the spheres, and is the captain of all the myriads of angelic beings. + This Briatic world again gave rise to (3) the World of Formation, or + Yetziratic World. Its ten Sephiroth, being still farther removed from + the Primordial Source, are of a less refined substance. Still they are + yet without matter. It is the abode of the angels, who are wrapped in + luminous garments, and who assume a sensuous form when they appear to + men. The myriads of the angelic hosts who people this world are + divided into ten ranks, answering to the ten Sephiroth, and each one + of these numerous angels is set over a different part of the universe, + and derives his name from the heavenly body or element which he guards + (_Zohar_, i. 42). From this world finally emanated (4) the World of + Action, also called the World of Matter. Its ten Sephiroth are made up + of the grosser elements of the former three worlds; they consist of + material substance limited by space and perceptible to the senses in a + multiplicity of forms. This world is subject to constant changes and + corruption, and is the dwelling of the evil spirits. These, the + grossest and most deficient of all forms, are also divided into ten + degrees, each lower than the other. The first two are nothing more + than the absence of all visible form and organization; the third + degree is the abode of darkness; whilst the remaining seven are "the + seven infernal halls," occupied by the demons, who are the incarnation + of all human vices. These seven hells are subdivided into innumerable + compartments corresponding to every species of sin, where the demons + torture the poor deluded human beings who have suffered themselves to + be led astray whilst on earth. The prince of this region of darkness + is Samael, the evil spirit, the serpent who seduced Eve. His wife is + the Harlot or the Woman of Whoredom. The two are treated as one + person, and are called "the Beast" (_Zohar_, ii. 255-259, with i. 35). + + + Doctrine of Man. + +The whole universe, however, was incomplete, and did not receive its +finishing stroke till man was formed, who is the acme of the creation +and the microcosm. "The heavenly Adam (i.e. the ten Sephiroth) who +emanated from the highest primordial obscurity (i.e. the En Soph) +created the earthly Adam" (_Zohar_, ii. 70). "Man is both the import and +the highest degree of creation, for which reason he was formed on the +sixth day. As soon as man was created everything was complete, including +the upper and nether worlds, for everything is comprised in man. He +unites in himself all forms" (_Zohar_, iii. 48). Each member of his body +corresponds to a part of the visible universe. "Just as we see in the +firmament above, covering all things, different signs which are formed +of the stars and the planets, and which contain secret things and +profound mysteries studied by those who are wise and expert in these +things; so there are in the skin, which is the cover of the body of the +son of man, and which is like the sky that covers all things above, +signs and features which are the stars and planets of the skin, +indicating secret things and profound mysteries whereby the wise are +attracted who understand the reading of the mysteries in the human +face" (_Zohar_, ii. 76). The human form is shaped after the four letters +which constitute the Jewish Tetragrammaton (q.v.; see also JEHOVAH). The +head is in the shape of [Hebrew: iod], the arms and the shoulders are +like [Hebrew: hei], the breast like [Hebrew: vav], and the two legs with +the back again resemble [Hebrew: hei] (_Zohar_, ii. 72). The souls of +the whole human race pre-exist in the World of Emanations, and are all +destined to inhabit human bodies. Like the Sephiroth from which it +emanates, every soul has ten potencies, consisting of a trinity of +triads. (1) The Spirit (_neshamah_), which is the highest degree of +being, corresponds to and is operated upon by the Crown, which is the +highest triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Intellectual World; +(2) the Soul (_ruah_), which is the seat of the moral qualities, +corresponds to and is operated upon by Beauty, which is the second triad +in the Sephiroth, and is called the Moral World; and (3) the Cruder Soul +(_nephesh_), which is immediately connected with the body, and is the +cause of its lower instincts and the animal life, corresponds to and is +operated upon by Foundation, the third triad in the Sephiroth, called +the Material World. Each soul prior to its entering into this world +consists of male and female united into one being. When it descends on +this earth the two parts are separated and animate two different bodies. +"At the time of marriage the Holy One, blessed be he, who knows all +souls and spirits, unites them again as they were before; and they again +constitute one body and one soul, forming as it were the right and the +left of the individual.... This union, however, is influenced by the +deeds of the man and by the ways in which he walks. If the man is pure +and his conduct is pleasing in the sight of God, he is united with that +female part of the soul which was his component part prior to his birth" +(_Zohar_, i. 91). The soul's destiny upon earth is to develop those +perfections the germs of which are eternally implanted in it, and it +ultimately must return to the infinite source from which it emanated. +Hence, if, after assuming a body and sojourning upon earth, it becomes +polluted by sin and fails to acquire the experience for which it +descends from heaven, it must three times reinhabit a body, till it is +able to ascend in a purified state through repeated trials. If, after +its third residence in a human body, it is still too weak to withstand +the contamination of sin, it is united with another soul, in order that +by their combined efforts it may resist the pollution which by itself it +was unable to conquer. When the whole pleroma of pre-existent souls in +the world of the Sephiroth shall have descended and occupied human +bodies and have passed their period of probation and have returned +purified to the bosom of the infinite Source, then the soul of Messiah +will descend from the region of souls; then the great Jubilee will +commence. There shall be no more sin, no more temptation, no more +suffering. Universal restoration will take place. Satan himself, "the +venomous Beast," will be restored to his angelic nature. Life will be an +everlasting feast, a Sabbath without end. All souls will be united with +the Highest Soul, and will supplement each other in the Holy of Holies +of the Seven Halls (_Zohar_, i. 45, 168; ii. 97). + + + Antiquity and Influence of Kabbalah. + +According to the Kabbalah all these esoteric doctrines are contained in +the Hebrew Scriptures. The uninitiated cannot perceive them; but they +are plainly revealed to the spiritually minded, who discern the profound +import of this theosophy beneath the surface of the letters and words of +Holy Writ. "If the law simply consists of ordinary expressions and +narratives, such as the words of Esau, Hagar, Laban, the ass of Balaam +or Balaam himself, why should it be called the law of truth, the perfect +law, the true witness of God? Each word contains a sublime source, each +narrative points not only to the single instance in question, but also +to generals" (_Zohar_, iii. 149, cf. 152). + + To obtain these heavenly mysteries, which alone make the Torah + superior to profane codes, definite hermeneutical rules are employed, + of which the following are the most important. (1) The words of + several verses in the Hebrew Scriptures which are regarded as + containing a recondite sense are placed over each other, and the + letters are formed into new words by reading them vertically. (2) The + words of the text are ranged in squares in such a manner as to be read + either vertically or boustrophedon. (3) The words are joined together + and redivided. (4) The initials and final letters of several words are + formed into separate words. (5) Every letter of a word is reduced to + its numerical value, and the word is explained by another of the same + quantity. (6) Every letter of a word is taken to be the initial or + abbreviation of a word. (7) The twenty-two letters of the alphabet are + divided into two halves; one half is placed above the other; and the + two letters which thus become associated are interchanged. By this + permutation, _Aleph_, the first letter of the alphabet, becomes + _Lamed_, the twelfth letter; _Beth_ becomes _Mem_, and so on. This + cipher alphabet is called _Albam_, from the first interchangeable + pairs. (8) The commutation of the twenty-two letters is effected by + the last letter of the alphabet taking the place of the first, the + last but one the place of the second, and so forth. This cipher is + called _Atbash_. These hermeneutical canons are much older than the + Kabbalah. They obtained in the synagogue from time immemorial, and + were used by the Christian fathers in the interpretation of + Scripture.[4] Thus Canon V., according to which a word is reduced to + its numerical value and interpreted by another word of the same value, + is recognized in the New Testament (cf. Rev. xiii. 18). Canon VI. is + adopted by Irenaeus, who tells us that, according to the learned among + the Hebrews, the name Jesus contains two letters and a half, and + signifies that Lord who contains heaven and earth [[Hebrew: ieshu] = + [Hebrew: ieova shamaim vaaretz]] (_Against Heresies_, ii. xxiv., i. + 205, ed. Clark). The cipher _Atbash_ (Canon VIII.) is used in Jeremiah + xxv. 26, li. 41, where Sheshach is written for Babel. In Jer. li. 1, + [Hebrew: lev kamai], _Leb-Kamai_ ("the heart of them that rise up + against me"), is written for [Hebrew: kasdim], _Chaldea_, by the same + rule. + +Exegesis of this sort is not the characteristic of any single circle, +people or century; unscientific methods of biblical interpretation have +prevailed from Philo's treatment of the Pentateuch to modern apologetic +interpretations of Genesis, ch. i.[5] The Kabbalah itself is but an +extreme and remarkable development of certain forms of thought which had +never been absent from Judaism; it is bound up with earlier tendencies +to mysticism, with man's inherent striving to enter into communion with +the Deity. To seek its sources would be futile. The Pythagorean theory +of numbers, Neoplatonic ideas of emanation, the Logos, the personified +Wisdom, Gnosticism--these and many other features combine to show the +antiquity of tendencies which, clad in other shapes, are already found +in the old pre-Christian Oriental religions.[6] In its more mature form +the Kabbalah belongs to the period when medieval Christian mysticism was +beginning to manifest itself (viz. in Eckhart, towards end of 13th +century); it is an age which also produced the rationalism of Maimonides +(q.v.). Although some of its foremost exponents were famous Talmudists, +it was a protest against excessive intellectualism and Aristotelian +scholasticism. It laid stress, not on external authority, as did the +Jewish law, but on individual experience and inward meditation. "The +mystics accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a +mystical progress towards God, demanding a state of ecstasy."[7] As a +result, some of the finest specimens of Jewish devotional literature and +some of the best types of Jewish individual character have been +Kabbalist.[8] On the other hand, the Kabbalah has been condemned, and +nowhere more strongly than among the Jews themselves. Jewish orthodoxy +found itself attacked by the more revolutionary aspects of mysticism and +its tendencies to alter established customs. While the medieval +scholasticism denied the possibility of knowing anything unattainable by +reason, the spirit of the Kabbalah held that the Deity could be +realized, and it sought to bridge the gulf. Thus it encouraged an +unrestrained emotionalism, rank superstition, an unhealthy asceticism, +and the employment of artificial means to induce the ecstatic state. +That this brought moral laxity was a stronger reason for condemning the +Kabbalah, and the evil effects of nervous degeneration find a more +recent illustration in the mysticism of the Chasidim (_Hasidim_, +"saints"), a Jewish sect in eastern Europe which started from a movement +in the 18th century against the exaggerated casuistry of contemporary +rabbis, and combined much that was spiritual and beautiful with extreme +emotionalism and degradation.[9] The appearance of the Kabbalah and of +other forms of mysticism in Judaism may seem contrary to ordinary and +narrow conceptions of orthodox Jewish legalism. Its interest lies, not +in its doctrines, which have often been absurdly over-estimated +(particularly among Christians), but in its contribution to the study of +human thought. It supplied a want which has always been felt by certain +types, and it became a movement which had mischievous effects upon +ill-balanced minds. As usual, the excessive self-introspection was not +checked by a rational criticism; the individual was guided by his own +reason, the limitations of which he did not realize; and in becoming a +law unto himself he ignored the accumulated experiences of civilized +humanity.[10] + +A feature of greater interest is the extraordinary part which this +theosophy played in the Christian Church, especially at the time of the +Renaissance. We have already seen that the Sephiric decade or the +archetypal man, like Christ, is considered to be of a double nature, +both infinite and finite, perfect and imperfect. More distinct, however, +is the doctrine of the Trinity. In Deut. vi. 43, where Yahweh occurs +first, then Elohenu, and then again Yahweh, we are told "The voice +though one, consists of three elements, fire (i.e. warmth), air (i.e. +breath), and water (i.e. humidity), yet all three are one in the mystery +of the voice and can only be one. Thus also Yahweh, Elohenu, Yahweh, +constitute one--three forms which are one" (_Zohar_, ii. 43; compare +iii. 65). Discussing the thrice holy in Isaiah vi. 3, one codex of the +_Zohar_ had the following remark: "The first holy denotes the Holy +Father, the second the Holy Son, and the third the Holy Ghost" (cf. +Galatinus, _De arcanis cathol._ lib. ii. c. 3, p. 31; Wolf, _Bibliotheca +hebraica_, i. 1136). Still more distinct is the doctrine of the +atonement. "The Messiah invokes all the sufferings, pain, and +afflictions of Israel to come upon Him. Now if He did not remove them +thus and take them upon Himself, no man could endure the sufferings of +Israel, due as their punishment for transgressing the law; as it is +written (Isa. liii. 4), Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our +sorrows" (_Zohar_, ii. 12). These and similar statements favouring the +doctrines of the New Testament made many Kabbalists of the highest +position in the synagogue embrace the Christian faith and write +elaborate books to win their Jewish brethren over to Christ. As early as +1450 a company of Jewish converts in Spain, at the head of which were +Paul de Heredia, Vidal de Saragossa de Aragon, and Davila, published +compilations of Kabbalistic treatises to prove from them the doctrines +of Christianity. They were followed by Paul Rici, professor at Pavia, +and physician to the emperor Maximilian I. Among the best-known +non-Jewish exponents of the Kabbalah were the Italian count Pico di +Mirandola (1463-1494), the renowned Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), +Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim (1487-1535), Theophrastus +Paracelsus (1493-1541), and, later, the Englishman Robert Fludd +(1574-1637). Prominent among the "nine hundred theses" which Mirandola +had placarded in Rome, and which he undertook to defend in the presence +of all European scholars, whom he invited to the Eternal City, promising +to defray their travelling expenses, was the following: "No science +yields greater proof of the divinity of Christ than magic and the +Kabbalah." Mirandola so convinced Pope Sixtus of the paramount +importance of the Kabbalah as an auxiliary to Christianity that his +holiness exerted himself to have Kabbalistic writings translated into +Latin for the use of divinity students. With equal zeal did Reuchlin act +as the apostle of the Kabbalah. His treatises exercised an almost magic +influence upon the greatest thinkers of the time. Pope Leo X. and the +early Reformers were alike captivated by the charms of the Kabbalah as +propounded by Reuchlin, and not only divines, but statesmen and +warriors, began to study the Oriental languages in order to be able to +fathom the mysteries of Jewish theosophy. The _Zohar_, that farrago of +absurdity and spiritual devotion, was the weapon with which these +Christians defended Jewish literature against hostile ecclesiastic +bodies (Abrahams, _Jew. Lit._ p. 106). Thus the Kabbalah linked the old +scholasticism with the new and independent inquiries in learning and +philosophy after the Renaissance, and although it had evolved a +remarkably bizarre conception of the universe, it partly anticipated, in +its own way, the scientific study of natural philosophy.[11] Jewish +theosophy, then, with its good and evil tendencies, and with its varied +results, may thus claim to have played no unimportant part in the +history of European scholarship and thought. + + The main sources to be noticed are:-- + + + Main Sources. + + 1. The _Sepher Yesirah_, or "book of creation," not the old Hilkoth Y. + ("rules of creation"), which belongs to the Talmudic period (on which + see Kohler, _Jew. Ency._ xii. 602 seq.), but a later treatise, a + combination of medieval natural philosophy and mysticism. It has been + variously ascribed to the patriarch Abraham and to the illustrious + rabbi 'Aqiba; its essential elements, however, maybe of the 3rd or 4th + century A.D., and it is apparently earlier than the 9th (see L. + Ginzberg, _op. cit._ 603 sqq.). It has "had a greater influence on the + development of the Jewish mind than almost any other book after the + completion of the Talmud" (ibid.). + + 2. The _Bahir_ ("brilliant," Job. xxxvii. 21), though ascribed to + Nehunyah b. Haqqanah (1st century A.D.), is first quoted by + Nahmanides, and is now attributed to his teacher Ezra or Azriel + (1160-1238). It shows the influence of the _Sepher Yesirah_, is marked + by the teaching of a celestial Trinity, is a rough outline of what the + _Zohar_ was destined to be, and gave the first opening to a thorough + study of metaphysics among the Jews. (See further 1. Broydé, _Jew. + Ency._ ii. 442 seq.). + + 3. The _Zohar_ ("shining," Dan. xii. 3) is a commentary on the + Pentateuch, according to its division into fifty-two hebdomadal + lessons. It begins with the exposition of Gen. i. 4 ("let there be + light") and includes eleven dissertations: (1) "Additions and + Supplements"; (2) "The Mansions and Abodes," describing the structure + of paradise and hell; (3) "The Mysteries of the Pentateuch," + describing the evolution of the Sephiroth, &c.; (4) "The Hidden + Interpretation," deducing esoteric doctrine from the narratives in the + Pentateuch; (5) "The Faithful Shepherd," recording discussions between + Moses the faithful shepherd, the prophet Elijah and R. Simon b. Yohai, + the reputed compiler of the _Zohar_; (6) "The Secret of Secrets," a + treatise on physiognomy and psychology; (7) "The Aged," i.e. the + prophet Elijah, discoursing with R. Simon on the doctrine of + transmigration as evolved from Exod. xxi. 1-xxiv. 18; (8) "The Book of + Secrets," discourses on cosmogony and demonology; (9) "The Great + Assembly," discourses of R. Simon to his numerous assembly of + disciples on the form of the Deity and on pneumatology; (10) "The + Young Man," discourses by young men of superhuman origin on the + mysteries of ablutions; and (11) "The Small Assembly," containing the + discourses on the Sephiroth which R. Simon delivered to the small + congregation of six surviving disciples. The _Zohar_ pretends to be a + compilation made by Simon b. Yohai (the second century A.D.) of + doctrines which God communicated to Adam in Paradise, and which have + been received uninterruptedly from the mouths of the patriarchs and + prophets. It was discovered, so the story went, in a cavern in Galilee + where it had been hidden for a thousand years. Amongst the many facts, + however, established by modern criticism which prove the _Zohar_ to be + a compilation of the 13th century, are the following: (1) the _Zohar_ + itself praises most fulsomely R. Simon, its reputed author, and exalts + him above Moses; (2) it mystically explains the Hebrew vowel points, + which did not obtain till 570; (3) the compiler borrows two verses + from the celebrated hymn called "The Royal Diadem," written by Ibn + Gabirol, who was born about 1021; (4) it mentions the capture of + Jerusalem by the crusaders and the re-taking of the Holy City by the + Saracens; (5) it speaks of the comet which appeared at Rome, 15th July + 1264, under the pontificate of Urban IV.; (6) by a slip the _Zohar_ + assigns a reason why its contents were not revealed before 5060-5066 + A.M., i.e. 1300-1306 A.D., (7) the doctrine of the En Soph and the + Sephiroth was not known before the 13th century; and (8) the very + existence of the _Zohar_ itself was not known prior to the 13th + century. Hence it is now believed that Moses de Leon (d. 1305), who + first circulated and sold the _Zohar_ as the production of R. Simon, + was himself the author or compiler. That eminent scholars both in the + synagogue and in the church should have been induced to believe in its + antiquity is owing to the fact that the _Zohar_ embodies many older + opinions and doctrines, and the undoubted antiquity of some of them + has served as a lever in the minds of these scholars to raise the late + speculations about the En Soph, the Sephiroth, &c., to the same age. + + LITERATURE.--The study of the whole subject being wrapped up with + Gnosticism and Oriental theosophy, the related literature is immense. + Among the more important works may be mentioned, Baron von Rosenroth's + _Kabbala Denudata_ (Sulzbach, 1677-1678; Frankfort, 1684); A. Franck, + _La Kabbale_ (Paris, 2nd ed., 1889; German by Jellinek, Leipzig, + 1844); C. D. Ginsburg, _The Kabbalah, its Doctrines, Development and + Literature_ (London, 1865); I. Meyer, _Qabbalah_ (Philadelphia, 1888); + Rubin, _Kabbala und Agada_ (Vienna, 1895), _Heidentum und Kabbalah_ + (1893); Karppe, _Ét. sur les origines du Zohar_ (Paris, 1891); A. E. + Waite, _Doctrine and Literature of the Kabbalah_ (London, 1902); + Flügel, _Philosophy, Kabbala, &c._ (Baltimore, 1902); D. Neumark, + _Gesch. d. Jüd. Philosophie d. Mittelalters_ (Berlin, 1907); also S. + A. Binion, in C. D. Warner's _World's Best Literature_, 8425 sqq. See + further the very full articles in the _Jewish Ency._ by K. Kohler and + L. Ginzberg ("Cabbala"), I. Broydé ("Bahir," "Zohar"), with the + references. (C. D. G.; S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] C. Taylor, _Sayings of the Jewish Fathers_ (1897), pp. 106 sqq., + 175 seq.; W. Bacher, _Jew. Quart. Rev._ xx. 572 sqq. (1908). + + [2] On the _Zohar_, "the Bible of the Kabbalists," see below. + + [3] The view of a mediate creation, in the place of immediate + creation out of nothing, and that the mediate beings were emanations, + was much influenced by Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021-1070). + + [4] See F. Weber, _Jüdische Theologie_ (1897), pp. 118 sqq. + + [5] See C. A. Briggs, _Study of Holy Scripture_ (1899), pp. 427 sqq., + 570. + + [6] Even the "over-Soul" of the mystic Isaac Luria (1534-1572) is a + conception known in the 3rd century A.D. (Rabbi Resh Lakish). For the + early stages of Kabbalistic theories, see K. Kohler, _Jew. Ency._ + iii. 457 seq., and L. Ginzberg, ibid. 459 seq.; and for examples of + the relationship between old Oriental (especially Babylonian) and + Jewish Kabbalistic teaching (early and late), see especially A. + Jeremias, _Babylonisches in N. Test._ (Leipzig, 1905); E. Bischoff, + _Bab. Astrales im Weltbilde des Thalmud u. Midrasch_ (1907). + + [7] L. Ginzberg, _Jew. Ency._ iii. 465. + + [8] See, especially, on the mystics of Safed in Upper Galilee, S. + Schechter, _Studies_ (1908), pp. 202-285. + + [9] See the instructive article by S. Schechter, _Studies in Judaism_ + (London, 1896), pp. 1-55. + + [10] See the discriminating estimates by S. A. Hirsch, _Jew. Quart. + Rev._ xx. 50-73; I. Abrahams, _Jew. Lit._ (1906), ch. xvii.: + _Judaism_ (1907), ch. vi. + + [11] See, e.g., G. Margoliouth, "The Doctrine of Ether in the + Kabbalah," _Jew. Quart. Rev._ xx. 828 sqq. On the influence of the + Kabbalah on the Reformation, see Stöckl, _Gesch. d. Philosophie des + Mittelalters_, ii. 232-251. + + + + +KABINDA, a Portuguese possession on the west coast of Africa north of +the mouth of the Congo. Westwards it borders the Atlantic, N. and N.E. +French Congo, S. and S.E. Belgian Congo. It has a coast-line of 93 m., +extends inland, at its greatest breadth, 70 m., and has an area of about +3000 sq. m. In its physical features, flora, fauna and inhabitants, it +resembles the coast region of French Congo (q.v.). The only considerable +river is the Chiloango, which in part forms the boundary between +Portuguese and Belgian territory, and in its lower course divides +Kabinda into two fairly even portions. The mouth of the river is in 5° +12´ S., 12° 5´ E. The chief town, named Kabinda, is a seaport on the +right bank of the small river Bele, in 5° 33´ S., 12° 10´ E.; pop. about +10,000. From the beauty of its situation, and the fertility of the +adjacent country, it has been called the paradise of the coast. The +harbour is sheltered and commodious, with anchorage in four fathoms. +Kabinda was formerly a noted slave mart. Farther north are the ports of +Landana and Massabi. Between Kabinda and Landana is Molembo at the head +of a small bay of the same name. There is a considerable trade in palm +oil, ground nuts and other jungle produce, largely in the hands of +British and German firms. + +The possession of the enclave of Kabinda by Portugal is a result of the +efforts made by that nation during the last quarter of the 19th century +to obtain sovereignty over both banks of the lower Congo. Whilst +Portugal succeeded in obtaining the southern bank of the river to the +limit of navigability from the sea, the northern bank became part of the +Congo Free State (see AFRICA, § 5). Portuguese claims to the north of +the river were, however, to some extent met by the recognition of her +right to Kabinda. The southernmost part of Kabinda is 25 m. (following +the coast-line) north of the mouth of the Congo. This district as far +north as the Chiloango river (and including the adjacent territory of +Belgian Congo) is sometimes spoken of as Kacongo. The name Loango (q.v.) +was also applied to this region as well as to the coast-lands +immediately to the north. Administratively Kabinda forms a division of +the Congo district of the province of Angola (q.v.). The inhabitants are +Bantu negroes who are called Kabindas. They are an intelligent, +energetic and enterprising people, daring sailors and active traders. + + + + +KABIR, the most notable of the Vaishnava reformers of religion in +northern India, who flourished during the first half of the 15th +century. He is counted as one of the twelve disciples of Ramanand, the +great preacher in the north (about A.D. 1400) of the doctrine of +_bhakti_ addressed to Rama, which originated with Ramanuja (12th +century) in southern India. He himself also mentions among his spiritual +forerunners Jaideo and Namdeo (or Nama) the earliest Marathi poet (both +about 1250). Legend relates that Kabir was the son of a Brahman widow, +by whom he was exposed, and was found on a lotus in Lahar Talao, a pond +near Benares, by a Musalman weaver named 'Ali (or Nuri), who with his +wife Nima adopted him and brought him up in their craft as a Musalman. +He lived most of his life at Benares, and afterwards removed to Maghar +(or Magahar), in the present district of Basti, where he is said to have +died in 1449. There appears to be no reason to doubt that he was +originally a Musalman and a weaver; his own name and that of his son +Kamal are Mahommedan, not Hindu. His adhesion to the doctrine of +Ramanand is not a solitary instance of the religious syncretism which +prevailed at this time in northern India. The religion of the earlier +Sikh _Gurus_, which was largely based upon his teaching, also aimed at +the fusion of Hinduism and Islam; and the example of Malik Muhammad,[1] +the author of the Padmawat, who lived a century later than Kabir, shows +that the relations between the two creeds were in some cases extremely +intimate. It is related that at Kabir's death the Hindus and Musalmans +each claimed him as an adherent of their faith, and that when his +funeral issued forth from his house at Maghar the contention was only +assuaged by the appearance of Kabir himself, who bade them look under +the cloth which covered the corpse, and immediately vanished. On raising +the cloth they found nothing but a heap of flowers. This was divided +between the rival faiths, half being buried by the Musalmans and the +other half burned by the Hindus.[2] + +Kabir's fame as a preacher of _bhakti_, or enthusiastic devotion to a +personal God, whom he preferred to call by the Hindu names of Rama and +Hari, is greater than that of any other of the Vaishnava spiritual +leaders. His fervent conviction of the truth and power of his doctrine, +and the homely and searching expression given to it in his utterances, +in the tongue of the people and not in a learned language remote from +their understanding, won for him multitudes of adherents; and his sect, +the _Kabirpanthis_, is still one of the most numerous in northern India, +its numbers exceeding a million. Its headquarters are the _Kabir Chaura_ +at Benares, where are preserved the works attributed to Kabir (called +the _Granth_), the greater part of which, however, were written by his +immediate disciples and their followers in his name. + + Those works which seem to have the best claim to be considered his own + compositions are the _Sakhis_, or stanzas, some 5000 in number, which + have a very wide currency even among those who do not formally belong + to the sect, and the _Shabdawali_, consisting of a thousand "words" + (_shabd_), or short doctrinal expositions. Perhaps some of the + _Rekhtas_, or odes (100 in number), and of the _Ramainis_--brief + mystical poems in very obscure language--may also be from his hand. Of + these different forms specimens will be found translated in Professor + H. H. Wilson's _Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus_, i. + 79-90. Besides the followers who call themselves by Kabir's name, + there may be reckoned to him many other religious sects which bear + that of some intermediate _guru_ or master, but substantially concur + with Kabir in doctrine and practice. Such, for instance, are the + _Nanakshahis_ in the United Provinces, the Central Provinces, and + Bombay, and the _Dadu-panthis_, numerous in Rajputana (Wilson, _loc. + cit._ pp. 103 sqq.); the Sikhs, numbering two and a half millions in + the Panjab, are also his spiritual descendants, and their _Granth_ or + Scripture is largely stocked with texts drawn from his works. + +Kabir taught the life of _bhakti_ (faith, or personal love and +devotion), the object of which is a _personal_ God, and not a +philosophical abstraction or an impersonal quality-less, all-pervading +spiritual substance (as in the Vedanta of Sankaracharya). His utterances +do not, like those of Tulsi Das, dwell upon the incidents of the human +life of Rama, whom he takes as his type of the Supreme; nevertheless, it +is the essence of his creed that God became incarnate to bring salvation +to His children, mankind, and that the human mind of this incarnation +still subsists in the Divine Person. He proclaims the unity of the +Godhead, the vanity of idols, the powerlessness of _brahmans_ or +_mullas_ to guide or help, and the divine origin of the human soul, +_divinae particula aurae_. All evil in the world is ascribed to _Maya_, +illusion or falsehood, and truth in thought, word and deed is enjoined +as the chief duty of man: "No act of devotion can equal truth; no crime +is so heinous as falsehood; in the heart where truth abides there is My +abode."[3] The distinctions of creeds are declared to be of no +importance in the presence of God: "The city of _Hara_[4] is to the +east, that of '_Ali_[5] is to the west; but explore your own heart, for +there are both _Rama_ and _Karim_;"[6] "Behold but One in all things: it +is the second that leads you astray. Every man and woman that has ever +been born is of the same nature as yourself. _He_, whose is the world, +and whose are the children of '_Ali_ and _Rama_, He is my _Guru_, He is +my _Pir_." He proclaims the universal brotherhood of man, and the duty +of kindness to all living creatures. Life is the gift of God, and must +not be violated; the shedding of blood, whether of man or animals, is a +heinous crime. The followers of Kabir do not observe celibacy, and live +quiet unostentatious lives; Wilson (p. 97) compares them to Quakers for +their hatred of violence and unobtrusive piety. + +The resemblance of many of Kabir's utterances to those of Christ, and +especially to the ideas set forth in St John's gospel, is very striking; +still more so is the existence in the ritual of the sect of a +sacramental meal, involving the eating of a consecrated wafer and the +drinking of water administered by the _Mahant_ or spiritual superior, +which bears a remarkable likeness to the Eucharist. Yet, though the +deities of Hinduism and the prophet of Islam are frequently mentioned in +his sayings, the name of Jesus has nowhere been found in them. It is +conjectured that the doctrine of Ramanand, which came from southern +India, has been influenced by the Christian settlements in that region, +which go back to very early times. It is also possible that Sufiism, the +pietistic (as distinguished from the theosophic) form of which seems to +owe much to eastern Christianity, has contributed some echo of the +Gospel to Kabir's teaching. A third (but scarcely probable) hypothesis +is that the sect has borrowed both maxims and ritual, long after Kabir's +own time, from the teaching of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were +established at Agra from the reign of Akbar (1556-1605) onwards. + + No critical edition of the writings current under the name of Kabir + has yet been published, though collections of his sayings (chiefly the + _Sakhis_) are constantly appearing from Indian presses. The reader is + referred, for a summary account of his life and doctrine, to H. H. + Wilson's _Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus_ (Works, i. 68 + sqq.). Dr E. Trumpp's edition of the _Adi Granth_ (Introduction, pp. + xcvii. sqq.) may also be consulted. Recent publications dealing with + the subject are the Rev. G. H. Westcott's _Kabir and the Kabir Panth_ + (Cawnpore, 1908), and Mr. M. A. Macauliffe's _The Sikh Religion_ + (Oxford, 1909), vi. 122-316. (C. J. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See article HINDOSTANI LITERATURE. + + [2] An exactly similar tale is told of Nanak, the first _Guru_ of the + Sikhs, who died in 1538. + + [3] This and the following passages in quotation marks are from + Professor Wilson's translation of 100 _Sakhis_, pp. 83-90. + + [4] Benares; Hara, a name of Siva. + + [5] I.e. Mecca. + + [6] "The Bountiful," one of the Koranic names of God (Allah). + + + + +KABUL, the capital of Afghanistan, standing at an elevation of 6900 ft. +above the sea in 34° 32´ N. and 69° 14´ E. Estimated pop. (1901), +140,000. Lying at the foot of the bare and rocky mountains forming the +western boundary of the Kabul valley, just below the gorge made by the +Kabul River, the city extends a mile and a half east to west and one +mile north to south. Hemmed in by the mountains, there is no way of +extending it, except in a northerly direction towards the Sherpur +cantonment. As the key of northern India, Kabul has been a city of vast +importance for countless ages. It commands all the passes which here +debouch from the north through the Hindu Kush, and from the west through +Kandahar; and through it passed successive invasions of India by +Alexander the Great, Mahmud of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Baber, Nadir Shah +and Ahmad Shah. Indeed from the time of Baber to that of Nadir Shah +(1526-1738) Kabul was part of the empire of Delhi. It is now some 160 m. +from the British frontier post of Jamrud near Peshawar. + +Kabul was formerly walled; the old wall had seven gates, of which two +alone remain, the Lahori and the Sirdar. The city itself is a huddle of +narrow and dirty streets, with the Bala Hissar or fort forming the +south-east angle, and rising about 150 ft. above the plain. The Amir's +palace is situated outside the town about midway between it and the +Sherpur cantonment which lies about a mile to the north-east. Formerly +the greatest ornament of the city was the arcaded and roofed bazaar +called _Chihâr Châtâ_, ascribed to Ali Mardan Khan, a noble of the 17th +century, who has left behind him many monuments of his munificent public +spirit both in Kabul and in Hindustan. Its four arms had an aggregate +length of about 600 ft., with a breadth of 30. The display of goods was +remarkable, and in the evening it was illuminated. This edifice was +destroyed by Sir G. Pollock on evacuating Kabul in 1842 as a record of +the treachery of the city. + +The tomb of the Sultan Baber stands on a slope about a mile to the west +of the city in a charming spot. The grave is marked by two erect slabs +of white marble. Near him lie several of his wives and children; the +garden was formerly enclosed by a marble wall; a clear stream waters the +flower-beds. From the hill that rises behind the tomb there is a noble +prospect of his beloved city, and of the all-fruitful plain stretching +to the north of it. + +After the accession of Abdur Rahman in 1880 the city underwent great +changes. The Bala Hissar was destroyed and has never since been entirely +rebuilt, and a fortified cantonment at Sherpur (one side of which was +represented by the historic Bemaru ridge) had taken the place of the old +earthworks of the British occupation of 1842 which were constructed on +nearly the same site. The city streets were as narrow and evil-smelling, +the surrounding gardens as picturesque and attractive, and the wealth of +fruit was as great, as they had been fifty years previously. The amir, +however, effected many improvements. Kabul is now connected by +well-planned and metalled roads with Afghan Turkestan on the west, with +the Oxus and Bokhara on the north, and with India on the east. The road +to India was first made by British and is now maintained by Afghan +engineers. The road southwards to Ghazni and Kandahar was always +naturally excellent and has probably needed little engineering, but the +general principle of road-making in support of a military advance has +always been consistently maintained, and the expeditions of Kabul troops +to Kafiristan have been supported by a very well graded and +substantially constructed road up the Kunar valley from Jalalabad to +Asmar, and onwards to the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. The city ways +have been improved until it has become possible for wheeled vehicles to +pass, and the various roads connecting the suburbs and the city are +efficiently maintained. A purely local railway has also been introduced, +to assist in transporting building material. The buildings erected by +Abdur Rahman were pretentious, but unmarked by any originality in design +and hardly worthy representation of the beauty and dignity of Mahommedan +architecture. They included a new palace and a durbar hall, a bridge +across the river and embankment, a pavilion and garden laid out around +the site of Baber's tomb overlooking the Chardeh valley; and many other +buildings of public utility connected with stud arrangements, the +manufacture of small arms and ammunition, and the requirements of what +may be termed a wholesale shop under European direction, besides +hospitals, dispensaries, bazaars, &c. The new palace is within an +entrenchment just outside the city. It is enclosed in a fine garden, +well planted with trees, where the harem serai (or ladies' apartments) +occupies a considerable space. The public portion of the buildings +comprise an ornamental and lofty pavilion with entrances on each side, +and a high-domed octagonal room in the centre, beautifully fitted and +appointed, where public receptions take place. The durbar hall, which is +a separate building, is 60 yards long by 20 broad, with a painted roof +supported by two rows of pillars. But the arrangement of terraced +gardens and the lightly constructed pavilion which graces the western +slopes of the hills overlooking Chardeh are the most attractive of these +innovations. Here, on a summer's day, with the scent of roses pervading +the heated air, the cool refreshment of the passing breezes and of +splashing fountains may be enjoyed by the officials of the Kabul court, +whilst they look across the beauty of the thickly planted plains of +Chardeh to the rugged outlines of Paghman and the snows of the Hindu +Kush. The artistic taste of the landscape gardening is excellent, and +the mountain scenery is not unworthy of Kashmir. It is pleasant to +record that the graveyard of those officers who fell in the Kabul +campaign of 1879-1880, which lies at the northern end of the Bemaru +ridge, is not uncared for. + + Kabul is believed to be the _Ortospanum_ or _Ortospana_ of the + geographies of Alexander's march, a name conjectured to be a + corruption of _Urddhasthâna_, "high place." This is the meaning of the + name Bala Hissar. But the actual name is perhaps also found as that of + a people in this position (Ptolemy's _Kabolitae_), if not in the name + of a city apparently identical with Ortospana, _Carura_, in some + copies read_ Cabura_. It was invaded by the Arabs as early as the + thirty-fifth year of the Hegira, but it was long before the + Mahommedans effected any lasting settlement. In the early Mahommedan + histories and geographies we find (according to a favourite Arabic + love of jingle) _Kâbul_ and _Zâbul_ constantly associated. Zâbul + appears to have been the country about Ghazni. Kabul first became a + capital when Baber made himself master of it in 1504, and here he + reigned for fifteen years before his invasion of Hindustan. In modern + times it became a capital again, under Timur Shah (see AFGHANISTAN), + and so has continued both to the end of the Durani dynasty, and under + the Barakzais, who now reign. It was occupied by Sir John Keane in + 1839, General Pollock in 1842, and again by Sir Frederick, afterwards + Lord Roberts, in 1879. + + Kabul is also the name of the province including the city so called. + It may be considered to embrace the whole of the plains called Koh + Daman and Beghram, &c., to the Hindu Kush northward, with the Kohistan + or hill country adjoining. Eastward it extends to the border of + Jalalabad at Jagdalak; southward it includes the Logar district, and + extends to the border of Ghazni; north-westward it includes the + Paghman hills, and the valley of the upper Kabul river, and so to the + Koh-i-Baba. Roughly it embraces a territory of about 100 m. square, + chiefly mountainous. Wheat and barley are the staple products of the + arable tracts. Artificial grasses are also much cultivated, and fruits + largely, especially in the Koh Daman. A considerable part of the + population spends the summer in tents. The villages are not enclosed + by fortifications, but contain small private castles or fortalices. + + See C. Yate, _Northern Afghanistan_ (1888); J. A. Gray, _At the Court + of the Amir_ (1895); Sir T. H. H. Holdich, _The Indian Borderland_ + (1901). (T. H. H.*) + + + + +KABUL RIVER, a river of Afghanistan, 300 m. in length. The Kabul +(ancient _Kophes_), which is the most important (although not the +largest) river in Afghanistan, rises at the foot of the Unai pass +leading over the Sanglakh range, an offshoot of the Hindu Kush towards +Bamian and Afghan Turkestan. Its basin forms the province of Kabul, +which includes all northern Afghanistan between the Hindu Kush and the +Safed Koh ranges. From its source to the city of Kabul the course of the +river is only 45 m., and this part of it is often exhausted in summer +for purposes of irrigation. Half a mile east of Kabul it is joined by +the Logar, a much larger river, which rises beyond Ghazni among the +slopes of the Gul Koh (14,200 ft.), and drains the rich and picturesque +valleys of Logar and Wardak. Below the confluence the Kabul becomes a +rapid stream with a great volume of water and gradually absorbs the +whole drainage of the Hindu Kush. About 40 m. below Kabul the Panjshir +river joins it; 15 m. farther the Tagao; 20 m. from the Tagao junction +the united streams of Alingar and Alishang (rivers of Kafiristan); and +20 m. below that, at Balabagh, the Surkhab from the Safed Koh. Two or +three miles below Jalalabad it is joined by the Kunar, the river of +Chitral. Thenceforward it passes by deep gorges through the Mohmand +hills, curving northward until it emerges into the Peshawar plain at +Michni. Soon afterwards it receives the Swat river from the north and +the Bara river from the south, and after a further course of 40 m. falls +into the Indus at Attock. From Jalalabad downwards the river is +navigable by boats or rafts of inflated skins, and is considerably used +for purposes of commerce. + + + + +KABYLES, or KABAIL, a confederation of tribes in Algeria, Tunisia, and a +few oases of the Sahara, who form a branch of the great Berber race. +Their name is the Arabic _gabilat_ (pl.: _gabail_), and was at first +indiscriminately applied by the Arabs to all Berber peoples. The part of +Algeria which they inhabit is usually regarded as consisting of two +divisions--Great Kabylia and Lesser Kabylia, the former being also known +as the Kabylia of the Jurjura (also called Adrar Budfel, "Mountain of +Snow"). Physically many Kabyles do not present much contrast to the +Arabs of Algeria. Both Kabyle and Arab are white at birth, but rapidly +grow brown through exposure to air and sunshine. Both have in general +brown eyes and wavy hair of coarse quality, varying from dark brown to +jet black. In stature there is perhaps a little difference in favour of +the Kabyle, and he appears also to be of heavier build and more +muscular. Both are clearly long-headed. Some, however, of the purer type +of Kabyles in Kabylia proper have fair skins, ruddy complexions and blue +or grey eyes. In fact there are two distinct types of Kabyles: those +which by much admixture have approximated to Arab and negroid types, and +those which preserve Libyan features. Active, energetic and +enterprising, the Kabyle is to be found far from home--as a soldier in +the French army, as a workman in the towns, as a field labourer, or as a +pedlar or trader earning the means of purchasing his bit of ground in +his native village. The Kabyles are Mahommedans of the Sunnite branch +and the Malikite rite, looking to Morocco as the nearer centre of their +religion. Some of the Kabyles retain their vernacular speech, while +others have more or less completely adopted Arabic. The best known of +the Kabyle dialects is the Zouave[1] or Igaouaouen, those speaking it +having been settled on the northern side of the Jurjura at least from +the time of Ibn Khaldun; it is the principal basis of Hanoteau's _Essai +de grammaire kabyle_ (Paris, 1858). Unlike their southern brethren, the +Kabyles have no alphabet, and their literature is still in the stage of +oral transmission, for the most part by professional reciters. +Hanoteau's _Poésies populaires de la Kabylie du Jurjura_ (Paris, 1867) +gives the text and translation of a considerable number of historical +pieces, proverbial couplets and quatrains, dancing songs, &c. + + Consult General L. L. C. Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, _Instructions + sur l'anthropologie de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1874); Melchior Joseph + Eugène Daumas, _Le Sahara algérien_ (Paris, 1845) and _Moeurs et + coutumes de l'Algérie_ (1857); De Slane's translation of Ibn Khaldun's + _Hist. des Berbères_ (Algiers, 1852); Aucapitaine, _Les Kabyles et la + colonie de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1864) and _Les Beni M'zab_ (1868); + L.J.A.C. Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, _La Kabylie et les coutumes + kabyles_ (Paris, 1893); Charmetant, in _Jahrbücher der Verbreitung des + Glaubens_ (1874); Masqueray, _Formation des cités ... de l'Algérie_ + (1886); Dugas, _La Kabylie et le peuple kabyle_ (Paris, 1878); Récoux, + _La Démographie de l'Algérie_ (Paris, 1880); J. Liorel, _Races + berbères: les Kabyles_ (Paris, 1893); MacIver and Wilkin, _Libyan + Notes_ (1901). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] From the enlistment of Kabyles speaking the Zouave dialect the + Zouave regiments of the French army came to be so called. + + + + +KACH GANDAVA, or KACHHI (Kach, Kej, Kiz), a low-lying flat region in +Baluchistan separating the Bugti hills from those of Kalat. It is +driven, like a wedge, into the frontier mountain system and extends for +150 m. from Jacobabad to Sibi, with nearly as great a breadth at its +base on the Sind frontier. Area, 5310 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 82,909. The +Mula pass, which connects it with the Kalat highlands, was once (when +the ancient city of Kandabel was the capital of Gandava) a much trodden +trade highway, and is still a practicable route though no longer a +popular one. The soil is fertile wherever it can be irrigated by the +floods brought down from the surrounding hills; but much of the central +portion is sandy waste. It is traversed by the North-Western railway. +The climate is unhealthy in summer, when pestilential hot winds are +sometimes destructive to life. The annual rainfall averages only 3 in. +Kachhi, though subject to the khan of Kalat, is administered under the +tribal system. There are no schools, dispensaries or gaols. + + See _Baluchistan District Gazetteer_, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). + + + + +KACHIN HILLS, a mountainous tract in Upper Burma, inhabited by the +Kachin or Chingpaw, who are known on the Assam frontier as Singphos. +Owing to the great number of tribes, sub-tribes and clans of the +Kachins, the part of the Kachin hills which has been taken under +administration in the Myitkyina and Bhamo districts was divided into 40 +Kachin hill tracts (recently reduced to five). Beyond these tracts there +are many Kachins in Katha, Möng Mit and the northern Shan States. The +country within the Kachin hill tracts is roughly estimated at 19,177 sq. +m., and consists of a series of ranges, for the most part running north +and south, and intersected by valleys, all leading towards the +Irrawaddy, which drains the country. There were 64,405 Kachins +enumerated at the census of 1901. Philological investigations show that +it is probable that the progenitors of the Kachins or Chingpaw were the +Indo-Chinese race who, before the beginnings of history, but after the +Môn-Annam wave had covered Indo-China, forsook their home in western +China to pour over the region where Tibet, Assam, Burma and China +converge, and that the Chingpaw are the residue left round the +headquarters of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin after those branches, +destined to become the Tibetans, the Nagas, the Burmans and the Kuki +Chins, had gone westwards and southwards. In the middle of the 19th +century the southern limit of the Kachins was 200 m. farther north than +it is now. Since then the race has been drifting steadily southward and +eastward, a vast aggregate of small independent clans united by no +common government, but all obeying a common impulse to move outwards +from their original seats along the line of least resistance. Now the +Kachins are on both sides of the border of Upper Burma, and are a force +to be reckoned with by frontier administrators. According to the Kachin +Hill Tribes Regulation of 1895, administrative responsibility is +accepted by the British government on the left bank of the Irrawaddy for +the country south of the Nmaikha, and on the right bank for the country +south of a line drawn from the confluence of the Malikha and Nmaikha +through the northern limit of the Laban district and including the jade +mines. The tribes north of this line were told that if they abstained +from raiding to the south of it they would not be interfered with. South +of that line peace was to be enforced and a small tribute exacted, with +a minimum of interference in their private affairs. On the British side +of the border the chief objects have been the disarmament of the tribes +and the construction of frontier and internal roads. A light tribute is +exacted. + + The Kachins have been the object of many police operations and two + regular expeditions: (1) Expedition of 1892-93. Bhamo was occupied by + the British on the 28th of December 1885, and almost immediately + trouble began. Constant punitive measures were carried on by the + military police; but in December 1892 a police column proceeding to + establish a post at Sima was heavily attacked, and simultaneously the + town of Myitkyina was raided by Kachins. A force of 1200 troops was + sent to put down the rising. The enemy received their final blow at + Palap, but not before three officers were killed, three wounded, and + 102 sepoys and followers killed and wounded. (2) Expedition of + 1895-96. The continued misconduct of the Sana Kachins from beyond the + administrative border rendered punitive measures necessary. They had + remained unpunished since the attack on Myitkyina in December 1892. + Two columns were sent up, one of 250 rifles from Myitkyina, the other + of 200 rifles from Mogaung, marching in December 1895. The resistance + was insignificant, and the operations were completely successful. A + strong force of military police is stationed at Myitkyina, with + several outposts in the Kachin hills, and the country is never wholly + free from crimes of violence committed by the Kachins. + + + + +KADUR, a district of Mysore state, in southern India, with an area of +2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 362,752, showing an increase of 9% in the +decade. The larger portion of the district consists of the Malnad or +hill country, which contains some of the wildest mountain scenery in +southern India. The western frontier is formed by the chain of the +Ghats, of which the highest peaks are the Kudremukh (6215 ft.) and the +Meniti Gudda (5451 ft.). The centre is occupied by the horse-shoe range +of the Baba Budans, containing the loftiest mountain in Mysore, +Mulaingiri (6317 ft.). The Maidan or plain country lying beneath the +amphitheatre formed by the Baba Budan hills is a most fertile region, +well watered, and with the famous "black cotton soil." The principal +rivers are the Tunga and Bhadra, which rise near each other in the +Ghats, and unite to form the Tungabhadra, a tributary of the Kistna. The +eastern region is watered by the Vedavati. At the point where this river +leaves the Baba Budan hills it is embanked to form two extensive tanks +which irrigate the lower valley. From all the rivers water is drawn off +into irrigation channels by means of anicuts or weirs. The chief natural +wealth of Kadur is in its forests, which contain inexhaustible supplies +of the finest timber, especially teak, and also furnish shelter for the +coffee plantations. Iron is found and smelted at the foot of the hills, +and corundum exists in certain localities. Wild beasts and game are +numerous, and fish are abundant. + +The largest town is Tarikere (pop. 10,164); the headquarters are at +Chikmagalur (9515): The staple crop is rice, chiefly grown on the hill +slopes, where the natural rainfall is sufficient, or in the river +valley, where the fields can be irrigated. Coffee cultivation is said to +have been introduced by a Mahommedan saint, Baba Budan, more than two +centuries ago; but it first attracted European capital in 1840. The +district is served by the Southern Mahratta railway. + + + + +KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT (1651-1716), German traveller and physician, was +born on the 16th of November 1651 at Lemgo in Lippe-Detmold, Westphalia, +where his father was a pastor. He studied at Hameln, Lüneburg, Hamburg, +Lübeck and Danzig, and after graduating Ph.D. at Cracow, spent four +years at Königsberg in Prussia, studying medicine and natural science. +In 1681 he visited Upsala in Sweden, where he was offered inducements to +settle; but his desire for foreign travel led him to become secretary to +the embassy which Charles XI. sent through Russia to Persia in 1683. He +reached Persia by way of Moscow, Kazan and Astrakhan, landing at Nizabad +in Daghestan after a voyage in the Caspian; from Shemakha in Shirvan he +made an expedition to the Baku peninsula, being perhaps the first modern +scientist to visit these fields of "eternal fire." In 1684 he arrived in +Isfahan, then the Persian capital. When after a stay of more than a year +the Swedish embassy prepared to return, Kaempfer joined the fleet of the +Dutch East India Company in the Persian Gulf as chief surgeon, and in +spite of fever caught at Bander Abbasi he found opportunity to see +something of Arabia and of many of the western coast-lands of India. In +September 1689 he reached Batavia; spent the following winter in +studying Javanese natural history; and in May 1690 set out for Japan as +physician to the embassy sent yearly to that country by the Dutch. The +ship in which he sailed touched at Siam, whose capital he visited; and +in September 1690 he arrived at Nagasaki, the only Japanese port then +open to foreigners. Kaempfer stayed two years in Japan, during which he +twice visited Tokyo. His adroitness, insinuating manners and medical +skill overcame the habitual jealousy and reticence of the natives, and +enabled him to elicit much valuable information. In November 1692 he +left Japan for Java and Europe, and in October 1693 he landed at +Amsterdam. Receiving the degree of M.D. at Leiden, he settled down in +his native city, becoming also physician to the count of Lippe. He died +at Lemgo on the 2nd of November 1716. + + The only work Kaempfer lived to publish was _Amoenitatum exoticarum + politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi_ V. (Lemgo, 1712), a selection + from his papers giving results of his invaluable observations in + Georgia, Persia and Japan. At his death the unpublished manuscripts + were purchased by Sir Hans Sloane, and conveyed to England. Among them + was a _History of Japan_, translated from the manuscript into English + by J. G. Scheuchzer and published at London, in 2 vols., in 1727. The + original German has never been published, the extant German version + being taken from the English. Besides Japanese history, this book + contains a description of the political, social and physical state of + the country in the 17th century. For upwards of a hundred years it + remained the chief source of information for the general reader, and + is still not wholly obsolete. A life of the author is prefixed to the + _History_. + + + + +KAFFA, a country of N.E. Africa, part of the Abyssinian empire. Kaffa +proper (formerly known also as Gomara) has an area of little more than +5000 sq. m., but the name is used in a general sense to include the +neighbouring territories of Gimirra, Jimma, Ennarea, &c. In this larger +acceptation Kaffa extends roughly from 6° to 9° N. and from 35° to 37½° +E. It forms the S.W. part of the great Abyssinian plateau and consists +of broken table-land deeply scored by mountain torrents and densely +wooded. The general elevation is about 8000 ft., while several peaks are +over 10,000 ft. From the western slopes of the plateau descend +headstreams of the Sobat. The principal river however is the Omo, the +chief feeder of Lake Rudolf. Kaffa proper is believed to be the native +home of the coffee plant (whence the name), which grows in profusion on +the mountain sides. The principal town was Bonga, 7½° N., 36° 12´ E., a +great trading centre, but the Abyssinian headquarters are at Anderacha, +about 12 m. S.S.W. of Bonga. Jiren, the capital of Jimma, 60 m. N.E. of +Bonga, is a still more important town, its weekly market being attended +by some 20,000 persons. + +A great variety of races inhabit these countries of southern Ethiopia. +The Kaficho (people of Kaffa proper) are said to be of the same stock as +the northern Abyssinians and to have been separated from the rest of the +country by the Mahommedan invasion of the 16th century. Thus Jimma, +immediately north of Kaffa proper, is peopled by Mahommedan Gallas. The +Kaficho, though much mixed with Galla blood, retained their Christianity +and a knowledge of Geez, the ecclesiastical tongue of Abyssinia. The +ordinary language of the Kaficho has no outward resemblance to modern +Abyssinian. Their speech was, however, stated by Dr C. T. Beke (c. 1850) +to be cognate with the Gonga tongue, spoken in a portion of Damot, on +the northern side of the Abai. Kaffa, after having been ruled by +independent sovereigns, who were also suzerains of the neighbouring +states, was about 1895 conquered by the Abyssinians. The first European +explorer of Kaffa was Antoine de'Abbadie, who visited it in 1843. Not +until the early years of the 20th century was the country accurately +mapped. + + + + +KAFFIR BREAD, in botany, the popular name for a species of +_Encephalartos_ (_E. caffra_), one of the cycads, a native of South +Africa, so called from the farinaceous food-stuff which is found at the +apex of the stem (Gr. [Greek: en], in, [Greek: kephalê], head, and +[Greek: artos], bread). It is a tree reaching nearly 20 ft. in height, +with very stiff, spreading pinnate leaves 3 to 4 ft. long and recurving +at the tip. The species of _Encephalartos_, which are natives of +tropical and South Africa, form handsome greenhouse and conservatory +plants; some species are effectively used in subtropical gardening in +the summer months. + + + + +KAFFIRS (Arabic _Kafir_, an unbeliever), a name given by the Arabs to +the native races of the east coast of Africa. The term was current along +the east coast at the arrival of the Portuguese, and passed from them to +the Dutch and English, and to the natives themselves under the form of +_Kafula_. There are no general or collective national names for these +peoples, and the various tribal divisions are mostly designated by +historical or legendary chiefs, founders of dynasties or hereditary +chieftaincies. The term has no real ethnological value, for the Kaffirs +have no national unity. To-day it is used to describe that large family +of Bantu negroes inhabiting the greater part of the Cape, the whole of +Natal and Zululand, and the Portuguese dominions on the east coast south +of the Zambezi. The name is also loosely applied to any negro inhabitant +of South Africa. For example, the Bechuana of the Transvaal and Orange +Free State are usually called Kaffirs. + +The Kaffirs are divisible into two great branches: the Ama-Zulu with the +Ama-Swazi and Ama-Tonga and the Kaffirs proper, represented by the +Ama-Xosa, the Tembu (q.v.) and the Pondo (q.v.). Hence the compound term +Zulu-Kaffir applied in a collective sense to all the Kaffir peoples. +Intermediate between these two branches were several broken tribes now +collectively known as Ama-Fengu, i.e. "wanderers" or "needy" people, +from _fenguza_, to seek service[1] (see FINGO). + + The ramifications of the Kaffirs proper cannot be understood without + reference to the national genealogies, most of the tribal names, as + already stated, being those of real or reputed founders of dynasties. + Thus the term Ama-Xosa means simply the "people of Xosa," a somewhat + mythical chief supposed to have flourished about the year 1530. Ninth + in descent from his son Toguh was Palo, who died about 1780, leaving + two sons, Gcaleka and Rarabe (pronounced Kha-Kha-be), from whom came + the Ama-Gcaleka, Ama-Dhlambe (T'slambies) and the Ama-Ngquika (Gaika + or Sandili's people). The Pondo do not descend from Xosa, but probably + from an elder brother, while the Tembu, though apparently representing + a younger branch, are regarded by all the Kaffir tribes as the royal + race. Hence the Gcaleka chief, who is the head of all the Ama-Xosa + tribes, always takes his first or "great wife" from the Tembu royal + family, and her issue alone have any claim to the succession. The + subjoined genealogical tree will place Kaffir relations in a clearer + light:-- + + Zuide (1500?), reputed founder of the nation. + | + +--------------------+--------+---------------+ + | | | + Tembu. Xosa (1530?). Mpondo. + | | | + Ama-Tembu Toguh. +---------+-----+ + (Tambookies), | | + Tembuland Palo (ob. 1780?), Ama-Mponda, Ama-Mpondumisi + and Emigrant 10th in descent between river | + Tembuland. from Xosa. Umtata and Abelungu + | Natal. (dispersed?) + | + +--------------------+-------------+ + | | + Gcaleka. Rarabe + | (Khakhabe). + Klanta. | + | +--------------+----------------+ + Hinza. | | | + | Omlao. Mbalu. Ndhlambe + | | --- | + Kreli. Ngqika. Ama-Mbalus. Ama-Ndhlambes + ----- | Ama-Gwali. or T'slambies, + Ama-Gcaleka Macomo Ama-Ntinde. between the + (Galeka), | Ama-Gqunukwebi. Keiskamma and + between the Tyali. Ama-Velelo. Great Kei + Bashee and | Ama-Baxa. rivers. + Umtata rivers. Sandili. Imi-Dange. + ----- Imi-Dushane. + Ama-Ngqika + (Gaika), + Amatola highlands. + \___________________________________________/ + | + Ama-Khakhabe. + \______________________________________________________________/ + | + Ama-Xosa. + + It will be seen that, as representing the elder branch, the Gcaleka + stand apart from the rest of Xosa's descendants, whom they group + collectively as Ama-Rarabe (Ama-Khakhabe), and whose genealogies, + except in the case of the Gaikas and T'slambies, are very confused. + The Ama-Xosa country lies mainly between the Keiskama and Umtata + rivers. + + The Zulu call themselves Abantu ba-Kwa-Zulu, i.e. "people of Zulu's + land," or briefly Bakwa-Zulu, from a legendary chief Zulu, founder of + the royal dynasty. They were originally an obscure tribe occupying the + basin of the Umfolosi river, but rose suddenly to power under + Chaka,[2] who had been brought up among the neighbouring and powerful + Umtetwas, and who succeeded the chiefs of that tribe and of his own in + the beginning of the 19th century. But the true mother tribe seems to + have been the extinct Ama-Ntombela, whence the Ama-Tefulu, the + U'ndwande, U'mlelas, U'mtetwas and many others, all absorbed or + claiming to be true Zulus. But they are only so by political + subjection, and the gradual adoption of the Zulu dress, usages and + speech. Hence in most cases the term Zulu implies political rather + than blood relationship. This remark applies also to the followers of + Mosilikatze (properly Umsilikazi), who, after a fierce struggle with + the Bechuana, founded about 1820 a second Zulu state about the head + waters of the Orange river. In 1837 most of them were driven + northwards by the Boers and are now known as Matabele. + +The origin of the Zulu-Kaffir race has given rise to much controversy. +It is obvious that they are not the aborigines of their present domain, +whence in comparatively recent times--since the beginning of the 16th +century--they have displaced the Hottentots and Bushmen of fundamentally +distinct stock. They themselves are conscious of their foreign origin. +Yet they are closely allied in speech (see BANTU LANGUAGES) and physique +to the surrounding Basuto, Bechuana and other members of the great South +African Negroid family. Hence their appearance in the south-east corner +of the continent is sufficiently explained by the gradual onward +movement of the populations pressing southward on the Hottentot and +Bushman domain. The specific differences in speech and appearance by +which they are distinguished from the other branches of the family must +in the same way be explained by the altered conditions of their new +habitat. Hence it is that the farther they have penetrated southwards +the farther have they become differentiated from the pure Negro type. +Thus the light and clear brown complexion prevalent amongst the +southern Tembu becomes gradually darker as we proceed northwards, +passing at last to the blue-black and sepia of the Ama-Swazi and Tekeza. +Even many of the mixed Fingo tribes are of a polished ebony colour, like +that of the Jolofs and other Senegambian negroes. The Kaffir hair is +uniformly of a woolly texture. The head is dolichocephalic, but it is +also high or long vertically,[3] and it is in this feature of +hypsistenocephaly (height and length combined) that the Kaffir presents +the most striking contrast with the pure Negro. But, the nose being +generally rather broad[4] and the lips thick, the Kaffir face, though +somewhat oval, is never regular in the European sense, the deviations +being normally in the direction of the Negro, with which race the +peculiar odour of the skin again connects the Kaffirs. In stature they +rank next to the Patagonians, Polynesians and West Africans, averaging +from 5 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 11 in., and even 6 ft.[5] They are slim, +well-proportioned and muscular. Owing to the hard life they lead, the +women are generally inferior in appearance to the men, except amongst +the Zulu, and especially the Tembu. Hence in the matrimonial market, +while the Ama-Xosa girl realizes no more than ten or twelve head of +cattle, the Tembu belle fetches as many as forty, and if especially fine +even eighty. + + The more warlike tribes were usually arrayed in leopard or ox skins, + of late years generally replaced by European blankets, with feather + head-dresses, coral and metal ornaments, bead armlets and necklaces. + The Makua and a few others practise tattooing, and the Ama-Xosa are + fond of painting or smearing their bodies with red ochre. Their arms + consist chiefly of ox-hide shields 4 to 6 ft. long, the kerrie or + club, and the assegai, of which there are two kinds, one long, with + 9-in. narrow blade, for throwing, the other short, with broad blade 12 + to 18 in. long, for stabbing. The dwellings are simple conical huts + grouped in kraals or villages. Although cattle form their chief + wealth, and hunting and stock-breeding their main pursuits, many have + turned to husbandry. The Zulu raise regular crops of "mealies" + (maize), and the Pondo cultivate a species of millet, tobacco, water + melons, yams and other vegetables. Milk (never taken fresh), millet + and maize form the staples of food, and meat is seldom eaten except in + time of war. + + A young Kaffir attains man's estate socially, not at puberty, but upon + his marriage. Polygyny is the rule and each wife is regarded as adding + dignity to the household. Marriage is by purchase, the price being + paid in cattle. Upon the husband's death family life is continued + under the headship of the eldest son of the house, the widows by + virtue of levirate becoming the property of the uncle or nearest + males, not sons. A son inherits and honourably liquidates, if he can, + his father's debts. + + Mentally the Kaffirs are superior to the Negro. In their social and + political relations they display great tact and intelligence; they are + remarkably brave, warlike and hospitable, and were honest and truthful + until through contact with the whites they became suspicious, + revengeful and thievish, besides acquiring most European vices. Of + religion as ordinarily understood they have very little, and have + certainly never developed any mythologies or dogmatic systems. It is + more than doubtful whether they had originally formed any notion of a + Supreme Being. Some conception, however, of a future state is implied + by a strongly developed worship of ancestry, and by a belief in + spirits and ghosts to whom sacrifices are made. There are no idols or + priests, but belief in witchcraft formerly gave the "witch-doctor" or + medicine-man overwhelming power.[6] Circumcision and polygyny are + universal; the former is sometimes attributed to Mahommedan + influences, but has really prevailed almost everywhere in East Africa + from the remotest time. + + Dearer than anything else to the Kaffir are his cattle; and many + ceremonial observances in connexion with them were once the rule. + Formerly ox-racing was a common sport, the oxen running, riderless, + over a ten-mile course. The owner of a champion racing ox was a + popular hero, and these racers were valued at hundreds of head of + cattle. Cattle are the currency of the Kaffirs in their wild state. + Ten to twenty head are the price of a wife. When a girl marries, her + father (if well off) presents her with a cow from his herd. This + animal is called _ubulungu_ or "doer of good" and is regarded as + sacred. It must never be killed nor may its descendants, as long as it + lives. A hair of its tail is tied round the neck of each child + immediately after birth. In large kraals there is the "dancing-ox," + usually of red colour. Its horns are trained to peculiar shapes by + early mutilations. It figures in many ceremonies when it is paid a + kind of knee-worship. + + The Kaffirs have three, not four, seasons: "Green Heads," "Kindness" + and "Cutting"; the first and last referring to the crops, the second + to the "warm weather." Women and children only eat after the men are + satisfied. A light beer made from sorghum is the national drink. + + Of the few industries the chief are copper and iron smelting, + practised by the Tembu, Zulu and Swazi, who manufacture weapons, + spoons and agricultural implements both for their own use and for + trade. The Swazi display some taste in wood-carving, and others + prepare a peculiar water-tight vessel of grass. Characteristic of this + race is their neglect of the art of navigation. Not the smallest boats + are ever made for crossing the rivers, much less for venturing on the + sea, except by the Makazana of Delagoa Bay and by the Zambezi people, + who have canoes and flat-bottomed boats made of planks. + + The Kaffir race had a distinct and apparently very old political + system, which may be described as a patriarchal monarchy limited by a + powerful aristocracy. Under British rule the tribal independence of + the Kaffirs has disappeared. Varying degrees of autonomy have been + granted, but the supreme powers of the chiefs have gone, the Swazi + being in 1904 the last to be brought to order. In the Transkeian + Territories tribal organization exists, but it is modified by special + legislation and the natives are under the control of special + magistrates. To a considerable extent in Natal and throughout Zululand + the Kaffirs are placed in reserves, where tribal organization is kept + up under European supervision. In Basutoland the tribal organization + is very strong, and the power of chiefs is upheld by the imperial + government, which exercises general supervision. + + See Gustav Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Südafrikas_, with atlas, 30 + plates and 120 typical heads (Breslau, 1872); W. H. I. Bleek, + _Comparative Grammar of the South African Languages_ (London and Cape + Town, pt. i., 1862; pt. ii., 1869); Theo. Hahn, _Grundzüge einer + Grammatik des Herero_ (Berlin, 1857); Dr Colenso, _Grammar of the + Zulu-Kafir Language_ (1855); Girard de Rialle, _Les Peuples de + l'Afrique et de l'Amérique_ (Paris, 1880); G. W. Stow, _The Native + Races of South Africa_ (London, 1905); G. McC. Theal, _History and + Ethnography of South Africa, 1505 to 1795_ (3 vols., London, + 1907-1910) and _History of South Africa since 1795_ (5 vols., London, + 1908), specially valuable for the political history of the Kaffirs; + Caesar C. Henkel, _The Native or Transkeian Territories_ (Hamburg, + 1903); _The Natives of South Africa_ (1901), and its sequel, _The + South African Natives_ (1908); Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ + (1904) and _Kafir Socialism_. The last four books deal with the many + social and economic questions raised by the contact of the Kaffir + races with Europeans. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The Ama-Fengu are regarded both by the Zulu and Ama-Xosa as + slaves or out-castes, without any right to the privileges of + true-born Kaffirs. Any tribes which become broken and mixed would + probably be regarded as Ama-Fengu by the other Kaffirs. Hence the + multiplicity of clans, such as the Ama-Bele, Aba-Sembotweni Ama-Zizi, + Ama-Kuze, Aba-Sekunene, Ama-Ntokaze, Ama-Tetyeni Aba-Shwawa, &c., all + of whom are collectively grouped as Ama-Fengu. + + [2] Seventh in descent from Zulu, through Kumede, Makeba, Punga, + Ndaba, Yama and Tezengakona or Senzangakona (Bleek, _Zulu Legends_). + + [3] P. Topinard, _Anthropology_ (1878), p. 274. + + [4] This feature varies considerably, "in the T'slambie tribes being + broader and more of the Negro shape than in the Gaika or Gcaleka, + while among the Ama-Tembu and Ama-Mpondo it assumes more of the + European character. In many of them the perfect Grecian and Roman + noses are discernible" (Fleming's _Kaffraria_, p. 92). + + [5] Gustav Fritsch gives the mean of the Ama-Xosa as 1.718 metres, + less than that of the Guinea Negro (1.724), but more than the English + (1.708) and Scotch (1.710). + + [6] Since the early years of the 19th century Protestant and Roman + Catholic missions have gained hundreds of thousands of converts among + the Kaffirs. Purely native Christian churches have also been + organized. + + + + +KAFFRARIA, the descriptive name given to the S.E. part of the Cape +province, South Africa. Kaffraria, i.e. the land of the Kaffirs (q.v.), +is no longer an official designation. It used to comprise the districts +now known as King William's Town and East London, which formed British +Kaffraria, annexed to Cape Colony in 1865, and the territory beyond the +Kei River south of the Drakensberg Mountains as far as the Natal +frontier, known as Kaffraria proper. As a geographical term it is still +used to indicate the Transkeian territories of the Cape provinces +comprising the four administrative divisions of Transkei, Pondoland, +Tembuland and Griqualand East, incorporated into Cape Colony at various +periods between 1879 and 1894. They have a total area of 18,310 sq. m., +and a population (1904) of 834,644, of whom 16,777 were whites. +Excluding Pondoland--not counted previously to 1904--the population had +increased from 487,364 in 1891 to 631,887 in 1904. + + _Physical Features._--The physical characteristics of Kaffraria bear a + general resemblance to those of the Cape province proper. The country + rises from sea-level in a series of terraces to the rugged range of + the Drakensberg. Between that range and the coast-lands are many + subsidiary ranges with fertile valleys through which a large number of + rivers make their way to the Indian Ocean. These rivers have very + rapid falls in comparison to their length and when less than 40 m. + from the coast are still 2000 ft. above sea-level. The chief, + beginning at the south, are the Kei, the Bashee, the Umtata, the St + John's or Umzimvubu, and the Umtamvuna, which separates Kaffraria from + Natal. The St John's River rises in the Drakensberg near the + Basuto-Natal frontier. The river valley has a length of 140 m., the + river with its many twists being double that length. It receives + numerous tributaries, one, the Tsitza, possessing a magnificent + waterfall, the river leaping over an almost vertical precipice of 375 + ft. The St John's reaches the sea between precipitous cliffs some 1200 + ft. high and covered with verdure. The mouth is obstructed by a sand + bar over which there is 14 ft. of water. None of the rivers of + Kaffraria except the St John's is navigable. + + Kaffraria is one of the most fertile regions in South Africa. The + mountain gorges abound in fine trees, thick forest and bush cover the + river banks, grass grows luxuriantly in the lower regions, and the + lowlands and valleys are favourable to almost any kind of fruit, field + and garden cultivation. The coast districts are very hot in summer, + the temperature from October to April on an average varying from 70° + to 90° F., while in winter the day temperature is seldom below 50°, + though the nights are very cold. But the variation in altitude places + climates of all grades within easy reach, from the burning coast to + the often snow-clad mountain. Thunderstorms are frequent in summer; + the winters are generally dry. On the whole the climate is extremely + healthy. At St John's are sulphur springs. + + A considerable area is devoted to the raising of wheat and other + cereals, especially in the northern district (Griqualand East), where + in the higher valleys are many farms owned by Europeans. Large + quantities of stock are raised. Most of the land is held by the + natives under tribal tenure, and the ease with which their wants are + supplied is detrimental to the full cultivation of the land. Kaffraria + is, however, one of the chief recruiting grounds for labour throughout + South Africa. Most of the white inhabitants are engaged in trade. + + _Towns and Communication._--The chief town is Kokstad (q.v.), pop. + (1904), 2903, the capital of Griqualand East. Umtata (2100 ft. above + the sea, pop. 2342) on the river of the same name, capital of + Tembuland, is the residence of an assistant chief magistrate, + headquarters of a division of the Cape Mounted Rifles, and seat of the + Anglican bishopric of Kaffraria. The principal buildings are the + cathedral, a Gothic structure, built 1901-1906, and the town-hall, a + fine building in Renaissance style, erected 1907-1908. Port St John is + the chief town in Pondoland, and the only harbour of the country. + Butterworth is the chief town in Transkei. Cala (pop. about 1000), in + the N.W. part of Tembuland, is the educational centre of Kaffraria. A + railway, 107 m. long, the first link in the direct Cape-Natal line, + runs from Indwe, 65 m. from Sterkstroom Junction on the main line from + East London to the Transvaal, to Maclear, an agricultural centre in + Griqualand East. Another railway parallel but south of that described + also traverses Kaffraria. Starting from Amabele, a station on the main + line from East London to the north, it goes via Butterworth (132 m. + from East London) to Umtata (234 m.). + + _Administration and Justice._--The Cape administrative and judicial + system is in force, save as modified by special enactments of the Cape + parliament. A "Native Territories Penal Code" which came into + operation on the 1st of January 1887 governs the relations of the + natives, who are under the jurisdiction of a chief magistrate + (resident at Cape Town) with subordinate magistrates in the + Territories. In civil affairs the tribal organization and native laws + are maintained. No chief, however, exercises criminal jurisdiction. + Since 1898 certain provisions of the Glen Grey Act have been applied + to Kaffraria (see GLEN GREY). The revenue is included in the ordinary + budget of the Cape province. The expenditure on Kaffraria considerably + exceeds the revenue derived from it. The franchise laws are the same + as in the Cape proper. Though the Kaffirs outnumber the whites by + fifty to one, white men form the bulk of the electorate, which in 1904 + numbered 4778. + + _Religion._--Numbers of Protestant missionary societies have churches + and educational establishments in Kaffraria, but, except in Fingoland, + the bulk of the Kaffirs are heathen. The Griquas profess Christianity + and have their own churches and ministers. The Anglican diocese of St + John's, Kaffraria, was founded in 1873. + +_Annexation to the Cape._--The story of the conflicts between the Kaffir +tribes and the Cape colonists is told under CAPE COLONY. As early as +1819 Kaffirland, or Kaffraria, was held not to extend west beyond the +Keiskamma River. The region east of that river as far as the Kei River +became in 1847 the Crown colony of British Kaffraria, and was annexed to +Cape Colony in 1865. The Transkeian territories remained in nominal +independence until 1875, when the Tembu sought British protection. An +inter-tribal war in 1877 between Fingo and Gcaleka resulted in the +territory of the Gcaleka chief Kreli being occupied by the British. It +was not, however, till 1879 that Fingoland and the Idutywa Reserve, +together with the district then commonly called Noman's-land, were +proclaimed an integral part of the Cape. About this time most of the +rest of Kaffraria came under British control, but it was 1885 before +Gcalekaland, the coast region of Transkei, and the various districts +comprising Tembuland--Bomvanaland on the coast, Tembuland Proper and +Emigrant Tembuland--were annexed to the colony. By the annexation, the +frontier of the colony was carried to the Umtata River, so that by 1885 +only Pondoland, fronting on the Indian Ocean, separated the Cape from +Natal. In Pondoland, Port St John, proclaimed British territory in 1881, +was, along with the lower reaches of the St John's River, incorporated +with Cape Colony in 1884; in 1886 the Xesibe country (Mount Ayliff) was +annexed to the Cape and added to Griqualand East; and in the following +year Rhode Valley was included within the boundary line. The rest of +Pondoland, chiefly in virtue of a British protectorate established over +all the coast region in 1885, was already more or less under British +control, and in 1894 it was annexed to the Cape in its entirety. Thus +the whole of Kaffraria was incorporated in Cape Colony, with the +exception of some 1550 sq. m., then part of Noman's-land, annexed by +Natal in 1866 and named Alfred county. To the wise administration of +Major Sir Henry G. Elliot, who served in Kaffraria in various official +capacities from 1877 to 1903, the country owes much of its prosperity. + +Particulars concerning each of the four divisions of Kaffraria follow. + + _Griqualand East_ (area, 7594 sq. m.), so called to distinguish it + from Griqualand West, a district north of the Orange River, lies + between Basutoland (N.W.), Natal (N.E.), Tembuland (S.W.) and + Pondoland (S.E.). It occupies the southern slopes of the Drakensberg + or the fertile valleys at their feet. It includes most of the region + formerly called Noman's-land, and afterwards named Adam Kok's Land + from the Griqua chief who occupied it in 1862 with the consent of the + British authorities, and governed the country till his death in 1876, + establishing a _volksraad_ on the Dutch model. The Griquas are still + ruled by an officially appointed headman. The majority of the + inhabitants are Basutos and Kaffirs (Pondomisi, Ama-Baka and other + tribes). The Griquas number about 6000. Since its annexation to Cape + Colony Griqualand East has made fairly rapid progress. The population + rose from 121,000 in 1881 to 222,685 in 1904, of whom 5901 were + whites. Stock-breeding on the uplands, tillage on the lower slopes of + the Drakensberg, are the chief industries. On these slopes and uplands + the climate is delightful and well suited to Europeans. There is + considerable trade with Basutoland in grain and stock, and through + Kokstad with Port St John and Port Shepstone, Natal. Much of the best + agricultural land is owned by Europeans. + + _Tembuland_ (area, 4122 sq. m.), which lies S.W. of Griqualand East + and comprises the districts of Tembuland Proper, Emigrant Tembuland + and Bomvanaland, takes its name from, the Tembu nation, called + sometimes Tambookies, one of the most powerful of the Kaffir groups. + In the national genealogies the Tembu hold an honourable position, + being traditionally descended from Tembu, elder brother of Xosa, from + whom most of the other Kaffirs claim descent. The inhabitants + increased from about 160,000 in 1881 to 231,472 in 1904, of whom 8056 + were whites. The chief town is Umtata. + + _Transkei_ (area, 2552 sq. m.) comprises the districts of Fingoland, + the Idutywa Reserve and Gcalekaland, this last being named from the + Gcaleka nation, who claim to be the senior branch of the Xosa family, + the principal royal line of the Kaffir tribes. They still form the + chief element of the population, which rose from 136,000 in 1881 to + 177,730 in 1904 (1707 whites). Here are some prosperous missionary + stations, where the natives are taught agriculture, mechanical + industries and a knowledge of letters. The heroic deeds of Hinza, + Kreli and other chiefs famous in the wars are still remembered; but + witchcraft, rain-making and other pagan practices seem to have died + out. Even more advanced in all social respects are the Fingo, who give + their name to the district of Fingoland, and also form the bulk of the + population in the Idutywa Reserve. They wear European clothes, support + their schools by voluntary contributions, edit newspapers, translate + English poetry, set their national songs to correct music, and the + majority profess Christianity. The industrial institution of + Blythswood, about 20 m. N.W. of Butterworth, is a branch of Lovedale + (q.v.), and is largely supported by the Fingo. + + _Pondoland_ (area, 4040 sq. m.; pop. (1904), 202,757 (including 1113 + whites), an estimated increase of 36,000 since 1891) is bounded E. by + the sea, N. by Natal, W. by Griqualand East, by S. and Tembuland. In + Pondoland the primitive organization of the natives has been little + altered and the influence of the chiefs is very great. Land is held + almost wholly in tribal tenure, though a number of whites possess + farms acquired before the annexation of the country. The Pondo have + shown some appreciation of the benefits of education. + + See G. McCall Theal's _History of South Africa_ and other works cited + under CAPE COLONY; also _The Native or Transkeian Territories_, by C. + C. Henkel (Hamburg, 1903), a useful handbook by an ex-official in the + Transkeian Territories. + + + + +KAFIRISTAN, a province of Afghanistan. Very little of this country was +known with accuracy and nothing at first hand until General Sir W. +(then Colonel) Lockhart headed a mission to examine the passes of the +Hindu Kush range in 1885-1886. He penetrated into the upper part of the +Bashgal valley, but after a few days he found himself compelled to +return to Chitral. Previously Major Tanner, R.A., had sought to enter +Kafiristan from Jalalabad, but sudden severe illness cut short his +enterprise. M'Nair, the famous explorer of the Indian Survey department, +believed that he had actually visited this little-known land during an +adventurous journey which he made from India and through Chitral in +disguise; but the internal evidence of his reports shows that he mistook +the Kalash district of Chitral, with its debased and idolatrous +population, for the true Kafiristan of his hopes. In 1889 Mr G. S. +Robertson (afterwards Sir George Robertson, K.C.S.I.) was sent on a +mission to Kafiristan. He only remained a few days, but a year later he +revisited the country, staying amongst the Kafirs for nearly a year. +Although his movements were hampered, his presence in the country being +regarded with suspicion, he was able to study the people, and, in spite +of intertribal jealousy, to meet members of many of the tribes. The +facts observed and the information collected by him during his sojourn +in eastern Kafiristan, and during short expeditions to the inner +valleys, are the most trustworthy foundations of our knowledge of this +interesting country. + +Kafiristan, which literally means "the land of the infidel," is the name +given to a tract of country enclosed between Chitral and Afghan +territory. It was formerly peopled by pagan mountaineers, who maintained +a wild independence until 1895, when they were finally subdued by Abdur +Rahman, the amir of Kabul, who also compelled them to accept the +religion of Islam. The territory thus ill named is included between 34° +30´ and 36° N., and from about 70° to 71° 30´ E. As the western and +northern boundaries are imperfectly known, its size cannot be estimated +with any certainty. Its greatest extent is from east to west at 35° 10´ +N.; its greatest breadth is probably about 71° E. The total area +approximates to 5000 sq. m. Along the N. the boundary is the province of +Badakshan, on the N.E. the Lutkho valley of Chitral. Chitral and lower +Chitral enclose it to the E., and the Kunar valley on the S.E. +Afghanistan proper supplies the S. limit. The ranges above the Nijrao +and Pansher valleys of Afghanistan wall it in upon the W. The northern +frontier is split by the narrow Minjan valley of Badakshan, which seems +to rise in the very heart of Kafiristan. + + Speaking generally, the country consists of an irregular series of + main valleys, for the most part deep, narrow and tortuous, into which + a varying number of still deeper, narrower and more twisted valleys, + ravines and glens pour their torrent water. The mountain ranges of + Metamorphic rock, which separate the main drainage valleys, are all of + considerable altitude, rugged and difficult, with the outline of a + choppy sea petrified. During the winter months, when the snow lies + deep, Kafiristan becomes a number of isolated communities, with few if + any means of intercommunication. In the whole land there is probably + nothing in the shape of a plain. Much of the silent, gigantic country + warms the heart as well as captivates the eye with its grandeur and + varied beauty; much of it is the bare skeleton of the world wasted by + countless centuries of storms and frost, and profoundly melancholy in + its sempiternal ruin. Every variety of mountain scenery can be found: + silent peaks and hard, naked ridges, snowfields and glaciers; mighty + pine forests, wooded slopes and grazing grounds; or wild vine and + pomegranate thickets bordering sparkling streams. At low elevations + the hill-sides are covered with the wild olive and evergreen oaks. + Many kinds of fruit trees--walnuts, mulberries, apricots and + apples--grow near the villages or by the wayside, as well as splendid + horse-chestnuts and other shade trees. Higher in elevation, and from + 4000 to 8000 ft., are the dense pine and cedar forests. Above this + altitude the slopes become dreary, the juniper, cedar and wild rhubarb + gradually giving place to scanty willow patches, tamarisk and stunted + birches. Over 13,000 ft. there are merely mosses and rough grass. + Familiar wildflowers blossom at different heights. The rivers teem + with fish. Immense numbers of red-legged partridges live in the lower + valleys, as well as pigeons and doves. Gorgeously plumaged pheasants + are plentiful. Of wild animals the chief are the _markhor_ (a goat) + and the _oorial_ (a sheep). In the winter the former are recklessly + slaughtered by hunters, being either brought to bay by trained hounds, + or trapped in pits, or caught floundering in the snow-drifts; but in + the summer immense herds move on the higher slopes. The _ibex_ is very + rare. Bears and leopards are fairly common, as well as the smaller + hill creatures. + + + Passes and Roads. + + All the northern passes leading into Badakshan or into the Minjan + valley of Badakshan seem to be over 15,000 ft. in altitude. Of these + the chief are the Mandal, the Kamah (these two alone have been + explored by a European traveller), the Kti, the Kulam and the Ramgal + passes. Those to the east, the Chitral passes, are somewhat lower, + ranging from 12,000 to 14,000 ft., e.g. the Zidig, the Shui, the + Shawal and the Parpit, while the Patkun, which crosses one of the + dwindled spurs near the Kunar river, is only 8400 ft. high. Between + neighbouring valleys the very numerous communicating footways must + rarely be lower than 10,000, while they sometimes exceed 14,000 ft. + The western passes are unknown. All these toilsome paths are so + faintly indicated, even when free from snow, that to adventure them + without a local guide is usually unsafe. Yet the light-framed cattle + of these jagged mountains can be forced over many of the worst passes. + Ordinarily the herding tracks, near the crest of the ridges and high + above the white torrents, are scarcely discoverable to untutored eyes. + They wind and waver, rise, drop and twist about the irregular + semi-precipitous slopes with baffling eccentricity and abruptness. + Nevertheless the cattle nose their way along blunderingly, but without + hurt. Of no less importance in the open months, and the sole trade + routes during winter, are the lower paths by the river. An unguided + traveller is continually at fault upon these main lines of intercourse + and traffic. + + + Rivers. + + All the rivers find their tumultuous way into the Kabul, either + directly, as the Alingar at Laghman, or after commingling with the + Kunar at Arundu and at Chigar-Serai. The Bashgal, draining the eastern + portion of the country, empties itself into the Kunar at Arundu. It + draws its highest waters from three main sources at the head of the + Bashgal valley. It glides gently through a lake close to this origin, + and then through a smaller tarn. The first affluent of importance is + the Skorigal, which joins it above the village of Pshui. Next comes + the noisier Manangal water, from the Shawal pass, which enters the + main stream at Lutdeh or Bragamatal, the chief settlement of the + Bashgal branch of the Katir tribe. By-and-by the main stream becomes, + at the hamlet of Sunra, a raging, shrieking torrent in a dark narrow + valley, its run obstructed by giant boulders and great tree-trunks. + Racing past Bagalgrom, the chief village of the Madugal Kafirs, the + river clamours round the great spur which, 1800 ft. higher up, gives + space for the terraces and houses of Kamdesh, the headquarters of the + Kam people. The next important affluent is the river which drains the + Pittigal valley, its passes and branches. Also on the left bank, and + still lower down, is the joining-place of the Gourdesh valley waters. + Finally it ends in the Kunar just above Arundu and Birkot. The middle + part of Kafiristan, including the valleys occupied by the Presun, Kti, + Ashkun and Wai tribes, is drained by a river variously called the + Pech, the Kamah, and the Presun or Viron River. It has been only + partially explored. Fed by the fountains and snows of the upper Presun + valley, it is joined at the village of Shtevgrom by the torrent from + the Kamah pass. Thence it moves quietly past meadowland, formerly set + apart as holy ground, watering on its way all the Presun villages. + Below the last of them, with an abrupt bend, it hurries into the + unexplored and rockbound Tsaru country, where it absorbs on the right + hand the Kti and the Ashkun and on the left the Wai rivers, finally + losing itself in the Kunar, close to Chigar-Serai. Concerning the + Alingar or Kao, which carries the drainage of western Kafiristan into + the Kabul at Laghman, there are no trustworthy details. It is formed + from the waters of all the valleys inhabited by the Ramgal Kafirs, and + by that small branch of the Katirs known as the Kalam tribe. + + + Climate. + + The climate varies with the altitude, but in the summer-time it is hot + at all elevations. In the higher valleys the winter is rigorous. Snow + falls heavily everywhere over 4000 ft. above the sea-level. During the + winter of 1890-1891 at Kamdesh (elevation 6100 ft.) the thermometer + never fell below 17° F. In many of the valleys the absence of wind is + remarkable. Consequently a great deal of cold can be borne without + discomfort. The Kunar valley, which is wet and windy in winter, but + where snow, if it falls, melts quickly, gives a much greater sensation + of cold than the still Kafiristan valleys of much lower actual + temperature. A deficiency of rain necessitates the employment of a + somewhat elaborate system of irrigation, which in its turn is + dependent upon the snowfall. + + + The Kafirs. + +The present inhabitants are probably mainly descended from the broken +tribes of eastern Afghanistan, who, refusing to accept Islam (in the +10th century), were driven away by the fervid swordsmen of Mahomet. +Descending upon the feeble inhabitants of the trackless slopes and +perilous valleys of modern Kafiristan, themselves, most likely, refugees +of an earlier date, they subjugated and enslaved them and partially +amalgamated with them. These ancient peoples seem to be represented by +the Presun tribe, by the slaves and by fragments of lost peoples, now +known as the Jazhis and the Aroms. The old division of the tribes into +the Siah-Posh, or the black-robed Kafirs, and the Safed-Posh, or the +white-robed, was neither scientific nor convenient, for while the +Siah-Posh have much in common in dress, language, customs and +appearance, the Safed-Posh divisions were not more dissimilar from the +Siah-Posh than they were from one another. Perhaps the best division at +present possible is into (1) Siah-Posh, (2) Waigulis, and (3) +Presungalis or Viron folk. + + + The Siah-Posh. + + The black-robed Kafirs consist of one very large, widely spread tribe, + the Katirs, and four much smaller communities, the Kam, the Madugalis, + the Kashtan or Kashtoz, and the Gourdesh. Numerically, it is probable + that the Katirs are more important than all the remaining tribes put + together. They inhabit several valleys, each community being + independent of the others, but all acknowledging the same origin and a + general relationship. The Katirs fall readily into the following + groups: (a) Those of the Bashgal valley, also called Kamoz and + Lutdehchis, who occupy eleven villages between Badawan and Sunra, the + border hamlet of the Madugal country, namely, Ptsigrom, Pshui or + Pshowar, Apsai, Shidgal, Bragamatal (Lutdeh), Bajindra, Badamuk, + Oulagal, Chabu, Baprok and Purstam; (b) the Kti or Katwar Kafirs, who + live in two settlements in the Kti valley; (c) the Kulam people, who + have four villages in the valley of the same name; (d) the Ramgalis, + or Gabariks, who are the most numerous, and possess the western part + on the Afghan border. Of the remaining tribes of the Siah-Posh, the + chief is the Kam or Kamtoz, who inhabit the Bashgal valley, from the + Madugal boundary to the Kunar valley, and its lateral branches in + seven chief settlements, namely, Urmir, Kambrom or Kamdesh, Mergrom, + Kamu, Sarat, Pittigal and Bazgal. The next Siah-Posh tribe in + importance is the Muman or Madugal Kafirs, who have three villages in + the short tract between the Katirs and the Kam in the Bashgal valley. + The last Siah-Posh tribe is the Kashtan or Kashtoz, who in 1891 were + all located in one greatly overcrowded village, their outlying + settlement having been plundered by the Afghan tribes of the Kunar + valley. One colony of Siah-Posh Kafirs lives in the Gourdesh valley; + but they differ from all the other tribes, and are believed to be + descended, in great part, from the ancient people called the Aroms. + + + The Waigulis. + + Our exact knowledge of the Waigulis is scanty. They seem to be related + in language and origin with a people fierce, shy and isolated, called + the Ashkun, who are quite unknown. The Wai speak a tongue altogether + different from that spoken by the Siah-Posh and by the Presungalis. + The names of their ten chief villages are Runchi, Nishi, Jamma, Amzhi, + Chimion, Kegili, Akun or Akum, Mildesh, Bargal and Prainta. Of these + Amzhi and Nishi are the best known. + + + The Presungalis. + + The Presungalis, also called Viron, live in a high valley. In all + respects they differ from other Kafirs, in none more than in their + unwarlike disposition. Simple, timid, stolid-featured and rather + clumsy, they are remarkable for their industry and powers of + endurance. They probably represent some of the earliest immigrants. + Six large well-built villages are occupied by them--Shtevgrom, + Pontzgrom, Diogrom, Kstigigrom, Satsumgrom and Paskigrom. + + + The Slaves. + + The slaves are fairly numerous. Their origin is probably partly from + the very ancient inhabitants and partly from war prisoners. Coarse in + feature and dark in tint, they cannot be distinguished from the lowest + class of freemen, while their dress is indistinctive. They are of two + classes--household slaves, who are treated not unkindly; and artisan + slaves, who are the skilled handicraftsmen--carvers, blacksmiths, + bootmakers and so forth; many of the musicians are also slaves. They + live in a particular portion of a village, and were considered to a + certain extent unclean, and might not approach closely to certain + sacred spots. All slaves seem to wear the Siah-Posh dress, even when + they own as masters the feeble Presungal folk. + + + Women. + + Little respect is shown to women, except in particular cases to a few + of advanced years. Usually they are mistresses and slaves, saleable + chattels and field-workers. Degraded, immoral, overworked and + carelessly fed, they are also, as a rule, unpleasant to the sight. + Little girls are sometimes quite beautiful, but rough usage and + exposure to all weathers soon make their complexions coarse and dark. + They are invariably dirty and uncombed. In comparison with the men + they are somewhat short. Physically they are capable of enormous + labour, and are very enduring. All the field-work falls to them, as + well as all kinds of inferior occupations, such as load-carrying. They + have no rights as against their husbands or, failing them, their male + relations. They cannot inherit or possess property. + + + Language. + + There are certainly three tongues spoken, besides many dialects, that + used by the Siah-Posh being of course the most common; and although it + has many dialects, the employers of one seem to understand all the + others. It is a Prakritic language. Of the remaining two, the Wai and + the Presun have no similarity; they are also unlike the Siah-Posh. + Kafirs themselves maintain that very young children from any valley + can acquire the Wai speech, but that only those born in the Presungal + can ever converse in that language, even roughly. To European ears it + is disconcertingly difficult, and it is perhaps impossible to learn. + + + Religion. + + Before their conquest by Abdur Rahman all the Kafirs were idolaters of + a rather low type. There were lingering traces of ancestor-worship, + and perhaps of fire-worship also. The gods were numerous; tribal, + family, household deities had to be propitiated, and mischievous + spirits and fairies haunted forests, rivers, vales and great stones. + Imra was the Creator, and all the other supernatural powers were + subordinate to him. Of the inferior gods, Moni seemed to be the most + ancient; but Gísh, the war-god, was by far the most popular. It was + his worship, doubtless, which kept the Kafirs so long independent. In + life as a hero, and after death as a god, he symbolized hatred to the + religion of Mahomet. Every village revered his shrine; some possessed + two. Imra, Gísh and Moni were honoured with separate little temples, + as was usually Dizáni goddess; but three or four of the others would + share one between them, each looking out of a small separate square + window. The worshipped object was either a large fragment of stone or + an image of wood conventionally carved, with round white stones for + eyes. Different animals were sacrificed at different shrines: cows to + Imra, male goats and bulls to Gísh, sheep to the god of wealth; but + goats were generally acceptable, and were also slain ceremonially to + discover a complaisant god, to solemnize a vow, to end a quarrel, to + ratify brotherhood. The ministers of religion were a hereditary + priest, a well-born chanter of praise, and a buffoon of low station, + who was supposed to become inspired at each sacrifice, and to have the + power of seeing fairies and other spirits whenever they were near, + also of understanding their wishes. The blood of the offering, + together with flour, wine and butter, was cast on the shrine after the + animal and the other gifts had been sanctified with water sprinkled by + the officiating priests, while he cried "Súch, súch!" ("Be pure!"). + Dense clouds of smoke from burning juniper-cedar, which crackled and + gave forth pungent incense, added to the spectacle, which was + dignified by the bearing of the officials and solemnized by the devout + responses of the congregation. There was no human sacrifice except + when a prisoner of war, after a solemn service at a shrine, was taken + away and stabbed before the wooden tomb of some unavenged headman. + Kafirs believed in a kind of Hell where wicked people burned; but the + Hereafter was an underground region entered by a guarded aperture, and + inhabited by the shapes which men see in dreams. Suicide was as + unknown as fear of dying. Melancholy afflicted only the sick and the + bereaved. Religious traditions, miracles and anecdotes were puerile, + and pointed no social lesson or any religious law. Music, dancing and + songs of praise were acceptable to the gods, and every village + (_grom_) had its dancing platform and dancing house (_grom ma_), + furnished with a simple altar. No prayers were offered, only + invocations, exhortative or remonstrant. + + + Tribal Organization. + + The great majority of the tribes were made up of clans. A person's + importance was derived chiefly from the wealth of his family and the + number of male adults which it contained. The power of a family, as + shown by the number and quality of its fighting men as well as by the + strength of its followers, was the index of that family's influence. + Weak clans and detached families, or poor but free households, carried + their independence modestly. The lowest clan above the slaves sought + service with their wealthier tribesmen as henchmen and armed + shepherds. By intricate ceremonial, associated with complicated + duties, social and religious, which extended over two years, + punctuated at intervals by prodigious compulsory banquets, rich men + could become elders or _jast_. Still further outlay and ostentation + enabled the few who could sustain the cost to rank still higher as + chief or _Mír_. Theoretically, all the important and outside affairs + of the tribe were managed by the _jast_ in council; actually they were + controlled by two or three of the most respected of that class. Very + serious questions which inflamed the minds of the people would be + debated in informal parliaments of the whole tribe. Kafirs have a + remarkable fondness for discussing in conclave. Orators, consequently, + are influential. The internal business of a tribe was managed by an + elected magistrate with twelve assistants. It was their duty to see + that the customs of the people were respected; that the proper seasons + for gathering fruit were rigidly observed. They regulated the + irrigation of the fields, moderating the incessant quarrels which + originated in the competition for the water; and they kept the + channels in good repair. Their chief, helped by contributions in kind + from all householders, entertained tribal guests. He also saw that the + weekly Kafir Sabbath, from the sowing to the carrying of the crops, + was carefully observed, the fires kept burning, and the dancers + collected and encouraged. Opposition to these annual magistrates or + infraction of tribal laws was punished by fines, which were the + perquisites and the payment of those officials. Serious offences + against the whole people were judged by the community itself; the + sentences ranged as high as expulsion from the settlement, accompanied + with the burning of the culprit's house and the spoliation of his + goods. In such cases, the family and the clan refusing to intervene, + the offender at once became cowed into submission. + + + Houses and Villages. + + Habitations are generally strong, and built largely of wood. They are + frequently two or more storeys high, often with an open gallery at the + top. Wealthy owners were fond of elaborate carving in simple designs + and devices. A room is square, with a smoke-hole when possible; small + windows, with shutters and bolts, and heavy doors fastened by a + sliding wooden pin, are common. The nature of the ground, its + defensible character, the necessity of not encroaching upon the scanty + arable land, and such considerations, determine the design of the + villages. Specimens of many varieties may be discovered. There is the + shockingly overcrowded oblong kind, fort-shaped, three storeys high, + and on a river's bank, which is pierced by an underground way leading + to the water. Here all rooms look on to the large central courtyard; + outwards are few or no windows. There is also the tiny hamlet of a few + piled-up hovels perched on the flattish top of some huge rock, + inaccessible when the ladder connecting it with the neighbouring + hill-side or leading to the ground is withdrawn. Some villages on + mounds are defended at the base by a circular wall strengthened with + an entanglement of branches. Others cling to the knife-edged back of + some difficult spur. Many are hidden away up side ravines. A few + boldly rely upon the numbers of their fighting men, and are + unprotected save by watch-towers. While frequently very picturesque at + a distance, all are dirty and grimed with smoke; bones and horns of + slaughtered animals litter the ground. The ground floor of a house is + usually a winter stable for cows and the latrine, as well as the + manure store for the household; the middle part contains the family + treasures; on the top is the living-place. In cold valleys, such as + the Presungal, the houses are often clustered upon a hillock, and + penetrate into the soil to the depth of two or more apartments. + Notched poles are the universal ladders and stairways. + + + Characteristics. + + In height Kafirs average about 5 ft. 6 in. They are lean; always in + hard condition; active jumpers, untiring walkers, expert mountaineers; + exceptionally they are tall and heavy. With chests fairly deep, and + muscular, springy legs, there is some lightness and want of power + about the shoulder muscles, the arms and the hand-grasp. In complexion + they are purely Eastern. Some tribes, notably the Wai, are fairer than + others, but the average colour is that of the natives of the Punjab. + Albinos, or red-haired people, number less than ½% of the population. + As a rule, the features are well-shaped, especially the nose. The + glance is wild and bold, with the wide-lidded, restless gaze of the + hawk; or the exact converse--a shifty, furtive peer under lowered + brows. This look is rather common amongst the wealthier families and + the most famous tribesmen. The shape of a man's head not uncommonly + indicates his social rank. Several have the brows of thinkers and men + of affairs. The degraded forms are the bird-of-prey type--low, hairy + foreheads, hooked noses with receding chin, or the thickened, coarse + features of the darker slave class. Intellectually they are of good + average power. Their moral characteristics are passionate + covetousness, and jealousy so intense that it smothers prudence. + Before finally destroying, it constantly endangered their wildly + cherished independence. Revenge, especially on neighbouring Kafirs, is + obtained at any price. Kafirs are subtle, crafty, quick in danger and + resolute, as might be expected of people who have been plunderers and + assassins for centuries, whose lives were the forfeit of a fault in + unflinchingness or of a moment's vacillation. Stealthy daring, born of + wary and healthy nerves and the training of generations, almost + transformed into an instinct, is the national characteristic. Ghastly + shadows, they flitted in the precincts of hostile villages far distant + from their own valleys, living upon the poorest food carried in a + fetid goatskin bag; ever ready to stab in the darkness or to wriggle + through apertures, to slay as they slept men, women and babies. Then, + with clothing for prize, and human ears as a trophy, they sped, + watchful as hares, for their far-away hills, avenger Pathans racing + furiously in their track. Kafirs, most faithful to one another, never + abandoned a comrade. If he were killed, they sought to carry away his + head for funeral observances. As traders, though cunning enough, they + are no match for the Afghan. They were more successful as brigands and + blackmailers than as skilled thieves. In night robbery and in + pilfering they showed little ingenuity. Truth was considered innately + dangerous; but a Kafir is far more trustworthy than his Mahommedan + neighbours. Although hospitality is generally viewed as a hopeful + investment, it can be calculated on, and is unstinted. Kafirs are + capable of strong friendship. They are not cruel, being kind to + children and to animals, and protective to the weak and the old. + Family ties and the claim of blood even triumph over jealousy and + covetousness. + + + Dress, Weapons, Utensils, &c. + + The national attire of the men is a badly-cured goatskin, confined at + the waist by a leather belt studded with nails, supporting the + I-hilted dagger, strong but clumsy, of slave manufacture, sheathed in + wood covered with iron or brass, and often prettily ornamented. Women + are dressed in a long, very dark tunic of wool, ample below the + shoulders, and edged with red. This is fastened at the bosom by an + iron pin, a thorn, or a fibula; it is gathered round the body by a + woven band, an inch wide, knotted in front to dangle down in tassels. + On this girdle is carried a fantastically handled knife in a leather + covering. The woman's tunic is sometimes worn by men. As worn by women + its shape is something between a long frock-coat and an Inverness + cape. Its hue and the blackness of the hairy goatskin give the name of + Siah-Posh, "black-robed," to the majority of the clans. The other + tribes wear such articles of cotton attire as they can obtain by + barter, by theft, or by killing beyond the border, for only woollen + cloth is made in the country. Of late years long robes from Chitral + and Badakshan have been imported by the wealthy, as well as the + material for loose cotton trousers and wide shirts. Clothing, always + hard to obtain, is precious property. Formerly little girls, the + children of slaves, or else poor relations, used to be sold in + exchange for clothes and ammunition. Mahommedans eagerly bought the + children, which enabled them in one transaction to acquire a female + slave and to convert an infidel. Men go bareheaded, which wrinkles + them prematurely, or they wear Chitral caps. Certain priests, and + others of like degree, wind a strip of cotton cloth round their brows. + Siah-Posh women wear curious horned caps or a small square white + head-dress upon informal occasions. Females of other tribes bind their + heads with turbans ornamented with shells and other finery. Excellent + snow gaiters are made of goat's hair for both sexes, and of woollen + material for women. Boots, strongly sewn, of soft red leather cannot + be used in the snow or when it is wet, because they are imperfectly + tanned. For the ceremonial dances all manner of gay-coloured articles + of attire, made of cheap silk, cotton velvet, and sham cloth-of-gold, + are displayed, and false jewelry and tawdry ornaments; but they are + not manufactured in the country, but brought from Peshawar by pedlars. + Woollen blankets and goat's-hair mats cover the bedsteads--four-legged + wooden frames laced across with string or leather thongs. Low square + stools, 18 in. broad, made upon the same principle as the bedsteads, + are peculiar to the Kafirs and their half-breed neighbours of the + border. Iron tripod tables, singularly Greek in design, are fashioned + in Waigul. A warrior's weapons are a matchlock (rarely a flintlock), a + bow and arrows, a spear and the dagger which he never puts aside day + or night. The axes, often carried, are light and weak, and chiefly + indicate rank. Clubs, carefully ornamented by carving, are of little + use in a quarrel; their purpose is that of a walking-stick. As they + are somewhat long, these walking-clubs have been often supposed to be + leaping-poles. Swords are rarely seen, and shields, carried purely for + ostentation, seldom. Soft stone is quarried to make large utensils, + and great grim chests of wood become grain boxes or coffins + indifferently. Prettily carved bowls with handles, or with dummy + spouts, hold milk, butter, water or small quantities of flour. Wine, + grain, everything else, is stored or carried in goatskin bags. Musical + instruments are represented by reed flageolets, small drums, primitive + fiddles, and a kind of harp. + + + Peculiar Customs. + + Isolated and at the outskirts of every village is a house used by + women when menstruating and for lying-in. Children are named as soon + as born. The infant is given to the mother to suckle, while a wise + woman rapidly recites the family ancestral names; the name pronounced + at the instant the baby begins to feed is that by which it is + thereafter known. Everybody has a double name, the father's being + prefixed to that given at birth. Very often the two are the same. + There is a special day for the first head-shaving. No hair is allowed + on a male's scalp, except from a 4-in. circle at the back of the head, + whence long locks hang down straight. Puberty is attained + ceremoniously by boys. Girls simply change a fillet for a cotton cap + when nature proclaims womanhood. Marriage is merely the purchase of a + wife through intermediaries, accompanied by feasting. Divorce is often + merely a sale or the sending away of a wife to slave for her parents + in shame. Sexual morality is low. Public opinion applauds gallantry, + and looks upon adultery as hospitality, provided it is not discovered + by the husband. If found out, _in flagrante delicto_, there is a + fiscal fine in cows. There is much collusion to get this penalty paid + in poor households. Funeral rites are most elaborate, according to the + rank and warrior fame of the deceased, if a male, and to the wealth + and standing of the family, if a woman. Children are simply carried to + the cemetery in a blanket, followed by a string of women lamenting. A + really great man is mourned over for days with orations, dancing, + wine-drinking and food distribution. Gun-firing gives notice of the + procession. After two or three days the corpse is placed in the coffin + at a secluded spot, and the observances are continued with a straw + figure lashed upon a bed, to be danced about, lamented over, and + harangued as before. During regular intervals for business and + refreshment old women wail genealogies. A year later, with somewhat + similar ritual, a wooden statue is inaugurated preliminary to erection + on the roadside or in the village Valhalla. The dead are not buried, + but deposited in great boxes collected in an assigned place. Finery is + placed with the body, as well as vessels holding water and food. + Several corpses may be heaped in one receptacle, which is, rarely, + ornamented with flags; its lid is kept from warping by heavy stones. + The wooden statues or effigies are at times sacrificed to when there + is sickness, and at one of the many annual festivals food is set + before them. Among the Presungal there are none of these images. + Blood-feuds within a tribe do not exist. The slayer of his fellow, + even by accident, has to pay a heavy compensation or else become an + outcast. Several hamlets and at least one village are peopled by + families who had thus been driven forth from the community. The stigma + attaches itself to children and their marriage connexions. Its outward + symbol is an inability to look in the face any of the dead person's + family. This avoidance is ceremonial. In private and after dark all + may be good friends after a decorous interval. The compensation is + seldom paid, although payment carries with it much enhancement of + family dignity. All the laws to punish theft, assault, adultery and + other injury are based on a system of compensation whenever possible, + and of enlisting the whole of the community in all acts of punishment. + Kafirs have true conceptions of justice. There is no death penalty; a + fighting male is too valuable a property of the whole tribe to be so + wasted. War begins honourably with proper notice, as a rule, but the + murder of an unsuspecting traveller may be the first intimation. + Bullets or arrow-heads sent to a tribe or village is the correct + announcement of hostilities. The slaying of a tribesman need not in + all cases cause a war. Sometimes it may be avoided by the sinning + tribe handing over a male to be killed by the injured relations. + Ambush, early morning attacks by large numbers, and stealthy killing + parties of two or three are the favourite tactics. Peace is made by + the sacrifice of cows handed over by the weaker tribe to be offered up + to a special god of the stronger. When both sides have shown equal + force and address, the same number of animals are exchanged. + Field-work falls exclusively to the women. It is poor. The ploughs are + light and very shallow. A woman, who only looks as if she were yoked + with the ox, keeps the beast in the furrows, while a second holds the + handle. All the operations of agriculture are done primitively. + Grazing and dairy-farming are the real trade of the Kafirs, the + surplus produce being exchanged on the frontier or sold for Kabul + rupees. Herders watch their charges fully armed against marauders. + +_History._--The history of Kafiristan has always been of the floating +legendary sort. At the present day there are men living in Chitral and +on other parts of the Kafiristan frontier who are prepared to testify as +eye-witnesses to marvels observed, and also heard, by them, not only in +the more remote valleys but even in the Afghan borderland itself. It is +not surprising therefore that the earlier records are to a great extent +fairy tales of a more or less imaginative kind and chiefly of value to +those interested in folk-lore. Sir Henry Yule, a scientific soldier, a +profound geographer and a careful student, as the result of his +researches thought that the present Kafiristan was part of that pagan +country stretching between Kashmir and Kabul which medieval Asiatics +referred to vaguely as _Bilaur_, a name to be found in Marco Polo as +_Bolor_. The first distinct mention of the Kafirs as a separate people +appears in the history of Timur. On his march to the invasion of India +the people at Andarab appealed to Timur for help against the Kator and +the Siah-Posh Kafirs. He responded and entered the country of those +tribes through the upper part of the Panjhir valley. It was in deep +winter weather and Timur had to be let down the snows by _glissade_ in a +basket guided by ropes. A detachment of 10,000 horse which he speaks of +as having been sent against the Siah-Posh to his left, presumably +therefore to the north, met with disaster; but he himself claims to have +been victorious. Nevertheless he seems quickly to have evacuated the +impracticable mountain land, quitting the country at Khawak. He caused +an inscription to be carved in the defiles of Kator to commemorate his +invasion and to explain its route. Inside the Kafir country on the Najil +or Alishang River there is a fort still called Timur's Castle, and in +the Kalam fort there is said to be a stone engraved to record that as +the farthest point of his advance. In the _Memoirs_ of Baber there is +mention of the Kafirs raiding into Panjhir and of their taste for +drinking, every man having a leathern wine-bottle slung round his neck. +The _Ain-i-Akbari_ makes occasional mention of the Kafirs, probably on +the authority of the famous _Memoirs_; it also contains a passage which +may possibly have originated the widespread story that the Kafirs were +descendants of the Greeks. Yule however believed that this passage did +not refer to the Kafirs at all, but to the claims to descent from +Alexander of the rulers in Swat before the time of the Yusufzai. Many of +the princelings of the little Hindu-Kush states at the present day pride +themselves on a similar origin, maintaining the founders of their race +to be Alexander, "the two-horned," and a princess sent down miraculously +from heaven to wed him. + +Benedict Goes, travelling from Peshawar to Kabul in 1603, heard of a +place called _Capperstam_, where no Mahommedan might enter on pain of +death. Hindu traders were allowed to visit the country, but not the +temples. Benedict Goes tasted the Kafir wine, and from all that he heard +suspected that the Kafirs might be Christians. Nothing more is heard of +the Kafirs until 1788, when Rennell's _Memoir of a Map of Hindostan_ +was published. Twenty-six years later Elphinstone's _Caubal_ was +published. During the British occupation of Kabul in 1839-1840 a +deputation of Kafirs journeyed there to invite a visit to their country +from the Christians whom they assumed to be their kindred. But the +Afghans grew furiously jealous, and the deputation was sent coldly away. + +After Sir George Robertson's sojourn in the country and the visit of +several Kafirs to India with him in 1892 an increasing intimacy +continued, especially with the people of the eastern valleys, until +1895, when by the terms of an agreement entered into between the +government of India and the ruler of Afghanistan the whole of the Kafir +territory came nominally under the sway of Kabul. The amir Abdur Rahman +at once set about enforcing his authority, and the curtain, partially +lifted, fell again heavily and in darkness. Nothing but rumours reached +the outside world, rumours of successful invasions, of the wholesale +deportation of boys to Kabul for instruction in the religion of Islam, +of rebellions, of terrible repressions. Finally even rumour ceased. A +powerful Asiatic ruler has the means of ensuring a silence which is +absolute, and nothing is ever known from Kabul except what the amir +wishes to be known. Probably larger numbers of the growing boys and +young men of Kafiristan are fanatical Mahommedans, fanatical with the +zeal of the recent convert, while the older people and the majority of +the population cherish their ancient customs in secret and their +degraded religion in fear and trembling--waiting dumbly for a sign. + +See Sir G. S. Robertson, _Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush_ (London, 1896). + (G. S. R.) + + + + +KAGERA, a river of east equatorial Africa, the most remote headstream of +the Nile. The sources of its principal upper branch, the Nyavarongo, +rise in the hill country immediately east of Lake Kivu. After a course +of over 400 m. the Kagera enters Victoria Nyanza on its western shore in +0° 58´ S. It is navigable by steamers for 70 m. from its mouth, being +obstructed by rapids above that point. The river was first heard of by +J. H. Speke in 1858, and was first seen (by white men) by the same +traveller (Jan. 16, 1862) on his journey to discover the Nile source. +Speke was well aware that the Kagera was the chief river emptying into +the Victoria Nyanza and in that sense _the_ headstream of the Nile. By +him the stream was called "Kitangulé," _kagera_ being given as +equivalent to "river." The exploration of the Kagera has been largely +the work of German travellers. + + See NILE; also Speke's _Discovery of the Source of the Nile_ + (Edinburgh, 1863); R. Kandt's _Caput Nili_ (Berlin, 1904); and map by + P. Sprigade and M. Moisel in _Grosser deutscher Kolonialatlas_, No. 16 + (Berlin, 1906). + + + + +KAHLUR, or BILASPUR, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It is +one of the hill states that came under British protection after the +first Sikh war in 1846. The Gurkhas had overrun the country in the early +part of the 19th century, and expelled the raja, who was, however, +reinstated by the British in 1815. The state occupies part of the basin +of the Sutlej amid the lower slopes of the Himalaya. Area, 448 sq. m. +Pop. (1901), 90,873; estimated gross revenue, £10,000; tribute, £530. +The chief, whose title is raja, is a Chandel Rajput. The town of +Bilaspur is situated on the left bank of the Sutlej, 1465 ft. above +sea-level; pop. (1901), 3192. + + + + +KAHN, GUSTAVE (1859- ), French poet, was born at Metz on the 21st of +December 1859. He was educated in Paris at the École des Chartes and the +École des langues orientales, and began to contribute to obscure +Parisian reviews. After four years spent in Africa he returned to Paris +in 1885, and founded in 1886 a weekly review, _La Vogue_, in which many +of his early poems appeared. In the autumn of the same year he founded, +with Jean Moréas and Paul Adam, a short-lived periodical, _Le +Symboliste_, in which they preached the nebulous poetic doctrine of +Stéphane Mallarmé; and in 1888 he became one of the editors of the +_Revue indépendante_. He contributed poetry and criticism to the French +and Belgian reviews favourable to the extreme symbolists, and, with +Catulle Mendès, he founded at the Odéon, the Théâtre Antoine and the +Théâtre Sarah Bernhardt, matinées for the production of the plays of the +younger poets. He claimed to be the earliest writer of the _vers libre_, +and explained his methods and the history of the movement in a preface +to his _Premiers poèmes_ (1897). Later books are _Le Livre d'images_ +(1897); _Les Fleurs de la passion_ (1900); some novels; and a valuable +contribution to the history of modern French verse in _Symbolistes et +décadents_ (1902). + + + + +KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1814-1888), German Lutheran theologian, +was born at Greiz on the 22nd of December 1814. He studied at Halle, and +in 1850 was appointed professor ordinarius at Leipzig. Ten years later +he was made canon of Meissen. He retired in 1886, and died on the 20th +of June 1888 at Leipzig. Kahnis was at first a neo-Lutheran, blessed by +E. W. Hengstenberg and his pietistic friends. He then attached himself +to the Old Lutheran party, interpreting Lutheranism in a broad and +liberal spirit and showing some appreciation of rationalism. His +_Lutherische Dogmatik, historisch-genetisch dargestellt_ (3 vols., +1861-1868; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1874-1875), by making concessions to +modern criticism, by spiritualizing and adapting the old dogmas, by +attacking the idea of an infallible canon of Scripture and the +conventional theory of inspiration, by laying stress on the human side +of Scripture and insisting on the progressive character of revelation, +brought him into conflict with his former friends. A. W. Diekhoff, Franz +Delitzsch (_Für und wider Kahnis_, 1863) and Hengstenberg (_Evangelische +Kirchenzeitung_, 1862) protested loudly against the heresy, and Kahnis +replied to Hengstenberg in a vigorous pamphlet, _Zeugniss für die +Grundwahrheiten des Protestantismus gegen Dr Hengstenberg_ (1862). + + Other works by Kahnis are _Lehre vom Abendmahl_ (1851), _Der innere + Gang des deutschen Protestantismus seit Mitte des vorigen + Jahrhunderts_ (1854; 3rd ed. in 2 vols., 1874; Eng. trans., 1856); + _Christentum und Luthertum_ (1871); _Geschichte der deutschen + Reformation_, vol. i. (1872); _Der Gang der Kirche in Lebensbildern_ + (1881, &c.); and _Über das Verhältnis der alten Philosophie zum + Christentum_ (1884). + + + + +K'AI-FÊNG FU, the capital of the province of Honan, China. It is +situated in 34° 52´ N., 114° 33´ E., on a branch line of the +Peking-Hankow railway, and forms also the district city of Siang-fu. A +city on the present site was first built by Duke Chwang (774-700 B.C.) +to mark off (_k'ai_) the boundary of his fief (_fêng_); hence its name. +It has, however, passed under several _aliases_ in Chinese history. +During the Chow, Suy and T'ang dynasties (557-907) it was known as +P'ien-chow. During the Wu-tai, or five dynasties (907-960), it was the +Tung-king, or eastern capital. Under the Sung and Kin dynasties +(960-1260) it was called P'ien-king. By the Yuan or Mongol dynasty +(1260-1368) its name was again changed to P'ien-liang, and on the return +of the Chinese to power with the establishment of the Ming dynasty +(1368-1644), its original name was restored. The city is situated at the +point where the last spur of the Kuen-lun mountain system merges in the +eastern plain, and a few miles south of the Hwang-ho. Its position, +therefore, lays it Open to the destructive influences of this river. In +1642 it was totally destroyed by a flood caused by the dikes bursting, +and on several prior and subsequent occasions it has suffered injury +from the same cause. The city is large and imposing, with broad streets +and handsome buildings, the most notable of which are a twelve-storeyed +pagoda 600 ft. high, and a watch tower from which, at a height of 200 +ft., the inhabitants are able to observe the approach of the yellow +waters of the river in times of flood. The city wall forms a substantial +protection and is pierced by five gates. The whole neighbourhood, which +is the site of one of the earliest settlements of the Chinese in China, +is full of historical associations, and it was in this city that the +Jews who entered China in A.D. 1163 first established a colony. For many +centuries these people held themselves aloof from the natives, and +practised the rites of their religion in a temple built and supported by +themselves. At last, however, they fell upon evil times, and in 1851, +out of the seventy families which constituted the original colony, only +seven remained. For fifty years no rabbi had ministered to the wants of +this remnant. In 1853 the city was attacked by the T'ai-p'ing rebels, +and, though at the first assault its defenders successfully resisted the +enemy, it was subsequently taken. The captors looted and partially +destroyed the town. It has now little commerce, but contains several +schools on Western lines--including a government college opened in 1902, +and a military school near the railway station. A mint was established +in 1905, and there is a district branch of the imperial post. The +population--largely Mahommedan--was estimated (1908) at 200,000. Jews +numbered about 400. + + + + +KAILAS, a mountain in Tibet. It is the highest peak of the range of +mountains lying to the north of Lake Manasorawar, with an altitude of +over 22,000 ft. It is famous in Sanskrit literature as Siva's paradise, +and is a favourite place of pilgrimage with Hindus, who regard it as the +most sacred spot on earth. A track encircles the base of the mountain, +and it takes the pilgrim three weeks to complete the round, prostrating +himself all the way. + + + + +KAIN, the name of a sub-province and of a town of Khorasan, Persia. The +sub-province extends about 300 m. N. to S., from Khaf to Seistan, and +about 150 m. W. to E., from the hills of Tun to the Afghan frontier, +comprising the whole of south-western Khorasan. It is very hilly, but +contains many wide plains and fertile villages at a mean elevation of +4000 ft. It has a population of about 150,000, rears great numbers of +camels and produces much grain, saffron, wool, silk and opium. The chief +manufactures are felts and other woollen fabrics, principally carpets, +which have a world-wide reputation. The best Kaini carpets are made at +Darakhsh, a village in the Zirkuh district and 50 m. N.E. of Birjend. It +is divided into eleven administrative divisions:--Shahabad (with the +capital Birjend), Naharjan, Alghur, Tabas sunni Khaneh, Zirkuh Shakhan, +Kain, Nimbuluk, Nehbandan, Khusf, Arab Khaneh or Momenabad. + +The town of Kain, the capital of the sub-province until 1740, when it +was supplanted by Birjend, is situated 65 m. N. of Birjend on the +eastern side of a broad valley, stretching from N. to S., at the base of +the mountain Abuzar, in 33° 42´ N. and 59° 8´ E., and at an elevation of +4500 ft. Its population is barely 5000. It is surrounded by a mud wall +and bastions, and near it, on a hill rising 500 ft. above the plain, are +the ruins of an ancient castle which, together with the old town, was +destroyed either by Shah Rukh (1404-1447), a son, or by Baysunkur (d. +1433), a grandson of Timur (Tamerlane), who afterwards built a new town. +After a time the Uzbegs took possession and held the town until Shah +Abbas I. (1587-1629) expelled them. In the 18th century it fell under +the sway of the Afghans and remained a dependency of Herat until 1851. A +large number of windmills are at work outside the town. The great +mosque, now in a ruinous state, was built A.H. 796 (A.D. 1394) by Karen +b. Jamshid and repaired by Yusof Dowlatyar. + + + + +KAIRA, or KHEDA, a town and district of British India, in the northern +division of Bombay. The town is 20 m. S.W. of Ahmedabad and 7 m. from +Mehmadabad railway station. Pop. (1901), 10,392. Its antiquity is proved +by the evidence of copperplate grants to have been known as early as the +5th century. Early in the 18th century it passed to the Babi family, +with whom it remained till 1763, when it was taken by the Mahrattas; it +was finally handed over to the British in 1803. It was a large military +station till 1830, when the cantonment was removed to Deesa. + +The DISTRICT OF KAIRA has an area of 1595 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 716,332, +showing a decrease of 18% in the decade, due to the results of famine. +Except a small corner of hilly ground near its northern boundary and in +the south-east and south, where the land along the Mahi is furrowed into +deep ravines, the district forms one unbroken plain, sloping gently +towards the south-west. The north and north-east portions are dotted +with patches of rich rice-land, broken by untilled tracts of low +brushwood. The centre of the district is very fertile and highly +cultivated; the luxuriant fields are surrounded by high hedges, and the +whole country is clothed with clusters of shapely trees. To the west +this belt of rich vegetation passes into a bare though well-cultivated +tract of rice-land, growing more barren and open till it reaches the +maritime belt, whitened by a salt-like crust, along the Gulf of Cambay. +The chief rivers are the Mahi on the south-east and south, and the +Sabarmati on the western boundary. The Mahi, owing to its deeply cut bed +and sandbanks, is impracticable for either navigation or irrigation; but +the waters of the Sabarmati are largely utilized for the latter purpose. +A smaller stream, the Khari, also waters a considerable area by means of +canals and sluices. The principal crops are cotton, millets, rice and +pulse; the industries are calico-printing, dyeing, and the manufacture +of soap and glass. The chief centre of trade is Nadiad, on the railway, +with a cotton-mill. A special article of export is _ghi_, or clarified +butter. The Bombay & Baroda railway runs through the district. The +famine of 1899-1900 was felt more severely here than in any other part +of the province, the loss of cattle being specially heavy. + + + + +KAIRAWAN (KEROUAN), the "sacred" city of Tunisia, 36 m. S. by W. by rail +from Susa, and about 80 m. due S. from the capital. Kairawan is built in +an open plain a little west of a stream which flows south to the +Sidi-el-Hani lake. Of the luxuriant gardens and olive groves mentioned +in the early Arabic accounts of the place hardly a remnant is left. +Kairawan, in shape an irregular oblong, is surrounded by a crenellated +brick wall with towers and bastions and five gates. The city, however, +spreads beyond the walls, chiefly to the south and west. Some of the +finest treasures of Saracenic art in Tunisia are in Kairawan; but the +city suffered greatly from the vulgarization which followed the Turkish +conquest, and also from the blundering attempts of the French to restore +buildings falling into ruin. The streets have been paved and planted +with trees, but the town retains much of its Oriental aspect. The houses +are built round a central courtyard, and present nothing but bare walls +to the street. The chief buildings are the mosques, which are open to +Christians, Kairawan being the only town in Tunisia where this privilege +is granted. + +In the northern quarter stands the great mosque founded by Sidi Okba ibn +Nafi, and containing his shrine and the tombs of many rulers of Tunisia. +To the outside it presents a heavy buttressed wall, with little of +either grandeur or grace. It consists of three parts: a cloistered +court, from which rises the massive and stately minaret, the maksura or +mosque proper, and the vestibule. The maksura is a rectangular domed +chamber divided by 296 marble and porphyry columns into 17 aisles, each +aisle having 8 arches. The central aisle is wider than the others, the +columns being arranged by threes. All the columns are Roman or +Byzantine, and are the spoil of many ancient cities. Access to the +central aisle is gained through a door of sculptured wood known as the +Beautiful Gate. It has an inscription with the record of its +construction. The walls are of painted plaster-work; the mimbar or +pulpit is of carved wood, each panel bearing a different design. The +court is surrounded by a double arcade with coupled columns. In all the +mosque contains 439 columns, including two of alabaster given by one of +the Byzantine emperors. To the Mahommedan mind the crowning distinction +of the building is that through divine inspiration the founder was +enabled to set it absolutely true to Mecca. The mosque of Sidi Okba is +the prototype of many other notable mosques (see MOSQUE). Of greater +external beauty than that of Sidi Okba is the mosque of the Three Gates. +Cufic inscriptions on the façade record its erection in the 9th and its +restoration in the 15th century A.D. Internally the mosque is a single +chamber supported by sixteen Roman columns. One of the finest specimens +of Moorish architecture in Kairawan is the _zawia_ of Sidi +Abid-el-Ghariani (d. c. A.D. 1400), one of the Almoravides, in whose +family is the hereditary governorship of the city. The entrance, a door +in a false arcade of black and white marble, leads into a court whose +arches support an upper colonnade. The town contains many other notable +buildings, but none of such importance as the mosque of the Companion +(i.e. of the Prophet), outside the walls to the N.W. This mosque is +specially sacred as possessing what are said to be three hairs of the +Prophet's beard, buried with the saint, who was one of the companions +of Mahomet. (This legend gave rise to the report that the tomb contained +the remains of Mahomet's barber.) The mosque consists of several courts +and chambers, and contains some beautiful stained glass. The court which +forms the entrance to the shrine of the saint is richly adorned with +tiles and plaster-work, and is surrounded by an arcade of white marble +columns, supporting a painted wooden roof. The minaret is faced with +tiles and is surmounted by a gilded crescent. The 19th-century mosque of +Sidi Amar Abada, also outside the wall, is in the form of a cross and is +crowned with seven cupolas. In the suburbs are huge cisterns, attributed +to the 9th century, which still supply the city with water. The cemetery +covers a large area and has thousands of Cufic and Arabic inscriptions. + +Formerly famous for its carpets and its oil of roses, Kairawan is now +known in northern Africa rather for copper vessels, articles in morocco +leather, potash and saltpetre. The town has a population of about +20,000, including a few hundred Europeans. + + Arab historians relate the foundation of Kairawan by Okba with + miraculous circumstances (Tabari ii. 63; Yaqut iv. 213). The date is + variously given (see Weil, _Gesch. d. Chalifen_, i. 283 seq.); + according to Tabari it must have been before 670. The legend says that + Okba determined to found a city which should be a rallying-point for + the followers of Mahomet in Africa. He led his companions into the + desert, and having exhorted the serpents and wild beasts, in the name + of the Prophet, to retire, he struck his spear into the ground + exclaiming "Here is your Kairawan" (resting-place), so naming the + city.[1] In the 8th century Kairawan was the capital of the province + of Ifrikia governed by amirs appointed by the caliphs. Later it became + the capital of the Aghlabite princes, thereafter following the + fortunes of the successive rulers of the country (see TUNISIA: + _History_). After Mecca and Medina Kairawan is the most sacred city in + the eyes of the Mahommedans of Africa, and constant pilgrimages are + made to its shrines. Until the time of the French occupation no + Christian was allowed to pass through the gates without a special + permit from the bey, whilst Jews were altogether forbidden to approach + the holy city. Contrary to expectation no opposition was offered by + the citizens to the occupation of the place by the French troops in + 1881. On that occasion the native troops hastened to the mosques to + perform their devotions; they were followed by European soldiers, and + the mosques having thus been "violated" have remained open ever since + to non-Mahommedans. + + See Murray's _Handbook to Algeria and Tunis_, by Sir R. L. Playfair + (1895); A. M. Broadley, _The Last Punic War: Tunis Past and Present_ + (1882) and H. Saladin, _Tunis el Kairouan_ (1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Though Okba founded his city in a desert place, excavations + undertaken in 1908 revealed the existence of Roman ruins, including a + temple of Saturn, in the neighbourhood. + + + + +KAISERSLAUTERN, a town in the Bavarian palatinate, on the Waldlauter, in +the hilly district of Westrich, 41 m. by rail W. of Mannheim. Pop. +(1905), 52,306. Among its educational institutions are a gymnasium, a +Protestant normal school, a commercial school and an industrial museum. +The house of correction occupies the site of Frederick Barbarossa's +castle, which was demolished by the French in 1713. Kaiserslautern is +one of the most important industrial towns in the palatinate. Its +industries include cotton and wool spinning and weaving, iron-founding, +and the manufacture of beer, tobacco, gloves, boots, furniture, &c. +There is some trade in fruit and in timber. + +Kaiserslautern takes its name from the emperor (Kaiser) Frederick I., +who built a castle here about 1152, although it appears to have been a +royal residence in Carolingian times. It became an imperial city, a +dignity which it retained until 1357, when it passed to the palatinate. +In 1621 it was taken by the Spanish, in 1631 by the Swedish, in 1635 by +the imperial and in 1713 by the French troops. During 1793 and 1794 it +was the scene of fighting; and in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 it was +the base of operations of the second German army, under Prince Frederick +Charles. It was one of the early stations of the Reformation, and in +1849 was the centre of the revolutionary spirit in the palatinate. + + See Lehmann, _Urkundliche Geschichte von Kaiserslautern_ + (Kaiserslautern, 1853), and E. Jost, _Geschichte der Stadt + Kaiserslautern_ (Kaiserslautern, 1886). + + + + +KAISERSWERTH, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank +of the Rhine, 6 m. below Düsseldorf. Pop. (1905), 2462. It possesses a +Protestant and a large old Romanesque Roman Catholic church of the 12th +or 13th century, with a valuable shrine, said to contain the bones of St +Suitbert, and has several benevolent institutions, of which the chief is +the _Diakonissen Anstalt_, or training-school for Protestant sisters of +charity. This institution, founded by Pastor Theodor Fliedner +(1800-1864) in 1836, has more than 100 branches, some being in Asia and +America; the head establishment at Kaiserswerth includes an orphanage, a +lunatic asylum and a Magdalen institution. The Roman Catholic hospital +occupies the former Franciscan convent. The population is engaged in +silk-weaving and other small industries. + + In 710 Pippin of Heristal presented the site of the town to Bishop + Suitbert, who built the Benedictine monastery round which the town + gradually formed. Until 1214 Kaiserswerth lay on an island, but in + that year Count Adolph V. of Berg, who was besieging it, dammed up + effectually one arm of the Rhine. About the beginning of the 14th + century Kaiserswerth, then an imperial city, came to the archbishopric + of Cologne, and afterwards to the duchy of Juliers, whence, after some + vicissitudes, it finally passed into the possession of the princes of + the palatinate, whose rights, long disputed by the elector of Cologne, + were legally settled in 1772. In 1702 the fortress was captured by the + Austrians and Prussians, and the Kaiserpfalz, whence the young emperor + Henry IV. was abducted by Archbishop Anno of Cologne in 1062, was + blown up. + + See J. Disselhoff, _Das Diaconissenmutterhaus zu Kaiserswerth_ (new + ed., 1903; Eng. trans., 1883). + + + + +KAITHAL, or KYTHAL, an ancient town of British India in Karnal district, +Punjab. Pop. (1901), 14,408. It is said to have been founded by the +mythical hero Yudisthira, and is connected by tradition with the +monkey-god Hanuman. In 1767 it fell into the hands of the Sikh +chieftain, Bhai Desu Singh, whose descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, +ranked among the most powerful Cis-Sutlej chiefs. Their territories +lapsed to the British in 1843. There remain the fort of the bhais, and +several Mahommedan tombs of the 13th century and later. There is some +trade in grain, sal-ammoniac, live stock and blankets; and cotton, +saltpetre, lac ornaments and toys are manufactured. + + + + +KAKAPO, the Maori name, signifying "night parrot," and frequently +adopted by English writers, of a bird, commonly called by the British in +New Zealand the "ground-parrot" or "owl-parrot." The existence of this +singular form was first made known in 1843 by Ernst Dieffenbach +(_Travels in N. Zealand_, ii. 194), from some of its tail-feathers +obtained by him, and he suggested that it was one of the _Cuculidae_, +possibly belonging to the genus _Centropus_, but he added that it was +becoming scarce, and that no example had been seen for many years. G. R. +Gray, noticing it in June 1845 (_Zool. Voy. "Erebus" and "Terror,"_ pt. +ix. p. 9), was able to say little more of it, but very soon afterwards a +skin was received at the British Museum, of which, in the following +September, he published a figure (_Gen. Birds_, pt. xvii.), naming it +_Strigops[1] habroptilus_, and rightly placing it among the parrots, but +he did not describe it technically for another eighteen months (_Proc. +Zool. Society_, 1847, p. 61). Many specimens have now been received in +Europe, so that it is represented in most museums, and several examples +have reached England alive. + +In habits the kakapo is almost wholly nocturnal,[2] hiding in holes +(which in some instances it seems to make for itself) under the roots of +trees or rocks during the day time, and only issuing forth about sunset +to seek its food, which is solely vegetable in kind, and consists of the +twigs, leaves, seeds and fruits of trees, grass and fern roots--some +observers say mosses also. It sometimes climbs trees, but generally +remains on the ground, only using its comparatively short wings to +balance itself in running or to break its fall when it drops from a +tree--though not always then--being apparently incapable of real flight. +It thus becomes an easy prey to the marauding creatures--cats, rats and +so forth--which European colonists have, by accident or design, let +loose in New Zealand. Sir G. Grey says it had been, within the memory of +old people, abundant in every part of that country, but (writing in +1854) was then found only in the unsettled districts. + +The kakapo is about the size of a raven, of a green or brownish-green +colour, thickly freckled and irregularly barred with dark brown, and +dashed here and there with longitudinal stripes of light yellow. +Examples are subject to much variation in colour and shade, and in some +the lower parts are deeply tinged with yellow. Externally the most +striking feature of the bird is its head, armed with a powerful beak +that it well knows how to use, and its face clothed with hairs and +elongated feathers that sufficiently resemble the physiognomy of an owl +to justify the generic name bestowed upon it. Of its internal structure +little has been described, and that not always correctly. Its furcula +has been said (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 594) to be "lost," +whereas the clavicles, which in most birds unite to form that bone, are +present, though they do not meet, while in like manner the bird has been +declared (_op. cit._, 1867, p. 624, note) to furnish among the +_Carinatae_ "the only apparent exception to the presence of a keel" to +the sternum. The keel, however, is undoubtedly there, as remarked by +Blanchard (_Ann. Nat. Sc., Zoologie_, 4th series, vol. xi. p. 83) and A. +Milne Edwards (_Ois. Foss. de la France_, ii. 516), and, though much +reduced in size, is nearly as much developed as in the Dodo and the +Ocydrome. The aborted condition of this process can hardly be regarded +but in connexion with the incapacity of the bird for flight, and may +very likely be the result of disuse. There can be scarcely any doubt as +to the propriety of considering this genus the type of a separate family +of _Psittaci_; but whether it stands alone or some other forms +(_Pezoporus_ or _Geopsittacus_, for example, which in coloration and +habits present some curious analogies) should be placed with it, must +await future determination. In captivity the kakapo is said to show much +intelligence, as well as an affectionate and playful disposition. +Unfortunately it does not seem to share the longevity characteristic of +most parrots, and none that has been held in confinement appears to have +long survived, while many succumb speedily. + + For further details see Gould's _Birds of Australia_ (ii. 247), and + _Handbook_ (ii. 539); Dr Finsch's _Die Papageien_ (i. 241), and Sir + Walter Buller's _Birds of New Zealand_ especially. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] This generic term was subsequently altered by Van der Hoeven, + rather pedantically, to _Stringops_, a spelling now generally + adopted. + + [2] It has, however, been occasionally observed abroad by day; and, + in captivity, one example at least is said to have been as active by + day as by night. + + + + +KAKAR, a Pathan tribe on the Zhob valley frontier of Baluchistan. The +Kakars inhabit the back of the Suliman mountains between Quetta and the +Gomal river; they are a very ancient race, and it is probable that they +were in possession of these slopes long before the advent of Afghan or +Arab. They are divided into many distinct tribes who have no connexion +beyond the common name of Kakar. Not only is there no chief of the +Kakars, or general _jirgah_ (or council) of the whole tribe, but in most +cases there are no recognized heads of the different clans. In 1901 they +numbered 105,444. During the second Afghan War the Kakars caused some +annoyance on the British line of communications; and the Kakars +inhabiting the Zhob valley were punished by the Zhob valley expedition +of 1884. + + + + +KALA-AZAR, or Dum-Dum fever, a tropical disease, characterized by +remittent fever, anaemia and enlargement of the spleen (splenomegaly) +and often of the liver. It is due to a protozoon parasite (see PARASITIC +DISEASES), discovered in 1900 by Leishman in the spleen, and is of a +malarial type. The treatment is similar to that for malaria. In Assam +good results have been obtained by segregation. + + + + +KALABAGH, a town of British India in the Mianwali district of the +Punjab. Pop. (1901), 5824. It is picturesquely situated at the foot of +the Salt range, on the right bank of the Indus, opposite the railway +station of Mari. The houses nestle against the side of a precipitous +hill of solid rock-salt, piled in successive tiers, the roof of each +tier forming the street which passes in front of the row immediately +above, and a cliff, also of pure rock-salt, towers above the town. The +supply of salt, which is worked from open quarries, is practically +inexhaustible. Alum also occurs in the neighbouring hills, and forms a +considerable item of local trade. Iron implements are manufactured. + + + + +KALACH, also known as DONSKAYA, a village of S.E. Russia, in the +territory of the Don Cossacks, and a river port on the Don, 31 m. N.E. +of Nizhne-Chirskaya, in 43° 30´ E. and 48° 43´ N. Its permanent +population, only about 1200, increases greatly in summer. It is the +terminus of the railway (45 m.) which connects the Don with Tsaritsyn on +the Volga, and all the goods (especially fish, petroleum, cereals and +timber) brought from the Caspian Sea up the Volga and destined for +middle Russia, or for export through the Sea of Azov, are unloaded at +Tsaritsyn and sent over to Kalach on the Don. + + + + +KALAHANDI (formerly KAROND), a feudatory state of India, which was +transferred from the Central Provinces to the Orissa division of Bengal +in 1905. A range of the Eastern Ghats runs from N.E. to S.W. through the +state, with open undulating country to the north. Area 3745 sq. m.; pop. +(1901), 350,529; estimated revenue, £8000; tribute, £800. The +inhabitants mostly belong to the aboriginal race of Khonds. A murderous +outbreak against Hindu settlers called for armed intervention in 1882. +The chief, Raghu Kishor Deo, was murdered by a servant in 1897, and +during the minority of his son, Brij Mohan Deo, the state was placed in +charge of a British political agent. The capital is Bhawani Patna. + + + + +KALAHARI DESERT, a region of South Africa, lying mainly between 20° and +28° S. and 19° and 24° E., and covering fully 120,000 sq. m. The greater +part of this territory forms the western portion of the (British) +Bechuanaland protectorate, but it extends south into that part of +Bechuanaland annexed to the Cape and west into German South-West Africa. +The Orange river marks its southern limit; westward it reaches to the +foot of the Nama and Damara hills, eastward to the cultivable parts of +Bechuanaland, northward and north-westward to the valley of the Okavango +and the bed of Lake Ngami. The Kalahari, part of the immense inner +table-land of South Africa, has an average elevation of over 3000 ft. +with a general slope from east to west and a dip northward to Ngami. +Described by Robert Moffat as "the southern Sahara," the Kalahari +resembles the great desert of North Africa in being generally arid and +in being scored by the beds of dried-up rivers. It presents however many +points of difference from the Sahara. The surface soil is mainly red +sand, but in places limestone overlies shale and conglomerates. The +ground is undulating and its appearance is comparable with that of the +ocean at times of heavy swell. The crests of the waves are represented +by sand dunes, rising from 30 to 100 ft.; the troughs between the dunes +vary greatly in breadth. On the eastern border long tongues of sand +project into the veld, while the veld in places penetrates far into the +desert. There are also, and especially along the river beds, extensive +mud flats. After heavy rain these become pans or lakes, and water is +then also found in mud-bottomed pools along the beds of the rivers. The +water in the pans is often brackish, and in some cases thickly encrusted +with salt. Pans also occur in crater-like depressions where rock rises +above the desert sands. A tough, sun-bleached grass, growing knee-high +in tufts at intervals of about 15 in., covers the dunes and gives the +general colour of the landscape. Considerable parts of the Kalahari, +chiefly in the west and north, are however covered with dense scrub and +there are occasional patches of forest. Next to the lack of water the +chief characteristics of the desert are the tuberous and herbaceous +plants and the large numbers of big game found in it. Of the plants the +most remarkable is the water-melon, of which both the bitter and sweet +variety are found, and which supplies both man and beast with water. The +game includes the lion, leopard, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, buffalo, +zebra, quagga, many kinds of antelope (among them the kudu and gnu), +baboon and ostrich. The elephant, giraffe and eland are also found. The +hunting of these three last-named animals is prohibited, and for all +game there is a close time from the beginning of September to the end of +February. + +The climate is hot, dry and healthy, save in the neighbourhood of the +large marshes in the north, where malarial fever is prevalent. In this +region the drainage is N.E. to the great Makarikari marsh and the +Botletle, the river connecting the marsh with the Ngami system. In the +south the drainage is towards the Orange. The Molopo and the Kuruman, +which in their upper course in eastern Bechuanaland are perennial +streams, lose their water by evaporation and percolation on their way +westward through the Kalahari. The Molopo, a very imposing river on the +map, is dry in its lower stretches. The annual rainfall does not exceed +10 in. It occurs in the summer months, September to March, and chiefly +in thunderstorms. The country is suffering from progressive desiccation, +but there is good evidence of an abundant supply of water not far +beneath the surface. In the water-melon season a few white farmers +living on the edge of the desert send their herds thither to graze. Such +few spots as have been under cultivation by artificial irrigation yield +excellent returns to the farmer; but the chief commercial products of +the desert are the skins of animals. + + The Kalahari is the home of wandering Bushmen (q.v.), who live + entirely by the chase, killing their prey with poisoned arrows, of + Ba-Kalahari, and along the western border of Hottentots, who are both + hunters and cattle-rearers. The Ba-Kalahari (men of the Kalahari), who + constitute the majority of the inhabitants, appear to belong to the + Batau tribe of the Bechuanas, now no longer having separate tribal + existence, and traditionally reported to be the oldest of the Bechuana + tribes. Their features are markedly negroid, though their skin is less + black than that of many negro peoples. They have thin legs and arms. + The Ba-Kalahari are said to have possessed enormous herds of large + horned cattle until deprived of them and driven into the desert by a + fresh migration of more powerful Bechuana tribes. Unlike the Bushmen, + and in spite of desert life, the Ba-Kalahari have a true passion for + agriculture and cattle-breeding. They carefully cultivate their + gardens, though in many cases all they can grow is a scanty supply of + melons and pumpkins, and they rear small herds of goats. They are also + clever hunters, and from the neighbouring Bechuana chiefs obtain + spears, knives, tobacco and dogs in exchange for the skins of the + animals they kill. In disposition they are peaceful to timidity, grave + and almost morose. Livingstone states that he never saw Ba-Kalahari + children at play. An ingenious method is employed to obtain water + where there is no open well or running stream. To one end of a reed + about 2 ft. long a bunch of grass is tied, and this end of the reed is + inserted in a hole dug at a spot where water is known to exist + underground, the wet sand being rammed down firmly round it. An + ostrich egg-shell, the usual water vessel, is placed on the ground + alongside the reed. The water-drawer, generally a woman, then sucks up + the water through the reed, dexterously squirting it into the adjacent + egg-shell. To aid her aim she places between her lips a straw, the + other end of which is inserted in the shell. The shells, when filled, + are buried, the object of the Ba-Kalahari being to preserve their + supplies from any sudden raid by Bushmen or other foe. Early + travellers stated that no amount of bullying or hunting in a + Ba-Kalahari village would result in a find of water; but that on + friendly relations being established the natives would bring a supply, + however arid the district. The British government has since sunk wells + in one or two districts. Though the Ba-Kalahari have no religion in + the strict sense of the word, they show traces of totemism, and as + Batau, i.e. "men of the lion," revere rather than fear that beast. + + The Kalahari was first crossed to Lake Ngami by David Livingstone, + accompanied by William C. Oswell, in 1849. In 1878-1879 a party of + Boers, with about three hundred wagons, trekked from the Transvaal + across the Kalahari to Ngami and thence to the hinterland of Angola. + Many of the party, men, women and children, perished of thirst during + the journey. Survivors stated that in all some 250 people and 9000 + cattle died. + + See BECHUANALAND. _Die Kalahari_, by Dr Siegfried Passarge (Berlin, + 1904), is a valuable treatise on the geology, topography, hydrography, + climate and flora of the desert, with maps and bibliography. The + author spent two years (1896-1898) in the Kalahari. See also + _Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa_, &c., by David + Livingstone (London, 1857). + + + + +KALAMATA (officially [Greek: Kalamai], from an ancient town near the +site), chief town of the modern Greek nomarchy of Messenia in the Morea, +situated on the left bank of the Nedon, about 1 m. from the sea. Pop. +(1907), 13,123. There is a suburb on the right bank of the stream. On a +hill behind the town are the ruins of a medieval castle, but no ancient +Greek remains have been discovered, although some travellers have +identified the site with that of the classical Pharae or Pherae. It is +the seat of a court of justice and of an archbishop. During the middle +ages it was for a time a fief of the Villehardouins. In 1685 Kalamata +was captured by the Venetians; in 1770, and again in 1821, it was the +revolutionary headquarters in the Morea. In 1825 it was sacked by +Ibrahim Pasha. Kalamata is situated in a very fruitful district, of +which it is the emporium. The harbour, though recently improved, offers +little shelter to shipping. Vessels load and discharge by means of +lighters, the outer harbour having a depth at entrance of 24 ft. and +inside of 14 ft. The inner harbour has a depth of 15 ft. and is +sheltered by a breakwater 1640 ft. in length; in the winter months the +fishing craft take shelter in the haven of Armyro. The silk industry, +formerly important, still employs about 300 women and girls in four +spinning establishments. Olive oil and silk are the chief exports. + + + + +KALAMAZOO, a city and the county-seat of Kalamazoo county, Michigan, +U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kalamazoo River, about 49 m. S. of Grand +Rapids and 144 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1900) 24,404, of whom 4710 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 39,437. It is served by the Michigan +Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, +the Kalamazoo, Lake Shore & Chicago, and the Chicago, Kalamazoo & +Saginaw railways, and by interurban electric lines. The city has a +public library, and is the seat of Kalamazoo college (Baptist), which +grew out of the Kalamazoo literary institute (1833) and was chartered +under its present name in 1855; the Michigan female seminary +(Presbyterian), established in 1866; the Western State normal school +(1904); Nazareth Academy (1897), for girls; Barbour Hall (1899), a +school for boys; two private schools for the feeble-minded; and the +Michigan asylum for the insane, opened in 1859. The surrounding country +is famous for its celery, and the city is an important manufacturing +centre, ranking third among the cities of the state in the value of its +factory products in 1904. The value of the factory product in 1904 was +$13,141,767, an increase of 82.9% since 1900. The waterworks and +electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the municipality. +Kalamazoo was settled in 1829, was known as Bronson (in honour of Titus +Bronson, an early settler) until 1836, was incorporated as the village +of Kalamazoo in 1838, and in 1884 became a city under a charter granted +in the preceding year. + + + + +KALAPUYA, or CALLAPOOYA, a tribe and stock of North-American Indians, +whose former range was the valley of the Willamette River, Oregon. They +now number little more than a hundred, on a reservation on Grande Ronde +reservation, Oregon. + + + + +KALAT, the capital of Baluchistan, situated in 29° 2´ N. and 66° 35´ E., +about 6780 ft. above sea-level, 88 m. from Quetta. The town gives its +name also to a native state with an area, including Makran and Kharan, +of 71,593 m. and a population (1901) of 470,336. The word Kalat is +derived from _kala_--a fortress; and Kalat is the most picturesque +fortress in the Baluch highlands. It crowns a low hill, round the base +of which clusters the closely built mass of flat-roofed mud houses which +form the insignificant town. A _miri_ or citadel, having an imposing +appearance, dominates the town, and contains within its walls the palace +of the khan. It was in an upper room of this residence that Mehrab Khan, +ruler of Baluchistan, was killed during the storming of the town and +citadel by the British troops at the close of the first Afghan War in +1839. In 1901 it had a population of only 2000. The valleys immediately +surrounding the fortress are well cultivated and thickly inhabited, in +spite of their elevation and the extremes of temperature to which they +are exposed. Recent surveys of Baluchistan have determined the position +of Hozdar or Khozdar (27° 48´ N., 66° 38´ E.) to be about 50 m. S. of +Kalat. Khozdar was the former capital of Baluchistan, and is as directly +connected with the southern branches of the Mulla Pass as Kalat is with +the northern, the Mulla being the ancient trade route to Gandava +(Kandabe) and Sind. In spite of the rugged and barren nature of the +mountain districts of the Kalat highlands, the main routes through them +(concentrating on Khozdar rather than on Kalat) are comparatively easy. +The old "Pathan vat," the trade highway between Kalat and Karachi by the +Hab valley, passes through Khozdar. From Khozdar another route strikes a +little west of south to Wad, and then passes easily into Las Bela. This +is the "Kohan vat." A third route runs to Nal, and leads to the head of +the Kolwa valley (meeting with no great physical obstruction), and then +strikes into the open high road to Persia. Some of the valleys about +Kalat (Mastang, for instance) are wide and fertile, full of thriving +villages and strikingly picturesque; and in spite of the great +preponderance of mountain wilderness (a wilderness which is, however, in +many parts well adapted for the pasturage of sheep) existing in the +Sarawan lowlands almost equally with the Jalawan highlands, it is not +difficult to understand the importance which the province of Kalat, +anciently called Turan (or Tubaran), maintained in the eyes of medieval +Arab geographers (see BALUCHISTAN). New light has been thrown on the +history of Kalat by the translation of an unpublished manuscript +obtained at Tatta by Mr Tate, of the Indian Survey Department, who has +added thereto notes from the Tufhat-ul-Kiram, for the use of which he +was indebted to Khan Sahib Rasul Baksh, mukhtiardar of Tatta. According +to these authorities, the family of the khans of Kalat is of Arabic +origin, and not, as is usually stated, of Brahuic extraction. They +belong to the Ahmadzai branch of the Mirwari clan, which originally +emigrated from Oman to the Kolwa valley of Mekran. The khan of Kalat, +Mir Mahmud Khan, who succeeded his father in 1893, is the leading +chieftain in the Baluch Confederacy. The revenue of the khan is +estimated at nearly £60,000, including subsidies from the British +government; and an accrued surplus of £240,000 has been invested in +Indian securities. + + See G. P. Tate, _Kalat_ (Calcutta, 1896); _Baluchistan District + Gazetteer_, vol. vi. (Bombay, 1907). (T. H. H.*) + + + + +KALAT-I-GHILZAI, a fort in Afghanistan. It is situated on an isolated +rocky eminence 5543 ft. above sea-level and 200 ft. above the plain, on +the right bank of the river Tarnak, on the road between Kabul and +Kandahar, 87 m. from Kandahar and 229 m. from Kabul. It is celebrated +for its gallant defence by Captain Craigie and a sepoy garrison against +the Afghans in the first Afghan War of 1842. In memory of this feat of +arms, the 12th Pioneers still bear the name of "The Kalat-i-Ghilzai +Regiment," and carry a special colour with the motto "Invicta." + + + + +KALB, JOHANN ("BARON DE KALB") (1721-1780), German soldier in the +American War of Independence, was born in Hüttendorf, near Bayreuth, on +the 29th of June 1721. He was of peasant parentage, and left home when +he was sixteen to become a butler; in 1743 he was a lieutenant in a +German regiment in the French service, calling himself at this time Jean +de Kalb. He served with the French in the War of the Austrian +Succession, becoming captain in 1747 and major in 1756; in the Seven +Years' War he was in the corps of the comte de Broglie, rendering great +assistance to the French after Rossbach (November 1757) and showing +great bravery at Bergen (April 1759); and in 1763 he resigned his +commission. As secret agent, appointed by Choiseul, he visited America +in 1768-1769 to inquire into the feeling of the colonists toward Great +Britain. From his retirement at Milon la Chapelle, Kalb went to Metz for +garrison duty under de Broglie in 1775. Soon afterwards he received +permission to volunteer in the army of the American colonies, in which +the rank of major-general was promised to him by Silas Deane. After many +delays he sailed with eleven other officers on the ship fitted out by +Lafayette and arrived at Philadelphia in July 1777. His commission from +Deane was disallowed, but the Continental Congress granted him the rank +of major-general (dating from the 15th of September 1777), and in +October he joined the army, where his growing admiration for Washington +soon led him to view with disfavour de Broglie's scheme for putting a +European officer in chief command. Early in 1778, as second in command +to Lafayette for the proposed expedition against Canada, he accompanied +Lafayette to Albany; but no adequate preparations had been made, and the +expedition was abandoned. In April 1780, he was sent from Morristown, +New Jersey, with his division of Maryland men, his Delaware regiment and +the 1st artillery, to relieve Charleston, but on arriving at Petersburg, +Virginia, he learned that Charleston had already fallen. In his camp at +Buffalo Ford and Deep River, General Horatio Gates joined him on the +25th of July; and next day Gates led the army by the short and desolate +road directly towards Camden. On the 11th-13th of August, when Kalb +advised an immediate attack on Rawdon, Gates hesitated and then marched +to a position on the Salisbury-Charlotte road which he had previously +refused to take. On the 14th Cornwallis had occupied Camden, and a +battle took place there on the 16th when, the other American troops +having broken and fled, Kalb, unhorsed and fighting fiercely at the head +of his right wing, was wounded eleven times. He was taken prisoner and +died on the 19th of August 1780 in Camden. Here in 1825 Lafayette laid +the corner-stone of a monument to him. In 1887 a statue of him by +Ephraim Keyser was dedicated in Annapolis, Maryland. + + See Friedrich Kapp, _Leben des amerikanischen Generals Johann Kalb_ + (Stuttgart, 1862; English version, privately printed, New York, 1870), + which is summarized in George W. Greene's _The German Element in the + War of American Independence_ (New York, 1876). + + + + +KALCKREUTH (or KALKREUTH), FRIEDRICH ADOLF, COUNT VON (1737-1818), +Prussian soldier, entered the regiment of Gardes du Corps in 1752, and +in 1758 was adjutant or aide de camp to Frederick the Great's brother, +Prince Henry, with whom he served throughout the later stages of the +Seven Years' War. He won special distinction at the battle of Freiberg +(Sept. 29, 1762), for which Frederick promoted him major. Personal +differences with Prince Henry severed their connexion in 1766, and for +many years Kalckreuth lived in comparative retirement. But he made the +campaign of the War of the Bavarian Succession as a colonel, and on the +accession of Frederick William II. was restored to favour. He greatly +distinguished himself as a major-general in the invasion of Holland in +1787, and by 1792 had become count and lieutenant-general. Under +Brunswick he took a conspicuous part in the campaign of Valmy in 1792, +the siege and capture of Mainz in 1793, and the battle of Kaiserslautern +in 1794. In the campaigns against Napoleon in 1806 he played a marked +part for good or evil, both at Auerstädt and in the miserable retreat of +the beaten Prussians. In 1807 he defended Danzig for 78 days against the +French under Marshal Lefebvre, with far greater skill and energy than he +had shown in the previous year. He was promoted field marshal soon +afterwards, and conducted many of the negotiations at Tilsit. He died as +governor of Berlin in 1818. + + The _Dictées du Feldmaréchal Kalckreuth_ were published by his son + (Paris, 1844). + + + + +KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, COUNT VON (1855- ), German painter, a direct +descendant of the famous field-marshal (see above), was born at +Düsseldorf, received his first training at Weimar from his father, the +landscape painter Count Stanislaus von Kalckreuth (1820-1894), and +subsequently studied at the academies of Weimar and Munich. Although he +painted some portraits remarkable for their power of expression, he +devoted himself principally to depicting with relentless realism the +monotonous life of the fishing folk on the sea-coast, and of the +peasants in the fields. His palette is joyless, and almost melancholy, +and in his technique he is strongly influenced by the impressionists. He +was one of the founders of the secessionist movement. From 1885 to 1890 +Count von Kalckreuth was professor at the Weimar art school. In 1890 he +resigned his professorship and retired to his estate of Höckricht in +Silesia, where he occupied himself in painting subjects drawn from the +life of the country-folk. In 1895 he became a professor at the art +school at Karlsruhe. The Munich Pinakothek has his "Rainbow" and the +Dresden Gallery his "Old Age." Among his chief works are the "Funeral at +Dachau," "Homewards," "Wedding Procession in the Carpathian Mountains," +"The Gleaners," "Old Age," "Before the Fish Auction," "Summer," and +"Going to School." + + See A. Ph. W. v. Kalckreuth, _Gesch. der Herren, Freiherren und Grafen + von Kalckreuth_ (Potsdam, 1904). + + + + +KALEIDOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: kalos], beautiful, [Greek: eidos], form, +and [Greek: skopein], to view). The article REFLECTION explains the +symmetrical arrangement of images formed by two mirrors inclined at an +angle which is a sub-multiple of four right angles. This is the +principle of the kaleidoscope, an optical toy which received its present +form at the hands of Sir David Brewster about the year 1815, and which +at once became exceedingly popular owing to the beauty and variety of +the images and the sudden and unexpected changes from one graceful form +to another. A hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar +arrangement which seems to have passed into oblivion (_New Improvements +of Planting and Gardening_, 1710). The instrument has been extensively +used by designers. In its simplest form it consists of a tube about +twelve inches long containing two glass plates, extending along its +whole length and inclined at an angle of 60°. The eye-end of the tube is +closed by a metal plate having a small hole at its centre near the +intersection of the glass plates. The other end is closed by a plate of +muffed glass at the distance of distinct vision, and parallel to this is +fixed a plate of clear glass. In the intervening space (the +_object-box_) are contained a number of fragments of brilliantly +coloured glass, and as the tube is turned round its axis these fragments +alter their positions and give rise to the various patterns. A third +reflecting plate is sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three +forming an equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his +apparatus by moving the object-box and closing the end of the tube by a +lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the +distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the coloured +fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multiplied by the +mirrors. In the _polyangular kaleidoscope_ the angle between the mirrors +can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments are occasionally found in +old collections of philosophical apparatus and they have been used in +order to explain to students the formation of multiple images. + (C. J. J.) + + + + +KALERGIS, DIMITRI (DEMETRIOS) (1803-1867), Greek statesman, was a Cretan +by birth, studied medicine at Paris and on the outbreak of the War of +Greek Independence went to the Morea and joined the insurgents. He +fought under Karaiskakis, was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens +and mulcted of an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French +philhellene Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d'Istria, president of +Greece. In 1832 he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 1843, as +commander of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the +insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian ministers. +He was appointed military commandant of Athens and aide de camp to the +king, but after the fall of the Mavrocordato ministry in 1845 was forced +to go into exile, and spent several years in London, where he became an +intimate of Prince Louis Napoleon. In 1848 he made an abortive descent +on the Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He was +captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island of Zante, +went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western Powers he was +recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and appointed minister of +war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato cabinet (1854). He was, however, +disliked by King Otto and his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to +resign. In 1861 he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in +which capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which +followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession of +Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne. + + + + +KALEWALA, or KALEVALA, the name of the Finnish national epos. It takes +its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or Finland), viz. the ancient +Wäinämöinen, the inventor of the sacred harp Kantele; the cunning +art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the gallant Lemminkäinen, who is a sort of +Arctic Don Juan. The adventures of these three heroes are wound about a +plot for securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero +from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to construct a +magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt and gold, and as this +has fallen into the hands of the folk of Pohjola, it is needful to +recover it. The poem actually opens, however, with a very poetical +theory of the origin of the world. The virgin daughter of the +atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for seven hundred years in space, until +she bethinks her to invoke Ukko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle +to her; this bird makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in +it seven eggs. Oat of the substance of these eggs the visible world is +made. But it is empty and sterile until Wäinämöinen descends upon it +and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space, and it is to +recover from his loss and to find another bride that Wäinämöinen makes +his series of epical adventures in the dismal country of Pohjola. +Various episodes of great strangeness and beauty accompany the lengthy +recital of the struggle to acquire the magical Sanpo, which gives +prosperity to whoever possesses it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo +is broken and falls into the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves, +and, being stranded on the shores of Finland, secures eternal felicity +for that country. At the very close of the poem a virgin, Mariatta, +brings forth a king who drives Wäinämöinen out of the country, and this +is understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by +Christianity. + +The _Kalewala_ was probably composed at various times and by various +bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions of the Finnish +race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism exactly accordant with +the instincts of that race. While in the other antique epics of the +world bloodshed takes a predominant place, the _Kalewala_ is +characteristically gentle, lyrical and even domestic, dwelling at great +length on situations of moral beauty and romantic pathos. It is entirely +concerned with the folk-lore and the traditions of the primeval Finnish +race. The poem is written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea +of its style may be obtained from Longfellow's _Hiawatha_, which is a +pretty true imitation of the Finnish epic. + + Until the 19th century the _Kalewala_ existed only in fragments in the + memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few of + these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius Topelius, + but it was not until 1835 that anything like a complete and + systematically arranged collection was given to the world by Dr Elias + Lönnrot. For years Dr Lönnrot wandered from place to place in the most + remote districts, living with the peasantry, and taking down from + their lips all that they knew of their popular songs. Some of the most + valuable were discovered in the governments of Archangel and Olonetz. + After unwearied diligence Lönnrot was successful in collecting 12,000 + lines. These he arranged as methodically as he could into thirty-two + runes or cantos, which he published exactly as he heard them sung or + chanted. Continuing his researches, Dr Lönnrot published in 1849 a new + edition of 22,793 verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text + was published by A. V. Forsman in 1887. The importance of this + indigenous epic was at once recognized in Europe, and translations + were made into Swedish, German and French. Several translations into + English exist, the fullest being that by J. M. Crawford in 1888. The + best foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Leouzon + le Duc in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852). + (E. G.) + + + + +KALGAN (CHANG-CHIA K'OW), a city of China, in the province of Chih-li, +with a population estimated at from 70,000 to 100,000. It lies in the +line of the Great Wall, 122 m. by rail N.W. of Peking, commanding an +important pass between China and Mongolia. Its position is stated as in +40° 50´ N. and 114° 54´ E., and its height above the sea as 2810 ft. The +valley amid the mountains in which it is situated is under excellent +cultivation, and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan consists of a +walled town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets are wide, and +excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have an unusual +appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed with earth and +become covered with green-sward. Large quantities of soda are +manufactured; and the town is the seat of a very extensive transit +trade. In October 1909 it was connected by railway with Peking. In early +autumn long lines of camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance +of the tea-chests from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes +three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have permanent +residences and warehouses just outside the gate. On the way to Peking +the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven arches, ornamented with +marble figures of animals. The name Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a +barrier or "gate-beam." + + + + +KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 24 m. by rail E.N.E. of +Coolgardie. Pop. (1901), 6652. It is a thriving town with an electric +tramway service, and is the junction of four lines of railway. The +gold-field, discovered in 1893, is very rich, supporting about 15,000 +miners. The town is supplied with water, like Coolgardie, from a source +near Perth 360 m. distant. + + + + +KALI (black), or _Kali Ma_ (the Black Mother), in Hindu mythology, the +goddess of destruction and death, the wife of Siva. According to one +theory, Calcutta owes its name to her, being originally Kalighat, +"Kali's landing-place." Siva's consort has many names (e.g. Durga, +Bhawani, Parvati, &c.). Her idol is black, with four arms, and red palms +to the hands. Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared +with blood. Her hair is matted, and she has projecting fang-like teeth, +between which protrudes a tongue dripping with blood. She wears a +necklace of skulls, her earrings are dead bodies, and she is girded with +serpents. She stands on the body of Siva, to account for which attitude +there is an elaborate legend. She is more worshipped in Gondwana and the +forest tracts to the east and south of it than in any other part of +India. Formerly human sacrifice was the essential of her ritual. The +victim, always a male, was taken to her temple after sunset and +imprisoned there. When morning came he was dead: the priests told the +people that Kali had sucked his blood in the night. At Dantewara in +Bastar there is a famous shrine of Kali under the name of Danteswari. +Here many a human head has been presented on her altar. About 1830 it is +said that upwards of twenty-five full-grown men were immolated at once +by the raja. Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their body were +among the acts of devotion of her worshippers. Kali is goddess of +small-pox and cholera. The Thugs murdered their victims in her honour, +and to her the sacred pickaxe, wherewith their graves were dug, was +consecrated. + +The _Hook-swinging Festival_ (_Churruk_ or _Churuck Puja_), one of the +most notable celebrations in honour of the goddess Kali, has now been +prohibited in British territory. Those who had vowed themselves to +self-torture submitted to be swung in the air supported only by hooks +passed through the muscles over the blade-bones. These hooks were hung +from a long crossbeam, which see-sawed upon a huge upright pole. Hoisted +into the air by men pulling down the other end of the see-saw beam, the +victim was then whirled round in a circle. The torture usually lasted +fifteen or twenty minutes. + + See A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897). + + + + +KALIDASA, the most illustrious name among the writers of the second +epoch of Sanskrit literature, which, as contrasted with the age of the +Vedic hymns, may be characterized as the period of artificial poetry. +Owing to the absence of the historical sense in the Hindu race, it is +impossible to fix with chronological exactness the lifetime of either +Kalidasa or any other Sanskrit author. Native tradition places him in +the 1st century B.C.; but the evidence on which this belief rests is +worthless. The works of the poet contain no allusions by which their +date can be directly determined; yet the extremely corrupt form of the +Prakrit or popular dialects spoken by the women and the subordinate +characters in his plays, as compared with the Prakrit in inscriptions of +ascertained age, led such authorities as Weber and Lassen to agree in +fixing on the 3rd century A.D. as the approximate period to which the +writings of Kalidasa should be referred. + +He was one of the "nine gems" at the court of King Vikramaditya or +Vikrama, at Ujjain, and the tendency is now to regard the latter as +having flourished about A.D. 375; others, however, place him as late as +the 6th century. The richness of his creative fancy, his delicacy of +sentiment, and his keen appreciation of the beauties of nature, combined +with remarkable powers of description, place Kalidasa in the first rank +of Oriental poets. The effect, however, of his productions as a whole is +greatly marred by extreme artificiality of diction, which, though to a +less extent than in other Hindu poets, not unfrequently takes the form +of puerile conceits and plays on words. In this respect his writings +contrast very unfavourably with the more genuine poetry of the Vedas. +Though a true poet, he is wanting in that artistic sense of proportion +so characteristic of the Greek mind, which exactly adjusts the parts to +the whole, and combines form and matter into an inseparable poetic +unity. Kalidasa's fame rests chiefly on his dramas, but he is also +distinguished as an epic and a lyric poet. + + He wrote three plays, the plots of which all bear a general + resemblance, inasmuch as they consist of love intrigues, which, after + numerous and seemingly insurmountable impediments of a similar nature, + are ultimately brought to a successful conclusion. + + Of these, _Sakuntala_ is that which has always justly enjoyed the + greatest fame and popularity. The unqualified praise bestowed upon it + by Goethe sufficiently guarantees its poetic merit. There are two + recensions of the text in India, the Bengali and the Devanagari, the + latter being generally considered older and purer. _Sakuntala_ was + first translated into English by Sir William Jones (Calcutta, 1789), + who used the Bengali recension. It was soon after translated into + German by G. Forster (1791; new ed. Leipzig, 1879). An edition of the + Sanskrit original, with French translation, was published by A. L. + Chézy at Paris in 1830. This formed the basis of a translation by B. + Hirzel (Zürich, 1830); later trans. by L. Fritze (Chemnitz, 1876). + Other editions of the Bengali recension were published by Prema + Chandra (Calcutta, 1860) for the use of European students and by R. + Pischel (2nd ed., Kiel, 1886). The Devanagari recension was first + edited by O. Böhtlingk (Bonn, 1842), with a German translation. On + this were based the successive German translations of E. Meier + (Tübingen, 1851) and E. Lobedanz (8th ed., Leipzig, 1892). The same + recension has been edited by Dr C. Burkhard with a Sanskrit-Latin + vocabulary and short Prakrit grammar (Breslau, 1872), and by Professor + Monier Williams (Oxford, 2nd ed. 1876), who also translated the drama + (5th ed., 1887). There is another translation by P. N. Patankar + (Poona, 1888- ). There are also a South Indian and a Cashmir + recension. + + The _Vikramorvasi_, or _Urvasi won by Valour_, abounds with fine + lyrical passages, and is of all Indian dramas second only to + _Sakuntala_ in poetic beauty. It was edited by R. Lenz (Berlin, 1833) + and translated into German by C. G. A. Höfer (Berlin, 1837), by B. + Hirzel (1838), by E. Lobedanz (Leipzig, 1861) and F. Bollensen + (Petersburg, 1845). There is also an English edition by Monier + Williams, a metrical and prose version by Professor H. H. Wilson, and + a literal prose translation by Professor E. B. Cowell (1851). The + latest editions are by S. P. Pandit (Bombay, 1879) and K. B. Paranjpe + (ibid. 1898). + + The third play, entitled _Malavikagnimitra_, has considerable poetical + and dramatic merit, but is confessedly inferior to the other two. It + possesses the advantage, however, that its hero Agnimitra and its + heroine Malavika are more ordinary and human characters than those of + the other plays. It is edited by O. F. Tullberg (Bonn, 1840), by + Shankar P. Pandit, with English notes (1869), and S. S. Ayyar (Poona, + 1896); translated into German by A. Weber (1856), and into English by + C. H. Tawney (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1898). + + Two epic poems are also attributed to Kalidasa. The longer of these is + entitled _Raghuvamsa_, the subject of which is the same as that of the + _Ramayana_, viz. the history of Rama, but beginning with a long + account of his ancestors, the ancient rulers of Ayodhya (ed. by A. F. + Stenzler, London, 1832; and with Eng. trans. and notes by Gopal + Raghunath Nandargikar, Poona, 1897; verse trans. by P. de Lacy + Johnstone, 1902). The other epic is the _Kumarasambhava_, the theme of + which is the birth of Kumara, otherwise called Karttikeya or Skanda, + god of war (ed. by Stenzler, London, 1838; K. M. Banerjea, 3rd ed. + Calcutta, 1872; Parvanikara and Parab, Bombay, 1893; and M. R. Kale + and S. R. Dharadhara, ibid. 1907; Eng. trans. by R. T. Griffith, + 1879). Though containing many fine passages, it is tame as a whole. + + His lyrical poems are the _Meghaduta_ and the _Ritusamhara_. The + _Meghaduta_, or the Cloud-Messenger, describes the complaint of an + exiled lover, and the message he sends to his wife by a cloud. It is + full of deep feeling, and abounds with fine descriptions of the + beauties of nature. It was edited with free English translation by H. + H. Wilson (Calcutta, 1813), and by J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1841); a + German adaptation by M. Müller appeared at Königsberg (1847), and one + by C. Schütz at Bielefeld (1859). It was edited by F. Johnson, with + vocabulary and Wilson's metrical translation (London, 1867); later + editions by K. P. Parab (Bombay, 1891) and K. B. Pathak (Poona, 1894). + The _Ritusamhara_, or Collection of the Seasons, is a short poem, of + less importance, on the six seasons of the year. There is an edition + by P. von Bohlen, with prose Latin and metrical German translation + (Leipzig, 1840); Eng. trans. by C. S. Sitaram Ayyar (Bombay, 1897). + + Another poem, entitled the _Nalodaya_, or Rise of Nala, edited by F. + Benary (Berlin, 1830), W. Yates (Calcutta, 1844) and Vidyasagara + (Calcutta, 1873), is a treatment of the story of Nala and Damayanti, + but describes especially the restoration of Nala to prosperity and + power. It has been ascribed to the celebrated Kalidasa, but was + probably written by another poet of the same name. It is full of most + absurd verbal conceits and metrical extravagances. + + So many poems, partly of a very different stamp, are attributed to + Kalidasa that it is scarcely possible to avoid the necessity of + assuming the existence of more authors than one of that name. It is by + no means improbable that there were three poets thus named; indeed + modern native astronomers are so convinced of the existence of a triad + of authors of this name that they apply the term Kalidasa to designate + the number three. + + On Kalidasa generally, see A. A. Macdonell's _History of Sanskrit + Literature_ (1900), and on his date G. Huth, _Die Zeit des K._ + (Berlin, 1890). (A. A. M.) + + + + +KALIMPONG, a village of British India, in the Darjeeling district of +Bengal, 4000 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1901), 1069. It is a frontier +market for the purchase of wool and mules from Tibet, and an important +agricultural fair is held in November. In 1900 Kalimpong was chosen by +the Church of Scotland as the site of cottage homes, known as St +Andrew's Colonial Homes, for the education and training of poor European +and Eurasian children. + + + + +KALINGA, or CALINGA, one of the nine kingdoms of southern India in +ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included the eastern Madras +coast from Pulicat to Chicacole, running inland from the Bay of Bengal +to the Eastern Ghats. The name at one time had a wider and vaguer +meaning, comprehending Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges +valley. The Kalinga of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it +seems to have been confined to the Telugu-speaking country; and in the +time of Hsüan Tsang (630 A.D.) it was distinguished on the south and +west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa. Taranatha, the +Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one division of the country of +Telinga. Hsüan Tsang speaks of Kalinga ("Kie-ling-kia") having its +capital at what has been identified with the site either of Rajahmundry +or Coringa. Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and +Chicacole, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga +at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem to prove +that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was at Mukhalingam in +the Ganjam district. + + + + +KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda district of +the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 3015. The fort stands on an isolated +rock, the termination of the Vindhya range, at an elevation of 1203 ft., +overlooking the plains of Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most +characteristic specimen of the hill-fortresses, originally hill-shrines, +of central India. Its antiquity is proved by its mention in the +_Mahabharata_. It was besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the +Afghan emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played a +prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in 1857, when +it was held by a small British garrison. Both the fort and the town, +which stands at the foot of the hill, are of interest to the antiquary +on account of their remains of temples, sculptures, inscriptions and +caves. + + + + +KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose hymns (_piyyutim_) +are found in profusion in the festival prayers of the German synagogal +rite. The age in which he lived is unknown. Some (basing the view on +Saadiah's _Sefer ha-galuy_) place him as early as the 6th century, +others regard him as belonging to the 10th century. Kalir's style is +powerful but involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning. + + Some beautiful renderings of Kalir's poems may be found in the volumes + of Davis & Adler's edition of the German Festival Prayers entitled + _Service of the Synagogue_. + + + + +KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816-1886), Jewish divine, was born at Krotoschin in +Prussia on the 15th of November 1816, and was educated at Berlin, +Breslau and Prague. In 1848 he came to London, but passed on in 1849 to +America, where he ministered as rabbi in Cleveland, Cincinnati, +Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark, New Jersey. At Newark from 1875 he gave +himself entirely to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as +leader of the radical and reforming Jewish party. + + Among his works are _Wegweisen für rationelle Forschungen in den + biblischen Schriften_ (1853); and translations of _Nathan der Weise_ + (1869); _Sepher Jezirah_ (1877); and Munz's _History of Philosophy + among the Jews_ (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and Hebrew + verse. + + + + +KALISCH, MARCUS (or MAURICE) (1828-1885), Jewish scholar, was born in +Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885. He was one of the pioneers +of the critical study of the Old Testament in England. At one time he +was secretary to the Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the +Rothschild family and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and +other works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Pentateuch +was _Exodus_ (1855); this was followed by _Genesis_ (1858) and +_Leviticus_ in two parts (1867-1872). Kalisch wrote before the +publication of Wellhausen's works, and anticipated him in some important +points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in 1877-1878 two volumes +of Bible studies (on _Balaam_ and _Jonah_). He was also author of a once +popular Hebrew grammar in two volumes (1862-1863). In 1880 he published +_Path and Goal_, a brilliant discussion of human destiny. His +commentaries are of permanent value, not only because of the author's +originality, but also because of his erudition. No other works in +English contain such full citations of earlier literature. (I. A.) + + + + +KALISPEL, or PEND D'OREILLE, a tribe of North-American Indians of +Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country around Pend d'Oreille +Lake, Washington. They number some 600, and are settled on a reservation +in Montana. + + + + +KALISZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia on the W., and +the governments of Warsaw and Piotrków on the E. Its area is 4390 sq. m. +Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards the west, and is drained by +the Prosna and the Warta and their tributaries, and also by the Bzura. +It was formerly covered with countless small lakes and thick forests; +the latter are now mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist +still. Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,978 were women, and 113,609 +lived in towns; estimated pop. (1906), 983,200. They are chiefly Poles. +Roman Catholics number 83%; Jews and Protestants each amount to 7%. +Agriculture is carried to perfection on a number of estates, as also +livestock breeding. The crops principally raised are rye, wheat, oats, +barley and potatoes. Various domestic trades, including the weaving of +linen and wool, are carried on in the villages. There are some +factories, producing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is +divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their +populations in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (9400), Konin (8530), +Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019), Turek (8141) and Wielun +(7442). + + + + +KALISZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in 51° 46´ N. +and 18° E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the banks of the Prosna, +which there forms the boundary of Prussia. Pop. (1871), 18,088; (1897), +21,680, of whom 37% were Jews. It is one of the oldest and finest cities +of Poland, is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and possesses a +castle, a teachers' institute and a large public park. The industrial +establishments comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons, cloth and +sugar, and tanneries. + + Kalisz is identified with the _Calisia_ of Ptolemy, and its antiquity + is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient + art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous + burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of the + decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes on + the 29th of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and of + the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835, in + memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by Nicholas I. + in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia was signed + here. + + + + +KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the +Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905), 25,478. Kalk is an important +junction of railway lines connecting Cologne with places on the right +bank of the river. It has various iron and chemical industries, +brickworks and breweries, and an electric tramway joins it with Cologne. + + + + +KALKAS, or KHALKAS, a Mongoloid people mainly concentrated in the +northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen, the Buriats. According +to Sir H. Howorth they derive their name from the river Kalka, which +runs into the Buir lake. Of all Mongolians they physically differ most +from the true Mongol type (see MONGOLS). Their colour is a brown rather +than a yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have, +however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black hair of +their race. They number some 250,000, and their territory is divided +into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu), Tsetien (Setzen), +Sai'noi'm (Sain Noyan) and Jesaktu (Jassaktu). + + + + +KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1849), German pianist and composer, +son of Christian Kalkbrenner (1755-1806), a Jewish musician of Cassel, +was educated at the Paris Conservatoire, and soon began to play in +public. From 1814 to 1823 he was well known as a brilliant performer and +a successful teacher in London, and then settled in Paris, dying at +Enghien, near there, in 1849. He became a member of the Paris +piano-manufacturing firm of Pleyel & Co., and made a fortune by his +business and his art combined. His numerous compositions are less +remembered now than his instruction-book, with "studies," which have had +considerable vogue among pianists. + + + + +KÁLLAY, BENJAMIN VON (1839-1903), Austro-Hungarian statesman, was born +at Budapest on the 22nd of December 1839. His family derived their name +from their estates at Nágy Kallo, in Szabolcs, and claimed descent from +the Balogh Semjen tribe, which colonized the counties of Borsod, +Szabolcs, and Szatmár, at the close of the 9th century, when the Magyars +conquered Hungary. They played a prominent part in Hungarian history as +early as the reign of Koloman (1095-1114); and from King Matthias +Corvinus (1458-1490) they received their estates at Mezö Tur, near +Kecskemét, granted to Michael Kállay for his heroic defence of Jajce in +Bosnia, and still held by his descendants. The father of Benjamin von +Kállay, a superior official of the Hungarian Government, died in 1845, +and his widow, who survived until 1903, devoted herself to the education +of her son. At an early age Kállay manifested a deep interest in +politics, and especially in the Eastern Question. He travelled in +Russia, European Turkey and Asia Minor, gaining a thorough knowledge of +Greek, Turkish and several Slavonic languages. He became as proficient +in Servian as in his native tongue. In 1867 he entered the Hungarian +Diet as Conservative deputy for Mühlbach (Szásy-Szebes); in 1869 he was +appointed consul-general at Belgrade; and in 1872 he visited Bosnia for +the first time. His views on Balkan questions strongly influenced Count +Andrássy, the Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. Leaving +Belgrade in 1875, he resumed his seat in the Diet, and shortly +afterwards founded the journal _Kélet Nepe_, or _Eastern Folk_, in which +he defended the vigorous policy of Andrássy. After the Russo-Turkish War +of 1878 he went to Philippopolis as Austro-Hungarian envoy extraordinary +on the International Eastern Rumelian Commission. In 1879 he became +second, and soon afterwards first, departmental chief at the foreign +office in Vienna. On the 4th of June 1882 he was appointed Imperial +minister of finance and administrator of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the +distinction with which he filled this office, for a period of 21 years, +is his chief title of fame (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA). Kállay was an +honorary member of the Budapest and Vienna academies of science, and +attained some eminence as a writer. He translated J. S. Mill's _Liberty_ +into Hungarian, adding an introductory critique; while his version of +_Galatea_, a play by the Greek dramatist S. N. Basiliades (1843-1874), +proved successful on the Hungarian stage. His monographs on Servian +history (_Geschichte der Serben_) and on the Oriental ambition of Russia +(_Die Orientpolitik Russlands_) were translated into German by J. H. +Schwicker, and published at Leipzig in 1878. But, in his own opinion, +his masterpiece was an academic oration on the political and +geographical position of Hungary as a link between East and West. In +1873 Kállay married the countess Vilma Bethlen, who bore him two +daughters and a son. His popularity in Bosnia was partly due to the tact +and personal charm of his wife. He died on the 13th of July 1903. + + + + +KALMAR (CALMAR), a seaport of Sweden on the Baltic coast, chief town of +the district (_län_) of Kalmar, 250 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. +(1900), 12,715. It lies opposite the island of Öland, mainly on two +small islands, but partly on the mainland, where there is a pleasant +park. The streets are regular, and most of the houses are of wood. The +principal public edifices, however, are constructed of limestone from +Öland, including the cathedral, built by Nicodemus Tessin and his son +Nicodemus in the second half of the 17th century. Kalmar, a town of +great antiquity, was formerly strongly fortified, and there remains the +island-fortress of Kalmarnahus, dating partly from the 12th century, but +mainly from the 16th and 17th. It contains the beautiful chamber of King +Eric XIV. (d. 1577), an historical museum, and in the courtyard a fine +ornate well-cover. This stronghold stood several sieges in the 14th, +15th and 16th centuries, and the town gives name to the treaty (Kalmar +Union) by which Sweden, Norway and Denmark were united into one kingdom +in 1397. Kalmar has an artificial harbour admitting vessels drawing 19 +ft. There are a school of navigation, and tobacco and match factories, +the produce of which, together with timber and oats, is exported. +Ship-building is carried on. + + + + +KALMUCK, or KALMYK STEPPE, a territory or reservation belonging to the +Kalmuck or Kalmyk Tatars, in the Russian government of Astrakhan, +bounded by the Volga on the N.E., the Manych on the S.W., the Caspian +Sea on the E., and the territory of the Don Cossacks on the N.W. Its +area is 36,900 sq. m., to which has to be added a second reservation of +3045 sq. m. on the left bank of the lower Volga. According to I. V. +Mushketov, the Kalmuck Steppe must be divided into two parts, western +and eastern. The former, occupied by the Ergeni hills, is deeply +trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally 630 ft. above the +sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits, belonging to the Sarmatian +division of the Miocene period and covered with loess and black earth, +and its escarpments represent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No +Caspian deposits are found on or within the Ergeni hills. These hills +exhibit the usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population. +The eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part 30 to +40 ft. below the level of the sea, and sloping gently towards the Volga. +Post-Pliocene "Aral-Caspian deposits," containing the usual fossils +(_Hydrobia_, _Neritina_, eight species of _Cardium_, two of _Dreissena_, +three of _Adacna_ and _Lithoglyphus caspius_), attain thicknesses +varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 ft., and disappear in places. Lacustrine +and fluviatile deposits occur intermingled with the above. Large areas +of moving sands exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or _barkhans_ +have been formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian, +known as the "hillocks of Baer," is covered with hillocks elongated from +west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line, the spaces between them +being filled with water or overgrown with thickets of reed, _Salix_, +_Ulmus campestris_, almond trees, &c. An archipelago of little islands +is thus formed close to the shore by these mounds, which are backed on +the N. and N.W. by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small +streams originate in the Ergenis, but are lost as soon as they reach the +lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The scanty +vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia and that of +the deserts of central Asia. The steppe has an estimated population of +130,000 persons, living in over 27,700 _kibitkas_, or felt tents. There +are over 60 Buddhist monasteries. Part of the Kalmucks are settled +(chiefly in the hilly parts), the remainder being nomads. They breed +horses, cattle and sheep, but suffer heavy losses from murrain. Some +attempts at agriculture and tree-planting are being made. The breeding +of livestock, fishing, and some domestic trades, chiefly carried on by +the women, are the principal sources of maintenance. + + See I. V. Mushketov, _Geol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in + 1884-1885_ (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov's works + (1868-1870); and other works quoted in Semenov's _Geogr. Dict._ and + _Russ. Encycl. Dict._ (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KALNÓKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND, COUNT (1832-1898), Austro-Hungarian statesman, +was born at Lettowitz, in Moravia, on the 29th of December 1832, of an +old Transylvanian family which had held countly rank in Hungary from the +17th century. After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 he +entered the diplomatic service without giving up his connexion with the +army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was for the +ten years 1860 to 1870 secretary of embassy at London, and then, after +serving at Rome and Copenhagen, was in 1880 appointed ambassador at St +Petersburg. His success in Russia procured for him, on the death of +Baron v. Haymerle in 1881, the appointment of minister of foreign +affairs for Austria-Hungary, a post which he held for fourteen years. +Essentially a diplomatist, he took little or no part in the vexed +internal affairs of the Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the +public except at the annual statement on foreign affairs before the +Delegations. His management of the affairs of his department was, +however, very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with +Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co-operated with +Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy joined the alliance. +Kalnóky's special influence was seen in the improvement of Austrian +relations with Russia, following on the meeting of the three emperors in +September 1884 at Skiernevice, at which he was present. His Russophile +policy caused some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for +Russia did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position of +Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the establishment +of a closer political and commercial understanding with Servia and +Rumania. In 1885 he interfered after the battle of Slivnitza to arrest +the advance of the Bulgarians on Belgrade, but he lost influence in +Servia after the abdication of King Milan. Though he kept aloof from the +Clerical party, Kalnóky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the +difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy, when, in +1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that the question of +the position of the pope was still unsettled. He subsequently explained +that by this he did not refer to the Roman question, which was +permanently settled, but to the possibility of the pope leaving Rome. +The jealousy felt in Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall. +In 1895 a case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of +Hungary by the nuncio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian +parliament, and consequent differences between Bánffy, the Hungarian +minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to Kalnóky's +resignation. He died on the 13th of February 1898 at Prödlitz in +Moravia. + + + + +KALOCSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kis-Kun, 88 +m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,372. It is situated in a +marshy but highly productive district, near the left bank of the Danube, +and was once of far greater importance than at present. Kalocsa is the +see of one of the four Roman Catholic archbishops in Hungary. Amongst +its buildings are a fine cathedral, the archiepiscopal palace, an +astronomical observatory, a seminary for priests, and colleges for +training of male and female teachers. The inhabitants of Kalocsa and its +wide-spreading communal lands are chiefly employed in the cultivation of +the vine, fruit, flax, hemp and cereals, in the capture of water-fowl +and in fishing. Kalocsa is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. The +present archbishopric, founded about 1135, is a development of a +bishopric said to have been founded in the year 1000 by King Stephen the +Saint. It suffered much during the 16th century from the hordes of +Ottomans who then ravaged the country. A large part of the town was +destroyed by a fire in 1875. + + + + +KALPI, or CALPEE, a town of British India, in the Jalaun district of the +United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 45 m. S.W. of +Cawnpore. Pop. (1901), 10,139. It was founded, according to tradition, +by Vasudeva, at the end of the 4th century A.D. In 1196 it fell to +Kutab-ud-din, the viceroy of Mahommed Ghori, and during the subsequent +Mahommedan period it played a large part in the annals of this part of +India. About the middle of the 18th century it passed into the hands of +the Mahrattas. It was captured by the British in 1803, and since 1806 +has remained in British possession. In May 1858 Sir Hugh Rose (Lord +Strathnairn) defeated here a force of about 10,000 rebels under the rani +of Jhansi. Kalpi had a mint for copper coinage in the reign of Akbar; +and the East India Company made it one of their principal stations for +providing the "commercial investment." The old town, which is beside the +river, has ruins of a fort, and several temples of interest, while in +the neighbourhood are many ancient tombs. There is a lofty modern tower +ornamented with representations of the battles of the _Ramayana_. The +new town lies away from the river to the south-east. Kalpi is still a +centre of local trade (principally in grain, _ghi_ and cotton), with a +station on the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore, which +here crosses the Jumna. There are manufactures of sugar and paper. + + + + +KALUGA, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by those of Moscow, +Smolensk, Orel and Tula, with an area of 11,942 sq. m. Its surface is an +undulating plain, reaching 800 to 900 ft. in its highest parts, which +lie in the S.W., and deeply trenched by watercourses, especially in the +N.E. The Oka, a main tributary of the Volga, and its confluents (the +Zhizdra and Ugra) drain all but a strip of country in the west, which is +traversed by the Bolva, an affluent of the Dnieper. The government is +built up mainly of carboniferous deposits (coal-bearing), with patches +of the soft Jurassic clays and limestones which formerly covered them. +Cretaceous deposits occur in the S.W., and Devonian limestones and +shales crop out in the S.E. The government is covered with a thick layer +of boulder clay in the north, with vast ridges and fields of boulders +brought during the Glacial Period from Finland and the government of +Olonets; large areas in the middle are strewn with flint boulders and +patches of loess are seen farther south. The mean annual temperature is +41° F. Iron ores are the chief mineral wealth, nearly 40,000 persons +being engaged in mining. Beds of coal occur in several places, and some +of them are worked. Fireclay, china-clay, chalk, grindstone, pure quartz +sand, phosphorite and copper are also extracted. Forests cover 20% of +the surface, and occur chiefly in the south. The soil is not very +suitable for agriculture, and owing to a rather dense population, +considerable numbers of the inhabitants find occupation in industry, or +as carriers and carpenters for one-half of the year at the Black Sea +ports. + +The population (1,025,705 in 1860) was 1,176,353 in 1897, nearly all +Great Russians. There were 116 women to 100 men, and out of the total +population 94,853 lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 was +1,287,300. Of the total area over 4,000,000 acres are owned by the +peasant communities, nearly 3,000,000 acres by private owners and some +250,000 by the Crown. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, +buckwheat, and potatoes. Hemp is grown for local use and export. Bees +are kept. The chief non-agricultural industries are distilleries, +iron-works, factories for cloth, cottons, paper, matches, leather and +china, flour-mills and oil works. Large quantities of wooden wares are +fabricated in the villages of the south. A considerable trade is carried +on in hemp, hempseed and hempseed oil, corn and hides; and iron, +machinery, leather, glass, chemicals and linen are exported. The +government is divided into 11 districts, the chief towns of which, with +their populations in 1897, are: Kaluga (49,728), Borovsk (8407), Kozelsk +(5908), Likhvin (1776), Maloyaroslavets (2500), Medyn (4392), Meshchovsk +(3667), Mosalsk (2652), Peremyshl (3956), Tarusa (1989) and Zhizdra +(5996). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KALUGA, the chief town of the above government, situated on the left +bank of the Oka, 117 m. S.W. of Moscow by rail, in 54° 31´ N. and 36° 6´ +E. Pop. (1870), 36,880; (1897) 49,728. It is the see of a Greek Orthodox +bishop. The public buildings include the cathedral of the Trinity +(rebuilt in the 19th century in place of an older edifice dating from +1687), two monastic establishments, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a +lunatic asylum. The principal articles of industrial production are +leather, oil, bast mats, wax candles, starch and Kaluga cakes. The first +historical mention of Kaluga occurs in 1389; its incorporation with the +principality of Moscow took place in 1518. In 1607 it was held by the +second false Demetrius and vainly besieged for four months by the forces +of Shuisky, who had ascended the Russian throne as Basil IV. on the +death of the first false Demetrius. In 1619 Kaluga fell into the hands +of the hetman or chief of the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Later two-thirds of +its inhabitants were carried off by a plague; and in 1622 the whole +place was laid waste by a conflagration. It recovered, however, in spite +of several other conflagrations (especially in 1742 and 1754). On +several occasions Kaluga was the residence of political prisoners; among +others Shamyl, the Lesghian chief, spent his exile there (1859-1870). + + + + +KALYAN, a town of British India, in the Thana district of Bombay, +situated 33 m. N.E. of Bombay city, where the two main lines of the +Great Indian Peninsula railway diverge. Pop. (1901), 10,749. There is a +considerable industry of rice-husking. Kalyan is known to have been the +capital of a kingdom and a centre of sea-borne commerce in the early +centuries of the Christian era. The oldest remains now existing are of +Mahommedan times. + + + + +KAMA, or KAMADEVA, in Hindu mythology, the god of love. He is variously +stated to have been the child of Brahma or Dharma (virtue). In the _Rig +Veda_, Kama (desire) is described as the first movement that arose in +the One after it had come into life through the power of fervour or +abstraction. In the Atharva-Veda Kama does not mean sexual desire, but +rather the yearning after the good of all created things. Later Kama is +simply the Hindu Cupid. While attempting to lure Siva to sin, he was +destroyed by a fiery glance of the goddess' third eye. Thus in Hindu +poetry Kama is known as Ananga, the "bodiless god." Kama's wife Rati +(voluptuousness) mourned him so greatly that Siva relented, and he was +reborn as the child of Krishna and Rukmini. The babe was called +Pradyumna (Cupid). He is represented armed with a bow of sugar-cane; it +is strung with bees, and its five arrows are tipped with flowers which +overcome the five senses. A fish adorns his flag, and he rides a parrot +or sparrow, emblematic of lubricity. + + + + +KAMALA, a red powder formerly used in medicine as an anthelmintic and +employed in India as a yellow dye. It is obtained from _Mallotus +philippinensis_, Müll., a small euphorbiaceous tree from 20 to 45 ft. in +height, distributed from southern Arabia in the west to north Australia +and the Philippines in the east. In India kamala has several ancient +Sanskrit names, one of which, kapila, signifies dusky or tawny red. +Under the name of wars, kanbil, or qinbil, kamala appears to have been +known to the Arabian physicians as a remedy for tapeworm and skin +diseases as early as the 10th century, and indeed is mentioned by Paulus +Ægineta still earlier. The drug was formerly in the British +Pharmacopoeia, but is inferior to many other anthelmintics and is not +now employed. + + + + +KAMCHATKA, a peninsula of N.-E. Siberia, stretching from the land of the +Chukchis S.S.W. for 750 m., with a width of from 80 to 300 m. (51° to +62° N., and 156° to 163° E.), between the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea. +It forms part of the Russian Maritime Province. Area, 104,260 sq. m. + +The isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland is a flat +_tundra_, sloping gently both ways. The mountain chain, which Ditmar +calls central, seems to be interrupted under 57° N. by a deep +indentation corresponding to the valley of the Tighil. There too the +hydrographical network, as well as the south-west to north-east strike +of the clay-slates and metamorphic schists on Ditmar's map, seem to +indicate the existence of two chains running south-west to north-east, +parallel to the volcanic chain of S.E. Kamchatka. Glaciers were not +known till the year 1899, when they were discovered on the Byelaya and +Ushkinskaya (15,400 ft.) mountains. Thick Tertiary deposits, probably +Miocene, overlie the middle portions of the west coast. The southern +parts of the central range are composed of granites, syenites, +porphyries and crystalline slates, while in the north of Ichinskaya +volcano, which is the highest summit of the peninsula (16,920 ft.), the +mountains consist chiefly of Tertiary sandstones and old volcanic rocks. +Coal-bearing clays containing fresh-water molluscs and dicotyledonous +plants, as also conglomerates, alternate with the sandstones in these +Tertiary deposits. Amber is found in them. Very extensive layers of +melaphyre and andesite, as also of conglomerates and volcanic tuffs, +cover the middle portions of the peninsula. The south-eastern portion is +occupied by a chain of volcanoes, running along the indented coast, from +Cape Lopatka to Cape Kronotskiy (54° 25´ N.), and separated from the +rest of the peninsula by the valleys of the Bystraya (an affluent of the +Bolstraya, on the west coast) and Kamchatka rivers. Another chain of +volcanoes runs from Ichinskaya (which burst into activity several times +in the 18th and 19th centuries) to Shiveluch, seemingly parallel to the +above but farther north. The two chains contain twelve active and +twenty-six extinct volcanoes, from 7000 to more than 15,000 ft. high. +The highest volcanoes are grouped under 56° N., and the highest of them, +Kluchevskaya (16,990 ft.), is in a state of almost incessant activity +(notable outbreaks in 1729, 1737, 1841, 1853-1854, and 1896-1897), a +flow of its lava having reached to Kamchatka river in 1853. The active +Shiveluch (9900 ft.) is the last volcano of this chain. Several lakes +and probably Avacha Bay are old craters. Copper, mercury, and iron ores, +as also pure copper, ochre and sulphur, are found in the peninsula. The +principal river is the Kamchatka (325 m. long), which flows first +north-eastwards in a fertile longitudinal valley, and then, bending +suddenly to the east, pierces the above-mentioned volcanic chain. The +other rivers are the Tighil (135 m.) and the Bolstraya (120 m.), both +flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Avacha, flowing into the +Pacific. + +The floating ice which accumulates in the northern parts of the Sea of +Okhotsk and the cold current which flows along the east coast of the +peninsula render its summers chilly, but the winter is relatively warm, +and temperatures below -40° F. are experienced only in the highlands of +the interior and on the Okhotsk littoral. The average temperatures at +Petropavlovsk (53° N.) are: year 37° F., January 17°, July 58°; while in +the valley of the Kamchatka the average temperature of the winter is +16°, and of the summer as high as 58° and 64°. Rain and snow are +copious, and dense fogs enshroud the coast in summer; consequently the +mountains are well clothed with timber and the meadows with grass, +except in the _tundras_ of the north. The natives eat extensively the +bulbs of the Martagon lily, and weave cloth out of the fibres of the +Kamchatka nettle. _Delphinopterus leucus_, the sea-lion (_Otaria +Stelleri_), and walrus abound off the coasts. The sea-otter (_Enhydris +marina_) has been destroyed. + +The population (5846 in 1870) was 7270 in 1900. The southern part of the +peninsula is occupied by Kamchadales, who exhibit many attributes of the +Mongolian race, but are more similar to the aborigines of N.E. Asia and +N.W. America. Fishing (quantities of salmon enter the rivers) and +hunting are their chief occupations. Dog-sledges are principally used as +means of communication. The efforts of the government to introduce +cattle-breeding have failed. The Kamchadale language cannot be assigned +to any known group; its vocabulary is extremely poor. The purity of the +tongue is best preserved by the people of the Penzhinsk district on the +W. coast. North of 57° N. the peninsula is peopled with Koryaks, settled +and nomad, and Lamuts (Tunguses), who came from the W. coast of the Sea +of Okhotsk. The principal Russian settlements are: Petropavlovsk, on the +E. coast, on Avacha Bay, with an excellent roadstead; Verkhne-Kamchatsk +and Nizhne-Kamchatsk in the valley of the Kamchatka river; Bolsheryetsk, +on the Bolshaya; and Tighil, on the W. coast. + +The Russians made their first settlements in Kamchatka in the end of the +17th century; in 1696 Atlasov founded Verkhne-Kamchatsk, and in 1704 +Robelev founded Bolsheryetsk. In 1720 a survey of the peninsula was +undertaken; in 1725-1730 it was visited by Bering's expedition; and in +1733-1745 it was the scene of the labours of the Krasheninnikov and +Steller expedition. + + See G. A. Erman, _Reise um die Erde_ iii., (Berlin, 1848); C. von + Ditmar, _Reisen und Aufenthalt in Kamchatka in den Jahren 1851-1855_ + (1890-1900); G. Kennan, _Tent Life in Siberia_ (1870), and paper in + _Jour. of American Geog. Soc._ (1876); K. Diener, in _Petermann's + Mitteilungen_ (1891, vol. xxxvii.); V. A. Obruchev, in _Izvestia_ of + the East Siberian Geographical Society (xxiii. 4, 5; 1892); F. H. H. + Guillemard, _Cruise of the "Marchesa"_ (2nd ed., London, 1889); and G. + E. H. Barrett-Hamilton in _Scott. Geog. Mag._ (May, 1899), with + bibliography. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KAME (a form of Scandinavian _comb_, hill), in physical geography, a +short ridge or bunched mound of gravel or sand, "tumultuously +stratified," occurring in connexion with glacial deposits, having been +formed at the mouths of tunnels under the ice. When the ice-sheet melts, +these features, formerly concealed by the glacier, are revealed. They +are common in the glaciated portions of the lower Scottish valleys. By +some authorities the term "kame," or specifically "serpentine kame," is +taken as synonymous with "esker," which however is preferably to be +applied to the long mound deposited within the ice-tunnel, not to the +bunched mound at its mouth. + + + + +KAMENETS PODOLSKIY, or PODOLIAN KAMENETS (Polish Kamieniec), a town of +S.W. Russia, chief town of the government of Podolia. It stands in 48° +40´ N. and 26° 30´ E., on a high, rocky bluff of the river Smotrich, a +left-hand tributary of the Dniester, and near the Austrian frontier. +Pop. (1863), 20,699; (1900) 39,113, of whom 50% were Jews and 30% Poles. +Round the town lies a cluster of suburban villages, Polish Folwark, +Russian Folwark, Zinkovtsui, Karvasarui, &c.; and on the opposite side +of the river, accessible by a wooden bridge, stands the castle which +long frowned defiance across the Dniester to Khotin in Bessarabia. +Kamenets is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox bishop. The +Roman Catholic cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, built in 1361, is +distinguished by a minaret, recalling the time when it was used as a +mosque by the Turks (1672-1699). The Greek cathedral of John the Baptist +dates from the 16th century, but up to 1798 belonged to the Basilian +monastery. Other buildings are the Orthodox Greek monastery of the +Trinity, and the Catholic Armenian church (founded in 1398), possessing +a 14th-century missal and an image of the Virgin Mary that saw the +Mongol invasion of 1239-1242. The town contains Orthodox Greek and Roman +Catholic seminaries, Jewish colleges, and an archaeological museum for +church antiquities, founded in 1890. Kamenets was laid waste by the +Mongol leader Batu in 1240. In 1434 it was made the chief town of the +province of Podolia. In the 15th and 16th centuries it suffered +frequently from the invasions of Tatars, Moldavians and Turks; and in +1672 the hetman of the Cossacks, Doroshenko, assisted by Sultan Mahommed +IV. of Turkey, made himself master of the place. Restored to Poland by +the peace of Karlowitz (1699), it passed with Podolia to Russia in 1795. +Here the Turks were defeated by the Poles in 1633, and here twenty years +later peace was concluded between the same antagonists. The +fortifications were demolished in 1813. + + + + +KAMENZ, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Black Elster, 21 m. N.E. +of Dresden, on a branch line of railway from Bischofswerda. Pop. (1900), +9726. It has four Evangelical churches, among them a Wendish one, and a +handsome new town-hall with a library. The hospital is dedicated to the +memory of Lessing, who was born here. A colossal bust of the poet was +placed opposite the Wendish church in 1863, and a monument was raised to +him on a neighbouring hill in 1864. The industries of Kamenz include +wool-spinning, and the manufacture of cloth, glass, crockery and +stoneware. Built about 1200, Kamenz, was known by the name Dreikretcham +until the 16th century. In 1318 it passed to the mark of Brandenburg; in +1319 to Bohemia; and in 1635, after suffering much in the Hussite and +Thirty Years' wars, it came into the possession of Saxony. In 1706 and +1842 it was almost entirely consumed by fire. + +KAMENZ is also the name of a village in Prussia, not far from Breslau; +pop. 900. This is famous on account of its Cistercian monastery, founded +in 1094. Of the house, which was closed in 1810, only a few buildings +remain. + + + + +KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD (1696-1782), Scottish lawyer and philosopher, +son of George Home of Kames, in Berwickshire, where he was born in 1696. +After receiving a somewhat imperfect education from a private tutor, he +was in 1712 indentured to a writer to the signet in Edinburgh, but an +accidental introduction to Sir Hew Dalrymple, then president of the +court of session, determined him to aspire to the position of advocate. +He accordingly set himself to studying various branches of literature, +specially metaphysics and moral philosophy. He was called to the bar in +January 1724, and, as he lacked those brilliant qualities which +sometimes command immediate success, he employed his leisure in the +compilation of _Remarkable Decisions in the Court of Session from 1716 +to 1728_ (1728). This work having attracted attention, his power of +ingenious reasoning and mastery of law gradually gained him a leading +position at the bar. In 1752 he was appointed a judge in the court of +session under the title of Lord Kames, and in 1763 he was made one of +the lords of justiciary. In 1741 he married Agatha Drummond, through +whom in 1761 he succeeded to the estate of Blair Drummond, Perthshire. +He continued to discharge his judicial duties till within a few days of +his death at Edinburgh on the 27th of December 1782. + + Lord Kames took a special interest in agricultural and commercial + affairs. In 1755 he was appointed a member of the board of trustees + for encouragement of the fisheries, arts and manufactures of Scotland, + and about the same time he was named one of the commissioners for the + management of the forfeited estates annexed to the Crown. On the + subject of agriculture he wrote _The Gentleman Farmer_ (1776). In 1765 + he published a small pamphlet _On the Flax Husbandry of Scotland_; + and, besides availing himself of his extensive acquaintance with the + proprietors of Scotland to recommend the introduction of manufactures, + he took a prominent part in furthering the project of the Forth and + Clyde Canal. He was also one of the founders of the Physical and + Literary Society, afterwards the Royal Society of Edinburgh. It is, + however, as a writer on philosophy that Lord Kames is best known. In + 1751 he published his _Essays on the Principles of Morality and + Natural Religion_ (Ger. trans., Leipzig, 1772), in which he + endeavoured to maintain the doctrine of innate ideas, but conceded to + man an apparent but only apparent freedom of the will. His statement + of the latter doctrine so aroused the alarm of certain clergymen of + the Church of Scotland that he found it necessary to withdraw what was + regarded as a serious error, and to attribute man's delusive sense of + freedom, not to an innate conviction implanted by God, but to the + influence of the passions. His other philosophical works are _An + Introduction to the Art of Thinking_ (1761), _Elements of Criticism_ + (1762), _Sketches of the History of Man_ (1774). + + See _Life of Lord Kames_, by A. F. Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee (2 vols., + 1807). + + + + +KAMMIN, or CAMMIN, a town in the Prussian province of Pomerania, 2½ m. +from the Baltic, on the Kamminsche Bodden, a lake connected with the sea +by the Dievenow. Pop. (1905), 5923. Among its four Evangelical churches, +the cathedral and the church of St Mary are noteworthy. Iron-founding +and brewing are carried on in the town, which has also some fishing and +shipping. There is steamer communication with Stettin, about 40 m. +S.S.W. Kammin is of Wendish origin, and obtained municipal privileges in +1274. From about 1200 till 1628 it was the seat of a bishopric, which at +the latter date became a secular principality, being in 1648 +incorporated with Brandenburg. + + See Küchen, _Geschichte der Stadt Kammin_ (Kammin, 1885). + + + + +KAMPEN, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the left bank of +the Ysel, 3½ m. above its mouth, and a terminal railway station 8 m. +N.W. of Zwolle. It has regular steamboat communication with Zwolle, +Deventer, Amsterdam, and Enkhuizen. Pop. (1900), 19,664. Kampen is +surrounded by beautiful gardens and promenades in the place of the old +city walls, and has a fine river front. The four turreted gateways +furnish excellent examples of 16th and 17th century architecture. Of the +churches the Bovenkerk ("upper church"), or church of St Nicholas, ranks +with the cathedral of Utrecht and the Janskerk at 's Hertogenbosch as +one of the three great medieval churches in Holland. It was begun in +1369, and has double aisles, ambulatory and radiating chapels, and +contains some finely carved woodwork. The Roman Catholic Buitenkerk +("outer church") is also a fine building of the 14th century, with good +modern panelling. There are many other, though slighter, remains of the +ancient churches and monasteries of Kampen; but the most remarkable +building is the old town-hall, which is unsurpassed in Holland. It dates +from the 14th century, but was partly restored after a fire in 1543. The +exterior is adorned with niched statues and beautiful iron trellis work +round the windows. The old council-chamber is wainscoted in black oak, +and contains a remarkable sculptured chimney-piece (1545) and fine wood +carving. The town-hall contains the municipal library, collections of +tapestry, portraits and antiquities, and valuable archives relating to +the town and province. Kampen is the seat of a Christian Reformed +theological school, a gymnasium, a higher burgher school, a municipal +school of design, and a large orphanage. There are few or no local +taxes, the municipal chest being filled by the revenues derived from the +fertile delta-land, the Kampeneiland, which is always being built up at +the mouth of the Ysel. There is a considerable, trade in dairy produce; +and there are shipyards, rope-walks, a tool factory, cigar factories, +paper mills, &c. + + + + +KAMPTEE, or KAMTHI, a town of British India, in the Nagpur district of +the Central Provinces, just below the confluence of the Kanhan with the +rivers Pench and Kolar; 10 m. N.E. of Nagpur by rail. Pop. (1901), +38,888, showing a continuous decrease since 1881. Kamptee was founded in +1821, as a military cantonment in the neighbourhood of the native +capital of Nagpur, and became an important centre of trade. Since the +opening of the railway, trade has largely been diverted to Nagpur, and +the garrison has recently been reduced. The town is well laid out with +wide roads, gardens and tanks. + + + + +KAMRUP, a district of British India, in the Brahmaputra valley division +of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The headquarters are at Gauhati. Area, 3858 +sq. m.; pop. (1901), 589,187, showing a decrease of 7% in the decade. In +the immediate neighbourhood of the Brahmaputra the land is low, and +exposed to annual inundation. In this marshy tract reeds and canes +flourish luxuriantly, and the only cultivation is that of rice. At a +comparatively short distance from the river banks the ground begins to +rise in undulating knolls towards the mountains of Bhutan on the north, +and towards the Khasi hills on the south. The hills south of the +Brahmaputra in some parts reach the height of 800 ft. The Brahmaputra, +which divides the district into two nearly equal portions, is navigable +by river steamers throughout the year, and receives several tributaries +navigable by large native boats in the rainy season. The chief of these +are the Manas, Chaul Khoya and Barnadi on the north, and the Kulsi and +Dibru on the south bank. There is a government forest preserve in the +district and also a plantation where seedlings of teak, _sál_, _sissu_, +_súm_, and _nahor_ are reared, and experiments are being made with the +caoutchouc tree. The population is entirely rural, the only town with +upwards of 5000 inhabitants being Gauhati (11,661). The temples of Hajo +and Kamakhya attract many pilgrims from all quarters. The staple crop of +the district is rice, of which there are three crops. The indigenous +manufactures are confined to the weaving of silk and cotton cloths for +home use, and to the making of brass cups and plates. The cultivation +and manufacture of tea by European capital is not very prosperous. The +chief exports are rice, oil-seeds, timber and cotton; the imports are +fine rice, salt, piece goods, sugar, betel-nuts, coco-nuts and hardware. +A section of the Assam-Bengal railway starts from Gauhati, and a branch +of the Eastern Bengal railway has recently been opened to the opposite +bank of the river. A metalled road runs due south from Gauhati to +Shillong. + + + + +KAMYSHIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov, 145 m. by +river S.S.W. of the city of Saratov, on the right bank of the Volga. +Pop. (1861), 8644; (1897), 15,934. Being the terminus of the railway to +Tambov, Moscow and the Baltic ports, it is an important port for the +export of cereals and salt from the Volga, and it imports timber and +wooden wares. It is famous for its water-melons. Peter the Great built +here a fort, which was known at first as Dmitrievsk, but acquired its +present name in 1780. + + + + +KANAKA, a Polynesian word meaning "man," used by Polynesians to describe +themselves. Its ethnical value, never great, has been entirely destroyed +by its indiscriminate use by the French to describe all South Sea +islanders, whether black or brown. The corrupt French form _canaque_ has +been used by some English writers. The term came into prominence in +1884-1885 in connexion with the scandals arising over the kidnapping of +South Sea islanders for enforced labour on the sugar plantations of +north Queensland. + + + + +KANARA, or CANARA, the name of two adjoining districts of British India: +North Kanara in the presidency of Bombay, South Kanara in that of +Madras. Both are on the western coast. + +NORTH KANARA DISTRICT forms part of the southern division of Bombay. The +administrative headquarters are at Karwar, which is also the chief +seaport. Area, 3945 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 454,490, showing an increase +of 2% in the decade. The trade of the interior, which used to pass down +to the seaports, has been largely diverted by the opening of the +Southern Mahratta railway. Along the coast rice is the chief crop, and +coco-nut palms are also important. In the upland there are valuable +gardens of areca palms, cardamoms and pepper. Rice and timber are +exported, and sandalwood-carving and salt manufacture are carried on. +The main feature in the physical geography of the district is the range +of the Western Ghats, which, running from north to south, divides it +into two parts, a lowland or coast strip (Payanghat), and an upland +plateau (Balaghat). The coast-line is only broken by the Karwar headland +in the north, and by the estuaries of four rivers and the mouths of many +smaller streams, through which the salt water finds an entrance into +numerous lagoons winding several miles inland. The breadth of the +lowlands varies from 5 to 15 miles. From this narrow belt rise a few +smooth, flat-topped hills, from 200 to 300 ft. high; and at places it is +crossed by lofty, rugged, densely wooded spurs, which, starting from the +main range, maintain almost to the coast a height of not less than 1000 +ft. Among these hills lie well-tilled valleys of garden and rice land. +The plateau of the Balaghat is irregular, varying from 1500 to 2000 ft. +in height. In some parts the country rises into well-wooded knolls, in +others it is studded by small, isolated, steep hills. Except on the +banks of streams and in the more open glades, the whole is one broad +waste of woodland and forest. The open spaces are dotted with hamlets or +parcelled out into rice clearings. Of the rivers flowing eastward from +the watershed of the Sahyadri hills the only one of importance is the +Wardha or Varada, a tributary of the Tungabhadra. Of those that flow +westwards, the four principal ones, proceeding from north to south, are +the Kali, Gungawali, Tadri and Sharavati. The last of these forms the +famous Gersoppa Falls. Extensive forests clothe the hills, and are +conserved under the rules of the forest department. + +SOUTH KANARA DISTRICT has its headquarters at Mangalore. Area, 4021 sq. +m. Pop. (1901), 1,134,713, showing an increase of 7% in the decade. The +district is intersected by rivers, none of which exceeds 100 miles in +length. They all take their rise in the Western Ghats, and many are +navigable during the fair weather for from 15 to 25 miles from the +coast. The chief of these streams are the Netravati, Gurpur and +Chendragiri. Numerous groves of coco-nut palms extend along the coast, +and green rice-fields are seen in every valley. The Western Ghats, +rising to a height of 3000 to 6000 ft., fringe the eastern boundary. +Forest land of great extent and value exists, but most of it is private +property. Jungle products (besides timber) consist of bamboo, cardamoms, +wild arrowroot, gall-nuts, gamboge, catechu, fibrous bark, cinnamon, +gums, resin, dyes, honey and beeswax. The forests formerly abounded in +game, which, however, is rapidly decreasing under incessant shooting. +The staple crop is rice. The chief articles of import are piece goods, +cotton yarn, oils and salt. Tiles are manufactured in several places out +of a fine potter's clay. The Azhikal-Mangalore line of the Madras +railway serves the district. + + See _South Canara District Manual_ (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895). + + + + +KANARESE, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken by about ten +millions of people in southern India, chiefly in Mysore, Hyderabad, and +the adjoining districts of Madras and Bombay. It has an ancient +literature, written in an alphabet closely resembling that employed for +Telugu. Since the 12th century the Kanarese-speaking people have largely +adopted the Lingayat form of faith, which may be described as an +anti-Brahmanical sect of Siva worshippers (see HINDUISM). Most of them +are agriculturists, but they also engage actively in trade. + + + + +KANARIS (or CANARIS), CONSTANTINE (1790-1877), Greek patriot, belonged +to the class of coasting sailors who produced if not the most honest, at +least the bravest, and the most successful of the combatants in the +cause of Greek independence. He belonged by birth to the little island +of Psara, to the north-west of Chio. He first became prominent as the +effective leader of the signal vengeance taken by the Greeks for the +massacre at Chio in April 1822 by the Turkish Capitan Pasha. The +commander of the force of fifty small vessels and eight fireships sent +to assail the Turkish fleet was the navarch Miaoulis, but it was Kanaris +who executed the attack with the fireships on the flagship of the +Capitan Pasha on the night of the 18th of June 1822. The Turks were +celebrating the feast of Bahram at the end of the Ramadan fast. Kanaris +had two small brigs fitted as fireships, and thirty-six men. He was +allowed to come close to the Turkish flagship, and succeeded in +attaching his fireships to her, setting them on fire, and escaping with +his party. The fire reached the powder and the flagship blew up, sending +the Capitan Pasha and 2000 Turks into the air. Kanaris was undoubtedly +aided by the almost incredible sloth and folly of his opponents, but he +chose his time well, and the service of the fireships was always +considered peculiarly dangerous. That Kanaris could carry out the +venture with a volunteer party not belonging to a regularly disciplined +service, not only proved him to be a clever partisan fighter, but showed +that he was a leader of men. He repeated the feat at Tenedos in November +of 1822, and was then considered to have disposed of nearly 4000 Turks +in the two ventures. When his native island, Psara, was occupied by the +Turks he continued to serve under the command of Miaoulis. He was no +less distinguished in other attacks with fireships at Samos and Mytilene +in 1824, which finally established an utter panic in the Turkish navy. +His efforts to destroy the ships of Mehemet Ali at Alexandria in 1825 +were defeated by contrary winds. When the Greeks tried to organize a +regular navy he was appointed captain of the frigate "Hellas" in 1826. +In politics he was a follower of Capo d'Istria. He helped to upset the +government of King Otho and to establish his successor, was prime +minister in 1864-1865, came back from retirement to preside over the +ministry formed during the crisis of the Russo-Turkish war, and died in +office on the 15th of September 1877. Kanaris is described as of small +stature, simple in appearance, somewhat shy and melancholy. He is justly +remembered as the most blameless of the popular heroes of the War of +Independence. He was almost the only one among them whom Dundonald, with +whom he served in a successful attack on an Egyptian war-ship near +Alexandria, exempts from the sweeping charges of cowardice he brings +against the Greeks. (D. H.) + + + + +KANAUJ, an ancient city of British India, in Farukhabad district, United +Provinces, near the left bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1901), 18,552. Kanauj +in early times formed the capital of a great Hindu kingdom. Its +prosperity dates from a prehistoric period, and seems to have culminated +about the 6th century under Harsha. In 1019 it fell before Mahmud of +Ghazni, and again in 1194 before Mahommed Ghori. The existing ruins +extend over the lands of five villages, occupying a semicircle fully 4 +m. in diameter. No Hindu buildings remain intact; but the great mosque, +constructed by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur in 1406 out of Hindu temples, is +still called by Hindus "Sita's Kitchen." Kanauj, which is traditionally +said to be derived from _Kanyakubja_ (= the crooked maiden), has given +its name to an important division of Brahmans in northern India. +Hinduism in Lower Bengal also dates its origin from a Brahman migration +southwards from this city, about 800 or 900. Kanauj is now noted for the +distilling of scents. + + + + +KANDAHAR, the largest city in Afghanistan, situated in 31° 37´ N. lat. +and 65° 43´ E. long., 3400 ft. above the sea. It is 370 m. distant from +Herat on the N.W., by Girishk and Farah--Girishk being 75 m., and Farah +225 m. from Kandahar. From Kabul, on the N.E., it is distant 315 m., by +Kalat-i-Ghilzai and Ghazni--Kalat-i-Ghilzai being 85 m., and Ghazni 225 +m. from Kandahar. To the Peshin valley the distance is about 110 m., and +from Peshin to India the three principal routes measure approximately as +follows: by the Zhob valley to Dera Ismail Khan, 300 m.; by the Bori +valley to Dera Ghazi Khan, 275 m.; by Quetta and the Bolan to Dadar, 125 +m.; and by Chappar and Nari to Sibi, 120 m. The Indian railway system +extends to New Chaman, within some 80 m. of Kandahar. Immediately round +the city is a plain, highly cultivated and well populated to the south +and west; but on the north-west barren, and bounded by a double line of +hills, rising to about 1000 ft. above its general level, and breaking +its dull monotony with irregular lines of scarped precipices, crowned +with fantastic pinnacles and peaks. To the north-west these hills form +the watershed between the valleys of the Arghandab and the Tarnak, until +they are lost in the mountain masses of the Hazarajat--a wild region +inhabited by tribes of Tatar origin, which effectually shuts off +Kandahar from communication with the north. On the south-west they lose +themselves in the sandy desert of Registan, which wraps itself round the +plain of Kandahar, and forms another impassable barrier. But there is a +break in these hills--a gate, as it were, to the great high road between +Herat and India; and it is this gate which the fortress of Kandahar so +effectually guards, and to which it owes its strategic importance. Other +routes there are, open to trade, between Herat and northern India, +either following the banks of the Hari Rud, or, more circuitously, +through the valley of the Helmund to Kabul; or the line of hills between +the Arghandab and the Tarnak may be crossed close to Kalat-i-Ghilzai; +but of the two former it may be said that they are not ways open to the +passage of Afghan armies owing to the hereditary hostility existing +between the Aeimak and Hazara tribes and the Afghans generally, while +the latter is not beyond striking distance from Kandahar. The one great +high road from Herat and the Persian frontier to India is that which +passes by Farah and crosses the Helmund at Girishk. Between Kandahar and +India the road is comparatively open, and would be available for railway +communication but for the jealous exclusiveness of the Afghans. + +To the north-west, and parallel to the long ridges of the Tarnak +watershed, stretches the great road to Kabul, traversed by Nott in 1842, +and by Stewart and subsequently by Roberts in 1880. Between this and the +direct route to Peshin is a road which leads through Maruf to the Kundar +river and the Guleri pass into the plains of Hindustan at Dera Ismail +Khan. This is the most direct route to northern India, but it involves +the passage of some rough country, across the great watershed between +the basins of the Helmund and the Indus. But the best known road from +Kandahar to India is that which stretches across the series of open +stony plains interspersed with rocky hills of irregular formation +leading to the foot of the Kwaja Amran (Khojak) range, on the far side +of which from Kandahar lies the valley of Peshin. The passage of the +Kwaja Amran involves a rise and fall of some 2300 ft., but the range has +been tunnelled and a railway now connects the frontier post of New +Chaman with Quetta. Two lines of railway now connect Quetta with Sind, +the one known as the Harnai loop, the other as the Bolan or Mashkaf +line. They meet at Sibi (see BALUCHISTAN). Several roads to India have +been developed through Baluchistan, but they are all dominated from +Kandahar. Thus Kandahar becomes a sort of focus of all the direct routes +converging from the wide-stretching western frontier of India towards +Herat and Persia, and the fortress of Kandahar gives protection on the +one hand to trade between Hindustan and Herat, and on the other it lends +to Kabul security from invasion by way of Herat. + +Kandahar is approximately a square-built city, surrounded by a wall of +about 3¾ m. circuit, and from 25 to 30 ft. high, with an average breadth +of 15 ft. Outside the wall is a ditch 10 ft. deep. The city and its +defences are entirely mud-built. There are four main streets crossing +each other nearly at right angles, the central "chouk" being covered +with a dome. These streets are wide and bordered with trees, and are +flanked by shops with open fronts and verandas. There are no buildings +of any great pretension in Kandahar, a few of the more wealthy Hindus +occupying the best houses. The tomb of Ahmad Shah is the only attempt at +monumental architecture. This, with its rather handsome cupola, and the +twelve minor tombs of Ahmad Shah's children grouped around, contains a +few good specimens of fretwork and of inlaid inscriptions. The four +streets of the city divide it into convenient quarters for the +accommodation of its mixed population of Duranis, Ghilzais, Parsiwans +and Kakars, numbering in all some 30,000 souls. Of these the greater +proportion are the Parsiwans (chiefly Kizilbashes). + +It is reckoned that there are 1600 shops and 182 mosques in the city. +The mullahs of these mosques are generally men of considerable power. +The walls of the city are pierced by the four principal gates of +"Kabul," "Shikarpur," "Herat" and the "Idgah," opposite the four main +streets, with two minor gates, called the Top Khana and the Bardurani +respectively, in the western half of the city. The Idgah gate passes +through the citadel, which is a square-built enclosure with sides of +about 260 yds. in length. The flank defences of the main wall are +insufficient; indeed there is no pretence at scientific structure about +any part of the defences; but the site of the city is well chosen for +defence, and the water supply (drawn by canals from the Arghandab or +derived from wells) is good. + + About 4 m. west of the present city, stretched along the slopes of a + rocky ridge, and extending into the plains at its foot, are the ruins + of the old city of Kandahar sacked and plundered by Nadir Shah in + 1738. From the top of the ridge a small citadel overlooks the + half-buried ruins. On the north-east face of the hill forty steps, cut + out of solid limestone, lead upward to a small, dome-roofed recess, + which contains some interesting Persian inscriptions cut in relief on + the rock, recording particulars of the history of Kandahar, and + defining the vast extent of the kingdom of the emperor Baber. Popular + belief ascribes the foundation of the old city to Alexander the Great. + + Although Kandahar has long ceased to be the seat of government, it is + nevertheless by far the most important trade centre in Afghanistan, + and the revenues of the Kandahar province assist largely in supporting + the chief power at Kabul. There are no manufactures or industries of + any importance peculiar to Kandahar, but the long lines of bazaars + display goods from England, Russia, Hindustan, Persia and Turkestan, + embracing a trade area as large probably as that of any city in Asia. + The customs and town dues together amount to a sum equal to the land + revenue of the Kandahar province, which is of considerable extent, + stretching to Pul-i-Sangin, 10 m. south of Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the + Kabul side, to the Helmund on the west, and to the Hazara country on + the north. Although Farah has been governed from Kandahar since 1863, + its revenues are not reckoned as a part of those of the province. The + land revenue proper is assessed in grain, the salaries of government + officials, pay of soldiers, &c., being disbursed by "barats" or orders + for grain at rates fixed by government, usually about 20% above the + city market prices. The greater part of the English goods sold at + Herat are imported by Karachi and Kandahar--a fact which testifies to + the great insecurity of trade between Meshed and Herat. Some of the + items included as town dues are curious. For instance, the tariff on + animals exposed for sale includes a charge of 5% ad valorem on slave + girls, besides a charge of 1 rupee per head. The kidney fat of all + sheep and the skins of all goats slaughtered in the public yard are + perquisites of government, the former being used for the manufacture + of soap, which, with snuff, is a government monopoly. The imports + consist chiefly of English goods, indigo, cloth, boots, leather, + sugar, salt, iron and copper, from Hindustan, and of shawls, carpets, + "barak" (native woollen cloth), postins (coats made of skins), shoes, + silks, opium and carpets from Meshed, Herat and Turkestan. The exports + are wool, cotton, madder, cummin seed, asafoetida, fruit, silk and + horses. The system of coinage is also curious: 105 English rupees are + melted down, and the alloy extracted, leaving 100 rupees' worth of + silver; 295 more English rupees are then melted, and the molten metal + mixed with the 100 rupees silver; and out of this 808 Kandahari rupees + are coined. As the Kandahari rupee is worth about 8 annas (half an + English rupee) the government thus realizes a profit of 1%. + Government accounts are kept in "Kham" rupees, the "Kham" being worth + about five-sixths of a Kandahari rupee; in other words, it about + equals the franc, or the Persian "kran." + + Immediately to the south and west of Kandahar is a stretch of + well-irrigated and highly cultivated country, but the valley of the + Arghandab is the most fertile in the district, and, from the luxuriant + abundance of its orchards and vineyards, offers the most striking + scenes of landscape beauty. The pomegranate fields form a striking + feature in the valley--the pomegranates of Kandahar, with its "sirdar" + melons and grapes, being unequalled in quality by any in the East. The + vines are grown on artificial banks, probably for want of the + necessary wood to trellis them--the grapes being largely exported in a + semi-dried state. Fruit, indeed, besides being largely exported, forms + the chief staple of the food supply of the inhabitants throughout + Afghanistan. The art of irrigation is so well understood that the + water supply is at times exhausted, no river water being allowed to + run to waste. The plains about Kandahar are chiefly watered by canals + drawn from the Arghandab near Baba-wali, and conducted through the + same gap in the hills which admits the Herat road. The amount of + irrigation and the number of water channels form a considerable + impediment to the movements of troops, not only immediately about + Kandahar, but in all districts where the main rivers and streams are + bordered by green bands of cultivation. Irrigation by "karez" is also + largely resorted to. The karez is a system of underground channelling + which usually taps a sub-surface water supply at the foot of some of + the many rugged and apparently waterless hills which cover the face of + the country. The water is not brought to the surface, but is carried + over long distances by an underground channel or drain, which is + constructed by sinking shafts at intervals along the required course + and connecting the shafts by tunnelling. The general agricultural + products of the country are wheat, barley, pulse, fruit, madder, + asafoetida, lucerne, clover and tobacco. + + Of the mineral resources of the Kandahar district not much is known, + but an abandoned gold mine exists about 2 m. north of the town. Some + general idea of the resources of the Kandahar district may be gathered + from the fact that it supplied the British troops with everything + except luxuries during the entire period of occupation in 1879-81; and + that, in spite of the great strain thrown on those resources by the + presence of the two armies of Ayub Khan and of General Roberts, and + after the total failure of the autumn crops and only a partial harvest + the previous spring, the army was fed without great difficulty until + the final evacuation, at one-third of the prices paid in Quetta for + supplies drawn from India. + + _History._--Kandahar has a stormy history. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni + took it in the 11th century from the Afghans who then held it. In the + beginning of the 13th century it was taken by Jenghiz Khan, and in the + 14th by Timur. In 1507 it was captured by the emperor Baber, but + shortly afterwards it fell again into Afghan hands, to be retaken by + Baber in 1521. Baber's son, Humayun, agreed to cede Kandahar to + Persia, but failed to keep his word, and the Persians besieged the + place unsuccessfully. Thus it remained in the possession of the Moguls + till 1625, when it was taken by Shah Abbas. Aurangzeb tried to take it + in 1649 with 5000 men, but failed. Another attempt in 1652 was equally + unsuccessful. It remained in Persian possession till 1709, when it was + taken by the Afghans, but was retaken after a two years' siege by + Nadir Shah. Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1749, and immediately on + hearing the news of his death Ahmad Shah (Abdali) seized Nadir Shah's + treasure at Kandahar, and proclaimed himself king, with the consent, + not only of the Afghans, but, strange to say, of the Hazaras and + Baluchis as well. He at once changed the site of the city to its + present position, and thus founded the Afghan kingdom, with modern + Kandahar as its capital. Ahmad Shah died in 1773, and was succeeded by + his son Timur, who died in 1793, and left the throne to his son Zaman + Shah. This prince was deposed by his half-brother Mahmud, who was in + his turn deposed by Shah Shuja, the full brother of Zaman Shah. After + a short reign Shah Shuja was compelled to abdicate from his inability + to repress the rising power of Fateh Khan, a Barakzai chief, and he + took refuge first with Ranjit Singh, who then ruled the Punjab, and + finally secured the protection of British power. Afghanistan was now + practically dismembered. Mahmud was reinstated by Fateh Khan, whom he + appointed his vizier, and whose nephews, Dost Mahommed Khan and Kohn + dil Khan, he placed respectively in the governments of Kabul and + Kandahar. Fateh Khan was barbarously murdered by Kamran (Mahmud's son) + near Ghazni in 1818; and in retaliation Mahmud himself was driven from + power, and the Barakzai clan secured the sovereignty of Afghanistan. + While Dost Mahommed held Kabul, Kandahar became temporarily a sort of + independent chiefship under two or three of his brothers. In 1839 the + cause of Shah Shuja was actively supported by the British. Kandahar + was occupied, and Shah Shuja reinstated on the throne of his + ancestors. Dost Mahommed was defeated near Kabul, and after surrender + to the British force, was deported into Hindustan. The British army of + occupation in southern Afghanistan continued to occupy Kandahar from + 1839 till the autumn of 1842, when General Nott marched on Kabul to + meet Pollock's advance from Jalalabad. The cantonments near the city, + built by Nott's division, were repaired and again occupied by the + British army in 1879, when Shere Ali was driven from power by the + invasion of Afghanistan, nor were they finally evacuated till the + spring of 1881. Trade statistics of late years show a gradual increase + of exports to India from Kandahar and the countries adjacent thereto, + but a curious falling-off in imports. The short-sighted policy of the + amir Abdur Rahman in discouraging imports doubtless affected the + balance, nor did his affectation of ignoring the railway between New + Chaman and Kila Abdulla (on the Peshin side of the Khojak) conduce to + the improvement of trade. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +KANDI, a town of British India, in Murshidabad district, Bengal. Pop. +(1901), 12,037. It is the residence of the rajas of Paikpara, a wealthy +and devout Hindu family. The founder of this family was Ganga Govind +Singh, the banyan or agent of Warren Hastings, who was born at Kandi, +and retired hither in his old age with an immense fortune. His name has +acquired celebrity for the most magnificent _sraddha_, or funeral +obsequies, ever performed in Bengal, celebrated in honour of his mother, +at a cost, it is said, of £200,000. + + + + +KANDY, a town near the centre of Ceylon, 75 m. from Colombo by rail, +formerly the capital of a kingdom of the same name, situated towards +the heart of the island, 1718 ft. above the sea. It lies round the +margin of an artificial lake constructed by the last king of Kandy in +1806, and is beautifully surrounded by hills. The most striking objects +are the temples (of which twelve are Buddhist and four Brahman), the +tombs of the Kandian kings, and the various buildings of the royal +residence, partly allowed to fall into disrepair, partly utilized by the +government. Of the temples the Dalada Malagawa is worthy of particular +mention; it claims, as the name indicates, to be in possession of a +Buddha tooth. + +Kandy was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the +Dutch in 1763; but in both instances the native kings succeeded in +shaking off the foreign yoke. The British got possession of the place in +1803, but the garrison afterwards capitulated and were massacred, and it +was not till 1814-15 that the king was defeated and dethroned. The +British authority was formally established by the convention of March 2, +1815. In 1848, owing to an attempt at rebellion, the town was for a time +under martial law. It has been greatly improved of recent years. Sir +William Gregory when governor did much to restore the ancient Kandy +decorations, while the Victoria Jubilee Commemoration Building, +including "Ferguson Memorial Hall," and two fine hotels, add to the +improvements. The Royal Botanic Gardens are situated at Peradeniya, 3 m. +distant. Kandy is a uniquely beautiful, highland, tropical town, full of +interesting historical and Buddhistic associations. A water supply and +electric lighting have been introduced. Roman Catholic missions are +active in the work of education, for which a large block of buildings +has been erected. Church of England, Wesleyan and Baptist missions are +also at work. The population of the town in 1900 was 26,386; of the +district, 377,591. Average annual rainfall, 81½ in.; average +temperature, 75.3. There is a branch railway from Kandy, north to +Matale, 17 m. + + + + +KANE, ELISHA KENT (1820-1857), American scientist and explorer, was born +in Philadelphia on the 20th of February 1820, the son of the jurist John +Kintzing Kane (1795-1858), a friend and supporter of Andrew Jackson, +attorney-general of Pennsylvania in 1845-1846, U.S. judge of the Eastern +District of Pennsylvania after 1846, and president of the American +Philosophical Society in 1856-1858. Young Kane entered the university of +Virginia and obtained the degree of M.D. in 1842, and in the following +year entered the U.S. navy as surgeon. He had already acquired a +considerable reputation in physiological research. The ship to which he +was appointed was ordered to China, and he found opportunities during +the voyage for indulging his passion for exploration, making a journey +from Rio de Janeiro to the base of the Andes, and another from Bombay +through India to Ceylon. On the arrival of the ship at its destination +he provided a substitute for his post and crossed over to the island of +Luzon, which he explored. In 1844 he left China, and, returning by +India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Greece, Austria, Germany and Switzerland, +reached America in 1846. In that year he was ordered to the west coast +of Africa, where he visited Dahomey, and contracted fever, which told +severely on his constitution. On his return in 1847, he exchanged the +naval for the military service, and was sent to join the U.S. army in +Mexico, where he had some extraordinary adventures, and where he was +again stricken with fever. + +On the fitting out of the first Grinnell expedition, in 1850, to search +for Sir John Franklin, Kane was appointed surgeon and naturalist under +Lieut. de Haven, who commanded the ships "Advance" and "Rescue." The +expedition, after an absence of sixteen months, during nine of which the +ships were ice-bound, returned without having found any trace of the +missing vessels. Kane was in feeble health, but worked on at his +narrative of the expedition, which was published in 1854, under the +title of _The U.S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin_. +He was determined not to give up the search for Franklin, and in spite +of ill-health travelled through the States lecturing to obtain funds, +and gave up his pay for twenty months. At length Henry Grinnell fitted +out an expedition, in the little brig "Advance," of which Kane was given +the command. She sailed in June 1853, and passing up Smith Sound at the +head of Baffin Bay advanced into the enclosed sea which now bears the +name of Kane Basin, thus establishing the Polar route of many future +Arctic expeditions. Here, off the coast of Greenland, the expedition +passed two winters, accomplishing much useful geographical, as well as +scientific, work, including the attainment of what was to remain for +sixteen years the highest northern latitude, 80° 35´ N. (June 1854). +From this point a large area of open water was seen which was believed +to be an "open Polar Sea," a chimera which played an important and +delusive rôle in subsequent explorations. After enduring the greatest +hardships it was resolved to abandon the ship, Upernivik being reached +on the 5th of August 1855, whence a relief expedition brought the +explorers home. Medals were authorized by Congress, and in the following +year Dr Kane received the founder's medal of the Royal Geographical +Society, and, two years later, a gold medal from the Paris Geographical +Society. He published _The Second Grinnell Expedition_ in 1856. Dr Kane +died at Havana on the 16th of February 1857, at the age of thirty-seven. +Between his first and second arctic voyages he made the acquaintance of +the Fox family, the spiritualists. With one of the daughters, Margaret, +he carried on a long correspondence, which was afterwards published by +the lady, who declared that they were privately married. + + See _Biography of E. K. Kane_, by William Elder (1858); _Life of E. K. + Kane and other American Explorers_, by S. M. Smucker (1858); _The + Love-Life of Dr Kane, containing the Correspondence and a History of + the Engagement and Secret Marriage between E. K. Kane and Margaret + Fox_ (New York, 1866); "Discoveries of Dr Kane," in _Jour. of the Roy. + Geog. Soc._, vol. xxviii. (reprinted in _R. G. S. Arctic Papers_ of + 1875). + + + + +KANE, a borough of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 90 m. +E.S.E. of Erie. Pop. (1890), 2944; (1900), 5296, (971 foreign-born); +(1910) 6626. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the +Kane & Elk, and the Big Level & Kinzua railways. It is situated about +2015 ft. above the sea in a region producing natural gas, oil, lumber +and silica, and has some reputation as a summer resort. The borough has +manufactories of window glass, plate glass and bottles, and repair shops +of the Pennsylvania railroad. Kane was settled in 1859, and was +incorporated as a borough in 1887. It was named in honour of its founder +Gen. Thomas L. Kane (1822-1883), brother of Elisha Kent Kane. + + + + +KANGAROO, the universally accepted, though not apparently the native, +designation of the more typical representatives of the marsupial family +_Macropodidae_ (see MARSUPIALIA). Although intimately connected with the +cuscuses and phalangers by means of the musk-kangaroo, the kangaroos and +wallabies, together with the rat-kangaroos, are easily distinguishable +from other diprotodont marsupials by their general conformation, and by +peculiarities in the structure of their limbs, teeth and other organs. +They vary in size from that of a sheep to a small rabbit. The head, +especially in the larger species, is small, compared with the rest of +the body, and tapers forward to the muzzle. The shoulders and fore-limbs +are feebly developed, and the hind-limbs of disproportionate strength +and magnitude, which give the animals a peculiarly awkward appearance +when moving about on all-fours, as they occasionally do when feeding. +Rapid progression is, however, performed only by the powerful +hind-limbs, the animals covering the ground by a series of immense +bounds, during which the fore part of the body is inclined forwards, and +balanced by the long, strong and tapering tail, which is carried +horizontally backwards. When not moving, they often assume a perfectly +upright position, the tail aiding the two hind-legs to form a tripod, +and the front-limbs dangling by the side of the chest. This position +gives full scope for the senses of sight, hearing and smell to warn of +the approach of enemies. The fore-paws have five digits, each armed with +a strong, curved claw. The hind-foot is extremely long, narrow and +(except in the musk-kangaroo) without the first toe. It consists mainly +of one very large and strong toe, corresponding to the fourth of the +human foot, ending in a strong curved and pointed claw (fig. 2). Close +to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit, and to the inner +side two excessively slender toes (the second and third), bound together +almost to the extremity in a common integument. The two little claws of +these toes, projecting together from the skin, may be of use in +scratching and cleaning the fur of the animal, but the toes must have +quite lost all connexion with the functions of support or progression. +This type of foot-structure is termed syndactylous. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Great Grey Kangaroo (_Macropus giganteus_).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skeleton of right hind-foot of Kangaroo.] + +The dental formula, when completely developed, is _incisors_ 3/1, +_canines_ 1/0, _premolars_ 3/3, _molars_ 3/3 on each side, giving a +total of 34 teeth. The three incisors of the upper jaw are arranged in a +continuous arched series, and have crowns with broad cutting edges; the +first or middle incisor is often larger than the others. Corresponding +to these in the lower jaw is but one tooth on each side, which is of +great size, directed horizontally forwards, narrow, lanceolate and +pointed with sharp edges. Owing to the slight union of the two halves of +the lower jaw in front in many species the two lower incisors work +together like the blades of a pair of scissors. The canines are absent +or rudimentary in the lower, and often deciduous at an early age in the +upper jaw. The first two premolars are compressed, with cutting +longitudinal edges, the anterior one is deciduous, being lost about the +time the second one replaces the milk-molar, so that three premolars are +never found in place and use in the same individual. The last premolar +and the molars have quadrate crowns, provided with two strong transverse +ridges, or with four obtuse cusps. In _Macropus giganteus_ and its +immediate allies, the premolars and sometimes the first molar are shed, +so that in old examples only the two posterior molars and the incisors +are found in place. The milk-dentition, as in other marsupials, is +confined to a single tooth on each side of each jaw, the other molars +and incisors being never changed. The dentition of the kangaroos, +functionally considered, thus consists of sharp-edged incisors, most +developed near the median line of the mouth, for the purpose of cropping +herbage, and ridged or tuberculated molars for crushing. + +The number of vertebrae is--in the cervical region 7, dorsal 13, lumbar +6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of the tail, but +generally from 21 to 25. In the fore-limb the clavicle and the radius +and ulna are well developed, allowing of considerable freedom of motion +of the fore-paw. The pelvis has large epipubic or "marsupial" bones. The +femur is short, and the tibia and fibula of great length, as is the +foot, the whole of which is applied to the ground when the animal is at +rest in the upright position. + +The stomach is large and very complex, its walls being puckered by +longitudinal muscular bands into a number of folds. The alimentary canal +is long, and the caecum well developed. The young (which, as in other +marsupials, leave the uterus in an extremely small and imperfect +condition) are placed in the pouch as soon as they are born; and to this +they resort temporarily for shelter for some time after they are able to +run, jump and feed upon the herbage which forms the nourishment of the +parent. During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch, the +blind, naked, helpless young creatures (which in the great kangaroo +scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached by their mouths to the +nipple of the mother, and are fed by milk injected into their stomach by +the contraction of the muscle covering the mammary gland. In this stage +of existence the elongated upper part of the larynx projects into the +posterior nares, and so maintains a free communication between the lungs +and the external surface, independently of the mouth and gullet, thus +averting danger of suffocation while the milk is passing down the +gullet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skull and teeth of Bennett's Wallaby (_Macropus +ruficollis bennettii_): i^1, i^2, i^3, first, second and third upper +incisors; pm, second premolar (the first having been already shed); m^1, +m^2, m^3, m^4, last premolar and three molars. The last, not fully +developed, is nearly concealed by the ascending part of the lower jaw.] + +Kangaroos are vegetable-feeders, browsing on grass and various kinds of +herbage, but the smaller species also eat roots. They are naturally +timid and inoffensive, but the larger kinds when hard pressed will turn +and defend themselves, sometimes killing a dog by grasping it in their +fore-paws, and inflicting terrible wounds with the sharp claws of their +powerful hind-legs, supporting themselves meanwhile upon the tail. The +majority are inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania, forming one of the +most prominent and characteristic features of the fauna of these lands, +and performing the part of the deer and antelopes of other parts of the +world. They were important sources of food-supply to the natives, and +are hunted by the colonists, both for sport and on account of the damage +they do in consuming grass required for cattle and sheep. A few species +are found in New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, which belong, in the +zoological sense, to the Australian province, beyond the bounds of which +none occurs. + + The more typical representatives of the group constitute the + sub-family _Macropodinae_, in which the cutting-edges of the upper + incisors are nearly level, or the first pair but slightly longer than + the others (fig. 3). The canines are rudimentary and often wanting. + The molars are usually not longer (from before backwards) than the + anterior premolars, and less compressed than in the next section. The + crowns of the molars have two prominent transverse ridges. The + fore-limbs are small with subequal toes, armed with strong, moderately + long, curved claws. Hind-limbs very long and strongly made. Head + small, with more or less elongated muzzle. Ears generally rather long + and ovate. + + The typical genus _Macropus_, in which the muzzle is generally naked, + the ears large, the fur on the nape of the neck usually directed + backwards, the claw of the fourth hind-toe very large, and the tail + stout and tapering, includes a large number of species. Among these, + the great grey kangaroo (_M. giganteus_, fig. 1) deserves special + mention on account of having been discovered during Captain Cook's + first voyage in 1770. The great red kangaroo (_M. rufus_) is about the + same size, while other large species are _M. antilopinus_ and _M. + robustus_. The larger wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, such as the + red-necked wallaby (_M. ruficollis_) constitute a group of + smaller-sized species; while the smaller wallabies, such as the + filander (q.v.) (_M. muelleri_) and _M. thetidis_, constitute yet + another section. The genus ranges from the eastern Austro-Malay + islands to New Guinea. + + Nearly allied are the rock-wallabies of Australia and Tasmania, + constituting the genus _Petrogale_, chiefly distinguished by the + thinner tail being more densely haired and terminating in a tuff. + Well-known species are _P. penicillata_, _P. xanthopus_ and _P. + lateralis_. The few species of nail-tailed wallabies, _Onychogale_, + which are confined to the Australian mainland, take their name from + the presence of a horny spur at the end of the tail, and are further + distinguished by the hairy muzzle. _O. unguifer_, _O. fraenatus_ and + _O. lunatus_ represent the group. The hare-wallabies, such as + _Lagorchestes leporoides_, _L. hirsutus_ and _L. consepicillatus_, + constitute a genus with the same distribution as the last, and + likewise with a hairy muzzle, but with a rather short, evenly furred + tail, devoid of a spur. They are great leapers and swift runners, + mostly frequenting open stony plains. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Skull and teeth of Lesueuir's Rat-Kangaroo + (_Bettongia lesueuiri_). c, upper canine. Other letters as in fig. 3. + The anterior premolar has been shed.] + + More distinct is the Papuan genus _Dorcopsis_, as typified by _D. + muelleri_, although it is to some extent connected with _Macropus_ by + _D. macleyi_. The muzzle is naked, the fur on the nape of the neck + directed more or less completely forward, and the hind-limbs are less + disproportionately elongated. Perhaps, however, the most distinctive + feature of the genus is the great fore-and-aft length of the + penultimate premolar in both jaws. Other species are _D. + rufolateralis_ and _D. aurantiacus_. In the tree-kangaroos, which + include the Papuan _Dendrolagus inustus_, _D. ursinus_, _D. dorianus_, + _D. benetianus_ and _D. maximus_, and the North Queensland _D. + lumholtzi_, the reduction in the length of the hind-limbs is carried + to a still further degree, so that the proportions of the fore and + hind limbs are almost normal. The genus agrees with _Dorcopsis_ in the + direction of the hair on the neck, but the muzzle is only partially + hairy, and the elongation of the penultimate premolar is less. These + kangaroos are largely arboreal in their habits, but they descend to + the ground to feed. Lastly, we have the banded wallaby, _Lagostrophus + fasciatus_, of Western Australia, a small species characterized by its + naked muzzle, the presence of long bristles on the hind-feet which + conceal the claws, and also of dark transverse bands on the lower part + of the back. The skull has a remarkably narrow and pointed muzzle and + much inflated auditory bullae; while the two halves of the lower jaw + are firmly welded together at their junction, thus effectually + preventing the scissor-like action of the lower incisors distinctive + of _Macropus_ and its immediate allies. As regards the teeth, canines + are wanting, and the penultimate upper premolar is short, from before + backwards, with a distinct ledge on the inner side. + + In the rat-kangaroos, or kangaroo-rats, as they are called in + Australia, constituting the sub-family _Potoroinae_, the first upper + incisor is narrow, curved, and much exceeds the others in length; the + upper canines are persistent, flattened, blunt and slightly curved, + and the first two premolars of both jaws have large, simple, + compressed crowns, with a nearly straight or slightly concave free + cutting-edge, and both outer and inner surfaces usually marked by a + series of parallel, vertical grooves and ridges. Molars with quadrate + crowns and a blunt conical cusp at each corner, the last notably + smaller than the rest, sometimes rudimentary or absent. Forefeet + narrow; the three middle toes considerably exceeding the first and + fifth in length and their claws long, compressed and but slightly + curved. Hind-feet as in _Macropus_. Tail long, and sometimes partially + prehensile when it is used for carrying bundles of grass with which + these animals build their nests. The group is confined to Australia + and Tasmania, and all the species are relatively small. + + In the members of the typical genus _Potorous_ (formerly known as + _Hypsiprymnus_) the head is long and slender, with the auditory bullae + somewhat swollen; while the ridges on the first two premolars are few + and perpendicular, and there are large vacuities on the palate. The + tarsus is short and the muzzle naked. The genus includes _P. + tridactylus_, _P. gilberti_ and _P. platyops_. In _Bettongia_, on the + other hand, the head is shorter and wider, with smaller and more + rounded ears, and more swollen auditory bullae. The ridges on the + first two premolars are also more numerous and somewhat oblique (fig. + 4); the tarsus is long and the tail is prehensile. The species include + _B. lesueuiri_, _B. gaimardi_ and _B. cuniculus_. The South Australian + _Caloprymnus campestris_ represents a genus near akin to the last, but + with the edge of the hairy border of the bare muzzle less emarginate + in the middle line, still more swollen auditory bullae, very large and + posterially expanded nasals and longer vacuities on the palate. The + list is completed by _Aepyprymnus rufescens_, which differs from all + the others by the hairy muzzle, and the absence of inflation in the + auditory bullae and of vacuities in the palate. + + Perhaps, however, the most interesting member of the whole group is + the tiny musk-kangaroo (_Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_) of north-east + Australia, which alone represents the sub-family + _Hypsiprymnodontinae_, characterized by the presence of an opposable + first toe on the hind-foot and the outward inclination of the + penultimate upper premolar, as well by the small and feeble claws. In + all these features the musk-kangaroo connects the _Macropodidae_ with + the _Phalangeridae_. The other teeth are like those of the + rat-kangaroos. (W. H. F.; R. L.*) + + + + +KANGAROO-RAT, a name applied in different parts of the world to two +widely different groups of mammals. In Australia it is used to denote +the small kangaroo-like marsupials technically known as _Potoroinae_, +which zoologists prefer to call rat-kangaroos (see MARSUPIALIA and +KANGAROO). In North America it is employed for certain small jumping +rat-like rodents nearly allied to the pocket-gophers and belonging to +the family _Geomyidae_. Kangaroo-rats in this latter series are +represented by three North American genera, of which _Dipodomys +phillipsi_, _Cricetodipus agilis_ and _Microdipodops megacephalus_ may +respectively be taken as examples. Resembling pocket-gophers in the +possession of cheek-pouches, kangaroo-rats, together with pocket-mice, +are distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs and tails, large eyes, +well-developed ears and general jerboa-like appearance and habits. The +upper incisor teeth are also relatively narrower, and there are +important differences in the skull. The cheek-teeth are rootless in +kangaroo-rats, but they develop roots in the pocket-mice. The former +inhabit open, sandy districts, where they burrow beneath rocks or +stones, and hop about like jerboas; their food consisting of grasses and +other plants. + + + + +KANGAVAR, a small district of Persia, situated between Hamadan and +Kermanshah, and, being held in fief by the family of a deceased court +official, forming a separate government. The district is very fertile +and contains 30 villages. Its revenues amount to about £500 per annum, +and its chief place is the large village of Kangavar, which has a +population of about 2500 and is 47 m. from Hamadan on the high road to +Kermanshah. + + + + +KANGRA, a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur division +of the Punjab. The town, sometimes called Nagarkot, is situated 2409 ft. +above the sea. Pop. (1901), 4746. The Katoch rajas had a stronghold +here, with a fort and rich temples. Mahmud of Ghazni took the fort in +1009 and from one of the temples carried off a vast treasure. In 1360 +Kangra was again plundered, by Feroz Shah. The temple of Devi Bajreshri +was one of the oldest and wealthiest in northern India. It was +destroyed, together with the fort and the town, by an earthquake on the +4th of April 1905, when 1339 lives were lost in this place alone, and +about 20,000 elsewhere. In 1855 the headquarters of the district were +removed to the sanitarium of Dharmsala. + +The district of Kangra extends from the Jullundur Doab far into the +southern ranges of the Himalaya. Besides some Rajput states, annexed +after the Sikh wars, it includes Lahul, Spiti and Kulu, which are +essentially Tibetan. The Beas is the only important river. Area, 9978 +sq. m., of which Kangra proper has only 2725. Pop. (1901), 768,124; +average density 77 persons per sq. m., but with only one person per sq. +m. in Spiti. Tea cultivation was introduced into Kangra about 1850. The +Palampur fair, established by government with a view to fostering +commerce with central Asia, attracts a small concourse of Yarkandi +merchants. The Lahulis carry on an enterprising trade with Ladakh and +countries beyond the frontier, by means of pack sheep and goats. Rice, +tea, potatoes, opium, spices, wool and honey are the chief exports. + + See _Kangra District Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1906). + + + + +KANISHKA, king of Kabul, Kashmir, and north-western India in the 2nd +century A.D., was a Tatar of the Kushan tribe, one of the five into +which the Yue-chi Tatars were divided. His dominions extended as far +down into India as Madura, and probably as far to the north-west as +Bokhara. Private inscriptions found in the Punjab and Sind, in the +Yusufzai district and at Madura, and referred by European scholars to +his reign, are dated in the years five to twenty-eight of an unknown +era. It is the references by Chinese historians to the Yue-chi tribes +before their incursion into India, together with conclusions drawn from +the history of art and literature in his reign, that render the date +given the most probable. Kanishka's predecessors on the throne were +Pagans; but shortly after his accession he professed himself, probably +from political reasons, a Buddhist. He spent vast sums in the +construction of Buddhist monuments; and under his auspices the fourth +Buddhist council, the council of Jalandhara (Jullunder) was convened +under the presidency of Vasumitra. At this council three treatises, +commentaries on the Canon, one on each of the three baskets into which +it is divided, were composed. King Kanishka had these treatises, when +completed and revised by Asvaghosha, written out on copper plates, and +enclosed the latter in stone boxes, which he placed in a memorial mound. +For some centuries afterwards these works survived in India; but they +exist now only in Chinese translations or adaptations. We are not told +in what language they were written. It was probably Sanskrit (not Pali, +the language of the Canon)--just as in Europe we have works of +exegetical commentary composed, in Latin, on the basis of the Testament +and Septuagint in Greek. This change of the language used as a medium of +literary intercourse was partly the cause, partly the effect, of a +complete revulsion in the intellectual life of India. The reign of +Kanishka was certainly the turning-point in this remarkable change. It +has been suggested with great plausibility, that the wide extent of his +domains facilitated the incursion into India of Western modes of +thought; and thus led in the first place to the corruption and gradual +decline of Buddhism, and secondly to the gradual rise of Hinduism. Only +the publication of the books written at the time will enable us to say +whether this hypothesis--for at present it is nothing more--is really a +sufficient explanation of the very important results of his reign. In +any case it was a migration of nomad hordes in Central Asia that led, in +Europe, to the downfall of the Roman civilization; and then, through the +conversion of the invaders, to medieval conditions of life and thought. +It was the very same migration of nomad hordes that led, in India, to +the downfall of the Buddhist civilization; and subsequently, after the +conversion of the Saka and Tatar invaders, to medieval Hinduism. As +India was nearer to the starting-point of the migration, its results +were felt there somewhat sooner. + + AUTHORITIES.--Vincent A. Smith, _The Early History of India_ (Oxford, + 1908); "The Kushan Period of Indian History," in _J.R.A.S._ (1903); M. + Boyer, "L'Époque de Kaniska," in _Journal Asiatique_ (1900); T. + Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (London, 1904, 1905); J. Takakusu, "The + Sarvastivadin Abhidharma Books," in _Jour. of the Pali Text Soc._ + (1905), esp. pp. 118-130; Rhys Davids, _Buddhist India_ (London, + 1903), ch. xvi., "Kanishka." (T. W. R. D.) + + + + +KANKAKEE, a city and the county-seat of Kankakee county, Illinois, +U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Kankakee river, 56 m S. of +Chicago. Pop. (1900), 13,595, of whom 3346 were foreign-born; (1910 +census), 13,986. Kankakee is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, +Chicago & St Louis, the Illinois Central, and the Chicago, Indiana & +Southern (controlled by the New York Central) railways. It is the seat +of the Eastern Hospital for the Insane (1879) a state institution; St +Joseph's Seminary (Roman Catholic) and a Conservatory of Music. At +Bourbonnais Grove, 3 m. N. of Kankakee is St Viateur's College (founded +1868), a well-known Roman Catholic divinity school, and Notre Dame +Academy, another Catholic institution. The city has a public library and +four large parks; in Court House Square there is a monument erected by +popular subscription in honour of the soldiers from Kankakee county who +died in the Civil War. There are rock quarries here, and the city +manufactures sewing machines, musical instruments, especially pianos, +foundry and machine shop products, agricultural implements and +furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was +$2,089,143, an increase of 222% since 1900. Kankakee is also a shipping +point for agricultural products. It was first settled in 1832; was +platted as the town of Bourbonnais in 1853, when Kankakee county was +first organized; was chartered as the city of Kankakee in 1855, and was +re-chartered in 1892. + + + + +KANKER, a feudatory state of India, within the Central Provinces; area, +1429 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 103,536; estimated revenue, £10,000. It is a +hilly tract, containing the headwaters of the Mahanadi. The extensive +forests have recently been made profitable by the opening of a branch +railway. The residence of the raja, who is of an old Rajput family +though ruling over Gonds, is at Kanker (pop. 3906). + + + + +KANO, one of the most important provinces of the British protectorate of +Northern Nigeria. It includes the ancient emirates of Kano, Katsena, +Daura and Kazaure, and covers an area of about 31,000 sq. m. The +sub-province of Katagum was incorporated with Kano in 1905, and is +included within this area. The population of the double province is +estimated at about 2,250,000. + +Kano was one of the original seven Hausa states. Written annals carry +the record of its kings back to about A.D. 900. Legendary history goes +back much further. It was conquered by the Songhoi (Songhay) in the +early part of the 16th century, and more than once appears to have made +at least partial submission to Bornu. Mahommedanism was introduced at a +period which, according to the system adopted for the dating of the +annals, must be placed either in the 12th or the 14th century. The Hausa +system of government and taxation was adopted by the Fula when in the +early part of the 19th century that Mahommedan people overran the Hausa +states. It has been erroneously stated that the Fula imposed +Mahommedanism on the Hausa states. The fact that they adopted the +existing system of government and taxation, which are based upon Koranic +law, would in itself be sufficient proof that this was not the case. But +the annals of Kano distinctly record the introduction and describe the +development of Mahommedanism at an early period of local history. + +The capital is the city of Kano, situated in 12° N. and 8° 20´ E., 220 +m. S.S.E. of Sokoto and 500 N.E. of Lagos. It is built on an open plain, +and is encompassed by a wall 11 m. in perimeter and pierced by thirteen +gates. The wall is from 30 to 50 ft. high and about 40 ft. thick at the +base. Round the wall is a deep double ditch, a dwarf wall running along +its centre. The gates are simply cow-hide, but are set in massive +entrance towers. Only about a third of the area (7¼ sq. m.) enclosed by +the walls is inhabited nor was the whole space ever occupied by +buildings, the intention of the founders of the city being to wall in +ground sufficient to grow food for the inhabitants during a siege. The +arable land within the city is mainly on the west and north; only to the +south-east do the houses come right to the walls. Within the walls are +two steep hills, one, Dala, about 120 ft. high being the most ancient +quarter of the town. Dala lies north-west. To its east is a great pond, +the Jakara, 1½ m. long, and by its north-east shore is the market of the +Arab merchants. Here also was the slave market. The palace of the emir, +in front of which is a large open space, is in the Fula quarter in the +south-east of the city. The palace consists of a number of buildings +covering 33 acres and surrounded by a wall 20 to 30 ft. high. The +architecture of the city is not without merit. The houses are built of +clay with (generally) flat roofs impervious to fire. Traces of Moorish +influence are evident and the horse-shoe arch is common. The audience +hall of the emir's palace--25 ft. sq. and 18 ft. high--is decorated with +designs in black, white, green and yellow, the yellow designs (formed of +micaceous sand) glistening like gold. The dome-shaped roof is supported +by twenty arches. + +The city is divided into fourteen quarters, each presided over by a +headman, and inhabited by separate sections of the community. It is +probably the greatest commercial city in the central Sudan. Other towns, +like Zaria, may do as much trade, but Kano is pre-eminent as a +manufacturing centre. The chief industry is the weaving of cloth from +native grown cotton. Leather goods of all kinds are also manufactured, +and from Kano come most of the "morocco leather" goods on the European +markets. Dyeing is another large trade, as is the preparation of indigo. +Of traders there are four distinct classes. They are: (1) Arabs from +Tripoli, who export ostrich feathers, skins and ivory, and bring in +burnouses, scents, sweets, tea, sugar, &c.; (2) Salaga merchants who +import kola nuts from the hinterland of the Guinea Coast, taking in +exchange cloth and live stock and leather and other goods; (3) the +Asbenawa traders, who come from the oases of Asben or Air with camels +laden with salt and "potash" (i.e. sodium carbonates), and with herds of +cattle and sheep, receiving in return cotton and hardware and kolas; (4) +the Hausa merchants. This last class trades with the other three and +despatches caravans to Illorin and other places, where the Kano goods, +the "potash" and other merchandise are exchanged for kolas and European +goods. The "potash" finds a ready sale among the Yorubas, being largely +used for cooking purposes. In Kano itself is a great market for +livestock: camels, horses, oxen, asses and goats being on sale. + +Besides Hausa, who represent the indigenous population, there are large +colonies of Kanuri (from Bornu) and Nupians in Kano. The Fula form the +aristocratic class. The population is said to amount to 100,000. About a +mile and a half east of Kano is Nassarawa, formerly the emir's suburban +residence, but since 1902 the British Residency and barracks. + + The city of Kano appears on the map of the Arab geographer, Idrisi, + A.D. 1145, and the hill of Dala is mentioned in the earliest records + as the original site of Kano. Barth, however, concluded that the + present town does not date earlier than the second half of the 16th + century, and that before the rise of the Fula power (c. 1800) scarcely + any great Arab merchant ever visited Kano. The present town may be the + successor of an older town occupying a position of similar + pre-eminence. Kano submitted to the Fula without much resistance, and + under them in the first half of the 19th century flourished greatly. + It was visited by Hugh Clapperton, an English officer, in 1824, and in + it Barth lived some time in 1851 and again in 1854. Barth's + descriptions of the wealth and importance of the city attracted great + attention in Europe, and Kano was subsequently visited by several + travellers, missionaries, and students of Hausa, but none was + permitted to live permanently in the city. In the closing years of the + century, Kano became the centre of resistance to British influence, + and the emir, Alieu, was the most inveterate of Fula slave raiders. In + February 1903 the city was captured by a British force under Colonel + T. L. N. Morland, and a new emir, Abbas, a brother of Alieu, + installed. + + After the occupation by the British in 1903 the province was organized + for administration on the same system as that adopted throughout + northern Nigeria. The emir on his installation takes an oath of + allegiance to the British Crown, and accepts the position of a chief + of the first class under British rule. A resident is placed at his + court, and assistant residents have their headquarters in the + administrative districts of the province. British courts of justice + are established side by side with the native courts throughout the + province. Taxation is assessed under British supervision and paid into + the native treasury. A fixed portion is paid by the emir to the + British government. The emir is not allowed to maintain a standing + army, and the city of Kano is the headquarters of the British + garrison. The conditions of appointment of the emirs are fully laid + down in the terms accepted at Sokoto on the close of the Sokoto-Kano + campaign of 1903. Since the introduction of British rule there has + been no serious trouble in the province. The emir Abbas worked loyally + with the British and proved himself a ruler of remarkable ability and + intelligence. He was indefatigable in dispensing justice, and himself + presided over a native court in which he disposed of from fifty to a + hundred cases a month. He also took an active interest in the reform + and reorganization of the system of taxation, and in the opening of + the country to trade. He further showed himself helpful in arranging + difficulties which at times arose in connexion with the lesser chiefs + of his province. + + The province of Kano is generally fertile. For a radius of 30 m. round + the capital the country is closely cultivated and densely populated, + with some 40 walled towns and with villages and hamlets hardly half a + mile apart. Kano district proper contains 170 walled towns and about + 450 villages. There are many streams, but water is chiefly obtained + from wells 15 to 40 ft. deep. The principal crops are African grains, + wheat, onions, cotton, tobacco, indigo, with sugar-cane, cassava, &c. + The population is chiefly agricultural, but also commercial and + industrial. The chief industries are weaving, leather-making, dyeing + and working in iron and pottery. Cattle are abundant. (See NIGERIA: + _History_; and SOKOTO.) + + Consult the _Travels_ of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890); + _Hausaland_, by C. H. Robinson (London, 1896); Northern Nigeria, by + Sir F. D. Lugard, in vol. xxii. _Geographical Journal_ (London, 1904); + _A Tropical Dependency_, by Lady Lugard (London, 1905); the Colonial + Office _Reports_ on Northern Nigeria from 1902 onward, and other works + cited under NIGERIA. (F. L. L.) + + + + +KANSAS (known as the "Sunflower State"), the central commonwealth of the +United States of America, lying between 37° and 40° N. lat. and between +94° 38´ and 102° 1´ 34´´ W. long. (i.e. 25° W. long, from Washington). +It is bounded on the N. by Nebraska, on the E. by Missouri, on the S. by +Oklahoma, and on the W. by Colorado. The state is nearly rectangular in +shape, with a breadth of about 210 m. from N. to S. and a length of +about 410 m. from E. to W. It contains an area of 82,158 sq. m. +(including 384 sq. m. of water surface). + +_Physiography._--Three physiographic regions may be distinguished within +the state--the first, a small portion of the Ozark uplift in the extreme +south-east corner; the second, the Prairie Plains, covering +approximately the east third of the state; the third, the Great Plains, +covering the remaining area. Between the latter two there is only the +most gradual transition. The entire state is indeed practically an +undulating plain, gently sloping from west to east at an average of +about 7 ft. per mile. There is also an inclination in the eastern half +from north to south, as indicated by the course of the rivers, most of +which flow south-easterly (the Kansas, with its general easterly course, +is the principal exception), the north-west corner being the highest +portion of the state. The lowest point in the state in its south-east +part, in Montgomery county, is 725 ft. above sea level. The average +elevation of the east boundary is about 850 ft., while contour lines of +3500-3900 ft. run near the west border. Somewhat more than half the +total area is below 2000 ft. The gently rolling prairie surface is +diversified by an endless succession of broad plains, isolated hills and +ridges, and moderate valleys. In places there are terraced uplands, and +in others the undulating plain is cut by erosion into low escarpments. +The bluffs on the Missouri are in places 200 ft. high, and the valley of +the Cimarron, in the south-west, has deep cuts, almost gorges. The west +central portion has considerable irregularities of contour, and the +north-west is distinctively hilly. In the south-west, below the Arkansas +river, is an area of sandhills, and the Ozark Plateau region, as above +stated, extends into the south-east corner, though not there much +elevated. The great central valley is traversed by the Kansas (or Kaw) +river, which, inclusive of the Smoky Hill Branch, extends the entire +length of the state, with lateral valleys on the north. Another broad +valley is formed in the south half of the state by the Arkansas river, +with lateral valleys on the north and south. The south-east portion +contains the important Neosho and smaller valleys. In the extreme +south-west is the valley of the Cimarron, and along the south boundary +is a network of the south tributaries of the Arkansas. Numerous small +affluents of the Missouri enrich and diversify the north-east quarter. +The streams of Kansas are usually fed by perennial springs, and, as a +rule, the east and middle portions of the state are well watered. Most +of the streams maintain a good flow of water in the driest seasons, and +in case of heavy rains many of them "underflow" the adjacent bottom +lands, saturating the permeable substratum of the country with the +surplus water, which in time drains out and feeds the subsiding streams. +This feature is particularly true of the Saline, Solomon and Smoky Hill +rivers. The west part is more elevated and water is less abundant. + +[Illustration: Map of Kansas.] + + _Climate._--The climate of Kansas is exceptionally salubrious. + Extremes of heat and cold occur, but as a rule the winters are dry and + mild, while the summer heats are tempered by the perpetual prairie + breezes, and the summer nights are usually cool and refreshing. The + average annual temperature of the state for seventeen years preceding + 1903 was 54.3° F., the warmest mean being 56.0°, the coldest 52.6°. + The extreme variation of yearly means throughout the east, west and + middle sections during the same period was very slight, 51.6° to + 56.6°, and the greatest variation for any one section was 3.7°. The + absolute extremes were 116° and -34°. The dryness of the air tempers + exceedingly to the senses the cold of winter and the heat of summer. + The temperature over the state is much more uniform than is the + precipitation, which diminishes somewhat regularly westward. In the + above period of seventeen years the yearly means in the west section + varied from 11.93 to 29.21 in. (av. 19.21), in the middle from 18.58 + to 34.30 (av. 26.68), in the east from 26.00 to 45.71 (av. 34.78); the + mean for the state ranging from 20.12 to 35.50 (av. 27.12).[1] The + precipitation in the west is not sufficient for confident agriculture + in any series of years, since agriculture is practically dependent + upon the mean fall; a fact that has been and is of profound importance + in the history of the state. The line of 20 in. fall (about the limit + of certain agriculture) approximately bisects the state in dry years. + The precipitation is very largely in the growing season--at Dodge the + fall between April and October is 78% of that for the year. Freshets + and droughts at times work havoc. The former made notable 1844 and + 1858; and the latter 1860, 1874 and 1894. Tornadoes are also a not + infrequent infliction, least common in the west. The years 1871, 1879, + 1881 and 1892 were made memorable by particularly severe storms. There + are 150 to 175 "growing days" for crops between the frosts of spring + and autumn, and eight in ten days are bright with sunshine--half of + them without a cloud. Winds are prevailingly from the south (in the + winter often from the north-west). + + _Fauna and Flora._--The fauna and flora of the state are those which + are characteristic of the plain region generally of which Kansas is a + part. The state lies partly in the humid, or Carolinian, and partly in + the arid, or Upper Sonoran, area of the Upper Austral life-zone; 100° + W. long. is approximately the dividing line between these areas. The + bison and elk have disappeared. A very great variety of birds is found + within the state, either as residents or as visitants from the + adjoining avifaunal regions--mountain, plain, northern and southern. + In 1886 Colonel N. S. Goss compiled a list of 335 species, of which + 175 were known to breed in the state. The wild turkey, once abundant, + was near extermination in 1886, and prairie chickens (pinnated grouse) + have also greatly diminished in number. The jack-rabbit is + characteristic of the prairie. Locusts ("grasshoppers" in local usage) + have worked incalculable damage, notably in 1854, 1866, and above all + in 1874-1875. In the last two cases their ravages extended over a + great portion of the state. + + Kansas has no forests. Along the streams there is commonly a fringe of + timber, which in the east is fairly heavy. There is an increasing + scarcity westward. With the advancing settlement of the state thin + wind-break rows become a feature of the prairies. The lessened ravages + of prairie fires have facilitated artificial afforesting, and many + cities, in particular, are abundantly and beautifully shaded. Oaks, + elms, hickory, honey-locusts, white ash, sycamore and willows, the + rapid growing but miserable box-elder and cottonwood, are the most + common trees. Black walnut was common in the river valleys in + Territorial days. The planting of tree reserves by the United States + government in the arid counties of this state promises great success. + A National Forest of 302,387 acres in Finney, Kearney, Hamilton and + Grant counties was set aside in May 1908. Buffalo and bunch, and other + short native prairie grasses, very nutritious ranging food but + unavailable as hay, once covered the plains and pastured immense herds + of buffalo and other animals, but with increasing settlement they have + given way generally to exotic bladed species, valuable alike for + pasture and for hay, except in the western regions. The hardy and + ubiquitous sunflower has been chosen as the state flower or floral + emblem. Cactus and yucca occur in the west. + + The soil of the upland prairies is generally a deep rich clay loam of + a dark colour. The bottom lands near the streams are a black sandy + loam; and the intermediate lands, or "second bottoms," show a rich and + deep black loam, containing very little sand. These soils are all + easily cultivated, free from stones, and exceedingly productive. There + are exceptional spots on the upland prairies composed of stiff clay, + not as easily cultivated, but very productive when properly managed + and enriched. The south-west section is distinctively sandy. + + _Agriculture._--The United States Census of 1900 shows that of the + farming area of the state in 1900 (41,662,970 acres, 79.6% of the + total area), 60.1% was "improved." The value of all farm property was + $864,100,286--of which land and improvements (including buildings), + livestock and implements and machinery represented respectively 74.5, + 22.1 and 3.4%. Almost nine-tenths of all farms derived their principal + income from livestock or hay and grain, these two sources being about + equally important. Of the total value of farm products in 1899 + ($209,895,542), crops represented 53.7, animal products 45.9 and + forest products only 0.4%. In 1899 the wheat crop was 38,778,450 + bushels, being less than that of Minnesota, North Dakota, Ohio or + South Dakota. According to the _Year Book_ of the United States + Department of Agriculture, the crop in 1906 was 81,830,611 bushels, + almost one-ninth of the crop of the entire country for that year, and + much more than the crop of any other state. In 1909 it was 87,203,000 + bushels (less than the crops of either Minnesota or North Dakota). + Winter wheat constitutes almost the entire output. The hard varieties + rank in the flour market with the finest Minnesota wheat. The wheat + belt crosses the state from north to south in its central third. + Greater even than wheat in absolute output, though not relatively to + the output of other states, is Indian corn. In 1906 the crop was + 195,075,000 bushels, and in 1909 it was 154,225,000. The crop is very + variable, according to seasons and prospective markets; ranging e.g. + in the decade 1892-1901 from 42.6 (1901) to 225.1 (1899) million + bushels. The Indian corn belt is mainly in the eastern third of the + state. In the five years 1896-1900 the combined value of the crops of + Indian corn and wheat exceeded the value of the same crops in any + other state of the Union (Illinois being a close second). In the + western third irrigation has been tried, in the earlier years + unsuccessfully; in all Kansas, in 1899, there were 23,620 acres + irrigated, of which 8939 were in Finney and 7071 in Kearney county. In + this western third the rainfall is insufficient for Indian corn; but + Kafir corn, an exceptional drought-resisting cereal, has made + extraordinary progress in this region, and indeed generally over the + state, since 1893, its acreage increasing 416.1% in the decade + 1895-1904. With the saccharine variety of sorghum, which increased + greatly in the same period, this grain is replacing Indian corn. Oats + are the third great cereal crop, the yield being 24,780,000 bushels in + 1906 and 27,185,000 in 1909. Alfalfa showed an increased acreage in + 1895-1904 of 310.8%; it is valuable in the west for the same qualities + as the Kafir corn. The hay crop in 1909 was 2,652,000 tons. Alfalfa, + the Japanese soy bean and the wheat fields--which furnish the finest + of pasture in the early spring and ordinarily well into the winter + season--are the props of a prosperous dairy industry. In the early + 'eighties the organization of creameries and cheese factories began in + the county-seats; they depended upon gathered cream. About 1889 + separators and the whole-milk system were introduced, and about the + same time began the service of refrigerator cars on the railways; the + hand separator became common about 1901. Western Kansas is the dairy + country. Its great ranges, whose insufficient rainfall makes + impossible the certain, and therefore the profitable, cultivation of + cereals, or other settled agriculture, lend themselves with profit to + stock and dairy farming. Dairy products increased 60.6% in value from + 1895 to 1904, amounting in the latter year to $16,420,095. This value + was almost equalled by that of eggs and poultry ($14,050,727), which + increased 79.7% in the same decade. The livestock interest is + stimulated by the enormous demand for beef-cattle at Kansas City. + + Sugar-beet culture was tried in the years following 1890 with + indifferent success until the introduction of bounties in 1901. It has + extended along the Arkansas valley from the Colorado beet district and + into the north-western counties. There is a large beet-sugar factory + at Garden City, Finney county. Experiments have been made + unsuccessfully in sugar cane (1885) and silk culture (1885 seq.). The + bright climate and pure atmosphere are admirably adapted to the growth + of the apple, pear, peach, plum, grape and cherry. The smaller fruits + also, with scarce an exception, flourish finely. The fruit product of + Kansas ($2,431,773 in 1899) is not, however, as yet particularly + notable when compared with that of various other states. + + According to the estimates of the state department of agriculture, of + the total value of all agricultural products in the twenty years + 1885-1904 ($3,078,999,855), Indian corn and wheat together represented + more than two-fifths (821.3 and 518.1 million dollars respectively), + and livestock products nearly one-third (1024.9 millions). The + aggregate value of all agricultural products in 1903-1904 was + $754,954,208. + + _Minerals._--In the east portion of the state are immense beds of + bituminous coal, often at shallow depths or cropping out on the + surface. In 1907 more than 95% of the coal came from Crawford, + Cherokee, Leavenworth and Osage counties, and about 91.5% from the + first two. The total value of the production of coal in 1905 + (6,423,979 tons) was $9,350,542, and in 1908 (6,245,508 tons) + $9,292,222. In the central portion, which belongs to the Triassic + formation, magnesian limestone, ferruginous sandstone and gypsum are + representative rocks. Gypsum (in beautiful crystalline form) is found + in an almost continuous bed across the state running north-east and + south-west with three principal areas, the northern in Marshall + county, the central in Dickinson and Saline counties, and the southern + (the heaviest, being 3 to 40 ft. thick) in Barber and Comanche + counties. The product in 1908 was valued at $281,339. Magnesian + limestone, or dolomite, is especially plentiful along the Blue, + Republican and Neosho rivers and their tributaries. This beautiful + stone, resembling white, grey and cream-coloured marble, is + exceedingly useful for building purposes. It crops out in the bluffs + in endless quantities, and is easily worked. The stone resources of + the state are largely, but by no means exclusively, confined to the + central part. There are marbles in Osage and other counties, shell + marble in Montgomery county, white limestone in Chase county, a + valuable bandera flagstone and hydraulic cement rock near Fort Scott, + &c. The limestones produced in 1908 were valued at $403,176 and the + sandstones at $67,950. In the central region salt is produced in + immense quantities, within a great north to south belt about + Hutchinson. The beds, which are exploited by the brine method at + Hutchinson, at Ellsworth (Ellsworth county), at Anthony (Harper + county) and at Sterling (Rice county), lie from 400 to 1200 ft. + underground, and are in places as much as 350 ft. thick and 99% pure. + At Kanopolis in Ellsworth county, at Lyons in Rice county and at + Kingman, Kingman county, the salt is mined and sold as rock-salt. In + the south-west salt is found in beds and dry incrustations, varying in + thickness from a few inches to 2 ft. The total product from 1880-1899 + was valued at $5,538,855; the product of 1908 (when Kansas ranked + fourth among the states producing salt) was valued at $882,984. The + development has been mainly since 1887 at Hutchinson and since about + 1890 in the rock-salt mines. In the west portion of the state, which + belongs to the Cretaceous formation, chalks and a species of native + quicklime are very prominent in the river bluffs. The white and + cream-coloured chalks are much used for building purposes, but the + blue is usually too soft for exposure to the weather. The quicklime as + quarried from the bluffs slakes perfectly, and with sand makes a + fairly good mortar, without calcination or other previous preparation. + The lignite found near the Colorado line makes a valuable domestic + fuel. + + Natural gas, oil, zinc and lead have been discovered in south-east + Kansas and have given that section an extraordinary growth and + prosperity. Indications of gas were found about the time of the Civil + War, but only in the early 'seventies were they recognized as + unmistakable, and they were not successfully developed until the + 'eighties. Iola, in Allen county, is the centre of the field, and the + gas yields heat, light, and a cheap fuel for smelters, cement-works + and other manufacturing plants throughout a large region. The pools + lie from 400 to 950 ft. below the surface; some wells have been + drilled 1500 ft. deep. The value of the natural gas produced in the + state was $15,873 in 1889, $2,261,836 in 1905 and $7,691,587 in 1908, + when there were 1917 producing wells, and Kansas ranked fourth of the + states of the United States in the value of the natural gas product, + being surpassed by Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio. Petroleum was + discovered about 1865 in Miami and Bourbon counties, and about 1892 at + Neodesha, Wilson county. There was only slight commercial exploitation + before 1900. The production increased from 74,714 barrels in that year + to 4,250,779 in 1904; in 1908 it was 1,801,781 barrels. Chanute has + been the most active centre of production. The field was prospected + here in the 'nineties, but developed only after 1900. In 1877 an + immense deposit of lead was discovered on land now within the limits + of Galena. Rich zinc blendes were at first thrown away among the + by-products of the lead mines. After the discovery of their true + nature there was a slow development, and at the end of the century a + notable boom in the fields. From 1876 to 1897 the total value of the + output of the Galena field was between $25,000,000 and $26,000,000; + but at present Kansas is far more important as a smelter than as a + miner of zinc and lead, and in 1906 58% of all spelter produced in the + United States came from smelters in Kansas. In 1908 the mines' output + was 2293 tons of lead valued at $192,612 and 8628 tons of zinc valued + at $811,032. Pottery, fire, ochre and brick clays are abundant, the + first two mainly in the eastern part of the state. Coffeyville has + large vitrified brick interests. In 1908 the total value of all the + mineral products (incompletely reported) of Kansas was $26,162,213. + + _Industry and Trade._--Manufactures are not characteristic of the + state. The rank of the state in manufactures in 1900 was sixteenth and + in farm products seventh in the Union. The value of the manufactured + product in 1900, according to the Twelfth United States Census, was + $172,129,398, an increase of 56.2% over the output of 1890; of this + total value, the part representing establishments under the "factory + system" was $154,008,544,[2] and in 1905 the value of the factory + product was $198,244,992, an increase of 28.7%. Kansas City, Topeka, + Wichita, Leavenworth and Atchison were the only cities which had + manufactures whose gross product was valued in 1905 at more than + $3,000,000 each; their joint product was valued at $126,515,804, and + that of Kansas City alone was $96,473,050, almost half the output of + the state. The most important manufacturing industry, both in 1900 and + in 1905, was slaughtering and meat-packing--for which Kansas City is + the second centre of the country--with a product for the state valued + at $77,411,883 in 1900, and $96,375,639 in 1905; in both these years + the value of the product of Kansas was exceeded only by that of + Illinois. The flour and grist mill industry ranked next, with a + product valued at $21,328,747 in 1900 and nearly twice that amount, + $42,034,019, in 1905. In 1900 a quarter of the wheat crop was handled + by the mills of the state. Lesser manufacturing interests are railway + shop construction (value in 1905, $11,521,144); zinc smelting and + refining (value in 1905, $10,999,468); the manufacture of cheese, + butter and condensed milk (value in 1905, $3,946,349); and of foundry + and machine shop products (value in 1905, $3,756,825). + + _Communications._--Kansas is excellently provided with railways, with + an aggregate length in January 1909 of 8914.77 m. (in 1870, 1880, 1890 + respectively, 1,501, 3,244 and 8,710 m.). The most important systems + are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri Pacific, the + Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific, the Missouri, + Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis & + San Francisco systems. The first train entered Kansas on the Union + Pacific in 1860. During the following decade the lines of the Missouri + Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the Santa Fé were well under + construction. These roads give excellent connexions with Chicago, the + Gulf and the Pacific. Kansas has an eastern river front of 150 m. on + the Missouri, which is navigable for steamboats of good size. The + internal rivers of the state are not utilized for commercial purposes. + +_Population._--In population Kansas ranked in 1900 and 1910 (1,690,949) +twenty-second in the Union. The decennial increases of population from +1860 to 1900 were 239.9, 173.4, 43.3 and 3.0%, the population in 1900 +being 1,470,495, or 18 to the sq. m.[3] Of this number 22.5% lived in +cities of 2500 or more inhabitants. Nine cities numbered more than +10,000 inhabitants: Kansas City (51,418), Topeka--the state capital +(33,608), Wichita (24,671), Leavenworth (20,735), Atchison (15,722), +Lawrence--the seat of the state university (10,862), Fort Scott +(10,322), Galena (10,155) and Pittsburg (10,112). The life of all of +these save the last two goes back to Territorial days; but the +importance of Fort Scott, like that of Galena and Pittsburg, is due to +the development of the mineral counties in the south-east. Other cities +of above 5000 inhabitants were Hutchinson (9379), Emporia (8223), +Parsons (7682), Ottawa (6934), Newton (6208), Arkansas City (6140), +Salina (6074), Argentine (5878) and Iola (5791). The number of negroes +(3.5%) is somewhat large for a northern and western state. This is +largely owing to an exodus of coloured people from the South in +1878-1880, at a time when their condition was an unusually hard one: an +exodus turned mainly toward Kansas. The population is very largely +American-born (91.4% in 1900; 47.1% being natives of Kansas). Germans, +British, Scandinavians and Russians constitute the bulk of the +foreign-born. The west third of the state is comparatively scantily +populated, owing to its aridity. In the 'seventies, after a succession +of wet seasons, and again in the 'eighties, settlement was pushed far +westward, beyond the limits of safe agriculture, but hundreds of +settlers--and indeed many entire communities--were literally starved out +by the recurrence of droughts. Irrigation has made a surer future for +limited areas, however, and the introduction of drought-resisting crops +and the substitution of dairy and livestock interests in the place of +agriculture have brightened the outlook in the western counties, whose +population increased rapidly after 1900. The early 'eighties were made +notable by a tremendous "boom" in real estate, rural and urban, +throughout the commonwealth. As regards the distribution of religious +sects, in 1906 there were 458,190 communicants of all denominations, and +of this number 121,208 were Methodists (108,097 being Methodist +Episcopalians of the Northern Church), 93,195 were Roman Catholics, +46,299 were Baptists (34,975 being members of the Northern Baptist +Convention and 10,011 of the National (Colored) Baptist Convention), +40,765 were Presbyterians (33,465 being members of the Northern Church) +and 40,356 were Disciples of Christ. The German-Russian Mennonites, +whose immigration became notable about 1874, furnished at first many +examples of communal economy, but these were later abandoned. In 1906 +the total number of Mennonites was 7445, of whom 3581 were members of +the General Conference of Mennonites of North America, 1825 belonged to +the Schellenberger Brüder-gemeinde, and the others were distributed +among seven other sects. + +_Government._--The constitution is that adopted at Wyandotte on the 29th +of July 1859 and ratified by the people on the 4th of October 1859; it +came into operation on the 29th of January 1861, and was amended in +1861, 1864, 1867, 1873, 1875, 1876, 1880, 1888, 1900, 1902, 1904 and +1906. An amendment may be proposed by either branch of the legislature, +and, if approved by two-thirds of the members elected to each house as +well as by a majority of the electors voting on it at a general +election, it is adopted. A constitutional convention to revise or amend +the constitution may be called in the same manner. Universal manhood +suffrage is the rule, but women may vote in school and municipal +elections, Kansas being the first state to grant women municipal +suffrage as well as the right to hold municipal offices (1887). General +elections to state, county and township offices are biennial, in +even-numbered years, and take place on the first Tuesday after the first +Monday in November. The state executive officers are a governor, +lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, +attorney-general and superintendent of public instruction, all elected +for a term of two years. The governor appoints, with the approval of the +Senate, a board of public works and some other administrative boards, +and he may veto any bill from the legislature, which cannot thereafter +become a law unless again approved by two-thirds of the members elected +to each house. + +The legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, +meets in regular session at Topeka, the capital, on the second Tuesday +of January in odd-numbered years. The membership of the senate is +limited to 40, and that of the house of representatives to 125. Senators +are elected for four years and representatives for two years. In regular +sessions not exceeding fifty days and in special sessions not exceeding +thirty days the members of both houses are paid three dollars a day +besides an allowance for travelling expenses, but they receive no +compensation for the extra time of longer sessions. In 1908 a direct +primary law was passed applicable to all nominations except for +presidential electors, school district officers and officers in cities +of less than 5000 inhabitants; like public elections the primaries are +made a public charge; nomination is by petition signed by a certain +percentage (for state office, at least 1%; for district office, at least +2%; for sub-district or county office, at least 3%) of the party vote; +the direct nominating system applies to the candidates for the United +States Senate, the nominee chosen by the direct primaries of each party +being the nominee of the party. + + The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, thirty-eight + district courts, one probate court for each county, and two or more + justices of the peace for each township. All justices are elected: + those of the supreme court, seven in number, for six years, two or + three every two years; those of the district courts for four years; + and those of the probate courts and the justices of the peace for two + years. The more important affairs of each county are managed by a + board of commissioners, who are elected by districts for four years, + but each county elects also a clerk, a treasurer, a probate judge, a + register of deeds, a sheriff, a coroner, an attorney, a clerk of the + district court, and a surveyor, and the district court for the county + appoints a county auditor. The township officers, all elected for two + years, are a trustee, a clerk, a treasurer, two or more justices of + the peace, two constables and one road overseer for each road + district. Cities are governed under a general law, but by this law + they are divided into three classes according to size, and the + government is different for each class. Those having a population of + more than 15,000 constitute the first class, those having a population + of more than 2000 but not more than 15,000 constitute the second + class, and those having a population not exceeding 2000 constitute the + third class. Municipal elections are far removed from those of the + state, being held in odd-numbered years in April. In cities of the + first class the state law requires the election of a mayor, city + clerk, city treasurer, police judge and councilmen; in those of the + second class it requires the election of a mayor, police judge, city + treasurer, councilmen, board of education, justices of the peace and + constables; and in those of the third class it requires the election + of a mayor, police judge and councilmen. Several other offices + provided for in each class are filled by the appointment of the mayor. + + The principal grounds for a divorce in Kansas are adultery, extreme + cruelty, habitual drunkenness, abandonment for one year, gross neglect + of duty, and imprisonment in the penitentiary as a felon subsequent to + marriage, but the applicant for a divorce must have resided in the + state the entire year preceding the presentment of the petition. A + married woman has the same rights to her property after marriage as + before marriage, except that she is not permitted to bequeath away + from her husband more than one-half of it without his written consent, + and no will made by the husband can affect the right of the wife, if + she survive him, to one-half of the property of which he died seized. + Whenever a husband dies intestate, leaving a farm or a house and lot + in a town or city which was the residence of the family at his death, + his widow, widow and children, or children alone if there be no widow, + may hold the same as a homestead to the extent of 160 acres if it be a + farm, or one acre if it be a town or city lot. A homestead of this + size is exempt from levy for the debts of the intestate except in case + of an incumbrance given by consent of both husband and wife, or of + obligations for purchase money, or of liens for making improvements, + and the homestead of a family cannot be alienated without the joint + consent of husband and wife. The homestead status ceases, however, + whenever the widow marries again or when all the children arrive at + the age of majority. An eight-hour labour law was passed in 1891 and + was upheld by the state supreme court. In 1909 a law was passed for + state regulation of fire insurance rates (except in the case of + farmers' mutuals insuring farm property only) and forbidding local + discrimination of rates within the state. In the same year a law was + passed requiring that any corporation acting as a common carrier in + the state must receive the permission of the state board of railway + commissioners for the issue of stocks, bonds or other evidences of + indebtedness. + + The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for medical, + scientific and mechanical purposes were prohibited by a constitutional + amendment adopted in 1880. The Murray liquor law of 1881, providing + for the enforcement of the amendment, was declared constitutional by + the state supreme court in 1883. At many sessions of the legislature + its enemies vainly attempted its repeal. It was more seriously + threatened in 1890 by the "Original Package Decision," of the United + States Supreme Court, the decision, namely, that the state law could + not apply to liquor introduced into Kansas from another state and sold + from the original package, such inter-state commerce being within the + exclusive jurisdiction of Congress. That body thereupon gave Kansas + the power needed, and its action was upheld by the Federal Supreme + Court. The enforcement of the law has varied, however, enormously + according to the locality. In 1906-1907 a fresh crusade to enforce the + law was begun by the attorney-general, who brought ouster suits + against the mayors of Wichita, Junction City, Pittsburg and + Leavenworth for not enforcing the law and for replacing it with the + "fine" system, which was merely an irregular licence. In 1907 the + attorney-general's office turned its attention to outside brewing + companies doing business in the state and secured injunctions against + such breweries doing business in the state and the appointment of + receivers of their property. The provision of the law permitting the + sale of whisky for medicinal, scientific or mechanical purposes was + repealed by a law of 1909 prohibiting the sale, manufacture or barter + of spirituous, malt, vinous or any other intoxicating liquors within + the state. The severity of this law was ascribed to efforts of the + liquor interests to render it objectionable. + + The constitution forbids the contraction of a state debt exceeding + $1,000,000. The actual debt on the 30th of June 1908 was $605,000, + which was a permanent school fund. Taxation is on the general-property + system. The entire system has been--as in other states where it + prevails--extremely irregular and arbitrary as regards local + assessments, and very imperfect; and the figures of total valuation + (in 1880 $160,570,761, in 1890 $347,717,218, in 1906 $408,329,749, and + in 1908, when it was supposed to be the actual valuation of all + taxable property, $2,453,691,859), though significant of taxation + methods, are not significant of the general condition or progress of + the state. + + _Education._--Of higher educational institutions, the state supports + the university of Kansas at Lawrence (1866), an agricultural college + at Manhattan (1863; aided by the United States government); a normal + school at Emporia (1865), a western branch of the same at Hays (1902); + a manual training normal school (1903) at Pittsburg, western + university (Quindaro) for negroes and the Topeka industrial and + educational institute (1896, reorganized on the plan of Tuskegee + institute in 1900) also for negroes. The university of Kansas was + organized in 1864 and opened in 1866. Its engineering department was + established in 1870, its normal department in 1876 (abolished 1885), + its department of music in 1877, its department of law in 1878, and + the department of pharmacy in 1885; in 1891 the preparatory department + was abolished and the university was reorganized with "schools" in + place of the former "departments." In 1899 a school of medicine was + established, in connexion with which the Eleanor Taylor Bell memorial + hospital was erected in 1905. In 1907-1908 the university had a + faculty of 211, an enrolment of 2063 (1361 men and 702 women); the + university library contained 60,000 volumes and 37,000 pamphlets. An + efficient compulsory education law was passed in 1903. Kansas ranks + very high among the states in its small percentage of illiteracy + (inability to write)--in 1900 only 2.9% of persons at least ten years + of age; the figures for native whites, foreign whites and negroes + being respectively 1.3, 8.5, 22.3. In addition to the state schools, + various flourishing private or denominational institutions are + maintained. The largest of these are the Kansas Wesleyan University + (Methodist Episcopal, 1886) at Salina and Baker University (Methodist + Episcopal, 1858) at Baldwin. Among the many smaller colleges are + Washburn College (Congregational, 1869) at Topeka, the South-west + Kansas College (Methodist Episcopal, opened 1886) at Winfield, the + College of Emporia (Presbyterian, 1883) at Emporia, Bethany College + (Lutheran, 1881) at Lindsborg, Fairmount College (non-sectarian, 1895) + at Wichita, St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1869) at St Mary's, and + Ottawa University (Baptist, 1865) at Ottawa. At Topeka is the College + of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861) for women. + There are also various small professional schools and private normal + schools. An industrial school for Indian children is maintained by the + United States near Lawrence (Haskell Institute, 1884). Among the state + charitable and reformatory institutions are state hospitals for the + insane at Topeka and Osawatomie and a hospital for epileptics at + Parsons; industrial reform schools for girls at Beloit, for boys at + Topeka, and for criminals under twenty-five at Hutchinson; a + penitentiary at Lansing; a soldiers' orphans' home at Atchison and a + soldiers' home at Dodge City; and schools for feeble-minded youth at + Winfield, for the deaf at Olathe, and for the blind at Kansas City. + These institutions are under the supervision of a state board of + control. The state contributes also to many institutions on a private + basis. Most of the counties maintain poor farms and administer outdoor + relief, and some care for insane patients at the cost of the state. + +_History._--The territory now included in Kansas was first visited by +Europeans in 1541, when Francisco de Coronado led his Spaniards from New +Mexico across the buffalo plains in search of the wealth of "Quivira," a +region located by Bandelier and other authorities in Kansas north-east +of the Great Bend of the Arkansas. Thereafter, save for a brief French +occupation, 1719-1725, and possibly slight explorations equally +inconsequential, Kansas remained in undisturbed possession of the +Indians until in 1803 it passed to the United States (all save the part +west of 100° long. and south of the Arkansas river) as part of the +Louisiana Purchase. The explorations for the United States of Z. M. Pike +(1807) and S. H. Long (1819) tended to confirm old ideas of sandy wastes +west of the Mississippi. But with the establishment of prairie commerce +to Santa Fé (New Mexico), the waves of emigration to the Mormon land and +to California, the growth of traffic to Salt Lake, and the explorations +for a transcontinental railway, Kansas became well known, and was taken +out of that mythical "Great American Desert," in which, thanks +especially to Pike and to Washington Irving, it had been supposed to +lie. The trade with Santa Fé began about 1804, although regular caravans +were begun only about 1825. This trade is one of the most picturesque +chapters in border history, and picturesque in retrospect, too, is the +army of emigrants crossing the continent in "prairie schooners" to +California or Utah, of whom almost all went through Kansas. + +But this movement of hunters, trappers, traders, Mormons, miners and +homeseekers left nothing to show of settlement in Kansas, for which, +therefore, the succession of Territorial governments organized for the +northern portion of the Louisiana Purchase had no real significance. +Before 1854 Kansas was an Indian land, although on its Indian +reservations (created in its east part for eastern tribes removed +thither after 1830) some few whites resided: missionaries, blacksmiths, +agents, farmers supposed to teach the Indians agriculture, and land +"squatters,"--possibly 800 in all. Fort Leavenworth was established in +1827, Fort Scott in 1842, Fort Riley in 1853. There were Methodist +(1829), Baptist, Quaker, Catholic and Presbyterian missions active by +1837. Importunities to Congress to institute a Territorial government +began in 1852. This was realized by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. + +By that Act Kansas (which from 1854 to 1861 included a large part of +Colorado) became, for almost a decade, the storm centre of national +political passion, and her history of prime significance in the +unfolding prologue of the Civil War. Despite the Missouri Compromise, +which had prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Purchase N. of 36° 30´ N. +lat. (except in Missouri), slaves were living at the missions and +elsewhere, among Indians and whites, in 1854. The "popular sovereignty" +principle of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill involved a sectional struggle for +the new Territory. Time showed that the winning of Kansas was a question +of the lightest-footed immigrant. Slaveholders were not footloose; they +had all to lose if they should carry their blacks into Kansas and should +nevertheless fail to make it a slave-state. Thus the South had to +establish slavery by other than actual slaveholders, unless Missouri +should act for her to establish it. But Missouri did not move her +slaves; while her vicinity encouraged border partisans to seek such +establishment even without residence--by intimidation, election frauds +and outrage. This determined at once the nature of the Kansas struggle +and its outcome; and after the South had played and lost in Kansas, "the +war for the Union caught up and nationalized the verdict of the +Territorial broil." + +In the summer of 1854 Missouri "squatters" began to post claims to +border lands and warn away intending anti-slavery settlers. The +immigration of these from the North was fostered in every way, notably +through the New England Emigrant Aid Company (see LAWRENCE, A. A.), +whose example was widely imitated. Little organized effort was made in +the South to settle the Territory; Lawrence (Wakarusa) and Topeka, +free-state centres, and Leavenworth, Lecompton and Atchison, pro-slavery +towns, were among those settled in 1854. + +At the first election (Nov. 1854), held for a delegate to Congress, some +1700 armed Missourians invaded Kansas and stuffed the ballot boxes; and +this intimidation and fraud was practised on a much larger scale in the +election of a Territorial legislature in March 1855. The resultant +legislature (at Pawnee, later at Shawnee Mission) adopted the laws of +Missouri almost _en bloc_, made it a felony to utter a word against +slavery, made extreme pro-slavery views a qualification for office, +declared death the penalty for aiding a slave to escape, and in general +repudiated liberty for its opponents. The radical free-state men +thereupon began the importation of rifles. All criticism of this is +inconsequent; "fighting gear" was notoriously the only effective asset +of Missourians in Kansas, every Southern band in Kansas was militarily +organized and armed, and the free-state men armed only under necessity. +Furthermore, a free-state "government" was set up, the "bogus" +legislature at Shawnee being "repudiated." Perfecting their organization +in a series of popular conventions, they adopted (Dec. 1855) the Topeka +Constitution--which declared the exclusion of negroes from +Kansas--elected state officials, and sent a contestant delegate to +Congress. The Topeka "government" was simply a craftily impressive +organization, a standing protest. It met now and then, and directed +sentiment, being twice dispersed by United States troops; but it passed +no laws, and did nothing that conflicted with the Territorial government +countenanced by Congress. On the other hand, the laws of the "bogus" +legislature were generally ignored by the free-state partisans, except +in cases (e.g. the service of a writ) where that was impossible without +apparent actual rebellion against the authority of the legislature, and +therefore of Congress. + +Meanwhile the "border war" began. During the (almost bloodless) +"Wakarusa War" Lawrence was threatened by an armed force from Missouri, +but was saved by the intervention of Governor Shannon. Up to this time +the initiative and the bulk of outrages lay assuredly heavily on the +pro-slavery side; hereafter they became increasingly common and more +evenly divided. In May 1856 another Missouri force entered Lawrence +without resistance, destroyed its printing offices, wrecked buildings +and pillaged generally. This was the day before the assault on Charles +Sumner (q.v.) in the Senate of the United States. These two outrages +fired Northern passion and determination. In Kansas they were a stimulus +to the most radical elements. Immediately after the sack of Lawrence, +John Brown and a small band murdered and mutilated five pro-slavery men, +on Pottawatomie Creek; a horrible deed, showing a new spirit on the +free-state side, and of ghastly consequence--for it contributed +powerfully to widen further the licence of highway robbery, pillage and +arson, the ruin of homes, the driving off of settlers, marauding +expeditions, attacks on towns, outrages in short of every kind, that +made the following months a welter of lawlessness and crime, until +Governor Geary--by putting himself above all partisanship, repudiating +Missouri, and using Federal troops--put an end to them late in 1856. +(In the isolated south-eastern counties they continued through +1856-1858, mainly to the advantage of the "jay-hawkers" of free-state +Kansas and to the terror of Missouri.) + +The struggle now passed into another phase, in which questions of state +predominate. But something may be remarked in passing of the leaders in +the period of turbulence. John Brown wished to deal a blow against +slavery, but did nothing to aid any conservative political organization +to that end. James H. Lane was another radical, and always favoured +force. He was a political adventurer, an enthusiastic, energetic, +ambitious, ill-balanced man, shrewd and magnetic. He assuredly did much +for the free-state cause; meek politics were not alone sufficient in +those years in Kansas. The leader of the conservative free-soilers was +Charles Robinson (1818-1894). He was born in Massachusetts, studied +medicine at the Berkshire Medical School, and had had political +experience in California, whither he had gone in 1849, and where in +1850-1852 he was a member of the legislature and a successful +anti-slavery leader. In 1854 he had come to Kansas as an agent of the +Emigrant Aid Company. He was the author of the Topeka government idea, +or at least was its moving spirit, serving throughout as the "governor" +under it; though averse to force, he would use it if necessary, and was +first in command in the "Wakarusa War." His partisans say that he saved +Kansas, and regard Lane as a fomenter of trouble who accomplished +nothing. Andrew H. Reeder (1807-1864), who showed himself a pro-slavery +sympathizer as first Territorial governor, was removed from office for +favouring the free-state party; he became a leader in the free-state +cause. Every governor who followed him was forced by the logic of events +and truth tacitly to acknowledge that right lay with the free-state +party. Reeder and Shannon fled the Territory in fear of assassination by +the pro-slavery party, with which at first they had had most sympathy. +Among the pro-slavery leaders David Rice Atchison (1807-1886), United +States Senator in 1843-1855, accompanied both expeditions against +Lawrence; but he urged moderation, as always, at the end of what was a +legitimate result of his radical agitation. + +In June 1857 delegates were elected to a constitutional convention. The +election Act did not provide for any popular vote upon the constitution +they should form, and was passed over Governor John W. Geary's veto. A +census, miserably deficient (largely owing to free-state abstention and +obstruction), was the basis of apportionment of delegates. The +free-state party demanded a popular vote on the constitution. On the +justice of this Governor Robert J. Walker and President Buchanan were at +first unequivocally agreed, and the governor promised fairplay. +Nevertheless only pro-slavery men voted, and the convention was thus +pro-slavery. The document it framed is known as the Lecompton +Constitution. Before the convention met, the free-state party, +abandoning its policy of political inaction, captured the Territorial +legislature. On the constitutional convention rested, then, all hope of +saving Kansas for slavery; and that would be impossible if they should +submit their handiwork to the people. The convention declared slave +property to be "before and higher than any constitutional sanction" and +forbade amendments affecting it; but it provided for a popular vote on +the alternatives, the "constitution with slavery" or the "constitution +with no slavery." If the latter should be adopted, slavery should cease +"except" that the right to property in slaves in the Territory should +not be interfered with. The free-state men regarded this as including +the right to property in offspring of slaves, and therefore as pure +fraud. Governor Walker stood firmly against this iniquitous scheme; he +saw that slavery was, otherwise, doomed, but he thought Kansas could be +saved to the Democratic party though lost to slavery. But President +Buchanan, under Southern influence, repudiated his former assurances. +There is reason to believe that the whole scheme was originated at +Washington, and though Buchanan was not privy to it before the event, +yet he adopted it. He abandoned Walker, who left Kansas; and he +dismissed Acting-Governor Frederick P. Stanton for convoking the (now +free-state) legislature. This body promptly ordered a vote on the third +alternative, "Against the Constitution." + +The free-state men ignored the alternatives set by the Lecompton +Convention; but they participated nevertheless in the provisional +election for officers under the Lecompton government, capturing all +offices, and then, the same day, voted overwhelmingly against the +constitution (Jan. 4, 1858). + +Nevertheless, Buchanan, against the urgent counsel of Governor Denver, +urged on Congress (Feb. 2) the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton +Constitution. He was opposed by Senator Stephen A. Douglas, the leader +of the Northern Democracy. The Senate upheld the President; the House of +Representatives voted down his policy; and finally both houses accepted +the English Bill, by which Kansas was virtually offered some millions of +acres of public lands if she should accept the Lecompton +Constitution.[4] On the 21st of August 1858, by a vote of 11,300 to +1788, Kansas resisted this temptation. The plan of the Administration +thus effectually miscarried, and its final result was a profound split +in the Democratic party. + +The free-state men framed an excellent anti-slavery constitution at +Leavenworth in March-April 1858, but the origins of the convention were +illegal and their work was still-born. On the 29th of July 1859 still +another constitution was therefore framed at Wyandotte, and on the 4th +of October it was ratified by the people. Meanwhile the Topeka +"government" disappeared, and also, with its single purpose equally +served, the free-state party, most of it (once largely Democratic) +passing into the Republican party, now first organized in the Territory. +On the 29th of January 1861 Kansas was admitted to the Union under the +Wyandotte Constitution. The United States Census of 1860 gave her a +population of 107,204 inhabitants. The struggle in Kansas, the first +physical national struggle over slavery, was of paramount importance in +the breaking up of the Whig party, the firm establishment of an +uncompromisingly anti-slavery party, the sectionalization of the +Democracy, and the general preparation of the country for the Civil War. + +Drought and famine came in 1860, and then upon the impoverished state +came the strain of the Civil War. Nevertheless Kansas furnished +proportionally a very large quota of men to the Union armies. Military +operations within her own borders were largely confined to a guerrilla +warfare, carrying on the bitter neighbourhood strife between Kansas and +Missouri. The Confederate officers began by repressing predatory +plundering from Missouri; but after James H. Lane, with an undisciplined +brigade, had crossed the border, sacking, burning and killing in his +progress, Missouri "bushrangers" retaliated in kind. Freebooters trained +in Territorial licence had a free hand on both sides. Kansas bands were +long the more successful. But William C. Quantrell, after sacking +various small Kansas towns along the Missouri river (1862-63), in August +1863 took Lawrence (q.v.) and put it mercilessly to fire and sword--the +most ghastly episode in border history. In the autumn of 1864 the +Confederate general, Sterling Price, aiming to enter Kansas from +Missouri but defeated by General Pleasanton's cavalry, retreated +southward, zig-zagging on both sides of the Missouri-Kansas line. This +ended for Kansas the border raids and the war. Lane was probably the +first United States officer to enlist negroes as soldiers. Many of them +(and Indians too) fought bravely for the state. Indian raids and wars +troubled the state from 1864 to 1878. The tribes domiciled in Kansas +were rapidly moved to Indian Territory after 1868. + +After the Civil War the Republicans held uninterrupted supremacy in +national elections, and almost as complete control in the state +government, until 1892. From about 1870 onward, however, elements of +reform and of discontent were embodied in a succession of radical +parties of protest. Prohibition arose thus, was accepted by the +Republicans, and passed into the constitution. Woman suffrage became a +vital political issue. Much legislation has been passed to control the +railways. General control of the media of commerce, economic +co-operation, tax reform, banking reforms, legislation against +monopolies, disposal of state lands, legislation in aid of the farmer +and labourer, have been issues of one party or another. The movement of +the Patrons of Industry (1874), growing into the Grange, Farmers' +Alliance, and finally into the People's (Populist) party (see FARMERS' +MOVEMENT), was perhaps of greatest importance. In conjunction with the +Democrats the Populists controlled the State government in 1892-1894 and +1896-1898. These two parties decidedly outnumbered the Republicans at +the polls from 1890-1898, but they could win only by fusion. In +1892-1893, when the Populists elected the governor and the Senate, and +the Republicans (as the courts eventually determined) the House of +Representatives, political passion was so high as to threaten armed +conflicts in the capital. The Australian ballot was introduced in 1893. +In the decade following 1880, struggles in the western counties for the +location of county seats (the bitterest local political fights known in +western states) repeatedly led to bloodshed and the interference of +state militia. + + TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS[5] + + Andrew H. Reeder July 7, 1854-Aug. 16, '55 + Wilson Shannon Sept. 7, 1855-Aug. 18, '56 + John W. Geary Sept. 9, 1856-Mar. 12, '57 + Robert J. Walker May 27, 1857-Nov. 16, '57 + James W. Denver May 12, 1858-Oct. 10, '58 + Samuel Medary Dec. 18, 1858-Dec. 17, '60 + + _Acting Governors_[6] + + Aggregate + Daniel Woodson 5 times (164 days) Apr. 17, 1855-Apr. 16, '57 + Frederick P. Stanton 2 " ( 78 " ) Apr. 16, 1857-Dec. 21, '57 + James W. Denver 1 " ( 23 " ) Dec. 21, 1857-May 12, '58 + Hugh S. Walsh 4(5?) " (177 " ) July 3, 1858-June 16, '60 + George M. Beebe 2 " (131 " ) Sept. 11, 1860-Feb. 9, '61 + + STATE GOVERNORS + + Charles Robinson Republican 1861-1863 + Thomas Carney " 1863-1865 + Samuel J. Crawford " 1865-1869 + N. Green (to fill vacancy) " 1869 (3 months) + James M. Harvey " 1869-1873 + Thomas A. Osborn " 1873-1877 + George T. Anthony " 1877-1879 + John P. St John " 1879-1883 + George W. Glick Democrat 1883-1885 + John A. Martin Republican 1885-1889 + Lyman U. Humphrey " 1889-1893 + Lorenzo D. Lewelling Populist 1893-1895 + Edmund N. Morrill Republican 1895-1897 + John W. Leedy Democrat-Populist 1897-1899 + W. E. Stanley Republican 1899-1903 + Willis J. Bailey " 1903-1905 + Edward W. Hoch " 1905-1909 + Walter R. Stubbs " 1909- + + AUTHORITIES.--Consult for physiographic descriptions general works on + the United States, exploration, surveys, &c., also paper by George I. + Adams in American Geographical Society, _Bulletin_ 34 (1902), pp. + 89-104. On climate see U.S. Department of Agriculture, _Kansas Climate + and Crop Service_ (monthly, since 1887). On soil and agriculture, see + _Biennial Reports_ (Topeka, 1877 seq.) of the State Board of + Agriculture; _Experiment Station Bulletin_ of the Kansas Agricultural + College (Manhattan); and statistics in the United States _Statistical + Abstract_ (annual, Washington), and Federal Census reports. On + manufactures see Federal Census reports; Kansas Bureau of Labor and + Industry, _Annual Report_ (1885 seq.); Kansas Inspector of Coal Mines, + _Annual Report_ (1887 seq.). On administration consult the _State of + Kansas Blue Book_ (Topeka, periodical), and reports of the various + state officers (Treasurer, annual, then biennial since 1877-1878; + Board of Trustees of State Charities and Corrections, biennial, + 1877-1878 seq.; State Board of Health, founded 1885, annual, then + biennial reports since 1901-1902; Bureau of Labor Statistics, founded + 1885, annual reports; Irrigation Commission, organized 1895, annual + reports, &c.). On taxation see _Report and Bill of the State Tax + Commission, created_ 1901 (Topeka, 1901). On the history of the state, + see A. T. Andreas, _History of Kansas_ (Chicago, 1883; compiled mainly + by J. C. Hebbard); D. W. Wilder's _Annals of Kansas_ (Topeka, 1875 and + later), indispensable for reference; L. W. Spring's _Kansas_ (Boston, + 1885, in the American Commonwealth Series); Charles Robinson, _The + Kansas Conflict_ (New York, 1892); Eli Thayer, _The Kansas Crusade_ + (New York, 1889); the _Proceedings of the Kansas State Historical + Society_ (Topeka, 1891 seq.), full of the most valuable material; W. + E. Connelley, _Kansas Territorial Governors_ (Topeka, 1900); W. E. + Miller, _The Peopling of Kansas_ (Columbus, O., 1906), a doctoral + dissertation of Columbia University; and for the controversy touching + John Brown, G. W. Brown's _The Truth at Last, Reminiscences of Old + John Brown_ (Rockford, Ill., 1880), and W. E. Connelley, _An Appeal to + the Record ... Refuting ... Things Written for ... Charles Robinson + and G. W. Brown_ (Topeka, 1903). W. C. Webb's _Republican Election + Methods in Kansas, General Election of 1892, and Legislative + Investigations_ (Topeka, 1893) may also be mentioned. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the thirty years 1877-1906 the mean rainfall for ten-year + periods was: at Dodge, 22.8 in., 18.4 in. and 22.7 in.; and at + Lawrence, 35.1 in., 39.2 in. and 36.7 in. for the first, second and + third periods respectively. + + [2] All subsequent figures in this paragraph for manufactures in 1900 + are given for establishments under the "factory system" only, so as + to be comparable with statistics for 1905, which do not include minor + establishments. + + [3] According to the state census Kansas had in 1905 a total + population of 1,544,968; nearly 28% lived in cities of 2500 or more + inhabitants; 13 cities had more than 10,000 inhabitants: Kansas City + (67,614). Topeka (37,641), Wichita (31,110), Leavenworth (20,934), + Atchison (18,159), Pittsburg (15,012), Coffeyville (13,196), Fort + Scott (12,248), Parsons (11,720), Lawrence (11,708), Hutchinson + (11,215), Independence (11,206), and Iola (10,287). Other cities of + above 5000 inhabitants each were: Chanute (9704), Emporia (8974), + Winfield (7845), Salina (7829), Ottawa (7727), Arkansas City (7634), + Newton (6601), Galena (6449), Argentine (6053), Junction City (5264) + and Cherryvale (5089). + + [4] The English Bill was not a bribe to the degree that it has + usually been considered to be, inasmuch as it "reduced the grant of + land demanded by the Lecompton Ordinance from 23,500,000 acres to + 3,500,000 acres, and offered only the normal cession to new states." + But this grant of 3,500,000 acres was conditioned on the acceptance + of the Lecompton Constitution, and Congress made no promise of any + grant if that Constitution were not adopted. The bill was introduced + by William Hayden English (1822-1896), a Democratic representative in + Congress in 1853-1861 (see Frank H. Hodder, "Some Aspects of the + English Bill for the Admission of Kansas," in _Annual Report of the + American Historical Association_ for the Year 1906, i. 201-210). + + [5] Terms of actual service in Kansas, not period of commissions. The + appointment was for four years. Reeder was removed, all the others + resigned. + + [6] Secretaries of the Territory who served as governors in the + interims of gubernatorial terms or when the governor was absent from + the Territory. In the case of H. S. Walsh several dates cannot be + fixed with exactness. + + + + +KANSAS CITY, a city and the county-seat of Wyandotte county, Kansas, +U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at the mouth of the +Kansas, altitude about 800 ft. It is separated from its greater +neighbour, Kansas City, Missouri, only by the state line, and is the +largest city in the state. Pop. (1890), 38,315; (1900), 51,418, of whom +6,377 were foreign-born and 6509 were negroes; (1910 census) 82,331. It +is served by the Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock +Island & Pacific, and the Chicago Great Western railways, and by +electric lines connecting with Leavenworth and with Kansas City, +Missouri. There are several bridges across the Kansas river. The city +covers the low, level bottom-land at the junction of the two rivers, and +spreads over the surrounding highlands to the W., the principal +residential district. Its plan is regular. The first effective steps +toward a city park and boulevard system were taken in 1907, when a board +of park commissioners, consisting of three members, was appointed by the +mayor. The city has been divided into the South Park District and the +North Park District, and at the close of 1908 there were 10 m. of +boulevards and parks aggregating 160 acres. A massive steel and concrete +toll viaduct, about 1¾ m. in length, extends from the bluffs of Kansas +City, Kan., across the Kansas valley to the bluffs of Kansas City, Mo., +and is used by pedestrians, vehicles and street cars. There is a fine +public library building given by Andrew Carnegie. The charities of the +city are co-ordinated through the associated charities. Among charitable +state-aided institutions are the St Margaret's hospital (Roman +Catholic), Bethany hospital (Methodist), a children's home (1893), and, +for negroes, the Douglass hospital training school for nurses +(1898)--the last the largest private charity of the state. The medical +department of the Kansas state university, the other departments of +which are in Lawrence, is in Kansas City; and among the other +educational institutions of the city are the Western university and +industrial school (a co-educational school for negroes), the Kansas City +Baptist theological seminary (1902), and the Kansas City university +(Methodist Protestant, 1896), which had 454 students in 1908-1909 and +comprises Mather college (for liberal arts), Wilson high school +(preparatory), a school of elocution and oratory (in Kansas City, Mo.), +a Normal School, Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College (in Kansas City, +Mo.), and a school of theology. The city is the seat of the Kansas +(State) school for the blind. Kansas City is one of the largest cities +in the country without a drinking saloon. Industrially the city is +important for its stockyards and its meat-packing interests. With the +exception of Chicago, it is the largest livestock market in the United +States. The product-value of the city's factories in 1905 was +$96,473,050; 93.5% consisting of the product of the wholesale +slaughtering and meat-packing houses. Especially in the South-west +markets Kansas City has an advantage over Chicago, St Louis, and other +large packing centres (except St Joseph), not only in freights, but in +its situation among the "corn and beef" states; it shares also the +extraordinary railway facilities of Kansas City, Missouri. There are +various important manufactures, such as soap and candles, subsidiary to +the packing industry; and the city has large flour mills, railway and +machine shops, and foundries. A large cotton-mill, producing coarse +fabrics, was opened in 1907. Natural gas derived from the Kansas fields +became available for lighting and heating, and crude oil for fuel, in +1906. + +Kansas City was founded in 1886 by the consolidation of "old" Kansas +City, Armourdale and Wyandotte (in which Armstrong and Riverview were +then included). Of these municipalities Wyandotte, the oldest, was +originally settled by the Wyandotte Indians in 1843; it was platted and +settled by whites in 1857; and was incorporated as a town in 1858, and +as a city in 1859. At Wyandotte were made the first moves for the +Territorial organization of Kansas and Nebraska. During the Kansas +struggle Wyandotte was a pro-slavery town, while Quindaro (1856), a few +miles up the Missouri, was a free-state settlement and Wyandotte's +commercial rival until after the Civil War. The convention that framed +the constitution, the Wyandotte Constitution, under which Kansas was +admitted to the Union, met here in July 1859. "Old" Kansas City was +surveyed in 1869 and was incorporated as a city in 1872. Armourdale was +laid out in 1880 and incorporated in 1882. The packing interest was +first established in 1867; the first large packing plant was that of +Armour & Co., which was removed to what is now Kansas City in 1871. +Kansas City adopted government by commission in 1909. + + + + +KANSAS CITY, a city and port of entry of Jackson county, Missouri, +U.S.A., the second in size and importance in the state, situated at the +confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers, adjoining Kansas City, +Kansas, and 235 m. W. by N. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 132,716; (1900), +163,752, of whom 18,410 were foreign born (German, 4816; Irish, 3507; +Swedish, 1869; English, 1863; English-Canadian, 1369; Italian, 1034), +and 17,567 were negroes; (1910 census) 248,381. Kansas City, the gateway +to the South-west, is one of the leading railway centres of the United +States. It is served by the Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the +'Frisco System, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Atchison, Topeka & +Santa Fé, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, +the Chicago & Alton, the Wabash, the Kansas City Southern, the Chicago, +Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Leavenworth, +Kansas & Western, the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient, the St Louis, Kansas +City & Colorado, the Quincy, Omaha & Kansas City, and the St Joseph & +Grand Island railways, and by steamboat lines to numerous river ports. + +The present retail, office, and wholesale sections were once high bluffs +and deep ravines, but through and across these well graded streets were +constructed. South and west of this highland, along the Kansas river, is +a low, level tract occupied chiefly by railway yards, stock yards, +wholesale houses and manufacturing establishments; north and east of the +highland is a flat section, the Missouri River bottoms, occupied largely +by manufactories, railway yards, grain elevators and homes of employés. +Much high and dry "made" land has been reclaimed from the river +flood-plain. Two great railway bridges across the Missouri, many smaller +bridges across the Kansas, and a great inter-state toll viaduct +extending from bluff to bluff across the valley of the latter river, lie +within the metropolitan area of the two cities. The streets of the +Missouri city are generally wide and excellently paved. The city-hall +(1890-1893), the courthouse (1888-1892), and the Federal Building +(1892-1900) are the most imposing of the public buildings. A convention +hall, 314 ft. long and 198 ft. wide, with a seating capacity of about +15,000, is covered by a steel-frame roof without a column for its +support; the exterior of the walls is cut stone and brick. The building +was erected within three months, to replace one destroyed by fire, for +the National Democratic Convention which met here on the 4th of July +1900. The Public Library with walls of white limestone and Texas +granite, contained (1908) 95,000 volumes. The Congregational, the +Calvary Baptist, the Second Presbyterian, the Independence Avenue +Christian, the Independence Avenue Methodist, and the Second Christian +Science churches are the finest church buildings. The board of trade +building, the building of the _Star_ newspaper, and several large office +buildings (including the Scarritt, Long, and New York Life Insurance +buildings) are worthy of mention. + +Kansas City has over 2000 acres in public parks; but Swope Park, +containing 1354 acres, lies south of the city limits. The others are +distributed with a design to give each section a recreation ground +within easy walking distance, and all (including Swope) are connected by +parkways, boulevards and street-car lines. The Paseo Parkway, 250 ft. +wide, extends from N. to S. through the centre of the city for a +distance of 2½ m., and adjoining it near its middle is the Parade, or +principal playground. The city has eight cemeteries, the largest of +which are Union, Elmwood, Mt Washington, St Mary's and Forest Hill. The +charitable institutions and professional schools included in 1908 about +thirty hospitals, several children's homes and homes for the aged, an +industrial home, the Kansas City school of law, the University medical +college, and the Scarritt training school. The city has an excellent +public school system. A Methodist Episcopal institutional church, +admirably equipped, was opened in 1906. The city has a juvenile court, +and maintains a free employment bureau. + +Kansas City is primarily a commercial centre, and its trade in +livestock, grain and agricultural implements is especially large. The +annual pure-bred livestock show is of national importance. The city's +factory product increased from $23,588,653 in 1900 to $35,573,049 in +1905, or 50.8%. Natural gas and crude petroleum from Kansas fields +became of industrial importance about 1906. Natural gas is used to light +the residence streets and to heat many of the residences. + +Kansas City is one of the few cities in the United States empowered to +frame its own charter. The first was adopted in 1875 and the second in +1889. In 1905 a new charter, drawn on the lines of the model "municipal +program" advocated by the National Municipal League, was submitted to +popular vote, but was defeated by the influence of the saloons and other +special interests. The charter of 1908 is a revision of this proposed +charter of 1905 with the objectionable features eliminated; it was +adopted by a large majority vote. Under the provisions of the charter of +1908 the people elect a mayor, city treasurer, city comptroller, and +judges of the municipal court, each for a term of two years. The +legislative body is the common council composed of two houses, each +having as many members as there are wards in the city--14 in 1908. The +members of the lower house are elected, one by each ward, in the spring +of each even numbered year. The upper house members are elected by the +city at large and serve four years. A board of public works, board of +park commissioners, board of fire and water commissioners, a board of +civil service, a city counsellor, a city auditor, a city assessor, a +purchasing agent, and subordinate officers, are appointed by the mayor, +without confirmation by the common council. A non-partisan board +composed of citizens who must not be physicians has general control of +the city's hospitals and health department. A new hospital at a cost of +half a million dollars was completed in 1908. The charter provides for a +referendum vote on franchises, which may be ordered by the council or by +petition of the people, the signatures of 20% of the registered voters +being sufficient to force such election. Public work may be prevented by +remonstrance of interested property owners except in certain instances, +when the city, by vote of the people, may overrule all remonstrances. A +civic league attempts to give a non-partisan estimate of all municipal +candidates. The juvenile court, the arts and tenement commissions, the +municipal employment bureau, and a park board are provided for by the +charter. All the members of the city board of election commissioners and +a majority of the police board are appointed by the governor of the +state; and the police control the grant of liquor licences. The city is +supplied with water drawn from the Missouri river above the mouth of the +Kansas or Kaw (which is used as a sewer by Kansas City, Kan.); the main +pumping station and settling basins being at Quindaro, several miles up +the river in Kansas; whence the water is carried beneath the Kansas, +through a tunnel, to a high-pressure distributing station in the west +bottoms. The waterworks (direct pressure system) were acquired by the +city in 1895. All other public services are in private hands. The +street-railway service is based on a universal 5-cent transfer +throughout the metropolitan area. Some of the first overhead electric +trolleys used in the United States were used here in 1885. + +The first permanent settlement within the present limits of Kansas City, +which took its name from Kansas river,[1] was established by French fur +traders about 1821. Westport, a little inland town--platted 1833, a city +1857, merged in Kansas City in 1899--now a fashionable residence +district of Kansas City--was a rival of Independence in the Santa Fé +trade which she gained almost _in toto_ in 1844 when the great Missouri +flood (the greatest the river has known) destroyed the river landing +utilized by Independence. Meanwhile, what is now Kansas City, and was +then Westport Landing, being on the river where a swift current wore a +rocky shore, steadily increased in importance and overshadowed Westport. +But in 1838 lots were surveyed and the name changed to the Town of +Kansas. It was officially organized in part in 1847, formally +incorporated as a town in 1850, chartered under its present name in +1853, re-chartered in 1875, in 1889 and in 1908. Before 1850 it was +practically the exclusive eastern terminus on the river for the Santa Fé +trade,[2] and a great outfitting point for Californian emigrants. The +history of this border trade is full of picturesque colour. During the +Civil War both Independence and Westport were the scene of battles; +Kansas City escaped, but her trade went to Leavenworth, where it had the +protection of an army post and a quiet frontier. After the war the +railways came, taking away the traffic to Santa Fé, and other cities +farther up the Missouri river took over the trade to its upper valley. +In 1866 Kansas City was entered by the first railway from St Louis; 1867 +saw the beginning of the packing industry; in 1869 a railway bridge +across the Missouri assured it predominance over Leavenworth and St +Joseph; and since that time--save for a depression shortly after 1890, +following a real-estate boom--the material progress of the city has been +remarkable; the population increased from 4418 in 1860 to 32,260 in +1870, 55,785 in 1880, and 132,716 in 1890. + + See T. S. Case (ed.), _History of Kansas City, Missouri_ (Syracuse, + 1888); William Griffith, _History of Kansas City_ (Kansas City, 1900); + for industrial history, the _Greater Kansas City Yearbook_ (1907 + seq.); for all features of municipal interest, the _Kansas City + Annual_ (Kansas City, 1907 seq.), prepared for the Business Men's + League. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Kansas"--in archaic variants of spelling and pronunciation, + "Kansaw," and still called, locally and colloquially, the "Kaw." + + [2] Before Kansas City, first Old Franklin (opposite Boonville), then + Ft. Osage, Liberty, Sibley, Lexington, Independence and Westport had + successively been abandoned as terminals, as the transfer-point from + boat to prairie caravan was moved steadily up the Missouri. Whisky, + groceries, prints and notions were staples sent to Santa Fé; wool, + buffalo robes and dried buffalo meat, Mexican silver coin, gold and + silver dust and ore came in return. In 1860 the trade employed 3000 + wagons and 7000 men, and amounted to millions of dollars in value. + + + + +KANSK, a town of eastern Siberia, in the government of Yeniseisk, 151 m. +by rail E. of Krasnoyarsk, on the Kan River, a tributary of the Yenisei, +and on the Siberian highway. Pop. (1897), 7504. It is the chief town of +a district in which gold is found, but lies on low ground subject to +inundation by the river. + + + + +KAN-SUH, a north-western province of China, bounded N. by Mongolia, E. +by Shen-si, S. by Szech'uen, W. by Tibet and N.W. by Turkestan. The +boundary on the N. remains undefined, but the province may be said to +occupy the territory lying between 32° 30´40° N., and 108° and 98° 20´ +E., and to contain about 260,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at +9,800,000. Western Kan-suh is mountainous, and largely a wilderness of +sand and snow, but east of the Hwang-ho the country is cultivated. The +principal river is the Hwang-ho, and in the mountains to the south of +Lan-chow Fu rises the Wei-ho, which traverses Shen-si and flows into the +Hwang-ho at Tung-kwan. The chief products of Kan-suh are cloth, horse +hides, a kind of curd like butter which is known by the Mongols under +the name of _wuta_, musk, plums, onions, dates, sweet melons and +medicines. (See CHINA.) + + + + +KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804), German philosopher, was born at Königsberg +on the 22nd of April 1724. His grandfather was an emigrant from +Scotland, and the name Cant is not uncommon in the north of Scotland, +whence the family is said to have come. His father was a saddler in +Königsberg, then a stronghold of Pietism, to the strong influence of +which Kant was subjected in his early years. In his tenth year he was +entered at the Collegium Fredericianum with the definite view of +studying theology. His inclination at this time was towards classics, +and he was recognized, with his school-fellow, David Ruhnken, as among +the most promising classical scholars of the college. His taste for the +greater Latin authors, particularly Lucretius, was never lost, and he +acquired at school an unusual facility in Latin composition. With Greek +authors he does not appear to have been equally familiar. During his +university course, which began in 1740, Kant was principally attracted +towards mathematics and physics. The lectures on classics do not seem to +have satisfied him, and, though he attended courses on theology, and +even preached on one or two occasions, he appears finally to have given +up the intention of entering the Church. The last years of his +university studies were much disturbed by poverty. His father died in +1746, and for nine years he was compelled to earn his own living as a +private tutor. Although he disliked the life and was not specially +qualified for it--as he used to say regarding the excellent precepts of +his _Pädagogik_, he was never able to apply them--yet he added to his +other accomplishments a grace and polish which he displayed ever +afterwards to a degree somewhat unusual in a philosopher by profession. + +In 1755 Kant became tutor in the family of Count Kayserling. By the +kindness of a friend named Richter, he was enabled to resume his +university career, and in the autumn of that year he graduated as doctor +and qualified as privatdocent. For fifteen years he continued to labour +in this position, his fame as writer and lecturer steadily increasing. +Though twice he failed to obtain a professorship at Königsberg, he +steadily refused appointments elsewhere. The only academic preferment +received by him during the lengthy probation was the post of +under-librarian (1766). His lectures, at first mainly upon physics, +gradually expanded until nearly all descriptions of philosophy were +included under them. + +In 1770 he obtained the chair of logic and metaphysics at Königsberg, +and delivered as his inaugural address the dissertation _De mundi +sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis_. Eleven years later +appeared the _Kritik of Pure Reason_, the work towards which he had been +steadily advancing, and of which all his later writings are +developments. In 1783 he published the _Prolegomena_, intended as an +introduction to the _Kritik_, which had been found to stand in need of +some explanatory comment. A second edition of the _Kritik_, with some +modifications, appeared in 1787, after which it remained unaltered. + +In spite of its frequent obscurity, its novel terminology, and its +declared opposition to prevailing systems, the Kantian philosophy made +rapid progress in Germany. In the course of ten or twelve years from the +publication of the _Kritik of Pure Reason_, it was expounded in all the +leading universities, and it even penetrated into the schools of the +Church of Rome. Such men as J. Schulz in Königsberg, J. G. Kiesewetter +in Berlin, Jakob in Halle, Born and A. L. Heydenreich in Leipzig, K. L. +Reinhold and E. Schmid in Jena, Buhle in Göttingen, Tennemann in +Marburg, and Snell in Giessen, with many others, made it the basis of +their philosophical teaching, while theologians like Tieftrunk, +Stäudlin, and Ammon eagerly applied it to Christian doctrine and +morality. Young men flocked to Königsberg as to a shrine of philosophy. +The Prussian Government even undertook the expense of their support. +Kant was hailed by some as a second Messiah. He was consulted as an +oracle on all questions of casuistry--as, for example, on the lawfulness +of inoculation for the small-pox. This universal homage for a long time +left Kant unaffected; it was only in his later years that he spoke of +his system as the limit of philosophy, and resented all further +progress. He still pursued his quiet round of lecturing and authorship, +and contributed from time to time papers to the literary journals. Of +these, among the most remarkable was his review of Herder's _Philosophy +of History_, which greatly exasperated that author, and led to a violent +act of retaliation some years after in his _Metakritik of Pure Reason_. +Schiller at this period in vain sought to engage Kant upon his _Horen_. +He remained true to the _Berlin Journal_, in which most of his +criticisms appeared. + +In 1792 Kant, in the full height of his reputation, was involved in a +collision with the Government on the question of his religious +doctrines. Naturally his philosophy had excited the declared opposition +of all adherents of historical Christianity, since its plain tendency +was towards a moral rationalism, and it could not be reconciled to the +literal doctrines of the Lutheran Church. It would have been much better +to permit his exposition of the philosophy of religion to enjoy the same +literary rights as his earlier works, since Kant could not be +interdicted without first silencing a multitude of theologians who were +at least equally separated from positive Christianity. The Government, +however, judged otherwise; and after the first part of his book, _On +Religion within the Limits of Reason alone_, had appeared in the _Berlin +Journal_, the publication of the remainder, which treats in a more +rationalizing style of the peculiarities of Christianity, was forbidden. +Kant, thus shut out from Berlin, availed himself of his local privilege, +and, with the sanction of the theological faculty of his own university, +published the full work in Königsberg. The Government, probably +influenced as much by hatred and fear of the French Revolution, of which +Kant was supposed to be a partisan, as by love of orthodoxy, resented +the act; and a secret cabinet order was received by him intimating the +displeasure of the king, Frederick William II., and exacting a pledge +not to lecture or write at all on religious subjects in future. With +this mandate Kant, after a struggle, complied, and kept his engagement +till 1797, when the death of the king, according to his construction of +his promise, set him free. This incident, however, produced a very +unfavourable effect on his spirits. He withdrew in 1794 from society; +next year he gave up all his classes but one public lecture on logic or +metaphysics; and in 1797, before the removal of the interdict on his +theological teaching, he ceased altogether his public labours, after an +academic course of forty-two years. He previously, in the same year, +finished his treatises on the _Metaphysics of Ethics_, which, with his +_Anthropology_, completed in 1798, were the last considerable works that +he revised with his own hand. His _Lectures on Logic_, on _Physical +Geography_, on _Paedagogics_, were edited during his lifetime by his +friends and pupils. By way of asserting his right to resume theological +disquisition, he also issued in 1798 his _Strife of the Faculties_, in +which all the strongest points of his work on religion were urged +afresh, and the correspondence that had passed between himself and his +censors was given to the world. + +From the date of his retirement from the chair Kant declined in +strength, and gave tokens of intellectual decay. His memory began to +fail, and a large work at which he wrought night and day, on the +connexion between physics and metaphysics, was found to be only a +repetition of his already published doctrines. After 1802, finding +himself attacked with a weakness in the limbs attended with frequent +fits of falling, he mitigated the Spartan severity of his life, and +consented to receive medical advice. A constant restlessness oppressed +him; his sight gave way; his conversation became an extraordinary +mixture of metaphors; and it was only at intervals that gleams of his +former power broke out, especially when some old chord of association +was struck in natural science or physical geography. A few days before +his decease, with a great effort he thanked his medical attendant for +his visits in the words, "I have not yet lost my feeling for humanity." +On the 12th of February 1804 he died, having almost completed his +eightieth year. His stature was small, and his appearance feeble. He was +little more than five feet high; his breast was almost concave, and, +like Schleiermacher, he was deformed in the right shoulder. His senses +were quick and delicate; and, though of weak constitution, he escaped +by strict regimen all serious illness. + +His life was arranged with mechanical regularity; and, as he never +married, he kept the habits of his studious youth to old age. His +man-servant, who awoke him summer and winter at five o'clock, testified +that he had not once failed in thirty years to respond to the call. +After rising he studied for two hours, then lectured other two, and +spent the rest of the forenoon, till one, at his desk. He then dined at +a restaurant, which he frequently changed, to avoid the influx of +strangers, who crowded to see and hear him. This was his only regular +meal; and he often prolonged the conversation till late in the +afternoon. He then walked out for at least an hour in all weathers, and +spent the evening in lighter reading, except an hour or two devoted to +the preparation of his next day's lectures, after which he retired +between nine and ten to rest. In his earlier years he often spent his +evenings in general society, where his knowledge and conversational +talents made him the life of every party. He was especially intimate +with the families of two English merchants of the name of Green and +Motherby, where he found many opportunities of meeting ship-captains, +and other travelled persons, and thus gratifying his passion for +physical geography. This social circle included also the celebrated J. +G. Hamann, the friend of Herder and Jacobi, who was thus a mediator +between Kant and these philosophical adversaries. + +Kant's reading was of the most extensive and miscellaneous kind. He +cared comparatively little for the history of speculation, but his +acquaintance with books of science, general history, travels and belles +lettres was boundless. He was well versed in English literature, chiefly +of the age of Queen Anne, and had read English philosophy from Locke to +Hume, and the Scottish school. He was at home in Voltaire and Rousseau, +but had little or no acquaintance with the French sensational +philosophy. He was familiar with all German literature up to the date of +his _Kritik_, but ceased to follow it in its great development by Goethe +and Schiller. It was his habit to obtain books in sheets from his +publishers Kanter and Nicolovius; and he read over for many years all +the new works in their catalogue, in order to keep abreast of universal +knowledge. He was fond of newspapers and works on politics; and this was +the only kind of reading that could interrupt his studies in philosophy. + +As a lecturer, Kant avoided altogether that rigid style in which his +books were written. He sat behind a low desk, with a few jottings on +slips of paper, or textbooks marked on the margin, before him, and +delivered an extemporaneous address, opening up the subject by partial +glimpses, and with many anecdotes or familiar illustrations, till a +complete idea of it was presented. His voice was extremely weak, but +sometimes rose into eloquence, and always commanded perfect silence. +Though kind to his students, he refused to remit their fees, as this, he +thought, would discourage independence. It was another principle that +his chief exertions should be bestowed on the intermediate class of +talent, as the geniuses would help themselves, and the dunces were +beyond remedy. + +Simple, honourable, truthful, kind-hearted and high-minded as Kant was +in all moral respects, he was somewhat deficient in the region of +sentiment. He had little enthusiasm for the beauties of nature, and +indeed never sailed out into the Baltic, or travelled more than 40 miles +from Königsberg. Music he disregarded, and all poetry that was more than +sententious prose. His ethics have been reproached with some justice as +setting up too low an ideal for the female sex. Though faithful in a +high degree to the duties of friendship, he could not bear to visit his +friends in sickness, and after their death he repressed all allusion to +their memory. His engrossing intellectual labours no doubt tended +somewhat to harden his character; and in his zeal for rectitude of +purpose he forgot the part which affection and sentiment must ever play +in the human constitution. + +On the 12th of February 1904, the hundredth anniversary of Kant's death, +a Kantian society (_Kantgesellschaft_) was formed at Halle under the +leadership of Professor H. Vaihinger to promote Kantian studies. In 1909 +it had an annual membership of 191; it supports the periodical +_Kantstudien_ (founded 1896; see BIBLIOGRAPHY, _ad init._). + + +THE WRITINGS OF KANT + + No other thinker of modern times has been throughout his work so + penetrated with the fundamental conceptions of physical science; no + other has been able to hold with such firmness the balance between + empirical and speculative ideas. Beyond all question much of the + influence which the critical philosophy has exercised and continues to + exercise must be ascribed to this characteristic feature in the + training of its great author. + + The early writings of Kant are almost without exception on questions + of physical science. It was only by degrees that philosophical + problems began to engage his attention, and that the main portion of + his literary activity was turned towards them. The following are the + most important of the works which bear directly on physical science. + + 1. _Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte_ (1747); + an essay dealing with the famous dispute between the Cartesians and + Leibnitzians regarding the expression for the _amount of a force_. + According to the Cartesians, this quantity was directly proportional + to velocity; according to their opponents, it varied with the square + of the velocity. The dispute has now lost its interest, for physicists + have learned to distinguish accurately the two quantities which are + vaguely included under the expression _amount of force_, and + consequently have been able to show in what each party was correct and + in what it was in error. Kant's essay, with some fallacious + explanations and divisions, criticizes acutely the arguments of the + Leibnitzians, and concludes with an attempt to show that both modes of + expression are correct when correctly limited and interpreted. + + 2. _Whether the Earth in its Revolution has experienced some Change + since the Earliest Times_ (1754; ed. and trans., W. Hastie, 1900, + _Kant's Cosmogony_; cf. Lord Kelvin in _The Age of the Earth_, 1897, + p. 7). In this brief essay Kant throws out a notion which has since + been carried out, in ignorance of Kant's priority, by Delaunay (1865) + and Adams. He points out that the action of the moon in raising the + waters of the earth must have a secondary effect in the slight + retardation of the earth's motion, and refers to a similar cause the + fact that the moon turns always the same face to the earth. + + 3. _Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels_, published + anonymously in 1755 (4th ed. 1808; republished H. Ebert, 1890). In + this remarkable work Kant, proceeding from the Newtonian conception of + the solar system, extends his consideration to the entire sidereal + system, points out how the whole may be mechanically regarded, and + throws out the important speculation which has since received the + title of the nebular hypothesis. In some details, such e.g. as the + regarding of the motion of the entire solar system as portion of the + general cosmical mechanism, he had predecessors, among others Thomas + Wright of Durham, but the work as a whole contains a wonderfully acute + anticipation of much that was afterwards carried out by Herschel and + Laplace. The hypothesis of the original nebular condition of the + system, with the consequent explanation of the great phenomena of + planetary formations and movements of the satellites and rings, is + unquestionably to be assigned to Kant. (On this question see + discussion in W. Hastie's _Kant's Cosmogony_, as above.) + + 4. _Meditalionum quarundam de igne succincta delineatio_ (1755): an + inaugural dissertation, containing little beyond the notion that + bodies operate on one another through the medium of a uniformly + diffused, elastic and subtle matter (ether) which is the underlying + substance of heat and light. Both heat and light are regarded as + vibrations of this diffused ether. + + 5. _On the Causes of Earthquakes_ (1755); _Description of the + Earthquake of 1755_ (1756); _Consideration of some Recently + Experienced Earthquakes_ (1756). + + 6. _Explanatory Remarks on the Theory of the Winds_ (1756). In this + brief tract, Kant, apparently in entire ignorance of the explanation + given in 1735 by Hadley, points out how the varying velocity of + rotation of the successive zones of the earth's surface furnishes a + key to the phenomena of periodic winds. His theory is in almost entire + agreement with that now received. See the parallel statements from + Kant's tract and Dove's essay on the influence of the rotation of the + earth on the flow of its atmosphere (1835), given in Zöllner's work, + _Ueber die Natur der Cometen_, pp. 477-482. + + 7. _On the Different Races of Men_ (1775); _Determination of the + Notion of a Human Race_ (1785); _Conjectural Beginning of Human + History_ (1786): three tracts containing some points of interest as + regards the empirical grounds for Kant's doctrine of teleology. + Reference will be made to them in the notice of the _Kritik of + Judgment_. + + 8. _On the Volcanoes in the Moon_ (1785); _On the Influence of the + Moon on the Weather_ (1794). The second of these contains a remarkable + discussion of the relation between the centre of the moon's figure and + its centre of gravity. From the difference between these Kant is led + to conjecture that the climatic conditions of the side of the moon + turned from us must be altogether unlike those of the face presented + to us. His views have been restated by Hansen. + + 9. _Lectures on Physical Geography_ (1822): published from notes of + Kant's lectures, with the approval of the author. + + Consideration of these works is sufficient to show that Kant's mastery + of the science of his time was complete and thorough, and that his + philosophy is to be dealt with as having throughout a reference to + general scientific conceptions. For more detailed treatment of his + importance in science, reference may be made to Zöllner's essay on + "Kant and his Merits on Natural Science" contained in the work on the + _Nature of Comets_ (pp. 426-484); to Dietrich, _Kant and Newton_; + Schultze, _Kant and Darwin_; Reuschle's careful analysis of the + scientific works in the _Deutsche Vierteljahrs-Schrift_ (1868); W. + Hastie's introduction to _Kant's Cosmogony_ (1900), which summarizes + criticism to that date; and articles in _Kant-Studien_ (1896 foll.). + + The notice of the philosophical writings of Kant need not be more than + bibliographical, as in the account of his philosophy it will be + necessary to consider at some length the successive stages in the + development of his thought. Arranged chronologically these works are + as follows:-- + + 1755. _Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae novae + dilucidatio._ + + 1756. _Metaphysicae cum geometria junctae usus in philosophia + naturali, cujus specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam._ + + 1762. _Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren_, + "The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures" (trans. T. K. + Abbott, _Kant's Introduction to Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken + Subtilty of the Figures_, 1885). + + 1763. _Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grössen in die Weltweisheit + einzuführen_, "Attempt to introduce the Notion of Negative Quantities + into Philosophy." + + 1763. _Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des + Daseins Gottes_, "The only possible Foundation for a Demonstration of + the Existence of God." + + 1764. _Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen_ (Riga, + 1771; Königsberg, 1776). + + 1764. _Untersuchung über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der + natürlichen Theologie und Moral_, "Essay on the Evidence (Clearness) + of the Fundamental Propositions of Natural Theology and Ethics." + + 1766. _Träume eines Geistersehers, erläutert durch Träume der + Metaphysik_, "Dreams of a Ghost-seer (or Clairvoyant), explained by + the Dreams of Metaphysic" (Eng. trans. E. F. Goerwitz, with introd. by + F. Sewall, 1900). + + 1768. _Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raum_, + "Foundation for the Distinction of Positions in Space." + + The above may all be regarded as belonging to the precritical period + of Kant's development. The following introduce the notions and + principles characteristic of the critical philosophy. + + 1770. _De mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis._ + + 1781. _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, "Kritik of Pure Reason" (revised + ed. 1787; ed. Vaihinger, 1881 foll. and B. Erdmann, 1900; Eng. trans., + F. Max Müller, 1896, 2nd ed. 1907, and J. M. D. Meiklejohn, 1854). + + 1783. _Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik die als + Wissenschaft wird auftreten können_, "Prolegomena to all Future + Metaphysic which may present itself as Science" (ed. B. Erdmann, 1878; + Eng. trans. J. P. Mahaffy and J. H. Bernard, 2nd ed. 1889; Belfort + Bax, 1883 and Paul Carus, 1902; and cf. M. Apel, _Kommentar zu Kants + Prolegomena_, 1908). + + 1784. _Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte im weltbürgerlicher + Absicht_, "Notion of a Universal History in a Cosmopolitan Sense." + With this may be coupled the review of Herder in 1785. + + 1785. _Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten_, "Foundations of the + Metaphysic of Ethics" (see T. K. Abbott, _Fundamental Principles of + the Metaphysic of Ethics_, 3rd ed. 1907). + + 1786. _Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft_, + "Metaphysical Elements of Natural Science" (ed. A. Höfler, 1900; + trans. Belfort Bax, _Prolegomena and Metaphysical Foundations_, 1883). + + 1788. _Ueber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der + Philosophie_, "On the Employment of Teleological Principles in + Philosophy." + + 1788. _Kritik der praktischen Vernunft_, "Kritik of Practical Reason" + (trans. T. K. Abbott, ed. 1898). + + 1790. _Kritik der Urtheilskraft_, "Kritik of Judgment" (trans. with + notes J. H. Bernard, 1892). + + 1790. _Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen + Vernunft durch eine ältere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll_, "On a + Discovery by which all the recent Critique of Pure Reason is + superseded by a more ancient" (i.e. by Leibnitz's philosophy). + + 1791. _Ueber die wirklichen Fortschritte der Metaphysik seit Leibnitz + und Wolff_, "On the Real Advances of Metaphysics since Leibnitz and + Wolff"; and _Ueber das Misslingen aller philosophischen Versuche in + der Theodicee_. + + 1793. _Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft_, + "Religion within the Bounds of Reason only" (Eng. trans. J. W. Semple, + 1838). + + 1794. _Ueber Philosophie überhaupt_, "On Philosophy generally," and + _Das Ende aller Dinge_. + + 1795. _Zum ewigen Frieden_ (Eng. trans., M. Campbell Smith, 1903). + + 1797. _Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Rechtslehre_ (trans. W. + Hastie), and _Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Tugendlehre_. + + 1798. _Der Streit der Facultäten_, "Contest of the Faculties." + + 1798. _Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht_. + + + _The Kantian Philosophy._[1] + + Historians are accustomed to divide the general current of speculation + into epochs or periods marked by the dominance of some single + philosophic conception with its systematic evolution. Perhaps in no + case is the character of an epoch more clearly apparent than in that + of the critical philosophy. The great work of Kant absolutely closed + the lines of speculation along which the philosophical literature of + the 18th century had proceeded, and substituted for them a new and + more comprehensive method of regarding the essential problems of + thought, a method which has prescribed the course of philosophic + speculation in the present age. The critical system has thus a twofold + aspect. It takes up into itself what had characterized the previous + efforts of modern thought, shows the imperfect nature of the + fundamental notions therein employed, and offers a new solution of the + problems to which these notions had been applied. It opens up a new + series of questions upon which subsequent philosophic reflection has + been directed, and gives to them the form, under which it is possible + that they should be fruitfully regarded. A work of this kind is + essentially epoch-making. + + In any complete account of the Kantian system it is therefore + necessary that there should be constant reference, on the one hand, to + the peculiar character of the preceding 18th-century philosophy, and, + on the other hand, to the problems left for renewed treatment to more + modern thought. Fortunately the development of the Kantian system + itself furnishes such treatment as is necessary of the former + reference. For the critical philosophy was a work of slow growth. In + the early writings of Kant we are able to trace with great + definiteness the successive stages through which he passed from the + notions of the preceding philosophy to the new and comprehensive + method which gives its special character to the critical work. + Scarcely any great mind, it has been said with justice, ever matured + so slowly. In the early essays we find the principles of the current + philosophies, those of Leibnitz and English empiricism, applied in + various directions to those problems which serve as tests of their + truth and completeness; we note the appearance of the difficulties or + contradictions which manifest the one-sidedness or imperfection of the + principle applied; and we can trace the gradual growth of the new + conceptions which were destined, in the completed system, to take the + place of the earlier method. To understand the Kantian work it is + indispensable to trace the history of its growth in the mind of its + author. + + Of the two preceding stages of modern philosophy, only the second, + that of Locke and Leibnitz, seems to have influenced practically the + course of Kant's speculation. With the Cartesian movement as a whole + he shows little acquaintance and no sympathy, and his own philosophic + conception is never brought into relation with the systematic + treatment of metaphysical problems characteristic of the Cartesian + method. The fundamental question for philosophic reflection presented + itself to him in the form which it had assumed in the hands of Locke + and his successors in England, of Leibnitz and the Leibnitzian school + in Germany. The transition from the Cartesian movement to this second + stage of modern thought had doubtless been natural and indeed + necessary. Nevertheless the full bearings of the philosophic question + were somewhat obscured by the comparatively limited fashion in which + it was then regarded. The tendency towards what may be technically + called subjectivism, a tendency which differentiates the modern from + the ancient method of speculation, is expressed in Locke and Leibnitz + in a definite and peculiar fashion. However widely the two systems + differ in details, they are at one in a certain fundamental conception + which dominates the whole course of their philosophic construction. + They are throughout individualist, i.e. they accept as given fact the + existence of the concrete, thinking subject, and endeavour to show how + this subject, as an individual conscious being, is related to the + wider universe of which he forms part. In dealing with such a problem, + there are evidently two lines along which investigation may proceed. + It may be asked how the individual mind comes to know himself and the + system of things with which he is connected, how the varied contents + of his experience are to be accounted for, and what certainty attaches + to his subjective consciousness of things. Regarded from the + individualist point of view, this line of inquiry becomes purely + psychological, and the answer may be presented, as it was presented by + Locke, in the fashion of a natural history of the growth of conscious + experience in the mind of the subject. Or, it may be further asked, + how is the individual really connected with the system of things + apparently disclosed to him in conscious experience? what is the + precise significance of the existence which he ascribes both to + himself and to the objects of experience? what is the nature of the + relation between himself as one part of the system, and the system as + a whole? This second inquiry is specifically metaphysical in bearing, + and the kind of answer furnished to it by Leibnitz on the one hand, by + Berkeley on the other, is in fact prescribed or determined beforehand + by the fundamental conception of the individualist method with which + both begin their investigations. So soon as we make clear to ourselves + the essential nature of this method, we are able to discern the + specific difficulties or perplexities arising in the attempt to carry + it out systematically, and thus to note with precision the special + problems presented to Kant at the outset of his philosophic + reflections. + + Consider, first, the application of the method on its psychological + side, as it appears in Locke. Starting with the assumption of + conscious experience as the content or filling-in of the individual + mind, Locke proceeds to explain its genesis and nature by reference to + the real universe of things and its mechanical operation upon the + mind. The result of the interaction of mind, i.e. the individual mind, + and the system of things, is conscious experience, consisting of + ideas, which may be variously compounded, divided, compared, or dealt + with by the subjective faculties or powers with which the entity, + Mind, is supposed to be endowed. Matter of fact and matter of + knowledge are thus at a stroke dissevered. The very notion of relation + between mind and things leads at once to the counter notion of the + absolute restriction of mind to its own subjective nature. That Locke + was unable to reconcile these opposed notions is not surprising; that + the difficulties and obscurities of the Essay arise from the + impossibility of reconciling them is evident on the slightest + consideration of the main positions of that work. Of these + difficulties the philosophies of Berkeley and Hume are systematic + treatments. In Berkeley we find the resolute determination to accept + only the one notion, that of mind as restricted to its own conscious + experience, and to attempt by this means to explain the nature of the + external reality to which obscure reference is made. Any success in + the attempt is due only to the fact that Berkeley introduces alongside + of his individualist notion a totally new conception, that of mind + itself as not in the same way one of the matters of conscious + experience, but as capable of reflection upon the whole of experience + and of reference to the supreme mind as the ground of all reality. It + is only in Hume that we have definitely and completely the evolution + of the individualist notion as groundwork of a theory of knowledge; + and it is in his writings, therefore, that we may expect to find the + fundamental difficulty of that notion clearly apparent. It is not a + little remarkable that we should find in Hume, not only the sceptical + dissolution of all fixity of cognition, which is the inevitable result + of the individualist method, but also the clearest consciousness of + the very root of the difficulty. The systematic application of the + doctrine that conscious experience consists only of isolated objects + of knowledge, impressions or ideas, leads Hume to distinguish between + truths reached by analysis and truths which involve real connexion of + the objects of knowledge. The first he is willing to accept without + further inquiry, though it is an error to suppose, as Kant seems to + have supposed, that he regarded mathematical propositions as coming + under this head (see HUME); with respect to the second, he finds + himself, and confesses that he finds himself, hopelessly at fault. No + real connexions between isolated objects of experience are perceived + by us. No single matter of fact necessarily implies the existence of + any other. In short, if the difficulty be put in its ultimate form, no + existence thought as a distinct individual can transcend itself, or + imply relation to any other existence. If the parts of conscious + experience are regarded as so many distinct things, there is no + possibility of connecting them other than contingently, if at all. If + the individual mind be really thought as individual, it is impossible + to explain how it should have knowledge or consciousness at all. "In + short," says Hume, "there are two principles which I cannot render + consistent, nor is it in my power to renounce either of them, viz. + _that all our distinct perceptions are distinct existences, and that + the mind never perceives any real connexion among distinct + existences_. Did our perceptions either inhere in something simple or + individual, or did the mind perceive some real connexion among them, + there would be no difficulty in the case" (App. to _Treatise of Human + Nature_). + + Thus, on the one hand, the individualist conception, when carried out + to its full extent, leads to the total negation of all real cognition. + If the real system of things, to which conscious experience has + reference, be regarded as standing in casual relation to this + experience there is no conceivable ground for the extension to reality + of the notions which somehow are involved in thought. The same result + is apparent, on the other hand, when we consider the theory of + knowledge implied in the Leibnitzian individualism. The metaphysical + conception of the monads, each of which is the universe _in nuce_, + presents insuperable difficulties when the connexion or + interdependence of the monads is in question, and these difficulties + obtrude themselves when the attempt is made to work out a consistent + doctrine of cognition. For the whole mass of cognisable fact, the + _mundus intelligibilis_, is contained _impliciter_ in each monad, and + the several modes of apprehension can only be regarded as so many + stages in the developing consciousness of the monad. Sense and + understanding, real connexion of facts and analysis of notions, are + not, therefore, distinct in kind, but differ only in degree. The same + fundamental axioms, the logical principles of identity and sufficient + reason, are applicable in explanation of all given propositions. It is + true that Leibnitz himself did not work out any complete doctrine of + knowledge, but in the hands of his successors the theory took definite + shape in the principle that the whole work of cognition is in essence + analytical. The process of analysis might be complete or incomplete. + For finite intelligences there was an inevitable incompleteness so far + as knowledge of matters of fact was concerned. In respect to them, + the final result was found in a series of irreducible notions or + categories, the _prima possibilia_, the analysis and elucidation of + which was specifically the business of philosophy or metaphysics. + + It will be observed that, in the Leibnitzian as in the empirical + individualism, the fundamental notion is still that of the abstract + separation of the thinking subject from the materials of conscious + experience. From this separation arise all the difficulties in the + effort to develop the notion systematically, and in tracing the + history of Kant's philosophical progress we are able to discern the + gradual perception on his part that here was to be found the ultimate + cause of the perplexities which became apparent in considering the + subordinate doctrines of the system. The successive essays which have + already been enumerated as composing Kant's precritical work are not + to be regarded as so many imperfect sketches of the doctrines of the + _Kritik_, nor are we to look in them for anticipations of the critical + view. They are essentially tentative, and exhibit with unusual + clearness the manner in which the difficulties of a received theory + force on a wider and more comprehensive view. There can be no doubt + that some of the special features of the _Kritik_ are to be found in + these precritical essays, e.g. the doctrine of the _Aesthetik_ is + certainly foreshadowed in the _Dissertation_ of 1770; the _Kritik_, + however, is no patchwork, and what appears in the _Dissertation_ takes + an altogether new form when it is wrought into the more comprehensive + conception of the later treatise. + + The particular problem which gave the occasion to the first of the + precritical writings is, in an imperfect or particular fashion, the + fundamental question to which the _Kritik_ is an answer. What is the + nature of the distinction between knowledge gained by analysis of + notions and knowledge of matters of fact? Kant seems never to have + been satisfied with the Wolffian identification of logical axioms and + of the principle of sufficient reason. The tract on the _False + Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures_, in which the view of + thought or reason as analytic is clearly expressed, closes with the + significant division of judgments into those which rest upon the + logical axioms of identity and contradiction and those for which no + logical ground can be shown. Such immediate or indemonstrable + judgments, it is said, abound in our experience. They are, in fact, as + Kant presently perceived, the foundations for all judgments regarding + real existence. It was impossible that the question regarding their + nature and legitimacy and their distinction from analytic judgments + should not present itself to him. The three tracts belonging to the + years 1763-1764 bring forward in the sharpest fashion the essential + opposition between the two classes of judgments. In the _Essay on + Negative Quantities_, the fundamental thought is the total distinction + in kind between logical opposition (the contradictoriness of notions, + which Kant always viewed as formed, definite products of thought) and + real opposition. For the one adequate explanation is found in the + logical axiom of analytical thinking; for the other no such + explanation is to be had. Logical ground and real ground are totally + distinct. "I can understand perfectly well," says Kant, "how a + consequence follows from its reason according to the law of identity, + since it is discoverable by mere analysis of the notion contained in + it.... But how something follows from another thing and not according + to the law of identity, this I should gladly have made clear to me.... + How shall I comprehend that, since something is, something else should + be?" Real things, in short, are distinct existences, and, as distinct, + not necessarily or logically connected in thought. "I have," he + proceeds, "reflected on the nature of our knowledge in relation to our + judgment of reason and consequent, and I intend to expound fully the + result of my reflections. It follows from them that the relation of a + real ground to that which is thereby posited or denied cannot be + expressed by a judgment but only by means of a notion, which by + analysis may certainly be reduced to yet simpler notions of real + grounds, but yet in such a way that the final resort of all our + cognition in this regard must be found in simple and irreducible + notions of real grounds, the relation of which to their consequents + cannot be made clear." + + The striking similarity between Kant's expressions in this _Essay_ and + the remarks with which Hume introduces his analysis of the notion of + cause has led to the supposition that at this period of his + philosophical career Kant was definitely under the influence of the + earlier empirical thinker. Consideration of the whole passage is quite + sufficient to show the groundlessness of this supposition. The + difficulty with which Kant is presented was one arising inevitably + from reflection upon the Leibnitzian theory of knowledge, and the + solution does not in any way go beyond that theory. It is a solution, + in fact, which must have been impossible had the purport of Hume's + empirical doctrine been present to Kant's mind. He is here at the + point at which he remained for many years, accepting without any + criticism certain fundamental notions as required for real cognition. + His ideal of metaphysic is still that of complete analysis of given + notions. No glimmering of the further question, Whence come these + notions and with what right do we apply them in cognition? is yet + apparent. Any direct influence from Hume must be referred to a later + period in his career. + + The prize essay _On the Principles of Natural Theology and Morals_ + brings forward the same fundamental opposition--though in a special + form. Here, for the first time, appears definitely the distinction + between synthesis and analysis, and in the distinction is found the + reason for the superior certainty and clearness of mathematics as + opposed to philosophy. Mathematics, Kant thinks, proceeds + synthetically, for in it the notions are constructed. Metaphysics, on + the other hand, is analytical in method; in it the notions are given, + and by analysis they are cleared up. It is to be observed that the + description of mathematics as synthetic is not an anticipation of the + critical doctrine on the same subject. Kant does not, in this place, + raise the question as to the reason for assuming that the arbitrary + syntheses of mathematical construction have any reference to reality. + The deeper significance of synthesis has not yet become apparent. + + In the _Only Possible Ground of Proof for the Existence of God_, the + argument, though largely Leibnitzian, advances one step farther + towards the ultimate inquiry. For there Kant states as precisely as in + the critique of speculative theology his fundamental doctrine that + real existence is not a predicate to be added in thought to the + conception of a possible subject. So far as subjective thought is + concerned, possibility, not real existence, is contained in any + judgment. + + The year 1765 was marked by the publication of Leibnitz's posthumous + _Nouveaux Essais_, in which his theory of knowledge is more fully + stated than in any of his previous tracts. In all probability Kant + gave some attention to this work, though no special reference to it + occurs in his writings, and it may have assisted to give additional + precision to his doctrine. In the curious essay, _Dreams of a + Clairvoyant_, published 1766, he emphasizes his previously reached + conclusion that connexions of real fact are mediated in our thought by + ultimate notions, but adds that the significance and warrant for such + notions can be furnished only by experience. He is inclined, + therefore, to regard as the function of metaphysics the complete + statement of these ultimate, indemonstrable notions, and therefore the + determination of the limits to knowledge by their means. Even at this + point, where he approximates more closely to Hume than to any other + thinker, the difficulty raised by Hume does not seem to occur to him. + He still appears to think that experience does warrant the employment + of such notions, and when there is taken into account his + correspondence with Lambert during the next few years, one would be + inclined to say that the _Architektonik_ of the latter represents most + completely Kant's idea of philosophy. + + On another side Kant had been shaking himself free from the principles + of the Leibnitzian philosophy. According to Leibnitz, space, the order + of coexisting things, resulted from the relations of monads to one + another. But Kant began to see that such a conception did not accord + with the manner in which we determine directions or positions in + space. In the curious little essay, _On the Ground of distinguishing + Particular Divisions in Space_, he pointed out that the idea of space + as a whole is not deducible from the experience of particular spaces, + or particular relations of objects in space, that we only cognize + relations in space by reference to space as a whole, and finally that + definite positions involve reference to space as a given whole. + + The whole development of Kant's thought up to this point is + intelligible when regarded from the Leibnitzian point of view, with + which he started. There appears no reason to conclude that Hume at + this time exercised any direct influence. One may go still further, + and add that even in the _Dissertation_ of 1770, generally regarded as + more than foreshadowing the _Kritik_, the really critical question is + not involved. A brief notice of the contents of this tract will + suffice to show how far removed Kant yet was from the methods and + principles of the critical or transcendental philosophy. Sense and + understanding, according to the _Dissertation_, are the two sources of + knowledge. The objects of the one are things of sense or _phenomena_; + the objects of the other are _noumena_. These are absolutely distinct, + and are not to be regarded as differing only in degree. In _phenomena_ + we distinguish _matter_, which is given by sense, and _form_, which is + the law of the order of sensations. Such form is twofold--the order of + space and time. Sensations formed by space and time compose the world + of appearance, and this when treated by the understanding, according + to logical rules, is _experience_. But the logical use of the + understanding is not its only use. Much more important is the _real_ + use, by which are produced the pure notions whereby we think things as + they are. These pure notions are the laws of the operation of the + intellect; they are _leges intellectus_. + + Apart, then, from the expanded treatment of space and time as + subjective forms, we find in the _Dissertation_ little more than the + very precise and definite formulation of the slowly growing opposition + to the Leibnitzian doctrines. That the pure intellectual notions + should be defended as springing from the nature of intellect is not + out of harmony with the statement of the _Träume eines Geistersehers_, + for there the pure notions were allowed to exist, but were not held to + have validity for actual things except on grounds of experience. Here + they are supposed to exist, dissevered from experience, and are + allowed validity as determinations of things in themselves. + + The stage which Kant had now reached in his philosophical development + was one of great significance. The doctrine of knowledge expressed in + the _Dissertation_ was the final form which the Wolffian rationalism + could assume for him, and, though many of the elements of the _Kritik_ + are contained therein, it was not really in advance of the Wolffian + theory. The doctrine of space and time as forms of sense-perception, + the reference of both space and time and the pure intellectual notions + to the laws of the activity of mind itself, the distinction between + sense and understanding as one of kind, not of degree, with the + correlative distinction between phenomena and noumena,--all of these + reappear, though changed and modified, in the _Kritik_. But, despite + this resemblance, it seems clear that, so far as the _Dissertation_ is + concerned, the way had only been prepared for the true critical + inquiry, and that the real import of Hume's sceptical problem had not + yet dawned upon Kant. From the manner, however, in which the doctrine + of knowledge had been stated in the _Dissertation_, the further + inquiry had been rendered inevitable. It had become quite impossible + for Kant to remain longer satisfied with the ambiguous position + assigned to a fundamental element of his doctrine of knowledge, the + so-called pure intellectual notions. Those notions, according to the + _Dissertation_, had no function save in relation to + things-in-themselves, i.e. to objects which are not directly or + immediately brought into relation to our faculty of cognition. They + did not serve as the connecting links of formed experience; on the + contrary, they were supposed to be absolutely dissevered from all + experience which was possible for intelligence like ours. In his + previous essays, Kant, while likewise maintaining that such pure, + irreducible notions existed, had asserted in general terms that they + applied to experience, and that their applicability or justification + rested on experience itself, but had not raised the question as to the + ground of such justification. Now, from another side, the supreme + difficulty was presented--how could such notions have application to + any objects whatsoever? For some time the correlative difficulty, how + _objects_ of sense-perception were possible, does not seem to have + suggested itself to Kant. In the _Dissertation_ sense-perception had + been taken as receptivity of representations of objects, and + experience as the product of the treatment of such representations by + the logical or analytical processes of understanding. Some traces of + this confused fashion of regarding sense-perceptions are left even in + the _Kritik_, specially perhaps in the _Aesthetik_, and they give rise + to much of the ambiguity which unfortunately attaches to the more + developed theory of cognition. So soon, however, as the critical + question was put, On what rests the reference of representations in us + to the object or thing? in other words, How do we come to have + knowledge of objects at all? it became apparent that the problem was + one of perfect generality, and applied, not only to cognition through + the pure notions, but to sense-perceptions likewise. It is in the + statement of this general problem that we find the new and + characteristic feature of Kant's work. + + There is thus no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of Kant's + reference to the particular occasion or cause of the critical inquiry. + Up to the stage indicated by the _Dissertation_ he had been + attempting, in various ways, to unite two radically divergent modes of + explaining cognition--that which would account for the content of + experience by reference to affection from things without us, and that + which viewed the intellect itself as somehow furnished with the means + of pure, rational cognition. He now discovered that Hume's sceptical + analysis of the notion of cause was really the treatment of one + typical or crucial instance of the much more general problem. If + experience, says Hume, consists solely of states of mind somehow given + to us, each of which exists as an effect, and therefore as distinct + from others, with what right do we make the common assumption that + parts of experience are necessarily connected? The only possible + answer, drawn from the premises laid down, must be that there is no + warrant for such an assumption. Necessity for thought, as Kant had + been willing to admit and as Hume also held, involves or implies + something more than is given in experience--for that which is given is + contingent--and rests upon an a priori or pure notion. But a priori + notions, did they exist, could have no claim to regulate experience. + Hume, therefore, for his part, rejected entirely the notion of cause + as being fictitious and delusive, and professed to account for the + habit of regarding experience as necessarily connected by reference to + arbitrarily formed custom of thinking. Experience, as given, + contingent material, had a certain uniformity, and recurring + uniformities generated in us the habit of regarding things as + necessarily connected. That such a resort to experience for + explanation could lead to no valid conclusion has been already noted + as evident to Hume himself. + + The dogmatic or individualist conception of experience had thus proved + itself inadequate to the solution of Hume's difficulty regarding the + notion of cause,--a difficulty which Kant, erroneously, had thought to + be the only case contemplated by his predecessor. The perception of + its inadequacy in this respect, and the consequent generalization of + Hume's problem, are the essential features of the new critical method. + For Kant was now prepared to formulate his general inquiry in a + definite fashion. His long-continued reflection on the Wolffian + doctrine of knowledge had made clear to him that synthetic connexion, + the essence of real cognition, was not contained in the products of + thinking as a formal activity of mind operating on material otherwise + supplied. On the other hand, Hume's analysis enabled him to see that + synthetic connexion was not contained in experience regarded as given + material. Thus neither the formal nor the material aspect of conscious + experience, when regarded from the individualist point of view, + supplied any foundation for real knowledge, whether a priori or + empirical. An absolutely new conception of experience was necessary, + if the fact of cognition was to be explained at all, and the various + modes in which Kant expresses the business of his critical philosophy + were merely different fashions of stating the one ultimate problem, + differing according to the particular aspect of knowledge which he + happened to have in view. To inquire how synthetic a priori judgments + are possible, or how far cognition extends, or what worth attaches to + metaphysical propositions, is simply to ask, in a specific form, what + elements are necessarily involved in experience of which the subject + is conscious. How is it possible for the individual thinking subject + to connect together the parts of his experience in the mode we call + cognition? + + The problem of the critical philosophy is, therefore, the complete + analysis of experience from the point of view of the conditions under + which such experience is possible for the conscious subject. The + central ideas are thus self-consciousness, as the supreme condition + under which experience is subjectively possible, and the manifold + details of experience as a varied and complex whole. The solution of + the problem demanded the utmost care in keeping the due balance + between these ideas; and it can hardly be said that Kant was perfectly + successful. He is frequently untrue to the more comprehensive + conception which dominates his work as a whole. The influence of his + previous philosophical training, nay, even the unconscious influence + of terminology, frequently induces in his statements a certain laxity + and want of clearness. He selects definitely for his starting point + neither the idea of self-consciousness nor the details of experience, + but in his actual procedure passes from one to the other, rarely, if + ever, taking into full consideration the weighty question of their + relation to one another. Above all, he is continuously under the + influence of the individualist notion which he had done so much to + explode. The conception of conscious experience, which is the net + result of the _Kritik_, is indefinitely profounder and richer than + that which had ruled the 18th century philosophizing, but for Kant + such experience still appears as somehow the arbitrary product of the + relation between the individual conscious subject and the realm of + real facts. When he is actually analysing the conditions of knowledge, + the influence of the individualist conception is not prominent; the + conditions are stated as quite general, as conditions of knowledge. + But so soon as the deeper, metaphysical problems present themselves, + the shadow of the old doctrine reappears. Knowledge is regarded as a + mechanical product, part furnished by the subject, part given to the + subject, and is thus viewed as mechanically divisible into a priori + and a posteriori, into pure and empirical, necessary and contingent. + The individual as an agent, conscious of universal moral law, is yet + regarded as in a measure opposed to experience, and the Kantian + ethical code remains purely formal. The ultimate relation between + intelligence and natural fact, expressed in the notion of end, is + thought as problematic or contingent. The difficulties or obscurities + of the Kantian system, of which the above are merely the more + prominent, may all be traced to the one source, the false or at least + inadequate idea of the individual. The more thorough explanation of + the relation between experience as critically conceived and the + individual subject was the problem left by Kant for his successors. + + In any detailed exposition of the critical system it would be + requisite in the first place to state with some fullness the precise + nature of the problems immediately before Kant, and in the second + place to follow with some closeness the successive stages of the + system as presented in the three main works, the _Kritik of Pure + Reason_, the _Kritik of Practical Reason_ and the _Kritik of + Judgment_, with the more important of the minor works, the _Metaphysic + of Nature_ and the _Metaphysic of Ethics_. It would be necessary, + also, in any such expanded treatment, to bring out clearly the Kantian + classification of the philosophical sciences, and to indicate the + relation between the critical or transcendental investigation of the + several faculties and the more developed sciences to which that + investigation serves as introduction. As any detailed statement of the + critical system, however compressed, would be beyond the limits of the + present article, it is proposed here to select only the more salient + doctrines, and to point out in connexion with them what advance had + been effected by Kant, and what remained for subsequent efforts at + complete solution of the problems raised by him. Much that is of + interest and value must necessarily be omitted in any sketch of so + elaborate a system, and for all points of special interpretation + reference must needs be made to the many elaborate dissertations on or + about the Kantian philosophy. + + The doctrine from which Kant starts in his critical or transcendental + investigation of knowledge is that to which the slow development of + his thought had led him. The essence of cognition or knowledge was a + synthetic act, an act of combining in thought the detached elements of + experience. Now synthesis was explicable neither by reference to pure + thought, the logical or elaborative faculty, which in Kant's view + remained analytic in function, nor by reference to the effects of + external real things upon our faculties of cognition. For, on the one + hand, analysis or logical treatment applied only to objects of + knowledge as already given in synthetic forms, and, on the other hand, + real things could yield only isolated effects and not the combination + of these effects in the forms of cognitive experience. If experience + is to be matter of knowledge for the conscious subject, it must be + regarded as the conjoint product of given material and synthetic + combination. Form and matter may indeed be regarded separably and + dealt with in isolation for purposes of critical inquiry, but in + experience they are necessarily and inseparably united. The problem of + the _Kritik_ thus becomes for Kant the complete statement of the + elements necessarily involved in synthesis, and of the subjective + processes by which these elements are realized in our individual + consciousness. He is not asking, with Locke, whence the details of + experience arise; he is not attempting a natural history of the growth + of experience in the individual mind; but he is endeavouring to state + exhaustively what conditions are necessarily involved in any fact of + knowledge, i.e. in any synthetic combination of parts of experience by + the conscious subject. + + So far as the elements necessarily involved in conscious experience + are concerned, these may be enumerated briefly thus:--given data of + sense, inner or outer; the forms of perception, i.e. space and time; + the forms of thought, i.e. the categories; the ultimate condition of + knowledge, the identity of the pure ego or self. The ego or self is + the central unity in reference to which alone is any part of + experience cognizable. But the consciousness of self is the foundation + of knowledge only when related to given material. The ego has not in + itself the element of difference, and the essence of knowledge is the + consciousness of unity in difference. For knowledge, therefore, it is + necessary that difference should be _given_ to the ego. The modes + under which it is possible for such given difference to become portion + of the conscious experience of the ego, the modes under which the + isolated data can be synthetically combined so as to form a cognizable + whole, make up the form of cognition, and upon this form rests the + possibility of any a priori or rational knowledge. + + The notion of the ego as a purely logical unity, containing in itself + no element of difference, and having only analytical identity, is + fundamental in the critical system, and lies at the root of all its + difficulties and perplexities. To say that the ego as an individual + does not _produce_ the world of experience is by no means the same as + to say that the ego is pure unity without element of difference. In + the one case we are treating the ego as one of the objects of + experience and denying of it productive efficacy; in the second case + we are dealing with the unity of the ego as a condition of knowledge, + of any experience whatsoever. In this second sense, it is wholly wrong + to assert that the ego is pure identity, pure unity. The unity and + identity of the ego, so regarded, are taken in abstraction, i.e. as + dissevered from the more complex whole of which they are necessary + elements. When the ego is taken as a condition of knowledge, its unity + is not more important than the difference necessarily correlated with + it. That the ego as a thing should not produce difference is quite + beside the mark. The consequences of the abstract separation which + Kant so draws between the ego and the world of experience are apparent + throughout his whole system. Assuming at the outset an opposition + between the two, self and matter of knowledge, he is driven by the + exigencies of the problem of reconciliation to insert term after term + as means of bringing them together, but never succeeds in attaining a + junction which is more than mechanical. To the end, the ego remains, + partly the pure logical ego, partly the concrete individual spirit, + and no explanation is afforded of the relation between them. It is for + this reason that the system of forms of perception and categories + appears so contingent and haphazard. No attempt is made to show how or + why the difference supplied for the pure logical ego should present + itself necessarily under these forms. They are regarded rather as + portions of the subjective mechanism of the individual consciousness. + The mind or self appears as though it were endowed with a complex + machinery by which alone it could act upon the material supplied to + it. Such a crude conception is far, indeed, from doing justice to + Kant's view, but it undoubtedly represents the underlying assumption + of many of his cardinal doctrines. The philosophy of Fichte is + historically interesting as that in which the deficiencies of Kant's + fundamental position were first discerned and the attempt made to + remedy them. + + Unfortunately for the consistency of the _Kritik_, Kant does not + attempt to work out systematically the elements involved in knowledge + before considering the subjective processes by which knowledge is + realized in consciousness. He mixes up the two inquiries, and in the + general division of his work depends rather upon the results of + previous psychology than upon the lines prescribed by his own new + conception of experience. He treats the elements of cognition + separately in connexion with the several subjective processes involved + in knowledge, viz. sense and understanding. Great ambiguity is the + natural result of this procedure. For it was not possible for Kant to + avoid the misleading connotation of the terms employed by him. In + strictness, sense, understanding, imagination and reason ought to have + had their functions defined in close relation to the elements of + knowledge with which they are severally connected, and as these + elements have no existence as separate facts, but only as factors in + the complex organic whole, it might have been possible to avoid the + error of supposing that each subjective process furnished a distinct, + separately cognizable portion of a mechanical whole. But the use of + separate terms, such as sense and understanding, almost unavoidably + led to phraseology only interpretable as signifying that each + furnished a specific kind of knowledge, and all Kant's previous + training contributed to strengthen this erroneous view. Especially + noteworthy is this in the case of the categories. Kant insists upon + treating these as _Begriffe_, notions, and assigns to them certain + characteristics of notions. But it is readily seen, and in the _Logik_ + Kant shows himself fully aware of the fact, that these pure connective + links of experience, general aspects of objects of intelligible + experience, do not resemble concepts formed by the so-called logical + or elaborative processes from representations of completed objects. + Nothing but harm can follow from any attempt to identify two products + which differ so entirely. So, again, the _Aesthetik_ is rendered + extremely obscure and difficult by the prevalence of the view, already + noted as obtaining in the _Dissertation_, that sense is a faculty + receiving representations of objects. Kant was anxious to avoid the + error of Leibnitz, who had taken sense and understanding to differ in + degree only, not in kind; but in avoiding the one error he fell into + another of no less importance. + + The consideration of the several elements which in combination make up + the fact of cognition, or perception, as it may be called, contains + little or nothing bearing on the origin and nature of the given data + of sense, inner or outer. The manifold of sense, which plays so + important a part in the critical theory of knowledge, is left in an + obscure and perplexed position. So much is clear, however, that + according to Kant sense is not to be regarded as receptive of + representations of objects. The data of sense are mere _stimuli_, not + partial or confused representations. The sense-manifold is not to be + conceived as having, _per se_, any of the qualities of objects as + actually cognized; its parts are not cognizable _per se_, nor can it + with propriety be said to be received successively or simultaneously. + When we apply predicates to the sense-manifold regarded in isolation, + we make that which is only a factor in the experience of objects into + a separate, independent object, and use our predicates transcendently. + Kant is not always in his language faithful to his view of the + sense-manifold, but the theory as a whole, together with his own + express definitions, is unmistakable. On the origin of the data of + sense, Kant's remarks are few and little satisfactory. He very + commonly employs the term _affection_ of the faculty of sense as + expressing the mode of origin, but offers no further explanation of a + term which has significance only when interpreted after a somewhat + mechanical fashion. Unquestionably certain of his remarks indicate the + view that the origin is to be sought in things-in-themselves, but + against hasty misinterpretations of such remarks there are certain + cautions to be borne in mind. The relation between phenomena and + noumena in the Kantian system does not in the least resemble that + which plays so important a part in modern psychology--between the + subjective results of sense affection and the character of the + objective conditions of such affection. Kant has pointedly declared + that it would be a gross absurdity to suppose that in his view + separate, distinct things-in-themselves existed corresponding to the + several objects of perception. And, finally, it is not at all + difficult to understand why Kant should say that the affection of + sense originated in the action of things-in-themselves, when we + consider what was the thing-in-itself to which he was referring. The + thing-in-itself to which the empirical order and relations of + sense-experience are referred is the divine order, which is not matter + of knowledge, but involved in our practical or moral beliefs. Critics + who limit their view to the _Kritik of Pure Reason_, and there, in all + probability, to the first or constructive portion of the work, must + necessarily fail to interpret the doctrines of the Kantian system, + which do not become clear or definite till the system has been + developed. Reason was, for Kant, an organic whole; the speculative and + moral aspects are never severed; and the solution of problems which + appear at first sight to belong solely to the region of speculative + thought may be found ultimately to depend upon certain characteristics + of our nature as practical. + + Data of sense-affection do not contain in themselves synthetic + combination. The first conditions of such combination are found by + Kant in the universal forms under which alone sense-phenomena manifest + themselves in experience. These universal forms of perception, space + and time, are necessary, a priori, and in characteristic features + resembling intuitions, not notions. They occupy, therefore, a peculiar + position, and one section of the _Kritik_, the _Aesthetik_, is + entirely devoted to the consideration of them. It is important to + observe that it is only through the a priori character of these + perceptive forms that rational science of nature is at all possible. + Kant is here able to resume, with fresh insight, his previous + discussions regarding the synthetic character of mathematical + propositions. In his early essays he had rightly drawn the distinction + between mathematical demonstration and philosophic proof, referring + the certainty of the first to the fact that the constructions were + synthetic in character and entirely determined by the action of + constructive imagination. It had not then occurred to him to ask, With + what right do we assume that the conclusions arrived at from arbitrary + constructions in mathematical matter have applicability to objects of + experience? Might not mathematics be a purely imaginary science? To + this question he is now enabled to return an answer. Space and time, + the two essential conditions of sense-perception, are not data given + by things, but universal forms of intellect into which all data of + sense must be received. Hence, whatever is true of space and time + regarded by imagination as objects, i.e. quantitative constructions, + must be true of the objects making up our sense-experience. The same + forms and the same constructive activity of imagination are involved + in mathematical synthesis and in the constitution of objects of + sense-experience. The foundation for pure or rational mathematics, + there being included under this the pure science of movement, is thus + laid in the critical doctrine of space and time. + + The _Aesthetik_ isolates sense-perception, and considers its forms as + though it were an independent, complete faculty. A certain confusion, + arising from this, is noticeable in the _Analytik_ when the necessity + for justifying the position of the categories is under discussion, but + the real difficulty in which Kant was involved by his doctrine of + space and time has its roots even deeper than the erroneous isolation + of sensibility. He has not in any way "deduced" space and time, but, + proceeding from the ordinary current view of sense-experience, has + found these remaining as residuum after analysis. The relation in + which they stand to the categories or pure notions is ambiguous; and, + when Kant has to consider the fashion in which category and data of + sense are to be brought together, he merely places side by side as a + priori elements the pure connective notions and the pure forms of + perception, and finds it, apparently, only a matter of contingent + convenience that they should harmonize with one another and so render + cognition possible. To this point also Fichte was the first to call + attention. + + Affection of sense, even when received into the pure forms of + perception, is not matter of knowledge. For cognition there is + requisite synthetic combination, and the intellectual function through + which such combination takes place. The forms of intellectual function + Kant proceeds to enumerate with the aid of the commonly received + logical doctrines. For this reference to logic he has been severely + blamed, but the precise nature of the debt due to the commonly + accepted logical classification is very generally misconceived. + Synthetic combination, Kant points out, is formally expressed in a + judgment, which is the act of uniting representations. At the + foundation of the judgments which express the types of synthetic + combination, through which knowledge is possible, lie the pure general + notions, the abstract aspect of the conditions under which objects are + cognizable in experience. General logic has also to deal with the + union of representations, though its unity is analytic merely, not + synthetic. But the same intellectual function which serves to give + unity in the analytic judgments of formal logic serves to give unity + to the synthetic combinations of real perception. It appeared evident, + then, to Kant that in the forms of judgment, as they are stated in the + common logic, there must be found the analogues of the types of + judgment which are involved in transcendental logic, or in the theory + of real cognition. His view of the ordinary logic was wide and + comprehensive, though in his restriction of the science to pure form + one can trace the influence of his earlier training, and it is no + small part of the value of the critical philosophy that it has revived + the study of logic and prepared the way for a more thorough + consideration of logical doctrines. The position assigned to logic by + Kant is not, in all probability, one which can be defended; indeed, it + is hard to see how Kant himself, in consistency with the critical + doctrine of knowledge, could have retained many of the older logical + theorems, but the precision with which the position was stated, and + the sharpness with which logic was marked off from cognate philosophic + disciplines, prepared the way for the more thoughtful treatment of the + whole question. + + Formal logic thus yields to Kant the list of the general notions, pure + intellectual predicates, or categories, through which alone experience + is possible for a conscious subject. It has already been noted how + serious was the error involved in the description of these as notions, + without further attempt to clear up their precise significance. Kant, + indeed, was mainly influenced by his strong opposition to the + Leibnitzian rationalism, and therefore assigns the categories to + understanding, the logical faculty, without consideration of the + question,--which might have been suggested by the previous statements + of the _Dissertation_,--what relation these categories held to the + empirical notions formed by comparison, abstraction and generalization + when directed upon representations of objects. But when the categories + are described as notions, i.e. formed products of thought, there rises + of necessity the problem which had presented itself to Kant at every + stage of his precritical thinking,--with what right can we assume that + these notions apply to objects of experience? The answer which he + proceeds to give altogether explodes the definition of the categories + as formed products of thought, and enables us to see more clearly the + nature of the new conception of experience which lies in the + background of all the critical work. + + The unity of the ego, which has been already noted as an element + entering into the synthesis of cognition, is a unity of a quite + distinct and peculiar kind. That the ego to which different parts of + experience are presented must be the same ego, if there is to be + cognition at all, is analytically evident; but the peculiarity is that + the ego must be conscious of its own unity and identity, and this + unity of self-consciousness is only possible in relation to difference + not contained in the ego but given to it. The unity of apperception, + then, as Kant calls it, is only possible in relation to synthetic + unity of experience itself, and the forms of this synthetic unity, the + categories, are, therefore, on the one hand, necessary as forms in + which self-consciousness is realized, and, on the other hand, + restricted in their application and validity to the data of given + sense, or the particular element of experience. Thus experience + presents itself as the organic combination of the particular of sense + with the individual unity of the ego through the universal forms of + the categories. Reference of representations to the unity of the + object, synthetic unity of apperception, and subsumption of data of + sense under the categories, are thus three sides or aspects of the one + fundamental fact. + + In this deduction of the categories, as Kant calls it, there appears + for the first time an endeavour to connect together into one organic + whole the several elements entering into experience. It is evident, + however, that much was wanting before this essential task could be + regarded as complete. Kant has certainly brought together + self-consciousness, the system of the categories and data of sense. He + has shown that the conditions of self-consciousness are the conditions + of possible experience. But he has not shown, nor did he attempt to + show, how it was that the conditions of self-consciousness are the + very categories arrived at by consideration of the system of logical + judgments. He does endeavour to show, but with small success, how the + junction of category and data of sense is brought about, for according + to his scheme these stood, to a certain extent at least, apart from + and independent of one another. The failure to effect an organic + combination of the several elements was the natural consequence of the + false start which had been made. + + The mode in which Kant endeavours to show how the several portions of + cognition are subjectively realized brings into the clearest light the + inconsistencies and imperfections of his doctrine. Sense had been + assumed as furnishing the particular of knowledge, understanding as + furnishing the universal; and it had been expressly declared that the + particular was cognizable only in and through the universal. Still, + each was conceived as somehow in itself complete and finished. Sense + and understanding had distinct functions, and there was wanting some + common term, some intermediary which should bring them into + conjunction. Data of sense as purely particular could have nothing in + common with the categories as purely universal. But data of sense had + at least one universal aspect,--their aspect as the particular of the + general forms, space and time. Categories were in themselves abstract + and valueless, serviceable only when restricted to possible objects of + experience. There was thus a common ground on which category and + intuition were united in one, and an intermediate process whereby the + universal of the category might be so far individualized as to + comprehend the particular of sense. This intermediate process--which + is really the junction of understanding and sense--Kant calls + productive imagination, and it is only through productive imagination + that knowledge or experience is actually realized in our subjective + consciousness. The specific forms of productive imagination are called + _schemata_, and upon the nature of the schema Kant gives much that has + proved of extreme value for subsequent thought. + + Productive imagination is thus the concrete element of knowledge, and + its general modes are the abstract expression of the a priori laws of + all possible experience. The categories are restricted in their + applicability to the schema, i.e. to the pure forms of conjunction of + the manifold in time, and in the modes of combination of schemata and + categories we have the foundation for the rational sciences of + mathematics and physics. Perception or real cognition is thus + conceived as a complex fact, involving data of sense and pure + perceptive forms, determined by the category and realized through + productive imagination in the schema. The system of principles which + may be deduced from the consideration of the mode in which + understanding and sense are united by productive imagination is the + positive result of the critical theory of knowledge, and some of its + features are remarkable enough to deserve attention. According to his + usual plan, Kant arranges these principles in conformity with the + table of the categories, dividing the four classes, however, into two + main groups, the mathematical and the dynamical. The mathematical + principles are the abstract expression of the necessary mode in which + data of sense are determined by the category in the form of intuitions + or representations of objects; the dynamical are the abstract + expression of the modes in which the existence of objects of intuition + is determined. The mathematical principles are constitutive, i.e. + express determinations of the objects themselves; the dynamical are + regulative, i.e. express the conditions under which objects can form + parts of real experience. Under the mathematical principles come the + general rules which furnish the ground for the application of + quantitative reasoning to real facts of experience. For as data of + sense are only possible objects when received in the forms of space + and time, and as space and time are only cognized when determined in + definite fashion by the understanding through the schema of number + (quantity) or degree (quality), all intuitions are extensive + quantities and contain a real element, that of sense, which has + degree. Under the dynamical principles, the general modes in which the + existence of objects are determined, fall the analogies of experience, + or general rules according to which the existence of objects in + relation to one another can be determined, and the postulates of + experience, the general rules according to which the existence of + objects for us or our own subjective existence can be determined. The + analogies of experience rest upon the order of perceptions in time, + i.e. their permanence, succession or coexistence, and the principles + are respectively those of substance, causality and reciprocity. It is + to be observed that Kant in the expression of these analogies reaches + the final solution of the difficulty which had so long pressed upon + him, the difficulty as to the relation of the pure connective notions + to experience. These notions are not directly applicable to + experience, nor do we find in experience anything corresponding to the + pure intellectual notions of substance, cause and reciprocity. But + experience is for us the combination of data of sense in the forms of + productive imagination, forms determined by the pure intellectual + notions, and accordingly experience is possible for us only as in + modes corresponding to the notions. The permanent in time is substance + in any possible experience, and no experience is possible save through + the determination of all changes as in relation to a permanent in + time. Determined sequence is the causal relation in any possible + experience, and no experience is possible save through the + determination of perceived changes as in relation to a determined + order in time. So with coexistence and reciprocity. + + The postulates of experience are general expressions of the + significance of existence in the experience of a conscious subject. + The element of reality in such experience must always be given by + intuition, and, so far as determination of existence is assumed, + external intuition is a necessary condition of inner intuition. The + existence of external things is as certain as the existence of the + concrete subject, and the subject cannot cognise himself as existing + save in relation to the world of facts of external perception. Inner + and outer reality are strictly correlative elements in the experience + of the conscious subject. + + Throughout the positive portion of his theory of cognition, Kant has + been beset by the doctrine that the categories, as finished, complete + notions, have an import or significance transcending the bounds of + possible experience. Morever, the manner in which space and time had + been treated made it possible for him to regard these as contingent + forms, necessary for intelligences like ours, but not to be viewed as + absolutely necessary. The real meaning of these peculiarities is + hardly ever expressed by him, though it is clear that the solution of + the matter is to be found in the inadequacy of the positive theory to + meet the demands of reason for completed explanation. But the + conclusion to which he was led was one of the greatest importance for + the after development of his system. Cognition is necessarily limited. + The categories are restricted in their application to elements of + possible experience to that which is presented in intuition, and all + intuition is for the ego contingent. But to assert that cognition is + limited and its matter contingent is to form the idea of an + intelligence for whom cognition would not be limited and for whom the + data of intuition would not be given, contingent facts, but + necessarily produced along with the pure categories. This idea of an + intuitive understanding is the definite expression for the complete + explanation which reason demands, and it involves the conception of a + realm of objects for such an understanding, a realm of objects which, + in opposition to the _phenomena_ of our relative and limited + experience, may be called _noumena_ or things-in-themselves. The + _noumenon_, therefore, is in one way the object of a non-sensuous + intuition, but more correctly is the expression of the limited and + partial character of our knowledge. The idea of a noumenon is thus a + limiting notion. + + Assuredly, the difficult section of the _Kritik_, on the ground of the + distinction between phenomena and noumena, would not have led to so + much misconception as it has done, had Kant then brought forward what + lies at the root of the distinction, his doctrine of reason and its + functions. Understanding, as has been seen, is the faculty of + cognition strictly so called; and within its realm, that of space, + time and matter, positive knowledge is attainable. But the ultimate + conception of understanding, that of the world of objects, + quantitatively determined, and standing in relation of mutual + reciprocity to one another, is not a final ground of explanation. We + are still able and necessitated to reflect upon the whole world of + phenomena as thus cognized, and driven to inquire after its + significance. In our reflection we necessarily treat the objects, not + as phenomena, as matters of positive, scientific knowledge, but as + things-in-themselves, as noumena. The distinction between phenomena + and noumena is, therefore, nothing but the expression of the + distinction between understanding and reason, a distinction which, + according to Kant, is merely subjective. + + The specific function of reason is the effort after completed + explanation of the experience presented in cognition. But in such + effort there are no notions to be employed other than the categories, + and these, as has already been seen, have validity only in reference + to objects of possible experience. We may expect, then, to find the + transcendent employment of the categories leading into various + difficulties and inconsistencies. The criticism of reason in its + specific aspect throws fresh light on the limits to human knowledge + and the significance of experience. + + Experience has presented itself as the complex result of relation + between the ego or subject and the world of phenomena. Reason may + therefore attempt a completed explanation either of the ego or of the + world of phenomena or of the total relation between them. The three + inquiries correspond to the subjects of the three ancient metaphysical + sciences, rational psychology, rational cosmology, rational theology. + It is readily seen, in regard to the first of them, that all attempts + to determine the nature of the ego as a simple, perdurable, immaterial + substance rest upon a confusion between the ego as pure logical unity + and the ego as object of intuition, and involve a transcendent use of + the categories of experience. It profits not to apply such categories + to the soul, for no intuition corresponding to them is or can be + given. The idea of the soul must be regarded as transcendent. So too + when we endeavour, with the help of the categories of quantity, + quality, relation and modality, to determine the nature and relation + of parts of the world, we find that reason is landed in a peculiar + difficulty. Any solution that can be given is too narrow for the + demands of reason and too wide for the restrictions of understanding. + The transcendent employment of the categories leads to antinomy, or + equally balanced statements of apparently contradictory results. Due + attention to the relation between understanding and reason enables us + to solve the antinomies and to discover their precise origin and + significance. Finally, the endeavour to find in the conception of God, + as the supreme reality, the explanation of experience, is seen to lead + to no valid conclusion. There is not any intuition given whereby we + might show the reality of our idea of a Supreme Being. So far as + knowledge is concerned, God remains a transcendental ideal. + + The criticism of the transcendental ideas, which is also the + examination of the claims of metaphysic to rank as a science, yields a + definite and intelligible result. These ideas, the expression of the + various modes in which unity of reason may be sought, have no objects + corresponding to them in the sphere of cognition. They have not, + therefore, like the categories, any _constitutive_ value, and all + attempts at metaphysical construction with the notions or categories + of science must be resigned as of necessity hopeless. But the ideas + are not, on that account, destitute of all value. They are supremely + significant, as indicating the very essence of the function of reason. + The limits of scientific cognition become intelligible, only when the + sphere of understanding is subjected to critical reflexion and + compared with the possible sphere of reason, that is, the sphere of + rationally complete cognition. The ideas, therefore, in relation to + knowledge strictly so called, have _regulative_ value, for they + furnish the general precepts for extension and completion of + knowledge, and, at the same time, since they spring from reason + itself, they have a real value in relation to reason as the very + inmost nature of intelligence. Self-consciousness cannot be regarded + as merely a mechanically determined result. Free reflection upon the + whole system of knowledge is sufficient to indicate that the sphere of + intuition, with its rational principles, does not exhaust conscious + experience. There still remains, over and above the realm of nature, + the realm of free, self-conscious spirit; and, within this sphere, it + may be anticipated that the ideas will acquire a significance richer + and deeper than the merely regulative import which they possess in + reference to cognition. + + Where, then, are we to look for this realm of free self-consciousness? + Not in the sphere of cognition, where objects are mechanically + determined, but in that of will or of reason as practical. That reason + is practical or prescribes ends for itself is sufficiently manifest + from the mere fact of the existence of the conception of morality or + duty, a conception which can have no corresponding object within the + sphere of intuition, and which is theoretically, or in accordance with + the categories of understanding, incognizable. The presence of this + conception is the datum upon which may be founded a special + investigation of the conditions of reason as practical, a _Kritik_ of + pure practical reason, and the analysis of it yields the statement of + the formal prescripts of morality. + + The realization of duty is impossible for any being which is not + thought as free, i.e. capable of self-determination. Freedom, it is + true, is theoretically not an object of cognition, but its + impossibility is not thereby demonstrated. The theoretical proof + rather serves as useful aid towards the more exact determination of + the nature and province of self-determination, and of its relation to + the whole concrete nature of humanity. For in man self-determination + and mechanical determination by empirical motives coexist, and only in + so far as he belongs and is conscious of belonging both to the sphere + of sense and to the sphere of reason does moral obligation become + possible for him. The supreme end prescribed by reason in its + practical aspect, namely, the complete subordination of the empirical + side of nature to the prescripts of morality, demands, as conditions + of its possible realization, the permanence of ethical progress in the + moral agent, the certainty of freedom in self-determination, and the + necessary harmonizing of the spheres of sense and reason through the + intelligent author or ground of both. These conditions, the postulates + of practical reason, are the concrete expressions of the three + transcendental ideas, and in them we have the full significance of the + ideas for reason. Immortality of the soul, positive freedom of will, + and the existence of an intelligent ground of things are speculative + ideas practically warranted, though theoretically neither demonstrable + nor comprehensible. + + Thus reason as self-determining supplies notions of freedom; reason as + determined supplies categories of understanding. Union between the two + spheres, which seem at first sight disparate, is found in the + necessary postulate that reason shall be realized, for its realization + is only possible in the sphere of sense. But such a union, when + regarded _in abstracto_, rests upon, or involves, a notion of quite a + new order, that of the adaptation of nature to reason, or, as it may + be expressed, that of end in nature. Understanding and reason thus + coalesce in the faculty of _judgment_, which mediates between, or + brings together, the universal and particular elements in conscious + experience. Judgment is here merely _reflective_; that is to say, the + particular element is given, so determined as to be possible material + of knowledge, while the universal, not necessary for cognition, is + supplied by reason itself. The empirical details of nature, which are + not determined by the categories of understanding, are judged as being + arranged or ordered by intelligence, for in no other fashion could + nature, in its particular, contingent aspect, be thought as forming a + complete, consistent, intelligible whole. + + The investigation of the conditions under which adaptation of nature + to intelligence is conceivable and possible makes up the subject of + the third great _Kritik_, the _Kritik of Judgment_, a work presenting + unusual difficulties to the interpreter of the Kantian system. The + general principle of the adaptation of nature to our faculties of + cognition has two specific applications, with the second of which it + is more closely connected than with the first. In the first place, the + adaptation may be merely _subjective_, when the empirical condition + for the exercise of judgment is furnished by the feeling of pleasure + or pain; such adaptation is aesthetic. In the second place, the + adaptation may be objective or logical, when empirical facts are given + of such a kind that their possibility can be conceived only through + the notion of the end realized in them; such adaptation is + teleological, and the empirical facts in question are organisms. + + Aesthetics, or the scientific consideration of the judgments resting + on the feelings of pleasure and pain arising from the harmony or want + of harmony between the particular of experience and the laws of + understanding, is the special subject of the _Kritik of Judgment_, but + the doctrine of teleology there unfolded is the more important for the + complete view of the critical system. For the analysis of the + teleological judgment and of the consequences flowing from it leads to + the final statement of the nature of experience as conceived by Kant. + The phenomena of organic production furnish data for a special kind of + judgment, which, however, involves or rests upon a quite general + principle, that of the contingency of the particular element in nature + and its subjectively necessary adaptation to our faculty of cognition. + The notion of contingency arises, according to Kant, from the fact + that understanding and sense are distinct, that understanding does not + determine the particular of sense, and, consequently, that the + principle of the adaptation of the particular to our understanding is + merely supplied by reason on account of the peculiarity or limited + character of understanding. End in nature, therefore, is a subjective + or problematic conception, implying the limits of understanding, and + consequently resting upon the idea of an understanding constituted + unlike ours--of an intuitive understanding in which particular and + universal should be given together. The idea of such an understanding + is, for cognition, transcendent, for no corresponding fact of + intuition is furnished, but it is realized with practical certainty in + relation to reason as practical. For we are, from practical grounds, + compelled with at least practical necessity to ascribe a certain aim + or end to this supreme understanding. The moral law, or reason as + practical, prescribes the realization of the highest good, and such + realization implies a higher order than that of nature. We must, + therefore, regard the supreme cause as a moral cause, and nature as so + ordered that realization of the moral end is in it possible. The final + conception of the Kantian philosophy is, therefore, that of ethical + teleology. As Kant expresses it in a remarkable passage of the + _Kritik_, "The systematic unity of ends in this world of + intelligences, which, although as mere nature it is to be called only + the world of sense, can yet as a system of freedom be called an + intelligible, i.e. moral world (_regnum gratiae_), leads inevitably to + the teleological unity of all things which constitute this great whole + according to universal natural laws, just as the unity of the former + is according to universal and necessary moral laws, and unites the + practical with the speculative reason. The world must be represented + as having originated from an idea, if it is to harmonize with that use + of reason without which we should hold ourselves unworthy of + reason--viz. the moral use, which rests entirely on the idea of the + supreme good. Hence all natural research tends towards the form of a + system of ends, and in its highest development would be a + physico-theology. But this, since it arises from the moral order as a + unity grounded in the very essence of freedom and not accidentally + instituted by external commands, establishes the teleology of nature + on grounds which a priori must be inseparably connected with the inner + possibility of things. The teleology of nature is thus made to rest on + a transcendental theology, which takes the ideal of supreme + ontological perfection as a principle of systematic unity, a principle + which connects all things according to universal and necessary natural + laws, since they all have their origin in the absolute necessity of a + single primal being" (p. 538). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editions and works of reference are exceedingly + numerous. Since 1896 an indispensable guide is the periodical review + _Kantstudien_ (Hamburg and Berlin, thrice yearly), edited by Hans + Vaihinger and Bruno Bauch, which contains admirable original articles + and notices of all important books on Kant and Kantianism. It has + reproduced a number of striking portraits of Kant. For books up to + 1887 see Erich Adickes in _Philosophical Review_ (Boston, 1892 foll.); + for 1890-1894 R. Reicke's _Kant Bibliographie_ (1895). See also in + general the latest edition of Ueberweg's _Grundriss der Geschichte der + Philosophie_. + + EDITIONS.--Complete editions of Kant's works are as follows: (1) G. + Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1838-1839, 10 vols.); (2) K. Rosenkranz and F. + W. Schubert (Leipzig, 1838-1840, 12 vols., the 12th containing a + history of the Kantian school); (3) G. Hartenstein, "in chronological + order" (Leipzig, 1867-1869, 8 vols.); (4) Kirchmann (in the + "Philosophische Bibliothek," Berlin, 1868-1873, 8 vols, and + supplement); (5) under the auspices of the Königlich Preussische + Akademie der Wissenschaften, a new collected edition was begun in 1900 + (vol. ii., 1906) in charge of a number of editors. It was planned in + four sections: Works, Letters, MSS. Remains and _Vorlesungen_. There + are also useful editions of the three _Kritiks_ by Kehrbach, and + critical editions of the _Prolegomena_ and _Kritik der reinen + Vernunft_ by B. Erdmann (see also his _Beiträge zur Geschichte und + Revision des Textes von Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft_ (1900). A + useful selection (in English) is that of John Watson, _The Philosophy + of Kant_ (Glasgow, 1888). + + TRANSLATIONS.--There are translations in all the principal languages. + The chief English translators are J. P. Mahaffy, W. Hastie, T. K. + Abbott, J. H. Bernard and Belfort Bax. Their versions have been + mentioned in the section on "Works" above. + + BIOGRAPHICAL.--Schubert in the 11th vol. of Rosenkranz's edition; + Borowski, _Darstellung des Lebens und Charakters Kants_ (Königsberg, + 1804); Wasianski, _Kant in seinen letzten Lebensjahren_ (Königsberg, + 1804); Stuckenberg, _The Life of Immanuel Kant_ (1882); Rudolf Reicke, + _Kants Briefwechsel_ (1900). See also several of the critical works + below. On Kant's portraits see D. Minden, _Ueber Portraits und + Abbildungen Imm. Kants_ (1868) and cf. frontispieces of _Kantstudien_ + (as above). + + CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors).--R. Adamson, _Philosophy + of Kant_ (1879; Germ. trans., 1880); Felix Adler, _A Critique of + Kant's Ethics_ (1908); S. Aicher, _Kants Begriff der Erkenntnis + verglichen mit dem des Aristoteles_ (1907); M. Apel, _Immanuel Kant: + Ein Bild seines Lebens und Denkens_ (1904); Arnoldt, _Kritische + Exkurse im Gebiete der Kantforschung_ (1894); C. Bache, "_Kants + Prinzip der Autonomie im Verhältnis zur Idee des Reichs der Zwecke_" + (_Kantstudien_, 1909); B. Bauch, _Luther und Kant_ (1904); Paul Boehm, + _Die vorkritischen Schriften Kants_ (1906); E. Caird, _Critical + Philosophy of Kant_ (2 vols., 1889); Chalybäus, _Historische + Entwickelung der spekulativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel_ (5th + ed., 1860); H. S. Chamberlain, _Immanuel Kant_ (1909); Cousin, _Leçons + sur la philosophie de Kant_ (4th ed., 1864); B. Erdmann, _Immanuel + Kant, Kants Kritizismus in der 1 und 2 Auflage der "Kritik der reinen + Vernunft_" (1877); O. Ewald, _Kants kritischer Idealismus als + Grundlage von Erkenntnistheorie und Ethik_ (1908) and _Kants + Methodologie in ihren Grundzügen_ (1906); Kuno Fischer, _Immanuel + Kant_ (4th ed., 1898-1899), _Die beiden Kantischen Schulen in Jena_ + (1862), and _Commentary on Kant's Kritik of Pure Reason_ (1878); F. + Förster, _Der Entwicklungsgang der Kantischen Ethik bis zur Kritik der + reinen Vernunft_ (1893); A. Fouillée, _Le Moralisme de Kant et + l'amoralisme contemporaine_ (1905); C. R. E. von Hartmann, _Kants + Erkenntnistheorie und Metaphysik in den vier Perioden ihrer + Entwickelung_ (1894); A. Hegler, _Die Psychologie in Kants Ethik_ + (1891); G. D. Hicks, _Die Begriffe Phänomenon und Noumenon in ihrem + Verhältniss zu einander bei Kant_ (1897); G. Jacoby, _Herders und + Kants Aesthetik_ (1907); W. Kabitz, _Studien zur + Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fichteschen Wissenschaftslehre aus der + Kantischen Philosophie_ (1902); M. Kelly, _Kant's Philosophy as + rectified by Schopenhauer_ (1909); W. Koppelmann, _I. Kant und die + Grundlagen der christlichen Religion_ (1890); M. Kronenberg, _Kant: + Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (1897; 3rd ed., 1905); E. Kühnemann, + _Kants und Schillers Begründung der Aesthetik_ (1895) and _Die + Kantischen Studien Schillers und die Komposition des Wallenstein_ + (1889); H. Levy, _Kants Lehre vom Schematismus der reinen + Verstandesbegriffe_ (1901); Arthur O. Lovejoy, _Kant and the English + Platonists_ (1908); J. P. Mahaffy, _Kant's Critical Philosophy for + English Readers_ (1872-1874); W. Mengel, _Kants Begründung der + Religion_ (1900); A. Messer, _Kants Ethik_ (1904); H. Meyer-Benfey, + _Herder und Kant_ (1904); Morris, _Kant's Critique of Pure Reason_ + (Chicago, 1882); C. Oesterreich, _Kant und die Metaphysik_ (1906); F. + Paulsen, _Kant: Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (1898; 4th ed., 1904; Eng. + 1902); Harold H. Prichard, _Kant's Theory of Knowledge_ (1909); A. + Seth Pringle-Pattison, _The Development from Kant to Hegel_ (1882); + and, on Kant's philosophy of religion, in _The Philosophic Radicals_ + (1907); F. Rademaker, _Kants Lehren vom innern Sinn in der Kritik der + reinen Vernunft_ (1908); R. Reininger, _Kants Lehre vom inneren Sinn + und seine Theorie der Erfahrung_ (1900); C. B. Renouvier, _Critique de + la doctrine de Kant_ (1906); H. Romundt, _Kants philosophische + Religionslehre eine Frucht der gesammten Vernunftkritik_ (1902); T. + Ruyssen, _Kant_ (1900); E. Saenger, _Kants Lehre vom Glauben_ (1903); + O. Schapp, _Kants Lehre vom Genie und die Entstehung der "Kritik der + Urteilskraft"_ (1901); Carl Schmidt, _Beiträge zur Entwickelung der + Kant'schen Ethik_ (1900); A. Schweitzer, _Die Religionsphilosophie + Kants_ (1899); H. Sidgwick, _Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant_ + (1905); J. H. Stirling, _Text Book to Kant_ (1881); G. Simmel, _Kant + und Goethe_ (1906); L. Staehlin, _Kant, Lotze und Ritschl_ (1889); O. + Thon, _Die Grundprinzipien der Kantischen Moralphilosophie_ (1895); T. + Valentiner, _Kant und die platonische Philosophie_ (1904); C. + Vorländer, _Kant, Schiller, Goethe_ (1907); G. C. Uphues, _Kant und + sein Vorgänger_ (1906); W. Wallace, _Kant_ (1905); M. Wartenberg, + _Kants Theorie der Kausalität_ (1899); John Watson, _Philosophy of + Kant Explained_ (1908), _Kant and his English Critics_ (1881); A. + Weir, _A Student's Introduction to Critical Philosophy_ (1906); G. A. + Wyneken, _Hegel's Kritik Kants_ (1898); W. Windelband, _Kuno Fischer + und sein Kant_ (1897). + + On Kant's theory of education, see E. F. Büchner, _The Educational + Theory of Immanuel Kant_ (trans., ed., intro., 1904); trans. of _Ueber + Pädagogik_ by Annette Churton (1899); J. Geluk, _Kant_ (1883). + (R. Ad.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See further IDEALISM; METAPHYSICS; LOGIC, &c., where Kant's + relation to subsequent thought is discussed. + + + + +KANURI, or BERIBERI, an African tribe of mixed origin, the dominant race +of Bornu. They are large-boned and coarse-featured, but contain +nevertheless a distinct strain of Fula blood. Beriberi (or Berberi) is +the name given them by the Hausa (see BORNU). + + + + +KAOLIN, a pure white clay, know also as china-clay, since it is an +essential ingredient in the manufacture of china, or porcelain. The word +kaolin, formerly written by some authors caulin, is said to be a +corruption of the Chinese _Kau-ling_, meaning "High Ridge," the name of +a hill east of King-te-chen, whence the earliest samples of the clay +sent to Europe were obtained by the Père d'Entrecolles, a French Jesuit +missionary in China in the early part of the 18th century. His +specimens, examined in Paris by R. A. Réaumur, showed that true +porcelain, the composition of which had not previously been known in +Europe, contained two essential ingredients, which came to be +known--though it now appears incorrectly--as kaolin and petuntse, +corresponding respectively to our china-clay and china-stone. The kaolin +confers plasticity on the paste and secures retention of form for the +ware when exposed to the heat of the kiln, whilst the petuntse gives the +translucency so characteristic of porcelain. Some of the earliest +discoveries of kaolin in Europe were at Aue, near Schneeberg in Saxony, +and at St Yrieix, near Limoges in France. In England it was discovered +in Cornwall about the year 1750 by William Cookworthy, of Plymouth; and +in 1768 he took out his patent for making porcelain from moorstone or +growan (china-stone) and growan clay (kaolin), the latter imparting +"whiteness and infusibility" to the china. These raw materials were +found first at Tregonning Hill, near Breage, and afterwards at St +Stephen's in Brannel, near St Austell; and their discovery led to the +manufacture of hard paste, or true porcelain, at Plymouth and +subsequently at Bristol. + +Kaolin is a hydrous aluminium silicate, having the formula H4Al2Si2O9, +or Al2Si2O7.2H2O, but in common clay this silicate is largely mixed with +impurities. Certain clays contain pearly white hexagonal scales, usually +microscopic, referable to the monoclinic system, and having the chemical +composition of kaolin. This crystalline substance was termed kaolinite +by S. W. Johnson and J. M. Blake in 1867, and it is now regarded as the +basis of pure clay. The kaolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey has been studied +by Allan Dick. The origin of kaolin may be traced to the alteration of +certain aluminous silicates like feldspar, scapolite, beryl and topaz; +but all large deposits of china-clay are due to the decomposition of +feldspar, generally in granite, but sometimes in gneiss, pitchstone, &c. +The turbidity of many feldspars is the result of partial +"kaolinization," or alteration to kaolin. The china-clay rocks of +Cornwall and Devon are granites in which the orthoclase has become +kaolinized. These rocks are sometimes known as carclazite, a name +proposed by J. H. Collins from a typical locality, the Carclaze mine, +near St Austell. It has often been supposed that the alteration of the +granite has been effected mainly by meteoric agencies, the carbonic acid +having decomposed the alkaline silicate of the feldspar, whilst the +aluminous silicate assumes a hydrated condition and forms kaolin. In +many cases, however, it seems likely that the change has been effected +by subterranean agencies, probably by heated vapours carrying fluorine +and boron, since minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline, +often occur in association with the china-clay. According to F. H. +Butler the kaolinization of the west of England granite may have been +effected by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature, acting +from below. + +The china-stone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still retains +much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility depends. In +order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china-clay rock is broken +up, and the clay washed out by means of water. The liquid containing +the clay in mechanical suspension is run into channels called "drags" +where the coarser impurities subside, and whence it passes to another +set of channels known as "micas," where the finer materials settle down. +Thus purified, the clay-water is led into a series of pits or tanks, in +which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after acquiring +sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying-house, or "dry," +heated by flues, where the moisture is expelled, and the kaolin obtained +as a soft white earthy substance. The clay has extensive application in +the arts, being used not only in ceramic manufacture but in +paper-making, bleaching and various chemical industries. + +Under the species "kaolinite" may be included several minerals which +have received distinctive names, such as the Saxon mineral called from +its pearly lustre nacrite, a name originally given by A. Brongniart to a +nacreous mica; pholerite found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named +by J. Guillemin from the Greek [Greek: pholis], a scale; and lithomarge, +the old German _Steinmark_, a compact clay-like body of white, yellow or +red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word pholerite should +properly be written pholidite ([Greek: pholis, pholidos]). Closely +related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysite, a name given to +it by P. Berthier after his uncle Omalius d'Halloy, the Belgian +geologist. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Australia, 48 m. by +rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1805. It is the centre of a large +wheat-growing district. The celebrated copper mines discovered in 1843 +were closed in 1879. There are quarries near the town, in which is found +fine marble of every colour from dark blue to white. This marble was +largely used in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide. + + + + +KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab. Area, 652 sq. +m.; pop. (1901), 314,341, showing an increase of 5% in the decade; +estimated gross revenue, £178,000; tribute, £8700. The Kapurthala family +is descended from Jassa Singh, a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad +Shah, who by his intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh +of his day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sutlej, +and also in the Bari Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered tracts +in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility of the chief in +the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards restored in +recognition of the loyalty of Raja Randhir Singh during the mutiny of +1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh which did good service. He also +received a grant of land in Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross +rental of £89,000. In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers, +occupying only the status of a large landholder, with the title of +Raja-i-Rajagan. Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K.C.S.I., was born in 1872, +succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1890. During +the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Kapurthala imperial service infantry +took a prominent part. The territory is crossed by the railway from +Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a large export trade in wheat, +sugar, tobacco and cotton. The hand-painted cloths and metal-work of +Phagwara are well known. The town of Kapurthala is 11 miles from +Jullundur; pop. (1901), 18,519. + + + + +KARACHI, or KURRACHEE, a seaport and district of British India, in the +Sind province of Bombay. The city is situated at the extreme western end +of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from Bombay and 820 m. by rail from +Lahore, being the maritime terminus of the North-Western railway, and +the main gateway for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia. +It is also the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500; +(1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears to have +existed here; but about that time some little trade began to centre upon +the convenient harbour, and the silting up of Shahbandar, the ancient +port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove much of its former trade and +population to the rising village. Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of +Kalat obtained a grant of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the +Talpur Mirs, who built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the +harbour. They also made considerable efforts to increase the trade of +the port and at the time of the British acquisition of the province the +town and suburbs contained a population of 14,000. This was in 1843, +from which time the importance of the place practically dates. + +The harbour of Karachi has an extreme length and breadth of about 5 m. +It is protected by the promontory of Manora Head; and the entrance is +partially closed by rocks and by the peninsula (formerly an island) of +Kiamari. On Manora Head, which is fortified, are the buildings of the +port establishment, a cantonment, &c. Kiamari is the landing-place for +passengers and goods, and has three piers and railway connexions. The +harbour improvements were begun in 1854 with the building of the Napier +Mole or causeway connecting Kiamari with the mainland. The entrance has +a minimum depth of 25 ft.; and a large number of improvements and +extensions have been carried out by the harbour board, which was created +in 1880, and transformed in 1886 into the port trust. + +The great extension of the canal colonies in the Punjab, entirely +devoted to the cultivation of wheat, has immensely increased the export +trade of Karachi. It now ranks as the third port of India, being +surpassed only by Calcutta and Bombay. The principal articles of export, +besides wheat, are oil-seeds, cotton, wool, hides and bones. The annual +value of exports, including specie, amounts to about nine millions +sterling. There are iron works and manufactures of cotton cloth, silk +scarves and carpets. The fisheries and oyster beds are important. + +Among the principal public buildings are government house, the Frere +municipal hall, and the Napier barracks. The military cantonments, +stretching north-east of the city, form the headquarters of a brigade in +the 4th division of the southern army. An excellent water supply is +provided by an underground aqueduct 18 m. in length. The chief +educational institutions are the Dayaram Jethmal Arts College, with a +law class; five high schools, of which two are for Europeans and one for +Mahommedans; a convent school for girls; and an engineering class. The +average rainfall for the year is about 5 in. The rainy months are July +and August, but one or two heavy showers usually fall about Christmas. +The end of May, beginning of June, and first fortnight in October are +hot. November, December, January, February and March are delightfully +cool and dry; the remaining months are damp with a constant cool sea +breeze. + +The DISTRICT OF KARACHI has an area of 11,970 sq. m. Pop. (1901), +607,439, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. It consists of an +immense tract of land stretching from the mouth of the Indus to the +Baluch boundary. It differs in general appearance from the rest of Sind, +having a rugged, mountainous region along its western border. The +country gradually slopes away to the south-east, till in the extreme +south the Indus delta presents a broad expanse of low, flat and +unpicturesque alluvium. Besides the Indus and its mouths, the only river +in the district is the Hab, forming the boundary between Sind and +Baluchistan. The Manchhar lake in Sehwan sub-division forms the only +considerable sheet of water in Sind. The hot springs at Pir Mangho are 6 +m. N. of Karachi town. The principal crops are rice, millets, oil-seeds +and wheat. In addition to Karachi, there are seaports at Sirgonda and +Keti Bandar, which conduct a considerable coasting trade. Tatta was the +old capital of Sind. Kotri is an important railway station on the Indus. +The main line of the North-Western railway runs through the district. +From Kotri downwards the line has been doubled to Karachi, and at Kotri +a bridge has been constructed across the Indus opposite Hyderabad, to +connect with the Rajputana railway system. + + See A. F. Baillie, _Kurrachee: Past, Present and Future_ (1890). + + + + +KARAGEORGE (in Servian, _Karadyordye_) (c. 1766-1817), the leader of the +Servians during their first revolution against the Turks (1804-13), and +founder of the Servian dynasty Karageorgevich. His Christian name was +George (Dyordye), but being not only of dark complexion but of gloomy, +taciturn and easily excitable temper, he was nicknamed by the Servians +"Tsrni Dyordye" and by the Turks "Karageorge," both meaning "Black +George," the Turkish name becoming soon the generally adopted one. He +was born in 1766 (according to some in 1768), the son of an extremely +poor Servian peasant, Petroniye Petrovich. When quite a young man, he +entered the service of a renowned Turkish brigand, Fazli-Bey by name, +and accompanied his master on his adventurous expeditions. When twenty +he married and started a small farm. But having killed a Turk, he left +Servia for Syrmia, in Croatia-Slavonia, where the monks of the monastery +Krushedol engaged him as one of their forest guards. He remained in the +service of the monks nearly two years, then enlisted into an Austrian +regiment, and as sergeant took part in the Austrian war against Turkey +(1788-91). He deserted his regiment, returned to Servia, and settled in +the village of Topola, living sometimes as a peaceful farmer and +sometimes again as the leader of a small band of "hayduks"--men who +attacked, robbed and in most cases killed the travelling Turks in +revenge for the oppression of their country. + +The circumstances in which the Servians rose against the janissaries of +the pashalik of Belgrade are related in the article on SERVIA. The +leaders of the insurgents' bands and other men of influence met about +the middle of February 1804 at the village of Orashatz, and there +elected Karageorge as the supreme leader (Vrhovni Vozd) of the nation. +Under his command the Servians speedily cleared their country not only +of the janissaries disloyal to the Sultan, but of all other Turks, who +withdrew from the open country to the fortified places. Karageorge and +his armed Servians demanded from the Sultan the privileges of +self-government. The Porte, confronted by the chances of a war with +Russia, decided in the autumn of 1806 to grant to the Servians a fairly +large measure of autonomy. Unfortunately Karageorge was comparatively +poor in political gifts and diplomatic tact. While the _hattisherif_ +granting the rights demanded by the Servians was on the way to Servia, +Karageorge attacked the Turks in Belgrade and Shabats, captured the +towns first and then also the citadels, and allowed the Turkish +population of Belgrade to be massacred. At the same time the Russian +headquarters in Bucharest informed Karageorge that Russia was at war +with Turkey and that the Tsar counted on the co-operation of the +Servians. Karageorge and his Servians then definitely rejected all the +concessions which the Porte had granted them, and joined Russia, hoping +thereby to secure the complete independence of Servia. The co-operation +of the Servians with the Russians was of no great importance, and +probably disappointing to both parties. But as the principal theatre of +war was far away from Servia on the lower Danube, Karageorge was able to +give more attention to the internal organization of Servia. The national +assembly proclaimed Karageorge the hereditary chief and _gospodar_ of +the Servians (Dec. 26, 1808), he on his part promising under oath to +govern the country "through and by the national council" (senate). + +Karageorge's hasty and uncompromising temper and imperious habits, as +well as his want of political tact, soon made him many enemies amongst +the more prominent Servians (voyvodes and senators). His difficulties +were considerably increased by the intrigues of the Russian political +agent to Servia, Rodophinikin. A crisis came during the summer months of +the year 1813. The treaty of peace, concluded by the Russians somewhat +hurriedly in Bucharest in 1812, did not secure efficiently the safety of +the Servians. The Turks demanded from Karageorge, as a preliminary +condition for peace, that the Servians should lay down their arms, and +Karageorge refused to comply. Thereupon the entire Turkish army which +fought against the Russians on the Danube, being disengaged, invaded +Servia. After a few inefficient attempts to stem the invasion, +Karageorge gave up the struggle, and with most of the voyvodes and +chiefs of the nation left the country, and crossed to Hungary as a +refugee (Sept. 20, 1813). From Hungary he went to Russia and settled in +Khotin (Bessarabia), enjoying a pension from the Tsar's government. But +in the summer of 1817 he suddenly and secretly left Russia and +reappeared quite alone in Servia in the neighbourhood of Semendria +(Smederevo) on the Danube. The motives and the object of his return are +not clear. Some believe that he was sent by the Hetaerists to raise up +Servia to a new war with Turkey and thereby facilitate the rising of the +Greek people. It is generally assumed, however, that, having heard that +Servia, under the guidance of Milosh Obrenovich, had obtained a certain +measure of self-government, he desired to put himself again at the head +of the nation. This impression seems to have been that of Milosh +himself, who at once reported to the Pasha of Belgrade the arrival of +Karageorge. The pasha demanded that Karageorge, alive or dead, should be +delivered to him immediately, and made Milosh personally responsible for +the execution of that order. Karageorge's removal could not +unfortunately be separated from the personal interest of Milosh; already +acknowledged as chief of the nation, Milosh did not like to be displaced +by his old chief, who in a critical moment had left the country. +Karageorge was killed (July 27, O.S., 1817) while he was asleep, and his +head was sent to the pasha for transmission to Constantinople. It is +impossible to exonerate Milosh Obrenovich from responsibility for the +murder, which became the starting-point for a series of tragedies in the +modern history of Servia. + +Karageorge was one of the most remarkable Servians of the 19th century. +No other man could have led the bands of undisciplined and badly-armed +Servian peasants to such decisive victories against the Turks. Although +he never assumed the title of prince, he practically was the first chief +and master (_gospodar_) of the people of Servia. He succeeded, however, +not because he was liked but because he was feared. His gloomy silence, +his easily aroused anger, his habit of punishing without hesitation the +slightest transgressions by death, spread terror among the people. He is +believed to have killed his own father in a fit of anger when the old +man refused to follow him in his flight to Hungary at the beginning of +his career. In another fit of rage at the report that his brother +Marinko had assaulted a girl, he ordered his men to seize his brother +and to hang him there and then in his presence, and he forbade his +mother to go into mourning for him. Even by his admirers he is admitted +to have killed by his own hand no fewer than 125 men who provoked his +anger. But in battles he is acknowledged to have been always admirable, +displaying marvellous energy and valour, and giving proofs of a real +military genius. The Servians consider him one of their greatest men. In +grateful remembrance of his services to the national cause they elected +his younger son, Alexander, in 1842, to be the reigning prince of +Servia, and again in 1903 they chose his grandson, Peter Karageorgevich +(son of Alexander) to be the king of Servia. + + See SERVIA; also Ranke, _Die serbische Revolution_; Stoyan Novakovich, + _Vaskzhs srpske drzhave_ (Belgrade, 1904); M. G. Milityevich, + _Karadyordye_ (Belgrade, 1904). (C. Mi.) + + + + +KARA-HISSAR ("Black Castle"). (1) AFIUM KARA-HISSAR (q.v.). (2) ICHJE, +or ISCHA KARA-HISSAR (anc. _Docimium_), a small village about 14 m. N.E. +of No. 1. Docimium was a Macedonian colony established on an older site. +It was a self-governing municipality, striking its own coins, and stood +on the Apamea-Synnada-Pessinus road, by which the celebrated marble +called Synnadic, Docimian and Phrygian was conveyed to the coast. The +quarries are 2½ m. from the village, and the marble was carried thence +direct to Synnada (Chifut Kassaba). Some of the marble has the rich +purple veins in which poets saw the blood of Atys. + + See W. M. Ramsay, _Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor_ (London, 1890); Murray, + _Hbk. to Asia Minor_ (1893). + + + + +KARA-HISSAR SHARKI [i.e. "eastern Kara-Hissar"], also called Shabin +Kara-Hissar from the alum mines in its vicinity, the chief town of a +sanjak of the same name in the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor. Pop. about +12,000, two-thirds Mussulman. It is the Roman _Colonia_, which gradually +superseded Pompey's foundation, _Nicopolis_, whose ruins lie at Purkh, +about 12 m. W. (hence Kara-Hissar is called Nikopoli by the Armenians). +In later Byzantine times it was an important frontier station, and did +not pass into Ottoman hands till twelve years after the capture of +Constantinople. The town, altitude 4860 ft., is built round the foot of +a lofty rock, upon which stand the ruins of the Byzantine castle, +_Maurocastron_, the Kara Hissar Daula of early Moslem chroniclers. It is +connected with its port, Kerasund, and with Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum, +by carriage roads. + + + + +KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES (1782-1827), leader in the War of Greek +Independence, was born at Agrapha in 1782. During the earlier stages of +the war he served in the Morea, and had a somewhat discreditable share +in the intrigues which divided the Greek leaders. But he showed a sense +of the necessity for providing the country with a government, and was a +steady supporter of Capo d'Istria. His most honourable services were +performed in the middle and later stages of the war. He helped to raise +the first siege of Missolonghi in 1823, and did his best to save the +town in the second siege in 1826. In that year he commanded the patriot +forces in Rumelia, and though he failed to co-operate effectually with +other chiefs, or with the foreign sympathizers fighting for the Greeks, +he gained some successes against the Turks which were very welcome amid +the disasters of the time. He took a share in the unsuccessful attempts +to raise the siege of Athens in 1827, and made an effort to prevent the +disastrous massacre of the Turkish garrison of fort S Spiridion. He was +shot in action on the 4th of May 1827. Finlay speaks of him as a capable +partisan leader who had great influence over his men, and describes him +as of "middle size, thin, dark-complexioned, with a bright expressive +animal eye which indicated gipsy blood." + + See G. Finlay, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1861). + + + + +KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH (1787-1864), the father of modern Servian +literature, was born on the 6th of November 1787 in the Servian village +of Trshich, on the border between Bosnia and Servia. Having learnt to +read and write in the old monastery Tronosha (near his native village), +he was engaged as writer and reader of letters to the commander of the +insurgents of his district at the beginning of the first Servian rising +against the Turks in 1804. Mostly in the position of a scribe to +different voyvodes, sometimes as school-teacher, he served his country +during the first revolution (1804-1813), at the collapse of which he +left Servia, but instead of following Karageorge and other voyvodes to +Russia he went to Vienna. There he was introduced to the great Slavonic +scholar Yerney Kopitar, who, having heard him recite some Servian +national ballads, encouraged him to collect the poems and popular songs, +write a grammar of the Servian language, and, if possible, a dictionary. +This programme of literary work was adhered to by Karajich, who all his +life acknowledged gratefully what he owed to his learned teacher. + +In the second half of the 18th and in the beginning of the 19th century +all Servian literary efforts were written in a language which was not +the Servian vernacular, but an artificial language, of which the +foundation was the Old Slavonic in use in the churches, but somewhat +Russianized, and mixed with Servian words forced into Russian forms. +That language, called by its writers "the Slavonic-Servian," was neither +Slavonic nor Servian. It was written in Old Cyrillic letters, many of +which had no meaning in the Servian language, while there were several +sounds in that language which had no corresponding signs or letters in +the Old Slavonic alphabet. The Servian philosopher Dositey Obradovich +(who at the end of the 18th century spent some time in London teaching +Greek) was the first Servian author to proclaim the principle that the +books for the Servian people ought to be written in the language of the +people. But the great majority of his contemporaries were of opinion +that the language of Servian literature ought to be evolved out of the +dead Old Slavonic of the church books. The church naturally decidedly +supported this view. Karajich was the great reformer who changed all +this. Encouraged by Kopitar, he published in 1814 (2nd ed., 1815) in +Vienna his first book, _Mala Prostonarodna Slaveno-Serbska Pyesmaritsa_ +("A small collection of Slavonic-Servian songs of the common people"), +containing a hundred lyric songs, sung by the peasant women of Servia, +and six poems about heroes, or as the Servians call them _Yunachke +pesme_, which are generally recited by the blind bards or by peasants. +From that time Karajich's literary activity moved on two parallel lines: +to give scientific justification and foundation to the adoption of the +vernacular Servian as the literary language; and, by collecting and +publishing national songs, folk-lore, proverbs, &c., to show the +richness of the Servian people's poetical and intellectual gifts, and +the wealth and beauty of the Servian language. By his reform of the +Servian alphabet and orthography, his Servian grammar and his Servian +dictionary, he established the fact that the Servian language contains +thirty distinct sounds, for six of which the Old Slavonic alphabet had +no special letters. He introduced new letters for those special sounds, +at the same time throwing out of the Old Slavonic alphabet eighteen +letters for which the Servian language had no use. This reform was +strenuously opposed by the church and many conservative authors, who +went so far as to induce the Servian government to prohibit the printing +of books in new letters, a prohibition removed in 1859. Karajich's +alphabet facilitated his reform of orthography, his principle being: +_write as you speak, and read as it is written_! Hardly any other +language in the civilized world has such a simple, logical, scientific +spelling system and orthography as the Servian has in Karajich's system. +His first grammatical essay was published in Vienna in 1814, _Pismenitsa +Serbskoga yezika po govoru prostoga naroda_ ("The grammar of the Servian +language as spoken by the common people"). An improved edition appeared +in Vienna in 1818, together with his great work _Srpski Ryechnik_ +(Lexicon Serbico-Germanico-Latinum). This dictionary--containing 26,270 +words--was full of important contributions to folk-lore, as Karajich +never missed an opportunity to add to the meaning of the word the +description of the national customs or popular beliefs connected with +it. A new edition of his dictionary, containing 46,270 words, was +published at Vienna in 1852. Meanwhile he gave himself earnestly to the +work of collecting the "creations of the mind of the Servian common +people." He travelled through Servian countries (Servia, Bosnia, +Herzegovina, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Syrmia, Croatia), and the result was +shown in a largely augmented edition of his _Srpske Narodne Pyesme_, of +which the first three volumes appeared at Leipzig in 1823 and 1824, the +fourth volume appearing at Vienna in 1833. _Popular Stories and Enigmas_ +was published in 1821, and _Servian National Proverbs_ in 1836. From +1826 to 1834 he was the editor of an annual, called _Danitsa_ (The +Morning Star), which he filled with important contributions concerning +the ethnography and modern history of the Servian people. In 1828 he +published a historical monograph, _Milosh Obrenovich, Prince of Servia_; +in 1837, in German, _Montenegro and Montenegrins_; in 1867, _The Servian +Governing Council of State_. He supplied Leopold Ranke with the +materials for his _History of the Servian Revolution_. He also +translated the New Testament into Servian, for the British and Foreign +Bible Society (Vienna, 1847). Karajich died in Vienna on the 6th of +February 1864; and his remains were transferred to Belgrade in 1897 with +great solemnity and at the expense of the government of Servia. + (C. Mi.) + + + + +KARA-KALPAKS ("Black Caps"), a Mongolo-Tatar people, originally dominant +along the east coast of the Aral Sea, where they still number some +thousands. They thus form geographically the transition between the +northern Kirghiz and the southern Turkomans. Once a powerful nation, +they are scattered for the most part in Astrakhan, Perm, Orenburg, in +the Caucasian province of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia, numbering in +all about 50,000. These emigrants have crossed much with the alien +populations among whom they have settled; but the pure type on the Aral +Sea are a tall powerful people, with broad flat faces, large eyes, short +noses and heavy chins. Their women are the most beautiful in Turkestan. +The name of "Black Caps" is given them in allusion to their high +sheepskin hats. They are a peaceful agricultural folk, who have suffered +much from their fierce nomad neighbours. + + + + +KARAKORUM (Turkish, "black stone débris"), the name of two cities in +Mongolia. One of these, according to G. Potanin, was the capital of the +Uighur kingdom in the 8th century, and the other was in the 13th century +a capital of the steppe monarchy of Mongolia. The same name seems also +to have been applied to the Khangai range at the headwaters of the +Orkhon. (1) The Uighur KARAKORUM, also named Mubalik ("bad town"), was +situated on the left bank of the Orkhon, in the Talal-khain-dala steppe, +to the south-east of Ughei-nor. It was deserted after the fall of the +Uighur kingdom, and in the 10th century Abaki, the founder of the Khitan +kingdom, planted on its ruins a stone bearing a description of his +victories. (2) The Mongolian KARAKORUM was founded at the birth of the +Mongolian monarchy established by Jenghiz Khan. A palace for the khan +was built in it by Chinese architects in 1234, and its walls were +erected in 1235. Plano Carpini visited it in 1246, Rubruquis in 1253, +and Marco Polo in 1275. Later, the fourth Mongolian king, Kublai, left +Karakorum, in order to reside at Kai-pin-fu, near Peking. When the khan +Arik-bog declared himself and Karakorum independent of Kublai-Khan, the +latter besieged Karakorum, took it by famine, and probably laid it waste +so thoroughly that the town was afterwards forgotten. + +The exact sites of the two Mongolian capitals were only established in +1889-1891. Sir H. Yule (_The Book of Marco Polo_, 1871) was the first to +distinguish two cities of this name. The Russian traveller Paderin in +1871 visited the Uighur capital (see TURKS), named now by the Mongols +Kara Balghasun ("black city") or Khara-kherem ("black wall"), of which +only the wall and a tower are in existence, while the streets and ruins +outside the wall are seen at a distance of 1¾ m. Paderin's belief that +this was the old Mongol capital has been shown to be incorrect. As to +the Mongolian Karakorum, it is identified by several authorities with a +site on which towards the close of the 16th century the Buddhist +monastery of Erdeni Tsu was built. This monastery lies about 25 m. south +by east of the Uighur capital. North and north-east of the monastery are +ruins of ancient buildings. Professor D. Pozdnéev, who visited Erdeni +Tsu for a second time in 1892, stated that the earthen wall surrounding +the monastery might well be part of the wall of the old city. The proper +position of the two Karakorums was determined by the expedition of N. +Yadrintsev in 1889, and the two expeditions of the Helsingfors +Ugro-Finnish society (1890) and the Russian academy of science, under Dr +W. Radlov (1891), which were sent out to study Yadrintsev's discovery. + + See _Works (Trudy) of the Orkhon Expedition_ (St Petersburg, 1892); + Yule's _Marco Polo_, edition revised by Henri Cordier (of Paris), vol. + i. ch. xlvi. (London, 1903). Cordier confines the use of Karakorum to + the Mongol capital; Pozdnéev, _Mongolia and the Mongols_, vol. i. (St + Petersburg, 1896); C. W. Campbell, "Journeys in Mongolia," _Geog. + Journ._ vol. xx. (1903), with map. Campbell's report was printed as a + parliamentary paper (_China No. 1, 1904_). + + + + +KARA-KUL, the name of two lakes ("Great" and "Little ") of Russian +Turkestan, in the province of Ferghana, and on the Pamir plateau. Great +Kara-kul, 12 m. long and 10 m. wide (formerly much larger), is under 39° +N., to the south of the Trans-Alai range, and lies at an altitude of +13,200 ft.; it is surrounded by high mountains, and is reached from the +north over the Kyzyl-art pass (14,015 ft.). A peninsula projecting from +the south shore and an island off the north shore divide it into two +basins, a smaller eastern one which is shallow, 42 to 63 ft., and a +larger western one, which has depths of 726 to 756 ft. It has no +drainage outlet. Little Kara-kul lies in the north-east Pamir, or +Sarikol, north-west of the Mustagh-ata peak (25,850 ft.), at an altitude +of 12,700 ft. It varies in depth from 79 ft. in the south to 50 to 70 +ft. in the middle, and 1000 ft. or more in the north. It is a moraine +lake; and a stream of the same name flows through it, but is named Ghez +in its farther course towards Kashgar in East Turkestan. + + + + +KARA-KUM ("Black Sands"), a flat desert in Russian Central Asia. It +extends to nearly 110,000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the +Ust-urt plateau, between the Sea of Aral and the Caspian Sea, on the +N.E. by the Amu-darya, on the S. by the Turkoman oases, and on the W. it +nearly reaches the Caspian Sea. Only part of this surface is covered +with sand. There are broad expanses (_takyrs_) of clay soil upon which +water accumulates in the spring; in the summer these are muddy, but +later quite dry, and merely a few Solanaceae and bushes grow on them. +There is also _shor_, similar to the above but encrusted with salt and +gypsum, and relieved only by Solanaceae along their borders. The +remainder is occupied with sand, which, according to V. Mainov, assumes +five different forms. (1) _Barkhans_, chiefly in the east, which are +mounds of loose sand, 15 to 35 ft. high, hoof-shaped, having their +gently sloping convex sides turned towards the prevailing winds, and a +concave side, 30° to 40° steep, on the opposite slope. They are disposed +in groups or chains, and the winds drive them at an average rate of 20 +ft. annually towards the south and south-east. Some grass (_Stipa +pennata_) and bushes of _saksaul_ (_Haloxylon ammodendron_) and other +steppe bushes (e.g. _Calligonium_, _Halimodendron_ and _Atraphaxis_) +grow on them. (2) Mounds of sand, of about the same size, but irregular +in shape and of a slightly firmer consistence, mostly bearing the same +bushes, and also _Artemisia_ and _Tamarix_; they are chiefly met with in +the east and south. (3) A sandy desert, slightly undulating, and covered +in spring with grass and flowers (e.g. tulips, _Rheum_, various +Umbelliferae), which are soon burned by the sun; they cover very large +spaces in the south-east. (4) Sands disposed in waves from 50 to 70 ft., +and occasionally up to 100 ft. high, at a distance of from 200 to 400 +ft. from each other; they cover the central portion, and their +vegetation is practically the same as in the preceding division. (5) +Dunes on the shores of the Caspian, composed of moving sands, 35 to 80 +ft. high and devoid of vegetation. + +A typical feature of the Kara-kum is the number of "old river beds," +which may have been either channels of tributaries of the Amu and other +rivers or depressions which contained elongated salt lakes. Water is +only found in wells, 10 to 20 m. apart--sometimes as much as 100 +m.--which are dug in the takyrs and give saline water, occasionally +unfit to drink, and in pools of rain-water retained in the lower parts +of the takyrs. The population of the Kara-kum, consisting of nomad +Kirghiz and Turkomans, is very small. The region in the north of the +province of Syr-darya, between Lake Aral and Lake Chalkarteniz, is also +called Kara-kum. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KARAMAN (anc. _Laranda_, a name still used by the Christian +inhabitants), a town in the Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated in the +plain north of Mount Taurus. Pop. 8000. It has few industries and little +trade, but the medieval walls, well preserved castle and mosques are +interesting, and the old Seljuk _medresse_, or college, is a beautiful +building. Karaman is connected with Konia by railway, having a station +on the first section of the Bagdad railway. Little is known of its +ancient history except that it was destroyed by Perdiccas about 322 +B.C., and afterwards became a seat of Isaurian pirates. It was occupied +by Frederick Barbarossa in 1190; in 1466 it was captured by Mahommed +II., and in 1486 by Bayezid II. + + + + +KARAMANIA, formerly an independent inland province in the south of Asia +Minor, named after Karaman, the son of an Armenian convert to Islam, who +married a daughter of Ala ed-Din Kaikobad, the Seljuk sultan of Rum, and +was granted Laranda in fief, and made governor of Selefke, 1223-1245. +The name Karaman is, however, Turkoman and that of a powerful tribe, +settled apparently near Laranda. The Armenian convert must have been +adopted into this. On the collapse of the Seljuk empire, Karaman's +grandson, Mahmud, 1279-1319, founded a state, which included Pamphylia, +Lycaonia and large parts of Cilicia, Cappadocia and Phrygia. Its +capital, Laranda, superseded Konia. This state was frequently at war +with the kings of Lesser Armenia, the Lusignan princes of Cyprus and the +knights of Rhodes. It was also engaged in a long struggle for supremacy +with the Osmanli Turks, which only ended in 1472, when it was definitely +annexed by Mahommed II. The Osmanlis divided Karamania into Kharij +north, and Ichili south, of the Taurus, and restored Konia to its +metropolitan position. The name Karamania is now often given by +geographers to Ichili only; but so far as it has had any exact +significance in modern times, it has stood for the whole province of +Konia. Before the present provincial division was made (1864), Karamania +was the eyalet of which Konia was the capital, and it did not extend to +the sea, the whole littoral from Adalia eastward being under the pasha +of Adana. Nevertheless, in Levantine popular usage at the present day, +"Karamania" signifies the coast from Adalia to Messina. (D. G. H.) + + + + +KARAMNASA, a river of northern India, tributary to the Ganges on its +right bank, forming the boundary between Bengal and the United +Provinces. The name means "destroyer of religious merit," which is +explained by more than one legend. To this day all high-caste Hindus +have to be carried over without being defiled by the touch of its +waters. + + + + +KARA MUSTAFA (d. 1683), Turkish vizier, surnamed "Merzifunli," was a son +of Uruj Bey, a notable Sipahi of Merzifun (Marsovan), and brother-in-law +to Ahmed Kuprili, whom he succeeded as grand vizier in 1676, after +having for some years held the office of Kaimmakam or _locum tenens_. +His greed and ostentation were equalled by his incapacity, and he +behaved with characteristic insolence to the foreign ambassadors, from +whom he extorted large bribes. After conducting a campaign in Poland +which terminated unfortunately, he gave a ready response to the appeal +for aid made by the Hungarians under Imre Thököly (q.v.) when they rose +against Austria, his hope being to form out of the Habsburg dominions a +Mussulman empire of the West, of which he should be the sultan. The plan +was foiled in part by his own lack of military skill, but chiefly +through the heroic resistance of Vienna and its timely relief by John +Sobieski, king of Poland. Kara Mustafa paid for his defeat with his +life; he was beheaded at Belgrade in 1683 and his head was brought to +the sultan on a silver dish. + +Another KARA MUSTAFA PASHA (d. 1643), who figures in Turkish history, +was by birth a Hungarian, who was enrolled in the Janissaries, rose to +be Kapudan Pasha under Murad IV., and after the capture of Bagdad was +made grand vizier. He was severe, but just and impartial, and strove to +effect necessary reforms by reducing the numbers of the Janissaries, +improving the coinage, and checking the state expenditure. But the +discontent of the Janissaries led to his dismissal and death in 1643. + + + + +KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1765-1826), Russian historian, critic, +novelist and poet, was born at the village of Mikhailovka, in the +government of Orenburg, and not at Simbirsk as many of his English and +German biographers incorrectly state, on the 1st of December (old style) +1765. His father was an officer in the Russian army, of Tatar +extraction. He was sent to Moscow to study under Professor Schaden, +whence he afterwards removed to St Petersburg, where he made the +acquaintance of Dmitriev, a Russian poet of some merit, and occupied +himself with translating essays by foreign writers into his native +language. After residing some time at St Petersburg, he went to +Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement till induced to revisit Moscow. +There, finding himself in the midst of the society of learned men, he +again betook himself to literary work. In 1789 he resolved to travel, +and visited Germany, France, Switzerland and England. On his return he +published his _Letters of a Russian Traveller_, which met with great +success. These letters were first printed in the _Moscow Journal_, which +he edited, but were afterwards collected and issued in six volumes +(1797-1801). In the same periodical Karamzin also published translations +of some of the tales of Marmontel, and some original stories, among +which may be mentioned _Poor Liza_ and _Natalia the Boyar's Daughter_. +In 1794 and 1795 Karamzin abandoned his literary journal, and published +a miscellany in two volumes, entitled _Aglaia_, in which appeared, among +other things, "The Island of Bornholm" and "Ilia Mourometz," a story +based upon the adventures of the well-known hero of many a Russian +legend. In 1797-1799 he issued another miscellany or poetical almanac, +_The Aonides_, in conjunction with Derzhávin and Dmitriev. In 1798 he +compiled _The Pantheon_, a collection of pieces from the works of the +most celebrated authors ancient and modern, translated into Russian. +Many of his lighter productions were subsequently printed by him in a +volume entitled _My Trifles_. In 1802 and 1803 Karamzin edited the +journal the _European Messenger_. It was not until after the publication +of this work that he realized where his strength lay, and commenced his +_History of the Russian Empire_. In order to accomplish the task, he +secluded himself for two years; and, on the cause of his retirement +becoming known to the emperor Alexander, Karamzin was invited to Tver, +where he read to the emperor the first eight volumes of his history. In +1816 he removed to St Petersburg, where he spent the happiest days of +his life, enjoying the favour of Alexander, and submitting to him the +sheets of his great work, which the emperor read over with him in the +gardens of the palace of Tzarskoë Selo. He did not, however, live to +carry his work further than the eleventh volume, terminating it at the +accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. He died on the 22nd of May (old +style) 1826, in the Taurida palace. A monument was erected to his memory +at Simbirsk in 1845. + + As an historian Karamzin has deservedly a very high reputation. Till + the appearance of his work little had been done in this direction in + Russia. The preceding attempt of Tatistchev was merely a rough sketch, + inelegant in style, and without the true spirit of criticism. Karamzin + was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the notes to his + volumes are mines of curious information. The style of his history is + elegant and flowing, modelled rather upon the easy sentences of the + French prose writers than the long periodical paragraphs of the old + Slavonic school. Perhaps Karamzin may justly be censured for the false + gloss and romantic air thrown over the early Russian annals, + concealing the coarseness and cruelty of the native manners; in this + respect he reminds us of Sir Walter Scott, whose writings were at this + time creating a great sensation throughout Europe, and probably had + their influence upon him. Karamzin appears openly as the panegyrist of + the autocracy; indeed, his work has been styled the "Epic of + Despotism." He does not hesitate to avow his admiration of Ivan the + Terrible, and considers him and his grandfather Ivan III. as the + builders up of Russian greatness, a glory which in his earlier + writings, perhaps at that time more under the influence of Western + ideas, he had assigned to Peter the Great. In the battle-pieces (e.g. + the description of the field of Koulikovo, the taking of Kazan, &c.) + we find considerable powers of description; and the characters of many + of the chief personages in the Russian annals are drawn in firm and + bold lines. As a critic Karamzin was of great service to his country; + in fact he may be regarded as the founder of the review and essay (in + the Western style) among the Russians. + + + + +KARA SEA, a portion of the Arctic Ocean demarcated, and except on the +north-west completely enclosed, by Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach Island and the +Siberian coast. It is approached from the west by three +straits--Matochkin, between the two islands of Novaya Zemlya, and Kara +and Yugor to the north and south of Vaygach Island respectively. On the +south-east Kara Bay penetrates deeply into the mainland, and to the west +of this the short Kara river enters the sea. The sea is all shallow, the +deepest parts lying off Vaygach Island and the northern part of Novaya +Zemlya. It had long the reputation of being almost constantly ice-bound, +but after the Norwegian captain Johannesen had demonstrated its +accessibility in 1869, and Nordenskiöld had crossed it to the mouth of +the Yenisei in 1875, it was considered by many to offer a possible trade +route between European Russia and the north of Siberia. But the open +season is in any case very short, and the western straits are sometimes +ice-bound during the entire year. + + + + +KARASU-BAZAR, a town of Russia, in the Crimea and government of Taurida, +in 45° 3´ N. and 34° 26´ E., 25 m. E.N.E. of Simferopol. Pop. (1897), +12,961, consisting of Tatars, Armenians, Greeks, Qaraite Jews, and about +200 so-called Krymchaki, i.e. Jews who have adopted the Tatar language +and dress, and who live chiefly by making morocco leather goods, knives, +embroidery and so forth. The site is low, but the town is surrounded by +hills, which afford protection from the north wind. The dirty streets +full of petty traders, the gloomy bazaar with its multitude of tiny +shops, the market squares, the blind alleys, the little gates in the +dead courtyard walls, all give the place the stamp of a Tatar or Turkish +town. Placed on the high road between Simferopol and Kerch, and in the +midst of a country rich in corn land, vineyards and gardens, +Karasu-Bazar used to be a chief seat of commercial activity in the +Crimea; but it is gradually declining in importance, though still a +considerable centre for the export of fruit. + +The caves of Akkaya close by give evidence of early occupation of the +spot. When in 1736 Khan Feta Ghirai was driven by the Russians from +Bakhchi-sarai he settled at Karasu-Bazar, but next year the town was +captured, plundered and burned by the Russians. + + + + +KARATEGHIN, a country of Central Asia, subject to Bokhara, and +consisting of a highland district bounded on the N. by Samarkand and +Ferghana (Khokand), on the E. by Ferghana, on the S. by Darvaz, and on +the W. by Hissar and other Bokharian provinces. The plateau is traversed +by the Surkhab or Vakhsh, a right-hand tributary of the Amu-darya +(Oxus). On the N. border run the Hissar and Zarafshan mountains, and on +the S. border the Peter I. (Periokhtan) range (24,900 ft.). The area is +8000 sq. m. and the population about 60,000--five-sixths Tajiks, the +rest Kara-kirghiz. With the neighbouring lands Karateghin has no +communication except during summer, that is, from May to September. The +winter climate is extremely severe; snow begins to fall in October and +it is May before it disappears. During the warmer months, however, the +mountain sides are richly clothed with the foliage of maple, mountain +ash, apple, pear and walnut trees; the orchards furnish, not only apples +and pears, but peaches, cherries, mulberries and apricots; and the +farmers grow sufficient corn to export. Both cattle and horses are of a +small and hardy breed. Rough woollen cloth and mohair are woven by the +natives, who also make excellent firearms and other weapons. Gold is +found in various places and there are salt-pits in the mountains. The +chief town, Harm or Garm, is a place of some 2000 inhabitants, situated +on a hill on the right bank of the Surkhab. + +The native princes, who claimed to be descended from Alexander the +Great, were till 1868 practically independent, though their allegiance +was claimed in an ineffective way by Khokand, but eventually Bokhara +took advantage of their intestine feuds to secure their real submission +in 1877. + + + + +KARAULI, or KEROWLEE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. +Area, 1242 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 156,786; estimated revenue about +£330,000. Almost the entire territory is composed of hills and broken +ground, but there are no lofty peaks, the highest having an elevation of +less than 1400 ft. above sea-level. The Chambal river flows along the +south-east boundary of the state. Iron ore and building stone comprise +the mineral resources. The prevailing agricultural products are millets, +which form the staple food of the people. The only manufactures consist +of a little weaving, dyeing, wood-turning and stone-cutting. The +principal imports are piece goods, salt, sugar, cotton, buffaloes and +bullocks; the exports rice and goats. The feudal aristocracy of the +state consists of Jadu Rajputs connected with the ruling house. They pay +a tribute in lieu of constant military service, but in case of emergency +or on occasions of state display they are bound to attend on the chief +with their retainers. The maharaja is the head of the clan, which claims +descent from Krishna. Maharaja Bhanwar Pal Deo, who was born in 1862 and +succeeded in 1866, was appointed G.C.I.E. in 1897, on the occasion of +Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee. + +The town of KARAULI had a population in 1901 of 23,482. It dates from +1348, and is well situated in a position naturally defended by ravines +on the north and east, while it is further protected by a great wall. +The palace of the maharaja is a handsome block of buildings dating +mainly from the middle of the 18th century. + + + + +KAREN, one of the chief hill races of Burma. The Karens inhabit the +central Pegu Yoma range, forming the watershed between the Sittang and +Irrawaddy rivers, the Paunglaung range between the Sittang and the +Salween, and the eastern slopes of the Arakan Yoma mountains to the west +of the Irrawaddy delta. They are supposed to be the descendants of +Chinese tribes driven southwards by the pressure of the Shan races, +before they were again made to retire into the hills by the expansion of +the Môn power. Their own traditions ascribe their original home to the +west of the sandy desert of Gobi stretching between China and Tibet. +According to the census of 1901 they numbered in all 727,235 persons +within British India, divided into the Sgaw, 86,434, the Pwo, 174,070, +and the Bghai, 4936, while 457,355 are returned as "unspecified." The +Sgaw and Pwo are collectively known as the "White Karens," and chiefly +inhabit British territory. They take their name from the colour of their +clothes. The Bghai, or "Red Karens," who are supposed by some to be an +entirely distinct race, chiefly inhabit the independent hill state of +Karen-ni (q.v.). The Karen is of a squarer build than the Burman, his +skin is fairer, and he has more of the Mongolian obliquity of the eyes. +In character also the people differ from the Burmese. They are +singularly devoid of humour, they are stolid and cautious, and lack +altogether the light gaiety and fascination of the Burmese. They are +noted for truthfulness and chastity, but are dirty and addicted to +drink. The White Karens furnish perhaps the most notable instance of +conversion to Christianity of any native race in the British empire. +Prepared by prophecies current among them, and by curious traditions of +a biblical flavour, in addition to their antagonism to the dominant +Burmese, they embraced with fervour the new creed brought to them by the +missionaries, so that out of the 147,525 Christians in Burma according +to the census of 1901 upwards of a hundred thousand were Karens. The Red +Karens differ considerably from the White Karens. They are the wildest +and most lawless of the so-called Karen tribes. Every male belonging to +the clan used to have the rising sun tattooed in bright vermilion on his +back. The men are small and wizened, but athletic, and have broad +reddish-brown faces. Their dress consists of a short pair of breeches, +usually of a reddish colour, with black and white stripes interwoven +perpendicularly or like a tartan, and a handkerchief is tied round the +head. The Karen language is tonal, and belongs to the Siamese-Chinese +branch of the Indo-Chinese family. + + See D. M. Smeaton, _The Loyal Karens of Burma_ (1887); J. Nisbet, + _Burma under British Rule_ (1901); M. and B. Ferrars, _Burma_ (1900); + and O'Connor Scott, _The Silken East_ (1904). (J. G. Sc.) + + + + +KAREN-NI, the country of the Red Karens, a collection of small states, +formerly independent, but now feudatory to Burma. It is situated +approximately between 18° 50´ and 19° 55´ N. and between 97° 10´ and 97° +50´ E. The tract is bounded on the N. by the Shan states of Möng Pai, +Hsatung and Mawkmai; on the E. by Siam; on the S. by the Papun district +of Lower Burma; and on the W. a stretch of mountainous country, +inhabited by the Bre and various other small tribes, formerly in a state +of independence, divides it from the districts of Toungoo and Yamethin. +It is divided in a general way into eastern and western Karen-ni; the +former consisting of one state, Gantarawadi, with an approximate area of +2500 sq. m.; the latter of the four small states of Kyebogyi, area about +350 sq. m.; Bawlake, 200 sq. m.; Nammekon, 50 sq. m.; and Naungpale, +about 30 sq. m. The small states of western Karen-ni were formerly all +subject to Bawlake, but the subordination has now ceased. Karen-ni +consists of two widely differing tracts of country, which roughly mark +now, and formerly actually did mark, the division into east and west. +Gantarawadi has, however, encroached westwards beyond the boundaries +which nature would assign to it. The first of these two divisions is the +southern portion of the valley of the Hpilu, or Balu stream, an open, +fairly level plain, well watered and in some parts swampy. The second +division is a series of chains of hills, intersected by deep valleys, +through which run the two main rivers, the Salween and the Pawn, and +their feeder streams. Many of the latter are dried up in the hot season +and only flow freely during the rains. The whole country being hilly, +the most conspicuous ridge is that lying between the Pawn and the +Salween, which has an average altitude of 5000 ft. It is crossed by +several tracks, passable for pack-animals, the most in use being the +road between Sawlon, the capital of Gantarawadi and Man Maü. The +principal peak east of the Salween is on the Loi Lan ridge, 7109 ft. +above mean sea-level. Parts of this ridge form the boundary between +eastern Karen-ni and Mawkmai on the west and Siam on the east. It falls +away rapidly to the south, and at Pang Salang is crossed at a height of +2200 ft. by the road from Hsataw to Mehawnghsawn. West of the Balu +valley the continuation of the eastern rim of the Myelat plateau rises +in Loi Nangpa to about 5000 ft. The Nam Pawn is a large river, with an +average breadth of 100 yds., but is unnavigable owing to its rocky bed. +Even timber cannot be floated down it without the assistance of +elephants. The Salween throughout Karen-ni is navigated by large native +craft. Its tributary, the Me Pai, on the eastern bank, is navigable as +far as Mehawnghsawn in Siamese territory. The Balu stream flows out of +the Inle lake, and is navigable from that point to close on Lawpita, +where it sinks into the ground in a marsh or succession of funnel holes. +Its breadth averages 50 yds., and its depth is 15 ft. in some places. + +The chief tribes are the Red Karens (24,043), Bres (3500), and Padaungs +(1867). Total revenue, Rs. 37,000. An agent of the British government, +with a guard of military police, is posted at the village of Loikaw. +Little of the history of the Red Karens is known; but it appears to be +generally admitted that Bawlake was originally the chief state of the +whole country, east and west, but eastern Karen-ni under Papaw-gyi early +became the most powerful. Slaving raids far into the Shan states brought +on invasions from Burma, which, however, were not very successful. +Eastern Karen-ni was never reduced until Sawlapaw, having defied the +British government, was overcome and deposed by General Collett in the +beginning of 1889. Sawlawi was then appointed myoza, and received a +_sanad_, or patent of appointment, on the same terms as the chiefs of +the Shan states. The independence of the Western Karen-ni states had +been guaranteed by the British government in a treaty with King Mindon +in 1875. They were, however, formally recognized as feudatories in 1892 +and were presented with _sanads_ on the 23rd of January of that year. +Gantarawadi pays a regular tribute of Rs. 5000 yearly, whereas these +chieflets pay an annual _kadaw_, or _nuzzur_, of about Rs. 100. They are +forbidden to carry out a sentence of death passed on a criminal without +the sanction of the superintendent of the southern Shan states, but +otherwise retain nearly all their customary law. + + Tin, or what is called tin, is worked in Bawlake. It appears, however, + to be very impure. It is worked intermittently by White Karens on the + upper waters of the Hkemapyu stream. Rubies, spinels and other stones + are found in the upper Tu valley and in the west of Nammekon state, + but they are of inferior quality. The trade in teak is the chief or + only source of wealth in Karen-ni. The largest and most important + forests are those on the left bank of the Salween. Others lie on both + banks of the Nam Pawn, and in western Karen-ni on the Nam Tu. The + yearly out-turn is estimated at over 20,000 logs, and forest officers + have estimated that an annual out-turn of 9000 logs might be kept up + without injury to the forests. Some quantity of cutch is exported, as + also stick-lac, which the Red Karens graft so as to foster the + production. Other valuable forest produce exists, but is not exported. + Rice, areca-nuts, and betel-vine leaf are the chief agricultural + products. The Red Karen women weave their own and their husbands' + clothing. A characteristic manufacture is the _pa-si_ or Karen metal + drum, which is made at Ngwedaung. These drums are from 2½ to 3 ft. + across the boss, with sides of about the same depth. The sound is out + of proportion to the metal used, and is inferior to that of the Shan + and Burmese gongs. It is thought that the population of Karen-ni is + steadily decreasing. The birth-rate of the people is considered to + exceed the death-rate by very little, and the Red Karen habit of life + is most unwholesome. Numbers have enlisted in the Burma police, but + there are various opinions as to their value. (J. G. Sc.) + + + + +KARIKAL, a French settlement in India, situated on the south-east coast, +within the limits of Tanjore district, with an area of 53 sq. m., and a +population (1901) of 56,595. The site was promised to the French by the +Tanjore raja in 1738, in return for services rendered, but was only +obtained by them by force in 1739. It was captured by the British in +1760, restored in 1765, again taken in 1768, and finally restored in +1817. The town is neatly built on one of the mouths of the Cauvery, and +carries on a brisk trade with Ceylon, exporting rice and importing +chiefly European articles and timber. A _chef de l'administration_, +subordinate to the government at Pondicherry, is in charge of the +settlement, and there is a tribunal of first instance. + + + + +KARLI, a village of British India, in the Poona district of the Bombay +presidency, famous for its rock caves. Pop. (1901), 903. The great cave +of Karli is said by Fergusson to be without exception the largest and +finest _chaitya_ cave in India; it was excavated at a time when the +style was in its greatest purity, and is splendidly preserved. The great +_chaitya_ hall is 126 ft. long, 45 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 46 ft. +high. A row of ornamental columns rises on either side to the ribbed +teak roof, and at the far end of the nave is a massive _dagoba_. Dating +from the beginning of the Christian era or earlier, this cave has a +wooden roof, which repeats the pattern of the walls, and which Fergusson +considers to be part of the original design. Since wood rapidly +deteriorates in India owing to the climate and the ravages of white +ants, the state of preservation of this roof is remarkable. + + + + +KARLOWITZ, or CARLOWITZ (Hungarian, _Karlóeza_; Croatian, Karlovci), a +city of Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Syrmia; on the right bank of +the Danube, and on the railway from Peterwardein, 6 m. N.W. to Belgrade. +Pop. (1900), 5643. Karlowitz is the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan, +and has several churches and schools, and a hospital. The fruit-farms +and vineyards of the Fruska Gora, a range of hills to the south, yield +excellent plum brandy and red wine. An obelisk at Slankamen, 13 m. E. by +S., commemorates the defeat of the Turks by Louis of Baden, in 1691. The +treaty of Karlowitz, between Austria, Turkey, Poland and Venice, was +concluded in 1699; in 1848-1849 the city was the headquarters of Servian +opposition to Hungary. It was included, until 1881, in the Military +Frontier. + + + + +KARLSKRONA [CARLSCRONA,] a seaport of Sweden, on the Baltic coast, chief +town of the district (_län_) of Blekinge, and headquarters of the +Swedish navy. Pop. (1900), 23,955. It is pleasantly situated upon +islands and the mainland, 290 m. S.S.W. of Stockholm by rail. The +harbour is capacious and secure, with a sufficient depth of water for +the largest vessels. It has three entrances; the principal, and the only +one practicable for large vessels, is to the south of the town, and is +defended by two strong forts, at Drottningskär on the island of Aspö, +and on the islet of Kungsholm. The dry docks, of great extent, are cut +out of the solid granite. There is slip-accommodation for large vessels. +Karlskrona is the seat of the Royal Naval Society, and has a +navy-arsenal and hospital, and naval and other schools. Charles XI., the +founder of the town as naval headquarters (1680), is commemorated by a +bronze statue (1897). There are factories for naval equipments, +galvanized metal goods, felt hats, canvas, leather and rice, and +breweries and granite quarries. Exports are granite and timber; imports, +coal, flour, provisions, hides and machinery. + + + + +KARLSRUHE, or CARLSRUHE, a city of Germany, capital of the grand-duchy of +Baden, 33 m. S.W. of Heidelberg, on the railway Frankfort-on-Main-Basel, +and 39 m. N.W. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1895), 84,030; (1905), 111,200. It +stands on an elevated plain, 5 m. E. of the Rhine and on the fringe of +the Hardtwald forest. Karlsruhe takes its name from Karl Wilhelm, +margrave of Baden, who, owing to disputes with the citizens of Durlach, +erected here in 1715 a hunting seat, around which the town has been +built. The city is surrounded by beautiful parks and gardens. The palace +(Schloss), built in 1751-1776 on the site of the previous erection of +1715, is a plain building in the old French style, composed of a centre +and two wings, presenting nothing remarkable except the octagon tower +(_Bleiturm_), from the summit of which a splendid view of the city and +surrounding country is obtained, and the marble saloon, in which the +meridian of Cassini was fixed or drawn. In front of the palace is the +Great Circle, a semicircular line of buildings, containing the government +offices. From the palace the principal streets, fourteen in number, +radiate in the form of an expanded fan, in a S.E., S. and S.W. direction, +and are again intersected by parallel streets. This fan-like plan of the +older city has, however, been abandoned in the more modern extensions. +Karlsruhe has several fine public squares, the principal of which are the +Schlossplatz, with Schwanthaler's statue of the grand duke Karl Friedrich +in the centre, and market square (Marktplatz), with a fountain and a +statue of Louis, grand duke of Baden. In the centre of the Rondelplatz is +an obelisk in honour of the grand duke Karl Wilhelm. The finest street is +the Kaiserstrasse, running from east to west and having a length of a +mile and a half and a uniform breadth of 72 ft. In it are several of the +chief public buildings, notably the technical high school, the arsenal +and the post office. Among other notable buildings are the town hall; the +theatre; the hall of representatives; the mint; the joint museum of the +grand-ducal and national collections (natural history, archaeology, +ethnology, art and a library of over 150,000 volumes); the palace of the +heir-apparent, a late Renaissance building of 1891-1896; the imperial +bank (1893); the national industrial hall, with an exhibition of +machinery; the new law courts; and the hall of fine arts, which shelters +a good picture gallery. The city has six Evangelical and four Roman +Catholic Churches. The most noteworthy of these are the Evangelical town +church, the burial-place of the margraves of Baden; the Christuskirche, +and the Bernharduskirche. Karlsruhe possesses further the Zähringen +museum of curiosities, which is in the left wing of the Schloss; an +architectural school (1891); industrial art school and museum; cadet +school (1892); botanical and electro-technical institutes; and +horticultural and agricultural schools. Of its recent public monuments +may be mentioned one to Joseph Victor von Scheffel (1826-1886); a bronze +equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1896); and a memorial of the +1870-71 war. Karlsruhe is the headquarters of the XIV. German army corps. +Since 1870 the industry of the city has grown rapidly, as well as the +city itself. There are large railway workshops; and the principal +branches of industry are the making of locomotives, carriages, tools and +machinery, jewelry, furniture, gloves, cement, carpets, perfumery, +tobacco and beer. There is an important arms factory. Maxau, on the +Rhine, serves as the river port of Karlsruhe and is connected with it by +a canal finished in 1901. + + See Fecht, _Geschichte der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe_ + (Karlsruhe, 1887); F. von Weech, _Karlsruhe, Geschichte der Stadt und + ihrer Verwaltung_ (Karlsruhe, 1893-1902); Naeher, _Die Umgebung der + Residenz Karlsruhe_ (Karlsruhe, 1888); and the annual _Chronik der + Haupt- und Residenzstadt Karlsruhe._ + + + + +KARLSTAD [CARLSTAD], a town of Sweden, the capital of the district +(_län_) of Vermland, on the island of Tingvalla under the northern shore +of Lake Vener, 205 m. W. of Stockholm by the Christiania railway. Pop. +(1900), 11,869. The fine Klar River here enters the lake, descending +from the mountains of the frontier. To the north-west lies the Fryksdal +or valley of the Nors River, containing three beautiful lakes and +fancifully named the "Swedish Switzerland." In this and other parts of +the district are numerous iron-works. Karlstad was founded in 1584. It +is the seat of a bishop and has a cathedral. Trade is carried on by way +of the lake and the Göta canal. There are mechanical works, match +factories and stockinet factories, and a mineral spring rich in iron, +the water of which is bottled for export. Under the constitution of +united Sweden and Norway, in the event of the necessity of electing a +Regent and the disagreement of the parliaments of the two countries, +Karlstad was indicated as the meeting-place of a delegacy for the +purpose. Here, on the 31st of August 1905 the conference met to decide +upon the severance of the union between Sweden and Norway, the delegates +concluding their work on the 23rd of September. + + + + +KARLSTADT or CARLSTADT (Hungarian, _Károlyváros_; Croatian, _Karlovac_), +a royal free city, municipality and garrison town in the county of +Agram, Croatia-Slavonia; standing on hilly ground beside the river +Kulpa, which here receives the Korana and the Dobra. Pop. (1900), 7396. +Karlstadt is on the railway from Agram to Fiume. It consists of the +fortress, now obsolete, the inner town and the suburbs. Besides the +Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches, its chief buildings are the +Franciscan monastery, law-courts and several large schools, including +one for military cadets. Karlstadt has a considerable transit trade in +grain, wine, spirits and honey, and manufactures the liqueur called +_rosoglio_. + + + + +KARMA, sometimes written KARMAN, a Sanskrit noun (from the root _kri_, +to do), meaning deed or action. In addition to this simple meaning it +has also, both in the philosophical and the colloquial speech of India a +technical meaning, denoting "a person's deeds as determining his future +lot." This is not merely in the vague sense that on the whole good will +be rewarded and evil punished, but that every single act must work out +to the uttermost its inevitable consequences, and receive its +retribution, however many ages the process may require. Every part of +the material universe--man, woman, insect, tree, stone, or whatever it +be--is the dwelling of an eternal spirit that is working out its +destiny, and while receiving reward and punishment for the past is +laying up reward and punishment for the future. This view of existence +as an endless and concomitant sowing and reaping is accepted by learned +and unlearned alike as accounting for those inequalities in human life +which might otherwise lead men to doubt the justice of God. Every act of +every person has not only a moral value producing merit or demerit, but +also an inherent power which works out its fitting reward or punishment. +To the Hindu this does not make heaven and hell unnecessary. These two +exist in many forms more or less grotesque, and after death the soul +passes to one of them and there receives its due; but that existence too +is marked by desire and action, and is therefore productive of merit or +demerit, and as the soul is thus still entangled in the meshes of karma +it must again assume an earthly garb and continue the strife. Salvation +is to the Hindu simply deliverance from the power of karma, and each of +the philosophic systems has its own method of obtaining it. The last +book of the Laws of Manu deals with _karmaphalam_, "the fruit of karma," +and gives many curious details of the way in which sin is punished and +merit rewarded. The origin of the doctrine cannot be traced with +certainty, but there is little doubt that it is post-vedic, and that it +was readily accepted by Buddha in the 6th century B.C. As he did not +believe in the existence of soul he had to modify the doctrine (see +BUDDHISM). + + + + +KÁRMÁN, JÓZSEF (1769-1795), Hungarian author, was born at Losoncz on the +14th of March 1769, the son of a Calvinist pastor. He was educated at +Losoncz and Pest, whence he migrated to Vienna. There he made the +acquaintance of the beautiful and eccentric Countess Markovics, who was +for a time his mistress, but she was not, as has often been supposed, +the heroine of his famous novel _Fanni Hagyománai_ (Fanny's testament). +Subsequently he settled in Pest as a lawyer. His sensibility, social +charm, liberal ideas (he was one of the earliest of the Magyar +freemasons) and personal beauty, opened the doors of the best houses to +him. He was generally known as the Pest Alcibiades, and was especially +at home in the salons of the Protestant magnates. In 1792, together with +Count Ráday, he founded the first theatrical society at Buda. He +maintained that Pest, not Pressburg, should be the literary centre of +Hungary, and in 1794 founded the first Hungarian quarterly, _Urania_, +but it met with little support and ceased to exist in 1795, after three +volumes had appeared. Kármán, who had long been suffering from an +incurable disease, died in the same year. The most important +contribution to _Urania_ was his sentimental novel, _Fanni Hagyománai_, +much in the style of _La nouvelle Héloïse_ and _Werther_, the most +exquisite product of Hungarian prose in the 18th century and one of the +finest psychological romances in the literature. Kármán also wrote two +satires and fragments of an historical novel, while his literary +programme is set forth in his dissertation _Anemzet csinosodása_. + + Kármán's collected works were published in Abafi's _Nemzeti Könyvtár_ + (Pest, 1878), &c., preceded by a life of Kármán. See F. Baráth, + _Joseph Kármán_ (Hung., Vas. Ujs, 1874); Zsolt Beöthy, article on + Kármán in _Képes Irodalomtörtenet_ (Budapest, 1894). (R. N. B.) + + + + +KARNAK, a village in Upper Egypt (pop. 1907, 12,585), which has given +its name to the northern half of the ruins of Thebes on the east bank of +the Nile, the southern being known as Luxor (q.v.). The Karnak ruins +comprise three great enclosures built of crude brick. The northernmost +and smallest of these contained a temple of the god Mont, built by +Amenophis III., and restored by Rameses II. and the Ptolemies. Except a +well-preserved gateway dating from the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes I., +little more than the plan of the foundations is traceable. Its axis, the +line of which is continued beyond the enclosure wall by an avenue of +sphinxes, pointed down-stream (N.E.). The southern enclosure contained a +temple of the goddess Mut, also built by Amenophis III., and almost as +ruinous as the last, but on a much larger scale. At the back is the +sacred lake in the shape of a horse-shoe. The axis of the temple runs +approximately northward, and is continued by a great avenue of rams to +the southern pylons of the central enclosure. This last is of vast +dimensions, forming approximately a square of 1500 ft., and it contains +the greatest of all known temples, the Karnak temple of Ammon (see +ARCHITECTURE, sect. "Egyptian," with plan). + +Inside and outside each of these enclosures there were a number of +subsidiary temples and shrines, mostly erected by individual kings to +special deities. The triad of Thebes was formed by Ammon, his wife Mut +and their son Khons. The large temple of Khons is in the enclosure of +the Ammon temple, and the temple of Mut, as already stated, is connected +with the latter by the avenue of rams. The Mont temple, on the other +hand, is isolated from the others and turned away from them; it is +smaller than that of Khons. Mont, however, may perhaps be considered a +special god of Thebes; he certainly was a great god from very ancient +times in the immediate neighbourhood, his seats being about 4 m. N.E. at +Medamot, the ancient Madu, and about 10 m. S.W. on the west bank at +Hermonthis. + +It is probable that a temple of Ammon existed at Karnak under the Old +Kingdom, if not in the prehistoric age; but it was unimportant, and no +trace of it has been discovered. Slight remains of a considerable temple +of the Middle Kingdom survive behind the shrine of the great temple, and +numbers of fine statues of the twelfth and later dynasties have been +found; two of these were placed against the later seventh pylon, while a +large number were buried in a great pit, in the area behind that pylon, +which has yielded an enormous number of valuable and interesting +monuments reaching to the age of the Ptolemies. The axis of the early +temple lay from E. to W., and was followed by the main line of the later +growth; but at the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty, Amenophis I. +built a temple south of the west front of the old one, and at right +angles to it, and thus started a new axis which was later developed in +the series of pylons VII.-X., and the avenue to the temple of Mut. The +VIIIth pylon in particular was built by Hatshepsut, probably as an +approach to this temple of Amenophis, but eventually Tethmosis III. +cleared the latter away entirely. Thebes was then the royal residence, +and Ammon of Karnak was the great god of the state. Tethmosis I. built a +court round the temple of the Middle Kingdom, entered through a pylon +(No. V.), and later added the pylon No. IV. with obelisks in front of +it. Hatshepsut placed two splendid obelisks between the Pylons IV. and +V., and built a shrine in the court of Tethmosis I., in front of the old +temple. Tethmosis III., greatest of the Pharaohs, remodelled the +buildings about the obelisks of his unloved sister with the deliberate +intention of hiding them from view, and largely reconstructed the +surroundings of the court. At a later date, after his wars were over, he +altered Hatshepsut's sanctuary, engraving on the walls about it a record +of his campaigns; to this time also is to be attributed the erection of +a great festival hall at the back of the temple. The small innermost +pylon (No. VI.) is likewise the work of Tethmosis III. Amenophis III., +though so great a builder at Thebes, seems to have contented himself +with erecting a great pylon (No. III.) at the west end. The closely +crowded succession of broad pylons here suggests a want of space for +westward expansion, and this is perhaps explained by a trace of a quay +found by Legrain in 1905 near the southern line of pylons; a branch of +the Nile or a large canal may have limited the growth. As has been +stated, Tethmosis III. continued on the southern axis; he destroyed the +temple of Amenophis I. and erected a larger pylon (No. VII.) to the +north of Hatshepsut's No. VIII. To these Haremheb added two great pylons +and the long avenue of ram-figures, changing the axis slightly so as to +lead direct to the temple of Mut built by Amenophis III. All of these +southern pylons are well spaced. In the angle between these pylons and +the main temple was the great rectangular sacred lake. By this time the +temple of Karnak had attained to little more than half of its ultimate +length from east to west. + +With the XIXth Dynasty there is a notable change perhaps due to the +filling of the hypothetical canal. No more was added on the southern +line of building, but westward Rameses I. erected pylon No. II. at an +ample distance from that of Amenophis III., and Seti I. and Rameses II. +utilized the space between for their immense Hall of Columns, one of the +most celebrated achievements of Egyptian architecture. The materials of +which the pylon is composed bear witness to a temple having stood near +by of the heretic and unacknowledged kings of the XVIIIth Dynasty. +Haremheb's pylon No. IX. was likewise constructed out of the ruins of a +temple dedicated by Amenophis IV. (Akhenaten) to the sun-god Harmakhis. +Rameses III. built a fine temple, still well preserved, to Ammon at +right angles to the axis westward of pylon No. II.; Sheshonk I. (Dynasty +XXII.) commenced a great colonnaded court in front of the pylon, +enclosing part of this temple and a smaller triple shrine built by Seti +II. In the centre of the court Tirhaka (Tirhaka, Dynasty XXV.) set up +huge columns 64 ft. high, rivalling those of the central aisle in the +Hall of Columns, for some building now destroyed. A vast unfinished +pylon at the west end (No. I.), 370 ft. wide and 142½ ft. high, is of +later date than the court, and is usually attributed to the Ptolemaic +age. It will be observed that the successive pylons diminish in size +from the outside inwards. Portions of the solid crude-brick scaffolding +are still seen banked against this pylon. About 100 metres west of it is +a stone quay, on the platform of which stood a pair of obelisks of Seti +II.; numerous graffiti recording the height of the Nile from the XXIst +to the XXVIth Dynasties are engraved on the quay. + +Besides the kings named above, numbers of others contributed in greater +or less measure to the building or decoration of the colossal temple. +Alexander the Great restored a chamber in the festival hall of Tethmosis +III., and Ptolemy Soter built the central shrine of granite in the name +of Philip Arrhidaeus. The walls throughout, as usually in Egyptian +temples, are covered with scenes and inscriptions, many of these, such +as those which record the annals of Tethmosis III., the campaign of Seti +I. in Syria, the exploit of Rameses II. at the battle of Kadesh and his +treaty with the Hittites, and the dedication of Sheshonk's victories to +Ammon, are of great historical importance. Several large stelae with +interesting inscriptions have been found in the ruins, and statues of +many ages of workmanship. In December 1903 M. Legrain, who has been +engaged for several years in clearing the temple area systematically, +first tapped an immense deposit of colossal statues, stelae and other +votive objects large and small in the space between pylon No. VII. and +the great hypostyle hall. After three seasons' work, much of it in deep +water, 750 large monuments have been extracted, while the small figures, +&c. in bronze and other materials amount to nearly 20,000. The value of +the find, both from the artistic and historical standpoints, is immense. +The purpose of the deposit is still in doubt; many of the objects are of +the finest materials and finest workmanship, and in perfect +preservation: even precious metals are not absent. Multitudes of objects +in wood, ivory, &c., have decayed beyond recovery. That all were waste +pieces seems incredible. They are found lying in the utmost confusion; +in date they range from the XIIth Dynasty to the Ptolemaic period. + +The inundation annually reaches the floor of the temple, and the +saltpetre produced from the organic matter about the ruins, annually +melting and crystallizing, has disintegrated the soft sandstone in the +lower courses of the walls and the lower drums and bases of the columns. +There is moreover no solid foundation in any part of the temple. Slight +falls of masonry have taken place from time to time, and the +accumulation of rubbish was the only thing that prevented a great +disaster. Repairs, often on a large scale, have therefore gone on side +by side with the clearance, especially since the fall of many columns in +the great hall in 1899. All the columns which fell in that year were +re-erected by 1908. + +The temple of Khons, in the S.W. corner of the great enclosure, is +approached by an avenue of rams, and entered through a fine pylon +erected by Euergetes I. It was built by Rameses III. and his successors +of the XXth Dynasty, with Hrihor of Dynasty XXI. Excavations in the +opposite S.E. corner have revealed flint weapons and other sepulchral +remains of the earliest periods, proving that the history of Thebes goes +back to a remote antiquity. + + See Baedeker's _Handbook for Egypt_; also _Description de l'Égypte. + Atlas, Antiquités_ (tome iii.); A. Mariette, _Karnak, Étude + topographique et archéologique_; L. Borchardt, _Zur Baugeschichte des + Ammontempels von Karnak_; G. Legrain in _Recueil des travaux rélatifs + à l'arch. Égypt._, vol. xxvii. &c.; and reports in _Annales du service + des antiquités de l'Égypte_. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +KARNAL, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of +the Punjab. The town is 7 m. from the right bank of the Jumna, with a +railway station 76 m. N. of Delhi. Pop. (1901), 23,559. There are +manufactures of cotton cloth and boots, besides considerable local trade +and an annual horse fair. + +The DISTRICT OF KARNAL stretches along the right bank of the Jumna, +north of Delhi. It is entirely an alluvial plain, but is crossed by the +low uplift of the watershed between the Indian Ocean and the Bay of +Bengal. Area, 3153 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 883,225, showing an increase of +nearly 3% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, wheat, pulse, +rice, cotton and sugar-cane. There are several factories for ginning and +pressing cotton. The district is traversed by the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka +railway, and also by the Western Jumna canal. It suffered from famine in +1896-1897, and again to some extent in 1899-1900. + +No district of India can boast of a more ancient history than Karnal, as +almost every town or stream is connected with the legends of the +_Mahabharata_. The town of Karnal itself is said to owe its foundation +to Raja Karna, the mythical champion of the Kauravas in the great war +which forms the theme of the national epic. Panipat, in the south of the +district, is said to have been one of the pledges demanded from +Duryodhana by Yudisthira as the price of peace in that famous conflict. +In historical times the plains of Panipat have three times proved the +theatre of battles which decided the fate of Upper India. It was here +that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were defeated in 1526 by the veteran +army of Baber; in 1556 Akbar reasserted the claims of his family on the +same battlefield against the Hindu general of the house of Adil Shah, +which had driven the heirs of Baber from the throne for a brief +interval; and at Panipat too, on the 7th of January 1761, the Mahratta +confederation was defeated by Ahmad Shah Durani. During the troublous +period which then ensued the Sikhs managed to introduce themselves, and +in 1767 one of their chieftains, Desu Singh, appropriated the fort of +Kaithal, which had been built during the reign of Akbar. His +descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, were reckoned amongst the most +important Cis-Sutlej princes. Different portions of this district have +lapsed from time to time into the hands of the British. + + + + +KÁROLYI, ALOYS, COUNT (1825-1889), Austro-Hungarian diplomatist, was +born in Vienna on the 8th of August 1825. The greatness of the Hungarian +family of Károlyi dates from the time of Alexander Károlyi (1668-1743), +one of the generals of Francis Rákóczy II., who in 1711 negotiated the +peace of Szatmár between the insurgent Hungarians and the new king, the +emperor Charles VI., was made a count of the Empire in 1712, and +subsequently became a field marshal in the imperial army. Aloys Károlyi +entered the Austrian diplomatic service, and was attached successively +to embassies at various European capitals. In 1858 he was sent to St +Petersburg on a special mission to seek the support of Russia against +Napoleon III. He was ambassador at Berlin in 1866 at the time of the +rupture between Prussia and Austria, and after the Seven Weeks' War was +charged with the negotiation of the preliminaries of peace at +Nikolsburg. He was again sent to Berlin in 1871, acted as second +plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress of 1878, and was sent in the same +year to London, where he represented Austria for ten years. He died on +the 2nd of December 1889 at Tótmegyer. + + + + +KAROSS, a cloak made of sheepskin, or the hide of other animals, with +the hair left on. It is properly confined to the coat of skin without +sleeves worn by the Hottentots and Bushmen of South Africa. These +karosses are now often replaced by a blanket. Their chiefs wore karosses +of the skin of the wild cat, leopard or caracal. The word is also +loosely applied to the cloaks of leopard-skin worn by the chiefs and +principal men of the Kaffir tribes. Kaross is probably either a genuine +Hottentot word, or else an adaptation of the Dutch _kuras_ (Portuguese +_couraça_), a cuirass. In a vocabulary dated 1673 _karos_ is described +as a "corrupt Dutch word." + + + + +KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE (1808-1890), French critic and novelist, +was born in Paris, on the 24th of November 1808, and after being +educated at the Collège Bourbon, became a teacher there. In 1832 he +published a novel, _Sous les tilleuls_, characterized by an attractive +originality and a delightful freshness of personal sentiment. A second +novel, _Une heure trop tard_, followed next year, and was succeeded by +many other popular works. His _Vendredi soir_ (1835) and _Le Chemin le +plus court_ (1836) continued the vein of autobiographical romance with +which he had made his first success. _Géneviève_ (1838) is one of his +best stories, and his _Voyage autour de mon jardin_ (1845) was +deservedly popular. Others were _Feu Bressier_ (1848), and _Fort en +thème_ (1853), which had some influence in stimulating educational +reform. In 1839 Alphonse Karr, who was essentially a brilliant +journalist, became editor of _Le Figaro_, to which he had been a +constant contributor; and he also started a monthly journal, _Les +Guêpes_, of a keenly satirical tone, a publication which brought him the +reputation of a somewhat bitter wit. His epigrams were frequently +quoted; e.g. "plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose," and, on the +proposal to abolish capital punishment, "je veux bien que messieurs les +assassins commencent." In 1848 he founded _Le Journal_. In 1855 he went +to live at Nice, where he indulged his predilections for floriculture, +and gave his name to more than one new variety. Indeed he practically +founded the trade in cut flowers on the Riviera. He was also devoted to +fishing, and in _Les Soirées de Sainte-Adresse_ (1853) and _Au bord de +la mer_ (1860) he made use of his experiences. His reminiscences, _Livre +de bord_, were published in 1879-1880. He died at St Raphaël (Var), on +the 29th of September 1890. + + + + +KARRER, FELIX (1825-1903), Austrian geologist, was born in Venice on the +11th of March 1825. He was educated in Vienna, and served for a time in +the war department, but he retired from the public service at the age of +thirty-two, and devoted himself to science. He made especial studies of +the Tertiary formations and fossils of the Vienna Basin, and +investigated the geological relations of the thermal and other springs +in that region. He became an authority on the foraminifera, on which +subject he published numerous papers. He wrote also a little book +entitled _Der Boden der Hauptstädte Europas_ (1881). He died in Vienna +on the 19th of April 1903. + + + + +KARROO, two extensive plateaus in the Cape province, South Africa, known +respectively as the Great and Little Karroo. Karroo is a corruption of +_Karusa_, a Hottentot word meaning dry, barren, and its use as a +place-name indicates the character of the plateaus so designated. They +form the two intermediate "steps" between the coast-lands and the inner +plateau which constitutes the largest part of South Africa. The Little +(also called Southern) Karroo is the table-land nearest the southern +coast-line of the Cape, and is bounded north by the Zwaarteberg, which +separates it from the Great Karroo. From west to east the Little Karroo +has a length of some 200 m., whilst its average width is 30 m. West of +the Zwaarteberg the Little Karroo merges into the Great Karroo. Eastward +it is limited by the hills which almost reach the sea in the direction +of St Francis and Algoa Bays. The Great Karroo is of much larger extent. +Bounded south, as stated, by the Zwaarteberg, further east by the +Zuurberg (of the coast chain), its northern limit is the mountain range +which, under various names, such as Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg, forms the +wall of the inner plateau. To the south-west and west it is bounded by +the Hex River Mountains and the Cold Bokkeveld, eastward by the Great +Fish River. West to east it extends fully 350 m. in a straight line, +varying in breadth from more than 80 to less than 40 m. Whilst the +Little Karroo is divided by a chain of hills which run across it from +east to west, and varies in altitude from 1000 to 2000 ft., the Great +Karroo has more the aspect of a vast plain and has a level of from 2000 +to 3000 ft. The total area of the Karroo plateaus is stated to be over +100,000 sq. m. The plains are dotted with low ranges of _kopjes_. The +chief characteristics of the Karroo are the absence of running water +during a great part of the year and the consequent parched aspect of the +country. There is little vegetation save stunted shrubs, such as the +mimosa (which generally marks the river beds), wild pomegranate, and wax +heaths, known collectively as Karroo bush. After the early rains the +bush bursts into gorgeous purple and yellow blossoms and vivid greens, +affording striking evidence of the fertility of the soil. Such parts of +the Karroo as are under perennial irrigation are among the most +productive lands in South Africa. Even the parched bush provides +sufficient nourishment for millions of sheep and goats. There are also +numerous ostrich farms, in particular in the districts of Oudtshoorn and +Ladismith in the Little Karroo, where lucerne grows with extraordinary +luxuriance. The Karroo is admirably adapted to sufferers from pulmonary +complaints. The dryness of the air tempers the heat of summer, which +reaches in January a mean maximum of 87° F., whilst July, the coldest +month, has a mean minimum of 36° F. A marked feature of the climate is +the great daily range (nearly 30°) in temperature; the Karroo towns are +also subject to violent dust storms. Game, formerly plentiful, has been, +with the exception of buck, almost exterminated. In a looser sense the +term Karroo is also used of the vast northern plains of the Cape which +are part of the inner table-land of the continent. (See CAPE COLONY.) + + + + +KARS, a province of Russian Transcaucasia, having the governments of +Kutais and Tiflis on the N., those of Tiflis and Erivan on the E., and +Asiatic Turkey on the S. and W. Its area amounts to 7410 sq. m. It is a +mountainous, or rather a highland, country, being in reality a plateau, +with ranges of mountains running across it. The northern border is +formed by the Arzyan range, a branch of the Ajari Mts., which attains +altitudes of over 9000 ft. In the south the Kara-dagh reach 10,270 ft. +in Mount Ala-dagh, and the Agry-dagh 10,720 ft. in Mount Ashakh; and in +the middle Allah-akhbar rises to 10,215 ft. The passes which connect +valley with valley often lie at considerable altitudes, the average of +those in the S.E. being 9000 ft. Chaldir-gol (altitude 6520 ft.) and one +or two other smaller lakes lie towards the N.E.; the Chaldir-gol is +overhung on the S.W. by the Kysyr-dagh (10,470 ft.). The east side of +the province is throughout demarcated by the Arpa-chai, which receives +from the right the Kars river, and as it leaves the province at its S.E. +corner joins the Aras. The Kura rises within the province not far from +the Kysyr-dagh and flows across it westwards, then eastwards and +north-eastwards, quitting it in the north-east. The winters are very +severe. The towns of Kaghyshman (4620 ft.) and Sarykamish (7800 ft.) +have a winter temperature like that of Finland, and at the latter place, +with an annual mean (35° F.) equal to that of Hammerfest in the extreme +north of Norway, the thermometer goes down in winter to 40° below zero +and rises in summer to 99°. The annual mean temperature at Kars is 40.5° +and at Ardahan, farther north, 37°. The Alpine meadows (_yailas_) reach +up to 1000 ft. and afford excellent pasturage in spring and summer. The +province is almost everywhere heavily forested. Firs and birches +flourish as high as 7000 ft., and the vine up to above 3000 ft. Cereals +ripen well, and barley and maize grow up to considerable altitudes. +Large numbers of cattle and sheep are bred. Extensive deposits of salt +occur at Kaghyshman and Olty. The population was 167,610 in 1883 and +292,863 in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 349,100. It is +mixed. In remote antiquity the province was inhabited by Armenians, the +ruins of whose capital, Ani, attest the ancient prosperity of the +country. To the Armenians succeeded the Turks, while Kurds invaded the +Alpine pasturages above the valley of the Aras; and after them +Kabardians, Circassians, Ossetes and Kara-papaks successively found a +refuge in this highland region. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, +when this region was transferred to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, some +82,750 Turks emigrated to Asia Minor, their places being taken by nearly +22,000 Armenians, Greeks and Russians. At the census of 1897 the +population consisted principally of Armenians (73,400), Kurds (43,000), +Greeks (32,600), Kara-papaks (30,000), Russians, Turks and Persians. The +capital is Kars. The province is divided into four districts, the chief +towns of which are Kars (q.v.), Ardahan (pop. 800 in 1897), Kaghyshman +(3435) and Olty. (J. T. Be.) + + + + +KARS, a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the province of +Kars, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of +Erzerum. It is situated in 40° 37´ N. and 43° 6´ E., 185 m. by rail S.W. +of Tiflis, on a dark basalt spur of the Soghanli-dagh, above the deep +ravine of the Kars-chai, a sub-tributary of the Aras. Pop. (1878), 8672; +(1897), 20,891. There are three considerable suburbs--Orta-kapi to the +S., Bairam Pasha to the E., and Timur Pasha on the western side of the +river. At the N.W. corner of the town, overhanging the river, is the +ancient citadel, in earlier times a strong military post, but completely +commanded by the surrounding eminences. The place is, however, still +defended by a fort and batteries. There is a 10th century cathedral, +Kars being the see of a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church. Coarse +woollens, carpets and felt are manufactured. + +During the 9th and 10th centuries the seat of an independent Armenian +principality, Kars was captured and destroyed by the Seljuk Turks in the +11th century, by the Mongols in the 13th, and by Timur (Tamerlane) in +1387. The citadel, it would appear, was built by Sultan Murad III. +during the war with Persia, at the close of the 16th century. It was +strong enough to withstand a siege by Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1731, and +in 1807 it successfully resisted the Russians. After a brave defence it +surrendered on the 23rd of June 1828 to the Russian general Count I. F. +Paskevich, 11,000 men becoming prisoners of war. During the Crimean War +the Turkish garrison, guided by General Williams (Sir W. Fenwick +Williams of Kars) and other foreign officers, kept the Russians at bay +during a protracted siege; but, after the garrison had been devastated +by cholera, and food had utterly failed, nothing was left but to +capitulate (Nov. 1855). The fortress was again stormed by the Russians +in the war of 1877-78, and on its conclusion was transferred to Russia. + + See Kmety, _The Defence of Kars_ (1856), translated from the German; + H. A. Lake, _Kars and our Captivity in Russia_ (London, 1856); and + _Narrative of the Defence of Kars_ (London, 1857); Dr Sandwith, + _Narrative of the Siege of Kars_ (London, 1856); C. B. Norman, + _Armenia and the Campaign of 1877_ (London, 1878); Greene, _Russian + Army and its Campaigns in Turkey_ (1879). + + + + +KARSHI, a town of Bokhara, in Central Asia, situated 96 m. S.E. of the +city of Bokhara, in a plain at the junction of two main confluents of +the Kashka-darya. It is a large and straggling place, with a citadel, +and the population amounts to 25,000. There are three colleges, and the +Biki mosque is a fine building inlaid with blue and white tiles. Along +the river stretches a fine promenade sheltered by poplars. Poppies and +tobacco are largely grown, the tobacco being deemed the best in Central +Asia. There is a considerable trade in grain; but the commercial +prosperity of Karshi is mainly due to its being a meeting-point for the +roads from Samarkand, Bokhara, Hissar, Balkh and Maimana, and serves as +the market where the Turkomans and Uzbegs dispose of their carpets, +knives and firearms. Its coppersmiths turn out excellent work. Karshi +was a favourite residence of Timur (Tamerlane). + + + + +KARST, in physical geography, the region east of the northern part of +the Adriatic. It is composed of high and dry limestone ridges. The +country is excessively faulted by a long series of parallel fractures +that border the N.E. Adriatic and continue inland that series of steps +which descend beneath the sea and produce the series of long parallel +islands off the coast of Triest and along the Dalmatian shore. It has +been shown by E. Suess (_Antlitz der Erde_, vol. i. pt. 2, ch. iii.) +that the N. Adriatic is a sunken dish that has descended along these +fractures and folds, which are not uncommonly the scene of earthquakes, +showing that these movements are still in progress. The crust is very +much broken in consequence and the water sinks readily through the +broken limestone rocks, which owing to their nature are also very +absorbent. The result is that the scenery is barren and desolate, and as +this structure always, wherever found, gives rise to similar features, a +landscape of this character is called a Karst landscape. The water +running in underground channels dissolves and denudes away the +underlying rock, producing great caves as at Adelsberg, and breaking the +surface with sinks, potholes and unroofed chasms. The barren nature of a +purely limestone country is seen in the treeless regions of some parts +of Derbyshire, while the underground streams and sinks of parts of +Yorkshire, and the unroofed gorge formed by the Cheddar cliffs, give +some indication of the action that in the high fractured mountains of +the Karst produces a depressing landscape which has some of the features +of the "bad lands" of America, though due to a different cause. + + + + +KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD (1782-1853), German mineralogist, was born +at Bützow in Mecklenburg, on the 26th of November 1782. He was author of +several comprehensive works, including _Handbuch der Eisenhüttenkunde_ +(2 vols., 1816; 3rd ed., 1841); _System der Metallurgie geschichtlich, +statistisch, theoretisch und technisch_ (5 vols. with atlas, 1831-1832); +_Lehrbuch der Salinenkunde_ (2 vols., 1846-1847). He was well known as +editor of the _Archiv für Bergbau und Hüttenwesen_ (20 vols., +1818-1831); and (with H. von Dechen) of the _Archiv für Mineralogie, +Geognosie, Bergbau und Hüttenkunde_ (26 vols., 1820-1854). He died at +Berlin on the 22nd of August 1853. His son, Dr Hermann Karsten +(1809-1877), was professor of mathematics and physics in the university +of Rostock. + + + + +KARTIKEYA, in Hindu mythology, the god of war. Of his birth there are +various legends. One relates that he had no mother but was produced by +Siva alone, and was suckled by six nymphs of the Ganges, being +miraculously endowed with six faces that he might simultaneously obtain +nourishment from each. Another story is that six babes, miraculously +conceived, were born of the six nymphs, and that Parvati, the wife of +Siva, in her great affection for them, embraced the infants so closely +that they became one, but preserved six faces, twelve arms, feet, eyes, +&c. Kartikeya became the victor of giants and the leader of the armies +of the gods. He is represented as riding a peacock. In southern India he +is known as Subramanya. + + + + +KARUN, an important river of Persia. Its head-waters are in the mountain +cluster known since at least the 14th century as Zardeh Kuh (13,000 ft.) +and situated in the Bakhtiari country about 115 m. W. of Isfahan. In its +upper course until it reaches Shushter it is called Ab i Kurang (also +Kurand and Kuran), and in the _Bundahish_, an old cosmographical work in +Pahlavi, it is named Kharae.[1] From the junction of the two principal +sources in the Zardeh Kuh at an altitude of about 8000 ft., the Ab i +Kurang is a powerful stream, full, deep and flowing with great velocity +for most of its upper course between precipices varying in height from +1000 to 3000 ft. The steepness and height of its banks make it in +general useless for irrigation purposes. From its principal sources to +Shushter the distance as the crow flies is only about 75 m., but the +course of the river is so tortuous that it travels 250 m. before it +reaches that city. Besides being fed on its journey through the +Bakhtiari country by many mountain-side streams, fresh-water and salt, +it receives various tributaries, the most important being the Ab i +Bazuft from the right and the Ab i Barz from the left. At Shushter it +divides into two branches, one the "Gerger," an artificial channel cut +in olden times and flowing east of the city, the other the "Shutait" +flowing west. These two branches, which are navigable to within a few +miles below Shushter, unite after a run of about 50 m. at Band i Kir, 24 +m. S. of Shushter, and there also take up the Ab i Diz (river of +Dizful). From Band i Kir to a point two miles above Muhamrah the river +is called Karun (Rio Carom of the Portuguese writers of the 16th and +17th centuries) and is navigable all the way with the exception of about +two miles at Ahvaz, where a series of cliffs and rocky shelves cross the +river and cause rapids. Between Ahvaz and Band i Kir (46 m. by river, 24 +m. by road) the river has an average depth of about 20 ft., but below +Ahvaz down to a few miles above Muhamrah it is in places very shallow, +and vessels with a draught exceeding 3 ft. are liable to ground. About +12 m. above Muhamrah and branching off to the left is a choked-up river +bed called the "blind Karun," by which the Karun found its way to the +sea in former days. Ten miles farther a part of the river branches off +to the left and due S. by a channel called Bahmashir (from +Bahman-Ardashir, the name of the district in the early middle ages) +which is navigable to the sea for vessels of little draught. The +principal river, here about a quarter of a mile broad and 20 to 30 ft. +deep, now flows west, and after passing Muhamrah enters into the Shatt +el Arab about 20 m. below Basra. This part of the river, from the +Bahmashir to the Shatt, is a little over three miles in length and, as +its name, Hafar ("dug") implies, an artificial channel. It was dug c. +A.D. 980 by Azud ed-Dowleh to facilitate communication by water between +Basra and Ahvaz, as related by the Arab geographer Mukaddasi A.D. 986. +The total length of the river is 460 to 470 m. while the distance from +the sources to its junction with the Shatt el Arab is only 160 m. as the +crow flies. The Karun up to Ahvaz was opened to international navigation +on the 30th of October 1888, and Messrs Lynch of London established a +fortnightly steamer service on it immediately after. + +To increase the water supply of Isfahan Shah Tahmasp I. (1524-1576) and +some of his successors, notably Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629), undertook +some works for diverting the Kurang into a valley which drains into the +Zayendeh-rud, the river of Isfahan, by tunnelling, or cutting through a +narrow rocky ridge separating the two river systems. The result of many +years' work, a cleft 300 yds. long, 15 broad and 18 deep, cut into the +rock, probably amounting to no more than one-twentieth of the necessary +work, can be seen at the junction of the two principal sources of the +Kurang. + + On the upper Karun see Mrs Bishop, _Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_ + (London, 1891); Lord Curzon, _Persia and the Persian Question_ + (London, 1892); Lieut.-Colonel H. A. Sawyer, "The Bakhtiari Mountains + and Upper Elam," _Geog. Journal_ (Dec. 1894). (A. H.-S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The _real_ principal source of the river has been correctly + located at ten miles above the _reputed_ principal source, but the + name Kurang has been erroneously explained as standing for Kuh i rang + and has been given to the mountain with the real principal source. + Kuh i rang has been wrongly explained as meaning the "variegated + mountain." + + + + +KARWAR, or CARWAR, a seaport of British India, administrative +headquarters of North Kanara district in the Bombay presidency; 295 m. +S. of Bombay city. Pop. (1901), 16,847. As early as 1660 the East India +Company had a factory here, with a trade in muslin and pepper; but it +suffered frequently from Dutch, Portuguese and native attacks, and in +1752 the English agent was withdrawn. Old Karwar fell into ruins, but a +new town grew up after the transfer of North Kanara to the Bombay +presidency. It is the only safe harbour all the year round between +Bombay and Cochin. In the bay is a cluster of islets called the Oyster +Rocks, on the largest of which is a lighthouse. Two smaller islands in +the bay afford good shelter to native craft during the strong north-west +winds that prevail from February to April. The commercial importance of +Karwar has declined since the opening of the railway to Marmagao in +Portuguese territory. + + + + +KARWI, a town of British India, in the Banda district of the United +Provinces, on a branch of the Indian Midland railway; pop. (1901), 7743. +Before the Mutiny it was the residence of a Mahratta noble, who lived in +great state, and whose accumulations constituted the treasure afterwards +famous as "the Kirwee and Banda Prize Money." + + + + +KARYOGAMY (Gr. [Greek: káruon], nut or kernel, thus "nucleus," and +[Greek: gámos], marriage), in biology: (1) the fusion of nuclei to form +a single nucleus in syngamic processes (see REPRODUCTION); (2) the +process of pairing in Infusoria (q.v.), in which two migratory nuclei +are interchanged and fuse with two stationary nuclei, while the +cytoplasmic bodies of the two mates are in intimate temporary union. + + + + +KASAI, or CASSAI, a river of Africa, the chief southern affluent of the +Congo. It enters the main stream in 3° 10´ S., 16° 16´ E. after a course +of over 800 m. from its source in the highlands which form the +south-western edge of the Congo basin--separating the Congo and Zambezi +systems. The Kasai and its many tributaries cover a very large part of +the Congo basin. The Kasai rises in about 12° S., 19° E. and flows first +in a north-easterly direction. About 10° 35´ S., 22° 15´ E. it makes a +rectangular bend northward and then takes a north-westerly direction. +Five rivers--the Luembo, Chiumbo, Luijimo or Luashimo, Chikapa and Lovua +or Lowo--rise west of the Kasai and run in parallel courses for a +considerable distance, falling successively into the parent stream +(between 7° and 6° S.) as it bends westward in its northern course. The +Luembo and Chiumbo join and enter the Kasai as one river. A number of +rapids occur in these streams. A few miles below the confluence of the +Lowo, the last of the five rivers named to join the Kasai, the main +stream is interrupted by the Wissmann Falls which, though not very high, +bar further navigation from the north. Below this point the river +receives several right-hand (eastern) tributaries. These also have their +source in the Zambezi-Congo watershed, rising just north of 12° S., +flowing north in parallel lines, and in their lower course bending west +to join the Kasai. The chief of these affluents are the Lulua and the +Sankuru, the Lulua running between the Kasai and the Sankuru. The +Sankuru makes a bold curve westward on reaching 4° S., following that +parallel of latitude a considerable distance. Its waters are of a bright +yellow colour. After the junction of the two rivers (in 4° 17´ S., 20° +15´ E.), the united stream of the Kasai flows N.W. to the Congo. From +the south it is joined by the Loange and the Kwango. The Kwango is a +large river rising a little north of 12° S., and west of the source of +the Kasai. Without any marked bends it flows north--is joined from the +east by the Juma, Wamba and other streams--and has a course of 600 m. +before joining the Kasai in 3° S., 18´ E. The lower reaches of the +Kwango are navigable; the upper course is interrupted by rapids. On the +north (in 3° 8´ S., 17° E.) the lower Kasai is joined by the Lukenye or +Ikatta. This river, the most northerly affluent of the Kasai, rises +between 24° and 25° E., and about 3° S. in swampy land through which the +Lomami (another Congo affluent) flows northward. The Lukenye has an east +to west direction flowing across a level country once occupied by a +lake, of which Lake Leopold II. (q.v.), connected with the lower course +of the Lukenye, is the scanty remnant. Below the lake the Lukenye is +known as the Mfini. Near its mouth the Kasai, in its lower course +generally a broad stream strewn with islands, is narrowed to about half +a mile on passing through a gap in the inner line of the West African +highlands, by the cutting of which the old lake of the Kasai basin must +have been drained. The Kasai enters the Congo with a minimum depth of 25 +feet and a breadth of about 700 yards, at a height of 942 ft. above the +sea. The confluence is known as the Kwa mouth, Kwa being an alternative +name for the lower Kasai. The volume of water entering the Congo +averages 321,000 cub. ft. per second: far the largest amount discharged +by any of the Congo affluents. In floodtime the current flows at the +rate of 5 or 6 m. an hour. The Kasai and its tributaries are navigable +for over 1500 m. by steamer. + + The Kwango affluent of the Kasai was the first of the large affluents + of the Congo known to Europeans. It was reached by the Portuguese from + their settlements on the west coast in the 16th century. Of its lower + course they were ignorant. Portuguese travellers in the 18th century + are believed to have reached the upper Kasai, but the first accurate + knowledge of the river basin was obtained by David Livingstone, who + reached the upper Kasai from the east and explored in part the upper + Kwango (1854-1855). V. L. Cameron and Paul Pogge crossed the upper + Kasai in the early "seventies." The Kwa mouth was seen by H. M. + Stanley in his journey down the Congo in 1877, and he rightly regarded + it as the outlet of the Kwango, though not surmising it was also the + outlet of the Kasai. In 1882 Stanley ascended the river to the + Kwango-Kasai confluence and thence proceeding up the Mfini discovered + Lake Leopold II. In 1884 George Grenfell journeyed up the river beyond + the Kwango confluence. The systematic exploration of the main stream + and its chief tributaries was, however, mainly the work of Hermann von + Wissmann, Ludwig Wolf, Paul Pogge and other Germans during 1880-1887. + (See Wissmann's books, especially _Im Innern Afrikas_, Leipzig, 1888.) + On his third journey, 1886, Wissmann was accompanied by Grenfell. + Major von Mechow, an Austrian, explored the middle Kwango in 1880, and + its lower course was subsequently surveyed by Grenfell and Holman + Bentley, a Baptist missionary. In 1899-1900 a Belgian expedition under + Captain C. Lemaire traced the Congo-Zambezi watershed, obtaining + valuable information concerning the upper courses of the southern + Kasai tributaries. The upper Kasai basin and its peoples were further + investigated by a Hungarian traveller, E. Torday, in 1908-1909. (See + Torday's paper in _Geog. Jour._, 1910; also CONGO and the authorities + there cited.) + + + + +KASBEK (Georgian, _Mkin-vari_; Ossetian, _Urs-khokh_), one of the chief +summits of the Caucasus, situated in 42° 42´ N. and 44° 30´ E., 7 m. as +the crow flies from a station of the same name on the high road to +Tiflis. Its altitude is 16,545 ft. It rises on the range which runs +north of the main range (main water-parting), and which is pierced by +the gorges of the Ardon and the Terek. It represents an extinct volcano, +built up of trachyte and sheathed with lava, and has the shape of a +double cone, whose base lies at an altitude of 5800 ft. Owing to the +steepness of its slopes, its eight glaciers cover an aggregate surface +of not more than 8 sq. m., though one of them, Maliev, is 36 m. long. +The best-known glacier is the Dyevdorak, or Devdorak, which creeps down +the north-eastern slope into a gorge of the same name, reaching a level +of 7530 ft. At its eastern foot runs the Georgian military road through +the pass of Darial (7805 ft.). The summit was first climbed in 1868 by +D. W. Freshfield, A. W. Moore, and C. Tucker, with a Swiss guide. +Several successful ascents have been made since, the most valuable in +scientific results being that of Pastukhov (1889) and that of G. +Merzbacher and L. Purtscheller in 1890. Kasbek has a great literature, +and has left a deep mark in Russian poetry. + + See D. W. Freshfield in _Proc. Geog. Soc._ (November 1888) and _The + Exploration of the Caucasus_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1902); Hatisian's + "Kazbek Glaciers" in _Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc._ (xxiv., 1888); + Pastukhov in _Izvestia of the Caucasus Branch of Russ. Geog. Soc._ (x. + 1, 1891, with large-scale map). + + + + +KASHAN, a small province of Persia, situated between Isfahan and Kum. It +is divided into the two districts _germsir_, the "warm," and _sardsir_, +the "cold," the former with the city of Kashan in the plains, the latter +in the hills. It has a population of 75,000 to 80,000, and pays a yearly +revenue of about £18,000. KASHAN (Cashan) is the provincial capital, in +34° 0´ N. and 51° 27´ E., at an elevation of 3190 ft., 150 m. from +Teheran; pop. 35,000, including a few hundred Jews occupied as +silk-winders, and a few Zoroastrians engaged in trade. Great quantities +of silk stuffs, from raw material imported from Gilan, and copper +utensils are manufactured at Kashan and sent to all parts of Persia. +Kashan also exports rose-water made in villages in the hilly districts +about 20 m. from the city, and is the only place in Persia where cobalt +can be obtained, from the mine at Kamsar, 19 m. to the south. At the +foot of the hills 4 m. W. of the city are the beautiful gardens of Fin, +the scene of the official murder, on the 9th of January 1852, of Mirza +Taki Khan, Amir Nizam, the grand vizier, one of the ablest ministers +that Persia has had in modern times. + + + + +KASHGAR, an important city of Chinese Turkestan, in 39° 24´ 26´´ N. +lat., 76° 6´ 47´´ E. long., 4043 ft. above sea-level. It consists of two +towns, Kuhna Shahr or "old city," and Yangi Shahr or "new city," about +five miles apart, and separated from one another by the Kyzyl Su, a +tributary of the Tarim river. It is called Su-leh by the Chinese, which +perhaps represents an original Solek or Sorak. This name seems to be +older than Kashgar, which is said to mean "variegated houses." Situated +at the junction of routes from the valley of the Oxus, from Khokand and +Samarkand, Almati, Aksu, and Khotan, the last two leading from China and +India, Kashgar has been noted from very early times as a political and +commercial centre. Like all other cities of Central Asia, it has +changed hands repeatedly, and was from 1864-1887 the seat of government +of the Amir Yakub Beg, surnamed the Atalik Ghazi, who established and +for a brief period ruled with remarkable success a Mahommedan state +comprising the chief cities of the Tarim basin from Turfan round along +the skirt of the mountains to Khotan. But the kingdom collapsed with his +death and the Chinese retook the country in 1877 and have held it since. + +Kuhna Shahr is a small fortified city on high ground overlooking the +river Tuman. Its walls are lofty and supported by buttress bastions with +loopholed turrets at intervals; the fortifications, however, are but of +hard clay and are much out of repair. The city contains about 2500 +houses. Beyond the bridge, a little way off, are the ruins of ancient +Kashgar, which once covered a large extent of country on both sides of +the Tuman, and the walls of which even now are 12 feet wide at the top +and twice that in height. This city--Aski Shahr (Old Town) as it is now +called--was destroyed in 1514 by Mirza Ababakar (Abubekr) on the +approach of Sultan Said Khan's army. About two miles to the north beyond +the river is the shrine of Hazrat Afak, the saint king of the country, +who died and was buried here in 1693. It is a handsome mausoleum faced +with blue and white glazed tiles, standing under the shade of some +magnificent silver poplars. About it Yakub Beg erected a commodious +college, mosque and monastery, the whole being surrounded by rich +orchards, fruit gardens and vineyards. The Yangi Shahr of Kashgar is, as +its name implies, modern, having been built in 1838. It is of oblong +shape running north and south, and is entered by a single gateway. The +walls are lofty and massive and topped by turrets, while on each side is +a projecting bastion. The whole is surrounded by a deep and wide ditch, +which can be filled from the river, at the risk, however, of bringing +down the whole structure, for the walls are of mud, and stand upon a +porous sandy soil. In the time of the Chinese, before Yakub Beg's sway, +Yangi Shahr held a garrison of six thousand men, and was the residence +of the _amban_ or governor. Yakub erected his _orda_ or palace on the +site of the amban's residence, and two hundred ladies of his harem +occupied a commodious enclosure hard by. The population of Kashgar has +been recently estimated at 60,000 in the Kuhna Shahr and only 2000 in +the Yangi Shahr. + +With the overthrow of the Chinese rule in 1865 the manufacturing +industries of Kashgar declined. Silk culture and carpet manufacture have +flourished for ages at Khotan, and the products always find a ready sale +at Kashgar. Other manufactures consist of a strong coarse cotton cloth +called _kham_ (which forms the dress of the common people, and for +winter wear is padded with cotton and quilted), boots and shoes, +saddlery, felts, furs and sheepskins made up into cloaks, and various +articles of domestic use. A curious street sight in Kashgar is presented +by the hawkers of meat pies, pastry and sweetmeats, which they trundle +about on hand-barrows just as their counterparts do in Europe; while the +knife-grinder's cart, and the vegetable seller with his tray or basket +on his head, recall exactly similar itinerant traders further west. + + The earliest authentic mention of Kashgar is during the second period + of ascendancy of the Han dynasty, when the Chinese conquered the + Hiungnu, Yutien (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in + the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan mountains. This + happened in 76 B.C. Kashgar does not appear to have been known in the + West at this time but Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, + which is in a _Kasia Regio_, possibly exhibiting the name whence + Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. Next + ensues a long epoch of obscurity. The country was converted to + Buddhism and probably ruled by Indo-Scythian or Kushan kings. Hsüan + Tswang passed through Kashgar (which he calls Ka-sha) on his return + journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to + decay in India, was working its way to a new growth in China, and + contemporaneously the Nestorian Christians were establishing + bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently + proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China itself. In the 8th century + came the Arab invasion from the west, and we find Kashgar and + Turkestan lending assistance to the reigning queen of Bokhara, to + enable her to repel the enemy. But although the Mahommedan religion + from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its + weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and + east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, + however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, + under the Uighur kingdom (see TURKS). The Uighurs appear to have been + the descendants of the people called Tölas and to have been one of the + many Turkish tribes who migrated westwards from China. Boghra Khan, + the most celebrated prince of this line, was converted to + Mahommedanism late in the 10th century and the Uighur kingdom lasted + until 1120 but was distracted by complicated dynastic struggles. The + Uighurs employed an alphabet based upon the Syriac and borrowed from + the Nestorian missionaries. They spoke a dialect of Turkish preserved + in the Kudatku Bilik, a moral treatise composed in 1065. Their kingdom + was destroyed by an invasion of the Kara-Kitais, another Turkish tribe + pressing westwards from the Chinese frontier, who in their turn were + swept away in 1219 by Jenghiz Khan. His invasion gave a decided check + to the progress of the Mahommedan creed, but on his death, and during + the rule of the Jagatai Khans, who became converts to that faith, it + began to reassert its ascendancy. Marco Polo visited the city, which + he calls Cascar, about 1275 and left some notes on it. + + In 1389-1390 Timur ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening + country. Kashgar passed through a troublous time, and in 1514, on the + invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who + with the aid of ten thousand men built the new fort with massive + defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman. The dynasty of the + Jagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 by the dismemberment of the country + between rival representatives; and soon after two powerful Khoja + factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (_Ak_ and _Kara Taghluk_), + arose, whose dissensions and warfares, with the intervention of the + Kalmucks of Dzungaria, fill up the history till 1759, when a Chinese + army from Ili (Kulja) invaded the country, and, after perpetrating + wholesale massacres, finally consolidated their authority by settling + therein Chinese emigrants, together with a Manchu garrison. The + Chinese had thoughts of pushing their conquests towards western + Turkestan and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sent to ask assistance of + the Afghan king Ahmed Shah. This monarch despatched an embassy to + Peking to demand the restitution of the Mahommedan states of Central + Asia, but the embassy was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too + much engaged with the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands by arms. + The Chinese continued to hold Kashgar, with sundry interruptions from + Mahommedan revolts--one of the most serious occurring in 1827, when + the territory was invaded and the city taken by Jahanghir Khoja; + Chang-lung, however, the Chinese general of Ili, recovered possession + of Kashgar and the other revolted cities in 1828. A revolt in 1829 + under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir, was more + successful, and resulted in the concession of several important trade + privileges to the Mahommedans of the district of Alty Shahr (the "six + cities"), as it was then named. Until 1846 the country enjoyed peace + under the just and liberal rule of Zahir-ud-din, the Chinese governor, + but in that year a fresh Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his + making himself master of the city, with circumstances of unbridled + licence and oppression. His reign was, however, brief, for at the end + of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to + Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja + revolts (1857) was of about equal duration with the previous one, and + took place under Wali-Khan, a degraded debauchee, and the murderer of + the lamented traveller Adolf Schlagintweit. + + The great Tungani (Dungani) revolt, or insurrection of the Chinese + Mahommedans, which broke out in 1862 in Kan-suh, spread rapidly to + Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim basin. The + Tungani troops in Yarkand rose, and (10th of August 1863) massacred + some seven thousand Chinese, while the inhabitants of Kashgar, rising + in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a + Kirghiz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of + Jahanghir, and Yakub Beg, his general, these being despatched at + Sadik's request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they + could to aid his Mahommedan friends in Kashgar. Sadik Beg soon + repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against + Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub + Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan + delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with + singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, + Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole + master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfitted + for the post of ruler. Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim basin + remained under Yakub Beg's rule until 1877, when the Chinese regained + possession of their ancient dominion. (C. E. D. B.; C. El.) + + + + +KASHI, or KASI, formerly the Persian word for all glazed and enamelled +pottery irrespectively; now the accepted term for certain kinds of +enamelled tile-work, including brick-work and tile-mosaic work, +manufactured in Persia and parts of Mahommedan India, chiefly during the +16th and 17th centuries.[1] + +Undoubtedly originating in the Semitic word for glass, _kas_, it is +quite possible that the name _kashi_ is immediately derived from Kashan, +a town in Persia noted for its _faïence_. This ancient pottery site, in +turn, probably receives its name from the old-time industry; as a "city +of the plain" it would obviously have no claim to the farther-eastern +suffix _shan_, meaning a mountain. Sir George Birdwood wisely considers +that "the art of glazing earthenware has, in Persia, descended in an +almost unbroken tradition from the period of the greatness of Chaldaea +and Assyria ... the name _kas_, by which it is known in Arabic and +Hebrew, carries us back to the manufacture of glass and enamels for +which great Sidon was already famous 1500 years before Christ ... the +designs used in the decoration of Sind and Punjab glazed pottery also go +to prove how much these Indian wares have been influenced by Persian +examples and the Persian tradition of the much earlier art of Nineveh +and Babylon" (_The Industrial Arts of India_, 1880). The two native +names for glass, _kanch_ and _shisha_, common to Persia and India, are, +seemingly, modifications of kashi. The Indian tradition of Chinese +potters settling in bygone days at Lahore and Hala respectively, still +lingers in the Punjab and Sind provinces, and evidently travelled +eastward from Persia with the Moguls. Howbeit in Lahore the name Chíní +is sometimes wrongly applied to _kashi_ work; and the so-called +Chíní-ka-Rauza mausoleum at Agra is an instance of this misuse. It now +seems an established fact that a colony of Chinese ceramic experts +migrated to Isfahan during the 16th century (probably in the reign, and +at the invitation, of Shah Abbas I.), and there helped to revive the +jaded pottery industry of that district. + + _Kashi_ work consisted of two kinds: (a) Enamel-faced tiles and + bricks of strongly fired red earthenware, or terra-cotta; (b) + Enamel-faced tiles and tesserae of lightly fired "lime-mortar," or + sandstone. Tile-mosaic work is described by some authorities as the + true _kashi_. From examination of figured tile-mosaic patterns, it + would appear that, in some instances, the shaped tesserae had been cut + out of enamelled slabs or tiles after firing; in other examples to + have been cut into shape before receiving their facing of coloured + enamel. Mosaic panels in the fort at Lahore are described by J. L. + Kipling as "showing a _gul dasta_, or foliated pattern of a branching + tree, each leaf of which is a separate piece of pottery." Conventional + representations of foliage, flowers and fruit, intricate geometrical + figures, interlacing arabesques, and decorative + calligraphy--inscriptions in Arabic and Persian--constitute the + ordinary _kashi_ designs. The colours chiefly used were cobalt blue, + copper blue (turquoise colour), lead-antimoniate yellow (mustard + colour), manganese purple, iron brown and tin white. A colour-scheme, + popular with Mogul and contemporary Persian _kashigars_, was the + design, in cobalt blue and copper blue, reserved on a ground of deep + mustard yellow. Before applying the enamel colours, the rough face of + the tile, or the tesserae, received a thin coating of slip of variable + composition. It is probably owing to some defect in this part of the + process, or to imperfect firing, that the enamelled tile surfaces on + many old buildings, particularly on the south side, have weathered and + flaked away. + + In India the finest examples of _kashi_ work are in the Punjab and + Sind provinces. At Lahore, amongst many beautiful structures, the most + notable are the mosque of Wazir Khan (A.D. 1634) and the gateways of + three famous pleasure gardens, the Shalamar Bagh (A.D. 1637), the + Gulabi Bagh (A.D. 1640), and the Charburji (c. A.D. 1665). At Tatta + the Jami Masjid, built by Shah Jahan (c. A.D. 1645), is a splendid + illustration; whilst in that "vast cemetery of six square miles" on + the adjacent Malki plateau, are numerous Mahommedan tombs (A.D. + 1570-1640) with extraordinary _kashi_ ornamentation. Delhi, Multan, + Jullundur, Shahdara, Lahore cantonment, Agra and Hyderabad (Sind), all + possess excellent monuments of the best period viz. those erected + during the reigns of Akbar and Jahangir (A.D. 1556-1628). + + In Persia, at Isfahan, Kashan, Meshed and Kerman are a few buildings + and ruins showing the old _kashi_ work; the palace of Chehel Sitùn in + Isfahan, built during the reign of Shah Abbas I. (c. A.D. 1600), is a + magnificent specimen of this art. + + Occasional revivals of the manufacture have taken place both in India + and Persia. Mahommed Sharíf, a potter of Jullundur in the Punjab, + reproduced the Mogul enamelled tile-work in 1885, and there is a + manuscript record of a certain Ustad Ali Mahommed, of Isfahan, who + revived the Persian processes in 1887. (W. B.*; C. S. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Káshí, the Hindu name for the sacred city of Benares, has no + ceramic significance. + + + + +KASHMIR, or CASHMERE, a native state of India, including much of the +Himalayan mountain system to the north of the Punjab. It has been fabled +in song for its beauty (e.g. in Moore's _Lalla Rookh_), and is the chief +health resort for Europeans in India, while politically it is important +as guarding one of the approaches to India on the north-west frontier. +The proper name of the state is Jammu and Kashmir, and it comprises in +all an estimated area of 80,900 sq. m., with a population (1901) of +2,905,578, showing an increase of 14.21% in the decade. It is bounded on +the north by some petty hills chiefships and by the Karakoram mountains; +on the east by Tibet; and on the south and west by the Punjab and +North-West Frontier provinces. The state is in direct political +subordination to the Government of India, which is represented by a +resident. Its territories comprise the provinces of Jammu (including the +jagir of Punch), Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit; the Shin states +of Yaghistan, of which the most important are Chilas, Darel and Tangir, +are nominally subordinate to it, and the two former pay a tribute of +gold dust. The following are the statistics for the main divisions of +the state:-- + + Area in sq. m. Pop. in 1901. + + Jammu 5,223 1,521,307 + Kashmir 7,922 1,157,394 + Frontier Districts 443 226,877 + +The remainder of the state consists of uninhabited mountains, and its +only really important possessions are the districts of Jammu and +Kashmir. + +_Physical Conformation._--The greater portion of the country is +mountainous, and with the exception of a strip of plain on the +south-west, which is continuous with the great level of the Punjab, may +be conveniently divided into the following regions: + + (1) The outer hills and the central mountains of Jammu district. + (2) The valley of Kashmir. + (3) The far side of the great central range, including Ladakh, + Baltistan and Gilgit. + +The hills in the outer region of Jammu, adjoining the Punjab plains, +begin with a height of 100 to 200 ft., followed by a tract of rugged +country, including various ridges running nearly parallel, with long +narrow valleys between. The average height of these ridges is from 3000 +to 4000 ft. The central mountains are commonly 8000 to 10,000 ft., +covered with pasture or else with forest. Then follow the more lofty +mountain ranges, including the region of perpetual snow. A great chain +of snowy mountains branching off south-east and north-west divides the +drainage of the Chenab and the Jhelum rivers from that of the higher +branches of the Indus. It is within spurs from this chain that the +valley of Kashmir is enclosed amid hills which rise from 14,000 to +15,000 ft., while the valley itself forms a cup-like basin at an +elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. All beyond that great range is a wide +tract of mountainous country, bordering the north-western part of Tibet +and embracing Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit. + + The length of the Kashmir valley, including the inner slopes of its + surrounding hills, is about 120 m. from north-west to south-east with + a maximum width of about 75 m. The low and comparatively level floor + of the basin is 84 m. long and 20 to 24 m. broad. + + The hills forming the northern half-circuit of the Kashmir valley, and + running beyond, include many lofty mountain masses and peaks, the most + conspicuous of which, a little outside the confines of Kashmir, is + Nanga Parbat, the fourth highest mountain in the world, 26,656 ft. + above the sea, with an extensive area of glacier on its eastern face. + The great ridge which is thrown off to the south-west by Nanga Parbat + rises, at a distance of 12 m., to another summit 20,740 ft. in height, + from which run south-west, and south-east the ridges which are the + northern watershed boundary of Kashmir. The former range, after + running 70 m. south-west, between the valleys of the Kishenganga and + the Kunhar or Nain-sukh, turns southward, closely pressing the river + Jhelum, after it has received the Kishenganga, with a break a few + miles farther south which admits the Kunhar. This range presents + several prominent summits, the highest two 16,487 and 15,544 ft. above + the sea. The range which runs south-east from the junction peak above + mentioned divides the valley of the Kishenganga from that of the Astor + and other tributaries of the Indus. The highest point on this range, + where it skirts Kashmir, is 17,202 ft. above the sea. For more than 50 + m. from Nanga Parbat there are no glaciers on this range; thence + eastward they increase; one, near the Zoji-la pass, is only 10,850 ft. + above the sea. The mountains at the east end of the valley, running + nearly north and south, drain inwards to the Jhelum, and on the other + side to the Wardwan, a tributary of the Chenab. The highest part of + this eastern boundary is 14,700 ft. There no are glaciers. The highest + point on the Panjal range, which forms the south and south-west + boundary, is 15,523 ft. above the sea. + + The river Jhelum (q.v.) or Behat (Sanskrit (_Vitasta_)--the Hydaspes + of Greek historians and geographers--flows north-westward through the + middle of the valley. After a slow and winding course it expands about + 25 m. below Srinagar, over a slight depression in the plain, and forms + the Wular lake and marsh, which is about 12½ m. by 5 m. in extent, and + surrounded by the lofty mountains which tower over the north and + north-east of the valley. Leaving the lake on the south-west side, + near the town of Sopur, the river pursues its sluggish course + south-westward, about 18 m. to the gorge at Baramulla. From this point + the stream is more rapid through the narrow valley which conducts it + westward 75 m. to Muzaffarabad, where it turns sharply south, joined + by the Kishenganga. At Islamabad, about 40 m. above Srinagar, the + river is 5400 ft. above sea-level, and at Srinagar 5235 ft. It has + thus a fall of about 4 ft. per mile in this part of its course. For + the next 24 m. to the Wular lake, and thence to Baramulla, its fall is + only about 2¼ ft. in the mile. On the 80 m. of the river in the flat + valley between Islamabad and Baramulla, there is much boat traffic; + but none below Baramulla, till the river comes out into the plains. + + On the north-east side of this low narrow plain of the Jhelum is a + broad hilly tract between which and the higher boundary range runs the + Kishenganga River. Near the east end of this interior hilly tract, and + connected with the higher range, is one summit 17,839 ft. Around this + peak and between the ridges which run from it are many small glaciers. + These heights look down on one side into the beautiful valley of the + Sind River, and on another into the valley of the Lidar, which join + the Jhelum. Among the hills north of Srinagar rises one conspicuous + mountain mass, 16,903 ft. in height, from which on its north side + descend tributaries of the Kishenganga, and on the south the Wangat + River, which flows into the Sind. By these rivers and their numerous + affluents the whole valley of Kashmir is watered abundantly. + + Around the foot of many spurs of the hills which run down on the + Kashmir plain are pieces of low table-land, called karéwa. These + terraces vary in height at different parts of the valley from 100 to + 300 ft. above the alluvial plain. Those which are near each other are + mostly about the same level, and separated by deep ravines. The level + plain in the middle of the Kashmir valley consists of fine clay and + sand, with water-worn pebbles. The karewas consist of horizontal beds + of clay and sand, the lacustrine nature of which is shown by the + shells which they contain. + + Two passes lead northward from the Kashmir valley, the Burzil (13,500 + ft.) and the Kamri (14,050). The Burzil is the main pass between + Srinagar and Gilgit via Astor. It is usually practicable only between + the middle of July and the middle of September. The road from Srinagar + to Lehin Ladakh follows the Sind valley to the Zoji-la-pass (11,300 + ft.) Only a short piece of the road, where snow accumulates, prevents + this pass being used all the year. At the south-east end of the valley + are three passes, the Margan (11,500 ft.), the Hoksar (13,315) and the + Marbal (11,500), leading to the valleys of the Chenab and the Ravi. + South of Islamabad, on the direct route to Jammu and Sialkot, is the + Banihal pass (9236 ft.). Further west on the Panjal range is the Pir + Panjal or Panchal pass (11,400 ft.), with a second pass, the Rattan + Pir (8200 ft.), across a second ridge about 15 m. south-west of it. + Between the two passes is the beautifully situated fort of Baramgali. + This place is in the domain of the raja of Punch, cousin and tributary + of the maharaja of Kashmir. At Rajaori, south of these passes, the + road divides: one line leads to Bhimber and Gujrat, the other to Jammu + and Sialkot by Aknur. South-west of Baramulla is the Haji Pir pass + (8500 ft.), which indicates the road to Punch. From Punch one road + leads down to the plains at the town of Jhelum, another eastward + through the hills to the Rattan Pir pass and Rajaori. Lastly, there is + the river pass of the Jhelum, which is the easy route from the valley + westward, having two ways down to the plains, one by Muzaffarabad and + the Hazara valley to Hasan Abdal, the other by the British hill + station of Murree to Rawalpindi. + + _Geology._--The general strike of the beds, and of the folds which + have affected them, is from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the mountain + ranges. Along the south-western border lies the zone of Tertiary beds + which forms the Sub-Himalayas. Next to this is a great belt of + Palaeozoic rocks, through which rise the granite, gneiss and schist of + the Zanskar and Dhauladhar ranges and of the Pir Panjal. In the midst + of the Palaeozoic area lie the alluvium and Pleistocene deposits of + the Srinagar valley, and the Mesozoic and Carboniferous basin of the + upper part of the Sind valley. Beyond the great Palaeozoic belt is a + zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds which commences at Kargil and + extends south-eastward past the Kashmir boundary to Spiti and beyond. + Finally, in Baltistan and the Ladakh range there is a broad zone + composed chiefly of gneiss and schist of ancient date. + + The oldest fossils found belong either to the Ordovician or Silurian + systems. But it is not until the Carboniferous is reached that fossils + become at all abundant (so far as is yet known). The Mesozoic deposits + belong chiefly to the Trias and Jura, but Cretaceous beds have been + found near the head of the Tsarap valley. The Tertiary system includes + representatives of all the principal divisions recognized in other + parts of the Himalayas. + + _Climate._--The valley of Kashmir, sheltered from the south-west + monsoon by the Panjal range, has not the periodical rains of India. + Its rainfall is irregular, greatest in the spring months. Occasional + storms in the monsoon pass over the crests of the Panjal and give + heavy rain on the elevated plateaus on the Kashmir side. And again + clouds pass over the valley and are arrested by the higher hills on + the north-east side. Snow falls on the surrounding hills at intervals + from October to March. In the valley the first snow generally falls + about the end of December, but never to any great amount. The hottest + months are July, August and the greater part of September, during + which the noon shade temperature varies from 85° to 90° and + occasionally 95° at Srinagar, probably the hottest place in the + valley. The coldest months are January and February, when for several + weeks the average minimum temperature is about 15° below freezing. As + a health resort the province, excluding Srinagar, which is insanitary + and relaxing, has no rival anywhere in the neighbourhood of India. Its + climate is admirably adapted to the European constitution, and in + consequence of the varied range of temperature and the facility of + moving about the visitor is enabled with ease to select places at + elevations most congenial to him. Formerly only 200 passes a year were + issued by the government, but now no restriction is placed on + visitors, and their number increases annually. European sportsmen and + travellers, in addition to residents of India, resort there freely. + The railway to Rawalpindi, and a driving road thence to Srinagar make + the valley easy of access. When the temperature in Srinagar rises at + the beginning of June, there is a general exodus to Gulmarg, which has + become a fashionable hill-station. This great influx of visitors has + resulted in a corresponding diminution of game. Special game + preservation rules have been introduced, and _nullahs_ are let out for + stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot. + The wild animals of the country include ibex, markhor, oorial, the + Kashmir stag, and black and brown bears. Many sportsmen now cross into + Ladakh and the Pamirs. + +_People._--The great majority of the inhabitants of Kashmir are +professedly Mahommedans, but their conversion to the faith of Islam is +comparatively recent and they are still strongly influenced by their +ancient superstitions. At the census of 1901 out of a total population +in the whole state of 2,905,578, there were 2,154,695 Mahommedans, +689,073 Hindus, 35,047 Buddhists and 25,828 Sikhs. The Hindus are mostly +found in Jammu, and the Buddhists are confined to Ladakh. In Kashmir +proper the few Hindus (60,682) are almost all Brahmans, known as +Pundits. Superstition has made the Kashmiri timid; tyranny has made him +a liar; while physical disasters have made him selfish and pessimistic. +Up to recent times the cultivator lived under a system of _begar_, which +entitled an official to take either labour or commodities free of +payment from the villages. Having no security of property, the people +had no incentive to effort, and with no security for life they lost the +independence of free men. But the land settlement of 1889 swept all +these abuses away. Restrictive monopolies, under which bricks, lime, +paper and certain other manufactures were closed to private enterprise, +were abolished. The results of the settlement are thus enumerated by Sir +Walter Lawrence: "Little by little, confidence has sprung up. Land which +had no value in 1889 is now eagerly sought after by all classes. +Cultivation has extended and improved. Houses have been rebuilt and +repaired, fields fenced in, orchards planted, vegetable gardens well +stocked and new mills constructed. Women no longer are seen toiling in +the fields, for their husbands are now at home to do the work, and the +long journeys to Gilgit are a thing of the past. When the harvest is +ripe the peasant reaps it at his own good time, and not a soldier ever +enters the villages." In consequence of this improvement in their +conditions of life and of the influx of wealth into the country brought +by visitors, the Kashmiri grows every year in material prosperity and +independence of character. The Kashmir women have a reputation for +beauty which is not altogether deserved, but the children are always +pretty. + +The language spoken in Kashmir is akin to that of the Punjab, though +marked by many peculiarities. It possesses an ancient literature, which +is written in a special character (see KASHMIRI). + + _Natural Calamities._--The effect of physical calamities partly + incidental to the climate of Kashmir, upon the character of its + inhabitants has been referred to. The list includes fires, floods, + earthquakes, famines and cholera. The ravages of fire are chiefly felt + in Srinagar, where the wood houses and their thatched roofs fall an + easy prey to the flames. The national habit of carrying a _kangar_, or + small brazier, underneath the clothes for the purpose of warming the + body, is a fruitful cause of fires. Srinagar is said to have been + burnt down eighteen times. Many disastrous floods are recorded, the + greatest being the terrible inundation which followed the slipping of + the Khadanyar mountain below Baramula in A.D. 879. The channel of the + Jhelum river was blocked and a large part of the valley submerged. In + 1841 a serious flood caused great damage to life and property; there + was another in 1893, when six out of the seven bridges in Srinagar + were washed away, 25,426 acres under crops were submerged and 2225 + houses were wrecked; another flood occurred in July 1903, when the + bund between the Dal Lake and the canal gave way, and the lake rose 10 + ft. in half an hour. Between two and three thousand houses in and + around Srinagar collapsed, while over 40 miles of the tonga road were + submerged. Since the 15th century eleven great earthquakes have + occurred, all of long duration and accompanied by great loss of life. + During the 19th century there were four severe earthquakes, the last + two occurring in 1864 and 1885, when some 3500 people were killed. + Native historians record nineteen great famines, the last two + occurring in 1831 and 1877. In 1878 it was reported that only + two-fifths of the total population of the valley survived. During the + 19th century also there were ten epidemics of cholera, all more or + less disastrous, while the worst (in 1892) was probably the last. + During that year 5781 persons died in Srinagar and 5931 in the + villages. The centre of infection is generally supposed to be the + squalid capital of Srinagar, and some efforts to improve its + sanitation have been made of recent years. + + _Crops._--The staple crop of the valley is rice, which forms the chief + food of the people. Indian corn comes next; wheat, barley and oats are + also grown. Every kind of English vegetable thrives well, especially + asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarlet-runners, beetroot, + cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are met with all over the valley, + wild but bearing fruit, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, + apples, peaches, cherries, &c., equal to the best European produce. + The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, + birch and walnut. There are state departments of viticulture, hops, + horticulture and sericulture. A complete list of the flora and fauna + of the valley will be found in Sir Walter Lawrence's book on Kashmir. + + _Industries._--The chief industry of Srinagar was formerly the weaving + of the celebrated Kashmir shawl, which dates back to the days of the + emperor Baber. These shawls first became fashionable in Europe in the + reign of Napoleon, when they fetched from £10 to £100; but the + industry received a blow at the time of the Franco-German War, and the + famine of 1877 scattered the weavers. The place of the Kashmir shawl + has to some extent been taken by the Kashmir carpet, but the most + thriving industry now is that of silk-weaving. Srinagar is also + celebrated for its silver-work, papier mâché and wood-carving. The + minerals and metals of the Jammu district are promising, and a company + has been formed to work them. Coal of fair quality has been found, but + the difficulties of transport interfere with its working. + +_History._--The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called +_Rajatarangini_, was pronounced by Professor H. H. Wilson to be the only +Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the title of history can +with any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Mahommedans +when, on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to +the emperor. A translation into Persian was made by his order, and a +summary of its contents, from this Persian translation, is given by +Abu'l Fazl in the _Á'in-i-Akbari_. The _Rajatarangini_, the first of a +series of four Sanskrit histories, was written about the middle of the +12th century by P. Kalhana. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier +writings now lost. Commencing with traditional history of very early +times, it comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, 1006; the second +work, by Jonaraja, takes up the history in continuation of Kalhana's, +and, entering the Mahommedan period, gives an account of the reigns down +to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to +the accession of Fah Shah, 1486. And the fourth work, called +_Rajavalipataka_, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time +of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor +Akbar, 1588. + +In the _Rajatarangini_ it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was +formerly a lake, and that it was drained by the great _rishi_ or sage, +Kasyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills +at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, he brought in +the Brahmans to occupy it. This is still the local tradition, and in the +existing physical condition of the country we may see some ground for +the story which has taken this form. The name of Kasyapa is by history +and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief +town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kasyapa-pur--a +name which has been plausibly identified with the [Greek: Kaspapyros] of +Hecataeus (Steph. Byz., _s.v._) and [Greek: Kaspatyros] of Herodotus +(iii. 102, iv. 44). Kashmir is the country meant also by Ptolemy's +[Greek: Kaspêria]. The ancient name Kasyapa-pur was applied to the +kingdom of Kashmir when it comprehended great part of the Punjab and +extended beyond the Indus. In the 7th century Kashmir is said by the +Chinese traveller Hsüan Tsang to have included Kabul and the Punjab, and +the hill region of Gandhara, the country of the Gandarae of classical +geography. + +At an early date the Sanskrit name of the country became _KásmÍr_. The +earliest inhabitants, according to the _Rajatarangini_, were the people +called Naga, a word which signifies "snake." The history shows the +prevalence in early times of tree and serpent worship, of which some +sculptured stones found in Kashmir still retain the memorials. The town +of Islamabad is called also by its ancient name Anant-nag ("eternal +snake"). The source of the Jhelum is at Vir-nag (the powerful snake), +&c. The other races mentioned as inhabiting this country and the +neighbouring hills are Gandhari, Khasa and Daradae. The Khasa people are +supposed to have given the name Kasmir. In the _Mahabharata_ the Kasmira +and Daradae are named together among the Kshattriya races of northern +India. The question whether, in the immigration of the Aryans into +India, Kashmir was taken on the way, or entered afterwards by that +people after they had reached the Punjab from the north-west, appears to +require an answer in favour of the latter view (see vol. ii. of Dr J. +Muir's _Sanskrit Texts_). The Aryan races of Kashmir and surrounding +hills, which have at the present time separate geographical +distribution, are given by Mr Drew as _Kashmírí_ (mostly Mahommedan), in +the Kashmir basin and a few scattered places outside; _Dard_ (mostly +Mahommedan) in Gilgit and hills north of Kashmir; _Dogra_ (Hindu) in +Jamma; _Dogra_ (Mahommedan, called _Chibali_) in Punch and hill country +west of Kashmir; _Pahari_ or mountaineers (Hindu) in Kishtwar, east of +Kashmir, and hills about the valley of the Chenab. + +In the time of Asoka, about 245 B.C., one of the Indian Buddhist +missions was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara. After his death Brahmanism +revived. Then in the time of the three Kushan princes, Huvishka, Jushka +and Kanishka, who ruled over Kashmir about the beginning of the +Christian era, Buddhism was to a great extent restored, though for +several centuries the two religions existed together in Kashmir, +Hinduism predominating. Yet Kashmir, when Buddhism was gradually losing +its hold, continued to send Buddhist teachers to other lands. In this +Hindu-Buddhist period, and chiefly between the 5th and 10th centuries of +the Christian era, were erected the Hindu temples in Kashmir. In the 6th +and 7th centuries Kashmir was visited by some of the Chinese Buddhist +pilgrims to India. The country is called _Shie-mi_ in the narrative of +To Yeng and Sung Yun (578). One of the Chinese travellers of the next +century was for a time an elephant-tamer to the king of Kashmir. Hsüan +Tsang spent two years (631-633) in Kashmir (_Kia-chí-mí-lo_). He entered +by Baramula and left by the Pir Panjal pass. He describes the hill-girt +valley, and the abundance of flowers and fruits, and he mentions the +tradition about the lake. He found in Kashmir many Buddhists as well as +Hindus. In the following century the kings of Kashmir appear to have +paid homage and tribute to China, though this is not alluded to in the +Kashmir chronicle. Hindu kings continued to reign till about 1294, when +Udiana Deva was put to death by his Mahommedan vizier, Amir Shah, who +ascended the throne under the name of Shams-ud-din. + +Of the Mahommedan rulers mentioned in the Sanskrit chronicles, one, who +reigned about the close of the 14th century, has made his name prominent +by his active opposition to the Hindu religion, and his destruction of +temples. This was Sikandar, known as _But-shikan_, or the +"idol-breaker." It was in his time that India was invaded by Timur, to +whom Sikandar made submission and paid tribute. The country fell into +the hands of the Moguls in 1588. In the time of Alamgir it passed to +Ahmad Shah Durani, on his third invasion of India (1756); and from that +time it remained in the hands of Afghans till it was wrested from them +by Ranjit Singh, the Sikh monarch of the Punjab, in 1819. Eight Hindu +and Sikh governors under Ranjit Singh and his successors were followed +by two Mahommedans similarly appointed, the second of whom, Shekh +Imam-ud-din, was in charge when the battles of the first Sikh war 1846 +brought about new relations between the British Government and the +Sikhs. + +Gulab Singh, a Dogra Rajput, had from a humble position been raised to +high office by Ranjit Singh, who conferred on him the small principality +of Jammu. On the final defeat of the Sikhs at Sobraon (February 1846), +Gulab Singh was called to take a leading part in arranging conditions of +peace. The treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846) sets forth that, the British +Government having demanded, in addition to a certain assignment of +territory, a payment of a crore and a half of rupees (1½ millions +sterling), and the Sikh government being unable to pay the whole, the +maharaja (Dhulip Singh) cedes, as equivalent for one crore, the hill +country belonging to the Punjab between the Beas and the Indus, +including Kashmir and Hazara. The governor-general, Sir Henry Hardinge, +considered it expedient to make over Kashmir to the Jammu chief, +securing his friendship while the British government was administering +the Punjab on behalf of the young maharaja. Gulab Singh was well +prepared to make up the payment in default of which Kashmir was ceded to +the British; and so, in consideration of his services in restoring +peace, his independent sovereignty of the country made over to him was +recognized, and he was admitted to a separate treaty. Gulab Singh had +already, after several extensions of territory east and west of Jammu, +conquered Ladakh (a Buddhist country, and till then subject to Lhasa), +and had then annexed Skardo, which was under independent Mahommedan +rulers. He had thus by degrees half encircled Kashmir, and by this last +addition his possessions attained nearly their present form and extent. +Gulab Singh died in 1857, and was succeeded by his son, Ranbir Singh, +who died in 1885. The next ruler, Maharaja Partab Singh, G.C.S.I. (b. +1850), immediately on his accession inaugurated the settlement reforms +already described. His rule was remarkable for the reassertion of the +Kashmir sovereignty over Gilgit (q.v.). Kashmir imperial service troops +participated in the Black Mountain expedition of 1891, the Hunza Nagar +operations of 1891, and the Tirah campaign of 1897-1898. The total +revenue of the state is about £666,000. + + See Drew, _Jammu and Kashmir_ (1875); M. A. Stein, _Kalhana's + Rajatarangini_ (1900); W. R. Lawrence, _The Valley of Kashmir_ (1895); + Colonel A. Durand, _The Making of a Frontier_ (1899); R. Lydekker, + "The Geology of the Kashmir and Chamba Territories," _Records of the + Geological Survey of India_, vol. xxii. (1883); J. Duke, _Kashmir + Handbook_ (1903). (T. H. H.*) + + + + +KASHMIRI (properly _Kasmiri_), the name of the vernacular language +spoken in the valley of Kashmir (properly _Kasmir_) and in the hills +adjoining. In the Indian census of 1901 the number of speakers was +returned at 1,007,957. By origin it is the most southern member of the +Dard group of the Pisaca languages (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). The other +members of the group are Shina, spoken to its north in the country round +Gilgit, and Kohistani, spoken in the hill country on both sides of the +river Indus before it debouches on to the plains of India. The Pisaca +languages also include Khowar, the vernacular of Chitral, and the Kafir +group of speeches, of which the most important is the Bashgali of +Kafiristan. Of all these forms of speech Kashmiri is the only one which +possesses a literature, or indeed an alphabet. It is also the only one +which has been dealt with in the census of India, and it is therefore +impossible to give even approximate figures for the numbers of speakers +of the others. The whole family occupies the three-sided tract of +country between the Hindu-Kush and the north-western frontier of British +India. + +As explained in INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES, the Pisaca languages are Aryan, +but are neither Iranian nor Indo-Aryan. They represent the speech of an +independent Aryan migration over the Hindu-Kush directly into their +present inhospitable seats, where they have developed a phonetic system +of their own, while they have retained unchanged forms of extreme +antiquity which have long passed out of current use both in Persia and +in India. Their speakers appear to have left the main Aryan body after +the great fission which resulted in the Indo-Aryan migration, but before +all the typical peculiarities of Iranian speech had fully developed. +They are thus representatives of a stage of linguistic progress later +than that of Sanskrit, and earlier than that which we find recorded in +the Iranian Avesta. + +The immigrants into Kashmir must have been Shins, speaking a language +closely allied to the ancestor of the modern Shina. They appear to have +dispossessed and absorbed an older non-Aryan people, whom local +tradition now classes as Nagas, or Snake-gods, and, at an early period, +to have come themselves under the influence of Indo-Aryan immigrants +from the south, who entered the valley along the course of the river +Jhelam. The language has therefore lost most of its original Pisaca +character, and is now a mixed one. Sanskrit has been actively studied +for many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its grammar, +are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that, for convenience' +sake, it is now frequently classed (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES) as +belonging to the north-western group of languages, instead of as +belonging to the Pisaca family as its origin demands. It cannot be said +that either classification is wrong. + +Kashmiri has few dialects. In the valley there are slight changes of +idiom from place to place, but the only important variety is Kishtwari, +spoken in the hills south-west of Kashmir. Smaller dialects, such as +Pogul and Rambani of the hills south of the Banihal pass, may also be +mentioned. The language itself is an old one. Pure Kashmiri words are +preserved in the Sanskrit _Rajatarangini_ written by Kalhana in the 12th +century A.D., and, judging from these specimens, the language does not +appear to have changed materially since his time. + +_General Character of the Language._--Kashmiri is a language of great +philological interest. The two principal features which at once strike +the student are the numerous epenthetic changes of vowels and consonants +and the employment of pronominal suffixes. In both cases the phenomena +are perfectly plain, cause and effect being alike presented to the eye +in the somewhat complicated systems of declension and conjugation. The +Indo-Aryan languages proper have long ago passed through this stage, and +many of the phenomena now presented by them are due to its influence, +although all record of it has disappeared. In this way a study of +Kashmiri explains a number of difficulties found by the student of +Indo-Aryan vernaculars.[1] + + In the following account the reader is presumed to be in possession of + the facts recorded in the articles INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT, + and the following contractions will be employed: Ksh. = Kashmiri; Skr. + = Sanskrit; P. = Pisaca; Sh. = Shina. + + A. _Vocabulary._ The vocabulary of Kashmiri is, as has been explained, + mixed. At its basis it has a large number of words which are also + found in the neighbouring Shina, and these are such as connote the + most familiar ideas and such as are in most frequent use. Thus, the + personal pronouns, the earlier numerals, the words for "father," + "mother," "fire," "the sun," are all closely connected with + corresponding Shina words. There is also a large Indian element, + consisting partly of words derived from Sanskrit vocables introduced + in ancient times, and partly of words borrowed in later days from the + vernaculars of the Punjab. Finally, there is a considerable Persian + (including Arabic) element due to the long Mussulman domination of the + Happy Valley. Many of these have been considerably altered in + accordance with Kashmiri phonetic rules, so that they sometimes appear + in strange forms. Thus the Persian _lagam_, a bridle, has become + _lakam_, and the Arabic _babat_, concerning, appears as _bapat_. The + population speaking Kashmiri is mainly Mussulman, there being, roughly + speaking, nine Mahommedan Kashmiris to less than one Hindu. This + difference of religion has strongly influenced the vocabulary. The + Mussulmans use Persian and Arabic words with great freedom, while the + Hindus, or "Pandits" as they are called, confine their borrowings + almost entirely to words derived from Sanskrit. As the literary class + is mostly Hindu, it follows that Kashmiri literature, taken as a + whole, while affording most interesting and profitable study, hardly + represents the actual language spoken by the mass of the people. There + are, however, a few good Kashmiri works written by Mussulmans in their + own dialect. + + B. _Written Characters._ Mussulmans and Christian missionaries employ + an adaptation of the Persian character for their writings. This + alphabet is quite unsuited for representing the very complex Kashmiri + vowel system. Hindus employ the Sarada alphabet, of Indian origin and + akin to the well-known Nagari. Kashmiri vowel sounds can be recorded + very successfully in this character, but there is, unfortunately, no + fixed system of spelling. The Nagari alphabet is also coming into use + in printed books, no Sarada types being yet in existence. + + C. _Phonetics._ Comparing the Kashmiri with the Sanskrit alphabet (see + SANSKRIT), we must first note a considerable extension of the vowel + system. Not only does Ksh. possess the vowels _a_, _a_, _i_, _i_, _u_, + _u_, _r_, _e_, _ai_, _o_, _au_, and the _anunasika_ or nasal symbol ~, + but it has also a flat _a_ (like the _a_ in "hat") a flat _e_ (like + the _e_ in "met"), a short _o_ (like the _o_ in "hot") and a broad _å_ + (like the _a_ in "all"). It also has a series of what natives call + "_matra_-vowels," which are represented in the Roman character by + small letters above the line, viz. _^a_, _^i_, _^u_, _^u_. Of these, + _^a_ is simply a very short indeterminate sound something like that of + the Hebrew _sh^awa mobile_, except that it may sometimes be the only + vowel in a word, as in _ts^ah_, thou. The _^i_ is a hardly audible + _i_, while _^u_ and _^u_ are quite inaudible at the end of a syllable. + When ^i or ^u is followed by a consonant in the same syllable _^i_ + generally and _^u_ always becomes a full _i_ or _u_ respectively and + is so pronounced. On the other hand, in similar circumstances, _^u_ + remains unchanged in writing, but is pronounced like a short German + _ü_. It should be observed that this _^u_ always represents an older + _i_, and is still considered to be a palatal, not, like _^u_, a labial + vowel. Although these matra-vowels are so slightly heard, they + exercise a great influence on the sound of a preceding syllable. We + may compare the sound of _a_ in the English word "mar." If we add _e_ + to the end of this word we get "mare," in which the sound of the _a_ + is altogether changed, although the _e_ is not itself pronounced in + its proper place. The back-action of these matra-vowels is technically + known as _umlaut_ or "epenthesis," and is the most striking feature of + the Kashmiri language, the structure of which is unintelligible + without a thorough knowledge of the system. In the following pages + when a vowel is epenthetically affected by a matra-vowel the fact will + be denoted by a dot placed under it, thus _kar^u_. This is not the + native system, according to which the change is indicated sometimes by + a diacritical mark and sometimes by writing a different letter. The + changes of pronunciation effected by each matra-vowel are shown in the + following table. If natives employ a different letter to indicate the + change the fact is mentioned. In other cases they content themselves + with diacritical marks. When no entry is made, it should be understood + that the sound of the vowel remains unaltered:-- + + +------+--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + |Pre- | _Pronunciation when followed by_ | + |ceding+----------------+----------------+-----------------+----------------+ + |Vowel.| _a-matra_ | _i-matra_ | _u-matra_ | _u-matra_ | + +------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+----------------+ + | a. | a (ad^ar, | a^i (kar^i, pr.| ü (as in German:| o (like first | + | | be moist) (some| ka^ir^i, made, | kar^u, pr. kür, | o in "promote";| + | | thing like a | plural masc.) | made, fem. | kar^u, pr. kor,| + | | short German ö)| | sing.) | made, masc. | + | | | | | sing.) | + | | | | | | + | /a. | ö (kañ^ar, | ö^i (German ö; | ö (mar^u, pr. | å (mar^u, pr. | + | | pr. köñ^ar, | mar^i, pr. | mör, killed, | mår, written, | + | | make one-eyed) | mö^ir^i, | fem. sing.) | mor^u, killed, | + | | (like a long | killed, masc. | | masc. sing.) | + | | German ö) | plur.) | | | + | | | | | | + | i. | -- | -- | yü (liv^u, pr. | yu (liv^u, pr. | + | | | | lyüv, plastered,| lyuv, written | + | | | | fem. sing.) | lyuv^u, plas- | + | | | | | tered, masc. | + | | | | | sing.) | + | | | | | | + | /i. | -- | -- | -- | yu (nil^u, pr. | + | | | | | nyul, written | + | | | | | nyul^u, blue, | + | | | | | masc. sing.) | + | | | | | | + | u. | -- | u^i (gur^i, pr.| -- | -- | + | | | gu^ir^i, | | | + | | | horses) | | | + | | | | | | + | /u. | -- | u^i (gur^i, pr.| -- | -- | + | | | gu^ir^i, | | | + | | | cowherds) | | | + | | | | | | + | )e. | i (led^ar, | -- | yü (tsel^u, pr. | yu (tsel^u, pr.| + | | pr. lid^ar, | | tsyül, squeezed,| tsyul, written | + | | be yellow) | | fem. sing.) | tsyul^u, | + | | | | | squeezed, | + | | | | | masc. sing.) | + | | | | | | + | /e. | -- | i (pher^i, pr. | i (pher^u, pr. | yu (pher^u pr. | + | | | and written | phir, written, | phyur, written | + | | | phir^i, turned,| phir^u, turned, | phyur^u, | + | | | masc. plur.) | fem. sing.) | turned, masc. | + | | | | | sing.) | + | | | | | | + | )o. | u (hokh^ar, | o^i (woth^i, | u (woth^u, pr. | o (woth^u pr. | + | | pr. hukh^ar, | pr. (woth^u, | wüth, arisen, | woth, arisen, | + | | make dry) | arisen, masc. | fem. sing.) | masc. sing.) | + | | | plur.) | | | + | | | | | | + | /o. | -- | u^i (bu^iz^i, | u (boz^u, pr. | u (boz^u, pr. | + | | | pr. bu^iz^i, | buz, written, | buz, written | + | | | written buz^i, | buz^u, heard, | buz^u, heard, | + | | | heard. masc. | fem. sing.) | masc. sing.) | + | | | plur.) | | | + +------+----------------+----------------+-----------------+----------------+ + + The letters _u_ and _i_, even when not _u_-matra or _i_-matra, often + change a preceding long _a_ to _å_, which is usually written _o_, and + _a_ respectively. Thus _rawukh_, they have lost, is pronounced + _råwukh_, and, in the native character, is written _rowukh_. + Similarly _malis_ becomes _malis_ (_mölis_). The diphthong _ai_ is + pronounced _ö_ when it commences a word; thus, _aith_, eight, is + pronounced _öth_. When _i_ and _u_ commence a word they are pronounced + _yi_ and _wu_ respectively. With one important exception, common to + all Pisaca languages, Kashmiri employs every consonant found in the + Sanskrit alphabet. The exception is the series of aspirated + consonants, _gh_, _jh_, _dh_, _dh_ and _bh_, which are wanting in + Ksh., the corresponding unaspirated consonants being substituted for + them. Thus, Skr. _ghotakas_, but Ksh. _gur^u_, a horse; Skr. + _bhavati_, Ksh. _bovi_, he will be. There is a tendency to use dental + letters where Hindi employs cerebrals, as in Hindi _uth_, Ksh. _woth_, + arise. Cerebral letters are, however, owing to Sanskrit influence, on + the whole better preserved in Ksh. than in the other Pisaca languages. + The cerebral _s_ has almost disappeared, _s_ being employed instead. + The only common word in which it is found is the numeral _sah_, six, + which is merely a learned spelling for _sah_, due to the influence of + the Skr. _sat_. From the palatals _c_, _ch_, _j_, a new series of + consonants has been formed, viz. _ts_, _tsh_ (aspirate of _ts_--i.e. + _ts_ + _h_, not _t_ + _sh_), and _z_ (as in English, not _dz_). Thus, + Skr. _coras_, Ksh. _tsur_, a thief; Skr. _chalayati_, Ksh. _tshali_, + he will deceive; Skr. _jalam_, Ksh. _zal_, water. The sibilant _s_, + and occasionally _s_, are frequently represented by _h_. Thus, Skr. + _dasa_, Ksh. _dah_, ten; Skr. _siras_, Ksh. _hir_, a head. We may + compare with this the Persian word _Hind_, India (compare the Greek + [Greek: Indos], an Indian), derived from the Skr. _Sindhus_, the river + Indus. When such an _h_ is followed by a palatal letter the _s_ + returns; thus, from the base _his-_, like this, we have the nominative + masculine _hih^u_, but the feminine _his^u_, and the abstract noun + _hisyar_, because _^u_ and _y_ are palatal letters. + + The palatal letters _i_, _e_, _u-matra_ and _y_ often change a + preceding consonant. The modifications will be seen from the following + examples: _rat-_, night; nom. plur. _rats^u_; _woth_, arise; + _wotsh^u_, she arose: _lad_, build; _laz^u_, she was built: _ran_, + cook; _rañ^u_, she was cooked; _pat^u_, a tablet; Ag. sing. _paci_: + _kath-_, a stalk; nom. plur. _kache: bad-_, great; nom. plur. fem. + _baje_: _batuk^u_, a duck; fem. _bat^ac^u_: _hokh^u_, dry; fem. + _hoch^u; srog^u_, cheap; _srojyar_, cheapness: _wal^u_, a ring; fem. + _waj^u_, a small ring; _los_, be weary; _los^u_ or _lots^u_, she was + weary. These changes are each subject to certain rules. Cerebral + letters (_t_, _th_, _d_) change only before _i_, _e_ or _y_, and not + before _u-matra_. The others, on the contrary, do not change _i_, but + do change before _e_, _y_ or _u-matra_. + + No word can end in an unaspirated surd consonant. If such a consonant + falls at the end of a word it is aspirated. Thus, _ak_, one, becomes + _akh_ (but acc. _akis_); _kat_, a ram, becomes _kath_; and hat, a + hundred, _hath_. + + D. _Declension_. If the above phonetic rules are borne in mind, + declension in Kashmiri is a fairly simple process. If attention is not + paid to them, the whole system at once becomes a field of inextricable + confusion. In the following pages it will be assumed that the reader + is familiar with them. + + Nouns substantive and adjective have two genders, a masculine and a + feminine. Words referring to males are masculine, and to females are + feminine. Inanimate things are sometimes masculine and sometimes + feminine. Pronouns have three genders, arranged on a different + principle. One gender refers to male living beings, another to female + living beings, and a third (or neuter) to all inanimate things whether + they are grammatically masculine or feminine. Nouns ending in _^u_ are + masculine, and most, but not all, of those ending in _^i_, _^u_, _e_ + or _ñ_ are feminine. Of nouns ending in consonants, some are + masculine, and some are feminine. No rule can be formulated regarding + these, except that all abstract nouns ending in _ar_ (a very numerous + class) are masculine. There are four declensions. The first consists + of masculine nouns ending in a consonant, in _a_, _e_ or _^u_ (very + few of these last two). The second consists of the important class of + masculine nouns in _^u_; the third of feminine nouns in _^i_, _^u_, or + _ñ_ (being the feminines corresponding to the masculine nouns of the + second declension); and the fourth of feminine nouns ending in _^a_, + _e_ or a consonant. + + The noun possesses two numbers, a singular and a plural, and in each + number there are, besides the nominative, three organic cases, the + accusative, the case of the agent (see below, under "verbs"), and the + ablative. The accusative, when not definite, may also be the same in + form as the nominative. The following are the forms which a noun takes + in each declension, the words chosen as examples being: First + declension, _tsur_, a thief; second declension, _mal^u_, a father; + third declension, _maj^u_, a mother; fourth declension, (a) _mal_, a + garland, (b) _rat-_, night. + + +------+------------+----------------+------------+-------------------------+ + | | First | Second | Third | Fourth Declension. | + | | Declension.| Declension. | Declension.| a. b. | + +------+------------+----------------+------------+-------+-----------------+ + |Sing.:| | | | | | + | Nom. | tsur | mal^u (pr. mål)| maj^u (möj)| mal | rath | + | Acc. | tsuras | malis (mölis) | maje | mali | rats^u (röts) | + | Ag. | tsuran | mal^i (mö^il^i)| maji | mali | rats^u (röts) | + | Abl. | tsura | mali | maji | mali | rats^u (röts) | + |Plur.:| | | | | | + | Nom | tsur | mal^i (mö^il^i)| maje | mala | rats^u (röts) | + | Acc. | tsuran | malen | majen | malan | rats^un (rötsün)| + | Ag. | | | | | | + | and | | | | | | + | Abl. | tsurau | malyau | majyau | malau | rats^uv (rötsüv)| + +------+------------+----------------+------------+-------+-----------------+ + + + The declension 4_b_ is confined to certain nouns in _t_, _th_, _d_, + _n_, _h_ and _l_, in which the final consonant is liable to change + owing to a following _u-matra_. + + Other cases are formed (as in true Indo-Aryan languages) by the + addition of postpositions, some of which are added to the accusative, + while others are added to the ablative case. To the former are added + _manz_, in; _kit^u_, to or for; _sutin_, with, and others. To the + ablative are added _sutin_, when it signifies "by means of"; _putshy_, + for; _peth^a_, from, and others. For the genitive, masculine nouns in + the singular, signifying animate beings, take _sand^u_, and if they + signify things without life, take _k^u_. All masculine plural nouns + and all feminine nouns whether singular or plural take _hand^u_. + _Sand^u_ and _hand^u_ are added to the accusative, which drops a final + _s_, while _k^u_ is added to the ablative. Thus, _tsura sand^u_, of + the thief; _mal^i sand^u_, of the father; _sonak^u_ (usually written + _sonuk^u_), of gold (_son_, abl. sing. _sona_); _tsuran nand^u_, of + thieves; _karen hand^u_, of bracelets (second declension); _maje + hand^u_, of the mother; _majen hand^u_, of the mothers. Masculine + proper names, however, take _n^u_ in the singular, as in + _Radhakrsnan^u_ of Radhakrishna. These genitive terminations, and also + the dative termination _kit^u_, are adjectives, and agree with the + governing noun in gender, number and case. Thus, _tsura sand^u + neciv^u_, the son of the thief; _tsura sand^i neciv^i_, by the son of + the thief; _tsura sanz^u kor^u_, the daughter of the thief; _kulik^u + lang_, a bough of the tree; _kulic^u land^u_, a twig of the tree. + _Sand^u_, has fem. sing. _sanz^u_, masc. plur. _sand^i_, fem. plur. + _sanza_. Similarly _hand^u_. _K^u_ has fem. sing. _c^u_, masc. plur. + _k^i_, fem. plur. _ce_; _n^u_, fem. sing. _ñ_, masc. plur. _n^i_, fem. + plur. _ñe_. Similarly for the dative we have the following forms: + _malis kit^u pañ^u_, water (masc.) for the father; _malis kits^u gav_, + a cow for the father; _malis kit^i rav_, blankets (masc. plur.) for + the father; _malis kitsa pothe_, books (fem. plur.) for the father. + All these postpositions of the genitive and _kit^u_ of the dative are + declined regularly as substantives, the masculine ones belonging to + the second declension and the feminine ones to the third. Note that + the feminine plural of _sand^u_ is _sanza_, not _sanze_, as we might + expect; so also feminine nouns in _ts^u_, _tsh^u_, _z^u_ and _s^u_. + + Adjectives ending in _^u_ (second declension) form the feminine in + _^u_, with the usual changes of the preceding consonant. Thus _tat^u_, + hot, fem. _tats^u_ (pronounced _tüts_). Other adjectives do not change + for gender. All adjectives agree with the qualified noun in gender, + number and case, the postposition, if any, being added to the latter + word of the two. Take, for example, _chat^u_, white, and _gur^u_, a + horse. From these we have _chat^u gur^u_, a white horse; acc. sing. + _chatis guris_; nom. plur. _chat^i gur^i_; and _chatyau guryau sutin_, + by means of white horses. + + The first two personal pronouns are _boh_, I; _me_, me, by me; _as^i_, + we; _ase_, us, by us; and _ts^ah_, thou; _tse_, thee, by thee; + _toh^i_, ye; _tohe_ you, by you. Possessive pronouns are employed + instead of the genitive. Thus, _myan^u_, my; _san^u_, our; _cyan^u_, + thy; _tuhand^u_, your. For the third person, we have sing. masc. + _suh_, fem. _soh_, neut. _tih_; acc. sing. (masc. or fem.) _tamis_ or + _tas_, neut. _tath_; agent sing. masc. neut. _tam^i_, fem. _tami_. The + plural is of common gender throughout. Nom. _tim_; acc. _timan_; ag. + _timau_. The possessive pronoun is _tasand^u_, of him, of her; + _tamyuk^n_, of it; _tihand^u_, of them. The neuter gender is used for + all things without life. + + Other pronouns are:--This: _yih_ (com. gen.); acc. masc. fem. _yimis_, + or _nomis_, neut, _yith_, _noth_; ag. masc. neut., _yim^i_, _nom^i_, + fem. _yimi_, _nomi_; nom. plur. _yim_, fem. _yima_, and so on. + + That (within sight): masc. neut. _huh_, fem. _hoh_; acc. masc. fem. + _humis_ or _amis_, neut. _huth_, and so on; nom. plur. masc _hum_. + + Who, masc. _yus_, fem. _yossa_, neut. _yih_; acc. masc. fem. _yemis_, + _yes_, neut. _yeth_; ag. masc. neut. _yem^i_, fem. _yemi_; nom. plur. + masc. _yim_, and so on. + + Who? masc. _kus_, fem. _kossa_, neut. _kyah_; acc. masc. fem. _kamis_, + _kas_, neut. _kath_; ag. masc. neut. _kam^i_, fem. _kami_; nom. plur. + masc. _kam_. + + Self, _pana_. Anyone, someone, _kah_, _kuh_, or _katshah_, neut. + _ketshah_. + + Kashmiri makes very free use of pronominal suffixes, which are added + to verbs to supply the place of personal terminations. These represent + almost any case, and are as follows:-- + + +--------+---------------+----------------+---------------+ + | | First Person. | Second Person. | Third Person. | + | +---------------+----------------+---------------+ + | Sing.--| | | | + | Nom. | _s_ | _kh_, _h_ | none | + | Acc. | _m_ | _th_, _y_ | _s_ | + | Dat. | _m_ | _y_ | _s_ | + | Ag. | _m_ | _th_, _y_ | _n_ | + | Plur.--| | | | + | Nom. | none | _wa_ | none | + | Other | | | | + | cases | none | _wa_ | _kh_, _h_ | + +--------+---------------+----------------+---------------+ + + Before these the verbal terminations are often slightly changed for + the sake of euphony, and, when necessary for the pronunciation, the + vowel _a_ is inserted as a junction vowel. + + In this connexion we may mention another set of suffixes also commonly + added to verbs, with an adverbial force. Of these _na_ negatives the + verb, as in _chuh_, he is; _chuna_, he is not; _a_ asks a question, + as in _chwa_, is he? _ti_ adds emphasis, as in _chuti_, he is indeed; + and _tya_ asks a question with emphasis, as in _chutya_, is he indeed? + + Two or three suffixes may be employed together, as in _kar^u_, was + made, _karu-m_, was made by me, _kar^u-m-akh_, thou wast made by me; + _kar^u-m-akh-a_, wast thou made by me? The two _kh_ suffixes become + _h_ when they are followed by a pronominal suffix commencing with a + vowel, as in _kar^u-h-as_ (for _kar^u-kh-as_), I was made by them. + + E. _Conjugation._ As in the case of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, + the conjugation of the verb is mainly participial. Three only of the + old tenses, the present, the future and the imperative have survived, + the first having become a future, and the second a past conditional. + These three we may call radical tenses. The rest, viz. the Kashmiri + present, imperfect, past, aorist, perfect and other past tenses are + all participial. + + The verb substantive, which is also used as an auxiliary verb, has two + tenses, a present and a past. The former is made by adding the + pronominal suffixes of the nominative to a base _chu(h)_, and the + latter by adding the same to a base _as^u_. Thus:-- + + +---+--------------------------------------+------------------------------------+ + | | _Singular_ | _Plural_ | + | +------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + | | Masculine | Feminine | Masculine | Feminine | + +---+------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + | 1 | chu-s , I am | che-s, I am | _chih_, we are | _cheh_, we are | + | 2 | chu-kh, thou art | che-kh, thou art | chi-wa, you are | che-wa, you are | + | 3 | chuh, he is | cheh, she is | chih, they are | cheh, they are | + +---+------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + | 1 | asu-s, I was | as^u-s, I was | as^i, we were | asa, we were | + | 2 | asu-kh, thou wast| as^u-kh, thou wast| as^i-wa, you were| asa-wa, you were| + | 3 | as^u, he was | as^u, she was | as^i, they were | asa, they were | + +---+------------------+-------------------+------------------+-----------------+ + + As for the finite verb, the modern future (old present), and the past + conditional (old future) do not change for gender, and do not employ + suffixes, but retain relics of the old personal terminations of the + tenses from which they are derived. They are thus conjugated, taking + the verbal root _kar_, as the typical verb. + + +---+--------------------------+--------------------------------------| + | | Future, I shall make, &c.|Past Conditional, (if) I had made, &c.| + | +------------+-------------+-----------------+--------------------+ + | | _Singular_ | _Plural_ | _Singular_ | _Plural_ | + +---+------------+-------------+-----------------+--------------------+ + | 1 | kara | karav | karahå | karahåv | + | 2 | karakh | kariv | karahåkh | kar^ihiv | + | 3 | kari | karan | karihe | karahån | + +---+------------+-------------+-----------------+--------------------+ + + For the imperative we have 2nd person singular, _kar_, plur. _kariv_; + third person singular and plural _karin_. + + Many of the above forms will be intelligible from a consideration of + the closely allied Sanskrit, although they are not derived from that + language; but some (e.g. those of the second person singular) can only + be explained by the analogy of the Iranian and of the Pisaca + languages. + + The present participle is formed by adding _an_ to the root; thus, + _karan_, making. It does not change for gender. From this we get a + present and an imperfect, formed by adding respectively the present + and past tenses of the auxiliary verb. Thus, _karan chus_, I + (masculine) am making, I make; _karan ches_, I (feminine) am making, I + make; _karan asus_, I (masculine) was making; and so on. + + There are several past participles, all of which are liable to change + for gender, and are utilized in conjugation. We have:-- + + +-------------------------+--------------------------+------------------------+ + | | _Singular_ | _Plural_ | + | +------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ + | | Masculine | Feminine | Masculine | Feminine | + +-------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ + | Weak past participle | kar^u | kar^u | kar^i | kare | + | Strong past participle | karyov | karyeya | karyey | karyeya | + | Pluperfect participle | karyav | karyeya | kareyey | karyeya | + | Compound past participle| kar^umat^u | kar^umats^u | kar^imat^i | karematsa | + +-------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-----------+ + + In the strong past participle and the pluperfect participle, the final + _v_ and _y_ (like the final _h_ of _chuh_ quoted above) are not parts + of the original words, but are only added for the sake of euphony. The + true words are _karyo_, _karye_, _karya_ and _karyeye_. There are + three conjugations. The first includes all transitive verbs. These + have both the weak and the strong past participles. The second + conjugation consists of sixty-six common intransitive verbs, which + also have both of these participles. The third conjugation consists of + the remaining intransitive verbs. These have only the strong past + participle. The weak past participle in the first two conjugations + refers to something which has lately happened, and is used to form an + immediate past tense. The strong past participle is more indefinite, + and is employed to form a tense corresponding to the Greek aorist. The + pluperfect participle refers to something which happened a long time + ago, and is used to form the past tense of narration. As the third + conjugation has no weak past participle, the strong past participle is + employed to make the immediate past, and the pluperfect participle is + employed to make the aorist past, while the new pluperfect participle + is formed to make the tense of narration. Thus, from the root _wuph_, + fly (third conjugation) we have _wuphyov_, he flew just now, while + _karyov_ (first conjugation) means "he was made at some indefinite + time"; _wuphyav_, he flew at some indefinite time, but _karyav_, he + was made a long time ago; finally, the new participle of the third + conjugation, _wuphiyav_, he flew a long time ago. + + The corresponding tenses are formed by adding pronominal suffixes to + the weak, the strong, or the pluperfect participle. In the last two + the final _v_ and _y_, being no longer required by euphony, are + dropped. In the case of transitive verbs the participles are passive + by derivation and in signification, and hence the suffix indicating + the subject must be in the agent case. Thus _kar^u_ means "made." For + "I made" we must say "made by me," _karu-m_; for "thou madest," + _karu-th_, made by thee, and so on. If the thing made is feminine the + participle must be feminine, and similarly if it is plural it must be + plural. Thus, _karu-m_, I made him; _kar^u-m_, I made her; _kari-m_, I + made them (masculine); and _kare-m_, I made them (feminine). Similarly + from the other two participles we have _karyo-m_, I made him; + _karyeya-m_, I made her; _karya-m_, I made him (a long time ago). The + past participles of intransitive verbs are not passive, and hence the + suffix indicating the subject must be in the nominative form. Thus + _tsal^u_, escaped (second conjugation); _tsalu-s_, escaped-I, I + (masculine) escaped; _tsaj^ü-s_, I (feminine) escaped, and so on. + Similarly for the third conjugation, _wuphyov_, flew; _wuphyo-s_, I + (masculine) flew; _wuphyeya-s_, I (feminine) flew, &c. + + As explained above, these suffixes may be piled one on another. As a + further example we may give _kar^u_, made; _karu-n_, made by him, he + made; _karu-n-as_, made by him I, he made me, or (as -_s_ also means + "for him") he made for him; _karu-n-as-a_, did he make me? or, did he + make for him? and so on. + + Tenses corresponding to the English perfect and pluperfect are formed + by conjugating the auxiliary verb, adding the appropriate suffixes, + with the compound past participle. Thus _kar^umat^u chu-n-as_, made + am-by-him-I, he has made me; _tsal^umat^u chu-kh_, escaped art thou, + thou hast escaped; _wuphyomat^u chu-s_, flown am-I, I have flown. + Similarly for the pluperfect, _kar^umat^u asu-n-as_, made + was-by-him-I, he had made me, and so on. + + Many verbs have irregular past participles. Thus _mar_, die, has + _mud^u_; _di_, give, has _dit^u_; _khi_, eat, has _khyauv_ for its + weak, and _kheyov_ for its strong participle, while _ni_, take, has + _nyuv_ and _niyov_, respectively. Others must be learnt from the + regular grammars. + + The infinitive is formed by adding -_un_ to the root; thus _kar-un_, + to make. It is declined like a somewhat irregular noun of the first + declension, its accusative being _karanas_. There are three forms of + the noun of agency, of which typical examples are _kar-awun^u_, + _kar-an-wal^u_, and _kar-an-grakh_, a maker. + + The passive is formed by conjugating the verb _yi_, come, with the + ablative of the infinitive. Thus, _karana yiwan chuh_, it is coming by + making, or into making, i.e. it is being made. A root is made active + or causal by adding -_anaw_, -_aw_, or -_^araw_. Thus, _kar-anaw_, + cause to make; _kumal_, be tender, _kumal-aw_, make tender; _kal_, be + dumb, _kal-^araw_, make dumb. Some verbs take one form and some + another, and there are numerous irregularities, especially in the case + of the last. + + F. _Indeclinables._ Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions + and interjections) must be learnt from the dictionary. The number of + interjections is very large, and they are distinguished by minute + rules depending on the gender of the person addressed and the exact + amount of respect due to him. + +_Literature._--Kashmiri possesses a somewhat extensive literature, which +has been very little studied. The missionary William Carey published in +1821 a version of the New Testament (in the Sarada character), which was +the first book published in the language. In 1885 the Rev. J. Hinton +Knowles published at Bombay a collection of Kashmiri proverbs and +sayings, and K. F. Burkhard in 1895 published an edition of Mahmud +Gami's poem on Yusuf and Zulaikha. This, with the exception of later +translations of the Scriptures in the Persian character and a few minor +works, is all the literature that has been printed or about which +anything has been written. Mahmud Gami's poem is valuable as an example +of the Kashmiri used by Mussulmans. For Hindu literature, we may quote a +history of Krishna by Dinanatha. The very popular _Lalla-vakya_, a poem +on Saiva philosophy by a woman named _Lalladevi_, is said to be the +oldest work in the language which has survived. Another esteemed work is +the _Siva Parinaya_ of Krsna Rajanaka, a living author. These and other +books which have been studied by the present writer have little +independent value, being imitations of Sanskrit literature. Nothing is +known about the dates of most of the authors. + + AUTHORITIES.--The scientific study of Kashmiri is of very recent date. + The only printed lexicographical work is a short vocabulary by W. J. + Elmslie (London, 1872). K. F. Burkhard brought out a grammar of the + Mussulman dialect in the _Proceedings of the Royal Bavarian Academy of + Science_ for 1887-1889, of which a translation by G. A. Grierson + appeared in the _Indian Antiquary_ of 1895 and the following years + (reprinted as a separate publication, Bombay, 1897). T. R. Wade's + Grammar (London, 1888) is the merest sketch, and the only attempt at a + complete work of the kind in English is G. A. Grierson's _Essays on + Kaçmiri Grammar_ (London and Calcutta, 1899). A valuable native + grammar in Sanskrit, the _Kasmirasabdamrta_ of Isvara Kaula, has been + edited by the same writer (Calcutta, 1888). For an examination of the + origin of Kashmiri grammatical forms and the Pisaca question + generally, see G. A. Grierson's "On Certain Suffixes in the Modern + Indo-Aryan Vernaculars" in the _Zeitschrift für Vergleichende + Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der Indogermanischen Sprachen_ for + 1903 and _The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India_ (London, 1906). + + The only important text which has been published is Burkhard's + edition, with a partial translation, of Mahmud Gami's "Yusuf and + Zulaikha" in the _Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen + Gesellschaft_ for 1895 and 1899. The text of the _Siva Parinaya_, + edited by G. A. Grierson, is in course of publication by the Asiatic + Society of Bengal. (G. A. Gr.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See G. A. Grierson, "On Pronominal Suffixes in the Kaçmiri + Languages," and "On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the Modern + Indo-Aryan Languages," in _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, + vol. lxiv. (1895), pt. i. pp. 336 and 352. + + + + +KASHUBES (sing. _Kaszub_, plur. _Kaszebe_), a Slavonic people numbering +about 200,000, and living on the borders of West Prussia and Pomerania, +along the Baltic coast between Danzig and Lake Garden, and inland as far +as Konitz. They have no literature and no history, as they consist of +peasants and fishermen, the educated classes being mostly Germans or +Poles. Their language has been held to be but a dialect of Polish, but +it seems better to separate it, as in some points it is quite +independent, in some it offers a resemblance to the language of the +Polabs (q.v.). This is most seen in the western dialect of the so-called +Slovinci (of whom there are about 250 left) and Kabatki, whereas the +eastern Kashube is more like Polish, which is encroaching upon and +assimilating it. Lorentz calls the western dialect a language, and +distinguishes 38 vowels. The chief points of Kashube as against Polish +are that all its vowels can be nasal instead of a and e only, that it +has preserved quantity and a free accent, has developed several special +vowels, e.g. _ö, oe, ü_, and has preserved the original order, e.g. +_gard_ as against _grod_. The consonants are very like Polish. (See also +SLAVS.) + + AUTHORITIES.--F. Lorentz, _Slovinzische Grammatik_ (St Petersburg, + 1903) and "Die gegenseitigen Verhältnisse der sogen. Lechischen + Sprachen," in _Arch. f. Slav. Phil._ xxiv. (1902); J. Baudouin de + Courtenay, "Kurzes Resumé der Kaschubischen Frage," ibid. xxvi. + (1904); G. Bronisch, _Kaschubische Dialektstudien_ (Leipzig, + 1896-1898); S. Ramult, _Stownik jezyka pomorskiego czyli + kaszubskiego_, i.e. "Dictionary of the Seacoast (Pomeranian) or + Kashube Language" (Cracow, 1893). (E. H. M.) + + + + +KASIMOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazañ, on the Oka +river, in 54° 56´ N. and 41° 3´ E., 75 m. E.N.E. of Ryazañ. Pop. (1897), +13,545, of whom about 1000 were Tatars. It is famed for its tanneries +and leather goods, sheepskins and post-horse bells. Founded in 1152, it +was formerly known as Meshcherski Gorodets. In the 15th century it +became the capital of a Tatar khanate, subject to Moscow, and so +remained until 1667. The town possesses a cathedral, and a mosque +supposed to have been built by Kasim, founder of the Tatar principality. +Near the mosque stands a mausoleum built by Shah-Ali in 1555. Lying on +the direct road from Astrakhan to Moscow and Nizhniy-Novgorod, Kasimov +is a place of some trade, and has a large annual fair in July. The +waiters in the best hotels of St Petersburg are mostly Kasimov Tatars. + + See Veliaminov-Zernov, _The Kasimov Tsars_ (St Petersburg, 1863-1866). + + + + +KASSA (Germ. _Kaschau_; Lat. _Cassovia_), the capital of the county of +Abauj-Torna, in Hungary, 170 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), +35,856. Kassa is one of the oldest and handsomest towns of Hungary, and +is pleasantly situated on the right bank of the Hernád. It is surrounded +on three sides by hills covered with forests and vineyards, and opens to +the S.E. towards a pretty valley watered by the Hernád and the Tarcza. +Kassa consists of the inner town, which was the former old town +surrounded with walls, and of three suburbs separated from it by a +broad glacis. The most remarkable building, considered the grandest +masterpiece of architecture in Hungary, is the Gothic cathedral of St +Elizabeth. Begun about 1270 by Stephen V., it was continued (1342-1382) +by Queen Elizabeth, wife of Charles I., and her son Louis I., and +finished about 1468, in the reign of Matthias I. (Corvinus). The +interior was transformed in the 18th century to the Renaissance style, +and the whole church thoroughly restored in 1877-1896. The church of St +Michael and the Franciscan or garrison church date from the 13th +century. The royal law academy, founded in 1659, and sanctioned by +golden bull of King Leopold I. in 1660, has an extensive library; there +are also a museum, a Roman Catholic upper gymnasium and seminary for +priests, and other schools and benevolent institutions. Kassa is the see +of a Roman Catholic bishopric. It is the chief political and commercial +town of Upper Hungary, and the principal _entrepôt_ for the commerce +between Hungary and Galicia. Its most important manufactures are +tobacco, machinery, iron, furniture, textiles and milling. About 3 m. +N.W. of the town are the baths of Bankó, with alkaline and ferruginous +springs, and about 12 m. N.E. lies Ránk-Herlein, with an intermittent +chalybeate spring. About 20 m. W. of Kassa lies the famous +Premonstratensian abbey of Jászó, founded in the 12th century. The abbey +contains a rich library and valuable archives. In the neighbourhood is a +fine stalactite grotto, which often served as a place of refuge to the +inhabitants in war time. + +Kassa was created a town and granted special privileges by Béla IV. in +1235, and was raised to the rank of a royal free town by Stephen V. in +1270. In 1290 it was surrounded with walls. The subsequent history +presents a long record of revolts, sieges and disastrous conflagrations. +In 1430 the plague carried off a great number of the inhabitants. In +1458 the right of minting money according to the pattern and value of +the Buda coinage was granted to the municipality by King Matthias I. The +bishopric was established in 1804. In the revolutionary war of 1848-49 +the Hungarians were twice defeated before the walls of Kassa by the +Austrians under General Schlick, and the town was held successively by +the Austrians, Hungarians and Russians. + + + + +KASSALA, a town and _mudiria_ of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The town, a +military station of some importance, lies on the river Gash (Mareb) in +15° 28´ N., 36° 24´ E., 260 m. E.S.E. of Khartum and 240 m. W. of +Massawa, the nearest seaport. Pop. about 20,000. It is built on a plain, +1700 ft. above the sea, at the foot of the Abyssinian highlands 15 m. W. +of the frontier of the Italian colony of Eritrea. Two dome-shaped +mountains about 2600 ft. high, jebels Mokram and Kassala, rise abruptly +from the plain some 3 m. to the east and south-east. These mountains and +the numerous gardens Kassala contains give to the place a picturesque +appearance. The chief buildings are of brick, but most of the natives +dwell in grass _tukls_. A short distance from the town is Khatmia, +containing a tomb mosque with a high tower, the headquarters of the +Morgani family. The sheikhs El Morgani are the chiefs of a religious +brotherhood widely spread and of considerable influence in the eastern +Sudan. The Morgani family are of Afghan descent. Long settled in Jidda, +the head of the family removed to the Sudan about 1800 and founded the +Morgani sect. Kassala was founded by the Egyptians in 1840 as a +fortified post from which to control their newly conquered territory +near the Abyssinian frontier. In a few years it grew into a place of +some importance. In November 1883 it was besieged by the dervishes. The +garrison held out till the 30th of July 1885 when owing to lack of food +they capitulated. Kassala was captured from the dervishes by an Italian +force under Colonel Baratieri on the 17th of July 1894 and by the +Italians was handed over on Christmas day 1897 to Egypt. The bulk of the +inhabitants are Hallenga "Arabs." + +Kassala _mudiria_ contains some of the most fertile land in the +Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It corresponds roughly with the district formerly +known as Taka. It is a region of light rainfall, and cultivation depends +chiefly on the Gash flood. The river is however absolutely dry from +October to June. White durra of excellent quality is raised. + + + + +KASSASSIN, a village of Lower Egypt 22 m. by rail W. of Ismailia on the +Suez Canal. At this place, on the 28th of August and again on the 9th of +September 1882 the British force operating against Arabi Pasha was +attacked by the Egyptians--both attacks being repulsed (see EGYPT: +_Military Operations_). + + + + +KASSITES, an Elamite tribe who played an important part in the history +of Babylonia. They still inhabited the north-western mountains of Elam, +immediately south of Holwan, when Sennacherib attacked them in 702 B.C. +They are the Kossaeans of Ptolemy, who divides Susiana between them and +the Elymaeans; according to Strabo (xi. 13, 3, 6) they were the +neighbours of the Medes. Th. Nöldeke (_Gött. G. G._, 1874, pp. 173 seq.) +has shown that they are the Kissians of the older Greek authors who are +identified with the Susians by Aeschylus (_Choeph._ 424, Pers. 17, 120) +and Herodotus (v. 49, 52). We already hear of them as attacking +Babylonia in the 9th year of Samsu-iluna the son of Khammurabi, and +about 1780 B.C. they overran Babylonia and founded a dynasty there which +lasted for 576 years and nine months. In the course of centuries, +however, they were absorbed into the Babylonian population; the kings +adopted Semitic names and married into the royal family of Assyria. Like +the other languages of the non-Semitic tribes of Elam that of the +Kassites was agglutinative; a vocabulary of it has been handed down in a +cuneiform tablet, as well as a list of Kassite names with their Semitic +equivalents. It has no connexion with Indo-European, as has erroneously +been supposed. Some of the Kassite deities were introduced into the +Babylonian pantheon, and the Kassite tribe of Khabira seems to have +settled in the Babylonian plain. + + See Fr. Delitzsch, _Die Sprache der Kossäer_ (1884). (A. H. S.) + + + + +KASTAMUNI, or KASTAMBUL. (1) A vilayet of Asia Minor which includes +Paphlagonia and parts of Pontus and Galatia. It is divided into four +sanjaks--Kastamuni, Boli, Changra and Sinope--is rich in mineral wealth, +and has many mineral springs and extensive forests, the timber being +used for charcoal and building and the bark for tanning. The products +are chiefly cereals, fruits, opium, cotton, tobacco, wool, ordinary +goat-hair and mohair, in which there is a large trade. There are +coal-mines at and near Eregli (anc. _Heracleia_) which yield steam coal +nearly as good in quality as the English, but they are badly worked. Its +population comprises about 993,000 Moslems and 27,000 Christians. (2) +The capital of the vilayet, the ancient _Castamon_, altitude 2500 ft., +situated in the narrow valley of the Geuk Irmak (_Amnias_), and +connected by a carriage road, 54 m., with its port Ineboli on the Black +Sea. The town is noted for its copper utensils, but the famous copper +mines about 36 m. N., worked from ancient times to the 19th century, are +now abandoned. There are over 30 mosques in the town, a dervish +monastery, and numerous theological colleges (_medresses_), and the +Moslem inhabitants have a reputation for bigotry. The climate though +subject to extremes of heat and cold is healthy; in winter the roads are +often closed by snow. The population of 16,000 includes about 2500 +Christians. Castamon became an important city in later Byzantine times. +It lay on the northern trunk-road to the Euphrates and was built round a +strong fortress whose ruins crown the rocky hill west of the town. It +was taken by the Danishmand Amirs of Sivas early in the 12th century, +and passed to the Turks in 1393. (J. G. C. A.) + + + + +KASTORIA (Turkish _Kesrie_), a city of Macedonia, European Turkey, in +the vilayet of Monastir, 45 m. S. by W. of Monastir (Bitolia). Pop. +(1905), about 10,000, one-third of whom are Greeks, one-third Slavs, and +the remainder Albanians or Turks. Kastoria occupies part of a peninsula +on the western shore of Lake Kastoria, which here receives from the +north its affluent the Zhelova. The lake is formed in a deep hollow +surrounded by limestone mountains, and is drained on the south by the +Bistritza, a large river which flows S.E. nearly to the Greek frontier, +then sharply turns N.E., and finally enters the Gulf of Salonica. The +lake has an area of 20 sq. m., and is 2850 ft. above sea-level. Kastoria +is the seat of an Orthodox archbishop. It is usually identified with the +ancient _Celetrum_, captured by the Romans under Sulpicius, during the +first Macedonian campaign, 200 B.C., and better known for the defence +maintained by Bryennius against Alexis I. in 1084. A Byzantine wall with +round towers runs across the peninsula. + + + + +KASUR, a town of British India, in the Lahore district of the Punjab, +situated on the north bank of the old bed of the river Beas, 34 m. S.E. +of Lahore. Pop. (1901), 22,022. A Rajput colony seems to have occupied +the present site before the earliest Mahommedan invasion; but Kasur does +not appear in history until late in the Mussulman period, when it was +settled by a Pathan colony from beyond the Indus. It has an export trade +in grain and cotton, and manufactures of cotton and leather goods. + + + + +KATAGUM, the sub-province of the double province of Kano in the British +protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between 11° and +13° N. and 8° 20´ and 10° 40´ E. It is bounded N. by the French Sudan, +E. by Bornu, S. by Bauchi, and W. by Kano. Katagum consists of several +small but ancient Mahommedan emirates--Katagum, Messau, Gummel, Hadeija, +Machena, with a fringe of Bedde pagans on its eastern frontier towards +Bornu, and other pagans on the south towards Bauchi. The Waube flows +from Kano through the province via Hadeija and by Damjiri in Bornu to +Lake Chad, affording a route for the transport of goods brought by the +Zungeru-Zaria-Kano railway to the headquarters of Katagum and western +Bornu. Katagum is a fertile province inhabited by an industrious people +whose manufactures rival those of Kano. + +In ancient times the province of Katagum formed the debateable country +between Bornu and the Hausa states. Though Mahommedan it resisted the +Fula invasion. Its northern emirates were for a long time subject to +Bornu, and its customs are nearly assimilated to those of Bornu. The +province was taken under administrative control by the British in +October 1903. In 1904 the capitals of Gummel, Hadeija, Messau and +Jemaari, were brought into touch with the administration and native and +provincial courts established. At the beginning of 1905 Katagum was +incorporated as a sub-province with the province of Kano, and the +administrative organization of a double province was extended over the +whole. Hadeija, which is a very wealthy town and holds an important +position both as a source of supplies and a centre of trade, received a +garrison of mounted infantry and became the capital of the sub-province. + +Hadeija was an old Habe town and its name, an evident corruption of +Khadija, the name of the celebrated wife and first convert of Mahomet, +is a strong presumption of the incorrectness of the Fula claim to have +introduced Islam to its inhabitants. The ruling dynasty of Hadeija was, +however, overthrown by Fula usurpation towards the end of the 18th +century, and the Fula ruler received a flag and a blessing from Dan +Fodio at the beginning of his sacred war in the opening years of the +19th century. Nevertheless the habit of independence being strong in the +town of Hadeija the little emirate held its own against Sokoto, Bornu +and all comers. Though included nominally within the province at Katagum +it was the boast of Hadeija that it had never been conquered. It had +made nominal submission to the British in 1903 on the successful +conclusion of the Kano-Sokoto campaign, and in 1905, as has been stated, +was chosen as the capital of the sub-province. The emir's attitude +became, however, in the spring of 1906 openly antagonistic to the +British and a military expedition was sent against him. The emir with +his disaffected chiefs made a plucky stand but after five hours' street +fighting the town was reduced. The emir and three of his sons were +killed, and a new emir, the rightful heir to the throne, who had shown +himself in favour of a peaceful policy, was appointed. The offices of +the war chiefs in Hadeija were abolished and 150 yards of the town wall +were broken down. + +Slave dealing is at an end in Katagum. The military station at Hadeija +forms a link in the chain of British forts which extends along the +northern frontier of the protectorate. (See NIGERIA.) (F. L. L.) + + + + +KATANGA, a district of Belgian Congo, forming the south-eastern part of +the colony. Area, approximately, 180,000 sq. m.; estimated population +1,000,000. The natives are members of the Luba-Lunda group of Bantus. +It is a highly mineralized region, being specially rich in copper ore. +Gold, iron and tin are also mined. Katanga is bounded S. and S.E. by +Northern Rhodesia, and British capital is largely interested in the +development of its resources, the administration of the territory being +entrusted to a committee on which British members have seats. Direct +railway communication with Cape Town and Beira was established in 1909. +There is also a rail and river service via the Congo to the west coast. +(See CONGO FREE STATE.) + + + + +KATER, HENRY (1777-1835), English physicist of German descent, was born +at Bristol on the 16th of April 1777. At first he purposed to study law; +but this he abandoned on his father's death in 1794, and entered the +army, obtaining a commission in the 12th regiment of foot, then +stationed in India, where he rendered valuable assistance in the great +trigonometrical survey. Failing health obliged him to return to England; +and in 1808, being then a lieutenant, he entered on a distinguished +student career in the senior department of the Royal Military College at +Sandhurst. Shortly after he was promoted to the rank of captain. In 1814 +he retired on half-pay, and devoted the remainder of his life to +scientific research. He died at London on the 26th of April 1835. + +His first important contribution to scientific knowledge was the +comparison of the merits of the Cassegrainian and Gregorian telescopes, +from which (_Phil. Trans._, 1813 and 1814) he deduced that the +illuminating power of the former exceeded that of the latter in the +proportion of 5 : 2. This inferiority of the Gregorian he explained as +being probably due to the mutual interference of the rays as they +crossed at the principal focus before reflection at the second mirror. +His most valuable work was the determination of the length of the +second's pendulum, first at London and subsequently at various stations +throughout the country (_Phil. Trans._, 1818, 1819). In these researches +he skilfully took advantage of the well-known property of reciprocity +between the centres of suspension and oscillation of an oscillating +body, so as to determine experimentally the precise position of the +centre of oscillation; the distance between these centres was then the +length of the ideal simple pendulum having the same time of oscillation. +As the inventor of the floating collimator, Kater rendered a great +service to practical astronomy (_Phil. Trans._, 1825, 1828). He also +published memoirs (_Phil. Trans._, 1821, 1831) on British standards of +length and mass; and in 1832 he published an account of his labours in +verifying the Russian standards of length. For his services to Russia in +this respect he received in 1814 the decoration of the order of St. +Anne; and the same year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. + + His attention was also turned to the subject of compass needles, his + Bakerian lecture "On the Best Kind of Steel and Form for a Compass + Needle" (_Phil. Trans._, 1821) containing the results of many + experiments. The treatise on "Mechanics" in Lardner's _Cyclopaedia_ + was partly written by him; and his interest in more purely + astronomical questions was evidenced by two communications to the + Astronomical Society's _Memoirs_ for 1831-1833--the one on an + observation of Saturn's outer ring, the other on a method of + determining longitude by means of lunar eclipses. + + + + +KATHA, a district in the northern division of Upper Burma, with an area +of 6994 sq. m., 3730 of which consists of the former separate state of +Wuntho. It is bounded N. by the Upper Chindwin, Bhamo and Myitkyina +districts, E. by the Kaukkwe River as far as the Irrawaddy, thence east +of the Irrawaddy by the Shan State of Möng Mit (Momeik), and by the +Shweli River, S. by the Ruby Mines district and Shwebo, and W. by the +Upper Chindwin district. Three ranges of hills run through the district, +known as the Minwun, Gangaw and Mangin ranges. They separate the three +main rivers--the Irrawaddy, the Mèza and the Mu. The Minwun range runs +from north to south, and forms for a considerable part of its length the +dividing line between the Katha district proper and what formerly was +the Wuntho state. Its average altitude is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The +Gangaw range runs from the north of the district for a considerable +portion of its length close to and down the right bank of the Irrawaddy +as far as Tigyaing, where the Myatheindan pagoda gives its name to the +last point. Its highest point is 4400 ft., but the average is between +1500 and 2000 ft. The Katha branch of the railway crosses it at Petsut, +a village 12 miles west of Katha town. The Mangin range runs through +Wuntho (highest peak, Maingthôn, 5450 ft.). + +Gold, copper, iron and lead are found in considerable quantities in the +district. The Kyaukpazat gold-mines, worked by an English company, gave +good returns, but the quartz reef proved to be a mere pocket and is now +worked out. The iron, copper and lead are not now worked. Jade and +soapstone also exist, and salt is produced from brine wells. There are +three forest reserves in Katha, with a total area of 1119 sq. m. The +population in 1901 was 176,223, an increase of 32% in the decade. The +number of Shans is about half that of Burmese, and of Kadus half that of +Shans. The Shans are mostly in the Wuntho sub-division. Rice is the +chief crop in the plains, tea, cotton, sesamum and hill rice in the +hills. The valley of the Mèza, which is very malarious, was used as a +convict settlement under Burmese rule. The district was first occupied +by British troops in 1886, but it was not finally quieted till 1890, +when the Wuntho sawbwa was deposed and his state incorporated in Katha +district. + +KATHA is the headquarters of the district. The principal means of +communication are the Irrawaddy Flotilla steamers, which run between +Mandalay and Bhamo, and the railway which communicates with Sagaing to +the south and Myitkyina to the north. A ferry-steamer plies between +Katha and Bhamo. + + + + +KATHIAWAR, or KATTYWAR, a peninsula of India, within the Gujarat +division of Bombay, giving its name to a political agency. Total area, +about 23,400 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,645,805. These figures include a +portion of the British district of Ahmedabad, a portion of the state of +Baroda, and the small Portuguese settlement of Diu. The peninsula is +bounded N. by the Runn of Cutch, E. by Ahmedabad district and the Gulf +of Cambay, and S. and W. by the Arabian Sea. The extreme length is 220 +m.; the greatest breadth about 165 m. Generally speaking, the surface is +undulating, with low ranges running in various directions. With the +exception of the Tangha and Mandav hills, in the west of Jhalawar, and +some unimportant hills in Hallar, the northern portion of the country is +flat; but in the south, from near Gogo, the Gir range runs nearly +parallel with the coast, and at a distance of about 20 m. from it, along +the north of Babriawar and Sorath, to the neighbourhood of Girnar. +Opposite this latter mountain is the solitary Osam hill, and then still +farther west is the Barada group, between Hallar and Barada, running +about 20 m. north and south from Gumli to Ranawao. The Girnar group of +mountains is an important granitic mass, the highest peak of which rises +to 3500 ft. The principal river is the Bhadar, which rises in the Mandav +hills, and flowing S.W. falls into the sea at Navi-Bandar; it is +everywhere marked by highly cultivated lands adjoining its course of +about 115 m. Other rivers are the Aji, Machhu and Satrunji--the last +remarkable for romantic scenery. Four of the old races, the Jaitwas, +Churasamas, Solunkis and Walas still exist as proprietors of the soil +who exercised sovereignty in the country prior to the immigration of the +Jhalas, Jadejas, Purmars, Kathis, Gohels, Jats, Mahommedans and +Mahrattas, between whom the country is now chiefly portioned out. +Kathiawar has many notable antiquities, comprising a rock inscription of +Asoka, Buddhist caves, and fine Jain temples on the sacred hill of +Girnar and at Palitana. + +The political agency of Kathiawar has an area of 20,882 sq. m. In 1901 +the population was 2,329,196, showing a decrease of 15% in the decade +due to the results of famine. The estimated gross revenue of the several +states is £1,278,000; total tribute (payable to the British, the gaekwar +of Baroda and the nawab of Junagarh), £70,000. There are altogether 193 +states of varying size and importance, of which 14 exercise independent +jurisdiction, while the rest are more or less under British +administration. The eight states of the first class are Junagaw, +Nawanagar, Bhaunagar, Porbandar, Dhrangadra, Morvi, Gondal and +Jafarabad. The headquarters of the political agent are at Rajkot, in the +centre of the peninsula, where also is the Rajkumar college, for the +education of the sons of the chiefs. There is a similar school for +_girasias_, or chiefs of lower rank, at Gondal. An excellent system of +metre-gauge railways has been provided at the cost of the leading +states. Maritime trade is also very active, the chief ports being +Porbandar, Mangrol and Verawal. In 1903-1904 the total sea-borne exports +were valued at £1,300,000, and the imports at £1,120,000. The +progressive prosperity of Kathiawar received a shock from the famine of +1899-1900, which was felt everywhere with extreme severity. + + + + +KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH (1818-1887), Russian journalist, was born +in Moscow in 1818. On finishing his course at the university he devoted +himself to literature and philosophy, and showed so little individuality +that during the reign of Nicholas I. he never once came into +disagreeable contact with the authorities. With the Liberal reaction and +strong reform movement which characterized the earlier years of +Alexander II.'s reign (1855-1881) he thoroughly sympathized, and for +some time he warmly advocated the introduction of liberal institutions +of the British type, but when he perceived that the agitation was +assuming a Socialistic and Nihilist tinge, and that in some quarters of +the Liberal camp indulgence was being shown to Polish national +aspirations, he gradually modified his attitude until he came to be +regarded by the Liberals as a renegade. At the beginning of 1863 he +assumed the management and editorship of the _Moscow Gazette_, and he +retained that position till his death in 1887. During these twenty-four +years he exercised considerable influence on public opinion and even on +the Government, by representing with great ability the moderately +Conservative spirit of Moscow in opposition to the occasionally +ultra-Liberal and always cosmopolitan spirit of St Petersburg. With the +Slavophils he agreed in advocating the extension of Russian influence in +south-eastern Europe, but he carefully kept aloof from them and +condemned their archaeological and ecclesiastical sentimentality. Though +generally temperate in his views, he was extremely incisive and often +violent in his modes of expressing them, so that he made many enemies +and sometimes incurred the displeasure of the press-censure and the +ministers, against which he was more than once protected by Alexander +III. in consideration of his able advocacy of national interests. He is +remembered chiefly as an energetic opponent of Polish national +aspirations, of extreme Liberalism, of the system of public instruction +based on natural science, and of German political influence. In this +last capacity he helped to prepare the way for the Franco-Russian +alliance. + + + + +KATMANDU (less correctly KHATMANDU), the capital of the state of Nepal, +India, situated on the bank of the Vishnumati river at its confluence +with the Baghmati, in 27° 36´ N., 85° 24´ E. The town, which is said to +have been founded about 723, contains a population estimated at 70,000, +occupying 5000 houses made of brick, and usually from two to four +storeys high. Many of the houses have large projecting wooden windows or +balconies, richly carved. The maharaja's palace, a huge, rambling, +ungainly building, stands in the centre of the town, which also contains +numerous temples. One of these, a wooden building in the centre of the +town, gives it its name (_kat_ = wood). The streets are extremely +narrow, and the whole town very dirty. A British resident is stationed +about a mile north of the town. + + + + +KATO, TAKA-AKIRA (1859- ), Japanese statesman, was born at Nagoya, and +commenced life as an employee in the great firm of Mitsu Bishi. In 1887 +he became private secretary to Count Okuma, minister of state for +foreign affairs. Subsequently he served as director of a bureau in the +finance department, and from 1894 to 1899 he represented his country at +the court of St James. He received the portfolio of foreign affairs in +the fourth Ito cabinet (1900-1901), which remained in office only a few +months. Appointed again to the same position in the Saionji cabinet +(1906), he resigned after a brief interval, being opposed to the +nationalization of the private railways, which measure the cabinet +approved. He then remained without office until 1908, when he again +accepted the post of ambassador in London. He was decorated with the +grand cross of St Michael and St George, and earned the reputation of +being one of the strongest men among the junior statesmen. + + + + +KATRINE, LOCH, a fresh-water lake of Scotland, lying almost entirely in +Perthshire. The boundary between the counties of Perth and Stirling runs +from Glengyle, at the head of the lake, down the centre to a point +opposite Stronachlachar from which it strikes to the south-western shore +towards Loch Arklet. The loch, which has a south-easterly trend, is +about 8 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 1 m. It lies 364 ft. above +the sea-level. It occupies an area of 4¾ square miles and has a drainage +basin of 37½ square miles. The average depth is 142 ft., the greatest +depth being 495 ft. The average annual rainfall is 78 inches. The mean +temperature at the surface is 56.4° F., and at the bottom 41° F. The +scenery has been immortalized in Sir Walter Scott's _Lady of the Lake_. +The surrounding hills are of considerable altitude, the most remarkable +being the head of Ben A'an (1750 ft.) and the grassy craigs and broken +contour of Ben Venue (2393 ft.). It is fed by the Gyle and numerous +burns, and drained by the Achray to Loch Achray and thence by the Black +Avon to Loch Vennacher. Since 1859 it has formed the chief source of the +water-supply of Glasgow, the aqueduct leaving the lake about 1½ m. S.E. +of Stronachlachar. By powers obtained in 1885 the level of the lake was +increased by 5 ft. by a system of sluices regulating the outflow of the +Achray. One result of this damming up has been to submerge the Silver +Strand and to curtail the dimensions of Ellen's Isle. The principal +points on the shores are Glengyle, formerly a fastness of the +Macgregors, the Trossachs, the Goblins' Cave on Ben Venue, and +Stronachlachar (Gaelic, "the mason's nose"), from which there is a ferry +to Coilachra on the opposite side. A road has been constructed from the +Trossachs for nearly six miles along the northern shore. During summer +steamers ply between the Trossachs and Stronachlachar and there is a +daily service of coaches from the Trossachs to Callander (about 10 m.) +and to Aberfoyle (9 m.), and between Stronachlachar, to Inversnaid on +Loch Lomond (about 4½ m.). The road to Inversnaid runs through the +Macgregors' country referred to in Scott's _Rob Roy_. + + + + +KATSENA, an ancient state of the western Sudan, now included in the +province of Kano in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. +Katsena was amongst the oldest of the Hausa states. There exist +manuscripts which carry back its history for about 1000 years and +tradition ascribes the origin of the Hausa population, which is known +also by the name of Habe or Habeche, to the union of Bajibda of Bagdad +with a prehistoric queen of Daura. The conquest of the Habe of Katsena +by the Fula about the beginning of the 19th century made little +difference to the country. The more cultivated Habe were already +Mahommedan and the new rulers adopted the existing customs and system of +government. These were in many respects highly developed and included +elaborate systems of taxation and justice. + +The capital of the administrative district is a town of the same name, +in 13° N., 7° 41´ E., being 160 m. E. by S. of the city of Sokoto, and +84 m. N.W. of Kano. The walls of Katsena have a circuit of between 13 +and 14 miles, but only a small part of the enclosed space is inhabited. +In the 17th and 18th centuries it appears to have been the largest town +in the Hausa countries, and its inhabitants at that time numbered some +100,000. The date of the foundation of the present town must be +comparatively modern, for it is believed to have been moved from its +ancient site and at the time of Leo Africanus (c. 1513) there was no +place of any considerable size in the province of Katsena. Before that +period Katsena boasted of being the chief seat of learning throughout +the Hausa states and this reputation was maintained to the time of the +Fula conquest. In the beginning of the 19th century the town fell into +the hands of the Fula, but only after a protracted and heroic defence. +In March 1903 Sir F. Lugard visited Katsena on his way from Sokoto and +the emir and chiefs accepted British suzerainty without fighting. The +Katsena district has since formed an administrative district in the +double province of Kano and Katagum. The emir was unfaithful to his oath +of allegiance to the British crown, and was deposed in 1904. His +successor was installed and took the oath of allegiance in December of +the same year. Katsena is a rich and populous district. + + See the _Travels_ of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890, chs. + xxiii. and xxiv.). Consult also the _Annual Reports_ on Northern + Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office, London, particularly the Report + for 1902. + +KATSENA is also the name of a town in the district of Katsena-Allah, in +the province of Muri, Northern Nigeria. This district is watered by a +river of the same name which takes its rise in the mountains of the +German colony of Cameroon, and flows into the Benue at a point above +Abinsi. + + + + +KATSURA, TARO, MARQUESS (1847- ), Japanese soldier and statesman, was +born in 1847 in Choshu. He commenced his career by fighting under the +Imperial banner in the civil war of the Restoration, and he displayed +such talent that he was twice sent at public expense to Germany (in 1870 +and 1884) to study strategy and tactics. In 1886 he was appointed +vice-minister of war, and in 1891 the command of division devolved on +him. He led the left wing of the Japanese army in the campaign of +1894-95 against China, and made a memorable march in the depth of winter +from the north-east shore of the Yellow Sea to Haicheng, finally +occupying Niuchwang, and effecting a junction with the second army corps +which moved up the Liaotung peninsula. For these services he received +the title of viscount. He held the portfolio of war from 1898 to 1901, +when he became premier and retained office for four and a half years, a +record in Japan. In 1902 his cabinet concluded the first _entente_ with +England, which event procured for Katsura the rank of count. He also +directed state affairs throughout the war with Russia, and concluded the +offensive and defensive treaty of 1905 with Great Britain, receiving +from King Edward the grand cross of the order of St Michael and St +George, and being raised by the mikado to the rank of marquess. He +resigned the premiership in 1905 to Marquess Saionji, but was again +invited to form a cabinet in 1908. Marquess Katsura might be considered +the chief exponent of conservative views in Japan. Adhering strictly to +the doctrine that ministries were responsible to the emperor alone and +not at all to the diet, he stood wholly aloof from political parties, +only his remarkable gift of tact and conciliation enabling him to govern +on such principles. + + + + +KATTERFELTO (or KATERFELTO), GUSTAVUS (d. 1799), quack doctor and +conjurer, was born in Prussia. About 1782 he came to London, where his +advertisements in the newspapers, headed "Wonders! Wonders! Wonders!" +enabled him to trade most profitably upon the credulity of the public +during the widespread influenza epidemic of that year. His public +entertainment, which, besides conjuring, included electrical and +chemical experiments and demonstrations with the microscope, extracted a +flattering testimonial from the royal family, who witnessed it in 1784. +The poet William Cowper refers to Katterfelto in _The Task_; he became +notorious for a long tour he undertook, exciting marvel by his conjuring +performances. + + + + +KATTOWITZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Rawa, near +the Russian frontier, 5 m. S.E. from Beuthen by rail. Pop. (1875), +11,352; (1905), 35,772. There are large iron-works, foundries and +machine shops in the town, and near it zinc and anthracite mines. The +growth of Kattowitz, like that of other places in the same district, has +been very rapid, owing to the development of the mineral resources of +the neighbourhood. In 1815 it was a mere village, and became a town in +1867. It has monuments to the emperors William I. and Frederick III. + + See G. Hoffmann, _Geschichte der Stadt Kattowitz_ (Kattowitz, 1895). + + + + +KATWA, or CUTWA, a town of British India, in Burdwan district, Bengal, +situated at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Ajai rivers. Pop. +(1901), 7220. It was the residence of many wealthy merchants, but its +commercial importance has declined as it is without railway +communication and the difficulties of the river navigation have +increased. It was formerly regarded as the key to Murshidabad. The old +fort, of which scarcely a vestige remains, is noted as the scene of the +defeat of the Mahrattas by Ali Vardi Khan. + + + + +KATYDID, the name given to certain North American insects, belonging to +the family _Locustidae_, and related to the green or tree grasshoppers +of England. As in other members of the family, the chirrup, alleged to +resemble the words "Katydid," is produced by the friction of a file on +the underside of the left forewing over a ridge on the upperside of the +right. Several species, belonging mostly to the genera _Microcentonus_ +and _Cyrtophallus_, are known. + + + + +KAUFBEUREN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Wertach, 55 m. S.W. +of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 8955. Kaufbeuren is still surrounded by +its medieval walls and presents a picturesque appearance. It has a +handsome town hall with fine paintings, an old tower (the Hexenturm, or +witches' tower), a museum and various educational institutions. The most +interesting of the ecclesiastical buildings is the chapel of St Blasius, +which was restored in 1896. The chief industries are cotton spinning, +weaving, bleaching, dyeing, printing, machine building and lithography, +and there is an active trade in wine, beer and cheese. Kaufbeuren is +said to have been founded in 842, and is first mentioned in chronicles +of the year 1126. It appears to have become a free imperial city about +1288, retaining the dignity until 1803, when it passed to Bavaria. It +was formerly a resort of pilgrims, and Roman coins have been found in +the vicinity. + + See F. Stieve, _Die Reichsstadt Kaufbeuren und die bayrische + Restaurationspolitik_ (Munich, 1870); and Schröder, _Geschichte der + Stadt und Katholischen Pfarrei Kaufbeuren_ (Augsburg, 1903). + + + + +KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA (1741-1807), the once popular artist +and Royal Academician, was born at Coire in the Grisons, on the 30th of +October 1741. Her father, John Josef Kauffmann, was a poor man and +mediocre painter, but apparently very successful in teaching his +precocious daughter. She rapidly acquired several languages, read +incessantly, and showed marked talents as a musician. Her greatest +progress, however, was in painting; and in her twelfth year she had +become a notability, with bishops and nobles for her sitters. In 1754 +her father took her to Milan. Later visits to Italy of long duration +appear to have succeeded this excursion; in 1763 she visited Rome, +returning to it again in 1764. From Rome she passed to Bologna and +Venice, being everywhere fêted and caressed, as much for her talents as +for her personal charms. Writing from Rome in August 1764 to his friend +Franke, Winckelmann refers to her exceptional popularity. She was then +painting his picture, a half-length, of which she also made an etching. +She spoke Italian as well as German, he says; and she also expressed +herself with facility in French and English--one result of the +last-named accomplishment being that she painted all the English +visitors to the Eternal City. "She may be styled beautiful," he adds, +"and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi." While at Venice, she +was induced by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the English ambassador to +accompany her to London, where she appeared in 1766. One of her first +works was a portrait of Garrick, exhibited in the year of her arrival at +"Mr Moreing's great room in Maiden Lane." The rank of Lady Wentworth +opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received, the royal +family especially showing her great favour. + +Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds. In his pocket-book +her name as "Miss Angelica" or "Miss Angel" appears frequently, and in +1766 he painted her, a compliment which she returned by her "Portrait of +Sir Joshua Reynolds," aetat. 46. Another instance of her intimacy with +Reynolds is to be found in the variation of Guercino's "Et in Arcadia +ego" produced by her at this date, a subject which Reynolds repeated a +few years later in his portrait of Mrs Bouverie and Mrs Crewe. When, +about November 1767, she was entrapped into a clandestine marriage with +an adventurer who passed for a Swedish count (the Count de Horn) +Reynolds befriended her, and it was doubtless owing to his good offices +that her name is found among the signatories to the famous petition to +the king for the establishment of the Royal Academy. In its first +catalogue of 1769 she appears with "R.A." after her name (an honour +which she shared with another lady and compatriot, Mary Moser); and she +contributed the "Interview of Hector and Andromache," and three other +classical compositions. From this time until 1782 she was an annual +exhibitor, sending sometimes as many as seven pictures, generally +classic or allegorical subjects. One of the most notable of her +performances was the "Leonardo expiring in the Arms of Francis the +First," which belongs to the year 1778. In 1773 she was appointed by the +Academy with others to decorate St Paul's, and it was she who, with +Biagio Rebecca, painted the Academy's old lecture room at Somerset +House. It is probable that her popularity declined a little in +consequence of her unfortunate marriage; but in 1781, after her first +husband's death (she had been long separated from him), she married +Antonio Zucchi (1728-1795), a Venetian artist then resident in England. +Shortly afterwards she retired to Rome, where she lived for twenty-five +years with much of her old prestige. In 1782 she lost her father; and in +1795--the year in which she painted the picture of Lady Hamilton--her +husband. She continued at intervals to contribute to the Academy, her +last exhibit being in 1797. After this she produced little, and in +November 1807 she died, being honoured by a splendid funeral under the +direction of Canova. The entire Academy of St Luke, with numerous +ecclesiastics and virtuosi, followed her to her tomb in S. Andrea delle +Fratte, and, as at the burial of Raphael, two of her best pictures were +carried in procession. + + The works of Angelica Kauffmann have not retained their reputation. + She had a certain gift of grace, and considerable skill in + composition. But her drawing is weak and faulty; her figures lack + variety and expression; and her men are masculine women. Her + colouring, however, is fairly enough defined by Waagen's term + "cheerful." Rooms decorated by her brush are still to be seen in + various quarters. At Hampton Court is a portrait of the duchess of + Brunswick; in the National Portrait Gallery, a portrait of herself. + There are other pictures by her at Paris, at Dresden, in the Hermitage + at St Petersburg, and in the Alte Pinakothek at Munich. The Munich + example is another portrait of herself; and there is a third in the + Uffizi at Florence. A few of her works in private collections have + been exhibited among the "Old Masters" at Burlington House. But she is + perhaps best known by the numerous engravings from her designs by + Schiavonetti, Bartolozzi and others. Those by Bartolozzi especially + still find considerable favour with collectors. Her life was written + in 1810 by Giovanni de Rossi. It has also been used as the basis of a + romance by Léon de Wailly, 1838; and it prompted the charming novel + contributed by Mrs Richmond Ritchie to the _Cornhill Magazine_ in 1875 + under the title of "Miss Angel." (A. D.) + + + + +KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1818-1882), Russian general, was born +at Maidani on the 3rd of March 1818. He entered the engineer branch in +1838, served in the campaigns in the Caucasus, rose to be colonel, and +commanded the sappers and miners at the siege of Kars in 1855. On the +capitulation of Kars he was deputed to settle the terms with General Sir +W. Fenwick Williams. In 1861 he became director-general of engineers at +the War Office, assisting General Milutin in the reorganization of the +army. Promoted lieut.-general in 1864, he was nominated +aide-de-camp-general and governor of the military conscription of Vilna. +In 1867 he became governor of Turkestan, and held the post until his +death, making himself a name in the expansion of the empire in central +Asia. He accomplished a successful campaign in 1868 against Bokhara, +capturing Samarkand and gradually subjugating the whole country. In 1873 +he attacked Khiva, took the capital, and forced the khan to become a +vassal of Russia. Then followed in 1875 the campaign against Khokand, in +which Kaufmann defeated the khan, Nasr-ed-din. Khokand north of the +Syrdaria was annexed to Russia, and the independence of the rest of the +country became merely nominal. This rapid absorption of the khanates +brought Russia into close proximity to Afghanistan, and the reception of +Kaufmann's emissaries by the Amir was a main cause of the British war +with Afghanistan in 1878. Although Kaufmann was unable to induce his +government to support all his ambitious schemes of further conquest, he +sent Skobeleff in 1880 and 1881 against the Akhal Tekkés, and was +arranging to add Merv to his annexations when he died suddenly at +Tashkend on the 15th of May 1882. + + + + +KAUKAUNA, a city of Outagamie county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Fox +river 7 m. N.E. of Appleton and about 100 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. +(1900), 5115, of whom 1044 were foreign-born (1905) 4991; (1910) 4717. +Kaukauna is served by the Chicago & North-Western railway (which has +car-shops here), by inter-urban electric railway lines connecting with +other cities in the Fox river, valley, and by river steamboats. It has a +Carnegie library, a hospital and manufactories of pulp, paper, lumber +and woodenware. Dams on the Fox River furnish a good water-power. The +city owns its waterworks. A small settlement of Indian traders was made +here as early as 1820; in 1830 a Presbyterian mission was established, +but the growth of the place was slow, and the city was not chartered +until 1885. + + + + +KAULBACH, WILHELM VON (1805-1874), German painter, was born in +Westphalia on the 15th of October 1805. His father, who was poor, +combined painting with the goldsmith's trade, but means were found to +place Wilhelm, a youth of seventeen, in the art academy of Düsseldorf, +then becoming renowned under the directorship of Peter von Cornelius. +Young Kaulbach contended against hardships, even hunger. But his courage +never failed; and, uniting genius with industry, he was ere long +foremost among the young national party which sought to revive the arts +of Germany. The ambitious work by which Louis I. sought to transform +Munich into a German Athens afforded the young painter an appropriate +sphere. Cornelius had been commissioned to execute the enormous frescoes +in the Glyptothek, and his custom was in the winters, with the aid of +Kaulbach and others, to complete the cartoons at Düsseldorf, and in the +summers, accompanied by his best scholars, to carry out the designs in +colour on the museum walls in Munich. But in 1824 Cornelius became +director of the Bavarian academy. Kaulbach, not yet twenty, followed, +took up his permanent residence in Munich, laboured hard on the public +works, executed independent commissions, and in 1849, when Cornelius +left for Berlin, succeeded to the directorship of the academy, an office +which he held till his death on the 7th of April 1874. His son Hermann +(1846-1909) also became a distinguished painter. + +Kaulbach matured, after the example of the masters of the Middle Ages, +the practice of mural or monumental decoration; he once more conjoined +painting with architecture, and displayed a creative fertility and +readiness of resource scarcely found since the era of Raphael and +Michelangelo. Early in the series of his multitudinous works came the +famous Narrenhaus, the appalling memories of a certain madhouse near +Düsseldorf; the composition all the more deserves mention for points of +contact with Hogarth. Somewhat to the same category belong the +illustrations to _Reineke Fuchs_. These, together with occasional +figures or passages in complex pictorial dramas, show how dominant and +irrepressible were the artist's sense of satire and enjoyment of fun; +character in its breadth and sharpness is depicted with keenest relish, +and at times the sardonic smile bursts into the loudest laugh. Thus +occasionally the grotesque degenerates into the vulgar, the grand into +the ridiculous, as in the satire on "the Pigtail Age" in a fresco +outside the New Pinakothek. Yet these exceptional extravagances came not +of weakness but from excess of power. Kaulbach tried hard to become +Grecian and Italian; but he never reached Phidias or Raphael; in short +the blood of Dürer, Holbein and Martin Schongauer ran strong in his +veins. The art products in Munich during the middle of the 19th century +were of a quantity to preclude first-rate quality, and Kaulbach +contracted a fatal facility in covering wall and canvas by the acre. He +painted in the Hofgarten, the Odeon, the Palace and on the external +walls of the New Pinakothek. His perspicuous and showy manner also +gained him abundant occupation as a book illustrator: in the pages of +the poets his fancy revelled; he was glad to take inspiration from +Wieland, Goethe, even Klopstock; among his engraved designs are the +Shakespeare gallery, the Goethe gallery and a folio edition of the +Gospels. With regard to these examples of "the Munich school," it was +asserted that Kaulbach had been unfortunate alike in having found +Cornelius for a master and King Louis for a patron, that he attempted +"subjects far beyond him, believing that his admiration for them was +the same as inspiration"; and supplied the lack of real imagination by +"a compound of intellect and fancy." + +Nevertheless in such compositions as the Destruction of Jerusalem and +the Battle of the Huns Kaulbach shows creative imagination. As a +dramatic poet he tells the story, depicts character, seizes on action +and situation, and thus as it were takes the spectator by storm. The +manner may be occasionally noisy and ranting, but the effect after its +kind is tremendous. The cartoon, which, as usual in modern German art, +is superior to the ultimate picture, was executed in the artist's prime +at the age of thirty. At this period, as here seen, the knowledge was +little short of absolute; subtle is the sense of beauty; playful, +delicate, firm the touch; the whole treatment artistic. + +Ten or more years were devoted to what the Germans term a "cyclus"--a +series of pictures depicting the Tower of Babel, the Age of Homer, the +Destruction of Jerusalem, the Battle of the Huns, the Crusades and the +Reformation. These major tableaux, severally 30 ft. long, and each +comprising over one hundred figures above life-size, are surrounded by +minor compositions making more than twenty in all. The idea is to +congregate around the world's historic dramas the prime agents of +civilization; thus here are assembled allegoric figures of Architecture +and other arts, of Science and other kingdoms of knowledge, together +with lawgivers from the time of Moses, not forgetting Frederick the +Great. The chosen situation for this imposing didactic and theatric +display is the Treppenhaus or grand staircase in the new museum, Berlin; +the surface is a granulated, absorbent wall, specially prepared; the +technical method is that known as "water-glass," or "liquid flint," the +infusion of silica securing permanence. The same medium was adopted in +the later wall-pictures in the Houses of Parliament, Westminster. + +The painter's last period brings no new departure; his ultimate works +stand conspicuous by exaggerations of early characteristics. The series +of designs illustrative of Goethe, which had an immense success, were +melodramatic and pandered to popular taste. The vast canvas, more than +30 ft. long, the Sea Fight at Salamis, painted for the Maximilianeum, +Munich, evinces wonted imagination and facility in composition; the +handling also retains its largeness and vigour; but in this astounding +scenic uproar moderation and the simplicity of nature are thrown to the +winds, and the whole atmosphere is hot and feverish. + + Kaulbach's was a beauty-loving art. He is not supreme as a colourist; + he belongs in fact to a school that holds colour in subordination; but + he laid, in common with the great masters, the sure foundation of his + art in form and composition. Indeed, the science of composition has + seldom if ever been so clearly understood or worked out with equal + complexity and exactitude; the constituent lines, the relation of the + parts to the whole, are brought into absolute agreement; in modern + Germany painting and music have trodden parallel paths, and Kaulbach + is musical in the melody and harmony of his compositions. His + narrative too is lucid, and moves as a stately march or royal triumph; + the sequence of the figures is unbroken; the arrangement of the groups + accords with even literary form; the picture falls into incident, + episode, dialogue, action, plot, as a drama. The style is eclectic; in + the Age of Homer the types and the treatment are derived from Greek + marbles and vases; then in the Tower of Babel the severity of the + antique gives place to the suavity of the Italian renaissance; while + in the Crusades the composition is let loose into modern romanticism, + and so the manner descends into the midst of the 19th century. And yet + this scholastically compounded art is so nicely adjusted and smoothly + blended that it casts off all incongruity and becomes homogeneous as + the issue of one mind. But a fickle public craved for change; and so + the great master in later years waned in favour, and had to witness, + not without inquietude, the rise of an opposing party of naturalism + and realism. (J. B. A.) + + + + +KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON, PRINCE VON (1711-1794), Austrian +chancellor and diplomatist, was born at Vienna on the 2nd of February +1711. His father, Max Ulrich, was the third count of Kaunitz, and +married an heiress, Maria Ernestine Franziska von Rietburg. The family +was ancient, and was believed to have been of Slavonic origin in +Moravia. Wenzel Anton, being a second son, was designed for the church, +but on the death of his elder brother he was trained for the law and for +diplomacy, at Vienna, Leipzig and Leiden, and by travel. His family had +served the Habsburgs with some distinction, and Kaunitz had no +difficulty in obtaining employment. In 1735 he was a _Reichshofrath_. +When the Emperor Charles VI. died in 1740, he is said to have hesitated +before deciding to support Maria Theresa. If so, his hesitation did not +last long, and left no trace on his loyalty. From 1742 to 1744 he was +minister at Turin, and in the latter year was sent as minister with the +Archduke Charles of Lorraine, the governor of Belgium. He was therefore +an eye-witness of the campaigns in which Marshal Saxe overran Belgium. +At this time he was extremely discouraged, and sought for his recall. +But he had earned the approval of Maria Theresa, who sent him as +representative of Austria to the peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in +1748. His tenacity and dexterity established his reputation as a +diplomatist. He confirmed his hold on the regard and confidence of the +empress by the line he took after the conclusion of the peace. In 1749 +Maria Theresa appealed to all her counsellors for advice as to the +policy Austria ought to pursue in view of the changed conditions +produced by the rise of Prussia. The great majority of them, including +her husband Francis I., were of opinion that the old alliance with the +sea Powers, England and Holland, should be maintained. Kaunitz, either +because he was really persuaded that the old policy must be given up, or +because he saw that the dominating idea in the mind of Maria Theresa was +the recovery of Silesia, gave it as his opinion that Frederick was now +the "most wicked and dangerous enemy of Austria," that it was hopeless +to expect the support of Protestant nations against him, and that the +only way of recovering Silesia was by an alliance with Russia and +France. The empress eagerly accepted views which were already her own, +and entrusted the adviser with the execution of his own plans. An +ambassador to France from 1750 to 1752, and after 1753 as "house, court +and state chancellor," Kaunitz laboured successfully to bring about the +alliance which led to the Seven Years' War. It was considered a great +feat of diplomacy, and established Kaunitz as the recognized master of +the art. His triumph was won in spite of personal defects and +absurdities which would have ruined most men. Kaunitz had manias rarely +found in company with absolute sanity. He would not hear of death, nor +approach a sick man. He refused to visit his dying master Joseph II. for +two whole years. He would not breathe fresh air. On the warmest summer +day he kept a handkerchief over his mouth when out of doors, and his +only exercise was riding under glass, which he did every morning for +exactly the same number of minutes. He relaxed from his work in the +company of a small dependent society of sycophants and buffoons. He was +consumed by a solemn, garrulous and pedantic vanity. When in 1770 he met +Frederick the Great at Mährisch-Neustadt, he came with a summary of +political principles, which he called a catechism, in his pocket, and +assured the king that he must be allowed to speak without interruption. +When Frederick, whose interest it was to humour him, promised to listen +quietly, Kaunitz rolled his mind out for two hours, and went away with +the firm conviction that he had at last enlightened the inferior +intellect of the king of Prussia as to what politics really were. Within +a very short time Frederick had completely deceived and out-manoeuvred +him. With all his pomposity and conceit, Kaunitz was astute, he was +laborious and orderly; when his advice was not taken he would carry out +the wishes of his masters, while no defeat ever damped his pertinacity. + +To tell his history from 1750 till his retirement in 1792 would be to +tell part of the internal history of Austria, and all the international +politics of eastern and central Europe. His governing principle was to +forward the interests of "the august house of Austria," a phrase +sometimes repeated at every few lines of his despatches. In internal +affairs he in 1758 recommended, and helped to promote, a simplification +of the confused and subdivided Austrian administration. But his main +concern was always with diplomacy and foreign policy. Here he strove +with untiring energy, and no small measure of success, to extend the +Austrian dominions. After the Seven Years' War he endeavoured to avoid +great risks, and sought to secure his ends by alliances, exchanges and +claims professing to have a legal basis, and justified at enormous +length by arguments both pedantic and hypocritical. The French +Revolution had begun to alter all the relations of the Powers before his +retirement. He never understood its full meaning. Yet the circular +despatch which he addressed to the ambassadors of the emperor on the +17th of July 1794 contains the first outlines of Metternich's policy of +"legitimacy," and the first proposal for the combined action of the +powers, based on the full recognition of one another's rights, to defend +themselves against subversive principles. Kaunitz died at his house, the +Garten Palast, near Vienna, on the 27th of June 1794. He married on the +6th of May 1736, Maria Ernestine von Starhemberg, who died on the 6th of +September 1754. Four sons were born of the marriage. + + See Hormayr, _Oesterreichischer Plutarch_ (Vienna, 1823), for a + biographical sketch based on personal knowledge. Also see Brunner, + _Joseph II.: Correspondance avec Cobenzl et Kaunitz_ (Mayence, 1871); + A. Beer, _Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz_ (Vienna, 1873). + + + + +KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB (1803-1873), German naturalist, was born at Darmstadt +on the 10th of April 1803. After studying at Göttingen and Heidelberg he +spent two years at Leiden, where his attention was specially devoted to +the amphibians and fishes. He then returned to Darmstadt as an assistant +in the grand ducal museum, of which in 1840 he became inspector. In 1829 +he published _Skizze zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der europäischen +Thierwelt_, in which he regarded the animal world as developed from +lower to higher forms, from the amphibians through the birds to the +beasts of prey; but subsequently he repudiated this work as a youthful +indiscretion, and on the publication of Darwin's _Origin of Species_ he +declared himself against its doctrines. The extensive fossil deposits in +the neighbourhood of Darmstadt gave him ample opportunities for +palaeontological inquiries, and he gained considerable reputation by his +_Beiträge zur näheren Kenntniss der urweltlichen Säugethiere_ +(1855-1862). He also wrote _Classification der Säugethiere und Vögel_ +(1844), and, with H. G. Brown (1800-1862) of Heidelberg, _Die +Gavial-artigen Reste aus dem Lias_ (1842-1844). He died at Darmstadt on +the 4th of July 1873. + + + + +KAURI PINE, in botany, _Agathis australis_, a conifer native of New +Zealand where it is abundant in forests in the North Island between the +North Cape and 38° south latitude. The forests are rapidly disappearing +owing to use as timber and to destruction by fires. It is a tall +resiniferous tree, usually ranging from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with a +trunk 4 to 10 ft. in diameter, but reaching 150 ft., with a diameter of +15 to 22 ft.; it has a straight columnar trunk and a rounded bushy head. +The thick resiniferous bark falls off in large flat flakes. The leaves, +which persist for several years, are very thick and leathery; on young +trees they are lance-shaped 2 to 4 in. long and ¼ to ½ in. broad, +becoming on mature trees linear-oblong or obovate-oblong and ¾ to 1½ in. +long. The ripe cones are almost spherical, erect, and 2 to 3 in. in +diameter; the broad, flat, rather thin cone-scales fall from the axis +when ripe. Each scale bears a single compressed seed with a membranous +wing. The timber is remarkable for its strength, durability and the ease +with which it is worked. The resin, kauri-gum, is an amber-like deposit +dug in large quantities from the sites of previous forests, in lumps +generally varying in size from that of a hen's egg to that of a man's +head. The colour is of a rich brown or amber yellow, or it may be almost +colourless and translucent. It is of value for varnish-making. + + + + +KAVA (CAVA or AVA), an intoxicating, but non-alcoholic beverage, +produced principally in the islands of the South Pacific, from the roots +or leaves of a variety of the pepper plant (_Piper methysticum_). The +method of preparation is somewhat peculiar. The roots or leaves are +first chewed by young girls or boys, care being taken that only those +possessing sound teeth and excellent general health shall take part in +this operation. The chewed material is then placed in a bowl, and water +or coco-nut milk is poured over it, the whole is well stirred, and +subsequently the woody matter is removed by an ingenious but simple +mechanical manipulation. The resulting liquid, which has a muddy or +_café-au-lait_ appearance, or is of a greenish hue if made from leaves, +is now ready for consumption. The taste of the liquid is at first sweet, +and then pungent and acrid. The usual dose corresponds to about two +mouthfuls of the root. Intoxication (but this apparently only applies to +those not inured to the use of the liquor) follows in about twenty +minutes. The drunkenness produced by kava is of a melancholy, silent and +drowsy character. Excessive drinking is said to lead to skin and other +diseases, but _per contra_ many medicinal virtues are ascribed to the +preparation. There appears to be little doubt that the active principle +in this beverage is a poison of an alkaloidal nature. It seems likely +that this substance is not present as such (i.e. as a free alkaloid) in +the plant, but that it exists in the form of a glucoside, and that by +the process of chewing this glucoside is split up by one of the ferments +in the saliva into the free alkaloid and sugar. + + See _Pharm. Journ_. iii. 474; iv. 85; ix. 219; vii. 149; _Comptes + Rendus_, l. 436, 598; lii. 206; _Journ. de Pharm._ (1860) 20; (1862) + 218; Seeman, _Flora Vitiensis_, 260; Beachy, _Voyage of the + "Blossom,"_ ii. 120. + + + + +KAVADH (KABADES, KAUADES), a Persian name which occurs first in the +mythical history of the old Iranian kingdom as Kai Kobadh (Kaikobad). It +was borne by two kings of the Sassanid dynasty. + +(1) KAVADH I., son of Peroz, crowned by the nobles in 488 in place of +his uncle Balash, who was deposed and blinded. At this time the empire +was utterly disorganized by the invasion of the Ephthalites or White +Huns from the east. After one of their victories against Peroz, Kavadh +had been a hostage among them during two years, pending the payment of a +heavy ransom. In 484 Peroz had been defeated and slain with his whole +army. Balash was not able to restore the royal authority. The hopes of +the magnates and high priests that Kavadh would suit their purpose were +soon disappointed. Kavadh gave his support to the communistic sect +founded by Mazdak, son of Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should +divide their wives and their wealth with the poor. His intention +evidently was, by adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, to break the +influence of the magnates. But in 496 he was deposed and incarcerated in +the "Castle of Oblivion (Lethe)" in Susiana, and his brother Jamasp +(Zamaspes) was raised to the throne. Kavadh, however, escaped and found +refuge with the Ephthalites, whose king gave him his daughter in +marriage and aided him to return to Persia. In 499 he became king again +and punished his opponents. He had to pay a tribute to the Ephthalites +and applied for subsidies to Rome, which had before supported the +Persians. But now the emperor Anastasius refused subsidies, expecting +that the two rival powers of the East would exhaust one another in war. +At the same time he intervened in the affairs of the Persian part of +Armenia. So Kavadh joined the Ephthalites and began war against the +Romans. In 502 he took Theodosiopolis in Armenia, in 503 Amida +(Diarbekr) on the Tigris. In 505 an invasion of Armenia by the western +Huns from the Caucasus led to an armistice, during which the Romans paid +subsidies to the Persians for the maintenance of the fortifications on +the Caucasus. When Justin I. (518-527) came to the throne the conflict +began anew. The Persian vassal, Mondhir of Hira, laid waste Mesopotamia +and slaughtered the monks and nuns. In 531 Belisarius was beaten at +Callinicum. Shortly afterwards Kavadh died, at the age of eighty-two, in +September 531. During his last years his favourite son Chosroes had had +great influence over him and had been proclaimed successor. He also +induced Kavadh to break with the Mazdakites, whose doctrine had spread +widely and caused great social confusion throughout Persia. In 529 they +were refuted in a theological discussion held before the throne of the +king by the orthodox Magians, and were slaughtered and persecuted +everywhere; Mazdak himself was hanged. Kavadh evidently was, as +Procopius (_Pers._ i. 6) calls him, an unusually clear-sighted and +energetic ruler. Although he could not free himself from the yoke of the +Ephthalites, he succeeded in restoring order in the interior and fought +with success against the Romans. He built some towns which were named +after him, and began to regulate the taxation. + +(2) KAVADH II. SHEROE (Siroes), son of Chosroes II., was raised to the +throne in opposition to his father in February 628, after the great +victories of the emperor Heraclius. He put his father and eighteen +brothers to death, began negotiations with Heraclius, but died after a +reign of a few months. (Ed. M.) + + + + +KAVALA, or CAVALLA, a walled town and seaport of European Turkey in the +vilayet of Salonica, on the Bay of Kavala, an inlet of the Aegean Sea. +Pop. (1905), about 5000. Kavala is built on a promontory stretching +south into the bay, and opposite the island of Thasos. There is a +harbour on each side of the promontory. The resident population is +increased in summer by an influx of peasantry, of whom during the season +5000 to 6000 are employed in curing tobacco and preparing it for export. +The finest Turkish tobacco is grown in the district, and shipped to all +parts of Europe and America, to the annual value of about £1,250,000. +Mehemet Ali was born here in 1769, and founded a Turkish school which +still exists. His birthplace, an unpretentious little house in one of +the tortuous older streets, can be distinguished by the tablet which the +municipal authorities have affixed to its front wall. Numerous Roman +remains have been found in the neighbourhood, of which the chief is the +large aqueduct on two tiers of arches which still serves to supply the +town and dilapidated citadel with water from Mount Pangeus. + + Kavala has been identified with Neapolis, at which St Paul landed on + his way from Samothrace to Philippi (Acts xvi. 11). Neapolis was the + port of Philippi, as Kavala now is of Seres; in the bay on which it + stands the fleet of Brutus and Cassius was stationed during the battle + of Philippi. Some authorities identify Neapolis with Datum ([Greek: + Daton]), mentioned by Herodotus as famous for its gold mines. + + + + +KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH (1831-1889), Irish politician, son of +Thomas Kavanagh, M.P., who traced his descent to the ancient kings of +Leinster, was born in Co. Carlow, Ireland, on the 25th of March 1831. He +had only the rudiments of arms and legs, but in spite of these physical +defects had a remarkable career. He learnt to ride in the most fearless +way, strapped to a special saddle, and managing the horse with the +stumps of his arms; and also fished, shot, drew and wrote, various +mechanical contrivances being devised to supplement his limited physical +capacities. He travelled extensively in Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia and +India between 1846 and 1853, and after succeeding to the family estates +in the latter year, he married in 1855 his cousin, Miss Frances Mary +Leathley. Assisted by his wife, he was a most philanthropic landlord, +and was an active county magistrate and chairman of the board of +guardians. A Conservative and a Protestant, he sat in Parliament for Co. +Wexford from 1866 to 1868, and for Co. Carlow from 1868 to 1880. He was +opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish Church, but supported the +Land Act of 1870, and sat on the Bessborough Commission. In 1886 he was +made a member of the Privy Council in Ireland. He died of pneumonia on +the 25th of December 1889, in London. It is supposed that his +extraordinary career suggested the idea of "Lucas Malet's" novel, _The +History of Sir Richard Calmady_. + + + + +KAVANAGH, JULIA (1824-1877), British novelist, was born at Thurles in +Tipperary, Ireland, in 1824. She was the daughter of Morgan Peter +Kavanagh (d. 1874), author of various worthless philological works and +some poems. Julia spent several years of her early life with her parents +in Normandy, laying there the foundation of a mastery of the French +language and insight into French modes of thought, which was perfected +by her later frequent and long residences in France. Miss Kavanagh's +literary career began with her arrival in London about 1844, and her +uneventful life affords few incidents to the biographer. Her first book +was _Three Paths_ (1847), a story for the young; but her first work to +attract notice was _Madeleine, a Tale of Auvergne_ (1848). Other books +followed: _A Summer and Winter in the Two Sicilies_ (1858); _French +Women of Letters_ (1862); _English Women of Letters_ (1862); _Woman in +France during the 18th Century_ (1850); and _Women of Christianity_ +(1852). The scenes of her stories are almost always laid in France, and +she handles her French themes with fidelity and skill. Her style is +simple and pleasing rather than striking; and her characters are +interesting without being strongly individualized. Her most popular +novels were perhaps _Adèle_ (1857), _Queen Mab_ (1863), and _John +Dorrien_ (1875). On the outbreak of the Franco-German War Julia Kavanagh +removed with her mother from Paris to Rouen. She died at Nice on the +28th of October 1877. + + + + +KAVASS, or CAVASS (adapted from the Turkish _qawwas_, a bow-maker; +Arabic _qaws_, a bow), a Turkish name for an armed police-officer; also +for a courier such as it is usual to engage when travelling in Turkey. + + + + +KAVIRONDO, a people of British East Africa, who dwell in the valley of +the Nzoia River, on the western slopes of Mount Elgon, and along the +north-east coast of Victoria Nyanza. Kavirondo is the general name of +two distinct groups of tribes, one Bantu and the other Nilotic. Both +groups are immigrants, the Bantu from the south, the Nilotic from the +north. The Bantu appear to have been the first comers. The Nilotic +tribes, probably an offshoot of the Acholi (q.v.), appear to have +crossed the lake to reach their present home, the country around +Kavirondo Gulf. Of the two groups the Bantu now occupy a more northerly +position than their neighbours, and "are practically the most northerly +representatives of that race" (Hobley). Their further progress north was +stopped by the southward movement of the Nilotic tribes, while the +Nilotic Kavirondo in their turn had their wanderings arrested by an +irruption of Elgumi people from the east. The Elgumi are themselves +probably of Nilotic origin. Both groups of Kavirondo are physically +fine, the Nilotic stock appearing more virile than the Bantu. The Bantu +Kavirondo are divided into three principal types--the Awa-Rimi, the +Awa-Ware and the Awa-Kisii. By the Nilotic Kavirondo their Bantu +neighbours are known as Ja-Mwa. The generic name for the Nilotic tribes +is Ja-Luo. The Bantu Kavirondo call them Awa-Nyoro. The two groups have +many characteristics in common. A characteristic feature of the people +is their nakedness. Among the Nilotic Kavirondo married men who are +fathers wear a small piece of goat-skin, which though practically +useless as a covering must be worn according to tribal etiquette. Even +among men who have adopted European clothing this goat-skin must still +be worn underneath. Contact with whites has led to the adoption of +European clothing by numbers of the men, but the women, more +conservative, prefer nudity or the scanty covering which they wore +before the advent of Europeans. Among the Bantu Kavirondo married women +wear a short fringe of black string in front and a tassel of banana +fibre suspended from a girdle behind, this tassel having at a distance +the appearance of a tail. Hence the report of early travellers as to a +tailed race in Africa. The Nilotic Kavirondo women wear the tail, but +dispense with the fringe in front. For "dandy" they wear a goat-skin +slung over the shoulders. Some of the Bantu tribes practise +circumcision, the Nilotic tribes do not. Patterns are tattooed on chest +and stomach for ornament. Men, even husbands, are forbidden to touch the +women's tails, which must be worn even should any other clothing be +wrapped round the body. The Kavirondo are noted for their independent +and pugnacious nature, their honesty and their sexual morality, traits +particularly marked among the Bantu tribes. There are more women than +men, and thus the Kavirondo are naturally inclined towards polygamy. +Among the Bantu tribes a man has the refusal of all the younger sisters +of his wife as they attain puberty. Practically no woman lives unmarried +all her life, for if no suitor seeks her, she singles out a man and +offers herself to him at a "reduced price," an offer usually accepted, +as the women are excellent agricultural labourers. The Nilotic Kavirondo +incline to exogamy, endeavouring always to marry outside their clan. +Girls are betrothed at six or seven, and the husband-elect continually +makes small presents to his father-in-law-elect till the bride reaches +womanhood. It is regarded as shameful if the girl be not found a virgin +on her wedding day. She is sent back to her parents, who have to return +the marriage price, and pay a fine. The wife's adultery was formerly +punished with death, and the capital penalty was also inflicted on young +men and girls guilty of unchastity. Among the Bantu Kavirondo the usual +minimum price for a wife is forty hoes, twenty goats and one cow, paid +in instalments. The Nilotic Kavirondo pay twenty sheep and two to six +cows; the husband-elect can claim his bride when he has made half +payment. If a woman dies without bearing children, the amount of her +purchase is returnable by her father, unless the widower consents to +replace her by another sister. The women are prolific and the birth of +twins is common. This is considered a lucky event, and is celebrated by +feasting and dances. Among the Bantu Kavirondo the mother of twins must +remain in her hut for seven days. Among the Nilotic Kavirondo the +parents and the infants must stay in the hut for a whole month. If a +Bantu mother has lost two children in succession the next child born is +taken out at dawn and placed on the road, where it is left till a +neighbour, usually a woman friend who has gone that way on purpose, +picks it up. She takes it to its mother who gives a goat in return. A +somewhat similar custom prevails among the Nilotic tribes. Names are not +male and female, and a daughter often bears her father's name. + + The Kavirondo bury their dead. Among one of the Bantu tribes, the + Awa-Kisesa, a chief is buried in the floor of his own hut in a sitting + position, but at such a depth that the head protrudes. Over the head + an earthenware pot is placed, and his principal wives have to remain + in the hut till the flesh is eaten by ants or decomposes, when the + skull is removed and buried close to the hut. Later the skeleton is + unearthed, and reburied with much ceremony in the sacred burial place + of the tribe. Married women of the Bantu tribes are buried in their + hut lying on their right side with legs doubled up, the hut being then + deserted. Among the Nilotic tribes the grave is dug beneath the + verandah of the hut. Men of the Bantu tribes are buried in an open + space in the midst of their huts; in the Nilotic tribes, if the first + wife of the deceased be alive he is buried in her hut, if not, beneath + the verandah of the hut in which he died. A child is buried near the + door of its mother's hut. A sign of mourning is a cord of banana fibre + worn round the neck and waist. A chief chooses, sometimes years before + his death, one of his sons to succeed him, often giving a brass + bracelet as insignia. A man's property is divided equally among his + children. + + The Kavirondo are essentially an agricultural people: both men and + women work in the fields with large iron hoes. In addition to sorghum, + _Eleusine_ and maize, tobacco and hemp are both cultivated and smoked. + Both sexes smoke, but the use of hemp is restricted to men and + unmarried women, as it is thought to injure child-bearing women. Hemp + is smoked in a hubble-bubble. The Kavirondo cultivate sesamum and make + an oil from its seeds which they burn in little clay lamps. These + lamps are of the ancient saucer type, the pattern being, in Hobley's + opinion, introduced into the country by the coast people. While some + tribes live in isolated huts, those in the north have strongly walled + villages. The walls are of mud and formerly, among the Nilotic tribes, + occasionally of stone. Since the advent of the British the security of + the country has induced the Kavirondo to let the walls fall into + disrepair. Their huts are circular with conical thatched roof, and + fairly broad verandah all round. A portion of the hut is partitioned + off as a sleeping-place for goats, and the fowls sleep indoors in a + large basket. Skins form the only bedsteads. In each hut are two + fireplaces, about which a rigid etiquette prevails. Strangers or + distant relatives are not allowed to pass beyond the first, which is + near the door, and is used for cooking. At the second, which is nearly + in the middle of the hut, sit the hut owner, his wives, children, + brothers and sisters. Around this fireplace the family sleep. Cooking + pots, water pots and earthenware grain jars are the only other + furniture. The food is served in small baskets. Every full grown man + has a hut to himself, and one for each wife. The huts of the Masaba + Kavirondo of west Elgon have the apex of the roof surmounted by a + carved pole which Sir H. H. Johnston says is obviously a phallus. + Among the Bantu Kavirondo a father does not eat with his sons, nor do + brothers eat together. Among the Nilotic tribes father and sons eat + together, usually in a separate hut with open sides. Women eat apart + and only after the men have finished. The Kavirondo keep cattle, + sheep, goats, fowls and a few dogs. Women do not eat sheep, fowls or + eggs, and are not allowed to drink milk except when mixed with other + things. The flesh of the wild cat and leopard is esteemed by most of + the tribes. From _Eleusine_ a beer is made. The Kavirondo are plucky + hunters, capturing the hippopotamus with ropes and traps, and + attacking with spears the largest elephants. Fish, of which they are + very fond, are caught by line and rod or in traps. Bee-keeping is + common, and where trees are scarce the hives are placed on the roof of + the hut. Among the Bantu Kavirondo goats and sheep are suffocated, the + snout being held until the animal dies. Though a peaceful people the + Kavirondo fight well. Their weapons are spears with rather long flat + blades without blood-courses, and broad-bladed swords. Some use + slings, and most carry shields. Bows and arrows are also used; + firearms are however displacing other weapons. Kavirondo warfare was + mainly defensive and intertribal, this last a form of vendetta. When a + man had killed his enemy in battle he shaved his head on his return + and he was rubbed with "medicine" (generally goat's dung), to defend + him from the spirit of the dead man. This custom the Awa-Wanga + abandoned when they obtained firearms. The young warriors were made to + stab the bodies of their slain enemies. Kavirondo industries are + salt-making, effected by burning reeds and water-plants and passing + water through the ashes; the smelting of iron ore (confined to the + Bantu tribes); pottery and basket-work. + + The Kavirondo have many tribes, divided, Sir H. H. Johnston suspects, + totemically. Their religion appears to be a vague ancestor-worship, + but the northern tribes have two gods, Awafwa and Ishishemi, the + spirits of good and evil. To the former cattle and goats are + sacrificed. The Kavirondo have great faith in divination from the + entrails of a sheep. Nearly everybody and everything is to the + Kavirondo ominous of good or evil. They have few myths or traditions; + the ant-bear is the chief figure in their beast-legends. They believe + in witchcraft and practise trial by ordeal. As a race the Kavirondo + are on the increase. This is due to their fecundity and morality. + Those who live in the low-lying lands suffer from a mild malaria, + while abroad they are subject to dysentery and pneumonia. Epidemics of + small-pox have occurred. Native medicine is of the simplest. They + dress wounds with butter and leaves, and for inflammation of the lungs + or pleurisy pierce a hole in the chest. There are no + medicine-men--the women are the doctors. Certain of the incisor teeth + are pulled out. If a man retains these he will, it is thought, be + killed in warfare. Among certain tribes the women also have incisor + teeth extracted, otherwise misfortune would befall their husbands. For + the same reason the wife scars the skin of her forehead or stomach. A + Kavirondo husband, before starting on a perilous journey, cuts scars + on his wife's body to ensure him good luck. Of dances the Kavirondo + have four--the birth dance, the death dance, that at initiation and + one of a propitiatory kind in seasons of drought. Their music is + plaintive and sometimes pretty, produced by a large lyre-shaped + instrument. They use also various drums. + + The Ja-Luo women use for ear ornaments small beads attached to pieces + of brass. Like the aggry beads of West Africa these beads are not of + local manufacture nor of recent introduction. They are ancient, in + colour generally blue, occasionally yellow or green, and are picked up + in certain districts after heavy rain. By the natives they are + supposed to come down with the rain. They are identical in shape and + colour with ancient Egyptian beads and other beads obtained from + ancient cities in Baluchistan. + + See C. W. Hobley, _Eastern Uganda, an Ethnological Survey_ (Anthrop. + Inst., _Occasional Papers_, No. 1, London, 1902); Sir H. H. Johnston, + _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); J. F. Cunningham, _Uganda and its + Peoples_ (1905); Paul Kollmann, _The Victoria Nyanza_ (1899). + (T. A. J.) + + + + +KAW, or KANSA, a tribe of North American Indians of Siouan stock. They +were originally an offshoot of the Osages. Their early home was in +Missouri, whence they were driven to Kansas by the Dakotas. They were +moved from one reservation to another, till in 1873 they were settled in +Indian Territory; they have since steadily decreased, and now number +some 200. + + + + +KAWARDHA, a feudatory state of India, within the Central Provinces; +area, 798 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 57,474, showing a decrease of 37% in the +decade, due to famine; estimated revenue, £7000. Half the state consists +of hill and forest. The residence of the chief, who is a Raj Gond, is at +Kawardha (pop. 4772), which is also the headquarters of the Kabirpanthi +sect (see KABIR). + + + + +KAY, JOHN (1742-1826), Scottish caricaturist, was born near Dalkeith, +where his father was a mason. At thirteen he was apprenticed to a +barber, whom he served for six years. He then went to Edinburgh, where +in 1771 he obtained the freedom of the city by joining the corporation +of barber-surgeons. In 1785, induced by the favour which greeted certain +attempts of his to etch in aquafortis, he took down his barber's pole +and opened a small print shop in Parliament Square. There he continued +to flourish, painting miniatures, and publishing at short intervals his +sketches and caricatures of local celebrities and oddities, who abounded +at that period in Edinburgh society. He died on the 21st of February +1826. + + Kay's portraits were collected by Hugh Paton and published under the + title _A series of original portraits and caricature etchings by the + late John Kay, with biographical sketches and illustrative anecdotes_ + (Edin., 2 vols. 4to, 1838; 8vo ed., 4 vols., 1842; new 4to ed., with + additional plates, 2 vols., 1877), forming a unique record of the + social life and popular habits of Edinburgh at its most interesting + epoch. + + + + +KAY, JOSEPH (1821-1878), English economist, was born at Salford, +Lancashire, on the 27th of February 1821. Educated privately and at +Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple +in 1848. He was appointed judge of the Salford Hundred court of record +in 1862 and in 1869 was made a queen's counsel. He is best known for a +series of works on the social condition of the poor in France, +Switzerland, Holland, Germany and Austria, the materials for which he +gathered on a four years' tour as travelling bachelor of his university. +They were _The Education of the Poor in England and Europe_ (London, +1846); _The Social Condition of the People in England and Europe_ +(London, 1850, 2 vols.); _The Condition and Education of Poor Children +in English and in German Towns_ (Manchester, 1853). He was also the +author of _The Law relating to Shipmasters and Seamen_ (London, 1875) +and _Free Trade in Land_ (1879, with a memoir). He died at Dorking, +Surrey, on the 9th of October 1878. + + + + +KAYAK, or CAYAK, an Eskimo word for a fishing boat, in common use from +Greenland to Alaska. It has been erroneously derived from the Arabic +_caique_, supposed to have been applied to the native boats by early +explorers. The boat is made by covering a light wooden framework with +sealskin. A hole is pierced in the centre of the top of the boat, and +the _kayaker_ (also dressed in sealskin) laces himself up securely when +seated to prevent the entrance of water. The kayak is propelled like a +canoe by a double-bladed paddle. The name _kayak_ is properly only +applied to the boat used by an Eskimo man--that used by a woman is +called an _umiak_. + + + + +KAYASTH, the writer caste of Northern India, especially numerous and +influential in Bengal. In 1901 their total number in all India was more +than two millions. Their claim to be Kshattriyas who have taken to +clerical work is not admitted by the Brahmans. Under Mahommedan rule +they learnt Persian, and filled many important offices. They are now +eager students of English, and have supplied not only several judges to +the high court but also the first Hindu to be a member of the +governor-general's council. In Bombay their place is taken by the +Prabhus, and in Assam by the Kalitas (Kolitas); in Southern India there +is no distinct clerical caste. + + + + +KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1876), English military historian, was the +son of Charles Kaye, a solicitor, and was educated at Eton and the Royal +Military College, Addiscombe. From 1832 to 1841 he was an officer in the +Bengal Artillery, afterwards spending some years in literary pursuits +both in India and in England. In 1856 he entered the civil service of +the East India Company, and when the government of India was transferred +to the British crown succeeded John Stuart Mill as secretary of the +political and secret department of the India office. In 1871 he was made +a K.C.S.I. He died in London on the 24th of July 1876. Kaye's numerous +writings include _History of the Sepoy War in India_ (London, +1864-1876), which was revised and continued by Colonel G. B. Malleson +and published in six volumes in 1888-1889; _History of the War in +Afghanistan_ (London, 1851), republished in 1858 and 1874; +_Administration of the East India Company_ (London, 1853); _The Life and +Correspondence of Charles, Lord Metcalfe_ (London, 1854); _The Life and +Correspondence of Henry St George Tucker_ (London, 1854); _Life and +Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm_ (London, 1856); _Christianity in +India_ (London, 1859); _Lives of Indian Officers_ (London, 1867); and +two novels, _Peregrine Pultney_ and _Long engagements_. He also edited +several works dealing with Indian affairs; wrote _Essays of an Optimist_ +(London, 1870); and was a frequent contributor to periodicals. + + + + +KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL (1845- ), German geologist and +palaeontologist, was born at Königsberg, on the 26th of March 1845. He +was educated at Berlin where he took his degree of Ph.D. in 1870. In +1882 he became professor of geology in the university at Marburg. He +investigated fossils of various ages and from all parts of the world, +but more especially from the Palaeozoic formations, including those of +South Africa, the Polar regions, and notably the Devonian fossils of +Germany, Bohemia and other parts of Europe. + + Among his separate works are _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (2 vols., ii.), + _Geologische Formationskunde_ 1891 (2nd ed., 1902), and i. _Allgemeine + Geologie_ (1893), vol. ii. (the volume first issued) was translated + and edited by P. Lake, 1893, under the title _Textbook of Comparative + Geology_. Another work is _Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Fauna der + Siegenschen Grauwacke_ (1892). + + + + +KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS, BART. (1804-1877), English +politician and educationalist, was born at Rochdale, Lancashire, on the +20th of July 1804, the son of Robert Kay. At first engaged in a Rochdale +bank, in 1824 he became a medical student at Edinburgh University. +Settling in Manchester about 1827, he worked for the Ancoats and Ardwick +Dispensary, and the experience which he thus gained of the conditions of +the poor in the Lancashire factory districts, together with his interest +in economic science, led to his appointment in 1835 as poor law +commissioner in Norfolk and Suffolk and later in the London districts. +In 1839 he was appointed first secretary of the committee formed by the +Privy Council to administer the Government grant for the public +education in Great Britain. He is remembered as having founded at +Battersea, London, in conjunction with E. Carleton Tufnell, the first +training college for school teachers (1839-1840); and the system of +national school education of the present day, with its public +inspection, trained teachers and its support by state as well as local +funds, is largely due to his initiative. In 1842 he married Lady Janet +Shuttleworth, assuming by royal licence his bride's name and arms. A +breakdown in his health led him to resign his post on the committee in +1849, but subsequent recovery enabled him to take an active part in the +working of the central relief committee instituted under Lord Derby, +during the Lancashire cotton famine of 1861-1865. He was created a +baronet in 1849. Until the end of his life he interested himself in the +movements of the Liberal party in Lancashire, and the progress of +education. He died in London on the 26th of May 1877. His _Physiology, +Pathology and Treatment of Asphyxia_ became a standard textbook, and he +also wrote numerous papers on public education. + +His son, Sir Ughtred James Kay-Shuttleworth (b. 1844), became a +well-known Liberal politician, sitting in parliament for Hastings from +1869 to 1880 and for the Clitheroe division of Lancashire from 1885 till +1902, when he was created Baron Shuttleworth. He was chancellor of the +duchy of Lancaster in 1886, and secretary to the Admiralty in 1892-1895. + + + + +KAZALA, or KAZALINSK, a fort and town in the Russian province of +Syr-darya in West Turkestan, at the point where the Kazala River falls +into the Syr-darya, about 50 m. from its mouth in Lake Aral, in 45° 45´ +N. and 62° 7´ E., "at the junction," to quote Schuyler, "of all the +trade routes in Central Asia, as the road from Orenburg meets here with +the Khiva, Bokhara and Tashkent roads." Besides carrying on an active +trade with the Kirghiz of the surrounding country, it is of growing +importance in the general current of commerce. Pop. (1897), 7600. The +floods in the river make it an island in spring; in summer it is parched +by the sun and hot winds, and hardly a tree can be got to grow. The +streets are wide, but the houses, as well as the fairly strong fort, are +built of mud bricks. + + + + +KAZAÑ, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by the governments of +Vyatka, Ufa, Samara, Simbirsk, Nizhniy-Novgorod and Kostroma. Area +24,601 sq. m. It belongs to the basins of the Volga and its tributary +the Kama, and by these streams the government is divided into three +regions; the first, to the right of the main river, is traversed by deep +ravines sloping to the north-east, towards the Volga, and by two ranges +of hills, one of which (300 to 500 ft.) skirts the river; the second +region, between the left bank of the Volga and the left bank of the +Kama, is an open steppe; and the third, between the left bank of the +Volga and the right bank of the Kama, resembles in its eastern part the +first region, and in its western part is covered with forest. Marls, +limestones and sandstones, of Permian or Triassic age, are the principal +rocks; the Jurassic formation appears in a small part of the Tetyúshi +district in the south; and Tertiary rocks stretch along the left bank of +the Volga. Mineral springs (iron, sulphur and petroleum) exist in +several places. The Volga is navigable throughout its course of 200 m. +through Kazañ, as well as the Kama (120 m.); and the Vyatka, Kazanka, +Rutka, Tsivyl, Greater Kokshaga, Ilet, Vetluga and Mesha, are not +without value as waterways. About four hundred small lakes are +enumerated within the government; the upper and lower Kaban supply the +city of Kazañ with water. + +The climate is severe, the annual mean temperature being 37.8° F. The +rainfall amounts to 16 in. Agriculture is the chief occupation, and 82% +of the population are peasants. Out of 7,672,600 acres of arable land, +4,516,500 are under crops--chiefly rye and oats, with some wheat, +barley, buckwheat, lentils, flax, hemp and potatoes. But there generally +results great scarcity, and even famine, in bad years. Live stock are +numerous. Forests cover 35% of the total area. Bee-keeping is an +important industry. Factories employ about 10,000 persons and include +flour-mills, distilleries, factories for soap, candles and tallow, and +tanneries. A great variety of petty trades, especially those connected +with wood, are carried on in the villages, partly for export. The fairs +are well attended. There is considerable shipping on the Volga, Kama, +Vyatka and their tributaries. Kazañ is divided into twelve districts. +The chief town is Kazañ (q.v.). The district capitals, with their +populations in 1897 are: Cheboksary (4568), Chistopol (20,161), +Kozmodemyansk (5212), Laishev (5439), Mamadyzh (4213), Spask (2779), +Sviyazhsk (2363), Tetyushi (4754). Tsarevokokshaisk (1654), Tsivylsk +(2337) and Yadrin (2467). Population (1879), 1,872,437; (1897), +2,190,185, of whom 1,113,555 were women, and 176,396 lived in towns. The +estimated population in 1906 was 2,504,400. It consists principally of +Russians and Tatars, with a variety of Finno-Turkish tribes: Chuvashes, +Cheremisses, Mordvinians, Votyaks, Mescheryaks, and some Jews and Poles. +The Russians belong to the Orthodox Greek Church or are Nonconformists; +the Tatars are Mussulmans; and the Finno-Turkish tribes are either +pagans or belong officially to the Orthodox Greek Church, the respective +proportions being (in 1897): Orthodox Greek, 69.4% of the whole; +Nonconformists, 1%; Mussulmans, 28.8%. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KAZAÑ (called by the Cheremisses _Ozon_), a town of eastern Russia, +capital of the government of the same name, situated in 55° 48´ N. and +49° 26´´ E., on the river Kazanka, 3 m. from the Volga, which however +reaches the city when it overflows its banks every spring. Kazañ lies +650 m. E. from Moscow by rail and 253 m. E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the +Volga. Pop. (1883), 140,726; (1900), 143,707, all Russians except for +some 20,000 Tatars. The most striking feature of the city is the _kreml_ +or citadel, founded in 1437, which crowns a low hill on the N.W. Within +its wall, capped with five towers, it contains several churches, amongst +them the cathedral of the Annunciation, founded in 1562 by Gury, the +first archbishop of Kazañ, Kazañ being an archiepiscopal see of the +Orthodox Greek Church. Other buildings in the kreml are a magnificent +monastery, built in 1556; an arsenal; the modern castle in which the +governor resides; and the red brick Suyumbeka tower, 246 ft. high, which +is an object of great veneration to the Tatars as the reputed +burial-place of one of their saints. A little E. of the kreml is the +Bogoroditski convent, built in 1579 for the reception of the Black +Virgin of Kazañ, a miracle-working image transferred to Moscow in 1612, +and in St Petersburg since 1710. Kazañ is the intellectual capital of +eastern Russia, and an important seat of Oriental scholarship. Its +university, founded in 1804, is attended by nearly 1000 students. +Attached to it are an excellent library of 220,000 vols., an +astronomical observatory, a botanical garden and various museums. The +ecclesiastical academy, founded in 1846, contains the old library of the +Solovetsk (Solovki) monastery, which is of importance for the history of +Russian religious sects. The city is adorned with bronze statues of Tsar +Alexander II., set up facing the kreml in 1895, and of the poet G. R. +Derzhavin (1743-1816); also with a monument commemorating the capture of +Kazañ by Ivan the Terrible. The central parts of the city consist +principally of small one-storeyed houses, surrounded by gardens, and are +inhabited chiefly by Russians, while some 20,000 Tatars dwell in the +suburbs. Kazañ is, further, the intellectual centre of the Russian +Mahommedans, who have here their more important schools and their +printing-presses. Between the city and the Volga is the Admiralty +suburb, where Peter the Great had his Caspian fleet built for his +campaigns against Persia. The more important manufactures are leather +goods, soap, wax candles, sacred images, cloth, cottons, spirits and +bells. A considerable trade is carried on with eastern Russia, and with +Turkestan and Persia. Previous to the 13th century, the present +government of Kazañ formed part of the territory of the Bulgarians, the +ruins of whose ancient capital, Bolgari or Bolgary, lie 60 m. S. of +Kazañ. The city of Kazañ itself stood, down to the 13th century, 30 m. +to the N.E., where traces of it can still be seen. In 1438 Ulugh +Mahommed (or Ulu Makhmet), khan of the Golden Horde of the Mongols, +founded, on the ruins of the Bulgarian state, the kingdom of Kazañ, +which in its turn was destroyed by Ivan the Terrible of Russia in 1552 +and its territory annexed to Russia. In 1774 the city was laid waste by +the rebel Pugachev. It has suffered repeatedly from fires, especially in +1815 and 1825. The Kazañ Tatars, from having lived so long amongst +Russians and Finnish tribes, have lost a good many of the characteristic +features of their Tatar (Mongol) ancestry, and bear now the stamp of a +distinct ethnographic type. They are found also in the neighbouring +governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Orenburg, Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Tambov +and Nizhniy-Novgorod. They are intelligent and enterprising, and are +engaged principally in trade. + + See Pineghin's _Kazañ Old and New_ (in Russian); Velyaminov-Zernov's + _Kasimov Tsars_ (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-1866); Zarinsky's + _Sketches of Old Kazañ_ (Kazañ, 1877); Trofimov's _Siege of Kazañ in_ + 1552 (Kazañ, 1890); Firsov's books on the history of the native + population (Kazañ, 1864 and 1869); and Shpilevski, on the antiquities + of the town and government, in _Izvestia i Zapiski_ of the Kazañ + University (1877). A bibliography of the Oriental books published in + the city is printed in _Bulletins_ of the St Petersburg Academy + (1867). Compare also L. Leger's "Kazañ et les tartares," in _Bibl. + Univ. de Genève_ (1874). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +KAZERUN, a district and town of the province of Fars in Persia. The +district is situated between Shiraz and Bushire. In its centre is the +Kazerun Valley with a direction N.W. to S.E., a fertile plain 30 m. long +and 7 to 8 m. broad, bounded S.E. by the Parishan Lake (8 m. long, 3 m. +broad) N.W. by the Boshavir River, with the ruins of the old city of +Beh-Shahpur (Beshaver, Boshavir, also, short, Shapur) and Sassanian +bas-reliefs on its banks. There also, in a cave, is a statue of Shapur. +The remainder of the district is mostly hilly country intersected by +numerous streams, plains and hills being covered with zizyphus, wild +almond and oak. The district is divided into two divisions: town and +villages, the latter being called Kuh i Marreh and again subdivided into +(1) Pusht i Kuh; (2) Yarruk; (3) Shakan. It has forty-six villages and a +population of about 15,000; it produces rice of excellent quality, +cotton, tobacco and opium, but very little corn, and bread made of the +flour of acorns is a staple of food in many villages. Wild almonds are +exported. + +Kazerun, the chief place of the district, is an unwalled town situated +in the midst of the central plain, in 29° 37´ N., 51° 43´ E. at an +elevation of 2800 ft., 70 m. from Shiraz, and 96 m. from Bushire. It has +a population of about 8000, and is divided into four quarters separated +by open spaces. Adjoining it on the W. is the famous Nazar garden, with +noble avenues of orange trees planted by a former governor, Hajji Ali +Kuli Khan, in 1767. A couple of miles N. of the city behind a low range +of hills are the imposing ruins of a marble building said to stand over +the grave of Sheik Amin ed din Mahommed b. Zia ed din Mas'ud, who died +A.H. 740 (A.D. 1339). S.E. of the city on a huge mound are ruins of +buildings with underground chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i Gabr, +"castle of the fire-worshippers." + + + + +KAZINCZY, FERENCZ (1750-1831), Hungarian author, the most indefatigable +agent in the regeneration of the Magyar language and literature at the +end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, was born on the 27th +of October 1759, at Ér-Semlyén, in the county of Bihar, Hungary. He +studied law at Kassa and Eperies, and in Pest, where he also obtained a +thorough knowledge of French and German literature, and made the +acquaintance of Gideon Ráday, who allowed him the use of his library. In +1784 Kazinczy became subnotary for the county of Abaúj; and in 1786 he +was nominated inspector of schools at Kassa. There he began to devote +himself to the restoration of the Magyar language and literature by +translations from classical foreign works, and by the augmentation of +the native vocabulary from ancient Magyar sources. In 1788, with the +assistance of Baróti Szabó and John Bacsányi, he started at Kassa the +first Magyar literary magazine, _Magyar Muzeum_; the _Orpheus_, which +succeeded it in 1790, was his own creation. Although, upon the accession +of Leopold II, Kazinczy, as a non-Catholic, was obliged to resign his +post at Kassa, his literary activity in no way decreased. He not only +assisted Gideon Ráday in the establishment and direction of the first +Magyar dramatic society, but enriched the repertoire with several +translations from foreign authors. His _Hamlet_, which first appeared at +Kassa in 1790, is a rendering from the German version of Schröder. +Implicated in the democratic conspiracy of the abbot Martinovics, +Kazinczy was arrested on the 14th of December 1794, and condemned to +death; but the sentence was commuted to imprisonment. He was released in +1801, and shortly afterwards married Sophia Török, daughter of his +former patron, and retired to his small estate at Széphalom or +"Fairhill," near Sátor-Ujhely, in the county of Zemplén. In 1828 he took +an active part in the conferences held for the establishment of the +Hungarian academy in the historical section of which he became the first +corresponding member. He died of Asiatic cholera, at Széphalom, on the +22nd of August 1831. + + Kazinczy, although possessing great beauty of style, cannot be + regarded as a powerful and original thinker; his fame is chiefly due + to the felicity of his translations from the masterpieces of Lessing, + Goethe, Wieland, Klopstock, Ossian, La Rochefoucauld, Marmontel, + Molière, Metastasio, Shakespeare, Sterne, Cicero, Sallust, Anacreon, + and many others. He also edited the works of Baróczy (Pest, 1812, 8 + vols.) and of the poet Zrinyi (1817, 2 vols.), and the poems of Dayka + (1813, 3 vols.) and of John Kis, (1815, 3 vols.). A collective edition + of his works (_Szép Literatura_), consisting for the most part of + translations, was published at Pest, 1814-1816, in 9 vols. His + original productions (_Eredeti Mukái_), largely made up of letters, + were edited by Joseph Bajza and Francis Toldy at Pest, 1836-1845, in 5 + vols. Editions of his poems appeared in 1858 and in 1863. + + + + +KAZVIN, a province and town of Persia. The province is situated N.W. of +Teheran and S. of Gilan. On the W. it is bounded by Khamseh. It pays a +yearly revenue of about £22,000, and contains many rich villages which +produce much grain and fruit, great quantities of the latter being dried +and exported. + +Kazvin, the capital of the province, is situated at an elevation of 4165 +ft., in 36° 15´ N. and 50° E., and 92 m. by road from Teheran. The city +is said to have been founded in the 4th century by the Sassanian king +Shapur II (309-379). It has been repeatedly damaged by earthquakes. Many +of its streets and most of the magnificent buildings seen there by +Chardin in 1674 and other travellers during the 17th century are in +ruins. The most remarkable remains are the palace of the Safawid shahs +and the mosque with its large blue dome. In the 16th century Shah +Tahmasp I. (1524-1576) made Kazvin his capital, and it remained so till +Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629) transferred the seat of government to Isfahán. +The town still bears the title Dar es Salteneh, "the seat of +government." Kazvin has many baths and cisterns fed by underground +canals. The system of irrigation formerly carried on by these canals +rendered the plain of Kazvin one of the most fertile regions in Persia; +now most of the canals are choked up. The city has a population of about +50,000 and a thriving transit trade, particularly since 1899 when the +carriage road between Resht and Teheran with Kazvin as a half-way stage +was opened under the auspices of the Russian "Enzeli-Teheran Road +Company." Great quantities of rice, fish and silk are brought to it +from Gilan for distribution in Persia and export to Turkey. + + + + +KEAN, EDMUND (1787-1833), was born in London on the 17th of March[1] +1787. His father was probably Edmund Kean, an architect's clerk; and his +mother was an actress, Ann Carey, grand-daughter of Henry Carey. When in +his fourth year Kean made his first appearance on the stage as Cupid in +Noverre's ballet of _Cymon_. As a child his vivacity and cleverness, and +his ready affection for those who treated him with kindness, made him a +universal favourite, but the harsh circumstances of his lot, and the +want of proper restraint, while they developed strong self-reliance, +fostered wayward tendencies. About 1794 a few benevolent persons +provided the means of sending him to school, where he mastered his tasks +with remarkable ease and rapidity; but finding the restraint +intolerable, he shipped as a cabin boy at Portsmouth. Discovering that +he had only escaped to a more rigorous bondage, he counterfeited both +deafness and lameness with a histrionic mastery which deceived even the +physicians at Madeira. On his return to England he sought the protection +of his uncle Moses Kean, mimic, ventriloquist and general entertainer, +who, besides continuing his pantomimic studies, introduced him to the +study of Shakespeare. At the same time Miss Tidswell, an actress who had +been specially kind to him from infancy, taught him the principles of +acting. On the death of his uncle he was taken charge of by Miss +Tidswell, and under her direction he began the systematic study of the +principal Shakespearian characters, displaying the peculiar originality +of his genius by interpretations entirely different from those of +Kemble. His talents and interesting countenance induced a Mrs Clarke to +adopt him, but the slight of a visitor so wounded his pride that he +suddenly left her house and went back to his old surroundings. In his +fourteenth year he obtained an engagement to play leading characters for +twenty nights in York Theatre, appearing as Hamlet, Hastings and Cato. +Shortly afterwards, while he was in the strolling troupe belonging to +Richardson's show, the rumour of his abilities reached George III., who +commanded him to recite at Windsor. He subsequently joined Saunders's +circus, where in the performance of an equestrian feat he fell and broke +his legs--the accident leaving traces of swelling in his insteps +throughout his life. About this time he picked up music from Charles +Incledon, dancing from D'Egville, and fencing from Angelo. In 1807 he +played leading parts in the Belfast theatre with Mrs Siddons, who began +by calling him "a horrid little man" and on further experience of his +ability said that he "played very, very well," but that "there was too +little of him to make a great actor." An engagement in 1808 to play +leading characters in Beverley's provincial troupe was brought to an +abrupt close by his marriage (July 17) with Miss Mary Chambers of +Waterford, the leading actress. For several years his prospects were +very gloomy, but in 1814 the committee of Drury Lane theatre, the +fortunes of which were then so low that bankruptcy seemed inevitable, +resolved to give him a chance among the "experiments" they were making +to win a return of popularity. When the expectation of his first +appearance in London was close upon him he was so feverish that he +exclaimed "If I succeed I shall go mad." His opening at Drury Lane on +the 26th of January 1814 as Shylock roused the audience to almost +uncontrollable enthusiasm. Successive appearances in Richard III., +Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth and Lear served to demonstrate his complete +mastery of the whole range of tragic emotion. His triumph was so great +that he himself said on one occasion, "I could not feel the stage under +me." On the 29th of November 1820 Kean appeared for the first time in +New York as Richard III. The success of his visit to America was +unequivocal, although he fell into a vexatious dispute with the press. +On the 4th of June 1821 he returned to England. + +Probably his irregular habits were prejudicial to the refinement of his +taste, and latterly they tended to exaggerate his special defects and +mannerisms. The adverse decision in the divorce case of Cox v. Kean on +the 17th of January 1825 caused his wife to leave him, and aroused +against him such bitter feeling, shown by the almost riotous conduct of +the audiences before which he appeared about this time, as nearly to +compel him to retire permanently into private life. A second visit to +America in 1825 was largely a repetition of the persecution which, in +the name of morality, he had suffered in England. Some cities showed him +a spirit of charity; many audiences submitted him to the grossest +insults and endangered his life by the violence of their disapproval. In +Quebec he was much impressed with the kindness of some Huron Indians who +attended his performances, and he was made chief of the tribe, receiving +the name Alanienouidet. Kean's last appearance in New York was on the +5th of December 1826 in Richard III., the rôle in which he was first +seen in America. He returned to England and was ultimately received with +all the old favour, but the contest had made him so dependent on the use +of stimulants that the gradual deterioration of his gifts was +inevitable. Still, even in their decay his great powers triumphed during +the moments of his inspiration over the absolute wreck of his physical +faculties, and compelled admiration after his gait had degenerated into +a weak hobble, and the lightning brilliancy of his eyes had become dull +and bloodshot, and the tones of his matchless voice marred by rough and +grating hoarseness. His appearance in Paris was a failure owing to a fit +of drunkenness. His last appearance on the stage was at Covent Garden, +on the 25th of March 1833 when he played Othello to the Iago of his son +Charles. At the words "Villain, be sure," in scene 3 of act iii., he +suddenly broke down, and crying in a faltering voice "O God, I am dying. +Speak to them, Charles," fell insensible into his son's arms. He died at +Richmond on the 15th of May 1833. + +It was in the impersonation of the great creations of Shakespeare's +genius that the varied beauty and grandeur of the acting of Kean were +displayed in their highest form, although probably his most powerful +character was Sir Giles Overreach in Massinger's _A New Way to Pay Old +Debts_, the effect of his first impersonation of which was such that the +pit rose _en masse_, and even the actors and actresses themselves were +overcome by the terrific dramatic illusion. His only personal +disadvantage as an actor was his small stature. His countenance was +strikingly interesting and unusually mobile; he had a matchless command +of facial expression; his fine eyes scintillated with the slightest +shades of emotion and thought; his voice, though weak and harsh in the +upper register, possessed in its lower range tones of penetrating and +resistless power, and a thrilling sweetness like the witchery of the +finest music; above all, in the grander moments of his passion, his +intellect and soul seemed to rise beyond material barriers and to +glorify physical defects with their own greatness. Kean specially +excelled as the exponent of passion. In Othello, Iago, Shylock and +Richard III., characters utterly different from each other, but in which +the predominant element is some form of passion, his identification with +the personality, as he had conceived it, was as nearly as possible +perfect, and each isolated phase and aspect of the plot was elaborated +with the minutest attention to details, and yet with an absolute +subordination of these to the distinct individuality he was endeavouring +to portray. Coleridge said, "Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare +by flashes of lightning." If the range of character in which Kean +attained supreme excellence was narrow, no one except Garrick has been +so successful in so many great impersonations. Unlike Garrick, he had no +true talent for comedy, but in the expression of biting and saturnine +wit, of grim and ghostly gaiety, he was unsurpassed. His eccentricities +at the height of his fame were numerous. Sometimes he would ride +recklessly on his horse Shylock throughout the night. He was presented +with a tame lion with which he might be found playing in his +drawing-room. The prizefighters Mendoza and Richmond the Black were +among his visitors. Grattan was his devoted friend. In his earlier days +Talma said of him, "He is a magnificent uncut gem; polish and round him +off and he will be a perfect tragedian." Macready, who was much +impressed by Kean's Richard III. and met the actor at supper, speaks of +his "unassuming manner ... partaking in some degree of shyness" and of +the "touching grace" of his singing. Kean's delivery of the three words +"I answer--NO!" in the part of Sir Edward Mortimer in _The Iron Chest_, +cast Macready into an abyss of despair at rivalling him in this rôle. So +full of dramatic interest is the life of Edmund Kean that it formed the +subject for a play by the elder Dumas, entitled _Kean on désordre et +génie_, in which Frederick-Lemaître achieved one of his greatest +triumphs. + + See Francis Phippen, _Authentic Memoirs of Edmund Kean_ (1814); B. W. + Procter (Barry Cornwall), _The Life of Edmund Kean_ (1835); F. W. + Hawkins, _The Life of Edmund Kean_ (1869); J. Fitzgerald Molloy, _The + Life and Adventures of Edmund Kean_ (1888); Edward Stirling, _Old + Drury Lane_ (1887). + +His son, CHARLES JOHN KEAN (1811-1868), was born at Waterford, Ireland, +on the 18th of January 1811. After preparatory education at Worplesdon +and at Greenford, near Harrow, he was sent to Eton College, where he +remained three years. In 1827 he was offered a cadetship in the East +India Company's service, which he was prepared to accept if his father +would settle an income of £400 on his mother. The elder Kean refused to +do this, and his son determined to become an actor. He made his first +appearance at Drury Lane on the 1st of October 1827 as Norval in Home's +_Douglas_, but his continued failure to achieve popularity led him to +leave London in the spring of 1828 for the provinces. At Glasgow, on the +1st of October in this year, father and son acted together in Arnold +Payne's _Brutus_, the elder Kean in the title-part and his son as Titus. +After a visit to America in 1830, where he was received with much +favour, he appeared in 1833 at Covent Garden as Sir Edmund Mortimer in +Colman's _The Iron Chest_, but his success was not pronounced enough to +encourage him to remain in London, especially as he had already won a +high position in the provinces. In January 1838, however, he returned to +Drury Lane, and played Hamlet with a success which gave him a place +among the principal tragedians of his time. He was married to the +actress Ellen Tree (1805-1880) on the 29th of January 1842, and paid a +second visit to America with her from 1845 to 1847. Returning to +England, he entered on a successful engagement at the Haymarket, and in +1850, with Robert Keeley, became lessee of the Princess Theatre. The +most noteworthy feature of his management was a series of gorgeous +Shakespearian revivals. Charles Kean was not a great tragic actor. He +did all that could be done by the persevering cultivation of his powers, +and in many ways manifested the possession of high intelligence and +refined taste, but his defects of person and voice made it impossible +for him to give a representation at all adequate of the varying and +subtle emotions of pure tragedy. But in melodramatic parts such as the +king in Boucicault's adaptation of Casimir Delavigne's _Louis XI._, and +Louis and Fabian dei Franchi in Boucicault's adaptation of Dumas's _The +Corsican Brothers_, his success was complete. From his "tour round the +world" Kean returned in 1866 in broken health, and died in London on the +22nd of January 1868. + + See _The Life and Theatrical Times of Charles Kean_, by John William + Cole (1859). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This date is apparently settled by a letter from Kean in 1829, to + Dr Gibson (see _Rothesay Express_ for the 28th of June 1893, where + the letter is printed and vouched for), inviting him to dinner on the + 17th of March to celebrate Kean's birthday; various other dates have + been given in books of reference, the 4th of November having been + formerly accepted by this Encyclopaedia. + + + + +KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH (1839- ), American Roman Catholic archbishop, was +born in Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal, Ireland, on the 12th of September +1839. His family settled in America when he was seven years old. He was +educated at Saint Charles's College, Ellicott City, Maryland, and at +Saint Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, and in 1866 was ordained a priest and +made curate of St Patrick's, Washington, D.C. On the 25th of August 1878 +he was consecrated Bishop of Richmond, to succeed James Gibbons, and he +had established the Confraternity of the Holy Ghost in that diocese, and +founded schools and churches for negroes before his appointment as +rector of the Catholic University, Washington, D.C., in 1886, and his +appointment in 1888 to the see of Ajasso. He did much to upbuild the +Catholic University, but his democratic and liberal policy made him +enemies at Rome, whence there came in 1896 a request for his resignation +of the rectorate, and where he spent the years 1897-1900 as canon of St +John Lateran, assistant bishop at the pontifical throne, and counsellor +to the Propaganda. In 1900 he was consecrated archbishop of Dubuque, +Iowa. He took a prominent part in the Catholic Young Men's National +Union and in the Total Abstinence Union of North America; and was in +general charge of the Catholic delegation to the World's Parliament of +Religions held at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. He lectured widely +on temperance, education and American institutions, and in 1890 was +Dudleian lecturer at Harvard University. + + A selection from his writings and addresses was edited by Maurice + Francis Egan under the title _Onward and Upward: A Year Book_ + (Baltimore, 1902). + + + + +KEARNEY, a city and the county-seat of Buffalo county, Nebraska, U.S.A., +about 130 m. W. of Lincoln. Pop. (1890), 8074; (1900), 5634 (650 +foreign-born); (1910), 6202. It is on the main overland line of the +Union Pacific, and on a branch of the Burlington & Missouri River +railroad. The city is situated in the broad, flat bottom-lands a short +distance N. of the Platte River. Lake Kearney, in the city, has an area +of 40 acres. The surrounding region is rich farming land, devoted +especially to the growing of alfalfa and Indian corn. At Kearney are a +State Industrial School for boys, a State Normal School, the Kearney +Military Academy, and a Carnegie library. Good water-power is provided +by a canal from the Platte River about 17 m. above Kearney, and the +city's manufactures include foundry and machine-shop products, flour and +bricks. Kearney Junction, as Kearney was called from 1872 to 1875, was +settled a year before the two railways actually formed their junction +here, where the city was planned. Kearney became a town in 1873, a city +of the second class and the county seat in 1874, and a city of the first +class in 1901. It is to be distinguished from an older and once famous +prairie city, popularly known as "Dobey Town" (i.e. Adobe), founded in +the early 'fifties on the edge of the reservation of old Fort Kearney +(removed in 1848 from Nebraska City), in Kearney county, on the S. shore +of the Platte about 6 m. S.E. of the present Kearney; here in 1861 the +post office of Kearney City was established. In the days of the prairie +freighting caravans Dobey Town was one of the most important towns +between Independence, Missouri, and the Pacific coast, and it had a +rough, wild, picturesque history; but it lost its immense freighting +interests after the Union Pacific had been extended through it in 1866. +The site of Dobey Town, together with the Fort, was abandoned in 1871. +Fort Kearney and the city too were named in honour of General Stephen W. +Kearny, and the name was at first correctly spelt without a second "e." + + + + +KEARNY, PHILIP (1815-1862), American soldier, was born in New York on +the 2nd of June 1815, and was originally intended for the legal +profession. He graduated at Columbia University (1833), but his bent was +decidedly towards soldiering, and in 1837 he obtained a commission in +the cavalry regiment of which his uncle, (General) Stephen Watts Kearny +(1794-1848), was colonel and Lieutenant Jefferson Davis adjutant. Two +years later he was sent to France to study the methods of cavalry +training in vogue there. Before his return to the United States in 1840 +he had served, on leave, in Algeria. He had inherited a large fortune, +but he remained in the service, and his wide experience of cavalry work +caused him to be employed on the headquarters staff of the army. After +six more years' service Kearny left the army, but almost immediately +afterwards he rejoined, bringing with him a company of cavalry, which he +had raised and equipped chiefly at his own expense, to take part in the +Mexican war. In December 1846 he was promoted captain. In leading a +brilliant cavalry charge at Churubusco he lost his left arm, but he +remained at the front, and won the brevet of major for his gallantry at +Contreras and Churubusco. In 1851 he again resigned, to travel round the +world. He saw further active service with his old comrades of the French +cavalry in the Italian war of 1859, and received the cross of the Legion +of Honour for his conduct at Solferino. Up to the outbreak of the +American Civil War he lived in Paris, but early in 1861 he hastened home +to join the Federal army. At first as a brigade commander and later as a +divisional commander of infantry in the Army of the Potomac, he infused +into his men his own cavalry spirit of dash and bravery. At +Williamsburg, Seven Pines, and Second Bull Run, he displayed his usual +romantic courage, but at Chantilly (Sept. 1, 1862), after repulsing an +attack of the enemy, he rode out in the dark too far to the front, and +mistaking the Confederates for his own men was shot dead. His body was +sent to the Federal lines with a message from General Lee, and was +buried in Trinity Churchyard, New York. His commission as major-general +of volunteers was dated July 4, 1862, but he never received it. + + See J. W. de Peyster, _Personal and Military History of Philip Kearny_ + (New York, 1869). + + + + +KEARNY, a town of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., between the Passaic +and Hackensack rivers, adjoining Harrison, and connected with Newark by +bridges over the Passaic. Pop. (1900), 10,896, of whom 3597 were +foreign-born; (1910 census), 18,659. The New York & Greenwood Lake +division of the Erie railroad has a station at Arlington, the principal +village (in the N.W. part), which contains attractive residences of +Newark, Jersey City and New York City business men. The town covers an +area of about 7 sq. m., including a large tract of marsh-land. In Kearny +are railway repair shops of the Pennsylvania system, and a large +abattoir; and there are numerous manufactures. The value of the town's +factory products increased from $1,607,002 in 1900 to $4,427,904 in +1905, or 175.5%. Among its institutions are the State Soldiers' Home, +removed here from Newark in 1880, a Carnegie library, two Italian homes +for orphans, and a Catholic Industrial School for boys. + +The neck of land between the Passaic and the Hackensack rivers, for 7 m. +N. from where they unite, was purchased from the proprietors of East +Jersey and from the Indians by Captain William Sandford in 1668 and +through Nathaniel Kingsland, sergeant-major of Barbadoes, received the +name "New Barbadoes." After the town under this name had been extended +considerably to the northward, the town of Lodi was formed out of the S. +portion in 1825, the town of Harrison was founded out of the S. portion +of Lodi in 1840, and in 1867 a portion of Harrison was set apart as a +township and named in honour of General Philip Kearny, a former +resident. Kearny was incorporated as a town in 1895. + + + + +KEARY, ANNIE (1825-1879), English novelist, was born near Wetherby, +Yorkshire, on the 3rd of March 1825, the daughter of an Irish clergyman. +She was the author of several children's books and novels, of which the +best known is _Castle Daly_, an Irish story. She also wrote an _Early +Egyptian History_ (1861) and _The Nation Around_ (1870). She died at +Eastbourne on the 3rd of March 1879. + + + + +KEATE, JOHN (1773-1852), English schoolmaster, was born at Wells, +Somersetshire, in 1773, the son of Prebendary William Keate. He was +educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where he had a brilliant +career as a scholar; taking holy orders, he became, about 1797, an +assistant master at Eton College. In 1809 he was elected headmaster. The +discipline of the school was then in a most unsatisfactory condition, +and Dr Keate (who took the degree of D.D. in 1810) took stern measures +to improve it. His partiality for the birch became a by-word, but he +succeeded in restoring order and strengthening the weakened authority of +the masters. Beneath an outwardly rough manner the little man concealed +a really kind heart, and when he retired in 1834, the boys, who admired +his courage, presented him with a handsome testimonial. A couple of +years before he had publicly flogged eighty boys on one day. Keate was +made a canon of Windsor in 1820. He died on the 5th of March 1852 at +Hartley Westpall, Hampshire, of which parish he had been rector since +1824. + + See Maxwell Lyte, _History of Eton College_ (3rd ed., 1899); Collins, + _Etoniana_; Harwood, _Alumni Etonienses; Annual Register_ (1852); + _Gentleman's Magazine_ (1852). + + + + +KEATS, JOHN (1795-1821), English poet, was born on the 29th or 31st of +October 1795 at the sign of the Swan and Hoop, 24 The Pavement, +Moorfields, London. He published his first volume of verse in 1817, his +second in the following year, his third in 1820, and died of consumption +at Rome on the 23rd of February 1821 in the fourth month of his +twenty-sixth year. (For the biographical facts see the later section of +this article.) + +In Keats's first book there was little foretaste of anything greatly or +even genuinely good; but between the marshy and sandy flats of sterile +or futile verse there were undoubtedly some few purple patches of floral +promise. The style was frequently detestable--a mixture of sham +Spenserian and mock Wordsworthian, alternately florid and arid. His +second book, _Endymion_, rises in its best passages to the highest level +of Barnfield and of Lodge, the two previous poets with whom, had he +published nothing more, he might most properly have been classed; and +this, among minor minstrels, is no unenviable place. His third book +raised him at once to a foremost rank in the highest class of English +poets. Shelley, up to twenty, had written little or nothing that would +have done credit to a boy of ten; and of Keats also it may be said that +the merit of his work at twenty-five was hardly by comparison more +wonderful than its demerit at twenty-two. His first book fell as flat as +it deserved to fall; the reception of his second, though less +considerate than on the whole it deserved, was not more contemptuous +than that of immeasurably better books published about the same time by +Coleridge, Landor and Shelley. A critic of exceptional carefulness and +candour might have noted in the first book so singular an example of a +stork among the cranes as the famous and notable sonnet on Chapman's +Homer; a just judge would have indicated, a partial advocate might have +exaggerated, the value of such golden grain amid a garish harvest of +tares as the hymn to Pan and the translation into verse of Titian's +Bacchanal which glorify the weedy wilderness of _Endymion_. But the +hardest thing said of that poem by the _Quarterly_ reviewer was +unconsciously echoed by the future author of _Adonais_--that it was all +but absolutely impossible to read through; and the obscener insolence of +the "Blackguard's Magazine," as Landor afterwards very justly labelled +it, is explicable though certainly not excusable if we glance back at +such a passage as that where Endymion exchanges fulsome and liquorish +endearments with the "known unknown _from whom his being sips such +darling (!) essence_." Such nauseous and pitiful phrases as these, and +certain passages in his correspondence, make us understand the source of +the most offensive imputations or insinuations levelled against the +writer's manhood; and, while admitting that neither his love-letters, +nor the last piteous outcries of his wailing and shrieking agony, would +ever have been made public by merciful or respectful editors, we must +also admit that, if they ought never to have been published, it is no +less certain that they ought never to have been written; that a manful +kind of man or even a manly sort of boy, in his love-making or in his +suffering, will not howl and snivel after such a lamentable fashion. One +thing hitherto inexplicable a very slight and rapid glance at his +amatory correspondence will amply suffice to explain: how it came to +pass that the woman so passionately beloved by so great a poet should +have thought it the hopeless attempt of a mistaken kindness to revive +the memory of a man for whom the best that could be wished was complete +and compassionate oblivion. For the side of the man's nature presented +to her inspection, this probably was all that charity or reason could +have desired. But that there was a finer side to the man, even if +considered apart from the poet, his correspondence with his friends and +their general evidence to his character give more sufficient proof than +perhaps we might have derived from the general impression left on us by +his works; though indeed the preface to _Endymion_ itself, however +illogical in its obviously implied suggestion that the poem published +was undeniably unworthy of publication, gave proof or hint at least that +after all its author was something of a man. And the eighteenth of his +letters to Miss Brawne stands out in bright and brave contrast with such +as seem incompatible with the traditions of his character on its manlier +side. But if it must be said that he lived long enough only to give +promise of being a man, it must also be said that he lived long enough +to give assurance of being a poet who was not born to come short of the +first rank. Not even a hint of such a probability could have been +gathered from his first or even from his second appearance; after the +publication of his third volume it was no longer a matter of possible +debate among judges of tolerable competence that this improbability had +become a certainty. Two or three phrases cancelled, two or three lines +erased, would have left us in _Lamia_ one of the most faultless as +surely as one of the most glorious jewels in the crown of English +poetry. _Isabella_, feeble and awkward in narrative to a degree almost +incredible in a student of Dryden and a pupil of Leigh Hunt, is +overcharged with episodical effects of splendid and pathetic expression +beyond the reach of either. _The Eve of St Agnes_, aiming at no doubtful +success, succeeds in evading all casual difficulty in the line of +narrative; with no shadow of pretence to such interest as may be derived +from stress of incident or depth of sentiment, it stands out among all +other famous poems as a perfect and unsurpassable study in pure colour +and clear melody--a study in which the figure of Madeline brings back +upon the mind's eye, if only as moonlight recalls a sense of sunshine, +the nuptial picture of Marlowe's Hero and the sleeping presence of +Shakespeare's Imogen. Beside this poem should always be placed the less +famous but not less precious _Eve of St Mark_, a fragment unexcelled for +the simple perfection of its perfect simplicity, exquisite alike in +suggestion and in accomplishment. The triumph of _Hyperion_ is as nearly +complete as the failure of _Endymion_; yet Keats never gave such proof +of a manly devotion and rational sense of duty to his art as in his +resolution to leave this great poem unfinished; not, as we may gather +from his correspondence on the subject, for the pitiful reason assigned +by his publishers, that of discouragement at the reception given to his +former work, but on the solid and reasonable ground that a Miltonic +study had something in its very scheme and nature too artificial, too +studious of a foreign influence, to be carried on and carried out at +such length as was implied by his original design. Fortified and +purified as it had been on a first revision, when much introductory +allegory and much tentative effusion of sonorous and superfluous verse +had been rigorously clipped down or pruned away, it could not long have +retained spirit enough to support or inform the shadowy body of a +subject so little charged with tangible significance. The faculty of +assimilation as distinguished from imitation, than which there can be no +surer or stronger sign of strong and sure original genius, is not more +evident in the most Miltonic passages of the revised _Hyperion_ than in +the more Shakespearian passages of the unrevised tragedy which no +radical correction could have left other than radically incorrigible. It +is no conventional exaggeration, no hyperbolical phrase of flattery with +more sound than sense in it, to say that in this chaotic and puerile +play of _Otho the Great_ there are such verses as Shakespeare might not +without pride have signed at the age when he wrote and even at the age +when he rewrote the tragedy of _Romeo and Juliet_. The dramatic fragment +of _King Stephen_ shows far more power of hand and gives far more +promise of success than does that of Shelley's _Charles the First_. Yet +we cannot say with any confidence that even this far from extravagant +promise would certainly or probably have been kept; it is certain only +that Keats in these attempts did at least succeed in showing a +possibility of future excellence as a tragic or at least a romantic +dramatist. In every other line of high and serious poetry his triumph +was actual and consummate; here only was it no more than potential or +incomplete. As a ballad of the more lyrical order, _La Belle dame sans +merci_ is not less absolutely excellent, less triumphantly perfect in +force and clearness of impression, that as a narrative poem is _Lamia_. +In his lines on Robin Hood, and in one or two other less noticeable +studies of the kind, he has shown thorough and easy mastery of the +beautiful metre inherited by Fletcher from Barnfield and by Milton from +Fletcher. The simple force of spirit and style which distinguishes the +genuine ballad manner from all spurious attempts at an artificial +simplicity was once more at least achieved in his verses on the +crowning creation of Scott's humaner and manlier genius--Meg Merrilies. +No little injustice has been done to Keats by such devotees as fix their +mind's eye only on the more salient and distinctive notes of a genius +which in fact was very much more various and tentative, less limited and +peculiar, than would be inferred from an exclusive study of his more +specially characteristic work. But within the limits of that work must +we look of course for the genuine credentials of his fame; and highest +among them we must rate his unequalled and unrivalled odes. Of these +perhaps the two nearest to absolute perfection, to the triumphant +achievement and accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to +human words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn; the most +radiant, fervent and musical is that to a Nightingale; the most +pictorial and perhaps the tenderest in its ardour of passionate fancy is +that to Psyche; the subtlest in sweetness of thought and feeling is that +on Melancholy. Greater lyrical poetry the world may have seen than any +that is in these; lovelier it surely has never seen, nor ever can it +possibly see. From the divine fragment of an unfinished ode to Maia we +can but guess that if completed it would have been worthy of a place +beside the highest. His remaining lyrics have many beauties about them, +but none perhaps can be called thoroughly beautiful. He has certainly +left us one perfect sonnet of the first rank and as certainly he has +left us but one. + +Keats has been promoted by modern criticism to a place beside +Shakespeare. The faultless force and the profound subtlety of his deep +and cunning instinct for the absolute expression of absolute natural +beauty can hardly be questioned or overlooked; and this is doubtless the +one main distinctive gift or power which denotes him as a poet among all +his equals, and gives him a right to rank for ever beside Coleridge and +Shelley. As a man, the two admirers who did best service to his memory +were Lord Houghton and Matthew Arnold. These alone, among all of their +day who have written of him without the disadvantage or advantage of a +personal acquaintance, have clearly seen and shown us the manhood of the +man. That ridiculous and degrading legend which imposed so strangely on +the generous tenderness of Shelley, while evoking the very natural and +allowable laughter of Byron, fell to dust at once for ever on the +appearance of Lord Houghton's biography, which gave perfect proof to all +time that "men have died and worms have eaten them" but not for fear of +critics or through suffering inflicted by reviews. Somewhat too +sensually sensitive Keats may have been in either capacity, but the +nature of the man was as far as was the quality of the poet above the +pitiful level of a creature whose soul could "let itself be snuffed out +by an article"; and, in fact, owing doubtless to the accident of a death +which followed so fast on his early appearance and his dubious reception +as a poet, the insolence and injustice of his reviewers in general have +been comparatively and even considerably exaggerated. Except from the +chief fountain-head of professional ribaldry then open in the world of +literary journalism, no reek of personal insult arose to offend his +nostrils; and the tactics of such unwashed malignants were inevitably +suicidal; the references to his brief experiment of apprenticeship to a +surgeon which are quoted from _Blackwood_, in the shorter as well as in +the longer memoir by Lord Houghton, could leave no bad odour behind them +save what might hang about men's yet briefer recollection of his +assailant's unmemorable existence. The false Keats, therefore, whom +Shelley pitied and Byron despised would have been, had he ever existed, +a thing beneath compassion or contempt. That such a man could have had +such a genius is almost evidently impossible; and yet more evident is +the proof which remains on everlasting record that none was ever further +from the chance of decline to such degradation than the real and actual +man who made that name immortal. (A. C. S.) + +Subjoined are the chief particulars of Keats's life. + +He was the eldest son of Thomas Keats and his wife Frances Jennings, and +was baptized at St Botolph's, Bishopsgate, on the 18th of December 1795. +The entry of his baptism is supplemented by a marginal note stating that +he was born on the 31st of October. Thomas Keats was employed in the +Swan and Hoop livery stables, Finsbury Pavement, London. He had married +his master's daughter, and managed the business on the retirement of his +father-in-law. In April 1804 Thomas Keats was killed by a fall from his +horse, and within a year of this event Mrs Keats married William +Rawlings, a stable-keeper. The marriage proved an unhappy one, and in +1806 Mrs Rawlings, with her children John, George, Thomas and Frances +Mary (afterwards Mrs Llanos, d. 1889), went to live at Edmonton with her +mother, who had inherited a considerable competence from her husband. +There is evidence that Keats's parents were by no means of the +commonplace type that might be hastily inferred from these associations. +They had desired to send their sons to Harrow, but John Keats and his +two brothers were eventually sent to a school kept by John Clarke at +Enfield, where he became intimate with his master's son, Charles Cowden +Clarke. His vivacity of temperament showed itself at school in a love of +fighting, but in the last year of his school life he developed a great +appetite for reading of all sorts. In 1810 he left school to be +apprenticed to Mr Thomas Hammond, a surgeon in Edmonton. He was still +within easy reach of his old school, where he frequently borrowed books, +especially the works of Spenser and the Elizabethans. With Hammond he +quarrelled before the termination of his apprenticeship, and in 1814 the +connexion was broken by mutual consent. His mother had died in 1810, and +in 1814 Mrs Jennings. The children were left in the care of two +guardians, one of whom, Richard Abbey, seems to have made himself solely +responsible. John Keats went to London to study at Guy's and St Thomas's +hospitals, living at first alone at 8 Dean Street, Borough, and later +with two fellow students in St Thomas's Street. It does not appear that +he neglected his medical studies, but his chief interest was turned to +poetry. In March 1816 he became a dresser at Guy's, but about the same +time his poetic gifts were stimulated by an acquaintance formed with +Leigh Hunt. His friendship with Benjamin Haydon, the painter, dates from +later in the same year. Hunt introduced him to Shelley, who showed the +younger poet a constant kindness. In 1816 Keats moved to the Poultry to +be with his brothers George and Tom, the former of whom was then +employed in his guardian's counting-house, but much of the poet's time +was spent at Leigh Hunt's cottage at Hampstead. In the winter of +1816-1817 he definitely abandoned medicine, and in the spring appeared +_Poems by John Keats_ dedicated to Leigh Hunt, and published by Charles +and James Ollier. On the 14th of April he left London to find quiet for +work. He spent some time at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, then at Margate and +Canterbury, where he was joined by his brother Tom. In the summer the +three brothers took lodgings in Well Walk, Hampstead, where Keats formed +a fast friendship with Charles Wentworth Dilke and Charles Armitage +Brown. In September of the same year (1817) he paid a visit to his +friend, Benjamin Bailey, at Oxford, and in November he finished +_Endymion_ at Burford Bridge, near Dorking. His youngest brother had +developed consumption, and in March John went to Teignmouth to nurse him +in place of his brother George, who had decided to sail for America with +his newly married wife, Georgiana Wylie. In May (1818) Keats returned to +London, and soon after appeared _Endymion: A Poetic Romance_ (1818), +bearing on the title-page as motto "The stretched metre of an antique +song." Late in June Keats and his friend Armitage Brown started on a +walking tour in Scotland, vividly described in the poet's letters. The +fatigue and hardship involved proved too great a strain for Keats, who +was forbidden by an Inverness doctor to continue his tour. He returned +to London by boat, arriving on the 18th of August. The autumn was spent +in constant attendance on his brother Tom, who died at the beginning of +December. There is no doubt that he resented the attacks on him in +_Blackwood's Magazine_ (August 1818), and the _Quarterly Review_ (April +1818, published only in September), but his chief preoccupations were +elsewhere. After his brother's death he went to live with his friend +Brown. He had already made the acquaintance of Fanny Brawne, a girl of +seventeen, who lived with her mother close by. For her Keats quickly +developed a consuming passion. He was in indifferent health, and, owing +partly to Mr Abbey's mismanagement, in difficulties for money. +Nevertheless his best work belongs to this period. In July 1819 he went +to Shanklin, living with James Rice. They were soon joined by Brown. The +next two months Keats spent with Brown at Winchester, enjoying an +interval of calmness due to his absence from Fanny Brawne. At Winchester +he completed _Lamia_ and _Otho the Great_, which he had begun in +conjunction with Brown, and began his historical tragedy of _King +Stephen_. Before Christmas he had returned to London and his bondage to +Fanny. In January 1820 his brother George paid a short visit to London, +but received no confidence from him. The fatal nature of Keats's illness +showed itself on the 3rd of February, but in March he recovered +sufficiently to be present at the private view of Haydon's picture of +"Christ's Entry into Jerusalem." In May he removed to a lodging in +Wesleyan Place, Kentish Town, to be near Leigh Hunt who eventually took +him into his house. In July appeared his third and last book, _Lamia, +Isabella, The Eve of St Agnes and other Poems_ (1820). Keats left the +Hunts abruptly in August in consequence of a delay in receiving one of +Fanny Brawne's letters which had been broken open by a servant. He went +to Wentworth Place, where he was taken in by the Brawnes. The suggestion +that he should spend the winter in Italy was followed up by an +invitation from Shelley to Pisa. This, however, he refused. But on the +18th of September 1820 he set out for Naples in company with Joseph +Severn, the artist, who had long been his friend. The travellers settled +in the Piazza de Spagna, Rome. Keats was devotedly tended by Dr +(afterwards Sir) James Clarke and Severn, and died on the 23rd of +February 1821. He was buried on the 27th in the old Protestant cemetery, +near the pyramid of Cestius. + + Bibliography.--Keats's friends provided the material for the + authoritative biography of the poet by Richard Monckton Milnes + (afterwards Lord Houghton) entitled _Life, Letters and Literary + Remains of John Keats_ (1848; revised ed., 1867). _The Poetical Works + of John Keats_ were issued with a memoir by R. M. Milnes in 1854, + 1863, 1865, 1866, 1867, and in the Aldine edition, 1876. The standard + edition of Keats is _The Poetical Works and other Writings of John + Keats now first brought together, including Poems and numerous Letters + not before published, edited with notes and appendices_ by Harry + Buxton Forman (4 vols., 1883; re-issue with corrections and additions, + 1889). Of the many other editions of Keats's poems may be mentioned + that in the Muses' Library, _The Poems of John Keats_ (1896), edited + by G. Thorn Drury with an introduction by Robert Bridges, and another + by E. de Sélincourt, 1905. _The Letters of John Keats to Fanny Brawne_ + (1889) were edited with introduction and notes by H. Buxton Forman, + and the _Letters of John Keats to his Family and Friends_ (1891) by + Sidney Colvin, who is also the author of the monograph, _Keats_ + (1887), in the English Men of Letters Series. See also _The Papers of + a Critic. Selected from the Writings of the late Charles Wentworth + Dilke_ (1875), and for further bibliographical information and + particulars of MS. sources the "Editor's Preface," &c. to a reprint + edited by H. Buxton Forman (Glasgow, 1900). A facsimile of Keats's + autograph MS. of "Hyperion," purchased by the British Museum in 1904, + was published by E. de Sélincourt (Oxford, 1905). (M. Br.) + + + + +KEBLE, JOHN (1792-1866), English poet and divine, the author of the +_Christian Year_, was born on St Mark's Day (April 25), 1792, at +Fairford, Gloucestershire. He was the second child of the Rev. John +Keble and his wife Sarah Maule. Descended from a family which had +attained some legal eminence in the time of the Commonwealth, John +Keble, the father of the poet, was vicar of Coln St Aldwyn, but lived at +Fairford, about 3 m. distant from his cure. He was a clergyman of the +old High Church school, whose adherents, untouched by the influence of +the Wesleys, had moulded their piety on the doctrines on the non-jurors +and the old Anglican divines. Himself a good scholar, he did not send +his son to any school, but educated him and his brother at home so well +that both obtained scholarships at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. John +was elected scholar of Corpus in his fifteenth, and fellow of Oriel in +his nineteenth year, April 1811. In Easter term 1810 he had obtained +double first class honours, a distinction which had been obtained only +once before, by Sir Robert Peel. After his election to the Oriel +fellowship Keble gained the University prizes, both for the English +essay and also for the Latin essay. But he was more remarkable for the +rare beauty of his character than even for academic distinctions. Sir +John Taylor Coleridge, his fellow scholar at Corpus and his life-long +friend, says of him, after their friendship of five and fifty years had +closed, "It was the singular happiness of his nature, remarkable even in +his undergraduate days, that love for him was always sanctified by +reverence--reverence that did not make the love less tender, and love +that did but add intensity to the reverence." Oriel College was, at the +time when Keble became a fellow, the centre of all the finest ability in +Oxford. Copleston, Davison, Whately, were among the fellows who elected +Keble; Arnold, Pusey, Newman, were soon after added to the society. In +1815 Keble was ordained deacon, and priest in 1816. His real bent and +choice were towards a pastoral cure in a country parish; but he remained +in Oxford, acting first as a public examiner in the schools, then as a +tutor in Oriel, till 1823. In summer he sometimes took clerical work, +sometimes made tours on foot through various English counties, during +which he was composing poems, which afterwards took their place in the +_Christian Year_. He had a rare power of attracting to himself the +finest spirits, a power which lay not so much in his ability or his +genius as in his character, so simple, so humble, so pure, so unworldly, +yet wanting not that severity which can stand by principle and maintain +what he holds to be the truth. In 1823 he returned to Fairford, there to +assist his father, and with his brother to serve one or two small and +poorly endowed curacies in the neighbourhood of Coln. He had made a +quiet but deep impression on all who came within his influence in +Oxford, and during his five years of college tutorship had won the +affection of his pupils. But it was to pastoral work, and not to +academic duty, that he thenceforth devoted himself, associating with it, +and scarcely placing on a lower level, the affectionate discharge of his +duties as a son and brother. Filial piety influenced in a quite unusual +degree his feelings and his action all life through. It was in 1827, a +few years after he settled at Fairford, that he published the _Christian +Year_. The poems which make up that book had been the silent gathering +of years. Keble had purposed in his own mind to keep them beside him, +correcting and improving them, as long as he lived, and to leave them to +be published only "when he was fairly out of the way." This resolution +was at length overcome by the importunities of his friends, and above +all by the strong desire of his father to see his son's poems in print +before he died. Accordingly they were printed in two small volumes in +Oxford, and given to the world in June 1827, but with no name on the +title-page. The book continued to be published anonymously, but the name +of the author soon transpired. + +Between 1827 and 1872 one hundred and fifty-eight editions had issued +from the press, and it has been largely reprinted since. The author, so +far from taking pride in his widespread reputation, seemed all his life +long to wish to disconnect his name with the book, and "as if he would +rather it had been the work of some one else than himself." This feeling +arose from no false modesty. It was because he knew that in these poems +he had painted his own heart, the best part of it; and he doubted +whether it was right thus to exhibit himself, and by the revelation of +only his better self, to win the good opinion of the world. + +Towards the close of 1831 Keble was elected to fill the chair of the +poetry professorship in Oxford, as successor to his friend and admirer, +Dean Milman. This chair he occupied for ten eventful years. He delivered +a series of lectures, clothed in excellent idiomatic Latin (as was the +rule), in which he expounded a theory of poetry which was original and +suggestive. He looked on poetry as a vent for overcharged feeling, or a +full imagination, or some imaginative regret, which had not found their +natural outlet in life and action. This suggested to him a distinction +between what he called primary and secondary poets--the first employing +poetry to relieve their own hearts, the second, poetic artists, +composing poetry from some other and less impulsive motive. Of the +former kind were Homer, Lucretius, Burns, Scott; of the latter were +Euripides, Dryden, Milton. This view was set forth in an article +contributed to the _British Critic_ in 1838 on the life of Scott, and +was more fully developed in two volumes of _Praelectiones Academicae_. + +His regular visits to Oxford kept him in intercourse with his old +friends in Oriel common room, and made him familiar with the currents of +feeling which swayed the university. Catholic emancipation and the +Reform Bill had deeply stirred, not only the political spirit of Oxford, +but also the church feeling which had long been stagnant. Cardinal +Newman writes, "On Sunday July 14, 1833, Mr Keble preached the assize +sermon in the University pulpit. It was published under the title of +_National Apostasy_. I have ever considered and kept the day as the +start of the religious movement of 1833." The occasion of this sermon +was the suppression, by Earl Grey's Reform ministry, of ten Irish +bishoprics. Against the spirit which would treat the church as the mere +creature of the state Keble had long chafed inwardly, and now he made +his outward protest, asserting the claim of the church to a heavenly +origin and a divine prerogative. About the same time, and partly +stimulated by Keble's sermon, some leading spirits in Oxford and +elsewhere began a concerted and systematic course of action to revive +High Church principles and the ancient patristic theology, and by these +means both to defend the church against the assaults of its enemies, and +also to raise to a higher tone the standard of Christian life in +England. This design embodied itself in the Tractarian movement, a name +it received from the famous _Tracts for the Times_, which were the +vehicle for promulgating the new doctrines. If Keble is to be reckoned, +as Newman would have it, as the primary author of the movement, it was +from Pusey that it received one of its best known names, and in Newman +that it soon found its genuine leader. To the tracts Keble made only +four contributions:--No. 4, containing an argument, in the manner of +Bishop Butler, to show that adherence to apostolical succession is the +safest course; No. 13, which explains the principle on which the Sunday +lessons in the church service are selected; No. 40, on marriage with one +who is unbaptized; No. 89, on the mysticism attributed to the early +fathers of the church. Besides these contributions from his own pen, he +did much for the series by suggesting subjects, by reviewing tracts +written by others, and by lending to their circulation the weight of his +personal influence. + +In 1835 Keble's father died at the age of ninety, and soon after this +his son married Miss Clarke, left Fairford, and settled at Hursley +vicarage in Hampshire, a living to which he had been presented by his +friend and attached pupil, Sir William Heathcote, and which continued to +be Keble's home and cure for the remainder of his life. + +In 1841 the tracts were brought to an abrupt termination by the +publication of Newman's tract No. 90. All the Protestantism of England +was in arms against the author of the obnoxious tract. Keble came +forward at the time, desirous to share the responsibility and the blame, +if there was any; for he had seen the tract before it was published, and +approved it. The same year in which burst this ecclesiastical storm saw +the close of Keble's tenure of the professorship of poetry, and +thenceforward he was seen but rarely in Oxford. No other public event +ever affected Keble so deeply as the secession of Newman to the Church +of Rome in 1845. It was to him both a public and a private sorrow, which +nothing could repair. But he did not lose heart; at once he threw +himself into the double duty, which now devolved on himself and Pusey, +of counselling the many who had hitherto followed the movement, and who, +now in their perplexity, might be tempted to follow their leader's +example, and at the same time of maintaining the rights of the church +against what he held to be the encroachments of the state, as seen in +such acts as the Gorham judgment, and the decision on _Essays and +Reviews_. In all the ecclesiastical contests of the twenty years which +followed 1845, Keble took a part, not loud or obtrusive, but firm and +resolute, in maintaining those High Anglican principles with which his +life had been identified. These absorbing duties, added to his parochial +work, left little time for literature. But in 1846 he published the +_Lyra Innocentium_; and in 1863 he completed a life of Bishop Wilson. + +In the late autumn of the latter year, Keble left Hursley for the sake +of his wife's health, and sought the milder climate of Bournemouth. +There he had an attack of paralysis, from which he died on the 29th of +March 1866. He was buried in his own churchyard at Hursley; and in +little more than a month his wife was laid by her husband's side. + + Keble also published _A Metrical Version of the Psalter_ (1839), _Lyra + Innocentium_ (1846), and a volume of poems was published posthumously. + But it is by the _Christian Year_ that he won the ear of the religious + world. It was a happy thought that dictated the plan of the book, to + furnish a meditative religious lyric for each Sunday of the year, and + for each saint's day and festival of the English Church. The subject + of each poem is generally suggested by some part of the lessons or the + gospel or the epistle for the day. One thing which gives these poems + their strangely unique power is the sentiment to which they appeal, + and the saintly character of the poet who makes the appeal, illumining + more or less every poem. + + The intimacy with the Bible which is manifest in the pages of the + _Christian Year_; and the unobtrusive felicity with which Biblical + sentiments and language are introduced have done much to endear these + poems to all Bible readers. "The exactness of the descriptions of + Palestine, which Keble had never visited, have been noted, and + verified on the spot," by Dean Stanley. He points to features of the + lake of Gennesareth, which were first touched in the _Christian Year_; + and he observes that throughout the book "the Biblical scenery is + treated graphically as real scenery, and the Biblical history and + poetry as real history and poetry." + + As to its style, the _Christian Year_ is calm and grave in tone, and + subdued in colour, as beseems its subjects and sentiments. The + contemporary poets whom Keble most admired were Scott, Wordsworth and + Southey; and of their influence traces are visible in his diction. Yet + he has a style of language and a cadence of his own, which steal into + the heart with strangely soothing power. Some of the poems are + faultless, after their kind, flowing from the first stage to the last, + lucid in thought, vivid in diction, harmonious in their pensive + melody. In others there are imperfections in rhythm, conventionalities + of language, obscurities or over-subtleties of thought, which mar the + reader's enjoyment. Yet even the most defective poems commonly have, + at least, a single verse, expressing some profound thought or tender + shade of feeling, for which the sympathetic reader willingly pardons + artistic imperfections in the rest. + + Keble's life was written by his life-long friend Mr Justice J. T. + Coleridge. The following is a complete list of his writings:--1. Works + published in Keble's lifetime: _Christian Year_ (1827); _Psalter_ + (1839); _Praelectiones Academicae_ (1844); _Lyra Innocentium_ (1846); + _Sermons Academical_ (1848); _Argument against Repeal of Marriage + Law_, and _Sequel_ (1857); _Eucharistical Adoration_ (1857); _Life of + Bishop Wilson_ (1863); _Sermons Occasional and Parochial_ (1867). 2. + Posthumous publications: _Village Sermons on the Baptismal Service_ + (1868); _Miscellaneous Poems_ (1869); _Letters of Spiritual Counsel_ + (1870); _Sermons for the Christian Year, &c._ (11 vols., 1875-1880); + _Occasional Papers and Reviews_ (1877); _Studia Sacra_ (1877); + _Outlines of Instruction or Meditation_ (1880). + + + + +KECSKEMÉT, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, +65 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 56,786. Kecskemét is a +poorly built and straggling town, situated in the extensive Kecskemét +plain. It contains monasteries belonging to the Piarist and Franciscan +orders, a Catholic (founded in 1714), a Calvinistic and a Lutheran +school. The manufacture of soap and leather are the principal +industries. Besides the raising of cereals, fruit is extensively +cultivated in the surrounding district; its apples and apricots are +largely exported, large quantities of wine are produced, and +cattle-rearing constitutes another great source of revenue. Kecskemét +was the birthplace of the Hungarian dramatist József Katona (1792-1830), +author of the historical drama, _Bánk-Bán_ (1815). + + + + +KEDDAH (from Hindu _Khedna_, to chase), the term, used in India for the +enclosure constructed to entrap elephants. In Ceylon the word employed +in the same meaning is _corral_. + + + + +KEDGEREE (Hindostani, _khichri_), an Indian dish, composed of boiled +rice and various highly-flavoured ingredients. Kedgeree is of two kinds, +white and yellow. The white is made with grain, onions, ghee (clarified +butter), cloves, pepper and salt. Yellow kedgeree includes eggs, and is +coloured by turmeric. Kedgeree is a favourite and universal dish in +India; among the poorer classes it is frequently made of rice and pulse +only, or rice and beans. In European cookery kedgeree is a similar dish +usually made with fish. + + + + +KEEL, the bottom timber or combination of plates of a ship or boat, +extending longitudinally from bow to stern, and supporting the framework +(see SHIP-BUILDING). The origin of the word has been obscured by +confusion of two words, the Old Norwegian _kjole_ (cf. Swedish _köl_) +and a Dutch and German _kiel_. The first had the meaning of the English +"keel," the other of ship, boat. The modern usage in Dutch and German +has approximated to the English. The word _kiel_ is represented in old +English by _céol_, a word applied to the long war galleys of the +Vikings, in which sense "keel" or "keele" is still used by +archaeologists. On the Tyne "keel" is the name given to a flat-bottomed +vessel used to carry coals to the colliers. There is another word +"keel," meaning to cool, familiar in Shakespeare (_Love's Labour Lost_, +v. ii. 930), "while greasy Joan doth keel the pot," i.e. prevents a pot +from boiling over by pouring in cold water, &c., stirring or skimming. +This is from the Old English _célan_, to cool, a common Teutonic word, +cf. German _kühlen_. + + + + +KEELEY, MARY ANNE (1806-1899), English actress, was born at Ipswich on +the 22nd of November 1805 or 1806. Her maiden name was Goward, her +father being a brazier and tinman. After some experience in the +provinces, she first appeared on the stage in London on the 2nd of July +1825, in the opera _Rosina_. It was not long before she gave up "singing +parts" in favour of the drama proper, where her powers of +character-acting could have scope. In June 1829 she married Robert +Keeley (1793-1869), an admirable comedian, with whom she had often +appeared. Between 1832 and 1842 they acted at Covent Garden, at the +Adelphi with Buckstone, at the Olympic with Charles Mathews, and at +Drury Lane with Macready. In 1836 they visited America. In 1838 she made +her first great success as Nydia, the blind girl, in a dramatized +version of Bulwer Lytton's _The Last Days of Pompeii_, and followed this +with an equally striking impersonation of Smike in _Nicholas Nickleby_. +In 1839 came her decisive triumph with her picturesque and spirited +acting as the hero of a play founded upon Harrison Ainsworth's _Jack +Sheppard_. So dangerous was considered the popularity of the play, with +its glorification of the prison-breaking felon, that the lord +chamberlain ultimately forbade the performance of any piece upon the +subject. It is perhaps mainly as Jack Sheppard that Mrs Keeley lived in +the memory of playgoers, despite her long subsequent career in plays +more worthy of her remarkable gifts. Under Macready's management she +played Nerissa in _The Merchant of Venice_, and Audrey in _As You Like +It_. She managed the Lyceum with her husband from 1844 to 1847; acted +with Webster and Kean at the Haymarket; returned for five years to the +Adelphi; and made her last regular public appearance at the Lyceum in +1859. A public reception was given her at this theatre on her 90th +birthday. She died on the 12th of March 1899. + + See Walter Goodman, _The Keeleys on the Stage and off_ (London, 1895). + + + + +KEELING ISLANDS (often called COCOS and COCOS-KEELING ISLANDS), a group +of coral islands in the Indian Ocean, between 12° 4´ and 12° 13´ S., and +96° 49´-57´ E., but including a smaller island in 11° 50´ N. and 96° 50´ +E. The group furnished Charles Darwin with the typical example of an +atoll or lagoon island. There are altogether twenty-three small islands, +9½ m. being the greatest width of the whole atoll. The lagoon is very +shallow and the passages between many of the islands are fordable on +foot. An opening on the northern side of the reef permits the entrance +of vessels into the northern part of the lagoon, which forms a good +harbour known as Port Refuge or Port Albion. The coco-nut (as the name +Cocos Islands indicates) is the characteristic product and is cultivated +on all the islands. The flora is scanty in species. One of the commonest +living creatures is a monstrous crab which lives on the coco-nuts; and +in some places also there are great colonies of the pomegranate crab. +The group was visited by Dr H. O. Forbes in 1878, and later, at the +expense of Sir John Murray, by Dr Guppy, Mr Ridley and Dr Andrews. The +object of their visits was the investigation of the fauna and flora of +the atoll, more especially of the formation of the coral reefs. Dr +Guppy was fortunate in reaching North Keeling Island, where a landing is +only possible during the calmest weather. The island he found to be +about a mile long, with a shallow enclosed lagoon, less than 3 ft. deep +at ordinary low water, with a single opening on its east or weather +side. A dense vegetation of iron-wood (_Cordia_) and other trees and +shrubs, together with a forest of coco-nut palms, covers its surface. It +is tenanted by myriads of sea-fowl, frigate-birds, boobies, and terns +(_Gygis candida_), which find here an excellent nesting-place, for the +island is uninhabited, and is visited only once or twice a year. The +excrement from this large colony has changed the carbonate of lime in +the soil and the coral nodules on the surface into phosphates, to the +extent in some cases of 60-70%, thus forming a valuable deposit, +beneficial to the vegetation of the island itself and promising +commercial value. The lagoon is slowly filling up and becoming +cultivable land, but the rate of recovery from the sea has been +specially marked since the eruption of Krakatoa, the pumice from which +was washed on to it in enormous quantity, so that the lagoon advanced +its shores from 20 to 30 yards. Forbes's and Guppy's investigations go +to show that, contrary to Darwin's belief, there is no evidence of +upheaval or of subsidence in either of the Keeling groups. + +The atoll has an exceedingly healthy climate, and might well be used as +a sanatorium for phthisical patients, the temperature never reaching +extremes. The highest annual reading of the thermometer hardly ever +exceeds 89° F. or falls beneath 70°. The mean temperature for the year +is 78.5° F., and as the rainfall rarely exceeds 40 in. the atmosphere +never becomes unpleasantly moist. The south-east trade blows almost +ceaselessly for ten months of the year. Terrific storms sometimes break +over the island; and it has been more than once visited by earthquakes. +A profitable trade is done in coco-nuts, but there are few other +exports. The imports are almost entirely foodstuffs and other +necessaries for the inhabitants, who form a patriarchal colony under a +private proprietor. + +The islands were discovered in 1609 by Captain William Keeling on his +voyage from Batavia to the Cape. In 1823 Alexander Hare, an English +adventurer, settled on the southernmost island with a number of slaves. +Some two or three years after, a Scotchman, J. Ross, who had commanded a +brig during the English occupation of Java, settled with his family (who +continued in the ownership) on Direction Island, and his little colony +was soon strengthened by Hare's runaway slaves. The Dutch Government had +in an informal way claimed the possession of the islands since 1829; but +they refused to allow Ross to hoist the Dutch flag, and accordingly the +group was taken under British protection in 1856. In 1878 it was +attached to the government of Ceylon, and in 1882 placed under the +authority of the governor of the Straits Settlements. The ownership and +superintendency continued in the Ross family, of whom George Clunies +Ross died in 1910, and was succeeded by his son Sydney. + + See C. Darwin, _Journal of the Voyage of the "Beagle,"_ and + _Geological Observations on Coral Reefs_; also Henry O. Forbes, _A + Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago_ (London, 1884); H. + B. Guppy, "The Cocos-Keeling Islands," _Scottish Geographical + Magazine_ (vol. v., 1889). + + + + +KEEL-MOULDING, in architecture, a round on which there is a small +fillet, somewhat like the keel of a ship. It is common in the Early +English and Decorated styles. + + + + +KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL (1823-1891), English black-and-white artist, the +son of Samuel Browne Keene, a solicitor, was born at Hornsey on the 10th +of August 1823. Educated at the Ipswich Grammar School until his +sixteenth year, he early showed artistic leanings. Two years after the +death of his father he was articled to a London solicitor, but, the +occupation proving uncongenial, he was removed to the office of an +architect, Mr Pilkington. His spare time was now spent in drawing +historical and nautical subjects in water-colour. For these trifles his +mother, to whose energy and common sense he was greatly indebted, soon +found a purchaser, through whom he was brought to the notice of the +Whympers, the wood-engravers. This led to his being bound to them as +apprentice for five years. His earliest known design is the +frontispiece, signed "Chas. Keene," to _The Adventures of Dick Boldhero +in Search of his Uncle_, &c. (Darton & Co., 1842). His term of +apprenticeship over, he hired as studio an attic in the block of +buildings standing, up to 1900, between the Strand and Holywell Street, +and was soon hard at work for the _Illustrated London News_. At this +time he was a member of the "Artists' Society" in Clipstone Street, +afterwards removed to the Langham studios. In December 1851 he made his +first appearance in _Punch_ and, after nine years of steady work, was +called to a seat at the famous table. It was during this period of +probation that he first gave evidence of those transcendent qualities +which make his work at once the joy and despair of his brother +craftsmen. On the starting of _Once a Week_, in 1859, Keene's services +were requisitioned, his most notable series in this periodical being the +illustrations to Charles Reade's _A Good Fight_ (afterwards rechristened +_The Cloister and the Hearth_) and to George Meredith's _Evan +Harrington_. There is a quality of conventionality in the earlier of +these which completely disappears in the later. In 1858 Keene, who was +endowed with a fine voice and was an enthusiastic admirer of +old-fashioned music, joined the "Jermyn Band," afterwards better known +as the "Moray Minstrels." He was also for many years a member of +Leslie's Choir, the Sacred Harmonic Society, the Catch, Glee and Canon +Club, and the Bach Choir. He was also an industrious performer on the +bagpipes, of which instrument he brought together a considerable +collection of specimens. About 1863 the Arts Club in Hanover Square was +started, with Keene as one of the original members. In 1864 John Leech +died, and Keene's work in _Punch_ thenceforward found wider +opportunities. It was about this time that the greatest of all modern +artists of his class, Menzel, discovered Keene's existence, and became a +subscriber to _Punch_ solely for the sake of enjoying week by week the +work of his brother craftsman. In 1872 Keene, who, though fully +possessed of the humorous sense, was not within measurable distance of +Leech as a jester, and whose drawings were consequently not sufficiently +"funny" to appeal to the laughter-loving public, was fortunate enough to +make the acquaintance of Mr Joseph Crawhall, who had been in the habit +for many years of jotting down any humorous incidents he might hear of +or observe, illustrating them at leisure for his own amusement. These +were placed unreservedly at Keene's disposal, and to their inspiration +we owe at least 250 of his most successful drawings in the last twenty +years of his connexion with _Punch_. A list of more than 200 of these +subjects is given at the end of _The Life and Letters of Charles Keene +of "Punch."_ In 1879 Keene removed to 239 King's Road, Chelsea, which he +occupied until his last illness, walking daily to and from his house, +112 Hammersmith Road. In 1881 a volume of his _Punch_ drawings was +published by Messrs Bradbury & Agnew, with the title _Our People_. In +1883 Keene, who had hitherto been a strong man, developed symptoms of +dyspepsia and rheumatism. By 1889 these had increased to an alarming +degree, and the last two years of his life were passed in acute +suffering borne with the greatest courage. He died unmarried, after a +singularly uneventful life, on the 4th of January 1891, and his body +lies in Hammersmith cemetery. + + Keene, who never had any regular art training, was essentially an + artists' artist. He holds the foremost place amongst English craftsmen + in black and white, though his work has never been appreciated at its + real value by the general public. No doubt the main reason for this + lack of public recognition was his unconventionality. He drew his + models exactly as he saw them, not as he knew the world wanted to see + them. He found enough beauty and romance in all that was around him, + and, in his _Punch_ work, enough subtle humour in nature seized at her + most humorous moments to satisfy him. He never required his models to + grin through a horse collar, as Gillray did, or to put on their + company manners, as was du Maurier's wont. But Keene was not only a + brilliant worker in pen and ink. As an etcher he has also to be + reckoned with, notwithstanding the fact that his plates numbered not + more than fifty at the outside. Impressions of them are exceedingly + rare, and hardly half a dozen of the plates are now known to be in + existence. He himself regarded them only as experiments in a difficult + but fascinating medium. But in the opinion of the expert they suffice + to place him among the best etchers of the 19th century. Apart from + the etched frontispieces to some of the _Punch_ pocket-books, only + three, and these by no means the best, have been published. Writing + in _L'Artiste_ for May 1891 of a few which he had seen, Bracquemond + says: "By the freedom, the largeness of their drawing and execution, + these plates must be classed amongst modern etchings of the first + rank." A few impressions are in the British Museum, but in the main + they were given away to friends and lie hidden in the albums of the + collector. + + AUTHORITIES.--G. S. Layard, _Life and Letters of Charles Keene of + "Punch"; The Work of Charles Keene_, with an introduction and notes by + Joseph Pennell, and a bibliography by W. H. Chesson; M. H. Spielmann, + _The History of "Punch"_; M. Charpentier, _La Vie Moderne_, No. 14 + (1880); M. H. Spielmann, _Magazine of Art_ (March 1891); M. + Bracquemond, _L'Artiste_ (May 1891); G. S. Layard, _Scribner's_ (April + 1892); Joseph Pennell, _Century_ (Oct. 1897); George du Maurier, + _Harper's_ (March 1898). (G. S. I.) + + + + +KEENE, LAURA (c. 1820-1873), Anglo-American actress and manager, whose +real name was Mary Moss, was born in England. In 1851, in London, she +was playing Pauline in _The Lady of Lyons_. She made her first +appearance in New York on the 20th of September 1852, on her way to +Australia. She returned in 1855 and till 1863 managed Laura Keene's +theatre, in which was produced, in 1858, _Our American Cousin_. It was +her company that was playing at Ford's theatre, Washington, on the night +of Lincoln's assassination. Miss Keene was a successful melodramatic +actress, and an admirable manager. She died at Montclair, New Jersey, on +the 4th of November 1873. + + See John Creahan's _Life of Laura Keene_ (1897). + + + + +KEENE, a city and the county-seat of Cheshire county, New Hampshire, +U.S.A., on the Ashuelot river, about 45 m. S.W. of Concord, N.H., and +about 92 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 9165, of whom 1255 were +foreign-born; (1910 census), 10,068. Area, 36.5 sq. m. It is served by +the Boston & Maine railroad and by the Fitchburg railroad (leased by the +Boston & Maine). The site is level, but is surrounded by ranges of lofty +hills--Monadnock Mountain is about 10 m. S.E. Most of the streets are +pleasantly shaded. There are three parks, with a total area of about 219 +acres; and in Central Square stands a soldiers' and sailors' monument +designed by Martin Milmore and erected in 1871. The principal buildings +are the city hall, the county buildings and the city hospital. The +Public Library had in 1908 about 16,300 volumes. There are repair shops +of the Boston & Maine railroad here, and manufactures of boots and +shoes, woollen goods, furniture (especially chairs), pottery, &c. The +value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,690,967. The site of Keene +was one of the Massachusetts grants made in 1733, but Canadian Indians +made it untenable and it was abandoned from 1746 until 1750. In 1753 it +was incorporated and was named Keene, in honour of Sir Benjamin Keene +(1697-1757), the English diplomatist, who as agent for the South Sea +Company and Minister in Madrid, and as responsible for the commercial +treaty between England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the +time; it was chartered as a city in 1874. + + + + +KEEP, ROBERT PORTER (1844-1904), American scholar, was born in +Farmington, Connecticut, on the 26th of April 1844. He graduated at Yale +in 1865, was instructor there for two years, was United States consul at +the Piraeus in Greece in 1869-1871, taught Greek in Williston Seminary, +Easthampton, Massachusetts, in 1876-1885, and was principal of Norwich +Free Academy, Norwich, Conn., from 1885 to 1903, the school owing its +prosperity to him hardly less than to its founders. In 1903 he took +charge of Miss Porter's school for girls at Farmington, Conn., founded +in 1844 and long controlled by his aunt, Sarah Porter. He died in +Farmington on the 3rd of June 1904. + + + + +KEEP (corresponding to the French _donjon_), in architecture the inmost +and strongest part of a medieval castle, answering to the citadel of +modern times. The arrangement is said to have originated with Gundulf, +bishop of Rochester (d. 1108), architect of the White Tower. The Norman +keep is generally a very massive square tower. There is generally a well +in a medieval keep, ingeniously concealed in the thickness of a wall or +in a pillar. The most celebrated keeps of Norman times in England are +the White Tower in London, those at Rochester Arundel and Newcastle, +Castle Hedingham, &c. When the keep was circular, as at Conisborough and +Windsor, it was called a "shell-keep" (see CASTLE). The verb "to keep," +from which the noun with its particular meaning here treated was formed, +appears in O.E. as _cépan_, of which the derivation is unknown; no words +related to it are found in cognate languages. The earliest meaning (c. +1000) appears to have been to lay hold of, to seize, from which its +common uses of to guard, observe, retain possession of, have developed. + + + + +KEEWATIN, a district of Canada, bounded E. by Committee Bay, Fox +Channel, and Hudson and James bays, S. and S.W. by the Albany and +English rivers, Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg, and Nelson river, W. by the +100th meridian, and N. by Simpson and Rae straits and gulf and peninsula +of Boothia; thus including an area of 445,000 sq. m. Its surface is in +general barren and rocky, studded with innumerable lakes with +intervening elevations, forest-clad below 60° N., but usually bare or +covered with moss or lichens, forming the so-called "barren lands" of +the north. With the exception of a strip of Silurian and Devonian rocks, +40 to 80 m. wide, extending from the vicinity of the Severn river to the +Churchill, and several isolated areas of Cambrian and Huronian, the +district is occupied by Laurentian rocks. The principal river is the +Nelson, which, with its great tributary, the Saskatchewan, is 1450 m. +long; other tributaries are the Berens, English, Winnipeg, Red and +Assiniboine. The Hayes, Severn and Winisk also flow from the south-west +into Hudson Bay, and the Ekwan, Attawapiskat and Albany, 500 m. long, +into James Bay. The Churchill, 925 m., Thlewliaza, Maguse, and Ferguson +rivers discharge into Hudson Bay on the west side; the Kazan, 500 m., +and Dubawnt, 660 m., into Chesterfield Inlet; and Back's river, rising +near Aylmer Lake, flows north-eastwards 560 m. to the Arctic Ocean. The +principal lakes are St Joseph and Seul on the southern boundary; +northern part of Lake Winnipeg, 710 ft. above the sea; Island; South +Indian; Etawney; Nueltin; Yathkyed, at an altitude of 300 ft.; Maguse; +Kaminuriak; Baker, 30 ft.; Aberdeen, 130 ft.; and Garry. The principal +islands are Southampton, area 17,800 sq. m.; Marble Island, the usual +wintering place for whaling vessels; and Bell and Coats Islands, in +Hudson Bay; and Akimiski, in James Bay. + +A few small communities at the posts of the Hudson Bay Company +constitute practically the whole of the white population. In 1897 there +were 852 Indians in the Churchill and Nelson rivers district, but no +figures are available for the district as a whole. The principal posts +in Keewatin are Norway House, near the outlet of Lake Winnipeg; Oxford +House, on the lake of the same name; York Factory, at the mouth of Hayes +river; and Forts Severn and Churchill, at the mouths of the Severn and +Churchill rivers respectively. In 1905 the district of Keewatin was +included in the North-West Territories and the whole placed under an +administrator or acting governor. The derivation of the name is from the +Cree--the "north wind." + + + + +KEF, more correctly El-Kef (the Rock), a town of Tunisia, 125 m. by rail +S.S.W. of the capital, and 75 m. S.E. of Bona in Algeria. It occupies +the site of the Roman colony of Sicca Veneria, and is built on the steep +slope of a rock in a mountainous region through which flows the +Mellegue, an affluent of the Mejerda. Situated at the intersection of +main routes from the west and south, Kef occupies a position of +strategic importance. Though distant some 22 m. from the Algerian +frontier it was practically a border post, and its walls and citadel +were kept in a state of defence by the Tunisians. The town with its +half-dozen mosques and tortuous, dirty streets, is still partly walled. +The southern part of the wall has however been destroyed by the French, +and the remainder is being left to decay. Beyond the part of the wall +destroyed is the French quarter. The _kasbah_, or citadel, occupies a +rocky eminence on the west side of the town. It was built, or rebuilt, +by the Turks, the material being Roman. It has been restored by the +French, who maintain a garrison here. + +The Roman remains include fragments of a large temple dedicated to +Hercules, and of the baths. The ancient cisterns remain, but are empty, +being used as part of the barracks. The town is however supplied by +water from the same spring which filled the cisterns. The Christian +cemetery is on the site of a basilica. There are ruins of another +Christian basilica, excavated by the French, the apse being intact and +the narthex serving as a church. Many stones with Roman inscriptions are +built into the walls of Arab houses. The modern town is much smaller +than the Roman colony. Pop. about 6000, including about 100 Europeans +(chiefly Maltese). + + The Roman colony of Sicca Veneria appears from the character of its + worship of Venus (Val. Max. ii. 6, § 15) to have been a Phoenician + settlement. It was afterwards a Numidian stronghold, and under the + Caesars became a fashionable residential city and one of the chief + centres of Christianity in North Africa. The Christian apologist + Arnobius the Elder lived here. + + See H. Barth, _Die Küstenländer des Mittelmeeres_ (1849); _Corpus + Inscript. Lat._, vol. viii.; Sombrun in _Bull. de la soc. de géog. de + Bordeaux_ (1878). Also Cardinal Newman's Callista: _a Sketch of the + Third Century_ (1856), for a "reconstruction" of the manner of life of + the early Christians and their oppressors. + + + + +KEHL, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the right bank of the +Rhine, opposite Strassburg, with which it is connected by a railway +bridge and a bridge of boats. Pop. 4000. It has a considerable river +trade in timber, tobacco and coal, which has been developed by the +formation of a harbour with two basins. The chief importance of Kehl is +its connexion with the military defence of Strassburg, to the strategic +area of which it belongs. It is encircled by the strong forts Bose, +Blumenthal and Kirchbach of that system. In 1678 Kehl was taken from the +imperialists by the French, and in 1683 a new fortress, built by Vauban, +was begun. In 1697 it was restored to the Empire and was given to Baden, +but in 1703 and again in 1733 it was taken by the French, who did not +however retain it for very long. In 1793 the French again took the town, +which was retaken by the Austrians and was restored to Baden in 1803. In +1808 the French, again in possession, restored the fortifications, but +these were dismantled in 1815, when Kehl was again restored to Baden. In +August 1870, during the Franco-German War, the French shelled the +defenceless town. + + + + +KEIGHLEY (locally KEITHLEY), a municipal borough in the Keighley +parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 17 m. +W.N.W. of Leeds, on branches of the Great Northern and Midland railways. +Pop. (1901), 41,564. It is beautifully situated in a deep valley near +the junction of the Worth with the Aire. A canal between Liverpool and +Hull affords it water communication with both west and east coasts. The +principal buildings are the parish church of St Andrew (dating from the +time of Henry I., modernized in 1710, rebuilt with the exception of the +tower in 1805, and again rebuilt in 1878), and the handsome Gothic +mechanics' institute and technical school (1870). A grammar school was +founded in 1713, the operations of which have been extended so as to +embrace a trade school (1871) for boys, and a grammar school for girls. +The principal industries are manufactures of woollen goods, spinning, +sewing and washing machines, and tools. The town was incorporated in +1882, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 +councillors. + + + + +KEI ISLANDS [_Ke_, _Key_, _Kii_, &c.; native, _Ewab_], a group in the +Dutch East Indies, in the residency of Amboyna, between 5° and 6° 5´ S. +and 131° 50´ and 133° 15´ E., and consisting of four parts: Nuhu-Iut or +Great Kei, Roa or Little Kei, the Tayanda, and the Kur group. Great Kei +differs physically in every respect from the other groups. It is of +Tertiary formation (Miocene), and has a chain of volcanic elevations +along the axis, reaching a height of 2600 ft. Its area is 290 sq. m., +the total land area of the group being 572 sq. m. All the other islands +are of post-Tertiary formation and of level surface. The group has +submarine connexion, under relatively shallow sea, with the Timorlaut +group to the south-west and the chain of islands extending north-west +towards Ceram; deep water separates it on the east from the Aru Islands +and on the west from the inner islands of the Banda Sea. Among the +products are coco-nuts, sago, fish, trepang, timber, copra, maize, yams +and tobacco. The population is about 23,000, of whom 14,900 are pagans, +and 8300 Mahommedans. + +The inhabitants are of three types. There is the true Kei Islander, a +Polynesian by his height and black or brown wavy hair, with a complexion +between the Papuan black and the Malay yellow. There is the pure Papuan, +who has been largely merged in the Kei type. Thirdly, there are the +immigrant Malays. These (distinguished by the use of a special language +and by the profession of Mohammedanism) are descendants of natives of +the Banda islands who fled eastward before the encroachments of the +Dutch. The pagans have rude statues of deities and places of sacrifice +indicated by flat-topped cairns. The Kei Islanders are skilful in +carving and celebrated boat-builders. + + See C. M. Kan, "Onze geographische kennis der Keij-Eilanden," in + _Tijdschrift Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_ (1887); Martin, "Die + Kei-inseln u. ihr Verhältniss zur Australisch-Asiatischen Grenzlinie," + ibid. part vii. (1890); W. R. van Hoëvell, "De Kei-Eilanden," in + _Tijdschr. Batavian. Gen._ (1889); "Verslagen van de wetenschappelijke + opnemingen en onderzoekingen op de Keij-Eilanden" (1889-1890), by + Planten and Wertheim (1893), with map and ethnographical atlas of the + south-western and south-eastern islands by Pleyte; Langen, _Die Key- + oder Kii-Inseln_ (Vienna, 1902). + + + + +KEIM, KARL THEODOR (1825-1878), German Protestant theologian, was born +at Stuttgart on the 17th of December 1825. His father, Johann Christian +Keim, was headmaster of a gymnasium. Here Karl Theodor received his +early education, and then proceeded to the Stuttgart Obergymnasium. In +1843 he went to the university of Tübingen, where he studied philosophy +under J. F. Reiff, a follower of Hegel, and Oriental languages under +Heinrich Ewald and Heinrich Meier. F. C. Baur, the leader of the new +Tübingen school, was lecturing on the New Testament and on the history +of the church and of dogma, and by him in particular Keim was greatly +impressed. The special bent of Keim's mind is seen in his prize essay, +_Verhältniss der Christen in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten bis +Konstantin zum römischen Reiche_ (1847). His first published work was +_Die Reformation der Reichstadt Ulm_ (1851). In 1850 he visited the +university of Bonn, where he attended some of the lectures of Friedrich +Bleek, Richard Rothe, C. M. Arndt and Isaak Dorner. He taught at +Tübingen from June 1851 until 1856, when, having become a pastor, he was +made deacon at Esslingen, Württemberg. In 1859 he was appointed +archdeacon; but a few months later he was called to the university of +Zürich as professor of theology (1859-1873), where he produced his +important works. Before this he had written on church history (e.g. +_Schwäbische Reformationsgeschichte bis zum Augsburger Reichstag_, +1855). His inaugural address at Zürich on the human development of +Jesus, _Die menschliche Entwicklung Jesu Christi_ (1861), and his _Die +geschichtliche Würde Jesu_ (1864) were preparatory to his chief work, +_Die Geschichte Jesu von Nazara in ihrer Verkettung mit dem Gesamtleben +seines Volkes_ (3 vols., 1867-1872; Eng. trans., _Jesus of Nazareth, and +the National Life of Israel_, 6 vols.), 1873-1882. In 1873 Keim was +appointed professor of theology at Giessen. This post he resigned, +through ill-health, shortly before his death on the 17th of November +1878. He belonged to the "mediation" school of theology. + + Chief works, besides the above: _Reformationsblätter der Reichsstadt + Esslingen_ (1860); _Ambrosius Blarer, der Schwäbische Reformator_ + (1860); _Der Übertritt Konstantins d. Gr. zum Christenthum_ (1862); + his sermons, _Freundesworte zur Gemeinde_ (2 vols., 1861-1862); and + _Celsus' wahres Wort_ (1873). In 1881 H. Ziegler published one of + Keim's earliest works, _Rom und das Christenthum_, with a biographical + sketch. See also Ziegler's article in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie_. + + + + +KEITH, the name of an old Scottish family which derived its name from +the barony of Keith in East Lothian, said to have been granted by +Malcolm II., king of Scotland, to a member of the house for services +against the Danes. The office of great marishal of Scotland, afterwards +hereditary in the Keith family, may have been conferred at the same +time; for it was confirmed, together with possession of the lands of +Keith, to Sir Robert Keith by a charter of King Robert Bruce, and +appears to have been held as annexed to the land by the tenure of grand +serjeanty. Sir Robert Keith commanded the Scottish horse at Bannockburn, +and was killed at the battle of Neville's Cross in 1346. At the close +of the 14th century Sir William Keith, by exchange of lands with Lord +Lindsay, obtained the crag of Dunnottar in Kincardineshire, where he +built the castle of Dunnottar, which became the stronghold of his +descendants. He died about 1407. In 1430 a later Sir William Keith was +created Lord Keith, and a few years afterwards earl marishal, and these +titles remained in the family till 1716. William, fourth earl marishal +(d. 1581), was one of the guardians of Mary queen of Scots during her +minority, and was a member of her privy council on her return to +Scotland. While refraining from extreme partisanship, he was an adherent +of the Reformation; he retired into private life at Dunnottar Castle +about 1567, thereby gaining the sobriquet "William of the Tower." He was +reputed to be the wealthiest man in Scotland. His eldest daughter Anne +married the regent Murray. His grandson George, 5th earl marishal (c. +1553-1623), was one of the most cultured men of his time. He was +educated at King's College, Aberdeen, where he became a proficient +classical scholar, afterwards studying divinity under Theodore Beza at +Geneva. He was a firm Protestant, and took an active part in the affairs +of the kirk. His high character and abilities procured him the +appointment of special ambassador to Denmark to arrange the marriage of +James VI. with the Princess Anne. He was subsequently employed on a +number of important commissions; but he preferred literature to public +affairs, and about 1620 he retired to Dunnottar, where he died in 1623. +He is chiefly remembered as the founder in 1593 of the Marischal College +in the university of Aberdeen, which he richly endowed. From an uncle he +inherited the title of Lord Altrie about 1590. William, 7th earl +marishal (c. 1617-1661), took a prominent part in the Civil War, being +at first a leader of the covenanting party in north-east Scotland, and +the most powerful opponent of the marquess of Huntly. He co-operated +with Montrose in Aberdeenshire and neighbouring counties against the +Gordons. With Montrose he signed the Bond of Cumbernauld in August 1640, +but took no active steps against the popular party till 1648, when he +joined the duke of Hamilton in his invasion of England, escaping from +the rout at Preston. In 1650 Charles II. was entertained by the marishal +at Dunnottar; and in 1651 the Scottish regalia were left for safe +keeping in his castle. Taken prisoner in the same year, he was committed +to the Tower and was excluded from Cromwell's Act of Grace. He was made +a privy councillor at the Restoration and died in 1661. Sir John Keith +(d. 1714), brother of the 7th earl marishal, was, at the Restoration, +given the hereditary office of knight marishal of Scotland, and in 1677 +was created earl of Kintore, and Lord Keith of Inverurie and Keith-Hall, +a reward for his share in preserving the regalia of Scotland, which were +secretly conveyed from Dunnottar to another hiding-place, when the +castle was besieged by Cromwell's troops, and which Sir John, perilously +to himself, swore he had carried abroad and delivered to Charles II., +thus preventing further search. From him are descended the earls of +Kintore. + +GEORGE, 10th earl marishal (c. 1693-1778), served under Marlborough, and +like his brother Francis, Marshal Keith (q.v.), was a zealous Jacobite, +taking part in the rising of 1715, after which he escaped to the +continent. In the following year he was attainted, his estates and +titles being forfeited to the Crown. He lived for many years in Spain, +where he concerned himself with Jacobite intrigues, but he took no part +in the rebellion of 1745, proceeding about that year to Prussia, where +he became, like his brother, intimate with Frederick the Great. +Frederick employed him in several diplomatic posts, and he is said to +have conveyed valuable information to the earl of Chatham, as a reward +for which he received a pardon from George II., and returned to Scotland +in 1759. His heir male, on whom, but for the attainder of 1716, his +titles would have devolved, was apparently his cousin Alexander Keith of +Ravelston, to whom the attainted earl had sold the castle and lands of +Dunnottar in 1766. From Alexander Keith was descended, through the +female line, Sir Patrick Keith Murray of Ochtertyre, who sold the +estates of Dunnottar and Ravelston. After the attainder of 1716 the +right of the Keiths of Ravelston to be recognized as the representatives +of the earls marishal was disputed by Robert Keith (1681-1757), bishop +of Fife, a member of another collateral branch of the family. The bishop +was a writer of some repute, his chief work, _The History of the Affairs +of the Church and State of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1734), being of +considerable value for the reigns of James V., James VI., and Mary Queen +of Scots. He also published a _Catalogue of the Bishops of Scotland_ +(Edinburgh, 1755), and other less important historical and theological +works. + +ROBERT KEITH (d. 1774), descended from a younger son of the 2nd earl +marishal, was British minister in Vienna in 1748, and subsequently held +other important diplomatic appointments, being known to his numerous +friends, among whom were the leading men of letters of his time, as +"Ambassador Keith." His son, Sir Robert Murray Keith (1730-1795), was on +Lord George Sackville's staff at the battle of Minden. He became colonel +of a regiment (the 87th foot) known as Keith's Highlanders, who won +distinction in the continental wars, but were disbanded in 1763; he was +then employed in the diplomatic service, in which he achieved +considerable success by his honesty, courage, and knowledge of +languages. In 1781 he became lieutenant-general; in 1789 he was made a +privy councillor. + +From the Keith family through the female line was descended George Keith +Elphinstone, Baron Keith of Stonehaven, Marishal and afterwards Viscount +Keith (q.v.), whose titles became extinct at the death of his daughter +Margaret, Baroness Keith, in 1867. + + See _Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland_, edited by J. Bain (4 + vols., Edinburgh, 1881-1888); Peter Buchan, _An Account of the Ancient + and Noble Family of Keith_ (Edinburgh, 1828); _Memoirs and + Correspondence of Sir Robert Murray Keith_, edited by Mrs. Gillespie + Smyth (London, 1849); John Spalding, _Memorialls of the Trubles in + Scotland, 1624-1645_ (2 vols., Spalding Club Publ. 21, 23, Aberdeen, + 1850-1851); Sir Robert Douglas, _The Peerage of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, + 1813); G.E.C., _Complete Peerage_, vol. iv. (London, 1892). + (R. J. M.) + + + + +KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES (1696-1758), Scottish soldier and Prussian +field marshal, was the second son of William, 9th earl marishal of +Scotland, and was born on the 11th of June 1696 at the castle of +Inverugie near Peterhead. Through his careful education under Robert +Keith, bishop of Fife, and subsequently at Edinburgh University in +preparation for the legal profession, he acquired that taste for +literature which afterwards secured him the esteem of the most +distinguished savants of Europe; but at an early period his preference +for a soldier's career was decided. The rebellion of 1715, in which he +displayed qualities that gave some augury of his future eminence, +compelled him to seek safety on the Continent. After spending two years +in Paris, chiefly at the university, he in 1719 took part in the +ill-starred expedition of the Pretender to the Highlands of Scotland. He +then passed some time at Paris and Madrid in obscurity and poverty, but +eventually obtained a colonelcy in the Spanish army, and, it is said, +took part in the siege of Gibraltar (1726-27). Finding his Protestantism +a barrier to promotion, he obtained from the king of Spain a +recommendation to Peter II. of Russia, from whom he received (1728) the +command of a regiment of the guards. He displayed in numerous campaigns +the calm, intelligent and watchful valour which was his chief +characteristic, obtaining the rank of general of infantry and the +reputation of being one of the ablest officers in the Russian service as +well as a capable and liberal civil administrator. Judging, however, +that his rewards were not commensurate with his merits, he in 1747 +offered his services to Frederick II. of Prussia, who at once gave him +the rank of field marshal, in 1749 made him governor of Berlin, and soon +came to cherish towards him, as towards his brother, the 10th earl +marishal, a strong personal regard. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke +out. Keith was employed in high command from the first, and added to his +Russian reputation on every occasion by resolution and promptitude of +action, not less than by care and skill. In 1756 he commanded the troops +covering the investment of Pirna, and distinguished himself at Lobositz. +In 1757 he commanded at the siege of Prague; later in this same +campaign he defended Leipzig against a greatly superior force, was +present at Rossbach, and, while the king was fighting the campaign of +Leuthen, conducted a foray into Bohemia. In 1758 he took a prominent +part in the unsuccessful Moravian campaign, after which he withdrew from +the army to recruit his broken health. He returned in time for the +autumn campaign in the Lausitz, and was killed on the 14th of October +1758 at the battle of Hochkirch. His body was honourably buried on the +field by Marshal Daun and General Lacy, the son of his old commander in +Russia, and was shortly afterwards transferred by Frederick to the +garrison church of Berlin. Many memorials were erected to him by the +king, Prince Henry, and others. Keith died unmarried, but had several +children by his mistress, Eva Mertens, a Swedish prisoner captured by +him in the war of 1741-43. In 1889 the 1st Silesian infantry regiment +No. 22 of the German army received his name. + + See K. A. Varnhagen von Ense, _Biographische Denkmale_, part 7 (1844); + _Fragment of a Memoir of Field-Marshal James Keith, written by + himself_ (1714-1734; edited by Thomas Constable for the Spalding Club, + 1843); T. Carlyle, _Frederick the Great, passim_; V. + Paczynaski-Tenczyn, _Leben des G. F. M. Jakob Keith_ (Berlin, 1889); + Peter Buchan, Account of the Family of Keith (Edinburgh, 1878); Anon., + _Memoir of Marshal Keith_ (Peterhead, 1869); Pauli, _Leben grosser + Helden_, part iv. + + + + +KEITH, GEORGE (c. 1639-1716), British divine, was born at Aberdeen about +1639 and was educated for the Presbyterian ministry at Marischal College +in his native city. In 1662 he became a Quaker and worked with Robert +Barclay (q.v.). After being imprisoned for preaching in 1676 he went to +Holland and Germany on an evangelistic tour with George Fox and William +Penn. Two further terms of imprisonment in England induced him (1684) to +emigrate to America, where he was surveyor-general in East New Jersey +and then a schoolmaster at Philadelphia. He travelled in New England +defending Quakerism against the attacks of Increase and Cotton Mather, +but after a time fell out with his own folk on the subject of the +atonement, accused them of deistic views, and started a community of his +own called "Christian Quakers" or "Keithians." He endeavoured to advance +his views in London, but the Yearly Meeting of 1694 disowned him, and he +established a society at Turner's Hall in Philpot Lane, where he so far +departed from Quaker usage as to administer the two sacraments. In 1700 +he conformed to the Anglican Church, and from 1702 to 1704 was an agent +of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in America. He died on +the 27th of March 1716 at Edburton in Sussex, of which parish he was +rector. Among his writings were _The Deism of William Penn and his +Brethren_ (1699); _The Standard of the Quakers examined; or, an Answer +to the Apology of Robert Barclay_ (1702); _A Journal of Travels_ (1706). +Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, a fellow-Aberdonian, speaks of him +as "the most learned man that ever was in that sect, and well versed in +the Oriental tongues, philosophy and mathematics." + + + + +KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE, VISCOUNT (1746-1823), British admiral, +fifth son of the 10th Lord Elphinstone, was born in Elphinstone Tower, +near Stirling, on the 7th of January 1746. Two of his brothers went to +sea, and he followed their example by entering the navy in 1761, in the +"Gosport," then commanded by Captain Jervis, afterwards Earl St Vincent. +In 1767 he made a voyage to the East Indies in the Company's service, +and put £2000 lent him by an uncle to such good purpose in a private +trading venture that he laid the foundation of a handsome fortune. He +became lieutenant in 1770, commander in 1772, and post captain in 1775. +During the war in America he was employed against the privateers, and +with a naval brigade at the occupation of Charleston, S.C. In January +1781, when in command of the "Warwick" (50), he captured a Dutch 50-gun +ship which had beaten off an English vessel of equal strength a few days +before. After peace was signed he remained on shore for ten years, +serving in Parliament as member first for Dumbartonshire, and then for +Stirlingshire. When war broke out again in 1793 he was appointed to the +"Robust" (74), in which he took part in the occupation of Toulon by lord +Hood. He particularly distinguished himself by beating a body of the +French ashore at the head of a naval brigade of English and Spaniards. +He was entrusted with the duty of embarking the fugitives when the town +was evacuated. In 1794 he was promoted rear-admiral, and in 1795 he was +sent to occupy the Dutch colonies at the Cape of Good Hope and in India. +He had a large share in the capture of the Cape in 1795, and in August +1796 captured a whole Dutch squadron in Saldanha Bay. In the interval he +had gone on to India, where his health suffered, and the capture at +Saldanha was effected on his way home. When the Mutiny at the Nore broke +out in 1797 he was appointed to the command, and was soon able to +restore order. He was equally successful at Plymouth, where the squadron +was also in a state of effervescence. At the close of 1798 he was sent +as second in command to St Vincent. It was for a long time a thankless +post, for St Vincent was at once half incapacitated by ill-health and +very arbitrary, while Nelson, who considered that Keith's appointment +was a personal slight to himself, was peevish and insubordinate. The +escape of a French squadron which entered the Mediterranean from Brest +in May 1799 was mainly due to jarrings among the British naval +commanders. Keith followed the enemy to Brest on their retreat, but was +unable to bring them to action. He returned to the Mediterranean in +November as commander-in-chief. He co-operated with the Austrians in the +siege of Genoa, which surrendered on the 4th of June 1800. It was +however immediately afterwards lost in consequence of the battle of +Marengo, and the French made their re-entry so rapidly that the admiral +had considerable difficulty in getting his ships out of the harbour. The +close of 1801 and the beginning of the following year were spent in +transporting the army sent to recover Egypt from the French. As the +naval force of the enemy was completely driven into port, the British +admiral had no opportunity of an action at sea, but his management of +the convoy carrying the troops, and of the landing at Aboukir, was +greatly admired. He was made a baron of the United Kingdom--an Irish +barony having been conferred on him in 1797. On the renewal of the war +in 1803 he was appointed commander-in-chief in the North Sea, which post +he held till 1807. In February 1812 he was appointed commander-in-chief +in the Channel, and in 1814 he was raised to a viscounty. During his +last two commands he was engaged first in overlooking the measures taken +to meet a threatened invasion, and then in directing the movements of +the numerous small squadrons and private ships employed on the coasts of +Spain and Portugal, and in protecting trade. He was at Plymouth when +Napoleon surrendered and was brought to England in the "Bellerophon" by +Captain Maitland (1777-1839). The decisions of the British government +were expressed through him to the fallen Emperor. Lord Keith refused to +be led into disputes, and confined himself to declaring steadily that he +had his orders to obey. He was not much impressed by the appearance of +his illustrious charge, and thought that the airs of Napoleon and his +suite were ridiculous. Lord Keith died on the 10th of March 1823 at +Tullyallan, his property in Scotland, and was buried in the parish +church. A portrait of him by Owen is in the Painted Hall in Greenwich. +He was twice married: in 1787 to Jane Mercer, daughter of Colonel +William Mercer of Aldie; and in 1808 to Hester Maria Thrale, who is +spoken of as "Queenie" in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_ and Mme. +D'Arblay's _Diary_. He had a daughter by each marriage, but no son. Thus +the viscounty became extinct on his death, but the English and Irish +baronies descended to his elder daughter Margaret (1788-1867), who +married the Comte de Flahault de la Billarderie, only to become extinct +on her death. + + There is a panegyrical _Life of Lord Keith_ by Alex. Allardyce + (Edinburgh, 1882); and biographical notices will be found in John + Marshall's _Royal Naval Biography_, i. 43 (1823-1835), and the _Naval + Chronicle_, X. 1. (D. H.) + + + + +KEITH, a police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the Isla, 53¼ m. N.W. +of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. (1901), 4753. A +branch of the Highland railway also gives access to Elgin, and there is +a line to Buckie and Portessie on the Moray Firth. The burgh includes +Old Keith and New Keith on the east bank of the Isla, and Fife-Keith on +the west bank. Though Old Keith has a charter dating from William the +Lion it fell into gradual decay; New Keith, founded in the 18th century +by the second earl of Seafield, being better situated for the growth of +a town. Fife-Keith has sprung up since 1816. The principal public +buildings include the Turner memorial hospital, the Longmore hall, and +the Institute. In the Roman Catholic church there is a painting of the +"Incredulity of St Thomas," presented by Charles X. of France. The +industries include manufactures of tweeds, blankets, agricultural +implements, and boots and shoes; there are also distilleries, breweries, +flour mills, and lime and manure works. But the main importance of Keith +lies in the fact that it is the centre of the agricultural trade of the +shire. The "Summer Eve Fair" held in September is the largest cattle and +horse fair in the north of Scotland; the town is also the headquarters +of the dressed-meat trade in the north. + + + + +KEJ, or KECH, the chief place in a district of the province of Makran in +Baluchistan, which has given its name to Kej-Makran, as distinguished +from Persian Makran. There is no town, but a number of small villages +dominated by a fort built upon a rock, on the eastern bank of the Kej +River. This fort, like many others similarly placed throughout the +country, is supposed to be impregnable, but is of no strength except +against the matchlocks of the surrounding tribes. Kej (or Kiz) was an +important trade centre in the days of Arab supremacy in Sind, and the +rulers of Kalat at various times marched armies into the province with a +view to maintaining their authority. At the beginning of the 19th +century it had the reputation of a commercial centre, trading through +Panjgur with Kandahar, with Karachi via Bela, and with Muscat and the +Persian Gulf by the seaport of Gwadar, distant about 80 m. The present +Khan of Kalat exercises but a feeble sway over this portion of his +dominion, although he appoints a governor to the province. The principal +tribe residing around Kej is that of the Gichki, who claim to be of +Rajput origin, and to have settled in Makran during the 17th century, +having been driven out of Rajputana. The climate during summer is too +hot for Europeans. During winter, however, it is temperate. The +principal exports consist of dates, which are considered of the finest +quality. A local revolt against Kalat rendered an expedition against Kej +necessary in 1898. Colonel Mayne reduced the fortress and restored order +in the surrounding districts. + + + + +KEKULÉ, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1829-1896), German chemist, was born at +Darmstadt on the 7th of September 1829. While studying architecture at +Giessen he came under the influence of Liebig and was induced to take up +chemistry. From Giessen he went to Paris, and then, after a short +sojourn in Switzerland, he visited England. Both in Paris and in England +he enjoyed personal intercourse with the leading chemists of the period. +On his return to Germany he started a small chemical laboratory at +Heidelberg, where, with a very slender equipment, he carried out several +important researches. In 1858 he was appointed professor of chemistry at +Ghent, and in 1865 was called to Bonn to fill a similar position, which +he held till his death in that town on the 13th of June 1896. Kekulé's +main importance lies in the far-reaching contributions which he made to +chemical theory, especially in regard to the constitution of the carbon +compounds. The doctrine of atomicity had already been enunciated by E. +Frankland, when in 1858 Kekulé published a paper in which, after giving +reasons for regarding carbon as a tetravalent element, he set forth the +essential features of his famous doctrine of the linking of atoms. He +explained that in substances containing several carbon atoms it must be +assumed that some of the affinities of each carbon atom are bound by the +affinities of the atoms of other elements contained in the substance, +and some by an equal number of the affinities of the other carbon atoms. +The simplest case is when two carbon atoms are combined so that one +affinity of the one is tied to one affinity of the other; two, +therefore, of the affinities of the two atoms are occupied in keeping +the two atoms together, and only the remaining six are available for +atoms of other elements. The next simplest case consists in the mutual +interchange of two affinity units, and so on. This conception led Kekulé +to his "closed-chain" or "ring" theory of the constitution of benzene +which has been called the "most brilliant piece of prediction to be +found in the whole range of organic chemistry," and this in turn led in +particular to the elucidation of the constitution of the "aromatic +compounds," and in general to new methods of chemical synthesis and +decomposition, and to a deeper insight into the composition of +numberless organic bodies and their mutual relations. Professor F. R. +Japp, in the Kekulé memorial lecture he delivered before the London +Chemical Society on the 15th of December 1897, declared that +three-fourths of modern organic chemistry is directly or indirectly the +product of Kekulé's benzene theory, and that without its guidance and +inspiration the industries of the coal-tar colours and artificial +therapeutic agents in their present form and extension would have been +inconceivable. + + Many of Kekulé's papers appeared in the _Annalen der Chemie_, of which + he was editor, and he also published an important work, _Lehrbuch der + organischen Chemie_, of which the first three volumes are dated 1861, + 1866 and 1882, while of the fourth only one small section was issued + in 1887. + + + + +KELLER, ALBERT (1845- ), German painter, was born at Gais, in +Switzerland; he studied at the Munich Academy under Lenbach and Ramberg, +and must be counted among the leading colourists of the modern German +school. Travels in Italy, France, England and Holland, and a prolonged +sojourn in Paris, helped to develop his style, which is marked by a +sense of elegance and refinement all too rare in German art. His scenes +of society life, such as the famous "Dinner" (1890), are painted with +thoroughly Parisian _esprit_, and his portraits are marked by the same +elegant distinction. He is particularly successful in the rendering of +rustling silk and satin dresses and draperies. His historical and +imaginative works are as modern in spirit and as unacademical as his +portraits. At the Munich Pinakothek is his painting "Jairi Töchterlein" +(1886), whilst the Königsberg Museum contains his "Roman Bath," and the +Liebieg collection in Reichenberg the "Audience with Louis XV.," the +first picture that drew attention to his talent. Among other important +works he painted "Faustina in the Temple of Juno at Praeneste," "The +Witches' Sleep" (1888), "The Judgment of Paris," "The Happy Sister," +"Temptation" (1892), "Autumn" (1893), "An Adventure" (1896), and "The +Crucifixion." + + + + +KELLER, GOTTFRIED (1819-1890), German poet and novelist, was born at +Zürich on the 19th of July 1819. His father, a master joiner, dying +while Gottfried was young, his early education was neglected; he, +however, was in 1835 apprenticed to a landscape painter, and +subsequently spent two years (1840-1842) in Munich learning to paint. +Interest in politics drew him into literature, and his talents were +first disclosed in a volume of short poems, _Gedichte_ (1846). This +obtained him recognition from the government of his native canton, and +he was in 1848 enabled to take a short course of philosophical study at +the university of Heidelberg. From 1850 to 1855 he lived in Berlin, +where he wrote his most important novel, _Der grüne Heinrich_ +(1851-1853; revised edition 1879-1880), remarkable for its delicate +autographic portraiture and the beautiful episodes interwoven with the +action. This was followed by _Die Leute von Seldwyla_ (1856), studies of +Swiss provincial life, including in _Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe_ one +of the most powerful short stories in the German language, and in _Die +drei gerechten Kammmacher_, almost as great a masterpiece of humorous +writing. Returning to his native city with a considerable reputation, he +received in 1861 the appointment of secretary to the canton. For a time +his creative faculty seemed paralysed by his public duties, but in 1872 +appeared _Sieben Legenden_, and in 1874 a second series of _Die Leute +von Seldwyla_, in both of which books he displayed no abatement of power +and originality. He retired from the public service in 1876 and employed +his leisure in the production of _Züricher Novellen_ (1878), _Das +Sinngedicht_, a collection of short stories (1881), and a novel, _Martin +Salander_ (Berlin, 1886). He died on the 15th of July 1890 at Hottingen. +Keller's place among German novelists is very high. Few have united such +fancy and imagination to such uncompromising realism, or such tragic +earnestness to such abounding humour. As a lyric poet, his genius is no +less original; he takes rank with the best German poets of this class +in the second half of the 19th century. + + Keller's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published in 10 vols. (1889-1890), to + which was added another volume, _Nachgelassene Schriften und + Dichtungen_, containing the fragment of a tragedy (1893). In English + appeared, _G. Keller: A Selection of his Tales translated with a + Memoir by Kate Freiligrath-Kroeker_ (1891). For a further estimate of + Keller's life and works cf. O. Brahm (1883); E. Brenning, _G. Keller + nach seinem Leben und Dichten_ (1892); F. Baldensperger, _G. Keller; + sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1893); A. Frey, _Erinnerungen an Gottfried + Keller_ (1893); J. Baechtold, _Kellers Leben. Seine Briefe und + Tagebücher_ (Berlin, 1894-1897); A. Köster, _G. Keller_ (1900; 2nd + ed., 1907); and for his work as a painter, H. E. von Berlepsch, + _Gottfried Keller als Maler_ (1895). + + + + +KELLER, HELEN ADAMS (1880- ), American blind deaf-mute, was born at +Tuscumbia, Alabama, in 1880. When barely two years old she was deprived +of sight, smell and hearing, by an attack of scarlet fever. At the +request of her parents, who were acquainted with the success attained in +the case of Laura Bridgman (q.v.), one of the graduates of the Perkins +Institution at Boston, Miss Anne M. Sullivan, who was familiar with the +teachings of Dr S. G. Howe (q.v.), was sent to instruct her at home. +Unfortunately an exact record of the steps in her education was not +kept; but from 1888 onwards, at the Perkins Institution, Boston, and +under Miss Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann school in New York, and at +the Wright Humason school, she not only learnt to read, write, and talk, +but became proficient, to an exceptional degree, in the ordinary +educational curriculum. In 1900 she entered Radcliffe College, and +successfully passed the examinations in mathematics, &c. for her degree +of A.B. in 1904. Miss Sullivan, whose ability as a teacher must be +considered almost as marvellous as the talent of her pupil, was +throughout her devoted companion. The case of Helen Keller is the most +extraordinary ever known in the education of blind deaf-mutes (see DEAF +AND DUMB _ad fin._), her acquirements including several languages and +her general culture being exceptionally wide. She wrote _The Story of My +Life_ (1902), and volumes on _Optimism_ (1903), and _The World I Live +in_ (1908), which both in literary style and in outlook on life are a +striking revelation of the results of modern methods of educating those +who have been so handicapped by natural disabilities. + + + + +KELLERMANN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE DE (1735-1820), duke of Valmy and +marshal of France, came of a Saxon family, long settled in Strassburg +and ennobled, and was born there on the 28th of May 1735. He entered the +French army as a volunteer, and served in the Seven Years' War and in +Louis XV.'s Polish expedition of 1771, on returning from which he was +made a lieutenant-colonel. He became brigadier in 1784, and in the +following year _maréchal-de-camp_. In 1789 Kellermann enthusiastically +embraced the cause of the Revolution, and in 1791 became general of the +army in Alsace. In April 1792 he was made a lieutenant-general, and in +August of the same year there came to him the opportunity of his +lifetime. He rose to the occasion, and his victory of Valmy (see FRENCH +REVOLUTIONARY WARS) over the Prussians, in Goethe's words, "opened a new +era in the history of the world." Transferred to the army on the +Moselle, Kellermann was accused by General Custine of neglecting to +support his operations on the Rhine; but he was acquitted at the bar of +the Convention in Paris, and placed at the head of the army of the Alps +and of Italy, in which position he showed himself a careful commander +and excellent administrator. Shortly afterwards he received instructions +to reduce Lyons, then in revolt against the Convention, but shortly +after the surrender he was imprisoned in Paris for thirteen months. Once +more honourably acquitted, he was reinstated in his command, and did +good service in maintaining the south-eastern border against the +Austrians until his army was merged into that of General Bonaparte in +Italy. He was then sixty-two years of age, still physically equal to his +work, but the young generals who had come to the front in these two +years represented the new spirit and the new art of war, and +Kellermann's active career came to an end. But the hero of Valmy was +never forgotten. When Napoleon came to power Kellermann was named +successively senator (1800), honorary marshal of France (1803), and +duke of Valmy (1808). He was frequently employed in the administration +of the army, the control of the line of communications, and the command +of reserve troops, and his long and wide experience made him one of +Napoleon's most valuable assistants. In 1814 he voted for the deposition +of the emperor and became a peer under the royal government. After the +"Hundred Days" he sat in the Chamber of Peers and voted with the +Liberals. He died at Paris on the 23rd of September 1820. + + See J. G. P. de Salve, _Fragments historiques sur M. le maréchal de + Kellermann_ (Paris, 1807), and De Botidoux, _Esquisse de la carrière + militaire de F. C. Kellermann, duc de Valmy_ (Paris, 1817). + +His son, FRANÇOIS ÉTIENNE DE KELLERMANN, duke of Valmy (1770-1835), +French cavalry general, was born at Metz and served for a short time in +his father's regiment of Hussars previous to entering the diplomatic +service in 1791. In 1793 he again joined the army, serving chiefly under +his father's command in the Alps, and rising in 1796 to the rank of +_chef de brigade_. In the latter part of Bonaparte's celebrated Italian +campaign of 1796-97 the younger Kellermann attracted the future +emperor's notice by his brilliant conduct at the forcing of the +Tagliamento. He was made general of brigade at once, and continued in +Italy after the peace of Campo Formio, being employed successively in +the armies of Rome and Naples under Macdonald and Championnet. In the +campaign of 1800 he commanded a cavalry brigade under the First Consul, +and at Marengo (q.v.) he initiated and carried out one of the most +famous cavalry charges of history, which, with Desaix's infantry attack, +regained the lost battle and decided the issue of the war. He was +promoted general of division at once, but as early as the evening of the +battle he resented what he thought to be an attempt to belittle his +exploit. A heated controversy followed as to the influence of +Kellermann's charge on the course of the battle, and in this controversy +he displayed neither tact nor forbearance. However, his merits were too +great for his career to be ruined either by his conduct in the dispute +or by the frequent scandals, and even by the frauds, of his private +life. Unlike his father's, his title to fame did not rest on one +fortunate opportunity. Though not the most famous, he was perhaps the +ablest of all Napoleon's cavalry leaders, and distinguished himself at +Austerlitz (q.v.), in Portugal under Junot (on this occasion as a +skilful diplomatist), at the brilliant cavalry combat of Tormes (Nov. +28, 1809), and on many other occasions in the Peninsular War. His +rapacity was more than ever notorious in Spain, yet Napoleon met his +unconvincing excuses with the words, "General, whenever your name is +brought before me, I think of nothing but Marengo." He was on sick leave +during the Russian expedition of 1812, but in 1813 and 1814 his skill +and leading were as conspicuous as ever. He retained his rank under the +first Restoration, but joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and +commanded a cavalry corps in the Waterloo campaign. At Quatre Bras he +personally led his squadrons in the famous cavalry charge, and almost +lost his life in the mêlée, and at Waterloo he was again wounded. He was +disgraced at the second Restoration, and, on succeeding to his father's +title and seat in the Chamber of Peers in 1820, at once took up and +maintained till the fall of Charles X. in 1830 an attitude of determined +opposition to the Bourbons. He died on the 2nd of June 1835. + +His son FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE EDMOND DE KELLERMANN, duke of Valmy +(1802-1868), was a distinguished statesman, political historian, and +diplomatist under the July Monarchy. + + + + +KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK (1751-1795), Swedish poet and critic, was born at +Floby in West Gothland, on the 1st of December 1751. He studied at the +university of Åbo, and had already some reputation as a poet when in +1774 he there became a "docent" in aesthetics. Three years later he +removed to Stockholm, where in conjunction with Assessor Carl Lenngren +he began in 1778 the publication of the journal _Stockholmsposten_, of +which he was sole editor from 1788 onwards. Kellgren was librarian to +Gustavus III. from 1780, and from 1785 his private secretary. On the +institution of the Swedish Academy in 1786 he was appointed one of its +first members. He died at Stockholm on the 20th of April 1795. His +strong satiric tendency led him into numerous controversies, the chief +that with the critic Thomas Thorild, against whom he directed his satire +_Nyt försök till orimmad vers_, where he sneers at the "raving of +Shakespeare" and "the convulsions of Goethe." His lack of humour +detracts from the interest of his polemical writings. His poetical works +are partly lyrical, partly dramatic; of the plays the versification +belongs to him, the plots being due to Gustavus III. The songs +interspersed in the four operas which they produced in common, viz., +_Gustaf Vasa_, _Gustaf Adolf och Ebba Brahe_, _Aeneas i Kartago_, and +_Drottning Kristina_, are wholly the work of Kellgren. From about the +year 1788 a higher and graver feeling pervades Kellgren's verses, partly +owing to the influence of the works of Lessing and Goethe, but probably +more directly due to his controversy with Thorild. Of his minor poems +written before that date the most important are the charming spring-song +_Vinterns välde lyktar_, and the satirical _Mina löjen_ and _Man eger ej +snille för det man är galen_. The best productions of what is called his +later period are the satire _Ljusets fiender_, the comic poem _Dumboms +lefverne_, the warmly patriotic _Kantat d._ 1. _jan._ 1789, the ode +_Till Kristina_, the fragment _Sigwart och Hilma_, and the beautiful +song _Nya skapelsen_, both in thought and form the finest of his works. +Among his lyrics are the choicest fruits of the Gustavian age of Swedish +letters. His earlier efforts, indeed, express the superficial doubt and +pert frivolousness characteristic of his time; but in the works of his +riper years he is no mere "poet of pleasure," as Thorild contemptuously +styled him, but a worthy exponent of earnest moral feeling and wise +human sympathies in felicitous and melodius verse. + + His _Samlade skrifter_ (3 vols., 1796; a later edition, 1884-1885) + were revised by himself. His correspondence with Rosenstein and with + Clewberg was edited by H. Schück (1886-1887 and 1894). See Wieselgren, + _Sveriges sköna litteratur_ (1833-1849); Atterbom, _Svenska siare och + skalder_ (1841-1855); C. W. Böttiger in _Transactions of the Swedish + Academy_, xlv. 107 seq. (1870); and Gustaf Ljunggren's _Kellgren, + Leopold, och Thorild, and his Svenska vitterhetens häfder_ + (1873-1877). + + + + +KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE (1842- ), American singer, was born at +Sumterville, South Carolina, in July 1842, and was educated in New York +for the musical profession, singing first in opera there in 1861. Her +fine soprano voice and artistic gifts soon made her famous. She appeared +as prima donna in Italian opera in London, and at concerts, in 1867 and +1868; and from that time till 1887 was one of the leading public +singers. She appeared at intervals in London, but was principally +engaged in America. In 1874 she organized an opera company which was +widely known in the United States, and her enterprise and energy in +directing it were remarkable. In 1887 she married Carl Strakosch, and +retired from the profession. + + + + +KELLS, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, on the Blackwater, 9¾ m. +N.W. of Navan on a branch of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901), 2428. The prosperity of the town depends chiefly upon +its antiquarian remains. The most notable is St Columbkille's house, +originally an oratory, but afterwards converted into a church, the +chancel of which was in existence in 1752. The present church is modern, +with the exception of the bell-tower, rebuilt in 1578. Near the church +there is a fine though imperfect specimen of the ancient round tower, 99 +ft. in height; and there are several ancient crosses, the finest being +that now erected in the market-place. Kells was originally a royal +residence, whence its ancient name _Ceanannus_, meaning the _dun_ or +circular northern fort, in which the king resided, and the intermediate +name _Kenlis_, meaning head fort. Here Conn of the Hundred Fights +resided in the 2nd century; and here was a palace of Dermot, king of +Ireland, in 544-565. The other places in Ireland named Kells are +probably derived from _Cealla_, signifying church. In the 6th century +Kells, it is said, was granted to St Columbkille. Of the monastery which +he is reported to have founded there are no remains, and the town owes +its chief ecclesiastical importance to the bishopric founded about 807, +and united to Meath in the 13th century. The ecclesiastical +establishment was noted as a seat of learning, and a monument of this +remains in the _Book of Kells_ an illuminated copy of the Gospels in +Latin, containing also local records, dating from the 8th century, and +preserved in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. The illumination is +executed with extraordinary delicacy, and the work is asserted to be the +finest extant example of early Christian art of this kind. Neighbouring +antiquities are the church of Dulane, with a fine doorway, and the _dun_ +or fortification of Dimor, the principal erection of a series of +defences on the hills about 6 m. W. of Kells. Among several seats in the +vicinity is that of the Marquess of Headfort. Kells returned two members +to the Irish parliament before the Union. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 15, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 40863 *** |